Canadian politics today : democracy, diversity, and good government [First edition.] 9780135284476, 0135284473, 9780135266236, 9780135284452

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Canadian PoliticsToday Democracy, Diversity, and Good Government

Livianna Tossutti Brock University

Eric Mintz Grenfell

Campus,

Memorial

Kathy L. Brock Queens University

Doreen Barrie University of Calgar

University

of

Newfoundland

Pearson

Canada Inc.,

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2021

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Newfoundland,

Eric

Kathy

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Description: First edition. Identifiers:

Canadiana

(instructors Subjects:

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be aware that it has been

or the author.

978-0-13-528444-5

Canada

politics

Grenfell

Names: Tossutti,

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978-0-13-528447-6

edition

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LEARNING

and/or

20190182369

| 9780135284476

(print

edition) CanadaPolitics LCC JL75 .T68

and 2019 |

governmentTextbooks. DDC 320.971dc2

Brief Contents 1 Canadian Politics Today

1

Change, and the Protection Rights and Freedoms

2 Canadas PoliticalDevelopment and

Challenges

18

3 Canada andthe Governance of Cultural Diversity and International Migration

42

and the Environment

5 Political Culture

72 98

6 Political Participation andCivic Engagement

121

and Social

Movements

8 Political Parties

146

221

11Indigenous Rights and 246

12 TheFederal System

267

13 TheExecutive

291

14 Parliament

317

15 PublicAdministration and Public

7 Political Influence: InterestGroups, Lobbyists,

of

Governance

4 TheCanadian Economy, Inequality,

10 TheConstitution, Constitutional

Policy

346

16 TheJudicial System: Law and the

Courts

17 Canadas Global Affairs

378 399

171

9 Elections, theElectoral System, and Voting

Behaviour

197

ii

This

page

is intentionally

left

blan

Contents About This Course

xii

1 Canadian Politics Today Learning Chapter

1

Introduction

State and Authority

Concepts

2

Government

3

and Legitimacy

3

Democracy

Liberal

Plebiscitary Box 1-1 and

Democracy

Banning

Public

6

the

Kirpan:

in

Schools

Safety

Deliberative Social

6

Religious

7 8

Diversity

Good

Unity

Good

Riel and 28 29

and Provincialism

30

31

The Prairies

31

Box 2-3

Columbia

32 and Labrador

Provincial

Rights

32

or a Strong

Central

Government?

33

of

Relations

Quebec

and the

Development

Nationalism

33

9

Historical

Background

9

Language,

Religion,

11

Government

33

EnglishFrench

34 and

Education

34

The Roots of Quebec Nationalism Modern

11

and

Up: Louis

Territories

Newfoundland

10

Government

Democracy

Rise

Ontario

Democracy

and

26

Coast to

The Maritimes British

Rights

Democracy

Diversity

Coast to

Independence

Regionalism

5

Democracy

Mtis

in the

Political

5 Democracy

Act, 1867

From

27

Rebellions

4

Democracy

America

Coast Box 2-2 The

2

Representative

North Canada

1

Objectives

Core Political

The British Expanding

Quebec

35

Nationalism

37

Women,Farmers,and Workers

38

13

Women

39

Interests

13

Farmers

39

Ideas

13

Workers

14

Box 2-4 Labour

Identities

15

General

Institutions

16

Summary

16

Further

Analyzing

Politics

Box 1-2

Dam Politics

External

Influences

Summary

and

Conclusion

17

Discussion

Questions

17

Learning Chapter

Challenges

Objectives

Indigenous

Peoples

European British

Rule

An Influx

The Development Demands The Box 2-1

Government

for

Democratic

in

Reforms

Report

Struggle in

for

Confederation

Motors

Strike

Discussion

Questions

4 41

41

and International 42

Objectives

42 43

A Multination

and

Polyethnic

State

44

Ethnic and Racial Diversity

44

20

Linguistic

46

and

The State and

Religious Cultural

Self-Government

22

Polyethnic

23

Special Language

Responsible

Canada

to

Canada

41

Winnipeg

20

23

Confederation Opposition

Chapter Introduction

21

of Government

Durham The

Learning

20

of Immigrants

Reading

19

Canada:

Settlement

General

Conclusion

18

and European

Settlers

and the

and

The

Cultural Diversity Migration

18

Introduction

Strike

Itself:

3 Canada andtheGovernance of

2 Canadas PoliticalDevelopment and

40 Asserts

24 25

Box

26

and Territories

3-1

46

Rights

47 48

Representation

The Official

Diversity

Rights

Rights

Language

Diversity

and

Rights

Quebec

48

Nationalism

Rights

49

Languages

Language

48

Act

Regimes

49 in the

Provinces

51 v

vi

Contents

Bilingualism Quebec

Nationalism

Federal

Plans

and

Immigration

Women, Addressing

Systems

55

Farmers

Nation-Building

55

Indigenous

and Public

The Contemporary The Refugee

System

Era Reforms

Immigration Racial,

Immigration

Opinion

System

Conservative

and

Religious

Opinion

Minorities

and Immigrant

and Exclusion

Anti-Discrimination

Measures

Multiculturalism Immigrant

Defining

The

Debate

Belongs and

Further

Conclusion

Reading

70

Discussion

Questions

71

Chapter

72 72

Introduction

Economic Canadas The

73

Economy

The Role of

73

Government

73

Development

Trade

World Trade

Canadas

74

and Foreign

North

Investment

Agreements

Organization American

76 76

Free Trade

Agreements

76

The

United

1992

77

2018

Other Economic

78

and Trade

Foreign

Investment

Foreign

Investment

Foreign

Investment

and

Agreements

Ownership

Foreign

State-Owned

Government

Appetite

and the

Business

and

Canadian

Resources

Economy

Economy

Inequality

Box 4-2 Income An International Workers

Inequality Comparison

and

Poverty

in

93

Agreement

94 Canadian

Economy

95

Oil

94 95

and

9

Conclusion

Reading

96

Discussion

Questions

5 Political Culture

98

Objectives

The Road to

98 99

Political

Culture

What Is Political In Search

Historical

Understanding

Political

Major

Culture

101

Symbols

102

Culture

and

Box 5-2

100

Political

Canadian

Political

Theoretical

100

Culture?

of Canadian

Box 5-1 Important Analyzing

Political

102 Approaches

to

Culture

Ideologies

103 and

Perspectives

103

Founding

Fragments Events

Different

A National

Theory

104

Theory

104

Perspectives

Political

106

Culture

Beliefs

about

105

Theory

107

and Values

Government

107

and

Politics

108

and Freedoms

110

Tolerance

Diversity

97

97

110

Equality 81

Inequality

Income

Summary

Views

by

Enterprises

of the

Agreements

Tax

Rights

to Business

Management

Change

Cap and Trade

79

Protection

Regulation

Assistance

Economic

for

Carbon Box 4-5

Common

80

The

92

Box 4-4 Alberta

79

80 Promotion

Agreements Box 4-1

of Environmental

Post-Materialist

StatesMexicoCanada

Agreement,

92

Climate

Formative

The North American Free Trade Agreement,

91

Environment

Chapter Introduction

and the Environment

Objectives

The Canadian

90 Inequality

Fuels and the

Learning

4 TheCanadian Economy, Learning

The Importance

Further

71

Inequality,

90 90

and the

64

69 and

The Economy

Fossil

Religious

Freedoms Summary

89

Farming

Economic

62

68

Secularism

87

Gender Inequality

People

The Paris

68

Who

Over

87

Minorities

62

67

Accommodation

Citizenship: Box 3-2

Provinces

Work, and Politics

International

65

Integration

Reasonable

58

Regional

Wage in

Change

Integration Discrimination

56

61

Hourly 2018

and

Visible

59

Debates and Public

Ethnic,

52

Minimum

Territories,

54

B

Refugee and

Box 4-3 and

53

A and

Quebec Independence Immigration

52

110 and

81

Provincial

81

Quebec

Political and

Culture

Regional

Political

Political

Culture

111 Cultures

111 112

82

Indigenous

82

Social

83

Gender

115

83

Ethnicity

115

Youth

116

Canada:

Political

Cultures

Class

84

A Redundant

86

A Shifting

115

Border? Value

113

116 Landscape?

116

Contents Box 5-3

A Canadian

Policy

Reflecting

Global

Cultural

Summary

and

Further

Icon

117

Values

118

Trends

118

Conclusion

Reading

119

Discussion

Questions

Engagement Chapter

120

Political

Box 6-1 in the

and

of Political

Citizens

Civic

Engagement

123

Participation

Decide:

124

Deliberative

Trends in

Political

Participation,

Interest,

Knowledge Political Formal

126 Interest

Political

and

Knowledge

Participation

Turnout

in Federal

Turnout

in Sub-national

Who Votes and Young

in

130 131

Vote

and the

Ethnocultural

Diversity

Political

Membership

Interest

129

132

Vote

134

and Federal and

Elections

Campaign

135

Activism

Group Involvement

Informal

Engagement Social

in

Canada

Movement

Online Box 6-2

137

Involvement

The

139

Social

Media

Social

and

Political

Protest

140

Society

Civic

and

Civic

Engagement

Box 6-3

Does

in

Engagement

141

Canada

Mandatory

142

Volunteering

Build

Better

Citizens?

143

Summary

and

Further

Conclusion

Reading

144

Discussion

Questions

145

Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements Chapter Interest

Objectives

Introduction

147

Groups

147

Theoretical Types

of Interest

Interest How

Perspectives

148

Groups

149

Group Activities

150

Are Interest

Are Interest Members

Groups

Groups

Responsive

to

Are All Sectors Represented

of Society by Interest

Sponsorship

150

Their

and Supporters?

Why Do People Join Interest

Government

Organized?

152 Groups?

152

Summary

Fighters:

Groups? and Support

Keeping

Public in the

Dark

163 164 165

Movements

165

Our Forest:

Civil

Conclusion

169

and

Further

Reading

Disobedience Discussion

167 Questions

Learning

171

Objectives

171

Chapter Introduction Political

172

Parties in

Canada:

Their

Role and

Types

173

Types of Political From the

Parties

Cadre to

Box 8-1 Political

Marketing, Youth

Courting

the

Major and

Party

Digital

174

Media,

Vote

176

of the

Competition

176

System

177

Canadian

Competition

Campaign Party

Party?

Minor Parties

The Canadian

Party

174

Market-Oriented

and

Party

from

since

Party

System

178

Confederation1993

178

1993

179

2019

Policies

180

and

Electoral

New

Performance

181

Party

182

Party

184

Democratic

Party

185

Qubcois

186

The Green Party Party

169

170

8 Political Parties

Organizations:

187 Leaders,

Candidates,

and

Members

187

The Structure Box 8-2

of Political

Worlds

Apart:

Parties

Federal

18

and

Provincial

Party

Politics

188

The Extra-Parliamentary Selecting

Party

Wing

Do Parties

Replace

Local

Candidate

Selection

Diversity

and

Local

Electing

154

Summary

155

Further

and

Conclusion 197

190 Their

Leaders?

192 192

Candidacies

a Diverse

Reading

189

Leaders

How

Box 8-3

Adequately

161

Regulation

Save

The Bloc

146

Influence

Movements

The

146

160

162 Stealth

The Liberal

7 Political Influence: Interest Learning

Successful

The Conservative

145

159 Elections

160 for

The Origins Civil

158

Public

and the

Box 7-3

139

Activism

158

Action

Parliament

136

and Civic

Tanks

Lobbyists

137

Political Participation

and Think

Parties and

Box 7-2 F-35

127

Why?

Peoples

Party

Canada

Elections

and the

the

The Potential

126

Elections

Canadians

Indigenous

of Parliament

New Social

and

Oil

157

Members

Lobbyist 124

Alberta

Policy

Councils

Legal

Democracy

Provinces

Public

Political

122

Participation

Theories

The

Advisory

Influencing

121

Introduction

Dig:

156

Influencing

121

Objectives

and

Sands

120

6 Political Participation andCivic Learning

Box 7-1 Talk

vii

193

House 196

of Commons

Discussion

Questions

195 196

viii

Contents

9 Elections, theElectoral System, and Voting Learning

Behaviour

The Rules of the

198 Game

199

Fair and Democratic Elections

199

Voting

199

Box 9-1

Online

Voting:

Box 9-2

Modernizing

The Timing Running

for

Elections

and the

Electoral

System

Campaigns

System

and Party

News:

An Existential

Threat

Campaign

Platforms

Campaign

Advertising and the

Election Voting

and

and Promises

Digital

Media

Party Finance

213

Behaviour

Long-Term Short-Term Summary Further

on Voting

Behaviour

Influences

on Voting

Behaviour

and

Conclusion

Reading

219

Discussion

220

Objectives

Formal

222

Constitution Documents

223

The Constitution

Act, 1867

223

The Constitution

Act, 1982

224

The Constitutional Other Formal

Amendments

Acts of a Constitutional Constitutional Judicial

That Interpret

the

Constitution

Change

The Politics

of Constitutional

The Constitution The

Nature

Conventions

Decisions

Constitutional

Act, 1996

Documents

Accord

The Charlottetown

Accord

of the

Failure

Constitutional

Protection

The Constitution

of Rights

Act, 1867

and

Freedoms

Act

240 241

Courts on the

Political

Process

242

Help to Promote Socio-Economic 242

Charter

Help to Foster

Conclusion

243

National

Unity?

Discussion

Questions

243 244

244

246

Chapter Introduction The Problems

and

Situation

248 249

Murdered

Indigenous

Women 250

Background

to

of Indigenous

Understanding

Peoples

the

and Proposals

Change

251

The Constitution The Indian

for

and Land

Big

Northern Fishing

Rulings

252 253

Act, 1982, Indigenous

Rights,

Claims

Claims

Box 11-1

251

Change

The Constitution

Land

Act, 1867

Acts

Proposals

The

Peoples

Girls

Historical

for

by Indigenous

Scoop

Missing and

The

247

Faced

The Sixties

226

254

and

Modern

Oil Versus

and

Treaties

Indigenous

Gateway Hunting

255 Rights:

Pipelines

257

Rights

257

Hunting Rights Standoff

257

at Burnt

Church:

The

Marshall 258

227

The Supreme

Courts

227

Indigenous

Rights

228

Negotiating

Interpretation

of 258

Comprehensive

Land Claims

Agreements Box 11-3

Public

259

Nisgaa

Self-Government

Sparks

a

Outcry

260

Nunavut Specific

234

Control

Objectives

Mtis

of Constitutional

Change

Guilty?

Narcotics

Charter

Reading

Learning

Box 11-2

233

239

Freedoms

Proven

246

226

232

and

Governance

226

229

of Rights

11 Indigenous Rights and

228

Act, 1982

Meech Lake

The Aftermath

Change

and

and the

and

Further

223

Constitutional

and the

Does the

221 221

and Joe,

Charter

Until

of the

Summary

of

Chapter Introduction

Kevin

and

Equality?

217 Questions

220

Change, and the Protection Rights and Freedoms

The Canadian

Oakes

The Charter

215

10 TheConstitution, Constitutional Learning

David

215

Influences

on Rights

Doesthe Charter

211

of Rights

238

211

and

and the

203

211

Conventional

Anne,

Effects

to

236

Charter

Marriage:

202

210

Elections

and

Limitations

210

Democracy?

Freedoms

237

Same-Sex

Box 10-2 Innocent

208

Debates

Box 9-3 Fake

Elaine

206 Financing

and

Canadian

Freedoms

204

Electoral

of the

236

Freedoms Box 10-1

202

System

the

Leaders

202

Office

The Electoral

Election

201

of Elections

Representation

Reforming

A Primer

of Rights

Provisions

197

Introduction

Bill of Rights

The Charter

197

Objectives

Chapter

The Canadian

Indigenous

260 Claims

261

Self-Government

235

Self-Government

236

Sovereignty

Issues

and the

262 and

Challenges

Right to Self-Determination

263 26

Contents Box 11-4

Sovereign

Wampum

Powers:

The Two-Row

Prerogative

Belt

Summary

265

and

Further

Conclusion

Reading

265

Discussion

Questions

Chapter

and the

System

269 269

Reservation,

and

the

Power

Constitutional Judicial

Federal

Act, 1867

Declaratory

Amendments

Interpretations

The Supreme An Evolving

Court

Federal

of

Canada

Ministerial

Executive

Stages of Cabinet How the

Cabinet

276

The Budgetary

277

Reform

Provinces

on the

Asymmetrical

Ascendant

Executive

Relations

Inter-Provincial Fiscal

280 280

and Intrastate

Federalism

281

Cooperation

282

Federalism

283

Taxes

283

Transfer

Payments

Conditional Block

Box 12-2

Grants

285 285

Payments

The Politics

Territorial Local

of Equalization

286

Governments

Further

and

287 288

Conclusion

Reading

289

Discussion

Questions

Chapter

The

291

Objectives Introduction

The Formal

Executive

Queen, the

Privy

Controversy:

General, and

Prerogative

A Governor The

General

KingByng

Development Works

Process

311 311 312

Process

and

308 309

Process

Decision-Making

Prime

313 Minister 313

Conclusion

Readings

315

Discussion

Questions

315

316

Learning

Prerogative

Powers Stirs Affair

Objectives

The

General Functions

The Canadian

British Dispelling

and

Common

The Evolution

Legislatures:

Misperceptions in

322 Canada

House of Commons Representation

323 323

in the

House of

Commons

324

Styles

of Representation

324

Party

Discipline

325

Diversity

and

Representation

326

Minority

and

Majority

326

Box 14-2

A Minority

Government

Government

Hangs in the

Balance

327

The Passage Time

295

American

of Parliament

The Parliamentary

295

320

321

Canadian

293

Up

319

Roots

Box 14-1

The

of Parliaments

Parliament

292

294

317 318

The Officers

and the

317

Chapter Introduction

291

293

Monarchy,

Discretionary Box 13-1

Governor

Council

The Crown,

290

290

13 TheExecutive Learning

307

a Cabinet

14 Parliament

286

Governments

Summary

Construction

Appoints

Decision-Making

and the

Further

284

Grants

Equalization

307

Cabinet

Summary

278

279

Federalism

Interstate

306

278

Federalism

Inter-Governmental

Power

Committees

and

277 Head

Cabinet

Trudeau

Cabinet

on Its

Ministers

Functions

in

Justin

The Cabinet

Constitution

303

Prime

Considerations Box 13-2

276

the

302

Executive

275

System

300

307

Cabinets

Federalism

Federal

299

Minister

on the

Federalism

A Decentralized

Responsibility

Dominance

Competitive

Open Federalism

299

Responsibility

Cooperative

Federalism

298

Cabinet

274

275

Ministry

Government

Collective

273

System

Westminster

297

Individual

271

Federalism

Turning

Ministers

Office in the

Responsible

271

274

Box 12-1

and

of the of

The Prime

274

Canada:

Cabinet,

System

Limits

Quasi-Federalism

Collaborative

296

29

Categories

270

Phases of Federalism

Classical

Ministers

297

Minister,

The Flexibility

267 268

Disallowance,

to

Executive

The Prime

267

Introduction

The Constitution

Devolved

of State

Objectives

The Constitution

The Political

266

266

12 TheFederal System Learning

Powers

ix

of the

329

Schedule

330

of Bills

Management

The Opposition to

House of Commons

and

332 of

Debates on Bills Holding

the

Account

333

Government 335

House of Commons

Committees

335

House of Commons

Effectiveness

336

Standing

Independence

337

Committee

x

Contents

Economic

and Fiscal

Committee

Overview

Scrutiny

Increasing

the

Number

Legislature

and

Recognition

of Appointments of

Their

Officers Parliament

Establishment

Appointments

Box 14-3

of the Senate

Pandemonium

Attempts

to

Summary Further

in the

Reform

and

the

Reading

Senate

Discussion

Advisers,

338

Box 15-3

Recruiting

338

Generation

Questions

Summary

340

Further

Objectives

346

Introduction

347

Bureaucracy The Administrative Influences

Structure

on the

Public

Recent International New Public

of the

Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy

in

Canada

Influences

Governance

(NPG)

Executive

Institutions Departments

Headed

Ministers

Box 15-1 The

Dodging

Regulation

Public the

Agencies

Financial

of Canadas

Executive Central

Agencies

The Privy

and

Ministers

Board Master

Clerk

of the

Department

Central Line

(ASD)

Central

Departments

Office

Secretariat

Privy

The

of Bureaucratic

and a Representative

Parliamentary

Institutions

Political Officers

Officers

Public

Officers

Policy

Assisted

Code

and the

Dying

383 384

The Characteristics

of the

Court System

385

Colten

Boushie?

386

Duty

386

Who Killed

of the

Courts in

Governing

and

Policy-Making Judicial

387

Independence

and the

Appointment 388

of Supreme

Court of

Canada Judges Box 16-4

389

Controversy

over

a Supreme

Court

Appointment

390

Diversity

in the

Judicial

Court

System

Making

System:

Problems

The Judicial

391

of Superior

Decision

Indigenous

Peoples

Court Judges

and

and the

Alternatives

Canadian

of Jian

The Gladue

Case

363

Alternative

Dispute

364

Summary

365

Further

393

Judicial 395

The Trial

Family

391 392

System Box 16-5

363

366 366 of Parliament

Institutions

The Policy

Civil

Ghomeshi

395 396

Resolution

and

Collaborative

Law and

396 Conclusion

Reading

397

Discussion

Questions

398

398

366

of Parliament

Procedural Judicial

Bureaucracy

The

Courts

The Appointment

Elite in

Departments Diversity

Eric:

383

359

362

Departments

Departments

Levels

382

and

359

361

of Finance

381

Review

of Judges

Duties

Council

378

of Law

The Importance

360

Multi-Tasker:

Coordinating

The Three

Judicial

355

360

377

380

The Sources

Jury

358

Office

Questions

380

Box 16-3

359

Council

Treasury Box 15-2

The

Delivery

Discussion

Laws

The Appointment

Departments

The Prime

of the

Service

375 376

Laws

354

358

Alternative

375

379

Medically

Financial

Institutions

Leaders

Objectives

Box 16-2

Crisis:

373

Next

378

Law

355

Policy

the

Chapter Introduction

355

Semi-Independent

Retaining

Courts

Lola

by Cabinet

and Formulators

377

Common

353

Executive

Reading

Box 16-1

349

and

Conclusion

348

351

Development

and

348

350

Deliverology Canadian

372

Evaluators,

of Public

Learning

346

372

16 The Judicial System: Lawandthe

345

345

Public Policy Chapter

Process

An Open Question

339

15 PublicAdministration and Learning

Policy

372

Policy

343

344

as Actors in the

Guardians

338

341

Senate

Conclusion

338

339

to the Senate

The Significance

Servants

Innovators

Independence

The Senate Reasons for

Public

Information

of the

Structural

of Parties in

337

Role Stages (Cycles)

Approach

17 Canadas Global Affairs

367

Learning

369

Chapter Introduction

370

Canadas

370

Objectives Global

399 399 400

Affairs in

Context

What Do We Mean By Global

400 Affairs?

40

Contents

General

Perspectives

on Canadas

Global

Affairs Hard Power Box 17-1

and Soft Power

Trudeaus

Historical

Global

Affairs

Record

Background

Canadas

Early

Years

Canadas

Peacekeeping Regional

Alliances

403

Combat

Missions

404

Box 17-4

404

Afghanistan

404

World

405

The Contemporary How Is

Cold

War

World

Canadian

Foreign

406 Policy

Box 17-2

Foreign

Who and

407 Policy

Toolkit

What Influences

408

Canadas

Global

Affairs? Canada

as a

Multilateral

International Box 17-3 Multilateral Global

and

Canadians

Regional

410 Organizations

in International

Institutions Rules and

Welcoming

Feminism and

Rights

in

and Immigrants

Operations

418 420 420

Longest

Combat

Mission: 421

Perspectives

on Canadas

Military

Box 17-5

422

Canadian

Versus

Canadians

Military

Trudeau

in the

and

Canadians

Canadians

The

423

of Canadians

Famous

Assisting

422

World

The Influence

Box 17-7

Engagement:

Role

in

Canadian Popular

Businesses Culture

Abroad

of Canadian

423 424 424

Youth

425

410 The

and 411

Refugees

International National

Actor

Peace

417

Engagement

Box 17-6 408

and

Canadas

Critical

Harper

Developed

and Exercised?

Priorities

402

World WarI and Its Aftermath WarII and the

Security

401

xi

Summary

412 412

Negative

in the Further

Sides of Canada

and

Canadians

World and

425

Conclusion

Reading

426

Discussion

Questions

426

427

Assistance

413

Glossary

428

Global

416

References

436

Global

Affairs

Security

417

Index

45

AboutThis Course

P

olitics affects manyaspects of our lives, such asstu-dents ability opportunities

to afford higher education and their in the labour market; our rights and

Boxesin each chapter that illustrate issues, boxes

freedoms; the protection of our natural environment; the

Canadian

economy

and

safety of the food we eat; and the security of our country. Canadian

peace, prosperity, and politics is particularly

inequality and poverty; and religious freedoms

interesting

great diversity

ideologies

because the countrys

poses

opportunities and challenges for the practice of democ-racy and the good government that Canadians expect.

This text

offers students

a solid

understanding

the concepts,

and trends discussed in the text. These deal with such topics as fossil fuels and the

environment;

income

the debate over secularism in Quebec; major political

and perspectives; the promise and per-ils

of online voting; the impact of digital the dissemination of misinformation (fake

of

political

campaigns,

and

protest

media on news),

activities;

the

major features of Canadian politics, including national and sub-national political cultures, the workings of the

Canadian parliamentary and U.S. Congressional systems; Canadian, U.S., and Australian federalism;

parliamentary

court rulings

protection the public

system

of government,

of rights and freedoms, administration and its

and party systems, political

federalism,

the

the judicial system, policy role, the elec-toral

participation

and civic

engagement, and Canadas role in global affairs. In addition, our signature, issues-based approach

the study of Canadian politics emphasizes important

recruitment

to

politi-cal

To guide students

chapter includes

writing

Western University, the 2014shootings on Parliament about whether Canada would deployment to Afghanistan, and

the 2018 G7Summit hosted by Canada. Interactive Current EventsBulletinsprovide author-written content, current

updated events into

annually, the

context

helps your students engage xii

that

puts relevant of

Political

with the course.

news and Science

and

without breaking

Assignable Shared Writing to share written responses

The Further Readingsection at the end of each chapter

Spences hunger strike, conflict between the federal government and some provinces over the imple-mentation

Hill, the decision extend its military

engage

with classmates, fostering peer discussion.

Chief Theresa

democracies, the Supreme Court of Canada ruling on the dispute between LGBTQ students and Trinity

prompt students to

stride in their reading. Activities direct students

Each chapter opens with a vignette that provides an

many

opportunities

students to express their thoughts

interesting and often provocative story that relates to the content of the chapter. Among other topics,

#MeToo Movement, the growth of populism in

in bold in the text and are pre-sented

with and think critically about the research presented to them. Self-paced Journaling Prompts encourage

and easy for students to understand:

policies of States, the

each

The Shared Writing and Journal Prompts are designed to spark critical thought and discussion. Integrated

how Canada and Canadians approach global affairs. There are many features that make this text interest-ing

crossings prompted by the administration in the United

the text,

as glossary flashcards.

migration;the accommodation of social,

political participation, elections, and parties; and shifts in

border Trump

understanding

influential

as weblinks or defined atthe end of each chap-ter

linguistic, and cultural diversity in the countrys laws, poli-cies, and institutions; the impact of digital technologies on

the

in

of the next gen-eration

globally

Learning Objectivesand a Summary

Key terms are printed

development; growing wealth and income inequality in an age of globalization and technological innovation; Indigenous

of the carbon tax, the increase in irregu-lar

and retention

and Conclusion at the end.

conflicts over dealing with climate change and economic

the vignettes address Atttawapiskat

marriage and medically

of public policy leaders; Canadians in popular culture.

and social trends and controversies that ignite classroom debate. Examples include inter-governmental and societal

issues;international

on same-sex

assisted dying; sexual harassment; the 2008 financial crisis and the regulation of Canadas financial insti-tutions;

provides suggestions for those explore the chapter topics.

The graphicsphotos,

who would like to fur-ther

figures,

interactivesmultimedia graphs, and drag-and-drop

and

discussed in the text and illuminate of Canadian

tablesand

galleries, interactive exercisesillustrate con-cepts

some fea-tures

politics.

Content Highlights This First Edition Revel of Canadian Politics Today: Democracy, Diversity, and Good Government is a re-imagination

and continuation

of the tradition

established by the pre-ceding

three print editions of Canadas Politics Today: Democracy, Diversity, and Good Government. We intro-duce

new analytical

approaches and an innovative

About This Course

interactive

learning

students.

Every

discussion supported

by topical the

of

of global and the

legal cultural

and

domestic

economy,

diversity

in

debates in lecture

That continuity changes Christopher

the

that

that

on limits

in lead

a contributor

encourage

mi-gration vigor-ous

by a number

Following

esteemed

the

Kathy

L.

Brock,

drawn

on their to

the

Chriss

executive,

The

loss

the

and

Mintz

back-grounds poli-tics

chapters

administration,

passive

generation

learning

provides material

chapter and

of this

text

to the

expecta-tions

of students

instructors

Every

features

experience.

that is

issues

for

Third,

with the

most relevant includes

a highly

the

new

controversies.

update

on the

New Brunswick

A new

module

(Chapter

2)

A new

module

issues

and

current

and limits

to the

appointments

Revised discussion

of

on

United

module

(Chapter

4)

refugee

resettlement

national

cultures

opening

and

provin-cial

facing

munici-pal

events

powers

of the

items

prime

il-lustrating

ministers

(Chapter

13)

general functions

discussion

(Chapter

of

of public

14)

administration

and

public policy, including

a new module on the policy

role of the public service young people can learn

and boxed material on how about careers in the public

The Supreme Court of Canada ruling striking

discus-sion

program

and

Agreement

and

the prohibition Justin Trudeau

3)

A discussion

environment

work; and

have

new

Council

received

formal

and and

Peoples, (Chapter

youths, 6)

Canadian

global

affairs,

national social

internationally

politi-cal

the content

in

facts;

updated

sub-groups

for

recognition

trends

informal immigrants,

down

assisted dying and the modification of the se-lection

political

voter

and

visible

bid

power

tables,

and

(Chapter

images, updated

Security feminism

and

who

for

boxes

are re-viewed to

before

keep

students.

module and at the

of each chapter help students

work

17).

in real time

and relevant

of key concepts

UN

Canadians

abroad

figures,

up-to-date

a

crisis,

module on how Canada

through

and live

currency

for

to the refugee

Quizzes at the end of every

par-ticipation

including

Canadas

and a new

its soft

Additional Canadian

of

seat, response

exercises

5)

on global

about

Canadians

and

of provincial/re-gional

on young

material

knowledge of the

character

discussion

of medically governments

processfor Supreme Courtjudges (Chapter 16)

and the

(Chapter

vignette

who

of minorities

workers

an extended

(Chapter

economy

an extended

activists

Indigenous

and

rights

regimes;

on the

political

discussion

farmers,

language

crossings

of the

and

their

A combined

develop-ment

in

A discussion

turnout

gas

the

of long-standing

bills, the opposition and holding the government

the

1)

StatesMexicoCanada

a new

A new

women,

language

border

values,

shale

(Chapter

on French

Canadas

irregular

about

and

12)

vignette extent and

Australia discussion

policy

(Chapter

opening

in

of

sector (Chapter 15)

minority

The

debate

and the

Parliament, representation in the House of Commons, executive domination, Officers of the House, omni-bus

cur-rent

include

clauses in

Commission

an extended

emerging

policymaking

assign

to reflect

changes

cam-paign

9)

Murdered Indigenous

to account, and Senate reform

in

for

Reconciliation

and

the

courses.

material

These

to

(Chapter

notwithstanding

on federalism

States and

A new

modular

flexibility

for their

will

visual,

new

technology/social

modernization

Missing and

material

United

following: An

and

into

do-mestic

responding

digital

Women and Girls, and an updated discussion Indigenous self-government (Chapter 11) New

on

and

of

uses of the

The Truth

and remain

original

new

Inquiry

have

Canadian

Werecognize of the

to life,

of chari-ties

of whether the Charter of Rights and Freedoms helps to promote socio-economic equality (Chapter 10)

edition.

professional

about

public

activities

(in-cluding ruling

material on the permanent

governments

politics

of todays

the

chapters.

new interactive

Canadian

format

co-authors

Kaila

diverse

authorship

court

Saskatchewan and Quebec,and an expanded discus-sion

policy.

Second,

less

and

advocacy

discussion

and election

of Canadas

to this

and

perspectives

Parliament,

public bring

fresh

respective

for

Barrie,

expertise

offer

in their grateful

Doreen

new

contribute

Updated

of signif-icant

untimely

co-author

two

to

political

and a recent

7)

media and new

and seminars.

authorship,

Matter),

Movement,

movements

The impact of political marketing practices, updated en-vironment voter turnout figures in the most recent provincial rights and gov-ernance, elections, and a discussion of the 2019 federal election to recognizing and its implications for the party system (Chapter 8)

international

were invited

#MeToo

on

Politics: Democracy, Diversity, and Good Government, as well as a change

on the

of new social

Lives

on the

(Chapter

focus

vignette

discussion

Black

students

policy)will

edition.

opening

importancethe

is accompanied

Dunn,

in

institutions,

halls

in this

material

politics

approaches

refugee

A new

an updated

system,

boxed

Indigenous

public

todays updated

political

chapters

and institutional

(including

of

and

Canadian

of thematic

for

readable,

of the

vignettes

relevance

issues

designed a highly

features

The inclusion

policy

offers

of important

illustrate lives.

environment

chapter

xiii

end

measuretheir under-standing moving on.

In order to reflect changes in the prominence of political and social issues, as well as disciplinary trends, Canadia

xiv

About This Course

Politics

Today has also

been reorganized

and

various

Doreen Barrie, Ph.D., Adjunct Assistant Professor in

chap-ters

renamed: Chapter

2

has

Development Chapter

been

and

3

renamed

been

of

Cultural

renamed

Canada

Diversity

and

the

the

4

Inequality,

has

and the

Chapters

15 (Public

Bureaucracy)

of the

been

previous

and substantially 15, titled

renamed

to

highlights

administration

18 (Foreign

has been

moved to

Canadas

Global

a variety

of actors

the

Chapter

Chapter

Public

Policy.

in

edition

Canadas

to illustrate and

of Political

civil

in

society,

analysis.

Science,

and the

political

migration,

of

In

2018

Politics:

Award

and

for

and

Diversity, editions

Faculty

Excellence

of Social

(Brock

Memorial

has frequently to

taught politics,

and

Kathy

by

University.

government,

politics

Ph.D.,

governance

School Studies

A dedicated

De Celles

IPAC

and

professor,

Administration Teaching

Excellence

and

Common

of Policy

Studies

would Canadas

Kaila is coordinator and

Affairs

University,

Chapter

of

AIDS-Free

has served Canada.

provided

as a

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Mat-thew

helpful

sug-gestions

10.

would

support,

McGoogan,

who authored

Global

like

her

Mintz

would

support

like

and

to thank

parents

Pawel

Victor

to thank

his

encouragement

L. Brock

original

Cimek

and

wife, while

to

and

Therese,

Diane, he

who

wrote

policy

public

versions

the

support

Barrie

would

acknowledge

chapters and

and thorough

current

acknowledges

like of the

His excellent the

would

authorship

work of these

of Sir

Chris

on the

public

administra-tion.

provided

a strong

chapters.

Winston

execu-tive,

She also

during

the re-writing

Doreen his

unfailing

also like Henrietta

support

to

in

like all

acknowledge

Barrie,

to thank her

and

a woman

Derek

endeavours. thank

ahead

Brown She

her late

and

matters,

the judiciary

mother,

of her time.

Teaching

the

2009

To Pawel

University).

memory

of our

the

Knox

2008

E.M and In

memory

Pierre

in

Pub-lic

Award

for

dear son

and

brother

(19852015)

and the ex-ecutive

Excellence

Frank

To the

In-digenous

sector, and public sector

she received

for

(Queens

in-clude

policy

K.M.

of Christopher

Dunn

K.B. To

Derek,

Michael,

D.B

Lauren,

and

Ella

for

would

L.T.

expertise

politics,

his

process.

(cross-appointed),

constitutional

and issues,

Award

and the

of research

discretion, the non-profit ethics.

po-litical

He is the lead

Power,

comparative

federalism

policy,

Brock

Keriann

The co-authors

Campaign

at

Balabuk,

Mike. Eric

Sci-ences basis for

intro-duction

Dorsch,

17).

officer

and

and interesting Daniella

Smith.

Mintz,

Blue

Tossutti

his love

great care in turning

Canada.

Her areas and

and

Code

Parliament,

He

politics,

Ideologies.

of Political

Canadian

Newfoundland.

Canadian

of Politics,

Pearson

L. Brock,

Department

Queens

in

political

of six editions

Good published

and

courses

of

environmental

behaviour author

University

Kaila

(Chapter

service

Kathy

of

University).

Audrey and Jaime

to thank Affairs

Dunns

Eric Mintz is Honorary Research Professor at Grenfell Campus,

Western

chapters.

and Good Government.

of the

on sys-tem.

of the

readable

we acknowledge

Blakey,

provided

She is the lead

of three

Diversity,

and gov-ernance

of immi-grants,

into

regarding

for

diversity,

Democracy,

co-author

recipient

Teaching

cultural

youths.

Today:

Democracy,

a very

Hennigar,

political

and representation

Politics

was the

and

guides

United States.

Canada took

Livianna

and elections,

as the local

and health

parliamentary

president

drafts

Ranadive

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quantitative

areas such

minorities,

Canadian

she

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behaviour

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Canadas

Madhu

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parties

integration

racialized author

University.

political

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and

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citizens

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Canadian

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include

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produced

at Pearson

Worlds

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politics,

global

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Ph.D.,

Canadian

people

also like in-fluence

Canadians

water.

has

health

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how

world.

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text.

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Aboutthe Authors courses

Many

the

the

previous

order

that

interests

parties

Acknowledgements

process.

of the 17 and

Affairs,

combined

between

policy

and and

provincial

political

Her research

literacy

of Calgary.

politics,

federalism,

environment,

political

University

Canadian

Social Science Association in the

a new

connection

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shape

been

water.

Science,

in

politics,

of

She 17 (Domestic

and

and the

Chapter

in the

have

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Canadian

and

constitute

politics

topics

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edition

revised

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The

Alberta

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and International

in

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courses

politics,

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has taught

Political

Migration.

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Challenges.

has

Governance

Canadas

the

Aaron

Chapter1

CanadianPolitics Today

Surve

Geological

States

United

A protester

against

fracking

confronts

armed

riot

police

near the

Elsipogtog

First

Nation,

New Brunswick

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be ableto 1.1

Define some basic political concepts.

1.2a

Examine and evaluate the basic features of Canadian democracy.

1.2b

Discuss alternative

1.3

Examine the political significance

1.4

Outline the criteria for good government.

1.5

Discussthe importance and external

On

October in riot

attacked Canada to

2013,

gear,

Nation. In the were found,

who ignored

This

clashes

(fracking) that

beanbags 2013;

followed,

and

possibly

Strapagiel,

in

New

assault

Brunswick,

produce six

Royal and

injunction company

to

Canadian

democracy.

of Canadian diversity.

understanding

weapons

a court

American-owned

fracturing

(Lukacs,

Rexton, some

for enhancing

of interests, ideas, identities, institutions,

influences

near

carrying

protesters facility.

hydraulic

arrested

17,

approaches

RCMP

rubber

Canadian

accompanied

against

their

was engaged natural

gas

vehicles

bullets

Canadian

blockade

on land

were torched,

were fired

Mounted by

in

politics.

seismic claimed some

at protesters,

Police

German of an testing

SWN that

by the

of-ficers dogs,

Resources could

Elsipogtog

homemade and

(RCMP)

shepherd

lead First

explosives

40 protesters

were

2013).

1

2

Chapter 1

Fracking

involves

formations

to

has

greatly increased

and

gasoline

source the

down

potential

the

to the The

never

should

the

gave

not

different right

Brunswick

that

up their

proceed

situation

to

decide

required

to

2014).

in

good

with First is just

one

the

Mountain

pipeline,

of

British

Columbia,

have

as

protests

well as

Meaningful

than

public

on scientific simply

the rights

discussion

In the

end,

fracking.

the

Likewise, (initiated

Brunswick

be allowed

Mikmaq

and

which

about has

human

also

and thus

New

Canada

group

been

Maliseet

slowed

contributed

that

(Tsilhqotin

mean that

on their lands in

a somewhat

holds it the the

Nation

not

Nations.

ago

ruled

established,

had

First

centuries development

of

on the

yet

the

political

v.

engaged

reconciliation

challenges.

crude

issues

years.

exclusive

government British

in

is

Columbia,

meaningful

con-sultation

ensure and

Democratic

elected

Liberal

Party (NDP)

under strict conditions in these

in

the

west

Alberta

of coast

and

government

British

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Chapter 1

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10

Chapter 1

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Canadian Politics Today

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Even if

values,

role in

That is, they

and

Canada, this

while

cultural

as a whole. It is

family,

than

least,

those

and their

interest,

power,

perks

officeholders

For example,

assess the

community,

public

interests,

interest.

play an active

Many people

local

Different

public

or provide

will necessarily

than

may act in

Furthermore,

public

for

power

party

of authority.

the

in

themselves

positions

to serving

best governs

variety

public,

to ensure that

entails.

of the

the

country,

struggle

with staying

next election.

abuse their

interest

a democratic

competitive

ways that reward

are dedicated public

dupe

it in the

have tried

will inevitably

of the

more preoccupied

to act in

efforts

even in

and its people. The governing

to support be tempted recent

Because

may be

serves the country to

governments,

there is the issue

present

environment generations.

and

may fuel (See

of the relative

Canadians

prosperity

Chapter

involves investments

importance

in the future. in the

4.) Likewise,

in the future)

of the

For example, present

while

a high level

public interests

degradation harming

opportunities

of government

may become alasting

of Canadians

of Canadas

natural

for

debt today

future

(unless

it

burden to new generations.

Democracyand Good Government Democracy are of the

can

help foster

good

held

accountable

for

people

government, their

actions

particularly and

if those

are responsive

in

positions

to the

needs

of au-thority and

de-sires

11

12

Chapter 1

ACCOUNTABILITY

Accountability

providing

includes

valid justifications

responding

for the

to criticisms,

moving

swiftly

to

actions

and

policies

of government,

and

remedy

problems

resulting

from

government

actions

and

policies. For accountability the

public in

limit

be able to investigate

Chapter

14, governments

parliamentary

limits

which

the

variety

scrutiny

fisheries,

governments

budget.

standing

House

Despite

criticizing

coming

to

of

omnibus

government,

to

the

key to

that

agenciesdo

various

Robert

Vancouver

Taser

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use

while the

RCMP it is

power after

Airport

inquiry

their

participation

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that

better

information

security,

people they every

frequently for

face.

some limits beyond

to

than exploit

sometimes

minister

for

can easily

to respond

using

(and

policy

the

infor-mation correct

informed

public

of information) body

making

to require

transparency

are needed to pro-tect and the functioning

lose touch

with

needs

ordinary

responsiveness.

on occasion, it is public

opinion

to

on trivial buy

and

wishes

people,

of

of the

and elec-tions

Governments

more to craft

and

awareness

media) focus

present

in

to

limits.

to act on issues raised they

hiding

as freedom

negotiations,

tendency

criticism

facilitates

com-pensation,

govern-ment

a strong

However,

to the

account

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However,

meaningful,

have

be responsive

to raise

her expense

ideas

be

on transparency

to ensure

to

opportunities

are often reluctant

alternative

should

polls, although,

they

to

known

justifiable

that

actions.

or an independent

ongoing

to

has changed.

manner, is important

privacy,

go far

concluded

forces

at

uploaded

by police

on them.

courts

may not be enough

advantage

Governments consider

individual

Governments

years

are quick

a cabinet

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use public opinion

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a timely

video

use of constructive

(also

of the

Governments

govern. few

electoral

parties

in

often

RESPONSIVENESS

ability

of Polish officers

financial

Transparency

Access to information

mere rhetoric.

governments

negatively

death RCMP

their

Governments

making

performance.

up by the be released

national cabinet,

from

the

security

mother received

of government

may reflect

their

politics.

backed

more than

that

by

needed

independently

by an amateur

use of Tasers

are

national

by four

Braidwood

court

behaviour

and

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victims

as possible.

use upon

implementa-tion

processes

misrepresented

and the

accountability (open)

governments

and in

legislation,

apology

areas.

a budget

somewhat

Thomas

officers

by the

to end their

military,

was revealed

to

policy

or improper

operating police,

judge

the

related

changes

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investigative

in them.

not clear that inappropriate

hinder

mistakes

2007

with

insurance,

as well as independent

repeatedly

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made a public

information

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vested

2012

2018 budget.

of illegal

and

other

being

and that

must be as transparent withhold

allegations

agencies

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led

in the

individuals,

and

major policy

promising

pro-posals,

dealing

employment

with

use of

Conservatives

were not directly

of

and

As dis-cussed

legislative

70 laws

also introduced

review

the

TRANSPARENCY

to

government

Dziekanski

was unjustified

scrutiny

were not included

RCMP

which

are familiar

opposition

government

International

YouTube.

that

with

the

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assessment, most of

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immigrant

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headed

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committees

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of often

major changes

members

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number

environmental

measures that

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government.

a large

age pensions,

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bill containing

systems,

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the activities

legislation.

together

including

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made considerable

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immigration,

legislators,

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a $16 glass

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problems

issues

(e.g.,

people

criticizing

of orange

by opposition

do

messages

parties

juice).

or to

Canadian Politics Today

Does

good

government

to

by people for

governing do? In

the

action

for

This

will, in the long

PARTICIPATION including

grasp

governed.

that

and

capabilities.

governing, society

Developing

a broad

up the legitimacy

widely

and

voices consensus

based

those

in

marginalized

groups

meaningful,

with

of

government

diverse

and inclusiveness

institutions

society

organiza-tional

the inclusiveness

institutions

on participation

posi-tions being

in

and

among

of

public,

of those

power

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course

governing

perspectives

limited

some

of the

needs and values to be taken

governing

be bal-anced

a vision

a certain

participation

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seriously.

administrative

and its

values.

of their

should

public

with contrasting

of the state

shared

by

because

need to

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and

want the

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may involve

helps

wishes,

participation

majority

people

of society,

participation

of the

judicial,

which

needs,

is

public views

of the

of people

and individuals.

convince

all sectors

are often ignored

the

majority

The informed

to the

importance

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to

INCLUSIVENESS

Ideally,

wishes

leadership,

important,

represent

legislative,

the

run,

be responsive

taking

allows

provide

achieve

what the

minorities

trying

and interests

and legislators

of

may involve

Of particular

whose views

doing

democracy, rights

to

AND

groups

to

the

government

country.

entail

a liberal

protections

expect

simply

within

elements into

of

account.

helps to

all elements

shore

of society.

Analyzing Politics 1.5

Discuss the importance

influences In

analyzing

politics,

contending

it is

interests

major political extent

of interests,

in understanding

to

that

ideas

which

useful

to examine

seek to

and

people

ideas, identities,

institutions,

and external

Canadian politics. the

benefit

by influencing

what government

does,

perspectives, identify

themselves

with

different

groups

and

political

communities, development external As

and

global

on the

to

Of particular

importance

capability (See

of various

Box 1-2:

of political

influences

well, it is important

of politics. relative

and characteristics

Dam

groups,

governmental

institutions,

and

country.

understand in

and

the

historic,

affecting

the

individuals,

economic, decisions

and

social

context

of governments

and institutions

to exert

is the

power

effec-tively.

Politics.)

Interests A classic view,

definition

politics their

is

of politics basically

is who

own interests,

that

provide disability,

among

particularly

policies are distributed. programs

gets

a struggle

what,

in terms

For example,

free

health

and

care and

old age.

other

hand,

will typically

fewer

costly

government-funded

seek to

when,

contending

of how the

poorer

people

education

Business

owners

have lower

taxes,

social

how

(Lasswell,

groups

as

benefits

of govern-ment

against

executives,

business

pro-mote

seek government

well as insurance

and corporate

In this to

and costs

will likely

fewer

1935).

and individuals

un-employment,

on the

regulations,

and

services.

Ideas The ideas,

values,

positions)

and

beliefs

that

hold

often

affect

of Senate reform most likely

to improve

people

(including

how they

act in

both political

(or abolition)

are often framed

the

Canadian

quality

of

the

public life.

in terms

democracy

For

of

and those example,

in

gov-erning

discus-sions

which proposal is

13

14

Chapter 1

Box 1-2 Dam Politics Across

northern

Canada,

projects Amid

concerns

caused

be an ideal

concrete

dams

the

eventually The

often

submerged methane,

results

in

buildup

of poisonous

effects

and

the

interests

Among cost

billions

unions (such

typically outfitters,

human

hikers,

be displaced

from

way of life

harmed,

and

and

other

run

vegetation

are

of kilo-metres

which

can

have

a

the

are

with major

promoting

dams

construction

trades,

and

corporations

that

require

large

amounts

opposing

dam

conservation

traditional view

construction groups,

Indigenous land

and find

their

a river

claims. As

of

provincial

are

Churchill

who

traditional

as a threat

and the to

vast

For

United

of

the

United

States

Although

and to

to

refuse

are

dams,

there

may to

viable.

support

power

be

be sold

economically

state

the

gener-ated

for

their

governments from

northern

met.

complex

environmental

build

buy

gained

needs

sought

to

Labrador

electricity

Finally,

various

were

and law-suits

Quebec

projects

by asking

of the has re-sulted

and

energy

Quebec

demands

there

engineering,

territory.

other

between

Labrador

of the

if

affect

construction in

because

make the

dams

until their

decisions

to

Cree in

against

Quebec

its

negotiations.

bitter tensions

benefits

particularly

have rights

lines

the dam

pro-vincial

peoples

agreements

and

Quebec,

through

difficult

of Newfoundland

financial

States

reach

of intense

and

Indigenous

and

past,

projects However,

where they

example,

government

power

Canadian

transmission

Station

distribu-tion

In the

territories.

that

consult

to

For

influence,

example,

the

difficult

decades

passes

campaign in

or the

stimulate

and

when

has ruled to

and

building.

on lands

Generating

of the

foreign

to the

be

government

that some

dam

the

majority

pre-serving

megaprojects,

production

their traditional

a duty

governments.

many

on

(government-owned)

often ignored

have

may

between

often

growth

value

jobs

of dam

developments

Falls

in

may

Crown

This can lead to lengthy

it

a higher

create

energy

of Canada

well, if the

provinces,

wilderness

peoples,

damming

or land

com-panies,

the

that flooded Court

proposing

also

economic

of these

to

for

were

governments when

place

advocates

peoples

Supreme

seri-ous

Likewise,

responsible

were developed

may cause

There is

value

advocates

opportunities

often forceful

Indigenous

while potentially

dams

as

growth.

corporations

gas.

who

are often

see

values.

primarily

environment.

Governments

economic

spiritual

who

and those

natural

which they

dioxide,

thousands

of forest

the

and

those

development

many

greenhouse

identity,

between

to

building

and trappers.

often

that

concerned

Those

their

and potent

change

Large

carbon

livelihood,

conflict

health.

producers)

environmental

store

in rivers,

of dollars

energy.

that

Furthermore,

representing

as aluminum

inexpensive

criticism.

forests

mercury

on fish

However,

under

their

energy.

seems

power.

removal

animals.

dams

come

lines

a significant

migratory

climate

building

a highly

of transmission

hydro-electric

clean

clean

forests

releases

building

can

flood

decaying,

harming

that

have

potential

global

fuels,

sourcing

projects

and

of relatively and

of fossil

for

hydro

promise

pollution

burning

solution

many recent

the

about

by the

large-scale

and

hold

economic,

financial,

considerations

there

are

involved

also important

in

political

Lock

considerations identities,

Greg

In addition,

as discussed in

that

may involve

institutions,

and

different

external

Chapter 5, the political

interests,

ideas,

influences.

ideologies

of liberalism,

con-servatism,

and democratic socialism (and variations of each of these classic ideologies) have influenced

the

way Canadians think

about

government

and politics

and the poli-cies

governments should adopt. In recent decades,the perspectives of feminism environmentalism relevant

have also influenced

values and beliefs that

politics in

people hold relate to their

the economy. It is not surprising, for example, that stronger

role for government

in providing

and

Canada. To some extent, the politi-cally position in society

and

workers are morelikely to favour a

various social benefits,

while business

man-agers

and entrepreneurs generally are morelikely to favour a smaller role for govern-ment in regulating of interests.

the economy.

For example,

some

executives, and a few Different religious

Nevertheless, workers

political

ideas are not simply

have the same free

a product

market perspective

as cor-porate

multimillionaires favour higher taxes for the rich.

perspectives

also have a substantial

effect on political

views. The

majority of Canadians tend to view laws and public policies as separate from religious doctrine. issues.

Nevertheless, religious

beliefs affect the

For example, the social gospel (associated

way many people think with the

about

politi-cal

Methodists and other reli-gious

groups in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) promoted the idea of

Canadian Politics Today

social justice social

and advocated

gospel

for the

movement

acceptance

religious

groups

for

various

faded

away

of a variety in the

policies many

of social

pursuit

to aid the

decades

policies

of social justice

disadvantaged.

ago, it

helped

and the

continued

at home

and

Although

the

to lay the foundation engagement

of

many

abroad.

Identities An individuals

identity

refers to that

and sense of belonging Many ofthose

who voted for

sense of Qubcois (ancestry)

as the

struggle for recognition history.

Quebec sovereignty

and culture majority

peoples as members of a First

Identities

of his or her characteristics

or political

community.

in the 1995 referendum

had a strong

of French

of Quebecers. Similarly,

Nation,

of their

Quebec as well as sharing the common

Mtis

the identity

Nation, or Inuit

right to self-government

group

of Indigenous

has stimulated

their

and self-determination.

are based not only on ethnicity and culture but also on geography and

Many Canadians

cases, an identity

from

have a strong

an area

sense of place and, to varying combined

perception

group, culture,

identity. Thistypically included a strong attachment to, and identifi-cation

with, the language ethnicity

persons

to a particular

within extents,

with a sense that their

sense of provincial a province, cultural

province

identity

(and, in

some

such as Cape Breton) based on a

and ethnic

differences.

has not been well treated

This is often

by the

policies

of

the Canadian government and a feeling that their province or region has been domi-nated or ignored

by other

sense of identification ancestry

parts of the country.

with their

religion,

In addition,

many Canadians

social class, gender, and country

have a

of birth

or

as well as being proud to be Canadian.

Identities

do not necessarily

determine

ones beliefs and political

actions. For exam-ple,

many people with a Roman Catholic identity

do not agree with their churchs posi-tions

on contraception,

Neither

vote for

abortion,

a Catholic candidate

identities, including

in

or euthanasia. an election.

will they

Furthermore,

necessarily

prefer to

most Canadians

have

mul-tiple

both a provincial and a Canadian sense of identification,

well as an identification

with one or

more ethnic

groups. In

addition,

as

the nature and

relevance of different identities can change over time. For example, in the past many people of French ancestry in

Quebecidentified

This has changed to a Qubcois

asthe

majorbasis of identification for

identities

themselves identity,

with many Canadians

ancestry, whether or not they are recognized politics has become increasingly

oppressed by government

as Catholic French-Canadians. replacing

religion

many Quebecers. The significance of Indigenous

has increased in recent years,

Identity

primarily

with language

or by dominant

now taking

pride in their

members of an Indigenous group. important.

Groups that

groups in society

view themselves

have sought

as

recognition

of

their distinctiveness. As well,they have sought changesin society and government policy to overcome the injustices

they face.

Among the groups involved

in identity

politics in

Canadaare women;those with a gay,lesbian or bisexual sexual orientation, or atransgender identity;

Indigenous

peoples; and various racial and ethnic

tends to differ from interest

minorities. Identity

politics

politics in its focus on culture, respect, and group equality.

As discussed in Chapter 3, the importance of Canadian diversity is particularly evi-dent when we examine

national identity.

People often use the term

the country and its citizens as a whole(as, for example, national flag,

and national

anthem).

However, a nation can also be thought

people who have a strong sense of common identity

is not the casefor primarily

many Quebecersand Indigenous

Canadian democracy

of

within their homeland (Suny, nation, this

peoples. Those whoidentify them-selves

or as a member of a particular

morein terms of equality

national

of as a group

majority of people living in Canada view Canada astheir

as Qubcois

to refer to

based on some shared characteristics

and history and a belief that they should beself-governing 2006). Although the

nation

government,

First

Nation

maythink

of

between nations and the right to govern

their own nation than in terms of equality among all individual

Canadian citizens

15

16

Chapter 1

Institutions A variety media) in

of

political

affect the

governing

institutions

ways in

positions.

democratic

in their

selection)

Political

and in the

decades,

there

causes

of large

numbers

in

a

country A wide

variety

policies system

divides

which

has a

and

direction

and

problems

faced

shares

which

on

what

Furthermore,

laws

as actions

taken

executive

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by the courts

Canadas

abortion

Chapter

10.) In

Canadian that

have

addition,

there

established Even

prime

within

different

institutions,

operating

Chapter

each

with its

are involved and implementing

the

desire

Canadas

many

diversity

of Canadas

with

cabinets)

well

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be

For example, as it

Bank

was

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(See

of Canada, and

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are

the

RCMP)

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values,

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interests,

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mobilizing

In turn,

these

insti-tutions

tend

to be

institutions

democracy

varying

governmental

goals,

decisions.

public. for

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history,

governing

Canadians

have

political

as

Canada

are often different own

in the

to influence

of

of

these proven

legislatures

organizations

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has often

15.)

making

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agreement

(e.g., the

operate

governmental

procedures, and

long-lasting,

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federal

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Commission,

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and cabinet,

provincial

Court

7.)

of Rights and Freedoms.

of agencies

Telecommunications

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Constitution.

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of their

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environmental

rights.

as political

people

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which

degrees,

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challenges

development

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institutions.

ExternalInfluences Finally,

we cannot

what goes on influenced

within

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over

many respects,

system. States

Canada,

by external

country in

understand

number

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governments

with the

United

region policies, the

in

military

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actions

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in

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Chapter

always

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governing

modified

by examining

by the

government.

the

treaties,

free

European

4) have

trade

and

major implications

in the

Organization

(NATO)

global

Afghanistan,

economic

affected and

As

and laws

Libya.

that

(See

how

Canada in

Canadas

system.

Canadas

United

well, a large

influence

countries for

a sov-ereign

of a federal

ties to the

agreements

Union,

to

continue,

adoption

politics

and

a colony

institutions

and cultural

participation

Yugoslavia,

have

simply

and economic

organizations,

the

people developed

and its

heritage,

example,

government

and its

Canadian

Mexico,

and

Canada

of time,

closeness for

act.

(discussed

as does

North

their

and

country

period

of international

States

politics

and cultures.

geographical

great importance

growing

as this

a lengthy

to reflect

Canadas have

forces

Canadian

the

has Asia-Pacific

economic

Membership

decision

to

Chapter

17.

in

partici-pate

Canadian Politics Today

17

Summaryand Conclusion Politics involves different

controversy

interests,

ideas,

any political community. result from

The

to exercise

of power is important

what decisions

are

Canadian

political

to

action,

political in

system

also

power.

make decisions

can be classified on their

concerns,

and try to influence

Yet, questions

for their fuller

own

realization

the

public in

position

advantage.

of the

people through well as through

as and

organize

for

debate and

Canadian politics is strongly

and linguistic societies.

particularly

the

to

of rule

by all decision

affected different

by the

members of making,

as

equality.

by the diversity ethnic,

has meant that

whether

protect

cultural,

many Canadians

and

Canadian

similarly,

in

develop

controversy

groups

different

or

statuses,

their

politi-cal

as equal

Canada;

distinctive

enjoy

Good

government

and

policy-making

achieving

the

public

that

actions,

distinc-tive powers,

own identities

aspirations

product interests ideas,

interest

and

to

and

actions

of

a complex

of

different

good

governmental

institutions;

and

Canadaare

all

with

greater

significant.

and

power

of

use it to

have;

the

political

and

influences

on

particular how

a

different

people

external

Of

of power

potential

are conflicting

of societythe

of a variety

and

government.

The

that

their

participa-tion

governments

of factors.

and identities

distribution

the public

interactions

is the

and

set

of

elements

perspectives,

for needs

achieve

to

community.

to

by facilitating

in trying

directed

accountable

responsive

people

institu-tions

are

political

are

and

policies

governing that

of the

governments

of all

workings

requires processes

transparent,

The

a

Canadians

perspective

should

is important

ideal

one

over

or exclusive

all

cultures.

govern-ment

communities and the distinctive provincial

This diversity

arisen

to influence

Some people favour

democratic

but

Ensuring of gov-ernment.

has some poten-tial

greater social and economic

of the country,

is

whether some power-ful

greater involvement political

has

Treating

provinces

behalf,

the decisions

arise as to

are in a strong

citizens,

determining

political power through the ability to cast a vote in groups

identity.

democracy. Voters elect

Clearly, each Canadian citizen elections.

do not have an overriding

within

and laws

people are free to express their political

exist

made.

basically a liberal representative representatives

because of the

that

Controversy and conflict

the competition

The distribution

and conflict

and identities

importance

effectively achieve

those particular

objectives

Discussion Questions 1.

How should

decisions

be made about controversial

issues such as hydraulic fracturing the expansion

(fracking)

of pipelines in environmentally

3.

sensi-tive

areas?

2. Should a province

have the right to secede from votes in favour

that

political

power

is

widely

dis-persed

or highly concentrated in Canada? 4. Should

the

a common

Canada if a majority of its population

of secession?

Do you think

or

Canadian

government

set of values

try to promote

and a common

national

identity? 5. Should

Canada

move in the

direction

of greater

democracy? If so, how mightthis be achieved?

Chapter2

CanadasPolitical Developmentand Challenges

Canad

Archives

and

Library

Delegates during North

the

from

the legislatures

September

American

of Canada,

1864 convention

in

New Brunswick, Charlottetown

Nova at

Scotia,

which it

and

Prince

was agreed

Edward

to consider

Island the

pose for

union

of the

a photo British

colonies.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be ableto 2.1

Identify

the founding

peoples of Canada.

2.2a

Explain the key political

2.2b

Discuss the

meaning and significance

2.3a Explain the significance 2.3b Examine the

of the

of responsible

major concerns of Canadas regions and provinces.

Understand the origins and development

2.5

Discuss the issues and problems that workers have faced.

On July 1, 1867, Premier

and fair

many flags

Canadian suitor, to procure

were flown

Charles Tupper

Nova Scotia a divorce

at half-mast in an unhappy

while her numerous in Married,

union

friends intend 1867/2005).

of Quebec Nationalism.

women, farmers, and

Nova Scotia.

was burned in effigy alongside

being forced into (quoted

government.

National Policy.

2.4

crepe.

18

events in Canada prior to Confederation.

a rat. by an

Buildings

were draped in black

A newspaper

described

old, crabbed

and almost

shortly to take

prompt and decided

young bank-rupt steps

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

Although not the

most

case in

Nova

Scotia

In the

first

Canadian

Scotias

won

36 of the

a petition

to

parts

election,

38 seats

accept

Nova

this

In

by

the

New

who

revenues

that

Quebec,

Rebellion

of

population. the

union

in

Bleus,

there

survival

Church

enthusiasm

has

35

successfully

more than

some

challenges

for the million

security,

in

the

new

power.

helped to

and

cus-tom the

who opposed A raid

convince

British

& Finkel,

passivity

New New

claimed

2007). the

defeat

among

authority

when the

on many

government

of the

be obeyed,

Rouges

Bleus

of the

much

had to

Anti-Confederate

1867,

by the

Nevertheless,

However,

Canada

had

a stable

in

became

business

Canada

a

and

elec-tions part

of

community

that

Of particular importance

start

political

guarantee

struggled

of Confederation

precarious

peaceful

does not necessarily

discussion

In

defeated

a personthe

to

(Conrad

of the in the

Confederation.

was

Albert J. Smith,

as the

of the tensions

who wereignored

for

in

country.

developed

present.

to

English-speaking

people,

150 years

Premier

was returned

beat the

among

terms

Canada.

that legitimate

Canada

the

refused

Anti-Confederates,

2006).

to join

apathy

Confederation,

signed 1868

of better

80 cents

Confederation.

preaching

except

for

indefinitely

political

of a united

more than

over

Indeed,

political

peoples,

much

of

Canada

the future. in the

Catholic

in

of the

British rule in Ireland)

to

Scotians and in

government

a promise

(Morton,

oust

party

opposition

resulted

British

Canada,

province

for their

won 18 of

Anti-Confederates

Nova

opposition

Brunswick

military protection

Nevertheless,

was not

a country

Nevertheless,

provide

who supported

party.

to

The

minister.

Canada

an election in 1866 to

was

population.

Canada,

election),

The

joining

the

New

opposed

1867

this

Brunswick. of its

1867,

Howe, leader

pro-Confederation

significant

Quebec

powerful

sold

from

thousand

given

New

majority

seceding

considerable

for joining

was necessary

until the formation

Conservative

Now

to

18371838

1854

Montreal,

with Canada

was also

had

and

November

been

supported

persuade

Americans

continue

With the

from

course,

Tilleys

there

Conservative

the

forced

and

Fenians (Irish

was unwilling to

In

governor

of the

prime

was also

Tilley

to

first

which

receive

was determined

by the

Brunswickers

that

wishes

in the

Joseph

with enthusiasm,

Scotia

Canada.

having

Canadas there

1867

Thirty-one

from

after

Tilley,

in

Nova

in

as voted

secede

cabinet

would

of Confederation,

Brunswick

that it

claimed

British-appointed

terms

the inevitable,

Samuel

province

government

The the

the

to

Brunswick, of

Likewise,

many

motion to

Macdonald,

the

legislature.

as

a

Canadian A.

government

Anti-Confederates,

British

Bowing

Sir John

neighbouring

Scotia

(almost

in

advocating

Parliament.

Nova

Canada

against

Anti-Confederates,

passed

in the

of

particularly

Canada

Canadian

in the

request.

a position

Scotia

1865,

the

formation

country,

to join

of separation

Scotia legislature

the

new

agreed

19 seats in the

in favour

accepted

greeted of the

government

Nova

Nova

Ontarians

other

a smooth

with in the

1867. Of

path for

past are reflected

is the situation

and

in

system.

of Indigenous

mistreated in the

development

of Canada.

ChapterIntroduction The history Canada

of

long

Canada

Canada before

began

the

by a wide

of Indigenous the

Canadian

peoples

current

and

France

In addition,

and

efforts

governments

to

and the

The relationships Britain

discovery

was populated

history

with the Indigenous

the

what is ability

the now

of British

to resist an American invasion become

a part

Canada Scotia

and

country

northern

Brunswick.

of

what they

farmers, policies,

States.

broken

achieve

British Canada

territories

politics.

see as the

workers, and and traditional

also that

domination

now The

in

un-derstanding

peoples

militias,

established

of

Canada

Upper

with

wars between

of Canadian

Atlantic by

the

war-riors

would not and

Lower

which included

became

Nova

an independent

Saskatchewan,

became self-governing

a degree

his-tory.

Nations

Canada

(Ontario)

1867,

Alberta,

provinces.

and

The

of self-government.

1867 fundamentally

Canada

the

and First

that

Canada

gradually

Manitoba,

obtained

and aspects

of Canada in

women have challenged attitudes

What is

are important

settlers

Canadian

Columbia,

of

now

communities.

of Indigenous

are also important

The joining

and

promises

French

in 18121814

Westerners

and

what is

population.

and

soldiers,

began in

explorers.

tribes

treaty

at different times

have

of Canada

who came to

European

reconciliation

Subsequently, as British

and Labrador

and

the

by

of Indigenous

1840 led to the formation

sea to sea,

The expansion characteristics

United

in

New

from

Newfoundland three

of the

(Quebec)

Canada

variety

non-Indigenous

between in

of

peoples

Canadians Ontario

and

changed have

often

Quebec.

major political

the

countrys

been critical Movements

parties, government

of

19

20

Chapter 2

Indigenous Peoplesand European Settlers 2.1 Identify Canada

First

the founding

peoples

wasfirst settled

more than

Nations (misleadingly

crossed from

Canada.

based on agriculture

were developed

They developed economies,

and fishing.

A variety

prior to European settlement.

Northern

who probably a variety

of lan-guages

others established

of governing

systems

About 1000 years ago the Inuit

began to settle in what are now the Northwest Territories, and

of contemporary

by European explorers)

While some had hunter-gatherer

communities

and laws

10 000 years ago by the ancestors

called Indians

Siberia and settled throughout

and cultures. settled

of Canada.

Nunavut, Northern Quebec,

Labrador.

European Settlement European

settlement

developed

along

was established colonies

in

small

1604

in

now

the

was granted

a British

became

involved

peoples

and

providing

of

mixed

St. Lawrence food

seigneur

that

Britain

and

region.

British

rule.

The

Years

Quebec

private people

Indigenous

with Indigenous

settlers trade

resulted

in

survive and

peoples

in

spent

the

part

a substantial

(primarily

up also

Company

with

between

European

harsh of their

population

French)

Bay to

ancestry

majority the

of French

French

capital

Treaty

who

Britain of

and

(1763),

New

Nova

Subsequently, as Britain and

rent

Mikmaq a large

region.

(17561763),

in the France

Battle and

to

army

By the

there sought

their

the

the

Treaty

of and

were a number to

gain

control

allies

resisted

majority

As part

of the

of the

the

British

army

of the

Plains

of

Acadia

con-quered

Newfoundland,

War (17541763), from

worked and interest

British

Scotia).

Scotia,

Britain.

France

France,

1710, the

Maritimes

expelled

New

In

Nova

Acadians

in farm-ing.

landowners, paying

Royal in

and Indian

were

of Paris

Great

engaged

while

Canada.

mainland

the

settlers

independent

over

of

French

families

as Annapolis control

throughout

War between

By the

large

control

known

early

habitants,

vied for

Acadians

City, the

of the

the land.

Hudson

During

many

usually

ceded

conflicts

French-speaking Seven

cordial,

European

them

(now

France

surrounding

of the

relations

fur

Bay

company

set were

where Indigenous

in the This

and

River, the

their

France

Royal

and

for

trade,

had sold

(1713),

wars

1759.

Nations

Along the

Port

of

first

Acadia

Mtis.

providing

lands

were at times the

the

France

of

There

Hudsons

Land,

New

Britain

States.

The

Early

of colony

provinces.

United

providing

trade.

were involved

French

Maritime

of the

1670,

communities.

First

the

as Ruperts

fur

helped

males

to the fur

Utrecht

in

known

that

French

now

The colony

smaller

Newfoundland.

charter

colonizers

century.

and the

region

in

profitable

addition

land, the

the

European

as

are

colonies

in Indigenous

people

identify

River,

Atlantic

royal

knowledge

living

seventeenth

what

vast territory in

Many

In

French

of the

climate.

in the

Lawrence

in

and

ownership

of

St.

what is

British

time

began

the

were ceded

global

captured

Abraham to

in

Britain.1

British Rule Royal Proclamation,

1763

Established

over

the former

British

rule

French colonies

placed Indians of the

under the British

The Royal It

and

they pro-tection

Proclamation, placed

were to

1763, established

Indians be left

under undisturbed,

the

British rule

protection

established

over the former

of the their

British

exclusive

Crown, hunting

French col-onies. stated rights

that over

Crown. 1 France fishing

retained rights

the along

islands the

French

of

St.

Pierre

Shore

and of

Miquelon

Newfoundland

off

the

south

coast

of

Newfoundland

and,

until

1904,

had

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

a vast territory, of is

often

and

authorized

cited

as

the

of

by the

of

inhabited.

could

the

was often the

its

not

1763

The

(as

well

from

the

rights,

protection

enforced

Charter

be sold

monarch.

of

the

the

Royal

Proclamation the

own-ership peoples

governments

Freedoms

in

Section

and freedoms

later

ap-proval

including

colonial

and

rights

as those

without

of Indigenous

by the

Rights

Act, 1982, recognized

Proclamation,

not

of Indigenous

However,

Nevertheless,

Constitution

Royal

lands

recognition

of settlers

2009).

Canadas

their

representatives

they

inroads

(Dickason,

that

providing

of lands from

provided

21

acquired

25

established

by land

claims

and

from

Britain

of

British

ances-try.

Catholic,

with

agreements). Britain would

hoped

turn However,

the

in

British

practice

leaders

be

Thus,

able

formalized freely

be

practise

British

intact.

this

maintained,

alongside

Catholic

French regime

French

to

wake

to

most laws

and

that

of civil

(private)

British

Catholics

of the

Quebec that

Church

would

Catholics

be used

freely

law.

the

AnInflux of Immigrants Support

in

Quebec

Independence

and

the

(17751783)

17751776

in

northern

was limited,

was eventually

revolutionaries

other

repulsed

gaining

colonies

and

by the

an

from

the

American

British

independence

for

army.

invasion

resulted

British

army, British

subsidies

for

(particularly what is

now

the and

of

some

other

Loyalists. British

Ontario

in

Americans

North

America

Loyalist

demands, of a large

In

well,

simply even

numerous

to

representative

assembly

as had

been

until

established did

land

the

from

not have

what is

the

for the laws

other

British until

in

States

whom

available now

were land

southern

brought

In response 1784.

colony

and to

an assembly

in and

United

century)

colonies.

Nova Scotia in

problems

a

settled

resulted

of

nineteenth

by British in

the

of the

American

from

were resettled

some

in

diver-sity.

came

soon

from

advantage

North

created

be governed

which

and the

French system law

alongside

be maintained, would

British

of civil

be used

criminal

law.

Loyalists to the

to

The settle-ment of

Quebec.

have an elected North 1832).

who remained

British of the

Crown

American To some

North

loyal

at the

War of Indepen-dence.

Subsequently,

to

the Iroquois

Americans

Catholic

(private)

time

Scotia

of Scots,

Americans

colony

Americans,

of the

settlers

religion,

would

(including

greater

addition,

of refugees

was separated speakers

expected

Newfoundland,

British

In

the

to take

much

of the

the settlers

(except

Nova

numbers

new

their of the

Church

Americans

and

significantly

of Black

by that

Leone.

other

Nations.

particular,

colonies

by

added

of the

against

very

of English

of

a somewhat

number

Sierra

sought

New Brunswick

number

Many

First

politics

refuge

land

Quebec

were significant

treatment for

though

not

and

only

brought

The settlement

aside for

in the

not

a sizable

decades

(although

changes

also

had fought

Ontario.

sought

colonies

practise

that

be able to

Americans

provided

Brunswick)

soldiers

nationalities.

that

in the

Parlia-ment

in

who had fought in the

Americans,

would

privileges

Loyalists

but

leaving

subsequent

set

New

discriminatory

Nations

the

British

guaranteed

American

many

authorities

to settle

America

former

As

group

against British

Quebec

of the

in

of

Ontario).

colonies

of other

Other

had been

soldiers

North

and

groups.

southern

New settlers important

of the

The

became

British

although

First

later

eastern

to

people

was followed

in

and

of this

now

and former

Loyalists

Scotia,

one-half

who had fought colonies.

area that

Protestant

about

what is

the

population

Germans,

Nova

Loyalists

southern

Among

in

the

Nations, American

newcomers

small

variety

First

North

in

The the

and

War

of

The success

Britain

who had remained loyal to the British Crown. These Loyalists, in the

American

Act, 1774

An act of the

would

Catholic

law

the prac-tices

Act, 1774, passed by the

privileges

system

the

was introduced,

be conciliatory

guarantees

the

in

system

and left

Quebec with

who followed

need

population

The

and

legal

the

religion,

and the

criminal

British

arrangement their

people

merchants

the

recognized

French-speaking

the

to

would

governors

of

French-speaking

American although

colonies

largely

primarily

hundred

British

American

composed

remained

of several

of the

Parliament,

a colony

conquest. the

from

settlers

into

Quebec

exception

of the

that

Quebec

migrated American

many to the

Brit-ish

colonies

22

Chapter 2

Constitutional An act that two

separate

Canada

and

Act, 1791

divided colonies: Lower

Quebec

into

Upper

extent this wasresolved whenthe British Parliament passedthe Constitutional dividing

Quebec into

Lower

Canada.

Beginning new settlers

in the in

to

Canada

to

widespread

from

the

Lower of

Canadas country.2

first

which

this

Lands

were at least

people Canada.

from

the

1885) facilitated

to leave

their

Nations

by the

Prairies

moved

to farm.

Numbered 18711921)

very

difficult

means to support

It

of large

the

separate

in

living

1867.

in the large

population

of 102 358.

peoples

numbers

is

not

To

known

generally

farming

that

they

Railway

scrip

could

in the

gathering,

or land)

Canada,

support

themselves

Territories

Further,

they

often

This

often

made

groups.

and fishing

First

government

Northwest

for farming.

in

Prairies.

(money

Canadian

and the

of Indigenous

encour-aged to settle in

(completed

to settle

by the

Ontario,

to indi-viduals

Scandinavia

of pre-Confederation

not suitable

hunting,

and

were offered

claim

territories

for

particularly

Pacific

(established

Canada,

land

of Europeans

practices

with the

and

States,

Mtis

the reserves western

free

government

Canadian

the

As in the

China involved province.

and

was only

world.

early after

began to substantially of the

United

the

from in that

nineteenth

numbers.

became

Upper

that

had

been their

themselves.

settled

the late

the

However,

Many labourers Columbia

Kingdom,

to reserves

continue

led States

English-speaking

people

a total

basically Canadian

to the traditional to

granted The

lands.

were small

United

of Quebec into

they

of

famine

the

the

of Indigenous

old.

to immigrants,

in

number

immigrated

New Brunswick)

million

with

number

in

potato

from

division

However,

3.7

36 tribes

Act, 1872,

Treaties

had no connection

nearly

great

increased

Nova Scotia,

of the transcontinental

traditional

were

by learning

1840.

increase

settlers

and

n.d.).

the immigration

up the

in

Ontario)

assembly.

800 000 people

where the

century

with

actual

21 years

United

The building

To open

the

over

This led to the

1871, found

1871 census

Dominion who

eighteenth

Quebec.

also listed

reflected

was a very sizable

Ireland,

of

representative

of English-speaking

Quebec (along in

elected

18151850

(including

of

Canada (the forerunner

own

there

were reunited

and census,

Canada

The

parts

part

its

from

in the late

The 1871 census

extent

(Statistics

it

Isles

western

Ontario

century

An influx

Loyalists)

Upper

having

For example,

British

Canada,

provinces

what

nineteenth

the

in the

colonies:

with each

starvation).

population

from

small

Canada.

(particularly

and

two

Canada (Quebec),

Act, 1791,

in

Japanese

twentieth the

end

building settlers

centuries, of

World

open up immigration

This

has

made Canada

the

national

also came to although

a strict

War II that

from a truly

railway British

the

southern

to

quota limited

Canadian

in their

government

Europe and, later,

multicultural

British

Columbia

other

country.

The Development of Government

in Canada 2.2a Explain the key political events in Canada prior to Confederation. 2.2b

Discuss the

Despite Scotia British

having in

assemblies

1758),

the

governors

government.

meaning and significance

In

of the

Legislative

by the

elected

elected

British of the

turn,

North

Council

(which

appointed had the

the

owners

colonies

were expected

governor

and

property

American

colonies

each

Assembly),

by

of responsible

right

Executive

to

government. (beginning

were far follow

from

the

powerful

local

to

any

reject

Council

(which

first

in

democratic.

orders elites legislation

of the as

Nova The British

members proposed

was responsible

administration).

2 Statistics

Canada:

www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/98-187-x/4064809-eng.htm

and

www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/98-187-x/4151278-eng.htm#part

for

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

23

Demandsfor Democratic Reforms Democratic

reform

movements

dominated

the

colonies.

challenged

the

control

of the

government

legislature, William

broad

Mackenzie

the

quashed

in

in

colony.

1838.

support,

(Quebec)

for

the

Patriote,

political

powers

led

by the reform,

by the

British

British

1837, the

elites

Patriotes

led

led

a rebellion

was quickly

and

his ad-visers.

the establishment

Upper

as the

a rebellion

in

Upper

that

of

to an elected represen-tative Responsible

In

known

in

elites

Papineau,

governor

including

government.

of the

of the

by Louis-Joseph

which the executive is responsible

Mackenzie

and

challenge

Parti

Canada

was critical

In

to

the

Patriotes

were rejected

Lyon

controlled

developed

particular,

of Lower

The demands

responsible

In

Canada

Family Lower

Canada

in

Compact, Canada

1837,

A governing

(Ontario), who

that

was

in

which

the executive is responsible to an elected,

representative

body and

but it lacked

its support

suppressed.

Government system

leg-islative

must retain

to remain

in office.

The Durham Report As a result the

of the

causes

now and

rebellions,

of the

separates

p. 349).

French-speaking

that

responsible

Based on

Durhams

East

in the

Lower

to investigate

deadly

animosity

hostile

Canada

to the

acceptance

divisions be reunited

gradual

of superior

that

of French (quoted

assimilation

English

in

of the

values.

In

ad-dition,

Province

later

and Canada

of

Canadas

right

to

languages

British

Assembly

was

in the

was a significant

passed the

Each of the two was awarded

Legislative

English

French

Parliament

of Canada.

West (Ontario),

elected

use

the

Province

East at the time).

the

official

United

A report

be adopted.

recommendations,

the

(Quebec)

of Canada

of two

and their

government

1840, creating

although

and

lead

the

Durham

Durham Durham Report, 1839(Report on the Affairs of British North America)recom-mended

the

Canada

into

would

Lord

To end the

Canada

Upper

he hoped,

population

sent

colonies.

Lower

that

This,

government

Canadian of

he recommended

2003,

Union,

British

in the

the inhabitants

English,

Bumsted,

conflicts

the

equal

(despite

Assembly

feature

representa-tion

of the

was added.

pop-ulation

Assembly,

This recognition

in the subsequent

Confederation

agreement. With

Canada

East and

between

English-speaking

English-and

politician

from

Canada East, governed no separate

Canada

the

matters

within

their

different

legal

expected

to be passed

and

educational

the

effect

not

prepared

and

decided

passed

in

by the

the

Assembly of for

Responsible

was established Brunswick Canada

(1854), in

Nova

Newfoundland

Canada

West continued

West

that

for

to

have

laws

were

of representatives

Union reflected,

to a consider-able

rejected

the

government

in

in

(1855

which

Prince

As

but suspended

Assembly,

The

Reformers

(See

Island

from

were

to the

Box

in 2-1:

responsible

Edward

come

legisla-tion)

was accepted

1848. well,

not

general

(proposed

Council.

West) in

Canada.)

(1848),

bills

elections

Executive

Canada

did

governors

some

government

and

Scotia

from

were responsible

developed

British

interfered to

Government in

and

They

responsible East

an

1934

the The

govern-ment

(1851), until

New joining

1949).

The shared

including

for

of the

power

leaders,

politician

majorities

responsible

Assembly,

(Canada

practice

The subsequent

be appointed

pressed

Joint

components.

power.

Legislative

Canada

the

part

Canada

is, by

concerning Union. their

who should

Province Struggle

of its two

Act of

to surrender

Further,

Assembly,

Canada East and each

East and

majoritythat

recommendation with the

Canada

of the

a French-speaking

from

Thus, the governance

distinctiveness

Durhams into

ministers

systems.

by a double

half

politicians.

As well, although

of Canada.

in each of the two regions. extent,

West and

structures,

part

electing

French-speaking

Canada

the colony.

governing

West each the

governing

involvement

of the

in negotiating

Province

of

Canada

had

a partial free trade treaty

a number

with the

of successes,

United States

(Reciprocity Treaty, 1854),reform of the school system in Canada West, modernization

and

the Lower

adoption

gov-ernor

that union

of

Canada

and

of responsible

government.

Act of Union, An act that Lower

was shared

had

Upper

1839

British

Durham

recommended

the

the larger

made the language

Lord

Act of

parts, called

Report, by the

United

1840

united

Canada, Province

Upper

creating of

and the

Canada

24

Chapter 2

Box 2-1 The Struggle for Responsible Government in Canada Governor adoption

General Lord

Elgin is

of responsible

Elgin, on instructions

from the

a cabinet

by the

the

nominated

Legislative

and Sir Louis-Hippolyte In tested, the

principle confirmed,

controversial by the

The objective

of the

individuals,

including

most

Legislative

property losses

Lower

The Tories

royal

members Canada,

assent.

appointed

Infuriated

Baldwin

the

men were key advo-cates

Elgin

Losses

Parliament

of the

Bill that

rebels,

18371838

of the

that

the

suf-fered

by

Lord

Lord Elgin had his

to

misgivings

was

and

controversy

give

new capital

over the

system in

agree-ment

demanding States.

They who

by their

neighbour

Parliament

buildings,

2000). Assembly

were held in Toronto was held in

of Canada in

Rebellion Losses

government

about

United

Quebec City. The final session in 1866

which became

down

Montreal

French-Canadians

Montreal

of the Legislative

English

of afree trade

Canada to the

of the

Montrealers

a petition

would be better treated

burning

sessions

Some

among radical & Turgeon,

many

community

Elgin refuse

of Lower

After the later

Rebellion in Lower supported

assent

of English

by the lack

to the south (Gillmor

those had

royal

eggs and burned

States, circulated

support

believed they, too,

Legislative

who

some

a crowd

Montreal.

dismayed

United

annexation

found

had been

English-speaking

demanded

was

compensate

demands;

with rotten

buildings in

merchants, already

did not veto

and the

bill was to

(conservatives),

Although

government

when Lord Assembly

in the

by the decision,

pelted Lord Elgins carriage

with the

Rebellion

Council.

prominent

Both

bill, he did not yield to their

granted.

of Reformers in

by Robert

of responsible

passed

in

was led

Lafontaine.

the

government.

and then

Canada.

with the

British government,

which

1849 the

highly

associated

Canada. In 1848, Lord

majority grouping

Assembly,

of responsible

often

government in

1867.

Bill, the

Ottawa,

Despite the

principle

became the cornerstone

of re-sponsible

of the govern-ing

Canada.

of the land tenure system in Canada East, and the building of a railway system. Less satisfactorily,

the shifting

coalitions

of political

government, and the needfor a double legislative

decisions

Differences

difficult

between

factions

meant frequent

changes

majority often led to a stalemate that

of

made

to achieve.

Canada

West and

Canada East were heightened

as the popu-lation

of Canada Westsurpassed that of Canada East. The Clear Grits, a radical reform movement in

Canada

equal representation Protestant

West, demanded

the

by population

rather than the

of Canada Westand East. In addition, reflecting their evangeli-cal

beliefs, the

and opposed

representation

Clear

privileges

Grits favoured

granted to the

the separation

Anglican

Church.

of church

Further,

and state

they tended

to

express negative views about French-Canadians (Bumsted, 2003). Figure political

2-1 shows a timeline

history

before

depicting

some of the important

events in

Canadas

Confederation.

Figure 2-1 Timeline:Key HistoricalEventsto 1867 14971620 Exploration

by

Champlain,

other of

1500

Cabot,

Hudson,

Europeans;

French

and

Cartier,

18371838 1663

and

establishment British

New a

settlements

royal

18481855

Rebellions

France

17561763

declared

Seven

colony

1774

Years

War

18121814

Quebec

Act

War

of

1812

Lower Upper

in

Responsible

and Canada

government

1867

established

Confederation

1560 1620

1680

1740

1800

1763

1791

Treaty

of

New

to

France

Britain;

Proclamation

Paris

cedes and

Acadia

Royal establishes

1839

Constitutional

Durham

Act

Report

separating

Upper British

rule

1860

Lower

and Canada

192

1840 Act

1864 of

Union

Charlottetown Conference

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

25

Confederation The political

problems

particularly

in

American larger

colonies

market

This

market for

and the

United

also

came

from

better

defend of

a long

and

suggested

by

for

the

be turned

was seen

a key

America

West to settle-ment.

worried against

that

as a

American

strong

that

Threats

raids

British

way to

the large

Canada.

conducted from

allow

invasion

in

and the

on the

rule. the

and the

His ally,

Cartier,

and

create

a political

religion.

A union

colonies

to

expansionist

In

protection

1864,

leaders

who

Canadian

Charlottetow

delegation

of discussing

were adopted provided

such in

minority

to

a broader

union

to

to

(See Figure 2-2).

that

a

1996).

maintaining would

ancestry

view,

attended

uniting

convince

the

of all the

or pow-ers,

essential

for

America

on principles

at this union

American

Charlottetown

Prince

Act, 1867, was then

in

in

A

called the

by

the British Parliament

on the resolutions Dominion

it

leaders

the

was decided discussions

the

British

of

Maritimes to about

North

at hold unit-ing

American

colonies.

and

(1866),

of the

and

further

provinces Island

England

meeting

Canada

colo-nies.which

of union provided them

London,

based

Edward

Conference,

1864

City, 72 resolutions

just to the several

from

that the terms discussion

what

leaders

Maritime

North

of

colonies.

under the Crown of Great Britain,

The delegations

After further

of a

Quebec

conference

Maritime

Maritime

British in

a

the

Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, This established

develop

Canadians

Cartiers

benefits.

leaders.

to

of a

had substantial

with sufficient

North

support

(LaSelva,

on a particular

Canada discuss

union

however, did not think

British

needed

country.

delegates from passed the

view,

powers.

gain the

He believed

was, in

have

establishment

matters

governments

conference

a federal

1969).

not

powers

put aside the idea

union

can be effected

McNaught,

Newfoundland,

from

at a closed-door

establish

would

Macdonalds

to the

based

a single

2009).

planned

(1864)

would

new

one

rights,

was able to

Conference

A month later

than

the

provincial

delegates had

In

by

East, differ-ent

(i.e.,

had sovereign

with local

view.

benefit

rather which

of Canada (LaSelva,

September

favour

different

would

for

dealt

led

Canada

province

a

way.

put forward

Parliament).

major legislative

in

union

each

union

under

Conservatives,

politicians

he looked

about it took

process

grouping

which

and thus

had a somewhat

in

the

because each state

legislatures

diversity

in

a legislative

of the

nationality,

with

Maritime

all

system

(one

been talked However,

get the

a legislative

Canadian

colonies,

provincial

A federal

the formation

union

that

the

preferred

had failed

realized

to with

start,

had

government.

major political

the

to the

system

religious

along

From

addition

having

while

British

Coalition

Macdonald a federal

colonies

Reformers,

Bleus, the

Maritime

Parliament

ethnic

by the

Cartier.

than

American

of the

a Grand

union.

federal

nation,

North

leader

and the

Macdonald

Quebec

colonial

a

unpro-cessed

North

up of the

people

to free Ireland

potential

British

Brown,

the

rather

However,

(quoted

States,

had allowed

British

opening

group

campaign

against

George-tienne

American

The

the

as some

War would

colonies

forming

own legislature

great

between

create

and central

United

that

North

would

Maritimes

when the

people,

British

as it

the

Treaty

duties

an IrishAmerican

was supported

George

legislature)

of

Civil

American

A. Macdonald,

the

1866,

as facilitating

nationalist

of uniting

time

models

its

Fenians,

of their

themselves

by

Brown

led

between

some

of the

Americans.

proposal

John

customs

American

North

The idea for

the

British

ideas

without

encouraged

The uniting

Reciprocity

were also significant,

in the

as part

of the

in

the

Canada

advantageous,

link

important

was also seen

concerns

mobilized

colonies

a railway

cancelled

freely

of union.

States.

union

Security army

Province a larger

as economically

particularly exports,

to trade

A larger

to

by financing

became

Canadian

goods

the

West, to look

was also seen

domestic

Canada.

of governing

Canada

of the

of Canada.

British

North America

Act, 1867 An act of the Parliament United the

Kingdom

Dominion

1982, it

of the

establishing of Canada. In

was renamed Act, 1867

the

Con-stitution

26

Chapter 2

Figure New

2-2 Canadain 1867

Brunswick,

Canada, into

Ontario

from

Nova

by the

Scotia,

British

and

Quebec.

Russia (June

and

North

Canada

America

The

are united

Act (July

United

States

in

a federal

1, 1867).

The

of America

state, the

Province

proclaims

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purchase

mL N R

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.

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)

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1867 80

SOURCE:

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Evolution

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reserved.

of

of

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(1667

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to

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of

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of

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to

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1949

All rights

http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/historical/mcr_2306

Opposition to Confederation The union

of the

As discussed Nova Scotia

as

vignette

the

union,

For

Quebec,

and

loss

their

culture,

status

in the

newly

Indigenous

peoples

the

of their

expanded

of the

did

not enjoy

of this

chapter,

the

was

identities.

and

religion

North

America

by

For

As for

Canada,

meaning

Quebecers,

first

the

by their

inhabitants,

consulted

in

French

be threatened

Canadas

were neither

public

among

French

would

popular-ity.

of the

surfaced

domination

own

Canada.

widespread

majority

opposition

fear

language,

of British

establishment

colonies

and considerable

Maritimers,

was that

minority

in the

American

well.

and

worry

North opening

opposed

Quebecers Ontario

British in the

the

nor considered

new country.

The British North America Act, 1867 The British

North

was based Nova

Scotia,

formal

and

10 for

a

Of particular adoption

that

difference

is

now

importance system

Parliament from

supreme

legislative

United

Kingdom in

the

by the leaders

Brunswick.

more detailed

of a federal

Canadian

Act, 1867, passed by the Parliament drafted

New

constitution

Chapter

the

America

on resolutions

It officially

in the of

United

provided

the

known

of the

provinces new

as the

United

of

country

Kingdom,

Ontario, of

Quebec,

Canada

Constitution

with

a

Act, 1867. (See

discussion.)

British

government

and the

body.

of the

provincial

Kingdoms

By adopting

having a formal

North that

divides

legislatures. unitary

the

America

BNA

written constitution.

legislative This

system Act,

Act (BNA

in

Canada

powers

created

which also

Act)

was the between

a fundamen-tal

Parliament differed

is the from

the

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

Among

the

key features

Parliament,

consisting

of

system

Quebecs

The BNA

of the of civil

BNA

House

law

of the

of

rather

Act also specified

was the responsibility on the rights

of the

that

was the

Commons

than

establishment

and the

the common

legislation

Canadian

of Indigenous

Act

Senate,

law

and

system

regarding

government.

of the the

protection

of the

Indians

However,

Canadian

other

prov-inces.

and their

the

BNA

Act

lands

was silent

peoples.

Expanding CanadaFrom Coastto Coastto Coast At the time

of

proportion

of the

Confederation,

to the Canadian to

to area)

As

Alberta

the

and

had its

mainly

and

rebels

River

not

feared

blocked

November

the

from out

about

River

the

governments

Mtis

Rise

Up: Louis

been

created

River

force

In

1905,

Manitoba

now

south-ern

plans

Led

Red

drainage

1912

what is

and lands. to the

an agree-ment

Bay

Company.3

(in

by

for

the

Louis

Riel,

settlement

arrived

Riel and

ter-ritory

on the 1867. In

negotiated

settlement

culture

states

Hudson

and in

when an expeditionary

The

Russia in

Bay

Canadian

their

from

Territories,

entrance

1870,

Box 2-2:

of the

Red

lose

new

large

Hudsons

of the

lieutenant-governors

(See

the

a small its

four

government (the

only

was expanding

Alaska

Land

60th parallel.

could

August

bought

to the

consulted

they

1869 until

settlement.

Territory

residents

were

they

Ruperts

controlled

States

including

Canadian

of

extended

Mtis

States

were carved

border

provinces

United

states,

the

areas

Saskatchewan

The

American United

Northwestern

Manitoba) area,

huge

and the four

today.

expansionism,

the

northern

The

new

well, the

American

purchase

and

we know

West, creating

border.

response

Canada

Canada

from

at the

Rebellions

Red

in the

Territories.) In of

1871,

British

Vancouver

Columbia

Island

and

Opposition in British were negotiated; colonys

promise

at the time

Edward

of a railway

to link

Island

1873 in return

who controlled

year-round

ferry

their

the

from

reverted

United

of

convention choose

status of

should

between

by

terms

of the

country

government

a large

birthplace

Canada,

land,

for

majority

of Confederation, after

building

decided

the

of the

buyout

Prince

a costly

rail-road

to join

Canada in

of British

absentee

and a commitment

that

are now known

year.

Although

to

maintain a

the

Newfoundland

was formed,

terms

decisively Great

bankruptcy.

Depression

Based

on the

was restored.

In

of rec-ommendation

agreed

to

1934,

an

with

three

commissioners

In

effect,

Newfoundland

Newfoundland.

for

defeated

legislature

self-sufficiency

from

acceptable

voters

During

faced

the

until

colony. British

options in

1949.

Newfoundland

Government

War II, the

options

until

1869,

and three

consider

3 Part of these vast territories

of responsible

However,

Newfoundland

of a British

World

those

province.

of the impoverished

with the rest

debt, the colony

commission,

of

Kingdom

to the

At the end

Canadian

nor consulted in the negotiations.

1867.

Canada in

government

Commission

the

colonies

when favourable

who formed

as the

debt

government

government

responsible

appointed

in

of the

not join

of a royal suspend

adoption

viewed

Canada

were negotiated

pro-Confederation 1930s,

a

of the

to the island.

did

Canada

merger

became

province

peoples

much of the Islands

service

Newfoundland

the

an unsupportable

assumption

a

and the assumption

and the

is often

to join

created

landlords

joining

1866)

were neither considered

refused

for the

1885),

the Indigenous

Charlottetown

in the colony

in

by

Canada was overcome subsidy

in

As elsewhere,

Although

Columbia

a large

15 years (completed

province.

population

the

British

had

Columbia to joining

these included

debts, the

within the

(which

government

for the future

a referendum.

as the

Northwest

of

decided

that

Newfoundland,

Although

Territories

the

an elected with the

Newfoundland

national people

to

National

27

28

Chapter 2

Box 2-2 The Mtis Rise Up: Louis Riel and Rebellions in the Territories When the

Mtis learned

Territories William

from

the

McDougall,

that

Canada

Bay Company

who had

notoriously

as lieutenant-governordesignate, lose their land

culture,

and

government

20 English residents,

with Louis

with the

Canadian

anti-French

immigration

views,

composed

would

would threaten The

Red River settlement

a provisional

the

and appointed

Catholic religion.

McDougall from their formed

purchased

they feared that they

and that large-scale

their language,

had

Hudsons

Mtis

ban-ished

and in 1869

of 20 French and

Canad

Riel as its president to negoti-ate

government

to gain protection

for their

Archives

rights.

and

Opponents

of the provisional

to take up arms

were arrested,

of insubordination, 1870, the

Rielfled to the

United States, and

assuming Faced

was sent

many Mtis

to the

for

moved to treaty

Canadian government

Mtis

and the

destruction

of their tra-ditional

way of life in the 1870s and early 1880s, Prairie Cree leaders Canadian

reluctantly

government

The Department even after

of Indian

desperate

situation.

their starving

Cree stole

considered

protest

& Finkel,

Saskatchewan government

up their

persuade

Tensions from including Mtis

little

Riel to cause.

the

developed

who had

help from

the

Mtis

of Saskatchewan Northwest

Mounted Police.

the

dog in

United

which clashed

In the

were

defeated

were hanged.

Cree leaders

pleaded

with the

government,

to

Many

Big Bear and

uprising. to be hanged.

prime

minister to

of

refused

have been

overturn

to

every

a

murderous trai-tor.

attempts

Riels conviction.

a century

celebrate

to

have the

Although

ago, his defence

Riel

of minority

with many Canadians today.

with Canada as an option on the ballot, the

confederation,

Government

than

now have a holiday in February to

more than

to responsible

44.6 percent of the vote, confederation

of Commission

Macdonald

shall hang though

Riel has come to be seen by many Canadians

Parliament

rights resonates

OnJune 3, 1948, a return

a second referendum

Minister

saying, He

Riel Day, and there

was hanged

which favoured

Prime

of his people rather

Manitobans

Convention rejected putting confederation

insisted

that it be included

government

in the

(i.e., independence)

with Canada 41.1 percent, and continu-ation

14.3 percent.

With no option

gaining

a majority,

held on July 22, 1948,resulted in 52.3 percent voting for confed-eration

and 47.7 percent for responsible government

Riel

Quebec bark in his favour.

gov-ernment Canadian

with the

end,

the sentence,

as a defender

Cree warriors, upset about broken

received

the

force. fled

Cree

Cree

built

Dumont,

mercy, Riel was sentenced Catholics

Over time,

at-tempts

to improve

set up a provisional

referendum.

the

who had opposed the armed

While Quebec

white settlers) in the

British

Eight

including

newly

Batoche,

Canadian Gabriel

weeks later

Lake.

the of

commute

peaceful

1885

by the larger

Afew

of Loon

over Battle

military leader,

were imprisoned,

Louis

in

force

final

kill-ing

Canadian

execution.

from

supporters

the

Lake,

The

Canadian

were unsuccessful. Riel and his

military

In

of Frog agent.

moved to

Riels

of people (including

Indian

spare Rielfrom the noose, Ontario Protestants demanded his

return

government

a

protec-tion

rebellion

However,

Canadian

his

him recommended

as

while oth-ers

armed

community

gain

government.

Riel wastried for treason. Although the jury that convicted

Macdonald

settlers,

States.

Poundmaker,

the

defeated

and

Battle

others

assistance,

Minister

United

sent Railway.

and to

Canadian

the

gov-ernment

a provincial

the

including

were easily

in the

with the

people to reserves.

provided little

Those

also received

circumstances

region

2007).

sign treaties

Prime

cattle

actions

and invited

States to take the

Affairs wrote to

some

to

to

moved their

Cree leaders

about

(Conrad

agreed and

the

attacked

Pacific

was arrested,

Manitoba

from

quickly

Canadian

of his provisional

wished to create

rights

settlers,

government

House of

his seat in Parliament.

with starvation

members

in southern

their

promises, nine

Riel was

Canadian

Riel and the

government

Fearing for his life,

Red River area. Although

elected three times

Commons, he was prevented by the from

Louis

(18691870)

after being denied the lands they

had been promised in the subsequently

Library

squad. In

and a military force

Canadian authority.

what is now Saskatchewan

Scott, convicted

agreed to establish the pro-vincial

of Manitoba,

enforce

whothreatened

by a Mtis firing

Canadian government

Manitoba to

Louis

and Thomas

was executed

government to

government

on the terms

government.

of union (including

Negotiations

the assumption

with the

of the

Canadian

Newfoundland

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

Figure 2-3 PopulationGrowth, 18512016 40

35.2 35

33.5

30.0

30

27.3 24.3

25 21.6 (millions

20

18.2

14.0

15

11.5

Population

10.4 8.8

10

7.2

5

2.4 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.8 5.4

0 1851

SOURCE:

1861

Based

on

Censuses).

1881

1891

Statistics

Retrieved

governments succeeded,

1871

1901

Canada from

(2018a).

19311921

Census

of

1941

1951

population.

1961

1971

Population

and

1981

1991

growth

2001

2011

components

2016

(18512016

https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/sc/video/census2016_150yearspopulationgrowth

debt, subsidies, and on

1911

and the guarantee

of steamship

March 31, 1949, Newfoundland

service to

Nova Scotia)

became Canadas tenth

province.4

The British Arctic Territories (islands in the high Arctic) wereceded to Canadain 1880 and became part of the

Northwest

Territories.

As a result

of its growth

during the

Klondike Gold Rush,the Yukon became a separate territory in 1898. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan territory

of

Nunavut

were created

out of the

was separated from the

the wishes of Nunavuts Canada has grown

mainly Inuit

Northwest

Northwest

Territories

Territories

in 1905. The

in 1999, reflecting

population.

not only in territorial

size but also in population.

(See Figure

2-3.) Canadas population today is almost ten times larger than in 1867.In the decades after

Confederation,

more people emigrated

States) than immigrated

century, immigration

to

Canada.

from

However,

hassubstantially

Canada (primarily

since the

to the

beginning

United

of the twentieth

exceeded emigration (except during the Great

Depression of the 1930s). Indeed, in recent years immigration

has contributed

to

more

self-governing)

country

than one-half of Canadas total population growth.

Political Independence Canada did not become a completely

sovereign

(independent,

in 1867. The British government retained important overturn

Canadian legislation,

extend

controls, including

British laws

to

foreign policy. The British governments involvement in

Canadas interests.

to settle the dispute

over the boundary

major contribution

that

of Canada to the

Canada (along

ended the

between

Alaska and British

helped to

with other

war, participated

British

Conference

recognized

having complete autonomy governor

general

representative

in the

dominions)

4 In

2001,

the

provinces

name

Crown

officially

on behalf

changed

to

of

Newfoundland

World

Columbia sided WarI and the

signed the

of the United

Canada (along

an agent

effort in

Paris Peace Conference,

and equality in status

was no longer

of the

on a tribu-nal

makethe casefor greater Canadian

British

member of the League of Nations (the forerunner an Imperial

Canadas

Canadian affairs was not al-ways

Canada of coastline for northern British Columbia.

heavy sacrifices of Canadian soldiers independence.

in

For example, in 1903 the British representative

with the Americans, depriving The

the right to

Canada, and control

of the

with the

and

Nations). In 1926, dominions)

as

with the United Kingdom.

The

British

Canada.

peace trea-ties

and became a

government

The ending

Labrador.

other

but became a

of British imperial

29

30

Chapter 2

Figure 2-4 Timeline:KeyHistoricalEvents after1867 1918 1871 18691870 Riel

British

Rebellion

1870

joins

control

become

of

Canada.

ending

territory

in

1931

federal

elections

General

joins

Canada

on

the

201

1995

Quebec

of

Constitution

Westminster

1990

1980

Newfoundland

Strike

of

1970

1949

Winnipeg

Patriation

Statute

provinces

referendum

1999

Quebec

sovereignty

on

referendum

Nunavut

sovereignty

becomes

a separate

territory

association

of

Canada

the

Parliament

the

Canadian

was formalized

of the and

British

United

control

until

Council for

(consisting

some

Although adopt

the

many

cases

Canada

symbolism

Canadians

Canadian

Chapter

10.)

law

1949.

was, in

effect,

citizenship

ties to

Royal

Union

anthem

use the

timeline

it

British of key

in

monarch

as the

replaced

formal

historic

events

of the

God

symbolic since

Privy

of appeal

was slow

to

strength

of

subjects

flag

until

was adopted

who wanted to retain Queen

1980).

head

court

British

Save the

until

of the

Canada

Canadian

con-stitutional

Canadian

continuing

remained

by

formal

under

highest

1926,

among those

recognized

passed between

Committee

from

A distinctive

for

entirely

be the

because

1947.

Canada

procedures

to

Canadians

1931,

disagreements

Judicial

continued

country

was not officially

Canadian

the

not come

well, the

controversy

Flag. In 1967, O

(although

As

Britain.

was adopted

in 1965 only after considerable

Westminster, due to

independent

of a sovereign

emotional

did

lords)

until

of

about

Constitution

of British

Canadian

Statute However,

governments

the

1982. (See

in the Kingdom.

provincial

amendments,

to

1982

receive

vote

1950

1919 crisis

the

a

1930

Conscription

control

of the

becomes

separate

Rebellion

1917 and

Women

Yukon

Northwest

Saskatchewan

province

Parliament

Kingdom

Canada

1910

Alberta

of Westminster, of the

1885 joins

1905

becomes a

United

PEI

1890

Manitoba

An act

1873

Columbia

Canada

1870

Statute 1931

1898

And

of state.

Confederation

in

as the

Canada Figure

the

national continues

2-4 shows

a

1867.

Regionalismand Provincialism 2.3a

Explain

2.3b

Examine

Prime too

much

significance

the

Minister

uneven

settled

history,

in

the

diverse

been

Thus,

vision

Discussing province

and

economy, a sense provinces.

Canadas

regions

often

King

cultures,

feature

at various

that

the

times,

that

if

Canadian

provincial

countries of

activities

identities

regional

of

and

politics.

Canadian

some

vastness

economic and

that

of

provinces.

Given the

different

not surprising

felt

once said

geography. the

and

Canada,

In

people

addition, has

governments

the

of different

provincial

government

have

that

differences people

not treated

have

re-gions, have

in

their

challenged

the

of Canada.

territory

having

Policy.

characteristics,

Canadian

development, of

much

population,

an important

fairly.

of

National

Mackenzie

areas, it is

have

centralized

Lyon

we have too

provinces

province

of the

concerns

of the

different

always

many

major

William

dispersal and

have

the

politics

has and

common

in terms

distinctive geography. interests

of regions

characteristics Nevertheless, have

developed,

can such

be

misleading.

as its

history,

a degree

of cooperation

to

extent,

some

Each

culture,

among

and the

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

31

The Maritimes The

Maritime

after

Confederation.

trade

provinces

with the

country.

and

United

Further,

reduced

the

rapid

in

the

the

election

victories

of the

the

British

government

W.S. Fielding provinces

Maritime

own

of the

Canadian

Britain

and

development

northsouth

periphery

to central

the

to

expansion

political

of the

Canadians

contributed and

West reduced

economy

to

on the

businesses

economies

well, the

of the with

provinces

Maritime

1920s

terms

Nova

competing

the interests

demands

on

of the

Atlantic

Labrador)

the of

out-migration

Ontario

influence

of the

population.

There

governments of the

have

been some

premiers.

each of

which

Movement.

efforts

However,

has a distinctive

1886,

political

position

political

action

in

and culture,

within

response

measures

in the

Canada

were

Newfoundland

activities

a

and an aging

provincial

and regular

Maritime have

and of the

Corporation)

history

Movement

movement

region.

the

to create

Rights

dif-ficult.1920s that sought better terms for the Maritime provinces of

recommendations

and

proposals

Maritime A political

differences

out-migration,

Lottery

of

which sought

was established

of the

coordinate

Premier Maritime

historical

of the

provinces

Atlantic

elections,

three

However, these

decline

to

and

the

of unemployment,

of the

the

Movement,

that

Maritime

problems

In

lead

an

despite

Nova Scotia

made unified some

faced

out his promise.

However,

(1926)

economic three

(such asthe creation Maritime

provinces,

Rights

(the

to face the

Claims

to

Rights

provinces

Canada However,

separation.

economic

implemented

general

for

not carry

Canada.

of

Scotia.

in the first

Maritime

Maritime

Maritime the

he did declining

within

Nova

a petition

a

Maritime

provinces

continue

in

Dominion

in

on a promise

with the

of the

new

forces

However,

government

to reverse

The

election

Maritimes

Commission

insufficient

entertain

Canada resulted

Canadian

Royal

to

Scotia

dissatisfaction

for

the

movement

Anti-Confederation

of Confederation.

Maritimes in

The

vignette,

a separatist

refused

won a

out

In the

to the

As

introductory from

the

growth trade

provinces.

challenge

and

of their

growth

immediate

better

the

many leading

control

the

cross-Atlantic

placed

of

personnel.

and the

share in

from

States sale

of skilled

As noted

the

not fully

Maritimers

Quebec

Maritime

did

The shift

union

gained

meet-ings

of the three

little

support.

The Prairies Western

alienation

politics. Territories, of

Prairie

did

and

did

not

become

like

did

effect,

colonies

its

on

Canadians the tended

to

The involved and

States.

size

until

1912. own

government

in

Unlike

treated

1870

lands

the

Canadian Northwest

version

other

public

in

of the

and

of the expanded

provinces, and

Prairie

the

natural

National

prov-ince in three

resources

provinces

in this

Policy

A Canadian

government

adopted

in

railway

construction,

tariff

Canadian

industries

and

workers

support

from

Labour,

of

rates

that

of

products,

and

1919

of

big

high tariffs costly.

Ontario

The

election

processing

around

the

manu-factured

and the

en-couragemen

in

end

on foreign United and

the

of

governed

to

Canada.

World

Canadian

Tariff A tax

or customs

War I

business

Progressive A farmers

until

their

with defeat

political to

labour)

that

parties as dominated after

the

end

movement

some

extent

challenged

Liberal

This harmed Ontario,

on im-ported

Movement

(supported

govern-ment

of

duty

goods.

with

Canada.

Canadian

imports.

Farmers

western

government

western

western

develop-ment Westerners

agreement

Canadian

to the central businesses,

the many

a free trade

by the

placing high

to assist

Subsequently,

pursue

established

by Prairie farmers,

goods

did little

markets.

developed

the influence

making

won the

Quebec,

manufacturing

by establishing by

Canada so as to encourage and

government

freight

particularly Under

into

Ontario

on international

Movement

elites.

farmers

in

the location

a challenge,

National Policy (1879), which involved

goods coming

that the

a high

on the import

pe-riod

policy

1879 that included

of immigration

products

Progressive

protected

a tiny

current

The railway

discourage

government

Although

River territory

primarily

their

demanded

United

portion

Red

of their

theme

a

be exploited.

located

who had to sell

1905.

of

of the

Canadian

manufactured

of industry

until

be a significant

out

out

Prime Minister Macdonalds tariffs

to

carved

not gain control

the

to

and continues

provinces

was formed

provinces 1930. In

been

Saskatchewan,

not become

Manitoba

1881, it

until

has also

Alberta

and

that

of

World

es-tablished

Conser-vative

were

by big

by

the

viewed

business War I.

32

Chapter 2

in

1923.

had a

However,

from

Alberta

Social

1921

The

Liberal

party

in

1932.

National

Energy

Program

government

Party

socialist

Canadian

and concerns

about

keeping the international the share

oil prices

Canadian

governments

of oil revenues, a federal

offshore

in the

and encouraging

subsidizing federal

estab-lishing

Crown corpo-ration

to be involved industry,

oil exploration

lands

below

level, increas-ing

in the

oil and

establishing

to reduce a few

years later,

interests

Ontario

Many

on

Arctic and

in

of

the

crude

oil

included

Canadian

lands

and,

Manitoba

Saskatchewan,

(CCF)

(and

as the

In

1942, the

was elected

some

the

Canadian

keeping

other

and

western

in the

and encouraging

from lower

energy

Newfoundland

Program

catering

Canada

of oil revenues,

oil industry,

Energy

governments

benefited

share

Arctic and offshore

National

oil prices

oil prices in

governments

in the

Although

have

pricing

failure

planned plan,

Burnaby,

the

was scrapped

to the

manufacturing

costs) at the expense

British

example,

have

a court

there

of

challenge

Columbia,

could

these

to the

critical

of the

much

to the

Quebec.

planned

of the size

of

was consider-able and

of

government

was strongly

about

emphasis

distinctiveness

the tripling

information

the

of bilingualism

Manitobas

government

with

For

adoption

to

and

annoyed

issues.

to the

accommodate

Alberta

further

been

Canadian

to ensure that

to

4 for

also

Canada

1960s to

well, the

pipeline

Chapter

the

government

As

governments (See

the

carbon

tax.

oil.

on central western

Saskatchewan

carbon

with the

of farmers.

Albertans

to be involved

on federal

Canadians

in

since

governments

the

Quebec (which

politics

opposition efforts

1922 election

provinces.

western

Canadian

Newfoundland.

many

The Program

corporation

on Alberta

and

incensed

increasing

it symbolized

the oil-producing

Canadian

National Energy Program at atime of high international

Crown

the

of Social

1964.

oil exploration

dependence

with the

in

Federation

that

party,

views

provinces

elites

governed

protest

an alliance

interests

Commonwealth

Alberta

at odds

successful

with the

national

religious

formed

was less

itself

shortages.

level,

a federal

and subsidizing

of

to

by another

won the

The party

government

energy

adopted in 1980 that in-cluded below the international

Farmers

province

Manitoba

party

Cooperative

Canadians) by adopting the

pro-gram

put the

of

aligned

until

United

opposition

and fundamentalist

often

A Progressive

that

was superseded

The radical

Farmers

Saskatchewan

In 1980 the

The

1927 election.

Liberal

democratic governed

A Canadian

the

provinces

when it

Aberhart

United

Progressives,

Saskatchewan

1935

party.

William

government.

Prairie

significance. until

Credit

leader

as the

was in the

more long-lasting

province

Credit

it

vari-ous

In

2018,

Canadian

to cancel

the

of the

Canadian

Trans

Mountain

be approved

without

feel that the

Canadian

delays.

issues.)

British Columbia Like people on the is oriented

Prairies,

to the interests

Columbia is a distinct differ substantially

many British

region

from those

Columbians

and concerns

of central

whose history, culture,

Canada.

political

of other regions (including

govern-ment

Nevertheless

attitudes,

the Prairie

British

and economy

provinces).

British

Columbia entered Confederation in 1871 and thus has a longer history of being fully self-governing class politics

than the Prairie provinces. based on its strong labour

has, at times, resulted in tensions

British

Columbia

politics has often focused

movement. Its influential

environmental

on

move-ment

with the Alberta and Canadian governments.

Newfoundland and Labrador Many Newfoundlanders

have been critical

of the

giveaways

of the

provinces

and they question whetherthe province has benefited from joining Canadian governments oil revenues

contributed

mismanagement to considerable

of cod stocks and disputes concerning dissatisfaction

with the

re-sources,

Canada. The offshore

Canadian government.

In addition, the unwillingness of the Canadian government to require that Quebecallow Labrador

hydroelectricity

power to

Quebec Hydro. The 1969contract provided power to Quebec Hydro for only

to be transmitted

$2.20 per

megawatt hour.

hour from

2016 to 2041 was upheld by the

Acommitment

through to a reduced

Quebec led to the sale of Labrador payment

of $2.00 per

Quebec Court of Appeal in 2016

megawatt

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

33

Box 2-3 Provincial Rights or a Strong Central Government? Prime

Minister

Macdonalds

wasreflected, Constitution United

that in

1867.

established

authority

government the the

or to reserve

Canadian In

the of

in the

after

of the

what was known

that the

Canadian Canadian

Prime

Canadian

Ontario) to the

While the

though

identity,

some

hold the

of

a significant view that

reserve

veto

generally

and many

independence

Labrador

people

have

movement

Newfoundland

was coerced

has

demanded sense

has not developed,

into

its

union

with

With its

economic

and

political

Canada.

Nevertheless,

led

the

for

fight

Government?)

provincial Ontario

and frequently receives

In

critical of the federal

rights.

that

Ontario

decades

premiers

complain

in return.

power,

in the

after

(See

Box 2-3:

have often their

2018, the

governments

been

province

newly

has been the

Provincial at odds

Ontario

the

Ontario

Rights with the

contributes

elected

most influential

Confederation,

or

of

even Canada.

a Strong

more to

government

led

province government

Canadian

much

by

Central

government Canada

than

Doug Ford

it was

carbon tax and promised to challenge the tax in court.

EnglishFrench Relationsand the Development of Quebec Nationalism 2.4

Understand

the origins

The relationship at the

centre

many

between of

Canadian

French-Canadians their

times,

culture language

and development English-and

politics. viewed

from has

the large been

French-speaking

In the their

of Quebec

past, this

Roman

Protestant

a key issue,

had strong

Catholic

faith

majority

in

with

Nationalism. Canadians

has

religious

often

North

French-speaking

America.

been

overtones,

as a key element In

minorities

Canadas

in

as pro-tecting

more re-cent outsid

the

disallow Canadian

by the first

(striking

and

to

de-cades.

aliens)

was by a

was passed

powers

gov-ernment

an Alberta

enemy power

the and

western

several

down

a

of the

strike

by the down

Constitution, these provisions are

Ontario in

(often

but the law

believed to be obsolete.

a strong

was not

power to

use of the reservation

are still in the

by guaran-teeing

Ryan, 2003).

Hutterites

Although

an

would safeguard

City in 1887 to challenge

during

in 1961,

National

Mercier organized

This power of the

sales to

Parliament.

legislation

were established

although

land

Quebec

Parti

movement

use of veto

use of disallowance

1943. The last

Canadian

Ontario Premier Oliver

Quebec

was common

restricting

by the

mobilize the public, five

provincial legislation

lieutenant-governor

make poli-cies

rights

and did not

provincial legislation.

was in

argued

provincial

metin

The last law

(quoted in

governments to

BNA Act

Newfoundland

However,

A.

the

premiers

movement.

be able to

he hoped

seven

gov-ernment Canadian power

Macdonald

governments

government powers.

rights

under

Premier

conference

organization

disallow-ance

by the

Mercier in 1887. that

of the

of every province in the federation

Although

use their

nationalist feelings in victory

formal

Opposition (par-ticularly provinces)

as the provincial

provincial

autonomy

be free to

election

their independence

by

Sir John

governments

should

by Honor

provincial

the

of Riel stirred to the

inter-provincial

pro-vincial the

approval

Minister

were established

government

the

provincial

Newfoundland

for

government.

Canadian

government

Mowat argued that

At times,

disallow

as centralizing

that are in the national interest,

greater

led

to the

and should

on policy areas granted to them

1985).

The hanging and contributed

BNA Act gave

Confederation,

were viewed

of provincial laws that led to

the

authority to

challenged

policies that

in

Act,

governments. powers

provincial legislation

decades

Ontario

hands

America

legislatures

make laws

BNA Act (Vipond,

government. three

Macdonalds

powers to

of the

be used to greatly limit

For example,

the

as autonomous

divided legislative

and provincial

that could powers.

Canadian government

legislation

North

that

BNA Act also gave substantial

Canadian government

govern-ment Canadian

Parliament

British

system

Canadian

central

extent, in the

by the

The

a federal

between the

However, the

of a strong

was approved

Kingdom

1867,

vision

to a considerable

34

Chapter 2

Quebec

striving

to

an important

aspect

concerned

about

times,

question

the

been the

maintain of

their

Quebec

ensuring

subject

language

of

politics

that

of intense

since

French

whether

and the

is the

Quebec

culture.

Quebec

early

1960s,

dominant

should

nationalism with

language

become

has been

many

Quebeckers

in their

province.

an independent

At

country

has

controversy.

Historical Background The Conquest central

of

event

French

officials,

quickly Catholic

French-Canadian

different

learn

and

Protestantism,

and

norms

host society.

and it

of

loyal

only

life.

Supporters whose

religion,

clerical

protection

to the

In the

meantime,

civil law. to continue

to

During

from

the

to

a

wanted

national

the

they

The to

such

rights

affairs

Provincial

In the

providing

middle

through

were

of

them

Isles. politi-cians

all legislative from

pow-ers

Canada

East

jurisdiction

also

over

preferred As

between

government

given

well,

the fed-eral some

English

poli-ticians

Protestant

instability

they

not overstep

Catholic

in

century,

the federal power

Canada,

argued

were their

exclusive

the

authority

and

provincial

jurisdiction civil

also

existing

government

over rights,

well

education

in their became

money in

provinces.

more involved

policy

Quebec governments powers

mat-ters

as

make laws in rela-tion

religious

communities

to spend

protective

which

and

could

the

minority

its controversial

in

government

property

Each province

did

Roman

system

exclusive

and

At the same time, successive

what they

British

government

a national

provincial jurisdiction. of

the

identities.

a federal

between

institutions,

of the twentieth

affairs

to

system

enabled

after the immigra-tion

assign

conflict

Act granted

English-Canadian

Maritimes

local

the

had led

governments

or

Quebecs

from

many would

the

strong

which

Quebec

of

were assigned to the provinces.

municipal

Protestant

speakers

Quebec

na-tion

allegiance

The

representatives

the

the

and

Quebec, even

that

that

over immigration.

education,

in provincial

felt

as an ethnic

French-Canadians

1860s,

from

developed

was divided

as hospitals,

of the

give

Politicians

Crown.

in

English the

Act, 1867, established

as shared jurisdiction to

in

would

had

and to tax

governments.

and

communities,

Constitution

make laws

States debates

West (Ontario)

Catholic

colonists

of

fiercely

all French-Canadians.

religion

among

French-Canadian

that matters.

would subside if local

rate

The

mores of rural

1774 to secure

British

of

pressures

by remaining

the traditional

Act in

of

way

or survival.

French-Canada

Catholic

of government

parliament.

Canada

and French

United

system

because

from

high fertility

system

and cultural

option

to the

Roman

English-speaking

a unitary

a federal

linguistic

the

Confederation

favoured

Quebec

and civic leaders of the

and

outside

anglicizing

and

Quebec to include

passed the

status

outnumber

of Loyalists

language,

Roman

people to resist assimi-lation

the

occupations

colo-nies

The

remain

of la survivance,

portrayed

beyond

authorities

French-Canadian

French

American

1977).

to

was the replaced

French-Canadian

urged their

by resisting

many

nationalism

reached

formal

and

and the

Quebec

and

governors

(Cook,

of the

a strategy

be preserved

the

of traditional

colonial

in

defender

speakers

British

Britain

institution

principal

French

affairs

and political leaders

was to

boundaries

British

important

democracy,

Catholic

from

economic

culture through

nation

for

ancestry.

merchants Quebecs

the

clerical

liberal

to the

of

became

into the anglophone

with a

adopt the values

control

a tragedy

of French

English-speaking

life. French-Canadian which

marked

of Canadians

was the

control,

The process through

the

and

assumed

groups ofindividuals culture

history

Church

British

Assimilation

New France in 1759

in the

under the

areas

became

under

more

Constitution.

Language, Religion, and Education The

Canadian

Constitution

protecting

be used in the

the

Canadian

and acts of Parliament Constitution were designed

for to

the

that

rights

of the

Parliament

was adopted

and courts

must be published use of

protect

the

English English

in

1867 included

French-Canadian

and

in

established in the

in that

only English

limited or

French

by Parliament.

both languages.

French

minority

minority.

Similar

Catholic

and and

may

The records

provisions

Quebec legislature

province.

provi-sions

in the courts

Protestan

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

denominational at the

school

time

of

systems

Confederation

Constitution

Parliament school

of the

population

legislature

greatly

legislature

funding

for

control

for

some

have their

limited

teaching

in

all

Quebec

most children unless

at least

the

was also

government from

enrolling parents

in

had

schools)

of instruction.

interfere

with

provin-cial

out a compro-mise

This agreement

and the

issue

17,

right

allowed

of parents

in

101,

a publicly

1913 to

until

which

to

in

some

the right

provisions

to

pre-venting

English-language

English

1912,

the lan-guage

1968.

included

funded

In

allow

in 1927, although

Ontario

been educated

Ontario.

made English

slightly

in

in

which

was dropped

Bill

Catholic

pub-lic

language.6

(modified

passed

Manitoba

sole language

worked

1896.

a controversial

was not guaranteed

the

the

Act, 1890, eliminated

hours

Regulation

This regulation

one of their

after

another

schools

Ontario),

Laurier

in

numbers

English-speaking

English

would

Wilfrid

schools and

asthe

as the language that

language,

equal

French the languages

from

Schools

premier,

adopted

education

1977, the

the

denomi-national

about

French-language

Minister

English

and

making

English

Manitoba

Ontario

Act

legislation

public

in

of French).

a French-language In

in

of Education

of instruction

with

Prime

of education

Ministry

if those

issues

However,

Manitoba

federal

the

educated

The language Ontarios

Although

the roughly

Protestants

(including

system

Liberal

education

children

with Language

schools

school

Greenway,

religious

in law

legislatures,

legislation

English

courts.

As well, the

use of remedial

Thomas

established

Constitution.

controversial

made both

provinces

Official

denominational

of education,

with

been

of provincial

pass remedial

raised

(primarily

passed the

the

by the

Act, 1870, reflecting

persons,

and the

a public

To avoid

to

provinces

and courts.5

established

had

responsibility

right

Manitoba

increased

in 1890

of the legislature

and

The

English-speaking

provincial

protected

exclusive the

of new

and education.

of French-and

where they

were violated.

The establishment religion,

the

was given

rights

provinces

were also

made education

Canadian

in

in

school

Quebec.

The Rootsof Quebec Nationalism Canadians

of French

They live

in

ancestry

share

communities

and northern

New Brunswick.

(23.4

speak

percent)

Canadians largest

(21.4

percent

of the

outside explains the

percent)

identify

preservation

of the

The strategy

of the

provinces

of economic century 1921,

Quebec

urban

Manitoba 6 In

1916,

Germans

various

courts

government the

right

and

those

economy

to

educate of

some

and its

social

children other

that

on traditional

legislative

a language European

Language acts other

than

ancestries

home to the about

Canadians

79 liv-ing

makeup

considers

survival

of the

dearth

vital

to

nation

in

of French-Canadians was also

(McRoberts,

from

French

1988).

the

early

unconstitutional,

it

most of

The processes

to

mid-twentieth nationalism.

population,

mid-century

a recogniz-able

Some franco-phones

controlled jobs.

French-Canadian

Act into

million

institutions.

the rural

by the

Canadians

linguistic it

and technical

unfolded

workers

distinctive

matters that

of

Quebec

7.45

Quebec is

but anglophones

managerial

Official

in

1960s

had surpassed

its

continental

the

and

4 percent

heri-tage.

in

mother tongue;

francophones

businesses,

farm

translate

cultural

against until

pressure

Manitobas to

Quebecs over

the

to

historical

million

time

as their

past to the relative

high-paying

population

ruled began

French

control

ensured in the

outnumbered

of the

does so, compared

modernization

increasing

workers

5 Although

and

and social

placed

mother tongue.

medium-sized

wealth

Quebecs

as their

Discrimination

ran small-and the

French

language

of la survivance

and finance.

feature

some

Canada, 2018b).

but it also contributed

in industry

at least

has pursued

French

and

concentrated

home

population

province

religious,

but are largely

who describe

Quebec (Statistics

why the

Quebec,

at

of people

provinces

linguistic,

Canada

According to the 2016 Census, 8.15

French

concentration

a common

across

and

(McRoberts,

was

not

until

to

wartime

the

By

manufac-turing 1993).

1980s

that

French. English

was

lost

due

animosity

toward

the

35

36

Chapter 2

Anti-conscription by

Universit prior

release from

its

the

demonstration de

Montral

stu-dents

to 1942 referendum Canadian

promise

to

government

not to impose

conscription.

Quebecs demic,

elites, Union goal

economic

labour,

and

English-Canadian

Nationale of these

datea

groups

even lengthy

the

large

became

number Many

and four

with

Union

government

military World divided

service

WarI that

during

sharply

many English

and

the

elected

to

vote

women

with close relatives

negative

feelings

had a long-term Conservative

French-Canadians.

that

that

there

issue for

would

the

arose

party

again

war effort,

be no conscription

for

to

by

in

every

overseas

service.

composed from

Union in the

margin,

that

to the

War II.

To gain

army

and to

the

It also

difficulties

the

afterwards. support

Mackenzie

Conscription

had

government

French-Canadians.

decades

of

English

crisis reinforced

for

Minister

being

(Torrance,

district

the

contributing

World

Prime

who Violent

a substantial

as nurses

Quebecers

during

fire

government

had toward

system,

Liberal

opened

war. The conscription

in appealing

service.

Canadian troops

victory,

overseas

despite

Canada)

of Parliament

Liberals

Canadians

Canadas

in

election

a solid

to

sup-ported,

However,

conscription

military

Union

Members 1917

serving

in the

English

experienced

The conscription French-Canadians

on

Liberal

ensure

women

fighting

many

effect party

To help

of Commons. for

compulsory

anti-conscription

to

House

when the troops

won the

The up to

was widely

were immigrants

by a

Duplessiss

19441959.

government

War I

calls

whom

Maurice

aca-Conscription

by cleri-cal

up.

Quebec City resulted

most of the

majority.

right

of

was imposed

along

Quebecers

in the

held

and and

World

controversial

were killed

conscription

Canada.

extended

in

and

economy,

in

opposed

people

Conservatives The

in

(many

demonstrations

city,

entry

cultural,

on power

19361939

or catching

nationalists,

resulted

from

society,

Canadas

French-Canadians

a French-speaking

of compul-sory

CRISIS

Nevertheless,

although

Quebecs

representing

monopoly interests,

between

as rattrapage,

of volunteers

anti-conscription

The imposition

known

war eventually

sent to that

Crisis

bring

groups

the

business

ruled

by French-Canadian

had enlisted.

1986).

that

was to

CONSCRIPTION

the

prompted

to challenge

and foreign

government

goal that

THE

modernization

other interests

King for

from

promised

Home

Guard

duty wasintroduced in 1940. Then,in 1942,the Canadian government held a national ref-erendum asking to be released from its promise

prime Outside

minister promised conscription

implemented

until

The cautious

if necessary but not necessarily conscription.

Quebec 72.8 percent voted in favour

only 27.9 percent voted in favour.

not to impose conscription. of allowing

Nevertheless, conscription

conscription,

while in

Quebec

for overseas service

was not

November 1944, and a relatively small number of conscripts ende

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

up on the front the

Liberals

lines

before the

managed to

substantially

reduced

end

get re-elected

popular

anti-conscriptionists,

of the

shortly

vote.

managed to

war. Despite the controversy after

The Bloc

Victory

Populaire,

win only two

in

seats and

over conscription,

Europe

which

37

Day, albeit

was formed

disappeared

by

soon

with a Quebecs

afterwards.

Modern Quebec Nationalism The early 1960s Liberals

marked a turning

point in

social reforms

referred

to as the

Quiet Revolution.

the Quiet Revolution identified of Quebec. Instead nationalism

The election

of the provin-cial

modern secular

the idea that the of

of language

Qubcois

should

nationalism

and religion,

of

Quiet Revolution

government

health, and social services

A series

of political,

mod-ern

assume control

Quebec. The provincial

in the areas of education,

and

Canadian nation with the terri-tory

the nation in terms

the government

institutions

The

the French-Canadian

of defining

promoted

own affairs through church-run

Quebecs history.

under Jean Lesage in 1960 ushered in a series of political, institutional,

and in

of their replaced

leader

and took

in

under Jean

1960

over a broader range of economic functions. It established a ministry of education; na-tionalized privately

owned

as La Caisse de dpt funds;

hydroelectric

et placement,

companies; which

created

set up a Quebec Pension Plan; and provided

number

of francophones.

The provincial

the federal government to give it The reforms introduced but did not satisfy those Among the

pensions

career opportunities

government

for the grow-ing

also succeeded in persuading

by the

Quebec Liberal

groups

party helped to

a stronger

was the Front

modernize

du Qubec (FLQ),

of British trade commissioner James Crossand the Pierre Laporte

by the

FLQ.

invoked

the

At the request War

of the

suspended

minister

the

civil

which the kid-napping

murder oflabour

Quebec government,

Measures Act (which

Quebec

degree of Quebec nationalism.

de libration

engaged in violence to pursue their cause. The October Crisis of 1970 involved

government

such

and insurance

more powers over social policy and immigration.

who had developed

more radical

Crown corporations

manages public

Canadian

liberties)

and

rounded up hundreds of Quebecers, most of whom had no connection to the FLQ. Much

more important

than the

FLQ and other radical

groups

former

minister,

Liberal

cabinet

(Quebec

political

very small

number

wasthe formation Ren

Lvesque)

sovereignty

of people involved

with the

of the Parti Qubcois in

1968 that

or independence

sought

(led by a

sovereignty-association

with an economic

asso-ciation

with the rest of Canada). This, the party hoped, could be achieved through majority

Before the mid-1960s,the idea of Quebecindependence Quebecs the victory

quest for independence,

of the Parti

Qubcois

or sovereignty,

did not enjoy broad sup-port.

became a crucial issue

(PQ) in the 1976 provincial

electiona

sparked the exodus of many anglophones from the province. In were asked to vote on a proposal that

a new agreement taxes and establish

would give the

with Canada. The referendum

would enable

time, to

relations

abroadin

other

2003, p. 104). It

a majority of francophones

was defeated

provincial

that

May 1980, Quebecers

a mandate to negotiate

power to

makeits laws, levy its

words, sovereigntyand

with Canada, including

at the same

a common cur-rency

by 59.6 percent of provincial

voters,

with

voting against independence.

Some 15 years later, on June 12, 1995, leaders Action dmocratique

stated that after a yes

province

victory

with

proposal explained that the agree-ment

Quebec to acquire the exclusive

maintain an economic association

(Leduc,

and the

a

vote of Quebeckers in a referendum.

du

of the PQ, the federal

Qubec (ADQ)

signed

Bloc Qubcois,

an agreement

that

victory in a provincial referendum, the National Assembly would

be able to proclaim the sovereignty

of Quebec and the provincial

government

would pro-pose

to Canada a treaty on a new economic and political partnership (Government Canada, 2000). If negotiations

succeeded, the treaty

monetary policy, citizenship,

and the

would provide for a customs

of

union, a

mobility of people, capital, and services. If negotia-tions

failed, the stalemate would empower the National Assemblyto declare sovereignty.

social

institu-tional, reforms

Quebec

Lesage,

ush-ered

Liberal

beginning

38

Chapter 2

In

September

1995, the

question: made a formal scope

Ninety-four

defeated

the

proposal

Jacques

percent

of francophones the

vote, raising

the

spectre

Canadas

Since the

defeat

has slipped referendums

(Seguin

nationalist

& Perreaux,

PQ vowed

For the first

time

campaign.

it

in

would

decades,

The centre-right

that

Quebecs

test

and

time

of

autonomy

a French writing,

immigration

test

culture

Quebec

the

of the

governments

have

bilingualism would introduced

symbols

failure

and

the in

become

controversial

more employees

acquire that

and stipulated

Charter

that

children

The Supreme official

language other

that

restricted

English

in

in

certificate

enrol

English

in

than the

right

Canada

on public of

Canadian

to send their

as a condition

posters,

and

Freedoms

to reaffirm

the

Whenthe five-year limit Quebec public

government signs.

adopted

and

on the application

of Canadas

franco-phones

Qubcois This

with 50 or French

in

only;

only if their

par-ents

circumstances).

making French the sole prohibition

commercial

clause

pro-mote

business

be in

the

who had received

ban on languages

more flexible

For a discussion

courts;

to

1977.

of doing

to an English-language

Quebec government used the notwithstanding Rights

101) in

specific

of

3.)

that

Parti

school

other

At the

place

Quebec,

businesses

and advertisements

citizens

children

Chapter

(Bill

that

down the provisions

signs,

a values 22).

Concerned

Language

and in the

proposing

about the

Quebec, the

in an English-language

Quebec legislature

French

in

the 2022.

an election

after

governments

Quebec.

sup-port

after

an independent

Canadian

Quebec (or in some

Court of Canada struck of the

and

French

dominate

Quebec. (See

of

Quebec

election, until

debates

a

1980 and 1995

2018, September

Quebec; required posters,

of the

election

achieve

minority

of the

signs,

could

in

efforts

Canada

a francization

commercial

had been educated

to

for

Quebeckers,

not

to

secular

a linguistic

support

and imposing

(Bilefsky,

have shifted

modern,

challenged

did

won the

(For

for indepen-dence

provincial

immigration

Qubcois

made French the sole official language Quebec; required

past

in

Parti

biculturalism

eventually

the

by limiting

wars of the

and religious

Despite

question

of eth-nic

3.)

Quebeckers

2018

more

character.

on independence

Qubec

on newcomers

in

Chapter

at the time the

PQ

because

consternation

24-year-old

During

narrowly

money and the

expressing

18-to

a referendum

Avenir

be preserved

language

the

May 3).

see

the

on June

Quebecs

lost

by

having

within

signed

To the

among

36 percent

after

and they

was not civic

Among

of the ref-erendum

However,

defeated

nationalism,

the independence Coalition

vote,

independence.

half of the support

2018,

agreement

margin.

had been

only

not hold

Partnership,

had not really

in 1995, support

about

sovereign,

Political

out to

nationalism

20).

wording

become

percent

for

the

of the

separatists

Qubcois

March

to 32 percent,

49.4

Quebec

with

2017,

turned

voted

to

substantially,

(Hamilton,

voters

forces

of the referendum

has declined sovereignty

that

responses

and

the

had

sovereigntist

and

Qubec

to

that

publicized

should

Economic

of

by a 50.6

declared

Quebec

Qubec

of eligible

that

of

that a new

percent

many, he added

discussion

for

of

the future

Parizeau

60 percent

agree

Canada

Bill respecting

12, 1995?

than

you

offer to

of the

Premier

Do

government

of lan-guages

advertising;

school

and

instruction

school.

in

However,

the

of the Canadian Charter of

other than

French

outside

a busi-ness.7

of the clause wasset to expire, the

regulations approach

regarding

to language

other rights,

languages see

on

Chapter

3.

Women,Farmers,and Workers 2.5

Discussthe issues and problems that

According

to the

oral

had equal

power

in

a degree

7 The

of autonomy

notwithstanding

freedoms

of Indigenous

family,

(Report

clause

and legal

histories

their

allows

and equality

women, farmers, and workers have faced.

of the

federal

rights

peoples,

were expected

or

Aboriginal

provincial

men and

to respect

governments

Justice

to

each Inquiry

pass

legislation

women other, of

that

traditionally and

each

Manitoba,

infringes

had 1999,

on

funda-mental

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

Chapter their

13).

right

However

to

women

own

as

property

and

were particularly

residential

English

schools,

law

enter

troubled

where the

came

into

by the

children

to

Canada,

women

contracts,

thus

removal

of their

were restricted

ending

equality.

children

to

in

Indigenous distant

Indian

were ill-treated.

Women Women

have

practices. women it

engaged

did

wasnt

not

until

women

late

the

elections in to

First

Despite were elected 88

Nations

to

women

the

1970s,

women.

protected

for

men to

the

lower

than

those

have

women

while

the

political

life.

women the right in

wom-ens

to

They vote in

1917 and federal

women could

vote in

was amended

of

have

have

to

Quebec

allow

a handful

recent of

women

a few

of

decades.

MPs in

of the

been

been

the

women In

the

2015,

House

members

female

and

and that

enter

of

of provin-cial

premiers,

as of

Freedoms.

for

now

professions, constitutionally

Nevertheless, continue

women

be greatly

As well, the

because

earnings

to

women

of

Until

men or for

including is

positions.

men, and

educational

professions.

of being

women

Women

their

certain

force,

of

average

in

in terms

business of

the

limited

paid labour

equality.

political

job,

to

classified

Rights

than

only

until

one-quarter

The equality

of full

lower

office,

26 percent

or impossible

entered

Charter

elected

about

decades.

a part-time of

the time

protests,

from

Columbia

legislatures

were often

pursuit

is still

have

from

premier.

difficult

many senior

women

than

it

hold

years there

past,

recent

in the

in

peaceful

women

Act

representing

over the

women

through

Indeed,

guaranteeing

home and family,

to grant

the Indian

provincial

advertisements

hurdles

of

by British

and

had a female

and found

in

men. Through

exclusion

compose

not-too-distant

numbers

various

to vote

women

However,

in large

to

for

was not until 1940 that

and

Although

job

office

hold

be responsible

male politicians

federally,

no province

opportunities the

the right

Parliament

legislatures.

public

1951 that

property.

a divorce. to vote and

the

buy

and

married

elections.

Likewise,

May, 2019,

laws

1916, followed

until

were elected

Commons.

In

and

gaining

passed

after

laws

most provinces,

and

the right

1918. However, it

discriminatory

in

agreements

of politics

in

end

legislatures

persuading

provinces

to

century

provincial

challenged

in

elections

vote in

from

business

Prairie

to try

make legal

were expected to

movement first

to

of property

They

were successful

provincial

right

division

dirty

suffrage

struggle

1970s that

were excluded

of Confederation.

the three

a lengthy

until the early twentieth

have the the

an equal

Women

leaving

in

For example,

average

are

women

face

under-represented sal-ary

more likely

are substantially

men.

Farmers Many of the trade

early

Europeans

with Indigenous

until

quite

recent

and eighteenth

along the St. Lawrence the

habitants

families.

and

and for

world

of the

products now

Canadas

world

the

became

engaged

in the fur

the leading

export,

Canadian

played

occupation

only to feed

Canadas fertilizers,

as land

both to

of the

Prairies

a crucial

role

and leading

wheat,

independent

the

made

typically

exports.

Although

was

popula-tion

known

soldiers

the twentieth

large

Ontario

growing

Canada

feeding

vegetable

However, the

in southern

support

in

their

well into

and

landown-ers

to the seigneur.

sufficient

century

exports

habitants,

more profitable

opening

and

the

and interest

important

nineteenth

were generally

leading

are also important

became became

Later,

wars. In fact, in the

centuries,

were generally

farming

agriculture

exports.

breadbasket

were primarily

farming

River paid rent

produced

Commerical

developed,

Canada

Subsequently,

times.

In the seventeenth

crops

who came to

people.

as the

in the century,

automobiles

oils (such

as canola

two agri-cultural are oil)

39

40

Chapter 2

Despite colonies, wealthy, the

first

the importance

reformers

with support

privileged

elites

decades

Canada, political

of the

with

democracy

that

twentieth

World

with farmers

The collection

combination

with a small

Farmers

National

short

number

governments

However,

act like

developed

and in rural

Ontario.

often

seen

the

society.

In

through-out Both

major

as beholden

advocated

over their

the

agriculture

is

of farming

has

engaged

Alberta,

to

plebiscitary

representatives

and the

in

of electoral

on the

wishes

considerable

Ontario

part

modern

success

under

(in the

the label

Parliament

on differences

over

for

a

whether

they

economy,

the

movement.

of the

a much smaller

poli-tics, of their

forming

and,

Canadian

the farmers

an important

meant that

arena

act

representatives),

in the

part

weakened

the

had

and

party

based in

in farming

to

labour

Manitoba,

greatly still

entered

pledged

representatives

divisions

party

Although

directly

who

second-largest

internal

a political

movement

of independent

of

mechanization has been

against

and

movements

movement

control

candidates of farmers

Progressives,

time.

should

direct

War I, the farmers

nominating

constituents.

of

people

American

struggled economy,

Liberalswere

farmers

North

by governments.

Following

United

Prairies

and the

Many in the

ordinary

the

farmers

on the

British

communities

government,

century,

strength

business.

gave

adopted

pre-Confederation

dominated

Conservatives

of big

in

based in farming

that

particular

partiesthe

the interests

policies

of farming,

Canadian

proportion

of the

were

to

population

times.

Workers In

early

Canada,

against

those

criminal

involved

a prominent

Liberal printers

Macdonald

presented

have

been,

and taking

publisher

of the

Subsequently,

legislation bitter

conspiracy

workers

and

arrested.

at times,

Box 2-4: Labour

concerning

organizing

politician

have striking

there

laws

in

to

action.

Prime

that legalized

confrontations

between

lay

changes

George

Globe newspaper,

Conservative

Parliament

used

strike

Brown,

used this law Minister

unions.

employers

to

Sir John

A.

Nevertheless,

and

workers.

(See

Asserts Itself.)

As a result

of the

and take

determined

strike

action

actions

of

workers,

has become

the right

to organize,

bargain

col-lectively,

well established.

Box 2-4 Labour AssertsItself: The Winnipeg General Strike and the General Motors Strike World

WarI led to

and

greatly increased

much greater

building

and

when their

metal trades employers

the

western

With socialism Revolution

having recently

by non-British the the strikers called in. in defiance

aliens.

bargaining.

Labour

and the occurred

raised fears

Council

Winnipeg police were replaced,

Russia, governments

and the

of a ban on parades, the

in

Canada led

General Strike

who showed

When the strike supporters

the strike.

was non-violent,

some sympathy

militia and the

RCMP were

held a peaceful RCMP and

for

march

militia broke

march, killing one spectator

strike leaders In

1937, there plant in

to recognize for

the

special

the

force

and instructions

rather and,

to

walk along

men

General

Workers

as the

Mitch

with a plan to strikers

The

than

cabinet

set

ride minister,

and the

refused

bargaining

up

machine

Croll

with

if

Id

Motors,

in

a contract

union local

a

guns

ordered.

stated,

General

resigned and

agent

organized

knees,

David

was reached Motors

Motors auto-mobile

Hepburn

at the

minister

workers

a compromise

General

when the company

premier

shoot

with another

between

Auto

cabinet

with the

at the

Ontario,

Ontario

Ontario

Fortunately, signed

United

of 400

others.

with seditious

1969). was a strike

Oshawa,

workers.

However,

and wounding

were thrown in jail and charged

conspiracy (McNaught,

work-ers

Bolshevik (Communist) in

up the

In soli-darity,

and

joined

of revolution

Although the

in indus-try

Subsequently,

Winnipeg went on strike

collective

Canadian communities

on the rise

and business leaders

unions.

workers in

rejected

Winnipeg Trades and

in other

employment

membership in

protest. was

Canadas Political Development and Challenges

41

Summary and Conclusion The story

of

describe

Canadas

Canadian

from on the

past takes

historical

colony to independent

pre-Confederation

government,

Canada

democratic

gradually

country.

Still

others

look

at

struggles

groups,

peoples,

Canadian

politics

English

of various

equality,

women, ethnic

focused

and regions,

conflicts

and

that

have threatened

since

integrating

on relations grievances

Confederation,

despite

a large country While

environmental

position

and the relationships

political However,

a peaceful

the

maintaining

continue

with different

unity.

exis-tence

challenges

of

with a growing, increasingly

and sovereignty

inequalities

some serious

Canadian

issues, including

those

gov-ernments

seen as creating

most part, enjoyed

population.

change, the

and provincial

are frequently

unity.

to

be relevant

Canadian

unity

concerns,

other

degradation

of Indigenous

women and gender

the

government

has highlighted

Canada has, for the

con-tinuingdiverse

respect,

including

and French-Canadians,

provinces

Canada.

working class.

has often

challenges to national

States as

as the

French-Canadians,

minorities, and the

between

history

democracy,

Indigenous

racial

Canadian

for

by

develop-ment

United

Canadian

These tensions This chapter

an indepen-dent,

of contemporary

diverse

and justice

Building

view the

with the

the independence

between the

of responsible

became

Others

Some

as the evo-lution

nation.

adoption

of a close relationship

limiting

many forms.

development

people,

and climate equality

minorities, the accommodation cultures

in income

and

and religious

practices,

for

of and

wealth, have become increas-ingly

important.

Discussion Questions 1. If

you

had lived

in

1860s, do you think opposed 2.

British

North

America in the

you would have supported

Confederation?

What have been the has faced? most important

in the coming

Are regionalism

challenges

do you think

Canada will be

and provincialism

serious threats to

national unity? 4. Should

most serious

What challenges

3.

or 5.

Canada

Do you think

establish

its

that the role

workers in the development

years?

importance

in

own

of

head

of state?

women, farmers,

and

of Canada is given suf-ficient

depictions

and discussions

of

Canadas history?

Further Reading Ajzenstat, J., Romney, P., Gentles, I., & Gairdner, W.D. (Eds.). (2003). Canadas founding debates. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Blanger, ., Nadeau, R., Henderson, A., & Hepburn, E. (2018). The national question and electoral politics in Quebec and Scotland. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Dickason, O.P., & Newbigging, W.(2018). Indigenous peoples within Canada. A concise history. (4th ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.

Heron,

C.(2018). Working lives: Essays in Canadian working-class history. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Marsden, L.R. (2012). Canadian women and the struggle for equality. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Morton, D. (2017). Ashort history of Canada (7th ed.). Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart. Sangster, J. (2018). One hundred years of struggle. The history of women and the vote in Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Saul, J.R. (2008). Afair country. Telling truths about Canada. Toronto, ON: Viking Canada

Chapter 3

Canadaandthe Governance of Cultural Diversityand International Migration

Image

Press/AP

Canadian

Chiasson/The

Paul

A family entry

of asylum

is taken

into

seekers custody

that by the

walked

across

the

U.S.-Canada

border

at an unauthorized

point

of

RCMP.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 3.1a

Discuss how

3.1b

Discuss different cultural

3.2

Canada is both a multination perspectives

and polyethnic

on how the state

state.

may respond

to

diversity.

Discuss Canadas

approach

to language

rights

approach

to the admission

and

Qubcois

nationalism. 3.3

Discuss Canadas refugees.

42

of immigrants

and

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

3.4a

Learn about the experiences of racial, ethnic, and religious minorities in Canadian history.

3.4b

Discuss Canadas approach to immigrant integration

Images

of desperate

outside

of official

Canadians border

people

in recent

terminating from

by the

U.S.

intent

with

and

a refugee

other

claim

in

1990

once

months

the

Canadian

that

soil.

his

that

and

The

allowed

and

work

the

country

of

irregular exodus

administration

had

leave

fields

attention

made these

to live to

trails

gripped had

on

designations

countries

18

forested

have

announcement

(TPS)

given

along

lives,

35 000 individuals

Trumps

status

were

border

peril to their

almost

making

Haiti,

TPS

at

Donald

protected

Honduras,

Individuals

CanadaU.S.

2018,

of

President

temporary

El Salvador,

States.

As of late

with the

prompted

the

sometimes

years.

crossings,

was

crossing

checkpoints,

and citizenship.

was

immigrants

legally

in

the

or risk

United

becoming

undocumented. The

TPS

immigrants allows

program

countries

to

stay in the

them

can renew argued

was established

from

indefinitely

that

countries

the

if it

conditions

(Felter

a difficult

years,

live

into

in the

Canada

2004,

principle land.

This

United

the

States

within

2018,

without ports

if

haven

armed 18

for

unsafe.

nearly

conflict,

months, The

designation

no longer to

status,

half

and

which

Trump

a

other

the

million strife.

It

government

administration

no longer

has

exist in the

from

the

where they

a third

Safe

Country

country.

affected

Third

Country

as safe

for refugees

protection

in

United

States

chose

to

has

and

the first makes

in

Agreement

which

seek

States,

not lived

Many

Agreement,

the individual

United

have

other

the

border,

able to live in the

or go to

Third

each

be

a country

because

Safe

coming

assess

all claims

does

not

established in

a refugee

most cases,

many cross

been in force

country

will, in

they

the

which they

claim

be sent

at an

of-ficial

back to the

claim.

provide

and

refugee

at the

domestic claimants

U.S.Canadian

as officials

and

people

as they

of resettling

remain TPS

generally

U.S.Canada

arriving

controversy,

the

by international

and to

of up to

would

legal

should

a refugee

bound

periods

goreturn

designated

a person

on the

a safe

disasters,

to the

of entry

Under

claimants

provide

countries

they

States

countries

to

natural

May 8).

heard

of official

for

led

United

to file

is

seekers

costs

initially

where to

two

Canada

asylum

those

that

about

refugee

of entry

Canada

believes

decision

means that

port

States

circumstances.

that

suffered

United

with TPS

outside

apply in these since

have

& Shendruk,

When individuals faced

that

law

to

with

due

border

members

of the

waited

for

throughout

public

their

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Migration

43

44

Chapter 3

afford

life

likely

to

in

Canada;

be the target

The stability part

on their

racial,

and

broader

community.

values their

cultural

enjoy

special

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should society.

includes

the

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have long

language

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to their

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to resonate:

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people

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levels

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governments a

and

rights;

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of ethnic,

in

Canada,

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nationalism;

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this

chapter

of Canadian

politics

the immigra-tion

and religious

minorities;

integration.

Canada: A Multination and Polyethnic

State 3.1a

Discuss how Canada is both a multination and polyethnic state.

3.1b

Discuss different perspectives on how the state mayrespond to cultural diversity.

When

European

America,

settlers

they

Indigenous values.

made first

met Indigenous

group

had a unique

The Indigenous

and British settlers traditions. deepened Chapter racial,

the 2.)

and religious

unique

with

political

of

North

backgrounds.

language,

religion,

Each and

predominantly

and legal

set of French

structures

and cul-tural

waves of immigration

linguistic

paints

inhabitants

cultural

subsequent

cultural,

census

original

confronted

century,

longstanding

most recent

linguistic,

their

eighteenth

the many

organization,

were in turn

who imported

countrys The

with from

economic

peoples

Since the

contact

peoples

and

a portrait

of

makeup in the twenty-first

religious

Canadas

have

diversity. complex

(See ethnic,

century.

Ethnic and Racial Diversity In

2016,

people and

Canadians (41

percent)

mixed

cultural

traced indicating

marriages

ethnic

mentioned reporting

this

and

French

but

their

ancestry

origin share

October

of the

ancestries

to

origin.

the

3-1 shows, million

or in

combination

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(See

250 groups, Figure

between

large

number

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percent

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1871.

an Indigenous

of

from

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ancestry

population) British

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reporting

most-frequently of the

ancestries

More than

many

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people

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3-1.) Immigration

people

Canadian

11.1

most commonly

reported

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unions

population

census

population)

since

million

(Statistics

Isles

Canadian, the

people

first

(6.2

Canada,

per-cent

2017a,

25)

Immigrants countrys

alone

were the

post-Confederation of the

with

to

one

contributed

As Figure

origin,

origins

common-law

have

origins.

ethnic

ethnic

more than

and

backgrounds

multiple

their

ethnic

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their

and racial

were among

Canadian-born diversity.

the top

descendants

German,

20 ethnic

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Italian, reported

have Ukrainian, alone

contributed Dutch,

to and

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the

Polish i

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Figure Other

3-1 Top 20 Ethnic OriginsReported Alone orin Combination with

Origins (Single

or

Multiple

Response),

Canada,

2016

Canadian English Scottish French

Irish German Chinese

Italian First

Nations

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American

Indian) East

Indian

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British

Isles

origins,

n.i.e.1 Russian

Mtis Portuguese

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789

10

11

12

millions Single

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Multiple

Response 1.

British

well

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as

more

origins, specific

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SOURCE: Statistics Retrieved

includes

responses

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general

indicating

responses

British

Canada. (2017b).

indicating

Isles

origins

British that

have

Ethnic and cultural

not

Isles

origins

been

included

origins

response

type (e.g.,

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elsewhere

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of Canadians:

Kingdom)

as

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Portrait of a rich heritage.

https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016016/98-200-x2016016-eng.cfm

the census, reflecting the heritage of the many Europeans who emigrated to Canada before the 1970s. Since the 1980s, emigration the

number

of individuals

(Statistics grown

reporting

from the

a Chinese,

Asian continent

East Indian,

Canada, 2017b, October 25). The visible

as a result

of immigration

from

or Filipino

minority

non-European

has increased heritage

population1

countries

and their

has also Canadian-born

descendants. By 2016, morethan one-fifth (22.3 percent) of Canadians identi-fied as belonging the three

to a visible

largest

groups,

minority

each

group.

South

with a population

Asian, Chinese, and Black

exceeding

one

million

were

(Statistics

Canada, 2017a, n.d.). Canada is one of the top

destination

countries

for international

migrants from

all parts of the globe. In 2016, morethan 7.54 million Canadians, or 21.9 percent of the

population,

foreign-born

were born in another population

almost half of the foreign-born the

Middle

East). Shifts in

related to the of newcomers from

country.

was mainly from

(See Figure 3-2.)

the

British

Whereas in 1871, the

Isles (83.6

percent),

in 2016,

population (48.1 percent) was born in Asia(including

Canadas

immigration

policies

and international

events

movement of migrants and refugees have resulted in the percentage (those

who landed

in

Canada from

2011 to 2016) from

61.6 percent in 1971 to 11.6 percent in 2016. In 2016,

Europe falling

more than

61 percent

of

newcomers to Canada were born in Asia. Forthe first time in Canadian history, Africa accounted

for the second largest

2017a, n.d.). The impact vast

majority

Vancouver,

of immigration

of immigrants

or

source continent

settle.

is

of newcomers

(Statistics

Canada,

most keenly felt in urban centres,

where the

About 61 percent of immigrants

reside in Toronto,

Montreal alone, but over the past 15 years, a growing

number

of new-comers

have been settling in the Prairies and in the Atlantic provinces (Statistics Canada, 2017a, n.d.).

1 Visible

Equity are

minority

Act. The

refers

non-Caucasian

in

groups:

Asian,

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South

to

Employment race

whether

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Act

non-white

Chinese,

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person

defines in

colour. Filipino,

belongs

visible

to

a visible

minorities The

Latin

visible American,

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group

as persons, minority Arab,

other

population Southeast

as

defined

than consists Asian,

by

the

Aboriginal mainly West

Asian,

Employment

peoples, of

the

who

follow-ing

Korean,

and

Migration

45

46

Chapter 3

Figure in

3-2 Numberand Proportion of Foreign-Born Population

Canada,

1871 to

2016 %

millions 14

30 Observed

Projected

12

25

10 20

8

15 6

10

4

5

2

0

0

1871

1881

1891

1901

1911

1921

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

1981

1986

Census

1991

Number

SOURCE:

Statistics

Canada.

(2017b,

2016; National Household dai/btd/othervisuals/other006

1996

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

2026

2031

203

year Percentage

October

25).

Census

of Population,

1871

to

2006,

Survey, 2011. Retrieved from https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/

Linguistic and Religious Diversity Canadas

rich

linguistic

Indigenous

languages

languages

most often

countrys percent

Mother Tongue The first learned and

still

of

a person in

childhood

official

Canadians

with Canadians

understands.

(23.4

reporting as the

spoken

19

language,

is

percent

of

2017,

August

Canada,

Canadas In

which

2017,

2016,

primarily

a daily

reality

at least

close

when

spoke

23

official

many

about

93

basis.

or in com-bination 8.15

more

million

7.6

people

mother

million or

(21.8

are

In

2016,

one language

and

population percent)

French

languages

are

tongue

of the

English

Canadians.

more than

with

while

as

percent

to

than

Ojibway Frenchthe

of the time.

as their

about

and

on a regular

23),

70

and

mother tongue

some

French

other

for

spoken,

diversity,

while

occurs

English

August

at least

or

a language

Canadians

at

used

home. with

slightly

at home

an

more

(Statistics

17).

religious

2011, the largest

Catholics

In

tongue,

speaking

at home

linguistic

English

home.

mother

at home to

than

at

other

Multilingualism,

than

other

reported

immigrant

French

contributed

widely

French as their sole Canada,

more than

Cree, Inuktitut, at home.

most

or French

(Statistics

speak

has

an

Canadians

English

settlement;

with the spoken

the

million) reported

a language

reported

2016,

languageswere

speaking

percent)

language

in

European

as the language

other languages

Immigration

pre-dates

were reported reported

About 21 percent (7.45

language at home

two

landscape

makeup

religion

as the largest

in

are reporting

population

reported

becoming

Canada

group.

Canadians

is

was

Consistent

non-Christian

an affiliation

increasingly Christianity

with changing

religious with the

diverse (67.3

more secular.

percent),

with

immigration

affiliations.

Muslim,

and

Roughly

Hindu,

Roman

patterns,

more

7 percent of the

Sikh, or Buddhist

reli-gion,

up from about 5 percent in 2001. Alarge and growing segment of the population (23.9

percent)

also expressed

decade earlier (Statistics

no religious

affiliation

in 2011, up from

16.5 percent

Canada, 2013a).

The State and Cultural Diversity The census have

debated

paints

a clear

how liberal

portrait societies

of

Canadas

should

cultural

go about

building

diversity. a unified

Political political

philosophers community

a

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

that

is

made

up

ethno-cultural,

of

people

linguistic,

Classical liberalism state should matters rights

neutral

and freedoms

extending rights

way to

individual

for

the

individuals,

regardless

(Kymlicka,

1995).

and

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perspective,

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religion,

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and

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of rights

protect

in cultural on

individuals.

speech,

national,

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and the life, liberty,

One

legal

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and religious

concentrate

of its citizens.

different

47

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the

rights

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and do

at home or within their

recognition

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and

by immigrants

(1995).

within

speak

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multination kind

demands

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national

cultural

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minorities

identity:

than

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have given

rights

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own

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is

and

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each

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sovereignty

distinct its

own 50

groups history,

self-government their

political

federalism,

nations are

of Indigenous languages,

or cultural

addressed

in

peoples: cultural

groups. Chapter

rightssome and

cul-tural

an institutional

Indians

practices, The

11.

with

territory

sharing

occupying or homeland,

a distinct

lan-guage

culture.

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and

self-governing that

has

into

a larger

been

incorporated state.

Polyethnic A state

po-tentially society

State

that

contains

many

groups.

Ethnic Groups

over

through

more

institutions,

a given

do

of immigrants

their

enter

jurisdiction

way

citizens.

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ethnic

rights.

minorities

and

liberty,

Nation

left

national

life,

nation.

issues

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of

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referred beliefs. peoples

who

countries

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to The who

autonomy cultural

rights minority

terri-tory

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jurisdiction over its

affairs.

to who

homeland.

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have

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contains

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on rights

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terri-tory.

institutions

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2 The

concentrate

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schools),

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own communities).

three

of their

occupy

and

neu-tral

religious

individual

and

Self-Government Rights affairs.

and

property

Groups

Many

and

and

groups

institutions

centres,

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who

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educational

community

they

participate

Kymlicka

to

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members

groups cultural,

food

most of them

own language

a

considered

community

a distinct

remain

cultural

matters

and

as

English,

are each

sharing

society

commercial,

specialty

their

conception

groups

in

1994;

Canada

nations:

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and

another

nations

speak their might

in

and

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territory

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freedoms

groups

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described

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to live

mosques,

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into the larger state. Canadais also a polyethnic

of

own religious, or

not

from

Canada

state

rec-ognize

rights do

Canadians

minority because each constitutes a nation (historical

their

of people

for

The

also

basic

or

minorities by other

(1995)

on a federation

culture) that has beenincorporated

rights,

a state

entitle

are

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institutions

states

made up

is a key issue

Multination

Indigenous.2

left

community

backgrounds

Classical

argue

allow the

would

powers

philosopher

multination

state

political

ethnic

1995).

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own

and

democracies.

society

however,

providing

practice,

rights

Kymlicka,

and

rights

of all

goals.

a unified

national

adamantly

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liberals,

identities,

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specific

any

tra-dition Building

lines.

collective

its

of

Pierre

liberal

and freedoms,

contemporary

and

Minister

of the classical

organization

ethnic Some

Prime

political

kind or and

48

Chapter 3

arrangement

that

governments. minority the

the

federal

division

the

can

national

such

survival

between

in

and

gives

or

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provinces,

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Language

boundaries

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For

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(See

provincial

for

concentrated.

language,

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regional

self-government

geographically

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minority

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provide

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as education,

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over issues

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power

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if

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services

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1999,

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national

self-government. into

This arrangement

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(See

minorities

This is and

effect

the

territory

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Chapter

living

what occurred of

predomi-nantly

11.)

Polyethnic Rights Polyethnic

Rights

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rights

ethnic

groups

minorities

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allow

and religious

to express

distinctiveness

their

their include

cul-tural languages,

without

that

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action

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discrimination more fairly that

have

effects in

represent been

including

across

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various

measures

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aimed

colour,

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individuals

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national

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of

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the right of such

the introduction

established

institutions

Security

and the

disadvantage

government

Transport

the

that

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practices

1995). Following

dress codes

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(see

employ-ment,

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airports

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uniform

groups

in

toward

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cultural

laws

federal

from

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to

traditionally

under-represented sectors,

of past

order

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from

Many federal

minorities

com-pensate

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was oriented

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(Kymlicka,

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Action

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Affirmative

give ethnic

distinctiveness

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discrimination.

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rights

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1995

allow

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have

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national

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SpecialRepresentationRights Special Representation

Special

Rights The

provision

representation groups other

in

legislative

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New

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House

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Language Rightsand Quebec Nationalism 3.2

Discuss

Canadas approach

The

minority

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to the of

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French language,

and to the

politics.

Francophone

concentrated

in

Canadians Quebec

an

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

northern

New

Brunswick.

describe

French

Quebec is

as their

mother-tongue;

does so, compared Canada,

2017a,

long

fought

their

language.

in

for

about

percent

of

concentration

79 percent

Canadians

of the

living

of people provinces

outside

49

who

popula-tion

Quebec (Statistics

25).

Chapter

access to

on how federal

to four

October

As discussed

home to the largest

Migration

2, francophone

education

The

predominantly

whether

it should

and

Canadians other

government

francophone establish

and

provincial

governments

and to

nationalist

sentiments

living

Quebec

programs

province

of

an independent

in

has held two

This

to the

have

and services

Quebec

state.

have responded inside

outside

module

rights

ref-erendums

examines

claims

of fran-cophones

Quebec.

Language Rights The

principle

and

policies.

of linguistic Section

have equality

of status

established religious

and francophone In

term the

school 1982

the

education

of

legislature

public

Section

23 of the

school

in

English

or French

primary

and

linguistic

warrant.

to

language

groups. Quebec

Acadian

to

organiza-tions

and

public

the

their

own

extended

English

the

and

govern

were subsequently

The

and to

bilingualism

right

Brunswick,

challenge

of official

and

federal

Program,

to

outside

enshrined

New

Quebec, in

have

Canada)

the

to

rights

be present

For a discussion in

children

of the

secondary

in the

French

as the

institutions, only

and

province

in

sufficient

that

or

all their of the

or French

were

receiving

children

receive

English

live,3

or French

where

numbers

but it is also a collective

numbers

instruction

Charter

have

which they

to individuals,

in

order

in

English

of

anglophone

protections

see EnglishFrench Chapter

right

an English

received

in the language

province

in

school of

who had attended

whose

instruction

population

must

and

Nationalism

in

school

23 extends

a group

primary

rights

of

gives citizens (or

instruction

secondary

Section

because

Charter Canada

minority

1998).

rights

the

Parliament,

institutions

Challenges seeking

of official

rights

right

(Protestant)

disadvantaged

including

Canadian

Court

Francophone

which

out the

fed-erally

bilingual.

primary

to

of the

and

language,

French

Assembly,

anglophone

communities

entrenchment

laws,

and

traditions.

the equality

Quebec.

Freedoms,

National

groups

and historically

to francophone

own

and

languages

officially

violated

English

Act also sets

the and

Constitution,

that

with the

and cultural

2005). Language

Rights

The

established

within

in their

countrys

Quebec

Quebec.

individuals

constitutional

boards (Behiels,

official

the is

for

Charter

two

refers

community

lobbied to

for

(OLMCs)

generally

in

the

was associated linguistic

and actions that

anglophone

right

funds

communities

OLMCs

all courts

government

some

in the

Act, 1867, states

Parliament,

Catholic)

Canadian

laws

minority

embedded

at the time

(Roman

provided

Canadians

and

which

1978, the

is

Constitution

in the federal

courts,

schooling,

which

duality

133 of the

Relations

or

and the

to

claim

French

right

the

right

(MacMillan,

minority

education

Development

of

Quebec

2.

The Official Languages Act The principle response

to the

government and

of linguistic rising

of Lester

Biculturalism

3 Except

in

is that the

Quebec, of the children

to

the English

Charter

duality tide

of

Quebec

B. Pearson report

right

also from

be seen in the federal

nationalism

established

on the

applies

or French linguistic

of new immigrants

can also

state

to

of

Canadian

minority attending

the

in the Royal

1960s. In

citizens

whose

province

in

English

language

and

first

which they elementary

Liberal

on Bilingualism

biculturalism

language reside. and

policy

1963, the

Commission

bilingualism

of the

governments

learned This

secondary

in

and

still

has effectively schools

in

the

under-stood pro-hibited Quebec.

Official Language Communities Generally, consist reside

these

communities

of francophones outside

English-speaking Quebec

Minority

of

Quebec residents

who and of

50

Chapter 3

country basis the

and to

recommend

of an equal

regulates

industries

of the

public

right

within

significant

that

language, to

obtain the

of their

bureaucracy, increasing

share

Capital

Secretariat, not

in

English

Mendelsohn,

2017).

The

does

OLA

businesses,

or other the New

minorities

Provinces

and

Brunswick

Quebec

face

in

been

and

these

to the

the

the provincial

for

equal

to

character public

of the

In

43 per-cent

2017,

francophone

and

are

conducted

or

municipal

territories

provision

have

of programs (See

political

challenges government

Box

3-1:

do

materials (Borbey

governments

or to

adopted

laws,

to

Language

Thousands

of protesters

green-and-white

Ontario

the flag

representing

living

outside in their

as they Ontario

French

rallied

in 2018 to cuts

to

of

Ontario

reduce

fran-cophones

across

protest services

in and

services

donned

colours

pri-vate

official

own language.

the

&

Regimes

in

and

are

policies,

and services

francophones programs

the

of Canada

English

developments that

most in

an

employees

written in

fed-eral

and

many

most

it

work in

servants

Board

as

in

oppor-tunities and

groups

as bilingual.

French,

there

office

institutions,

bilingual

provided

where

(Treasury

in

Recent

federal

the

English

that

have

language

designated

jurisdictions.

Territories.)

in

from

Brunswick

provincial

underscore

anglophones

Canada

services

New

to

provinces

their

The

public in

with

meetings

accessing

and

measures, work

in

and

both

of the

government

bilingual,

most

in

of lan-guage

English.

designated

and

apply

issue the

to individuals

were

can

measures related

language

or elsewhere

has been

service

Quebec,

the

in regu-lated

the

country,

members

with

from

they

not

but

address

guaranteed

federal

advancement

servants

have

Despite

feel

by the

To strengthen

public

Region,

Act (OLA)

to transform

of the are

account up on the

and federally

to

and

on the

into

followed

Languages

individual

Region

training

positions

2018b).

consistently

prepared

of

parts

rights

Canada

taking

service

service

most

gives

and

choice.

in the

Official

was designed

francophones

public

language

of positions

Act

be served

Capital

that

of

French,

public

public

communications

employment ability

language

1985)

and to

for

develop

institutions.

in

National

it requires

guarantees

National

the

and

the

was, in

to

The government

which language

national

with

demand

The

which

amended

to communicate

or French

the

by

OLA (as

passing

in the

in

English

groups.

sector.

service,

a philosophy

are safeguarded The

private

be taken

in the federal

under-representation

OLA reflects and

by

bilingualism

in the

francophone

the

ethnic

recommendations

which

should

between

made by other

commissions

is

partnership

contributions

1969,

what steps

pro-posed for

speakers.

Image

HAGBERG/AFP/Getty

LARS

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Migration

51

Box 3-1 Language Regimesin the Provinces and Territories The provinces and territories of linguistic

or shared jurisdiction. the

play animportant

minorities in

areas falling

role in the protec-tion

under their

other sectors.

services,

Furthermore,

providing access to

provinces

both

of laws

minority language

among

in the three

and policies

sets out the French.

New

Figure

and

Prince

in

services

Brunswick

legislation

Manitoba,

New Brunswick,

Edward

government

provisions

In

Island,

that

and

recog-nizing and

New

Ontario,

that

and

addition

to legislation,

Saskatchewan,

Alberta. In

British

Library

of Parliament.

(2016a).

Language

regimes

in

provinces

minority language

and

territories.

In

official use of the two

statutes official lan-guages

Commissioner

of Official

language

policies

have been

Yukon, the

Northwest

Territories,

Newfoundland

services

the

policy

in the

are no general

outside

sectors

province

and Labrador,

or territory

2016).

Retrieved

from

https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/

and

provisions

of education. where the

3-3 Recognitionof MinorityLanguagesin Provincial/TerritorialPolicy Sectors

default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/201166E#img

province.

laws recog-nize

Language

more than

Columbia, there

French-language

(Hudon,

contexts.

Office of the

New Brunswick,

3-3 summarizes

English

and limit the

recognize

2016;

of the

Quebec, language

specific

Manitoba, for

Manitoba

must be provided in

also states

official languages

2018a).

adopted in Quebec,

Provincial legislation

Scotia,

territories

Languages,

Access often varies across

have constitutional

to

(Hudon,

services does not guaran-tee

in practise.

official languages:

Brunswick.

SOURCE:

adoption

business,

are the

Saskatchewan,

only one official language

municipal

within the same province.

Three

Nova

the

minoritylanguage

their implementation regions

and legislative

French

Alberta,

However, there are significant variations in

measures they have adopted in education, justice,

affairs, government

and

exclusive

status

Figure of the

is recognized

52

Chapter 3

Figure

3-4 EnglishFrench Bilingualismin Canada,the provinces, and

territories,

2011

Yukon

and

2016

Northwest

Territories

13.1%

Nunavut

13.8%

4.6%

9.1%

0.7%

5.0%

10.3%

3.8%

1.2%

0.4%

4.3% 0.5%

British

Newfoundland Alberta

Columbia

Quebec

and

Canada

labrador

6.8%

6.8%

6.5%

0.0%

6.6%

outside

Manitoba

0.1%

42.6% Ontario

8.6%

Saskatchewa

8.6% 4.6%

Prince

Edward

Quebec

Canada

1.9%

11.0%

0.0%

Brunswick

44.5%

New

Island

11.2%

4.7%

0.2%

0.1%

12.3% 12.6%

0.3% Nova

Scotia

17.5% 17.9%

2011

2016

10.3%

33.2%

Difference 0.4%

9.7%

33.9%

9.8%

0.7%

10.5% 0.2%

0.1%

SOURCE:

Statistics

Retrieved

from

Canada.

(2017,

August

31).

EnglishFrench

bilingualism

reaches

new

heights.

https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016009/98-200-x2016009-eng.cfm

Bilingualism The federal

government

it provides for

has also promoted

minority-language

the provincial

and territorial

bilingualism

education

school

through

the financial

and second-language

boards. EnglishFrench

instruction

bilingualism

assistance delivered

(as

by

measured by

the ability to conduct a conversation in English and French) has grown from 12.2 percent in 1961 to 17.9 percent in 2016, the highest proportion Canada, 2017, neighbouring

August 31). Bilingual

ever in

people are largely

regions of New Brunswick

increased to asmall degree in

Canadian history (Statistics

concentrated

in

Quebec and in

and Ontario. Between 2011 and 2016, rates of bilin-gualism most provinces and territories.

Nevertheless, the goal

of encouraging bilingualism acrossthe country has yet to be realized, asjust 10 percent of people living

outside

Public opinion of the OLA,

Quebec can carry on a conversation in English and French (Figure 3-4). seems to favour

continuing

support

OLA. According to a 2016 survey,

with high overall support

for bilingualism

88 percent

in every region.

and the objec-tives

of Canadians supported

Many felt that

having two

the

official lan-guages

waspositive for Canadas international reputation and that it is one of the things that

defines the country (Office

Pierre Trudeau

was prime

of the Commissioner

minister, linguistic

of Official Languages, 2018b).

duality

was enshrined

of Canadian public life. In the era of Justin Trudeau,

global immigration

of non-European

governments

Indigenous will shape

languages,

languages the

countrys

as

act giving

well as the formal

evolving

linguistic

federal

recognition identity

to

dozens

(Abley,

and the growth

intention

to

of Indigenous

2018,

When

as a key principle pass an

languages,

November

6).

Quebec Nationalism The Constitution

Act, 1867, established a federal system in

were given exclusive jurisdiction and property

and civil

rights,

over as

which provincial govern-ments

matters such as hospitals, well as shared jurisdiction

municipal in-stitutions, over immigra-tion.

Each province could also makelaws in relation to education, providing it did not

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

overstep

the

existing

religious

communities Quebec

control

By the become

middle

under

of the

twentieth

in

provincial

Constitution.

the

province

promote

sought

its language

and

of

committed

In

Quebec

to

1980,

establish

culture,

with

Minister would

Canada

begin the

process

constitutional

It

1981 agreement

the

The amending

formula

constitutional

changes.

The amending that

chose

than

education

Despite to the

not to

refusal

Subsequently,

1992that

accord

to

that

Canada

policy;

for

ending

province a new

citizenship;

narrowly

become

with

for to

a majority of

a

amending

had

grounds of

exclusive

for

for

an

the

as a distinct

shared-cost

a Charter Quebec

Quiet

of

gov-ernments,

Revolution.

Lvesque

refused

to

conditions:

matters.

considered

financial

10.)

society.

in linguistic

Quebec

on

Chapter

that

meet the following

to

and

agreement

it failed

rights

secession,

and

change

since

suc-cessive certain

nation.

reached

of Ren

guarantee

in

devolved

Constitution

presented

Quebec

what

not

the

pro-posal

nationalism,

government

that

Prime

government

Act, 1982. (See

the requests

Qubcois

wished

an economic

of francophones

Quebec

as a distinct

provinces

Constitution

satisfy

character

Quebec

the

they

The sovereignty-association

the forces

nine

separatist,

its traditional

compensation

veto over

for

federalprovincial

to sign the 1981 agreement, the

prime

minister Meech of

efforts to held

in

should

provinces

programs

Constitution

Lake

Accord,

other

September

1995,

sovereign

would

provide

of people,

society.

reached

neither

reform.

Quebecers

whether

asked

having

for

a customs

and services.

agree-ments

Charlottetown However,

constitutional

after

capital

Act, 1982, applies

leaders

1987 and the

Quebec as a distinct comprehensive

that

mobility

the

and all provincial

achieve

become

partnership and the

defeated

and

recognition

referendum,

the

10.)

elected

campaign,

the terms

changesthe

included

was approved,

A second agreed

voters

no, the federal

Court to clarify

participate

on constitutional Accord,

voted

Supreme

did

right

and culture.

Quebecs

province.

the referendum

the

removed

formula

and

Chapter

whether

reform,

provinces

protect

(See

maintain

constitutional

did little

the

voters would

in

Parti

to

Quebec

engaged

on the

not recognize

It restricted

that

During

order to counter

and

under

in the 1960s,

its traditional

have

procedures

but

the separatist

did

asked

Quebecers that if they

would

both federalist

sign the

which it

measures recognizing

formal

Freedoms

Specifically,

in

Quebec state

government

that

govern-ments

powers

changes

pol-icy

sovereignty.

voters,

asked

Quebec

powers.

and in 1976

system.

reform

and

support,

had

money in

economy,

its

gave

government

what it considered

the federal

federal

Act included

Rights

its

from

1995)

mi-nority

culture.

exclusive

develop

detract

Catholic

to spend

political

of provincial

non-constitutional

federal

power

and

of renewing

provinces,

1981, the

to

2003, p. 104).

In

(Kymlicka, distinctive

12.) Successive

by 59.6 percent

governments

In

The

pursuing

(LeDuc,

independence.

to the

could

gained

promised

federal

adopted

that

a referendum

against

powers

powers

right

were their

major social

(independent)

Pierre Trudeau

was defeated voting

to held

Chapter

or Roman

of its the

its

argued

and to retain

changes

a sovereign

association

(See

underwent

Quebec independence

government

however, through

what they

more constitutional

veto any constitutional

The idea

century,

of

Protestant

to the survival

affairs

jurisdiction.

As Quebec

of the

This self-government

were crucial

more protective

the

rights

provinces. that

provincial

became

to

in their over issues

more involved

areas

education

made a formal union; The

a

they offer

monetary

proposal

was

by a margin of 50.6 percent to 49.4 percent.

Federal Plans Aand B The razor-thin led

the

federal

victory

for the federalist

government

to

develop

The first approach, dubbed Plan

A,

side in two

Quebecs

strategies

1995 sovereignty to

defuse

Quebec

referendum nationalism.

was designed to convince Quebecers about th

Migration

53

54

Chapter 3

benefits

of staying

in

Canada.

It

consisted

of non-constitutional

to some of Quebecs traditional passed aresolution law

tradition,

recognizing

and

Amendments

Act gave

Quebec

Intergovernmental

also part

of the federal

(Russell,

2006).

housing

The second

thrust

aimed

at clarifying

sought

a ruling

a form

in 1996,

of

for

Under the

Is there

secession

take

of

event

to

or

were

Quebec referendum recreation,

tour-ism,

unilaterally?

of a conflict

between

domestic

for

B,

future

April 1996, the federal

Assembly,

was refer-endums

government

of

legislature,

Canada

international

government

Canada

Plan

difficult

questions:

Quebec from

Quebec from

dubbed

very

National

of under

legislature,

provinces

mining,

strategy,

make it

can the

the secession

changes.

to the

the

civil

provinces.

on three

to self-determination

Assembly,

re-sponded

Constitutional

constitutional

powers

post-referendum

Court

unique culture,

The 1996

over forestry,

to the

of Canada,

effect

future

following

to succeed. In

Supreme

Quebec

a right

National

In the

the

Constitution of

strategy

secession

on Quebecs sovereignty from

over

more powers

Ottawas

of Quebecs province.

decentralized

were devolved

the terms

in the

of veto

that

governments

Beginning

and social

character

majority

agreements

that

demands. In 1996, the House of Commons

the distinct

French-speaking

initiatives

law

or gov-ernment

unilaterally?

that

Quebec the

would

right

and international

to

law,

give the effect

which

the

would

precedence?

The court ruled in 1998(Referencere Secessionof Quebec,1998)that while Quebec did not enjoy

a right

under

international

or domestic

law

to

unilateral

secession,

the federal

government would be obligated to negotiate with Quebecif a clear majority of Quebecers responded

to a clear question that they

In response to the ruling,

the

no longer

wished to remain in Canada.

Canadian Parliament

passed the

Clarity

Act in 2000.

The Clarity Actsets out the rules by whichthe government and Parliament would react to future

referendums.

It states that the

with a province

unless the

government

will not negotiate

House of Commons

the terms

of sepa-ration

has determined that the question is

clear and that a clear expression of will hasbeen obtained by a clear majority ofthe popu-lation. Negotiations to the borders

would have to include

of the province, the rights,

the division interests

of assets and liabilities,

and claims

and the protection of minority rights. Finally, a constitutional all provincial

governments

would, undoubtedly,

peoples,

amendment approved by

would have to be passed before separation

could

occur. This

makeit extremely difficult for a province to separate from Canada.

The Quebec government

retaliated

rights and prerogatives

the

changes

of Indigenous

with its own act respecting the exercise of the fun-damental

of the

Quebec people and the

Quebec state. It states that

Qubec people hasthe inalienable right to freely decidethe political regime andlegal

status of Qubec,

and that asimple

majority of 50 percent plus one of the valid votes cast in

areferendum counts as an expression of the peoples will (Statutes of Quebec,2000, Ch.46). The Conservative pursued

government

non-constitutional

Theseincluded Educational,

of Prime

Minister

measures in a bid to temper

allowing

Scientific

and

Stephen support

Harper (20062015) for

Quebec indepen-dence.

Quebecto take a formal role at the United Nations

Cultural

Organization

(UNESCO)

and

House of Commons to support a motionrecognizing that the Qubcois within a united

Canada.

Quebec nationalism

Supporters

by recognizing

of the

that

motion argued that it

future

the

form a nation

would help defuse

Quebec is a distinct sociological

the united civic nation of Canada. Others worried that the recognition might legitimize

persuading

nation

within

of nationhood

claims for sovereignty.

Quebec Independenceand Public Opinion In

October 2018, Quebecers elected a majority government

Coalition Avenir Qubec (CAQ), following

headed by Franois

Legaults

an election campaign in which the questio

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

of Quebec independence CAQs

campaign

(Meagher, the

promises

2018,

edge

Public

August

of declaring

opinion

sovereignty stay in

was a pledge

1). The Parti

over

for the first

never

hold

time in

past

party

decade

found

that

73 percent

of the

is

back

burner

Quebec.

Prime

40 years.

a referendum

the

that

1995 referendum,

the

A 2016 survey

including

to

in the

conducted

has declined.

issue

Qubcois,

independence

polls

Canada,

October

on leaving

finished

82 percent

Quebec to

a distant

show

that

agreed that

francophones

the

Canada

had brought

generally

provinces

Among

fourth.

support

for

Quebec should

(CBC

News, 2016,

3).

Although

sovereignty

of tensions Legault

between clashed

immigration three

was not a defining

Ottawa

over

levels

years

and

Legaults

controversial

and to force

of their

of expulsions

on the

arrivalor

is a federal

now, this

Minister

face removal

to

pass

from

the

(Blatchford,

does

Justin

campaign

newcomers

responsibility

for

not signal

Trudeau

promises French

and

values

Quebecs tests

although

October

end

Premier

to lower

and

province, 2018,

the

within

enforcement

1).

Immigration and RefugeeSystems 3.3

Discuss

Canadas

Many immigrant in their

home

homes

groups,

immigration

and/or

to

Canadian

has

1991). Its immigration

wars,

in

to the

persecution,

address

or natural

political

as

role

labour

life.

disasters

in

shortages

of the

upon

provide

refugee

another

cen-tury,

policy,

and

nation

their

nineteenth

immigration

premised

well as to

conditions

have left

Since the late

market

been

and

opportunities,

in setting

boundaries

has also

reunions

economic

of a better

a strong

cultural

program

family

and refugees.

by economic

search

played

as an instrument

of immigrants

by desperate

attracted

Canada

state

and to establish

to enable

to the admission

propelled

countries

and travelled

the

approach

(Li,

economic

1993;

de-velopment,

Satzewich,

humanitarian status

using

consider-ations

to those

fleeing

country.

Immigration and Nation-Building The

Constitution

within

Act, 1867, states

the legislative

make laws

regarding

to federal

laws.

designed

1867 and 1895, 1.5 on the land National

policy the

States. of

a Liberal

to

maintained

United

settlement

for

and

Central

in

other

populate those

of

Canada. origin,

flows

Europe

to

lagged, and

and

the

Chapter

develop

the

to

work

2003).

The

a plan

2.) An open-door from

Following to

was

Between

(Li,

government

was launched

policy

1879, included

particularly

Hungarians.

major campaign

populate

(See

also

not repugnant

Canada

sectors in

are

can

population.

came to

government

western

Scandinavians, 1896, a

Europe,

European

are

immigration of the

non-agricultural

Conservative

When immigration

Mennonites,

government and

Prairie

mines,

a province

they

Canadas

character from

and aliens

but that

provided

1960s,

primarily

by the

immigration

province,

European

immigrants,

and in factories,

was

Eastern

million

white,

to naturalization

Parliament

until the

primarily

Policy, introduced

to encourage

to the

Confederation

the

matters related

of the federal

immigration

From

to sustain

that

authority

Britain

and

encouraged

the

the

election

woo farmers

agricultural

of

from

potential

of the

provinces.

Throughout

the late

was severely were unlikely Between being

to assimilate

1880

and

constructed, and least tried

Chinese

nineteenth

restricted,

to

because

1884,

discourage

Immigration

Once the

the Act,

labourers

1885,

twentieth

racial

which

Asians

and

cultural Canadian

were recruited railway from

centuries,

that

transcontinental

labourers

jobs.

early

perceptions

of their

when the

Chinese

well-paid

and

due to

to

work

was completed, permanent

introduced

the

non-white

and

Pacific

(Li,

1998).

Railway

on the

most

the federal

tax

immi-gration

non-whites

differences

settlement. head

other

It system

was

danger-ous govern-ment

passed throug

the

Migration

55

56

Chapter 3

which

Chinese

Exclusion

admission

Act later

were also entering

to

banned

put in

all

but

place to

was

made

more

of

Chinese

a trickle

discourage

Black

expensive.

The 1923

immigration.

Americans

Chinese

Various

and

South

mea-sures

Asians

from

Canada.

During greatly

the two

reduced

economic Minister

world

in

boom

through

character

response

of the

King

and

from

in the

1960s.

following international rights,

Kingdom,

led

need

from

for

a

some

traditional

in

World In

Oriental that

was

War II, 1947,

an

Prime

population

the fundamental

immigration

would

are far removed

Act gave

from

preferential

con-temporary

status

countries,

and inclusive

increased

Holocaust,

France,

a rapidly

to and

to

the

economy, economies

participation

protection and

sys-tem

discrimination

post-war

committed

European

selection

to racial

countrys

expanding

as

immigrant

sensitivity

the

agreements

regions

of policy.

encourage

Commonwealth

more open

the and

labour

would

Canada

1998).

included

and

organizations

the

to

end

to

was not to change

any considerable

& Trebilcock,

War II

government

The 1952 Immigration

These factors

World

the

immigration

problemssentiments

United

developments

Following

Canadian the

era, immigration

immigration

and that

States (Kelley

Several

that

policy.

the

crises.

but that

economic

Depression

up

stated

population

immigration

United

to these opening

immigration

give rise to social

immigrants

wars and the

favoured

Mackenzie

growth

the

Canada

of

a decline

recovered

in human

in

appli-cations

from

wartime

upheaval. In

1962,

the

Progressive

new regulations Canadian criteria

for

certain

system

be based

rather

was

than

adopted

demand

and

removal

countries

in

training,

Immigrants to live

who

in

Canada

certain

rights

while

remaining

their

are

and

home

In

privileges, a citizen

2017,

Canada

(7 861 000

of

2018).

Jurisdiction

nominated

territories labour

address

market

and

development

with or

specific

immigrant

economic

basis.

who fear race,

of

in

have

or outside a well-founded

persecution

religion,

nationality, a particular

based

political or

Can-ada

Canada, and

Both the

federal

settlement

on

opinion,

membership

social

In

and and

age,

and

Africa

points

they

were

occupational

related

criteria.

immigration

from

has increased

Polyethnic

and

a new

(whether

criteria,

by

experience,

1967,

education,

French,

of

admission

substan-tially,

State.

group.

in

persons.

(i.e., investors, nominees, sponsored

dependent

and

in

number

Figure

shared

of international

3-5 (Migration

between

government

levels, and

families.

the federal

on how

they

It share

migrants

Policy

establishes

defines immigration

reunites

provincial

may apply

and

provincial/ require-ments,

categories, the

Institute,

admission

has signed

governments

Canada

Protection

immigrants

economy;

entrepreneurs, relatives

to enter

Refugee

determines

bilateral

responsibility

play

agree-ments for

an important

on a permanent

Act, 2002, identifies

economic, sponsored family,

Economic

and caregivers. children,

is

territories

and

to the

by close

largest

im-migration.4

role in

services.

nationals

to contribute

eighth as shown

immigration

within

of permanent residents:

living

America,

The federal

The Immigration

protected

to the world,

provinces

Foreign

needs.

Refugees People

claims

who

by provinces

to

or

admissions

A Multination

over immigration

sets national refugee

immigrants

in the

governments.

and Territorial

Nominees are

work

nationality. immigrants

English

Latin

Canada:

was home

million)

territorial

Permanent

of

elements

the

were not sponsored

as education, or

some

history,

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on the basis of their

discriminatory

Caribbean,

those

prospective

relative)

knowledge

in

such race

from

Canadian

issued

receive

country.

Provincial

on factors

assessed

in

Diefenbaker

The Contemporary Immigration System

permitted

and

solely

of overtly

as discussed

time (i.e.,

on a candidates

of John

discrimination

first

of immigrants

that

Asia, the

government racial

For the

or a nominated

Since the

Residents

overt

policy. categories

would

skills,

independent

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eliminated

immigration

relatives) other

that

Conservative

these

are people include

and the self-employed),

The sponsored or family

family

members

parents, and grandparents.

categories

and resettled refugees and

selected

skilled

or temporary three

for

workers,

their

provincial

class comprises and includes

skills

business

abil-ity

and territorial foreign

spouses

Refugees include

and

immigrants

and

nationals partners,

people living

i

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Figure United

Saudi

3

Germany

4

Russian

25

Countries

of Destination,

2017

Arabia

Federation

United

Kingdom

6

United

7

France

8

Canada

9

Australia

10

Top

States

2

5

57

3-5 International MigrantPopulation and MigrantShare of Total

Population, 1

Migration

Arab

Emirates

Spain

11

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12

India

13

Ukraine

14

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15

South

16

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17

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40M Migrant

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destinations

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60% Total

migrants.

80%

Population Retrieved

from

https://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/charts/top-25-destinations-international-migrants?width=1000&height=850&iframe=true.

or outside

from

Canada

who fear

persecution

in their

home country

or

whose removal

Canada would subject them to torture, a risk to their life, or a risk of cruel and

unusual

treatment.

The federal

to individuals example,

government

who would

in cases

where there

Canada admitted

may also grant

not otherwise

qualify

are humanitarian

286 479 permanent

for these three

and compassionate

residents

from

Canada, 2018a). The Liberal immigration

government

categories,

year since 1995,

more than

of origin

to increase

annual levels

2018, December 2). Labour

half of all permanent

have been economic immigrants. Family of total

class immigrants

permanent

for

considerations.

and economic development objectives remain priorities for immigration every

sta-tus

Refugees and Citizenship

has committed

to 350 000 by 2021 (Keung,

resident

over 185 countries

in 2017, up from the 271 833 admitted in 2015(Immigration, permanent

permanent

residents

admitted

of

policy;

to Canada

immigration.

the second largest

The humanitarian

group,

component

of the

at 28.8 percent program

protected

persons,

and people

up from the 20072015 period,

admitted

when they

under

humanitarian

request

has

The

protection

consid-erations,

to selecting

work permits

claimants Between Workers and

permanent

entry of foreign under

various

residents, programs,

who request refugee protection 2007 (TFWs)

Canadian

and

2013, the program

Citizenship,

number increased 2018b).

the immigration

program

nationals. Temporary immigrants

of permit from The

international

students,

upon or after their holders

under

the

provides

include

hold-ers

arrival

when

and refugee

arrival in

Canada.

Temporary

Foreign

80 052 to

107 921 (Immigration,

program

allows

Canadian

Refugees employers

to

4 Quebec has full responsibility for the selection of immigrants (except family class and in-Canada refugee claimants) and establishes its own immigration levels. It also has sole responsibility for delivering settlement and integration services, supported by an annual grant from the federal government.

risk

1951

risk

treatment

Against

in

the

Torture

Conven-tion Status

1967

to

protection

refu-gee United

Geneva to the

or danger defined

he or she is

and its

to life,

unusual

Canada. Canadas

by the

when found

needing

in

be a Convention

Refugees or

who

receives

as defined

Nations made up 811 percent of all per-manent

the

protection

or after claimant

to

in

population

Relating

for the temporary of

residents

refugee

found

admissions. In addition

Claimants

humanitarian

In 2017, 55.6 percent werefrom the economic cat-egory. upon constituted

grown in recent years. About 15.6 percent of permanent residents admitted in 2017 were refugees,

Refugee

mar-ket Temporary

of

protocol

be a person based

of cruel

on and

or punish-ment, of torture Convention

as

58

Chapter 3

hire foreign

nationals

Canadian

citizens

workers

include

agriculture,

in the to

allowing wage for that

their

and

Seekers

refugees have the

but not

whose

yet

been

authorities

where

As of late resettled

seek

2018,

homeland.

coverage

death

Kurdi,

conflict

an overloaded

boat

his family

other

refugees

and

capsized

Mediterranean

Refugees

hire for

the

than

program

had

number

had

provincial

to

professions.

TFWs

and

of

or territorial on the

By 2017, the

of refugee

sidelined

fleeing

armed

claims

has been increasing,

Citizenship

for

certain

on

foreign

or to fill jobs in

median

number

number

mea-sures

of

of

TFWs

work

78 788 (Immigration,

per-mits

Refugees

2018a).

were being

Council

and in

placed

dropped

qualified

Temporary

reliance

the

when

caregivers

industries,

positions.5

question

and

available.

were subsequently

low-wage

TFW

Canada,

less

shortages

as live-in

increased

whether

the

at a time conflict

Refugees,

growth

persecution

over

2018b).

28 496 to 10

global

Since

50 000 in

population

then,

the

num-ber

2017 (Immigration,

On an international

seekers that

2017, January

from

of the immigration

in the

at home.

reaching

2018a;

dropped

objectives

of explosive

and

Canada,

claimants

humanitarian

are much smaller than the 280 000 asylum

scale, the

num-bers

Germany received in 2016

12).

The RefugeeSystem

refugees in their response by

of the

of toddler

who drowned

can

pay them

caps

skill

not

work

service

some to

(Canadian

was sparked

worldwide tragic

Canada Syrian

Canadas

to the crisis

by

country

to

are

to

and

employers

and

residents

Canadas

2007 and 2013, the

of refugee

evaluated

labour

who are recruited

occupation,

of individuals

asylum.

60,000 armed

are

claims

in the

they

fleeing

program

who say they

permanent

about

Citizenship

375, leading

Asylum

temporary

manufacturing

under

Between

fill

criticisms

an employer issued

Individuals

or those

In

response

to

Alan after carrying Syrian

In

2018,

among than

a record them

half

(United vast

nearly

Nations

those

people

25.4

High

of the

because

(UNHCR,

in the

are

million

of all refugees

majority

mainly

68.5

around

million

worldwide

and

are from

Syria,

for

refugees

are close to

world

refugees

Commissioner

worlds

the

3.1

have fled

At times individuals

in its

homes;

seekers.

and

2018, June

significant

More

South

Sudan 19).

middle-income

produce

travelling arriving

The

countries,

numbers

from

late

Europe

of refu-gees

were

Chileans

the

during

Africans

But accepting 1930s,

Canada

refugees

brutal

photo

on a Turkish

beach

on the

plight

washed

boat of Syrian refugees Critics

said

at

response

Demir/AFP/Getty

agriculture

and

the

the to

inadequate.

During

the

promised

Live-in

Liberals

Caregiver

of

Program

the

crisis

in

the

resettle

exempt

from

the

Jewish

lying

worlds Alan

after

an

the

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Mideast election

caps.

had

overloaded

Greece capsized.

25 000

these

face

attention

Conservative

2015 federal to

In

4000

toddler

the

seeking to reach the

War,

Pinochet,

In 2015, a widely circu-lated,

on shore

that

are

just

a Syrian

time

American

Vietnam

controversial.

Three-year-old up

in the

more recently.

been

focused

of refugees.

and

As well, the

accepted

heart-rending

of the

of Augusto

Uganda

Nazi persecution.

more than

Vietnamese

Kosovo.

has

down

drowned

Nilufer

from

begrudgingly

fleeing

War II,

during

dictatorship

refugees

persons

suppression

60 000

from

coun-tries, slaves

displaced

World

welcomed

their

American

communist

1956, about

1970s, and 5000 airlifted

and persecuted

Image

the

a haven for

in

to

Railroad,

following

in

war resisters

persecution

sanctuary

after

Uprising

has provided

and

Underground

Hungarians

Hungarian

Canada

conflict providing

the

37 000

history,

feeling

including

primary

asylum

(UNHCR),

to low-and

that

their

2017).

Sea.

5 On-farm

million

from

Afghanistan,

Refugees

countries

were forced

Syrian

govern-ments had

been

campaign, refugees

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

by the

end

of the

Syrian

refugees

refugee

Resettlement

High

to

them

of

a third

large

33 400,

a steep

Commissioner

for

or cruel

claim

has

such

as the

this

global

not

land,

or

2018

alone,

In

marine

country

fleeing

the

Board

of

Canadian checks,

The the

right

to

entry threats

that

resettled

Nations

High

claims

had

been During

processed

made a pre-vious (Immigration,

geographic seekers

location,

that

made at the

of

are not eligible

countries

has not been insulated

had

office.

been

port

or be at risk

country

of its

Canada

vignette,

a growing

ports

claims

of

an

first

from

official

ten

(Immigration,

had

Trump

been

air,

months

Refugees

administration When crossing

and

an interview

claim

Canada

Declaration

of

Human

in

other

and

enjoy

states

of and

life

provide Rights

countries refugees

not be returned

or freedom.

(See

Chapter

by

undergo

health

they

Canadian

seekers

from not

are

eli-gible

Citizenship,

with that

due

for

process.

everyone

persecution.

be penalized

to a country 17.)

are intercepted

14) states

asylum should

Refugee

law to assess all claims

asylum

(Article

and

crossers

and

whether

and

entered

2017

border

they

determine

and domestic

and to

that

border,

Refugees

by international

within

migrants

the

have

February

(Immigration

such

to

(Immigration,

of people

Between

made by irregular

17).

screenings,

number

entry.

after

Convention

their

asylum or inland

of the

or stay, and should

to

countries

offences,

another

of asylum

but

officials

seek

Refugee

for

ultimately

States

They

criminal

Because

November

made

Nations

or at a designated

countries.

in

2018,

Universal

UN

protection 2018d).

designated

Canada is bound

protection

the

of persecution

home

of thousands

claims

opening of

make a refugee

2018d).

and

United

Canada

fear

enforcement

security to

The

countries

refugees

97 000 (United

of serious

experienced,

25 315

policies

Canada, law

within

in their

hundreds

34 854 refugee

new

from

well-founded

checkpoint

in the

2018,

to

identify

was among

the

United

as refugees

600). about

flee the

the

2018e).

outside

September

a

been convicted

have

2011,

Citizenship,

As discussed the

(26

Citizenship,

46 245 asylum

Canadian

Canada

or have received

border

them

2017,

punishment

have

seen the

trend.

to admit

refugees

claims

must have

States

be at risk,

and within

2017).

Canadian

United

from

When refugees

sponsors,

60 000

Humanitarian

protection

protection

to

private

when it resettled

refugee

Canada,

and

In

and

need

refugee

under

2018c).

Refugee

who

office.

with

just

Citizenship, the

continue

has agreed

2016,

or unusual

in

Refugees

from

for

or inland

along

that

had resettled

Canada

claims

of resettled

if they

Canadian

where they

residency.

office

make a claim

Canada

state

making

or inland

torture

or

Refugees,

Individuals of entry

of entry

numbers drop

and

outside

Refugees,

permanent

admitted

Canada

components:

making

needs

Commissioner

grant

to

port

meet their

resettlement

people

people

at an official

cannot

has two

for

for

2018,

Refugees

system

Program

Program

country that

As of September

(Immigration,

Canadas

Asylum

year.

has

The 1951 for

their

ille-gal

where they face serious

Furthermore,

the

Supreme

Court

ruled in 1985 that the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the rights of refu-gee claimants (known

to fundamental

as the Singh

justice

and the right

to an oral hearing

of their

claim

Decision).

Conservative Era Reforms The Harper

Conservative

a number

government

of these changes

overhauled

were undone

Canadas immigration by the courts

or by the

system, Liberal

al-though gov-ernment

whenit took power in 2015. In response to criticisms

bogus

that

Canadas

asylum

system

had been too soft on allow-ing

refugees to enter Canada and too lax in allowing rejected asylum seekers

to remain in the country

for too long, the Protecting

was passed in 2012. Its aim

was to provide faster

faster removal of those who are not (Citizenship

Canadas Immigration protection

System

to bona fide refugees

and Immigration

Act and

Canada, 2012). On

Migration

59

60

Chapter 3

of the

more contentious

those

from

democratic

Designated

safe

refugees,

that

Under deported

have

a robust

to

Critics even

argued

that

as

the

2015, the appeal

2010).

The

2015, July

human

people

large

cargo

smuggling, of

by the

hundreds

migrants Some

asylum

questioned

it forced

the

for

and

maintained

previ-ous they

refugees

as

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Racial,Ethnic, and Religious Minorities and Immigrant Integration 3.4a

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for the

people

that

disadvantage

with

not involve

against

workforce

the

people

who are not qualified

employers

in

was associated

Act,

It

equity

males.

no one is

ability.

employment

65

Agency).

The

ensure

term

Equity so that

more than

The term

white

service; with

1986.

against

in the

that public

by

Act in

discrimination

equality

or

Equity

Migration

visible employ-ment

(Treasury

Board

26).

Multiculturalism In

1971,

Canada

became

the first

recognizing and the

cultural

policy

culture

marked

and tradition

Official

of their

Royal

Commission

policy

of

into a policy policy

that

rather

was introduced on

Bilingualism

multiculturalism

Canadian

of

of ethnic

approach

choice,

society.

multiculturalism

Prime within

adopt

groups

encourages

than

of the into

Minister

as a

Pierre

a bilingual

of official

Canadian

Canadian

into

the

mul-ticulturalism,

identity

society.

to embrace dominant

that

Canada

Trudeau

framework.

instead The

chose

to

the

from

adopt

means of integrating

The

culture.

to the recommendation

Biculturalism

multilingualism

a policy

individuals

assimilate

in response and

and

world to

as a cornerstone

members

a new

multiculturalism

in the

diversity

model for incorporating

landmark

the

country

Official

an of-ficial A policy immi-grants that promote

main objectives

help cultural

groups

to retain

members of all cultural in

promote

and foster

their

identity,

groups to overcome

cultural

barriers to their full

cultural

groups,

par-ticipation

Canadian society,

creative

exchanges

among

all

Canadian

and

assistimmigrants in learning at least one of Canadas official languages. The Canadian government

andimmigrant language

the

of their

followed

through

by providing

financial

grants to ethnic

organizations and funding ethnic studies programs at universities; official

training;

and initiatives

to

help ethnic

minorities in the areas of human rights,

in

1971

individuals culture

choice

Canadian

were to

help

encourages

embrace

of the

Multiculturalism introduced

to

and tradi-tion while citizenship

re-taining

66

Chapter 3

racial

discrimination,

policy

gained

citizenship,

further

momentum

of a clause in the heritage. Act,

In

1988, the

reducing

for

existing

to

multicultural

programs

debt-and

deficit-reduction

barriers

main concerns

of law

Since the integration

Canada.

Critics

possible

have

feel

viewed

and to

weaken the that In

that

status

Figure

that it

has

rights,

leading

and of

not

that too

3-7

that

identity

dilute

of belonging

particular

the

in

Quebecers since

its

Canadian

many immigrants

lead

to

distinct

have also

beginnings.

French fact

1993 and 2018,

in

(Jedwab,

themselves

1994).

on the

multicultur-alism

and could

in

policy

wasfirst

more rights,

its impact

sense

to isolate

adopting

dis-crimination

placing human

argued

rights

(Bissoondath,

Between

immigrants agreed

national

multiculturalism

of francophones.

debated

have

to

whose

2009).

womens

as an attempt

removing

and fighting began

freedom,

have

immigrants

gov-ernments

attach-ments

to

immigrants

education

to a stronger

weakened

and

to criticisms

shifted

objectives

Canada,

culture

federal

and

as democracy,

percentage since the question

of Canadian

minority

Supporters

it encourages

the

about

of visible

Canadians

welcome,

mainstream about

2018, 51 percent

values, the lowest

Too

more

multiculturalism

concerns

such

children.

of human

from

suggest

over time.

and their

have argued

uneasiness

values

understanding,

of immigrant

focus

program

and lan-guage,

1990s as part of the

development

housing, New

Multiculturalism

in response

programs

and Immigration

have countered

and away

expressed

the

the inclu-sion

level.

strategyand

multiculturalism,

infringement

Critics

enclaves

Many

of

newcomers

back in the

The

multicultural

of culture

and

was cut

the

for

passed the

preservation

awareness

number

2006).

(Citizenship

adoption

in the

at the federal

employment,

lobbied

2002).

Canadas

change

1990s,

growing

Canadian

of immigrants

helps

2005).

the

the

& Leman,

on promoting

and the rule

the

for

successfully

government

undermining

in

were finding

(Dewing emphasis

was

Beginning

(Mahtani,

recognizing

cultural

institutional

program

groups

of assisting

enhancing

sensitive

Canada.

discriminatory

ethnic

understanding

and Freedoms

Conservative

objectives

discrimination,

overall the

after

of Rights

Progressive the

culturally

Funding

that

Charter

which included

promoting

and cross-cultural

in

Canada

public

opinion

values

have

do not adopt

polls waned

Canadian

asked in 1993. (See Figure 3-7.)

Public Attitudes AboutImmigrants andthe Adoption Values

19932018

many immigrants

do not

adopt

Canadian

values

19932018

72

51 43

23

Agree

93

SOURCE:

94

97

Environics

99

00

Institute.

02

(2018b).

03

05

Focus

Disagree

06

08

CanadaWinter

10

11

2018.

12

15

Retrieved

16

17

18

from

https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/focus-canada-winter-2018immigration-and-minority-groups/focus-canada-winter-2018-survey-on-immigration-and-minority-groupsfinal-report.pdf?sfvrsn=ed

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Migration

67

Immigrant Integration The extent

to

is a

which immigrants

widely

an immigrant types

have

discussed topic.

becomes

been successfully

Integration

a contributing

integrated

describes the

member

of the

into

Canadian

process through

host society.

There

so-ciety

which

are

The

of integration: economic that

integration

matches

refers

ones

educational

political integration of political social

to the

process

and

of finding

experiential

a job

and earning

Integration

different

which

becomes

a contributing

an income

of the

background;

refers to participation in electoral processes and other forms

engagement;

integration

describes

the

participation

of immigrants

in

Canadian

institutions; cultural its

integration

values

Until

and

the

responsible

their

and

the

processes

(Heckmann,

mid-twentieth

for

levels

describes

norms

immigrants

own integration.

Since

organizations,

to

then,

needs (e.g., interpretation; community

needs.

high

Canada than

a role levels

in this

minorities

in

also fare

outcomes

in

2009) and earn (Corak,

2008).

in

and

most, if

For example,

Canada

than

more than

Canadian

care,

in

as

well

information

as their

and

work-ing has

express

democracy,

visible

and

(OECD,

and

religious

populations

of immigrants

in

other

have better

2006

cited

in

educa-tional

Kymlicka,

were born in this country

with a high concentration of poverty

is policy

minorities

freedom,

whose parents

longer-term

immigrants and

Canada

countries

settlement

multiculturalism

countrys to

neighbourhoods

jurisdic-tional

governments,

supports;

etc.)

not all, foreign-born

other

Canadians

with

of integrating

the children

by the same levels

found in the ghettos

and

considered

at various

Immigrants

the

were

partnership

and that

2009). praise

Canada

employment

process

Immigrants

than

host culture

meettheir immediate

health

(Kymlicka,

2007).

better

are not characterized & Smith,

that the

Canada

(Adams,

Western democracies.

and

in other countries

success

of pride

multiculturalism

classes;

schools,

Research suggests

better in played

language

services,

the

governments

often

offer programs and services to help newcomers about

about

1997);

century,

nonprofit

of learning

of immigrants

and social isolation

that

of major American or European cities (Hiebert,

can be

Schuurman,

2007).

Yet, despite these programs and official Immigrants,

particularly

to experience

newcomers,

chronic

low incomes

are

multiculturalism,

more likely

than

for five consecutive

injustices

Canadian-born years or

persist.

individu-als

more (Picot

& Lu,

2017, September 29). Visible minorities are morelikely to experience higher poverty levels than

whites in

general. There are also concerns

about the immigration

emphasis on selecting highly educated and skilled immigrants, them

underemployed

education

credentials

in low-wage and

jobs following

work experience

their

systems

only to see many of

arrival

because their foreign

are not recognized

(Grant

& Sweetman,

2004; Picot & Hou, 2003). In terms

of political

integration,

immigrants

in

Canada are

much more likely

to

become citizens than are immigrants in other Westerndemocracies (Bloemraad, 2006). Furthermore, country

more foreign-born

(Adams,

citizens

2007). Political

are elected to

parties run

minority

Parliament candidates

than in any other in competitive

rid-ings,

and once they are nominated there is no evidence that Canadian voters in gen-eral discriminate

against these candidates

Chapter 14,the proportion of immigrants of Commons of visible

was below their

minorities

(Tossutti

& Najem, 2002).

As discussed in

and visible minorities elected to the House

presence in the population.

However, if the

who are citizens is used as the benchmark,

have achieved close to parity in representation (Adams

then

visible

& Griffith, 2016).

multidimensional

through

proportion minorities

process

an immigrant

host society

mem-ber

68

Chapter 3

ReasonableAccommodation Conflicts

between

uncommon

in

subjects dominance about

established

polyethnic in

Quebec,

where the

Quiet

Catholic

Church

politics

accommodate

treatment Beginning

in

how

threatened

accommodation

core

practices

in

and to recommend

the

of

between

Jewish

glass

windows

that

through

in

had

its

younger

the regular from

resolved

After

society there

for

study,

xenophobic

neutrality

racist

cultural

and family

in the

in

Over Secularism

Canadian

against

citizens

were

diversity, and

government

equally

in the

an active enjoyed office

by permanent in

and the around

federal right the

to world

it

room.

was con-cerned exercising

prompted glass

with the

a com-plaint was

with regu-lar

that

out

staff

and that

it

the

and Jews.

noted

the

existence

of

It recommended

of all

public

to adopt

and reinforcing

Quebec

diversity

the

institu-tions,

policies

principle

on

of state

state. that

new immigrants

a pledge

the rule

debate

over the

passage

of the

secularism

in the

to respect

place

eco-nomic

the common

of law, and the sepa-ration of religious

religious

minori-ties

neutrality

law

in

bill in 2019. (See Box 3-2: The Debate

Freedoms.)

not

subjects. and

concluded

cultural pointed

gender equality,

The long-running

established

nationhood.

rights

exercise

The conflict

institutions

must sign

These include

was

part in

a spat

to install

women

the frosted

and the

announced

categories

and Religious

British

of its

clad

Muslims

state-controlled

of a proposed

citizenship

over

Hasidic

because

Nevertheless,

and

partly

was reignited

of independent

val-ues.

arisen

involved

windows

institutions.

Citizenship: Defining Who symbol

had

accommodation.

for journalists

of church

Quebec

and state.

2017 and the tabling

windows windows

replace

training

reunification

province

consulta-tions,

Quebecs

management

Commission

public

and religious

values of Quebec society. of church

the

would

crisis,

of a neighbouring

in accommodating

sentiments

separation

2008, the

public to

that

scantily

understanding

state-and

and the

In late

a crisis

sensitivity

encouraging accommodating

of

even

cultural

frosted

BouchardTaylor

strides

intercultural

and

providing

the

made significant

improved

that it

to prac-tices

blinds.

was no indication

need

who objected

conduct

conformed

YMCA

to

with

extensive

had

by the

members

announced

to

One such incident

view

group

in 2007 to examine

glass in the

could

approach

minority

of a growing

of the frosted

YMCA

glass equipped

members

dif-ferential

Commission

and leaders

the

for

perceptions

glass. The installation

YMCA when the

male

paid for

the

of exces-sive

a tougher

some

that

practices.

of the regular and

not

Debates

minorities

controversies

was a decision

place

asked

for

societies,

YMCA

against 2.)

media reports

that

to

numerous

a revolt Chapter

religious

public felt

other

are

are contro-versial

may be ignited.

practices

Montreal

The trigger

The congregation

and

religious

of a

the

In response

discussed

minority

members

congregation.

frosted

Quebec

(See

and

BouchardTaylor

accommodation report

accommodation

in 2006

the

involved

or exaggerated

from

newcomers

and religion

society.

tensions

population

values.

appointed

The commission

calls

Part of the

Quebecs Charest

and

incendiary

prompted

minorities.

Revolution

these

and

secularism

of cultural

easily

2006, sometimes

and

Jean

in

the requests

illustrate

accommodations

Premier

of a community

For example,

of the

how to

immigrants

members

societies.

until

Prior

Canadian

Belongs

society.

residents,

and

provincial

hold

a Canadian

both

citizenship

responsibilities

Canadian

1947,

to that,

such

means

that

Citizens as the

elections, passport.

the

marking

belong possess

right

to

right Canadian

to

another

significant

and

naturalized

native-born having

to each important vote hold

legal

Canadian, rights

and

to run

certain

citizenship

status,

is

that for

shar-ing

and tak-ing are

not

political

public

offices,

highly

valued

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Migration

69

Box 3-2 The Debate Over Secularism and Religious Freedoms In

2017, the

Liberal

The controversial

government

of

prohibits

people

law

sectoremployees daycares, these bars

covering

Muslim women

from

education, security

or identification

communication

the

strong

three

degrees public

issues

Another

from the rules

are involved

main political

of restrictions service.

support

However,

against

Muslim

advocates,

and

converted

to Islam

Quebec.

parties favoured

on the

civil rights

inside

critics women.

A coalition

wears a niqab,

challenged

In

December

meant that

by Coalition

teachers,

Qubec

the law

receive

under the

would require

a public service for identification

Although

Current

symbols restric-tions The bill also sets

or security purposes. If has promised to remove

the crucifix that hangs above the speakers Assembly.

prohibit

citizens to uncover their faces to

the bill becomes law, the government

Court granted a

to

wearing religious sym-bols

would be exempt from the religious

out the rules that

provin-cial Premier

hijabs, crosses, and Jewish kippahs).

providing they remain in the same job.

who

of rights.

2017, a Quebec superior

2019, the

such as police officers,

prison guards, and judges, from

(e.g., turbans,

who wear

2018 June 26).

Avenir

of authority,

and

using public ser-vices

Bill 21. The bill proposes

positions

law

Canadian

women

did not end there. In

Legault tabled

dis-crimination employees

woman

in court, arguing that it violates religious freedoms Canadian and Quebec charters

to

decision

for

Quebec

of conscience

Quebec could continue

headed

public servants in

of Muslim and

Warda Naili, a Quebec

and

The

wear in

said it amounted

The court

government

placing vary-ing

display of religious

violate the

which provide for freedom

The controversy

of

effect, the

stay of the face-covering

appears to

without showing their faces (Peritz,

unless

Franois public

a second

the niqab or burka in

part

were to go into

that it

charters,

and religion.

of

or a certain level

Court issued grounds

Quebec

is required.

Bill 62 had provinces

exemptions

on the

bill

at any level

accommodations

superior

niqabs and burkas

a public school

a medical appointment.

personal

religious

schools,

Effectively, the

wearing face-covering

or attending

of the bill allows for

Just days before the guidelines for assessing requests

pub-lic

the people using

their faces.

using a city bus, attending

Bill 62.

departments,

and public transitand

from

passed

who work in the

of government

hospitals,

services,

Quebec

opponents

chair in the

of the legislation

National

denounced it

temporary suspension of the section dealing withface cov-erings as discriminatory toward women andreligious minorities,Legault until the

government

the restrictions

on face

adopted

guidelines

coverings

would

outlining

work in

how

maintained that it

practice.

to separate

Several monthslater, the government released its guidelines for

assessing

guidelines if the

requests

say that

demand is serious,

The

path

who apply

to

for

of

and the

for

their

various

Canada

Canada, In

2016, in

drop

expanded

2018,

and

each

new

on citizenship

citizenship.

including being

being

and

dealing

or French

The final

ceremony,

charged for,

posing

with

with,

This

a Certificate

or convicted

risk

demonstrate

a citizenship

country

a citi-zen

Canadian automati-cally

are turned of certain

(Citizenship

knowl-edge

judge

of

without

or convicted

Canadas 2011.

to

legislative

the

number

qualifying March

20).

naturalization

Former

for

senior and

policy

of people citizenship,

The Strengthening

rate

fell

immigration changes who needed and raised Canadian

to

82.7

official that to the

percent

down

crimes

of a

in

war crime

and Immigration

from

Andrew

tightened

Citizenship

and

85.6

requirements, knowledge

application Act,

percent

has attributed

residency

pass language citizenship

the

Griffith

passed

(See

of their

step in becoming

applications

charged a security

and to

where

with

in another

2019,

and

desire

March 31). The bill

tests

fee (Griffith, in

2014

authorities to override sections freedoms

and religion), legal rights,

Immigrants

on behalf

of citizenship.

Canadian

distinctiveness

with fundamental

of conscience

open.

may apply

English

Citizenship

investigated

humanity;

freedom

is relatively

and responsibilities

at a public

presents

can take

Charter

2014).

reported

before

against

newcomers

18, but parents

be able to speak rights

of citizenship

Canadian

reasons,

or abroad;

or a crime

the

oath

of the

of others,

in a written test or oral interview.

Canadians

losing

for

must be at least must also

oath

which allows provincial or federal

can be granted only

rights, for afive-year-period.

citizenship

They

the

Citizenship.

to the law

Quebecs

alsoinvokes Section 33 ofthe Charter of Rights and Freedoms,

The

hardships.

Canada

is to take the administers

undue

Canadian

is evaluated

accommodation.

does not violate the rights

citizenship

children.

knowledge

religious

exemptions

and does not impose

minor

for

affirms

church and state (Lowrie,

unde

Chapter 10.)

(including and equality

70

Chapter 3

the

Harper to

armed

Conservative

revoke

Canadian

citizenship

treason,

or spying,

or from

force

Canada.

of a country

This

election

controversial 2017, the

meeting

language After the

with limited Conservative

newcomers of obeying military

tolerate

spousal

or other Canadas

Following including

equal the

applying

for

years.

citizenship age range

1564

rules,

years to

citizenship

remain

a barrier

for

28).

a controversial

The guide

new

emphasized

volunteering, intended

of years

The

from

fees

In from

The number

of five

December

govern-ments

citizenship.

and

to

articulate

to

barbaric

guide

to

the impor-tance

knowing

the

coun-trys

Canadian

values

2011b): do not extend

honour

killings,

female

genital

cultural

practices

mutilation,

forced

mar-riage

violence. gay and lesbian

treatment

under

election,

references 31).

with

be revoked

and residency

test.

elections,

generosity

includes

2018, July

before

developed

new items

abuse,

2015

removing

(Wright,

in

gender-based

diversity

of and

had also

Canada,

and

2017,

of an

conflict

previous

cannot

application

citizenship

voting

of the

offences.

language

of ter-rorism,

members

armed

was reduced

citizenship

convicted

Canadian

citizenship

out

govern-ment

Canada.

or lose

Canada

the

as

in

many

acquire

requirements

(Harris,

It included

openness

repealed

to three

relaxed

their

and Immigration

Canadas

law

law,

history.

(Citizenship

that

the

for

engaged

born in

in

government

prepare

served

present

high

finances

who are

or terrorism

knowledge

allowing

citizens

group

so that

years,

rules

who have

individuals

people

of six

However,

new

spying,

government

immigrants The

out

and

surged.

armed

was amended

four

dual

Liberals

how

be physically

applications

help

to

of treason,

from

years.

2015, the

Act

had to

was shortened

1854

in

convicted

an applicant

from

dual citizens

even those

changes

Citizenship

dual citizens

also included

or an organized

would include

After their

for

government,

the to

the law, Liberals

barbaric

At the

Canadians, including

time

of

revising

practises

writing,

the full

access to civil

set about

cultural

who enjoy

the

the

marriage.

citizenship

as being

new

protec-tion

guide,

against

guide

had

Canadian

not

yet

been

released.

Summary and Conclusion Cultural diversity is part of Canadas DNA, a sociologi-cal fact that

will persist

intercultural complex

relationships

cultural

a unified

as international

Canadas

and

The challenge

community

of building

in a state that is

home

of democracy

Each day, public the

principles

democratic

officials

and

collective

and

ethnic

of freedom values

and

equality

are best served

whether

that

by treating

or

groups

should

may fully reflect

whether

enjoy special

participate

in the

whether includes

of

national

minorities.

minorities

group broader

Canadians the

accommodation

that

shifts

Their good

of the

they

to

gov-ernment liberal tensions in

other

a

members

of

national about

have

immigrant

integration and citizenship admitting

and

history.

ever-growing

will be states

watched

facing

How closely

similar

Canadian

relying criteria

adopting

policies

diversity

values.

The

and

accommodating

a

a

on ra-cially and

an

more open multicultural newcomers.

as it struggles

in

desir-ability

fundamen-tal

from

selection

Canada is under strain

democratic

minorities the

undergone

model to

poly-ethnic

of individual

attitudes

Canadian

of democ-racy and

a combination

Official diversity

goals

multinational

project has evolved

to

Right now,

deci-sions

require-ments

to

exclusionary

approach

the lofty in

grant

throughout

immigration back-ground, ethnic

so that

society.

agree

rights groups.

all citi-zens assimilationist

and

rights

has been to

nation-building

underpin

in the same way,regardless of their cultural

to fulfilling

government

of cultural

and good government.

must determine

good

state

to a multinational and polyethnic population is closely tied to questions

response

and

contribute to an increasingly

landscape.

political

migration

way that

Canadians

resolve

to re-spond upholds these

both at home and abroad

challenges

Canada and the Governance of Cultural Diversity andInternational

Migration

71

Discussion Questions 1. Should the state concentrate rights of its citizens,

collective rights that or ethnic

by other

public institutions

and religious

needs

the indi-vidual

would entitle national

groups specific

are not enjoyed 2. Should

on protecting

4. Should

or should it also recognize rights

minori-ties

Canada

of immigration

Do you think

accommodate

the cultural

ethnic

groups?

so, why? If not, 6.

policy

prioritize

or humanitarian

eco-nomic,

goals?

standards, Canadians have been rel-atively

supportive

Why or why not? 3. Should

immigration

reunification,

5. Byinternational

and powers that

Canadians?

of particular

Canadas family

and

these attitudes

multicultur-alism.

might change? If

why not?

Does multiculturalism

strengthen

or undermine

the

Canadian identity? admit

refugees than current

levels?

more immigrants

and

Why or why not?

7.

What is the

most effective

discrimination

against

method

ethnic,

for

states

racial,

to

com-bat

and reli-gious

minorities?

Further Reading Adams, M.(2017). Could it happen here? Canada in the age of Trump and Brexit. Toronto, ON: Simon & Schuster Canada. Behiels, M.(2005). Canadas francophone minority communities: Constitutional renewal and the winning of school governance. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Biles, J., Burstein, M., & Frideres, J. (Eds). (2008). Immigration and integration in Canada in the twenty-first century (Queens Policy Series #52). Kingston, ON: McGill-Queens University Press. Bouchard, G.(Trans. By H. Scott) (2015). Interculturalism: A

view from Quebec.Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Gagnon, A. (2014). Minority nations in the age of uncertainty: New paths to national emancipation and empowerment. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Kelley, N., & Trebilcock, M. (2010). The making of the mosaic: A history of Canadian immigration policy (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Kymlicka, W.(1995). Multicultural citizenship: Aliberal theory of minority rights. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Taylor, C.(2012). Multiculturalism: Examining the politics of recognition (expanded ed.). Edited and introduced by Amy

Gutmann. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton

University

Press

Chapter4

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

Image

CP

Gunn/The

Frank

In

November

need

2011, the

of suitable

housing.

First

Nation community

Pictured

of Attawapiskat

here, a one-room

in

shack in this

northern

Ontario

was in

desperate

community

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 4.1

Outline the basic features

of the

4.2a

Discuss the issues relating

to foreign

4.2b

Evaluate the

4.3

Examine the role of government

4.4

Discuss the extent

4.5

Examine the relationship economy.

72

Canadian

economy.

ownership

United StatesMexicoCanada

of economic

in the inequality

and investment.

Trade Canadian in

Agreement. economy.

Canada.

between the environment

and the

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

As

winter approached

First

Nation

in

community

was in

and

one-room

mouldy

contaminated

desperate houses.

Withlittle response

from

(a claim

(The

that

mounted,

Attawapiskat diamond some

In

the of

90 km

mine, it

workers.

As is

new

about

Parks

may start

and

to

As is

was later

ruled

common

writing,

often the

case,

the

and

Societys

the

Wildlands

League

in the

choice

between

jobs

an band

As public

community.

De Beers,

a leading

year

has

resulting that

and

the

gains

about

environment

hired

for

from

its

Victor

plans to

area, if it

outside council.

is responsible

De Beers

were divided and the

per

company

claimed

same

of Attawapiskat

mine.

that

misman-aged

Court.)

to the

million

mercury levels

Although

(Tango)

people

mining

methyl

contamination.

deposit the

Ontario,

mercury

mercury

mine another

in

$2

to the

Federal

homes

diamond

been

appointed

by the

by sup-plying

claimed

had

day charged

modular

conditions

emergency

government

government

about

was

of Parliament

world

of five years

per

Victor for

school

Member

to the

Canadian

a period

22

billion-dollar

and the

Party

inappropriate

lands

water,

The

sheds,

were unemployed.

story of third

Canadian

in the

Ontario.

uninsulated

and the

of $1300

send

of emergency northern

Democratic

The

over

agreed to

of the

in tents,

Cross responded

The a fee

the toxic

methyl

of

Spence).

traditional

Wilderness

and

At the time

mine.

west

brands

were living and running

New

community

months for

government

mercury

community.

by Chief

for several

Bay in

of Commons, The Red

a state

of James

community

area

House

given to the

uses the

of toilets

adults in the

and other essentials.

manager

Nations

2016,

been

Canadian

and reporting

high level

sheeting,

declared

many people

media attention.

rejected

about

shore

government,

of an outside

is

Spence

near the

a lack

of the

the

company,

First

had

finances

was also

Canadian

Theresa

as

the issue in the

plastic

vigorously

control

appointment

outrage

the

toilets,

million in funds

manager to

There 60 percent

raised

Chief

located

of shelter,

and international

wood stoves, $90

need

with oil. About

national

2011,

of Attawapiskat,

Charlie Angus repeatedly received

November

community

self-monitoring

mining.

mine had

close

the

a

Victor

the

consent

of the

giving

consent

to the

stirs

up controversy.

ChapterIntroduction Canada

is

one

Canadians

of the

generally

most prosperous, enjoy

and are satisfied the

conditions

third than

world in

many First

countries,

and groups

of people

pursuit

very

reduce

economic

have

its

growth,

damaging for

emissions

growth

in social

particularly

effects

Canada

on the

to fulfill

often

through natural

gases that

world.

of poor are larger

benefits

some

re-gions

tensions.

mining

and

environment.

oil

and

Further,

commitments

are responsible

expec-tancy,

Nevertheless,

to those

and political

its international

of greenhouse

the

and the rest of society

Economic

others, resulting

2011).

been compared

the rich

in

have along life

Development,

have

between

countries

well educated,

and

countries.

more than

difficult

are

Nations communities

developed

of rapid can

make it

of living,

developed

lives (Co-operation

and inequalities

of other

production,

will

a high standard

with their

a number

The gas

in

economically

for

it

to sub-stantially global

cli-mate

change.

The CanadianEconomy 4.1

Outline

Canada hands

of

the

basic features

has a basically privately

and the

free

owned and

of the

economy.

market, capitalist

companies

local

economic

Canadian

and

governments well-being

of

economy.

Most businesses

corporations. play

Nevertheless,

an important

role

in

are in the

national,

pro-vincial/territorial,

economic

devel-opment

Canadians.

The Role of Government Some businesses (termed Canadian Broadcasting Many

Crown

Governments hospitals, sometimes

Crown

corporations

(such

have looked

schools, led

governments

to

to

and light higher

corporations)

Corporation,

as Air Canada publicprivate

rail lines.

costs than

have reduced

are government

owned, including

VIA Rail, and, in some provinces, electricity

However, anticipated

regulation

and

Petro-Canada)

partnerships

for

the involvement (Morrow,

been such

of private

2014).

of business activities

have

projects

As

privatized. as building

businesses

well, in recent

and lowered

the

utilities.

has

times,

corporate taxes

73

74

Chapter 4

Canadian

governments

of private

businesses

do not generally and corporations

matters of public interest, competition

policy.

such

Nevertheless, in encouraging

try

the

to influence

gross

of government

national

Bank of Canada (a important

effects

(the supply

of

and

and taxation

Crown

on the

Canadian

money),

of the

accounts

and regulations

or cool

operates

economy

through

which affects interest

development.

rates

Canadian

from

its responsibility and the level

govern-ments

by adjusting of Canadas

the economy.

length

and

governments

over two-fifths

down

at arms

concerning

particularly

slightly

making

protection,

and local

economy,

for

that

decision

safety, environmental

business

to stimulate

corporation

laws

in the

provincial/territorial,

assisting

(which

directly

through

worker

functioning

spending

product)

and

national,

overall

themselves

other than

as product

are often involved

the level

involve

Likewise,

the

government)

for

has

monetary

policy

of inflation.

Economic Development Economic

historians

often

describe

Canada as a country

whose financial

well-being

hasrelied on the export of a few resource staples: the near-unparalleled seas, forests,

mountains,

and plains.

now Canada for the abundant furs to

nineteenth

source of revenues century.

century,

more recent

times,

with a high

proportion

Canadas

became interested

Prairie

oil, cars, and

century,

timber

New

wheat came to the fore as a major export. In have become

exports

going to the

historic (and, to some extent, current)

Canadas

leading

dependence

on a few staples

commodities

world

are subject to sharp fluctuations Exporting

in

demand

unprocessed

does not create manylong-lasting jobs, particularly

exports,

United States.

economic development.

and bust.

of

cen-tury

from

often been viewed as undesirable for long-term to cycles of boom

what is

Ontario became major export commodities.

minerals

of Canadas

in

Next, the export

from the early seventeenth

In the nineteenth

Brunswick and Quebec and wheatfrom Early in the twentieth

first

cod as well as whale oil for lamps.

Europe became aleading

until the early

Europeans

riches of its

has

Resource

and prices, leading

or lightly

processed

materials

with the development of labour-saving

modern technology.

Some natural resources (such as oil and minerals) are non-renewable of declining

importance

products)

over time.

have become

Some renewable

depleted

because of overexploitation.

exploitation can also damage the environment. sands

the

developments

worlds

more carbon

conventional

change.

quantities

and thus

as fish

and for-est

Natural

resource

For example, Albertas huge oil (tar)

of water and can release toxins into

one of

major freshwater river systems. The extraction of bitumen from the oil

sands releases than

use large

resources (such

dioxide

oil production

(a

major source

and thus

of greenhouse

adds to the

problem

gas emissions) of global

Although resource developments (and other pollution-creating

add to the countrys

gross domestic

is an imprecise

product

this

standard

indicator

of pros-perity

measure of how the country is doing asit does not take into

account the costs of damage to the environment Canadas economy

(GDP),

climate

activities)

and human

began to diversify in the later

health.

part of the nineteenth century

with

the production of consumer goods, such as clothing and shoes. Toward the end of the nineteenth

century

and in the first

decades of the twentieth

century,

heavy

industries

such asiron and steel, pulp and paper plants, machinery,and chemical plants wereestab-lished (Conrad

& Finkel, 2007). In the last decades ofthe twentieth

century,

Canadas

sector, aided by alow exchange rate for the Canadian dollar (allowing

man-ufacturing

goods to

be produced morecheaply than in the United States),flourished in areas such asautomo-bile production

and telecommunications.

More recently,

employment

in

manufacturing

hastended to decline while employment in health care, professional services, and public administration broadly

hasincreased.

As Table 4-1 indicates, the bulk of employment

defined service sector. In recent years, services (particularly

banks andinsurance companies) have become particularly important

is now in the

services provided

by

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

Table 4-1 Employment byIndustry,September2018(in Thousands) All industries

18 693.8

Goods-producing

sector

3 934.1 (21.0%)

Agriculture Forestry,

fishing,

mining,

oil and

gas

Utilities

(1.5%)

345.2

(1.8%)

151.5 (0.8%)

Construction

1 446.8 (7.7%)

Manufacturing

1 713.1

Services-producing

sector

2 778.0 (14.9%)

Transportation Finance,

and

warehousing

insurance,

Professional,

real

scientific,

Business,

building,

Educational

services

Health

and

care

Information,

estate,

and leasing

and technical

services

and other support

social

culture,

Accommodation Other

(9.2%)

14 759.7 (79.0%)

Trade

997.2

(5.3%)

1 189.3

(6.3%)

1 458.8 (7.8%)

services

769.8 (4.1%)

assistance

1 340.3

(7.2%)

2 410.9

(12.9%)

and recreation

and food

782.6 (4.2%)

services

1 241.7 (6.6%)

services

Public

administration

SOURCE: from

277.5

Statistics

Canada.

(2018c).

Table

14-10-0355-02

Employment

by industry,

monthly,

813.4

(4.4%)

977.8

(5.2%)

seasonally

adjusted

(x1000).

Retrieved

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1410035502

The Canadian

economy

has always relied

heavily

on international

trade.

Before

the United Kingdom adopted free trade policies in the 1840s, Canadian exports bene-fited from the preferential treatment

ended,

treatment

Canadian trade

far, Canadas largest trading As Table

4-2 shows,

given to British colonies. shifted

toward

the

United

After British

preferential

States, which became, by

partner. (See Figure 4-1.)

energy

products,

along

with automobiles

and consumer

goods, are Canadas majorexport goods.

Figure

4-1

(Millions).

Merchandise Trade: Canadas Top 10 Principal Trading PartnersSeasonally

August

Adjusted, Current Dollars

2018 Germany

405

1,375

Netherlands 431 466

U.K.

1,153

France United

States

691

South

Korea

330 506 37,734

425

32,388

Japan

653

Italy 1,019 426

1,061

Mexico

555

China

777 2,257 1,803 3,613

Exports

Imports

SOURCE:

Statistics

Canada,

The

Daily.

Table

12-10-0011-01.

Retrieved

from

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181005/t001b-eng.ht

75

76

Chapter 4

Table 4-2 InternationalMerchandise TradeSeasonallyAdjusted,CurrentDollars (Millions) Year-to-date

Commodity

Exports

February

2019

($

Resource

products

millions)

Industrial

products

machinery

add

year

15 139

1.2

-9.3

9306

5.5

2918

4.4

34 030

5.6

3387

8.3

5755

8.9

2511

8.4

5787

1.5

transportation

equip.

7279

-4.0

9418

-1.5

2182

12.2

2830

43.5

9.8

10 240

5.5

3.3

50 865

4.2

5755 47 971

up

change

& equip.

Statistics dont

previous

millions)

21 115

goods

SOURCES:

percent

($

& equipment

All commodities

Totals

year 2.5

Motor vehicles

Consumer

previous

Imports

machin.

Electronic./electric.

Aircrafts/other

Year-to-date

change

25 589

Energy Non-resource

percent

Canada as

Special

Table

12-10-0121-01,

transactions

International trade

and

merchandise

Other

balance

trade

of

data

payments

by

North

American

adjustments

are

not

Product

Classification

included.

Retrieved

System from

(NAPCS)seasonally

adjusted.

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/

tv.action?pid=1210001101

Canadas Tradeand Foreign Investment Agreements 4.2a

Discuss the issues relating

4.2b

Evaluate the

Economic like

globalization

most other

system,

There

trade

has

is

has

and

been

economy

foreign and

an important

feature increasingly

effects

a greatly

growth

agreements

contemporary

world.

in the

economy free

of

have

political

Agreement.

embedded

international

with the

have led to important

of the

Canadian

increased

along

investment

on the

and investment.

Trade

has become

powerful

and investment,

ownership

StatesMexicoCanada

countries,

which

money,

United

to foreign

and flow

Canada, economic

government of

multinational

important

global

goods,

poli-cies. services,

corporations.

effects

on the

Free

Canadian

controversies.

The WorldTrade Organization Canada

World Trade

Organization

(WTO) An organization (including including

trade

barriers

Canada) that lowering and implement-ing

procedures for dispute settlements.

that

which replaced of 164 coun-tries

establishes global rules of trade,

was one of the

Tariffs (GATT) As

GATT

well as lowering

procedures

after 34 claims

1995, and

have resulted

in

dispute-settlement regarding

export

developed

makes it

countries

would

stop

trade

one country

subsidies

dealt

rich

for

to stop by the

other

poorer subsidies

end

rules the

retaliatory

by the

for

164 countries.

Only

a small

against

had 18 claims

to

immediately

Canada) compete while the

proportion

another

Canada

mem-ber

had initiated against

WTO has been the

(including

countries

of 2018 (BBC,

of trade

and

(WTO),

WTO has dispute-resolution

action

and

on Trade

Organization

As of 2018,

countries

counties

Agreement

by a panel.

have failed.

issue

by the

difficult

agreed

global barriers,

taking

against

General

World Trade

and adjudication

controversial used

the

has established non-tariff

issues

founded

1948. The

procedures

trade

subsidies

This

that

effect in

consultation

One important,

farmers.

in

tariff

involving

of disputes

23 countries

came into

it.

use of agricul-tural to

fairly.

protect In

their

2015,

developing

the

coun-tries

2015).

Canadas North American Free Trade Agreements The pursuit

of free trade

manycountries, including by encouraging

agreements is an important

aspect of the economic

policies of

Canada. Freetrade is viewed asincreasing the wealth of na-tions

businesses to produce goods and services on which they have a com-parative

advantage such that they can sell those products in the global

market. Consumer

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

can benefit because

by having

of greater

free trade

of their

global

workers

Likewise,

tend

on imported

enhance

the

produce.

in countries

free trade

agreements

protect

free

of governments agreements

are often

trade

to include

protection

and

copyrights),

agricultural

that

provide.

These

measures

affect

of patent

and the can

and

government that

public

have

critics

businesses

pursued

many

while limiting

& Hersh, 2015). that

(including

services

prod-ucts

argue that

documents

property

products,

on services

and

go beyond

pharmaceutical public

works,

major comprehensive

such

matters

typically

of the

tariffs

include

and

free trade

binding

to regulate

(Johnson,

to regulate

their

2015). countrys

and restrictions

and

producers

rules

protection,

ability

countrys

(taxes)

corporations

as environmental

investors

ability

elements

foreign

governments

of foreign

a governments

to certain

removing

that

agreements

medicines,

protection

also limit

assistance

of some

and limi-tations

by the cheaper

good (Stiglitz

and complex

do not only involve

are traded

affordability

profitability

on governments.

decades.

agreements

on goods

Overall,

are

globalization

by high tariffs

also be threatened

of intellectual

wages and ben-efits

workers,

protected

labour.

very lengthy

Many countries

in recent

Free trade

the

prices

of unrestricted

the

and its influence

for the common

cultural

products.

agreements

of business

can

critical

to reduce

mobile than

who have been

or enhance

to legislate

are often

at lower

where the costs of production

more

with low-paid

Trade

patents

power

are available

businesses

much

Manufacturers

companies

interests

to countries

being

many farmers

from

the ability

labour

move production

hurts

of goods that

can pressure

and finance

to

free trade

However,

competition

or to

With business

and free trade

of a wider range

competition.

because

lowest.

a choice

77

and

labour the

can

compli-ance

rights,

countrys

Free trade

the econ-omy,

agreements

economy

and

provide

economy.

The North American Free Trade Agreement, 1992 Freetrade with the United States has, at times, been a very controversial issue.

Historically,

would

devastate

Canadian

their

that Canadian culture Canada a virtual

of the

In the decades after Automotive

businesses.

feared that

Canadian

cheap

nationalists

Canadian po-litical

American

would make

United States.

World WarII, the

Canada free

Agreement

prod-ucts

have been concerned

would bethreatened and that American influence

satellite

United States and

manufacturers

of tariffs,

(the Auto

majority of goods flowed

particularly

Pact)

after the

was adopted in

between the

CanadaUnited

1965.

States

Nevertheless,

many

Canadian businesses worried that the United States would apply its trade remedy laws

against imports

from

sold atless than their fair In 1988, atentative countries.

Canada that

were deemed to be government

subsidized

or

value.

agreement on a Free Trade Agreement

wasreached between the two

Subsequently, the 1988 Canadian election focused

almost entirely on free trade,

withthe Liberal party and the New Democratic Party strongly opposed to the agreement. Although these two the

Progressive

Conservatives

parties gained 52 percent of the vote compared to only 43 percent for

Conservative (PC) won the

party that supported

majority of seats. Subsequently

U.S. Congress passed the Free Trade Agreement,

In

1992, Mexicojoined

American

Free Trade

economic integration generally parts that

involves

Canada and the

Agreement. in

North

the three

go into the final

countries

Agreement, the

United States in forming established

For example, the in the

processes

production

of

tariffs

eliminating

restrictions

forbidding

North

of automobiles

manufacturing

important

of

North American Free Trade Agreement A 1992 Canada, Mexico

assembly.

on goods traded

the

quite a high level

level

The provisions of NAFTA included eliminating

Progressive

Canadian Parliament and the

which came into effect on January 1, 1989.

This agreement

America.

the the

in

among the three countries

on the export

of almost

all goods

new laws and regulations to protect service industries

(NAFTA)

agreement the that

United

States,

established

of economic North

between

America

and

a high

integration

78

Chapter 4

requiring

that investments

investments

(although

domestically

owned

forbidding

it levies

government

from

Countervailing Tariffs

levied

by the

on imported order

to

offset

provided the

goods the

by the

exporting

country than duties price,

that their

fair

applied thereby industry

competition.

of

are

sold

value.

another at less

from

in the

shut

unfair

a

been the target

that the

the

Canadian

of the

dispute

NAFTA

did

2012

the

determine

applied the

lumber.

for

has cost

using

provision to

accept

Furthermore, policies

found

while

such

as

themselves

American

com-panies

rather

the

two

of

meaningful

North America.

highly

reported

policies and human rights,

that

and

profitable and

Canada

had

Mexico

and

as

2018, January the

16).

United

States,

(Clarkson,

governing

Unlike the

court. Murphy

education,

as often

government

and

Newfoundland

provinces

Canada,

be based

a public

Mobil

million (CBC,

economies

of any

than

of

times

to

expropria-tion

could

on research,

Alternatives

a supranational

establishment

companies

or opportunities

by Exxon

province

$314

investorstate

through

profitability

government

more than

its

foreign

compensation

tribunal

the

Canada

been

investments for

a case

Policy

the

has

future

in the

mechanism

for social

their

developing

spending

oversee, and enforce rules for no guidelines

It can

protectionist Canada

to a

countries

was unwilling

11 has allowed

upheld

because

not create

A deci-sion

by the

Although

States

NAFTA

Claims

in integrating

did

not lead to

of Chapter

oil companies

This

significance

laws,

was reached

were correctly

projects,

companys

Centre

remedy

duties.

chosen

based in

made in a private

their

trade

special

of softwood

makers

with the measures

projects.

the

in

in

country.

United

were harming

government

States combined.

Despite its Mexico,

quotas

protection

are limited.

duty

adopting

expropriation.

being

increase

powers

of that

provision

tribunal

Canadian

Overall,

offered

to the

duties can be appealed

U.S. government-funded

affect

decisions

had required

NAFTA

United

Canadian

exports

no agreement

result

of persons

the

the

steel

alleged

that

NAFTA

oil resources

develop,

the

energy

American

and

exports

NAFTAs

to

up

levying

on Canadian

that they

the

United

on

bid

from

States from

controversial

with

Oil against

and

to the

prohibiting

new cultural

could

made

For example,

actions

growth,

the

of large

of its cultural industries,

against

that

Canadas United

tantamount

For example,

training.

Canadian

concession,

disputes,

mechanism.

on government

Labrador

reduce

protection

precedents

trade

the

generally

or actions

offshore

as domes-tic

takeovers

exported

(and

the tribunals

and

out of bidding

governments

for

on energy

or anti-dumping

country

regarding

law.

dispute-resolution sue

However, of the

prevent

particularly

this

tribunal

some

verdict not

could A

proposed

Canada

be exempted

countervailing

to resolve

did

to

subsidy

standards

America

the

of

the same

marketing boards that set production

to retaliate

refused

rules

review

Buy

do-mestic

the right

dispute. the

tribunals

its

taxes in that

of agricultural

dispute-settlement

NAFTA

higher

restrictions

an unfair

special

whether

largely

These

to increase protecting

government

the judicial

the

be treated

screening

consumed

had hoped

constituted

has helped

Duties from

American

involved

country

on goods

Canada

only

government

Anti-Dumping Duties

in

subsidies

imposing

States retaining

binational

govern-ment

countries

farmers

to impose

Duties

placing

on energy

Although

what

the

Canada to continue its existing

United

on

allowing

from

the retention

protect

allowing

the

other

States)

allowing to

the

companies)

Canada

States than

United

from

2008).

institutions

European

to

Union, it

and it barely addressed the

environment or the mobility of workers across national borders. Instead, NAFTAlimited the ability

of governments

to adopt

policies that interfere

with trade

The United StatesMexicoCanada President NAFTA to

Trump in

exclude

2018

was strongly were

Canada

were adopted.

very

from

Alast-minute

critical

difficult.

a new

Trump

agreement

agreement

of

NAFTA,

Agreement, 2018 and

made a deal unless

the with

his demands

was reached

and investment.

negotiations Mexico for

on September

to

revise

but threatened

changes

in

NAFTA

30, 2018, creating

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

United StatesMexicoCanada by the its

new

Despite the on

agreement, of

Canada

was required with

steel

to inform

it can

months

the

writing,

from

to

China).

can

withdraw

in

the

three

tariffs

lasts

for

North

the

American in

coun-tries

2018 to

replace

NAFTA.

a free trade

agreement

between

reached

May 2019.

USMCA

from

mar-ket. An agreement

(milk)

negotiate

The

Agreement (USMCA)

Among

of high

but ended

States if it intended

A country

dairy

imposition

continued

(presumably

NAFTA.

Canadas

Trumps

aluminum

United

be renewed.

greatly

more access to

of

and

country

written

does not differ

were given

a non-market

although six

USMCA

at the time

Canadian

agreement

giving

The

U.S. farmers

U.S. imports

years

Agreement (USMCA) to replace NAFTA, pending ap-proval The United StatesMexicoCanada

U.S. Congress.

provisions,

79

16

after

notice.

Other Economic and Trade Agreements The

European

(CETA)1

UnionCanada

eliminates

European

almost

Union mutual

and

a commitment USMCA

It

to

and

and

product

standards.

that

include

an extended

in

costs

for

CETA allow

CETA is

as

concern

health

corporations

Trade

Canada

services

well

for

than such

and

certification

property

provisions

prescription

The investorstate

to challenge

NAFTA

as transpor-tation,

professional

patented

invest-ments,

provision,

broader

as

and the

and

services

are the intellectual

care.

Agreement

a dispute-settlement

access to

of protection

Canadian

between

professions,

communications

period

traded

concerning

concerning

Of particular

and

provisions

protection.

policies

Economic

products

has

environmental

insurance,

increase

on

also

of regulated

as it includes

travel,

provisions

all tariffs

countries.

recognition

the

could

Comprehensive

drugs

that

dispute-settlement

domestic laws through

indepen-dent

tribunals. The

Comprehensive

after

Trump

came

into

withdrew effect

and the

in

December

Japan,

Mexico, Australia,

include

enhanced

able to

economically,

benefit

2018.

environmental

through

tariff

Trans-Pacific

States

from

Among

the

protection

proposed

the

11

and

dispute-settlement as several

Partnership

the

Malaysia, and Vietnam.

are enforceable

their

Progressive

United

member

basic

workers

in the

are

Canada,

aspects of CPTPP

rights.

As well, CPTPP

formed

Agreement,

countries

The progressive

mechanism.

countries

(CPTPP),

Trans-Pacific

These

Canada

have

aspects

should

agreed

be

to lower

protections.

Canada also has free trade of individual

agreements

in force

or in negotiations

with a number

countries.

ForeignInvestment and Ownership Historically,

Canadas

finance

the

building

growth

of the

new

economy of

canals,

country.

has relied

quite

railways,

Beginning

and

late

heavily

other

in the

on foreign

nineteenth

essential

century,

companies set up branch plants in

Canada to avoid the tariffs

products

market

for

for

American

foreign sectors

the

growing

industry.

investment, of the

Canadian Although

they

economy,

and

Canadian

to

such

as banking

obtain

governments

have placed limitations

investment

infrastructure

the have

on foreign

and insurance,

raw

many

American

materials

generally

mass

the

on manufactured

ownership

the

to to

needed

media,

up in

welcomed

in certain airlines,

Branch Plants Factories

key and

telecommunications. In the the

1960s,

Canadian

concerns

economy.

and petroleum saw

foreign

were raised At the time,

industries

investment

as

about about

were foreign desirable,

the

high level

one-half

of American

of Canadas

owned (largely

arguing

that

it

American

brought

1 Almost all of its provisions were approved by Canada in 2016 and by the European in 2017. However, in July 2018, Italys deputy prime minister said that Italy Nevertheless, almost all of the provisions of CETA arein force.

ownership

manufacturing,

owned).

increased

of min-ing,

Some

economic

Union and all of its national leg-islatures would not ratify the agreement.

that

other and

a company

locations sell

products

markets

sets

to

pro-duce in

ad-ditional

80

Chapter 4

activity

and

markets

employment

outside

to

Canada,

greater

plants

the

United

and

only buy

and

for

financial

dividends,

and

as the and

and

often

fees from operating

executives

from

Canadian

nationalists

Canadian

independence

or to

doing

in

new led

Critics

Canada

Act that

business

that

establish

the

by increasing

companies

to

that

most of the came

also registered

of

concerns

to

political

laws, compa-nies

More

generally,

ownership

and

that

American

Cuba.

American

from

of profits,

American-owned

communist

American

in

an outflow

were subject

level

functions

enterprises to

prevented

with

high

noted

branch

concentrated

parent

they

lead-ing

American

States,

American

and

industry,

the

management

ownership

Canada.

Enemy

feared

United

by their

while foreign

the

the

well as their

Furthermore,

technology

Canadian that

in

as

modern

for

limited

companies with

to

argued

market.

management

Trading

Critics

supplies

companies

institutions,

access

competitiveness

activities

Canadian

Canadian

American-owned such

facilitated

prices.

parts

were

the

out

Canadian

their

development

States,

producing to

and lower

purchased

research

Canada,

and increased

efficiency

often

their

funds

to

cultural

limited

influence

on

Canada.

Foreign Investment In

1973,

Agency

the

Canadian

government

(FIRA).

This

the

companies

to

take

of significant outright,

to

Agency

organization,

Invest

The ability

give

national Overall,

company

States

preferential

Agreement

treatment

screen to

the

ability

1985, the

Canada

Free Trade

Act,

promote

to

greatly

foreign

invest-ment.

also limited or to

companies.

reject

reduced

government

foreign

NAFTA

with

Investment

a new

investment

Canadian-owned ability

Foreign

attract

and

not

negotiate

which

and

were

were rejected

to

Instead

American

that

proposals

investments. to

has retained

Canadian

Canadian

government

hands.

up to their

promises

by corporations

owned

governments, Resources

In

was formed

to

businesses

Review by foreign

the

adopt

poli-cies

Nevertheless,

investment

that

could

security. the

in

not live

Canada,

proposals

some

Canada.

foreign

government

cabinet

for

Investment

investment

by the Investment

assessing

in

Canadian

Canadian

harm

in

CanadaUnited

of the that

the

role

few

Foreign to reject

up new

government

more benefits

was replaced

or set

Although Canadian

the

government

businesses

Canada.

gave the

achieve

governments

established

Canadian

Canadian

to

agency

firms

Review the

over

benefit

the

foreign

allowed

has

by Foreign

It

has rarely

of net

benefit.

or controlled

been

intervened

has also been reluctant

to

keep

penalize

The takeover

by foreign

controversial.

State-Owned

to

of

major

governments,

(See

Box 4-1:

The

a home-grown

companies

that

Canadian

especially Appetite

do

compa-nies undemo-cratic

for

Canadian

Enterprises.)

Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreements Foreign

investment

ensure

that

country

foreign

or a foreign

investors

with the

37 countries. has

been

The criticized

promotion

company

investing

same

that

promoted in

Canada

the

rights

and

CanadaChina

in FIPA

to

natural

in

(Van

agreement

Canada)

could

in

2014 for

laws

and

conservation,

that

2014). it

are

a

would

the

as domestic

same had

minimum

regulations

another

FIPAs

with

of 15 years,

concerning rights,

Conservative attract

to

in

particularly The

designed

investing

Canada

labour

be challenged,

Harten, hoped

are treated

As of 2018,

adopted

Canadian

(FIPAs)

companies

obligations.

resource

as these Canada

agreements

Canadian

FIPA,

as a threat

peoples,

investments

protection

(whether

protection, with Indigenous

and

investors

more

and by

en-vironmental

treaties

Chinese

re-source

government Chinese

invest-ment

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

81

Box 4-1 The Appetite for Canadian Resources by Foreign State-Owned Enterprises On February

26,

2013,

Company (CNOOC) producer, for

because

To

3000

promise,

2014). In

2013,

Petronas,

purchased

Progress

a

However,

Canadian

and

Resources, for

2014

often led to concern enterprises While ownership

made promises to build

natural gas (LNG) facility in

British

increased

Columbia.

about

Petronas cancelled the project in 2017.

Canadian

state

In the

Pacific

Railway Later,

various

bankrupt

Railway

(privatized

was

today

controlled

did

not

operated

have

the

into

Air

Canada

to

helping

heavily the

shape

sparsely

maintaining

CN).

national (CBC),

involved

by

essential

in

the

the

and to

some

cases

service

or

Canadian

exports Canadas

land-mass.

consolidating National

Canadian

TransCanada radio

Canadian

the

Canadian

Likewise,

continues

the

populated

government-owned

(formerly

provide

to

subsidized

directly

called

first

proved

capability

the

now

Canadas

in

across got

and

Corporation

involvement

to turn

links

government

1995

1988.

role

govern-ment

Airlines)

television be a

because

until

network,

Crown

because

the

corporation.

private

the

it

business

service

was

not

a profit.

Business Regulation Governments business Packaging labelling

affect For

and

Labelling

various

and remote able to

licences.

for

help

a basic

(CRTC,

(such

as

One objective

$25 per

more channels

month

The

Canadian

cable

accurate

and

meaning-ful

government

that

CRTC requires package

It also

for

the

Canadians that

and agency)

licences.

requirements)

CRTC is to ensure

of

Consumer

Radio-television

and cable

TV or satellite

regulation

of the

Canadian

content

As well, the

the

authority

a semi-independent broadcasting

of the

access.

through

the

by requiring

products.

will receive

have Internet

economy under

consumers

consumer

companies conditions

areas

purchase

option

Act

of the

regulations

Commission

which

broadcasting

sectors

example,

of prepackaged

Telecommunications determines

various

activity.

well, the 2018 to

of $1 billion for

in rural

customers

with

es-tablishes

use of

be

a pick-and-pay

corporations

Canada,

by undemocratic

by companies Canadian

in

are state-owned

resources.

government

build

companies

in

Broadcasting

Government

likely

CP) to

rail

in

a significant

Canadian

Canadian

and

privatized

Canadian

played

the

(now

the

owned

has

past,

state-owned

million (revised in

opposition

4.3 Examine the role of government in the Canadian economy. The

As

by foreign

new threshold

Governmentandthe Economy economy.

oil sands.

by foreign-based

and

largest foreign investors

purchase,

state-owned

than in exceptional

of other foreign investments.

Although the

the Petronas

at $330

than the

Although investment

enter-prise,

in the

of investments

would remain

about the take-over natural resources,

declared in 2012 that foreign

new takeovers

million) rather

review

a major owner

$6 billion.

initially rejected

$398

of Canadas

would be barred (other

for review

enterprises

public concern

proportion

government

cases) from threshold

& Lewis,

state-owned

with considerable

investors

management.

lost their jobs in

it approved the deal after the company a large liquefied

the

in

oil sands,

senior

Malaysian

Energy

of a significant

govern-ment,

headquarters

program (Cattaneo

shale gas properties,

Canadian government

Canadian

Albertas and

many employees

of a major cost-cutting

Faced

oil

was controver-sial,

Nexens

in

as a result

of Canadian

of the

employees

Oil

a Chinese state-owned

keep

its investment

Nexens

Despite this

to

Offshore

major Canadian

The takeover

approval

promised

Calgary, increase

National

Nexen, a

CNOOC is

gain the

CNOOC retain

China

U.S. $15.1 billion.

particularly enterprise.

the

purchased

such as to

some

enterprises, in-cluding governments.

CNOOC

may facili-tate

China, it also raises

control

has of the

ofimportant

con-cerns natural

82

Chapter 4

Regulations

often

do not restrict the

natural

take into

free

the

(a

process

the

products

have

has

known

been

and

been

corpora-tions in

protect-ing

do not

environment,

projects

processes

to

normally

regulations

are approved)

a particular

if they

are environmentally

from

can

has often

of the

help

and

For

use of guide-lines,

the

that

of Forest

certifies

beneficial,

Forest

by

certification

example,

socially

the

In

regula-tions

self-regulation

organization

about

costly,

decisions.

been

economy,

appropriate,

being

mandatory

government,

nonprofit

more information

for

business

organizations.

an international

(For

there and

sector

by independent

interests

efficient

move away

business

is

valuable.

business

Instead,

between

in

by

a tendency

Council

operations

large

important goods

natural

economically

as deregulation).

involved

Stewardship

the

major new

criticized with

agreements

businesses

very

of producing

that

damage.

there

voluntary

ensure

are also

costs

before

and interfering

decades,

the

of damaging

assessments

regulations

time-consuming, recent

and try to

Regulations

Because

consequences

environmental Many

consumers

competition.

environment

to limit

protect

environment.

account

(including

help to

for-est

and

Stewardship

eco-nomically

Council,

go to ca.fsc.org.)

Assistanceto Business Canadian

governments

growth

by

being

opposed

have sought

to

government

to

incentives Assistance processes

and to export

Governments research.

of the

highest

government

also

advantage.

Canadian

other

advanced

research

and

development,

productive

Academies,

some

Ontario

$3.8

particular

as

businesses

and

and

modernize

billion

to

have

pro-vided

communities.

their

for

business has

graduates

facilities

and

leading

to

hand,

education

have

Canada

world.

The

be used

for

tended

(Council

have

Canadian economic behind

devoted

to

less

inno-vative

somewhat

competitors

and to

to lag

expenditures

economy

and

be productive

helped

can

of their

Canadian

of its

for

in the that

other

proportion the

support

funding

development

on the

the making

than

many

governments

or in

their

essential

and

businesses, in

economic

of business

Canadian

Canada

Likewise,

through

of university

countries

and

is

research

2009, the

to

to foster think

in fact

Motors

Canada

government

proportions funds

try

abroad.

business

Provincial

in

to companies

products

workforce

competitive.

in

to

we often

economy,

bankruptcy.

provided

help

An educated

globally one

also

the

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to locate

been their

in

to

their

companies

economy

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For example,

billion

prevent

has also often

in the

business.

intervention

$10.6

help

for

to

assistance.

contributed Canada

participated

assistance

government

governments Chrysler

have

providing

of

Canadian

2009).

Managementofthe Economy Early

Canadian

through

such in

War II

building period

of the

idea

economy 1930s

instead of

that

British

of the economist

a deficit

down

was needed.

when The

avoid

a

liberal

John

Maynard

economy

development

manufactured it

smooth

growth belief

was not

in

out the

governments

until

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of the socialist

market

influential,

tendencies

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postWorld the function-ing

consequences

became

stimulus

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Paper

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economy, including

a free

a surplus

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of support

Keynes

needed

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to the

classical

Canadian

the

more active

a return

respond

should the

in

However,

played

to and

government

running

active

on imported

infrastructure.

governments

of the

Furthermore, the ideas

were

as tariffs

essential

that

overall

Depression

the

governments measures

market

when

on Employment

by

cooling an

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

Incomes (1945) reflected the themes of Keynesian economics, to (quoted

ensure

in of

Bothwell,

to

economic

diminish

prosperous

1970s, of

out

private

free

World

growth

investment

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and

High

unemployment and

taxes

business

insurance excessive

perspective

maintained

consensus

of a

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interests

and

perspective inflation

government

in

the

A perspective

sup-port

economy

state

stimulation

in

welfare

when

generally

was challenged,

ended

with

was

the

the

incentives

were

of neo-liberalism,

such

disrupting

a purer free

period for

the

of

for

hard

economy.

free

work

cooling

when

inflation

mid-1990s, deficits

Conservative

government

the

and

Liberal

debt,

government,

programs

government

of Jean

major cuts to

government

by Stephen

Harper,

made led

and the federal

public

Chrtien,

and

and invest-ment, the

ideo-logical

would restore

faced

with large

spending.

Neo-Liberalism

A decade

made substantial

perspective

based on a strong belief in a gov-ernment free market system with the later,

cuts to

role

many

of government

to a bare

service.

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reduced,

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globalization

of income

and

generated

in recent

in

Canada.

innovations

by the

Canadian

investment

have increased

economy.

the total

However,

income

amount inequal-ity

decades.

Income Inequality The increase than

the

in

the richest percent

1981 to

Development, reported

10.3

highest

paid

of the

47.9

tended

of total

income

(Statistics

officers

of

2018, January

G7 countries

Toronto,

source

increased

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difficult

on social

the

in

other taxes

benefits

to

is

8.1 and

of taxpayers

2014,

November

18).

corporations

earned

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of the average

had the lowest

particularly

wealth

(with

bottom

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increase

for

from

Co-operation

1 percent

Canada

wealth

2012, the

their

Economic

more

example,

the top

Canada,

corporate

dramatic. the

tax

most people

to

the

buy their

rising first

20 per-cent

accounting 2.1 percent of

with

20 percent

38 percent

wealth,

has only

of families

while the

by only

The top

10 percent

The concentration

20 percent

in

top

40 percent

25).

by 80 percent,

general

or impossible

and some

A reduction

1999

much For

2018).

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wealth

class 2014).

of national income

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worth)

of total

wealth),

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incomes

(net

Canada,

upper Myles,

greater than the $49,738 earnings 1). In

percent

of total

(Statistics

share

of data,

major

Canada,

wealth

has 67.5

increased

made it

(PWC

in total

2015).

their

percent

executive

the &

2010 (Organisation

a different

to increase.

the lowest

in

benefited (Banting

Using

percent

incomes

percent

million in 2016, 209 times

wealth

has classes

2014).

of families

total

income

working

of Canadians increased

(MacDonald,

Inequality

for

and

12.2

chief

of $10.4 rate

Canadian

1 percent

in

worker

total

lower-middle

wealth the

highest

of families

(Uppal cost

of has

with

& LaRochelle-Ct, of

house

housing

in

has

Vancouver,

cities. on higher-income has increased

earners

inequality

in

and reduced disposable

government (after-tax)

spend-ing income.

A

own

substantially

global free trade

and barriers

inequality

and technological

wealth

has increased

of economic

individu-als

for their

taxes

flow

Discuss the extent

reduced

minimum,

responsible well-being,

4.4

is

economy

is rampant.

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In the

the

market.

prosperity.

the

and

economy

investment

of the

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market system

of the

business

the

government

eco-nomic

assistance

the

managing

crowding

efficiency

as social

on

through

weak

as a com-bination

of the

with

programs

were reducing

long blamed

efficiency

interfered

government

demands

the

spending

was claimed,

union

was

A broad

and labour

interfering

and

p. 57).

development

economic

it

of employment

1989,

the

with its call for gov-ernment Keynesian Economics

War II.

of

regulations,

market.

and

stagnation

The

level

& English,

Keynesian

economic

stable

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after

the

growth.

and

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the

a high

Drummond,

Keynesian

helped

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that

83

pur-sued,

to the inter-national

of finance

removed

and

84

Chapter 4

Supporters

of the

Occupy

movement

gather

on

2012, in

Torontos

mark the first 39-day

Toronto

October

St. James

anniversary

occupation

15, Park to

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of the

park.

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variety

of tax breaks (including

registered

retirement

savings

accounts) are used to a greater extent by higher-income lower-income

had less than

most likely

to

be in

50 percent poverty

of the

for long

annual periods

4554, single parents, recent immigrants, people.

sav-ings

earners than by many

Canadians.

In 2014, 13.0 percent of Canadians could as they

plans and tax-free

Canada ranked

be considered median of time

as being in poverty,

household were single

persons with disabilities,

20 out of 31 industrialized

income.

countries

persons

Those aged

and Indigenous

in 2013 in terms

of the

extent of poverty; countries such as Denmark, France, the United Kingdom, and Poland

had lower

levels

of poverty

measure, see Box 4-2: Income

(Government

Inequality

and

of Canada, 2016a). For a different Poverty

in

Canada:

An International

Comparison. Particularly

high proportions

of people

with low incomes

are found

among

unat-tached

persons aged 1824 (58.1 percent withlow incomes in 2008), unattached females

Box 4-2 Income Inequality and Povertyin Canada: AnInternational Comparison On a scale from (2017)

A to

has graded

D, the

Canadas

Conference

performance

Board

of

on a number

Canada ofindi-cators

compared withthe performance of other high-income, advanced

countries.

Employment (4th of 16 countries)

Low inflation (2nd of 16 countries)

B Grade Joblessness Income

Gender wage gap (13th of 16 countries) Poverty (13th of 16 countries) Unemployment

A Grade Life satisfaction

C Grade

Labour productivity

D Grade Economic

Income

among

inequality

youth (9th of 15 countries)

(13th of 16 countries) (3rd of 16 countries)

rate (12th of 16 countries) growth (13th of 16 countries)

growth (9th of 16 countries)

per capita (11th of 16 countries)

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

Do you

know

meal is coming poverty as the

increased decades.

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(29.0 percent), Indigenous visible

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senior

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2010). child

On the

declined

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Indigenous Another banks.

In

indicator

2018,

Canada,

about

policies

(with

the

most provinces

transfers

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income

exception

employment have

of living.

no longer

of the

Human

Disabilities,

poverty in

per-cent)

by 2000,

2012.

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in

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2014).

banks

an average

face

(such

and

United

social

tax

system

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as the

on the

widespread

each

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month

(Food

of 235 000 people

States

and

rates

of inequality

insurance less

than

Switzerland).

substantially

assistance

has become tax

extent

poverty

has decreased

not increased

Banks

are home-less

than

in

other

to

match increases as high-income

the

middle

Western

decades,

progressive

class

and

pov-erty. assis-tance)

For example,

in recent

(welfare)

less

and

and social

eli-gibility and in the indi-viduals

benefit

from

As well, the tendency to shift taxation from incomes GST/HST)

reduces

the redistributive

effect of taxation

& Myles, 2014).

Why have governments few

on

With

to end child 19.1 percent

as employment

inequality

reduced taxes on investments. (Banting

(5.8

unattached

Committee

Canada is the

effects

(such

insurance

The income

to consumption

night,

have important

government

and taxes

for

in

seniors among

of Persons

(Ogrodnik,

used food

given

high

(especially

2015).

Government

countries

1989 to

families

among

Standing Status

resolution in

850 000 individuals

poverty

relatively

Commons

of poverty

on any

of

and the

in low-income

2018). In addition,

Canadian

of

percent

extent

rate

it is still

Commons

15.8

of the

(Monsebraaten,

cost

from

live

the

Development

House of

increased children

(House

Social

Despite a 1989

side,

people, and recent immigrants

although

percent)

and

disabled

positive

substantially,

Skills

poverty

people,

(both

Liberal and Conservative)

decades to adopt social policies and taxation

economy to create greater inequality?

been less likely in the past

measures to offset the tendency

of the

Banting & Myles(2014) cite a variety of factors

including the pressures resulting

from

economic

globalization;

the influence of the ideology of neo-liberalism that emphasizes the desirability of afree

market system

the declining society

political influence

organizations)

greater influence

the

wealthy;

with limited

promoting

of organizations

government

interference

of groups (including the

interests

promoting

in the economy;

labour

of the

the interests

less

unions and civil well-off

and the

of corporations

and

from?

has become number

and the

Image

where

next

Extreme more visible

of homeless

use of food in

your

85

banks

people have

Canada in recent

86

Chapter 4

the increasing

importance

departments

focused

at times,

high level

the

the

on social

decentralization

government Not reduce

social

has the

Canadian

inequality

than

differences

particular,

Quebec

power

in

the

debt;

rather

than

government

government

policy;

and

that

government

among

reduces

been

many

other

provincial

government

has

(Haddow,

womens

Quebec (Banting

affecting

system

have

governments

of unions,

in

of Finance

the

ability

of the

Canadian

policy.

only

the

policy

of the federal

income

Canadian

Department

of government

to affect

are substantial

other

of the

less

likely

comparable

governments

done

much

2014).

This

movement,

and

in

in

recent

to

but also there

addressing

this

more to reduce has been

various

decades

countries,

inequality

attributed

social

issue.

In

than

to the

greater

and community

organi-zations

& Myles, 2014).

Workers When compared striking. the

United

Only

about

States, the

has declined

12 percent

of American

The growth

and

semi-professional

a substantial

the importance

proportion

sharply,

workers.

professional

middle

United

mid-1960s,

States

Canadian

that

to the

Since the

while it

workers

union

than

workers

workers

with

without

union

a union.

union

than

Labour

Congress,

2015).

Canadian

unions

with the

New Democratic

Conservative Court

of

governments

Canada

Federation

unions in

to 30.4

and

Canada

is in

Canada. percent

(including

of

many in

professors)

means

could

be considered

has

play

members.

influence

on the

a system

in

hour

more, on aver-age,

to the companys employers

Canada

of

often

a

have

increasingly

substantially

no

has the

elected

in

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As well, the

requirement

per year

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Ontario part-time

employees. were replaced

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their

workers

conditions

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European

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countries

union) can

there

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bring

cooperation

middle-class

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However,

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part-time

provincial

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paid

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years (Block, highest

with

2016).

lifestyle

The proportion

and

other

ensures

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pension,

In fact, in

2014).

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as primarily

health,

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some

workforce

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workers and unions typically

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wages supporting

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Nova

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are many

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and sex, seasonally

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his cabinet.

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87

88

Chapter 4

Figure

4-2 Primary Reasonfor WorkingPart-Time, WomenAged 25to 54

Working Part-Time Child, 2017

with

At Least

One Child in the

Home,

by Age

of Youngest

70

60 50

40 30 Percentag

20 10

0 0 to

2 years

3 to Caring

SOURCE:

Patterson,

M.(2018,

5 years

for

own

6 to

8 years

children

November

9 to

Economic

6). Labour

Statistics

why? (Catalogue no. 71-222-X). Ottawa, ON: Statistics gc.ca/n1/pub/71-222-x/71-222-x2018002-eng.htm

and business administrators.

11

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to

reasons

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Canada.

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years

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Glance:

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Who

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In fact, 28 percent of employed

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& LaRochelle-Ct,

2014). Nevertheless,

to have jobs in some high-paying

and construction, jobs in retail

while less educated

sales, clerical

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education,

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such as engineering

women and

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workers in the

much higher rate of union (McInturff

& Tulloch,

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work

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such as mining, oil drilling, to

hold lower-paying

Likewise,

women are more likely to pursue careers in lower-paid such

and

women aged 2534

more likely

work, and personal services.

years

men with less education

occupations,

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17

https://www150.statcan.

in professional occupations, compared to only 18 percent of employed age group (Uppal

to

preference

university-educated

female-dominated

work than

in some

and computer

profes-sions

higher-paid

male-dominated

science. Income inequality

higher among

workers in the private sector

public sector.2 To a considerable

extent, this reflects

the

membership in the public sector than in the private sector

2014). Collective

wages. As well, pay equity

bargaining

(discussed

below) is

tends to promote more prevalent

greater equality

in

in the public than in

the private sector. There undoubtedly

continues

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in senior executive and non-traditional employers

to take into

account the

scales, and promotion. of women to

As well, although members than

circumstances

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women still tend to devote moretime to caring for other fam-ily

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women

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example, the average monthly cost of child care for preschoolers in 2017 was$1212in Toronto,

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were much higher for infants. child

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care fees are set and subsidized

(Canadian

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and $868 in St. Johns.

Montreal and most other Quebec cities,

by the provincial

Alternatives,

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government

at $168 per

Despite majorincreasesin the proportion of womenin sometraditionally gender segregation remains surprisingly

evident.

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maleoccupa-tions,

many more women now

hold managerial positions in business,top-level executives are still predominantly For example, in 2017, 22.6 percent of those on boards of directors of the corporations

2 Visible than

minorities in

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(the FP500) were female (Canadian

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(McInturff

peoples

also & Tulloch,

face

month

2017).

a higher 2014).

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level

of

income

inequality

male.

Canadas largest

Council, 2017). Although

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The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

this

proportion still

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boards

same report

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has been

found

3.2 percent

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people

boards

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boards.

increasing,

4.3 percent

And,

this is

of corporate

with disabilities,

most corpora-tions

while the inclusion

not the case for

board

1.6 percent

increasing,

members

LGBTQ,

89

of

other

women

groups.

were visible

and 1.1 percent

on The

minori-ties,

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Addressing Gender Inequality For

many decades,

men and

national

women equal

(although

provincial

laws

wages for carrying

have required

that

employers

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differences can be based on such factors as experience, qualifications,

merit). This requirement between

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does not, however, remedy

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government

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in

wages,

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in

and wages

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laws.

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groups

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have

requires

that equal pay be given for work of equal value. Specifically, this involves increasing the pay of those

working in occupations

of pay of equivalent different

occupations

occupations

and

working conditions

and

public servants Premier

national level,

primarily

staffed

by a combination

involved

by

by

women to the level

men. The equivalency

of the skill,

of

and, in some

the

broader

be given value,

public sector.

Only

Ontario

by

pay equity legislation

legislation,

which he will likely

wasintroduced

in

work

November

equal

pay

women

pay

of equal

particular

by increas-ing

of those

working

staffed

primarily

to the

of equivalent

level

in

of pay

occupations

staffed

pay equity for the private sector. (In 2018, business groups

Ford to end pay equity

for

in

the

that

occupations

in each occupation.

provinces,

A requirement

effort, responsi-bility,

in Canada have adopted some form of pay equity legislation

Quebec have legislated

lobbied

are staffed

are primarily

can be determined

Mostjurisdictions for

that

that

Pay Equity

by

pri-marily

men.

do.) At the

2018. It

will cover

about 1.2 million people, including federal public servants and political staff, federally regulated

banks, and shipping.

However, it

years (Toronto Star, 2018, November

Even wherelegislation to

whether the legislation

market. (For

into

effect for several

has established pay equity, questions have been raised as (particularly

applied and enforced. costs. As well, they

will not come fully

3). if it relies

on individual

complaints)

is effec-tively

Many business leaders oppose pay equity because of its

often believe that

more information

wages and salaries should

about

Various Canadian Jurisdictions

be determined

pay equity, see An Overview

by the

of Pay Equity in

at www.payequity.gov.on.ca/en/about/pdf/pe_sur-vey.pdf

and Status of Women Canada at www.swc-cfc.gc.ca.)

Womens groups have also advocated that employment equity (affirmative programs

be established

for positions in

to encourage

or require

the

which they are under-represented.

hiring

and promotion

For example, the

action)

of women

Canadian

well as Indigenous

people, visible

minorities,

and people

persons

with disabilities)

composition

49.1 percent

of the federal

of executive

public

positions,

service,

as 54.8 percent

are now held by

of all jobs, includ-ing

women (Treasury

Board of

Canada Secretariat, 2019). Federally regulated companies and companies having, or seeking,

contracts

worth at least

$1

million from

required to set up employment equity programs. adopted

employment

equity

measures to try to increase the

policies,

and

diversity

reverse discrimination characteristics argue that

of their

are also

student

programs

have adopted

bodies.

measuresto increase the proportion

against men(particularly diversity

government

of

groups in various positions argue that they involve

as gender or colour, should

promoting

Canadian

Most universities and colleges have

many professional

Critics of employment equity and other women and other under-represented

the

young men). Merit,rather than such

be the basis for

has positive

hiring and promotion.

effects as various

groups

Others

who have been

under-represented bring different perspectives to business and politics. Furthermore,

Equity

that the of

of

in senior positions. Employment equity has had considerable successin changing the gender

Programs

govern-mentrequire

requires that government departments set targets to increase the proportion women (as

Employment

encourage

hiring

and

women

and

from

under-represented

groups

or pro-motion other

that

are

90

Chapter 4

what seem to for fitting

be

public

in,

merit-based

office,

personal

decisions

may in fact

or social

for

hiring

be decisions

connections,

and

promotion,

of an old

boys

and a willingness

or for

selecting

network

to avoid

that

family

candi-dates

emphasizes

responsibilities.

Farmers and Farming Farming

has always

a substantial

been a major aspect

element

important

element

However,

the

of Canadas of the

number

Canadian

of farmers

will likely and the

Some eggs)

Canada

have

that

been

basically

sell in products

system

than

other

the

which

As well,

of food

The Canadas

dairy

imports October

4).

will likely

dump

to

protect

their

allow

While

because

the

exports

of skim

about

Canadian

a serious

Canadian

States

of

free

their

2015).

from

the

subsidies

This

prices in

United

States to their

Canadian of rules

farmers.

October

from

market.

and regula-tions

3.6

lower

and

percent

of

will allow

market

U.S. demand

concentrates,

to

agreements

dairy

for-eign

(Edwards, prices,

Dairy farmers

the

protein

access

trade

Canadas

accepted

2018,

can

for

food

huge

by a variety

may benefit

on dairy

milk

higher

on the

tariff-free

recent

consumers

powder,

products

farmers

Canadas

government

milk

Canada

provides

farmers

a farmer prices

(McGregor, in

and

countries.

18 percent

impact

price (Johnson,

Indigenous

American

In total,

milk to

other

18).

management

of a product predictable

from

poultry,

by supply

much and

to

low-priced domestic

from

imports

and resulting

them

U.S.

dropped

products,

government

protectionist

Congress

market.

have

the

40 years old

dairy

stable

exported

will

of

from

oil and cars. 390 875 in 1991

News 2014, February

how

in

products

or block imports

USMCA

determine

the

allows

under

foreign

However,

most countries

to limit

United

prices

countries.

farmers,

as being

from

to be an

asthe average age of farmers in 2011 was

2011 (Global

results

on subsidies

has been criticized

Canada

to this

were once

continue than

dropping

(particularly

cheaper

and farmers

exports

less important

of farmers

products

farmers,

relying

continue, number

against

a quota

For the

without

system

and

protected

uses

Canada.

although substantially,

1 out of ten in

agricultural

economy,

Wheat and grain

economy,

54 (compared

4 out of 10 in 1991 to less than

Canadian

has declined

to 293 925 in 2011. This trend to 47.5 in 1991),

of the

population.

2018,

the

will also

change

be affected

that

Canada

cap

its

infant

formula

to

the

1).

People

Indigenous

people are mostlikely to suffer from inequality,

on reserves

or in remote

northern

communities.

adult population is unemployed, source of employment.

majority

of the

with the band council often being the only or major

Inadequate

water, and limited

particularly those wholive

In these areas, a large

housing,

poor food supplies,

health care and social services

contaminated

are common

drink-ing

features

of

many

Indigenous communities. The Indigenous

population

is

morelikely

to be unemployed

than

Canadians

as a

whole. For example, the unemployment rate among First Nations people off reserve was 15 percent in 2016 (Labour reserve,

2017: Key findings

market experience

from the 2017 Aboriginal

the median after-tax income of the Indigenous Canadas

non-Indigenous

of First

population.

Nations people living

off

Peoples Survey 2017). Likewise,

population is substantially lower than

For example, in 2010 the

median income

of First

Nations was$17 621,Inuit, $20401, and Metis,$24 551, compared to the non-Aboriginal identity

population,

$27 622 (Statistics

Canada, 2015).

Visible Minorities Canada is a highly

diverse country

However, the average earnings

those of whites; visible

with a variety

of visible

minority

of different

cultures

and identities.

people are substantially

less than

minorities are morelikely to be poor, and they are less likel

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

to

be called

for

Household visible the

interview

Survey

minority

for the

minority

of the

(10.6

by Statistics

2007;

Canada

visible

minority

population.

In

percent)

(Statistics

& Banerjee,

was $42 196, compared

rate for rest

women

percent)

(Reitz

conducted

persons

unemployment

percent

(6.7

a job

found

2011).The

that

the

to $59 342 for persons

than

the

that

2011

average

other

income

to

rate for

non-visible

of

Similarly,

compared

unemployment

for

National

persons.

was 9.9 percent,

particular,

was higher

Canada,

Grant,

7.8

visible

minority

persons

2011).

Regional Economic Inequality There are substantial inequalities

in

differences in the economies of different regions,

wealth, income,

to dissatisfaction

with the

commercial, in southern

and employment

Canadian

financial,

Ontario

government

and cultural

and in the

opportunities. in

Montreal region.

Quebec, and 12 percent in

headquarters

of financial

services

of oil and gas corporations of over three-fifths

Canadas in-dustrial,

to be concentrated

has been a shift,

British

Columbia. Calgary

While Toronto hosts

remains

population

in

the

most of the headquar-ters

2014, December 3). In addition,

of Canadas

with

Ontario, 33.9 percent in Alberta, 13.7

corporations,

(Tedesco,

provinces.

have tended

However, there

35 percent of the largest corporations located in percent in

various

activities

which lead to

This has contributed

Ontario

and

the concen-tration

Quebec provides

considerable political power to these provinces. Other provinces (as well asthe north-ern areas of export

Ontario and

of commodities tend

employment

Quebec) have depended

such as forest

to fluctuate than

sharply

other economic

western

Canada, such asthe

The introduction

minerals, and

demand

and

of official bilingualism

feeling

like

which had little

Such com-modities

generally

National

often referred

provide

less

Energy Program

to as Western

alienation.

and the focus of Canadian politics from the Quebec also caused resentment

western Canadians. The dominance of the federal party,

and

affected the economies of

Policy (1879) and the

dissatisfaction

1960s to the 1990s on accommodating Liberal

extraction

petroleum.

price and

policies that negatively

National

of regional

upon the

activities.

Past Canadian government (1980), left alegacy

products,

in

heavily

representation

from

government western

among

many

until 2006 by the

Canada, left

Westerners

outsiders.

The election of the Conservative Party in 2006, with its strong representation,

including

its

Calgary-based

leader,

contributed

western Canadian

to a decline in

Western

alienation. For example, while 55.8 percent of western Canadians in 2004 believed that the federal held this

government

treats their

belief in 2008. By this

province

worse than

measure, Atlantic

in 2008(44.5 percent), while the proportion treated

worse than

proportion

other

provinces

increased

from

of Quebecersfeeling their province Conservative

Canadians

were the

of Ontarians thinking

percent to 23.8 percent in 2008, even though the governing

other provinces,

most alienated

their province

15.5 percent to 28.7 percent.

wastreated

was The

worse declined from 30.9

Quebec in 2008 had little

Party (Berdahl,

34.7 percent

representation

in

2010).

Canadian governments have devoted considerable attention to regional economic disparities.

Beginning

in 1957, the

Canadian

government

provided

equalization

pay-ments

to the governments of the poorer provinces to enable them to provide their pop-ulation with a level Canadian

government

development, of

of services comparable

Regional

set up various

to that of other provinces.

programs

to

promote

rural

In the 1960s, the

regional

most notably through the establishment in 1969 of the Economic

Expansion,

which focused

on

Atlantic

Canada

economic

Department and eastern

Quebec. However, the success of these programs in promoting economic was limited. with the

In 1987, a somewhat

establishment

more decentralized

of agencies to galvanize

economic

approach development

develop-ment

was adopted, in

Atlantic

Canada, western Canada, northern Ontario, and, beginning in 1991, Quebec.In 2009

91

92

Chapter 4

Table 4-3 Province

MedianHouseholdIncome(2016) and Rateof Unemployment by

and Territory

(2018) Percent

of national

average Income Canada

($)

and

unemployed

(percent)

(percent)

70 336

Newfoundland

Average

income

100.0

6.2

67 272

95.6

14.2

61 163

87.0

10.2

60 557

86.4

8.8

New Brunswick

59 347

84.4

7.8

Quebec

59 882

85.1

6.0

Ontario

74 287

Labrador Prince

Edward

Nova

Island

Scotia

100.6

5.8

Manitoba

68 147

96.9

5.3

Saskatchewan

75 412

107.2

5.9

Alberta

93 835

133.4

7.6

95.2

4.5

British

Columbia

69 995

Yukon

84 521

Northwest

Territories

117 688

Nunavut

SOURCES:

97 441

Statistics

median

income

Canada.

rank,

Census

Canada,

Statistics seasonally

adjusted,

t003-eng.htm.

month

Pid

moving

the

of

and

Table 2015.

from

average see

= 141002920/).

2016e.

territories,

Retrieved

national

territories,

average,

Population,

Table 14-10-0287-07.

2018.

percent

For

en/tv.action?

Canada

October,

For

t003a-eng.htm.

of

provinces

Regional

seasonally

167.3

12.0

138.5

16.9

Number

Retrieved

Labour see

Canada

of

from

force

households,

median

income,

and

www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/170913;

characteristics

by province,

monthly,

https://www150.statcan/n1/daily-quotidien/190405/

Table

unemployment

adjusted,

6.8

https://www.150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/19104/

income,

Statistics

1

120.2

14-10-0354-01

rates

October,

used

2018.

(https://www.150.statcan.gc.ca/tbl/

by

Retrieved

Employment

from

Insurance

Program,

three

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/

daily-quotidien/180608/t012a-eng.htm

a development

agency

boasted

economy

industries. on bolstering

provincial

was established

a robust

Thus,

but

there

development

has

in the

and territorial

for

southern

has suffered been

poorest

a

Ontario,

from

the

movement

areas

of the

differences in income

a region

decline

away

from

country.

that

of its the

Table

tradition-ally

major

manu-facturing

original

focus

4-3 illustrates

the

and unemployment.

The Economyandthe Environment 4.5 Examine the relationship Canadas gross

wealth

national

does not include

income.

areas

challenge

to

needs to take responsibility

large

of its

its

amounts

of

only the countrys abundant

beauty,

part

well-being

emissions,

Canadas

of natural

an important and

between the environment

and

decisive

action

to take

decisive

of carbon

to

oil,

as

product

water, forests, areas

could

well as contributing

climate

change

because and its

of its

Indeed, high

need to

to the

Canada

its

farm-lands,

be consid-ered happiness

poses an extremely

proportion

protect

or the

lakes,

also

Because the problem is global,

with the threat.

action

gross national

of fresh

wilderness

global

world.

deal

of crude

and

wealth

However,

Canada and the

exports

parks

Canadas

peoples.

supply

and the economy.

seri-ous

every country

has an important of greenhouse

forests

that

can

gas absorb

dioxide.

TheImportance of Environmental Change In

the

last a

three wide

decades

variety

of the

twentieth

of environmental

century, laws

and

Canadian policies

to

governments protect

the

ad-opted natura

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

environment.

Indeed, issues.

Minister 2012,

This

Stephen in

limited

industry,

(Natural 59.3

percent have

energy

for

on bill

greatly

such

various

government

economic

led

growth.

reduced

requiring

projects

of

has, thus

a

For

the

federal

envi-ronmental

by

Prime

example,

protection

species,

and

pipelines

placed

in

of fish

environmental

as new

as

been

rather

fuels

that

countries

have

substantially

assess-ment,

restrictions

that

As the

reduced

world

fuel

might

on endan-ger

long

G7

sequestered

zero

in

very large

Panel

result

on

countries

dams

renewable power

particularly to

Change,

some

of

all ecosystems

Climate

and

Canadas

hydro

and tidal

threat

2017

produces

of other

(the

a serious

in

power

geothermal,

change is

emissions,

toward

net carbon as its

production.

require

2014).

less-developed

emissions

The

the

have increased

Arctic

to

achieve in

lead

highly

that

to the

release

forests

eco-nomic on other

economy economy.

of large

greenhouse

Canadas

its

with

a carbon-free Canadian

per-haps

extent,

along

the

potent

and

may find

and

a considerable

government,

2015 to

will likely

tundra

emissions,

Canada

based,

changes

methane (a

Canadian

is

Canadian

in

warming

and

carbon

emissions,

fundamental

global

dioxide

reducing

wealth

made a commitment

then,

of carbon

climate

(International

moves

and

would

before

hydro,

dioxide)

carbon

of

development

fossil

Renewable

supply

hydro

building

The

most industrialized

their

having

This

Global carbon

is in jeopardy,

of the

2100.

limited.

energy

Although

the

the

policies.

primary

13).

run-of-river

assisting

decades.

extraction

members

solar,

gradually

eventually wealth

generation,

and

government

total

December

of humanity

in recent

Canadian

environment.

though

promoting

Canadas

on the

release

the future even

2017,

wind,

far,

of

of

electrical

effect

fossil

indeed,

percent

Canada,

such

including

major feature

Canadas

Unfortunately,

growth,

18.9

a negative

sources

burning

fact,

promoting

Conservative

of endangered

proposed

has been

Resources

can

by

protection

of economic

accounted

fossil

of projects

for

pursuit

energy

and,

number

in

environment.

The fuel

the

a leader

focused finance

the

consultation

the

with

which

an omnibus

the

weakened public

was, at times,

changed

Harper,

provisions

habitats,

Canada

In

quan-tities

gas) that

as

are

well as in the

oceans.

International Climate Change Agreements Several

decades

aware

of the

dioxide The

and

other

United

into

Canada

in

that

led

United

2002

States

of reducing

However,

Canadas result

In

on the

into

Canadian

set

Almost a target

by 6 percent

increasingly

rising

in

temperatures.

an active in

every for

in 1992 and

role

in

1997,

compared

the

ne-gotiations

ratified

country

by

except

industrialized

by 2012,

carbon

an international

was adopted

was adopted

2005.

which

suffer failure

criticized

United

warming

government elected

would

the countrys

of carbon

in from

to

never

withdrew

the

substantial

meet its target

Climate

be limited

level dioxide

met its legally

2006

at international

Nations

should

pre-industrial

amount

to

Change,

took

that

in

emissions

led

every country,

Protocol

became

by an increase

Climate

government

force

Protocol,

government

2010, the

to the

Kyoto

part,

that

on

by almost

the

in

atmosphere

Canadian

came

dioxide

was strongly

global

the

agencies

caused,

Convention

The

the

international

the

countries to

the level

1990.

economy

from

Canada

that

to

and

the

Conservative

in

agreed to

ratified

in

change

1995.

carbon

of emissions

and

Framework

treaty

force

in

scientists of climate

emissions

Nations

environmental came

ago,

dangers

when and

from

financial

to reduce climate

Change

other

activity greenhouse

below

targets. claiming

penalties

change

did

binding Accord,

emissions.

Conference

to an increase human

the

that

The that would

Subsequently,

conferences. reached

2.0 degrees

not have gases in the

an agreement Celsius

a substantial atmosphere.

rela-tive effect Thi

93

94

Chapter 4

was needed to the

to

keep the

equivalent

carbon

of about

dioxide

450 parts

and

per

other

greenhouse

gases in the

atmosphere

million.

The Paris Agreement In 2015, 195 countries, that

contained

above

a commitment

pre-industrial

However, the

including

Agreement,

to keep the

levels

on January

Canada and the

and

to

1, 2017, the

claiming

that

global

pursue

United

it

United

temperature

efforts

States

would

announced

by the terms

of the

Agreement,

To

meet the terms

of the

Paris

Agreement,

the

by 80 percent

by 2050,

with

to reduce

emissions

by 2030. agency,

However,

it

Environment

likely

emit

more than

megatons. and in

Several

April

will

and

Change

725

megatons

provincial

premiers

2018,

Saskatchewan

of the federal

carbon

U.S. cant

of

GHGs

oppose

that it

the

rather

from

November

2020).

is committed

of 30 percent

2030 target.

Canada

the

target

of a national

Moe launched

reduc-tion

A government

that

than

the imposition

Scott

Celsius

1.5 degrees.

U.S. economically

has calculated 2030

to

until

target

even the

Agreement

2 degrees

government

an early

in

Paris

was withdrawing

withdraw

Canada,

Premier

increase

Canadian

not be easy to reach

Climate

rising

the

disadvantage

(although

the

from

to limit

permanently the

States, signed

will

of 524

carbon

tax,

a constitutional

chal-lenge

tax.

FossilFuelsandthe CanadianEconomy Fossil fuels

such

as oil, coal, and

and about Resources (behind oil in

77 percent

Canada, Saudi

the

2008).

Arabia

world.

natural

gas are important

of Canadas Canada

and

primary

has the third

Venezuela)

elements

energy largest

petroleum

and is the fourth

Most of the reserves

are located

of the

has come from

largest

in

Alberta.

Canadian

fossil

fuels

reserves

producer (See

econ-omy,

(Natural

in the

world

and exporter

Box 4-4:

of

Alberta

Oil.)

Box 4-4 Alberta Oil Canadas 1947.

first

This led

amounts oil

oil discovery discovery

of

oil,

production

is

known to

major to the

as oil

bitumen

form

sands

crude

that

cost than Since

needs

to

the

worlds largest the

Keystone

Texas,

allow

Federal Albertas the

cost

the Court.

be shipped

heavy

to the

XL pipeline,

Obama. pipeline

oil sands

Texas

has

to

be added

oil) in

and

it

would

the

(the

proposals

to

more Alberta and

Although

Trump

signed

heavy been

(Crooks,

was

oil (used

sold

at a

2018,

for

up

diesel

much lower November

by

of build oil to

fuel)

2017 a

U.S. from

price than 15).

Asian as

for

billion

pipeline

National

duty

to

2018, consider effects, decision,

expansion.

Energy

Mountain National

and to

pipeline Energy consult

sell the the

Indigenous

the

effects

and the

As

not

of increased

the

and

in

about

same

that the

and

fulfilled

the

required of Appeal,

plan

did

not

environmental

day as the

Canadian

the Trans

that

its

Court

traffic,

rejected

found

project

the pipe-line

date.

of Appeal

(Federal

Morgan

buy the

unreliable,

On the

been in-adequate

May 2018 to

court

proposed

was sold to the

tankers Many First

had

at a later

adequately

tanker

Pacific consid-erable

With Kinder

and findings

peoples

well, the

public interest.

pipeline

there

Court

particular,

had

to the faced

the large

its intention pipeline

barrels

would then

oil spill.

pipeline,

Federal

were flawed

30).

that

out that

the

process

Board

August

the

to

In

Boards

straits

with them.

announced

30, 2018,

narrow

feared

pointed

was to in-crease

300 000

tankers

of a devastating

opposition

government

from

Large

The proposal

people

consultation

On August the

many

Columbia

about

$4.5

and

pipeline

Edmonton-to-Burnaby,

pipeline day.

markets.

the likelihood

British

Canadian

by

was blocked

an order in held

controversy

in

per

Burrard Inlet

way to

Keystone

Morgans

Mountain

barrels

required

location

carry

it

on its

Nations

oil

oil goes

Trans

oil through

Ocean

not a cross-Canada

States

go ahead,

ship the

to the

of Kinder

890 000

concerned

as yet,

However,

Columbia.

day to

impact

needs,

alternative

capacity

would increase

processing

of Alberta coast

British per

to re-fineries removal

oil.

is,

gulf

order to

United

the

which

(also

in the

to

Thus,

of production

there

proportion

oil refineries).

of the

environmental

more oil than

Because

A proposed the

most

by pipelines

sands,

higher

in

sands

The large-scale

from

far

a substantial

Canada

needs crude

of conventional

produces

was controversial

by President to

Diluent

products.

of bitumen

be transported.

from

can

production

Alberta

bituminous

of heavy

has a substantially

pipeline, pipeline

sands). form

Alberta

of substantial

However,

from

gooey

Leduc,

production

Alberta.

or tar

the final

extraction

bitumen

in

extracted

oil that

produce

of forests,

and

now

(a sticky,

synthetic

of the

particularly

was near and

courts

government

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

Ninety-nine

percent

Resources In 11.7

Canada,

2017,

the

2017

Canadas

produced

offshore

rest

of

went to

the and

revenues

fossil

The

and for

tax

(Natural and

to

phase

indicated

that

failed.

major

There

Party

has

(Malaysia), to

drill

km

territory)

near

Although

has to

so that

it

reduced

some

other

of the

25 Indigenous

provincial

in training, the

bands

project

has been

Columbia two

were

minority

parties

From

carbon

if

work-ers. For

provided

cash

Institute

the

tax

go-ahead, relies

an agreement

on the

to reduce

the

subsidies,

but

markets

have

New

Shell

there

it

will

and

is

planning

the

by a 670

Nations

traditional

be shipped

natural

gas

to

will

ships

devel-opment.

Petronas

be delivered

Haisla

the

gas

with

Korea),

would

(on

Democratic

natural

Dutch

gas

will

Asia.

be super-cooled operate

at

the open ocean.

worked

hard

to

gain the

sup-port

in the

region.

The

an exemption

on the

British

Columbia

2018,

October

for Indigenous November

with

A year later

to foreign

Kogas (South

(Schmunk,

2018,

to gov-ernment

communities

opportunities (Jang,

fuel

liquefied

Canada

and

promised Canadian

fuel

Columbias

spilled,

LNG

Canada

2016, the

before reaching

and the

costs

contract

government

have

many

2018).

plant

channels,

by tugboats

promised given

and natural

narrow

construction

employment,

to

produc-tion

producers.

by 2025.

Royal

Columbia.

projects,

of

In

fossil

by

(Japan),

evaporate

on the

sales tax for

gas

out the fossil

British

led

groups

party

a $40 billion

processing

pipeline

a break

from of

a large

likely

of all

deliver

The

British

Unlike

was offered

and

on the

well, the for

in

Alberta,

(International

industry.

(Rabson,

Columbia.

speed and be escorted

Liberal

phasing

and

phase

pass through would

The heavily

government

be eliminated

in

support

to

Kitimat,

it

oil

percent,

exports

rely

jobs

producers

fuel

documents

Mitsubishi

pipeline

the

would

a consortium

British

TransCanada

gas

produce

first

China,

northern

and

1.4 oil

2018).

As

well-paying

oil

progress

provide to

Canada,

programs.

Canadian

to the fossil

the

the

Canada,

subsidized

Saskatchewan

Canadas

governments

the

campaign,

strong

for

heavily

oil,

Columbia

of

Resources

provides

subsidies

to

been

Petro

in

the

projects

government LNG

States (Natural

2015).

to test

refused

crude

percent

year, to

subsidies

tried

government Not all

billion

election

government

general

United

British

government

has

Development,

Canadas

Labrador

fuels

fiscal

of $3.314

2015 federal

out

auditor the

of fossil

20132014

Sustainable In the

finance

government

the

breaks

went to the

percent,

Ninety-nine

States

fuels

Canadian in

2017

of

5.3

Newfoundland

and transportation

example,

in

percent

1 percent.

United

Saskatchewan,

80.7

Newfoundland

Canada

from

oil exports

2018).

Alberta

percent,

and

of

all the

British

17).

Major

businesses,

although

approvals,

Columbia.

the

Greens to

gases in the

benefits

and pay-ments

Nevertheless,

required

greenhouse

2).

proj-ect

British

govern.

province

The

by 40 per-cent

by 2030 and 80 percent by 2050.

Carbon Tax The Trudeau

government

oil products,

natural

made the adoption gas, and coal-fired

goals of the Paris Agreement. taxing

the carbon

emissions

all industries

would

not establish

a tax that

criticism such that

by several

that relied

of industries.

metfederal

provincial

on exports.

The Canadian

standards

carbon

for carbon

governments,

the

government emissions pricing.

Canadian

would face a tax set at 20 percent

that face a high risk

based on how

tax (applied

Large industrial efficient

on industries

a major element

in trying

produc-ing to

meet the

Acarbon tax is a key method to reduce carbon emissions

pay a 30 percent tax for their

most industries

some industries

of a carbon electricity)

they

of foreign

competition

emitters

are relative

would

to industry

initially in any

However,

government of their

carbon

province faced

peers

that

its

emissions,

on a portion

by that did

with sharp

modified

might only face be taxed

planned

plan while

a 10 percent rate of their

emis-sions

95

96

Chapter 4

Box 4-5 Cap and Trade Cap

and

amount

trade

is

a

market-based

of emissions.

limit

(cap)

on emissions

to release a company

that can trade

permit, have

part

once has reduced

to

of their

cap is

emissions

allow in

from

as a carbon Box 4-5:

Saskatchewan,

apply

Canadian

to that

four

ranging

in these from

The

provincial

requirements tax

or

in

April

can and

an to

(trading)

emis-sions

reduce

some

of its

start

carbon

until

Trading

largest

greenhouse

market in

a plan, have

success

system)

and in

gas

emitter,

How cap and trade

works.

2017.

system

carbon

reduce

with

a price

$50

a provincial

of $20

tax

for

The price

will

of car-bon

would rise

However,

each

a

these

per tonne

2022.

to

carbon levy

of gasoline). rebate

and

the

per tonne

an annual

emis-sions.

be subject

The federal

to mea-sures

carbon

Thus,

in

2019, own

Manitoba,

will

has

tax.

their

Ontario,

tax,

carbon

per litre

receive

to of

Brunswick

2019,

July

adopted

it is insufficient.

its

reaching

beginning

not

governments

that

in

would

with considerable

Defense Fund (2018).

New

to 4.4 cents

used Emissions

year

each

generally

$195.

develop

their

system.

that

whether

November

have

accepted

own

carbon

pricing

For

example,

the

2019 is 8.89 cents,

decide

Mail, 2018,

The

it increases to

year

a cap-and-trade

Columbia

or from

a company

by selling

worlds

a cap-and-trade

governments

will

been

the

that

believes

provinces

$46 to

has

for

www.edf.org

Although

unless

each

cap

have a provincial

levy.

(equivalent

per tonne

company

profitable

the

announced

Trade.)

was planned

emissions household

or

government

provinces

by $10

also

do not

province

from

governments tax

governments

the

China, a national

Retrieved

Cap and

which

another

Union (the

SOURCE: Environmental

provincial

(See

Canadian

started

have

such

European

California.

government

on

below

This approach in the

typi-cally

will not

from

Thus, it is

emissions

al-lowed

and thus

Canadian

a levy

allowances

allowances.

a company

cap, it

The place

If

its

com-panies

Over time,

to the lowered

tax,

it is

other

for

cash.

buy

market.

com-panies

limit

reduced.

to

a year. If

emissions

gradually

the

an over-all

of pollutants

permits

right

to

pollutants

amount

their

emissions

the

sets

permits of

may purchase

not reached

a year, its

the

to reducing

government

quantity

exceed

it

the

and issues

a certain

needs

by its

approach

Basically,

they

rising

the

Canadian

system carbon

governments

involving tax

on

either

gasoline

to 11.12 cents in 2021. These

want to

provide

a rebate

to

a direct in

British

provincial

household

gov-ernments

(The

Globe

14).

Summary and Conclusion Canada is

fortunate

in

being

a prosperous

country.

However, Canada has depended on natural resources for

more of its

wealth than

most other developed

coun-tries.

The Canadian economy also relies heavily on trade with the industries

United States, and some are owned

by foreign

of the countrys (particularly

American)

in United

resulted

in a high level

of economic

integra-tion

StatesMexicoCanada

Agreement a number

of trade

of countries.

Supporters

by flooding

prices for consum-ers. foreign

imports

the

Canadian

market

with low-priced

Canadian governments have often played an active role in

developing

the

Canadian economy.

Although

gov-ernment

policies continue to have an important influence

and invest-ment

deregulation

point

markets around

products.

on the economy

of the agreements

of accessing

could be harmful to Canadian workers,farmers, and busi-nesses

(USMCA).

agreements with a number of other countries and

benefits

Critics are concerned that large-scale

North America. This will likely continue with the

Canada has also negotiated groups

economic

the world and the benefits of lower

major

companies. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

out the

and business activities,

in recent

privatization

decades have reduced

the role

and of

government. Thefocus of governments onfacilitating rapid economic

growth,

particularly

through

large-scale

natura

The Canadian Economy,Inequality, andthe Environment

resource

developments, effects.

to take

Canada that based

governments

to

move the

a zero

net carbon

has generally

afflict

many

on class, region,

nationality,

country emission

avoided

the

countries. gender,

race, religion,

important

have long-term

Canadian

major steps

and, eventually,

can

sexual

to the

envi-ronmental Canadian

society.

The growth

concentration

to

have been criticized,

particularly

Canadian

should

a low

carbon

severe

social

divi-sions

of power

of income

are going to have

world.

democracy

Overall,

in the

hands

government

of large

by those strive

good

inequality

for

involves

divisions

Canadas

economic

prosperity

is

orientation,

ethnicity,

all

Canadians,

that

natural

protected,

and that

different

cohesion

continue

to

cre-ate

and solidarity

of

society

are treated

fairly

the

corporations that

equality.

ensuring

sustainable

groups

and the

who believe

greater

Nevertheless,

and Indigeneity

challenges

negative

97

and

that ben-efits

environment

is

and individuals

in

and equitably.

Discussion Questions 1. Should

Canadian

directing

2. Should

the

Canadian

ownership

3.

governments

of

governments

Canadian

free trade

try to limit

foreign

Canadian

of

and protection

desirable?

governments social

Canadian

employment

and disadvantages

promotion

greater

6. Should

businesses?

agreements?

4. Are foreign investment agreements

5. Should pursuing

What are the advantages Canadas

take a greater role in

economy?

equity

and

be

economic

governments

make pay equity

Whyare carbon taxes controversial?

8.

Will it

to the

9. Is a low and

Paris

equality?

and

mandatory?

7.

be difficult

more active in

for

Canada to

meet its commit-ments

Agreement?

or zero net carbon

emission

economy

fea-sible

desirable?

Further Reading Banting, K., & Myles, J. (Eds.). (2014). Inequality and the fading of redistributive politics. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Berdahl, L., & Gibbins, R.(2014). Looking west: Regional transformation and the future of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Boyd, R. (2015). Cleaner, greener, healthier: A prescription for stronger Canadian environmental laws and policies. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Fleras, A. (2016). Inequality matters: Diversity and exclusion in Canada. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Klein, N. (2015). This changes everything: Capitalism vs the Climate. Toronto, ON: Vintage Canada.

Osberg, L. (2018). The age of increasing inequality. The astonishing rise of Canadas 1%. Toronto, ON: Lorimer. Rice, J.J., & Prince, M.J.(2012). Changing politics of Canadian social policy (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Urquhart, I. (2018). Costly fix: Power, politics and nature in the tar sands. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. VanNijnatten, D.L. (Ed.) (2015). Canadian environmental policy and politics: The challenges of austerity and ambivalence. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press

Chapter5

Political Culture

Zarivny/123R

Andrew

In

much

of the

and turquoise seven

parks

world, lakes,

of the

Canada such

evokes

as this

Canadian

images

photo

Rockies

of snow-capped

of iconic

as

World

Lake

mountain

Louise,

Heritage

Alberta.

In

peaks, 1984,

conifer-clad UNESCO

slopes, designated

sites

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 5.1 Explain 5.2

the

Discuss the theories

5.3 Examine whether 5.4

meaning of political

the

culture

used to analyze

quest for a national

and its antecedents.

Canadian

political

political

culture,

culture.

and determine

one exists.

Assess the belief that there

are distinctive

political

cultures

within

Canada. 5.5

Determine Americans.

98

the extent

of the similarities

between

Canadians

and

Political Culture

Former

Prime

geography.

Minister This

Canadian

Mackenzie

suggests

soil and that

generations

bound

The

its

of the

With one-fifth

which the

attract

has too began

Little

little

history

when

did he know

settlers;

and too

Europeans how

nor could

much

set foot

precious

he foresee

it

that

on

was to

it

would

diversity

of its

ways

worlds

Canadians

fresh

of tourists,

landscapes,

and

water,

campers,

artists,

and the

such

as the

see themselves, the

and

country

is

cottagers

appeal

Group

how they

dotted

from

Seven.

work,

and

with lakes

across

the

of its

of

pristine But how

ge-ography they

like

Lake

Louise,

country

and

around

world. Canadas

North,

vast,

which

in the

free,

awe-inspiring

comprises

Canadian

because

people

and the

harsh

White

land

has

demands

prime the

In

to tap into minister,

1950s,

Stephen

to

enthrall,

land

mass,

it

national

and

applied Bob

cope

to

Prime

Minister

natural

resources.

Harper,

revived

refers

interest

long

Diefenbaker

their

in the

treasure

(with

and

the

ste-reotypically

TV sketch.

North is

a vision

century trove

partly

strong

The

and toughness,

the

had

twenty-first

mystery

SCTV

name

The

prominently

North

before

At times,

In the

humbling.

in

True

as ruggedness

challenges. John

steeped

used it to

such

also

also featured

to the

Canada

Mackenzie)

with lifes

but it is has

was a region

anthem

with characteristics

to

abundant

Canadas

was a term

associated

the

its

The

Doug

cooperation

of promise.

region

North

of

and inaccessible,

there.

brothers

been

continues

percent

remote

travelled

Great

climate

also

40

imagination:

few

landscape

over

Canadian

it

history

be to later

film-makers,

the

of the

would

the

writers,

millions

Canada

that

identity.

country,

has also influenced play.

and

Canadian

have inspired

that

assumed

was inconsequential.

people

up in the

vastness

wilderness

King

geography

of Indigenous

become

King lamented

that

but

seen

as the

of opening

another

up the

Conservative

of resources

locked

under

permafrost. There

have,

are few

on the

climate

one

change.

cruise

ships

changing

that

hand,

enabled

The fabled

and

the

places

the topography changes

any

the

a busy

more

remotest that lured

glaciers

our sense

due to technological

spots

and,

Franklin

commercial

Melting

has informed

cultural

to

Passage

become

landscape.

that

on our

still inaccessible access

Northwest

may soon

Canadian

are

and

shipping

who

Climate

permafrost

we are.

What

advances

other,

now

change

are rapidly

might

that

contributed

his crew is

route.

and thawing

of

on the

to

attracting is literally transform-ing

be the impact

of these

landscape?

ChapterIntroduction Former is

British

no such

Prime

thing

families.

Thatchers

More importantly, that

Minister

as society.

society

to family

comment it raises

does

not

broader

binds

them

once

we

about

the

a collection

share

more than

together

and

what

social

scientists

said,

women

her governments

merely

Canadians

famously

men and

questions

Are

Or do

Thatcher

are individual

epitomizes

exist?

members?

what is it that

Margaret

There

and

right-wing

nature

atoms

Is it true

with

a geographic

makes them

ties

only

space?

distinct

are

ideology.1

of society.

of

There there

from

If

so,

people

in

other countries? Philosophers centuries. what

enables

notion in

of

Almond chapter,

we

will

explore

country

and

Canadian

and

more than

a physical

markets.

capital,

which

describes

a great

fundamental

values

in important

political

culture

to

deal and

led

values

used

by

questions

we need to

The search

common

attracted

with these

loyalties,

eventually

and

beliefs

political

of scholarly attitudes policies.

determine

the

to the that

exist

scientist

Gabriel

attention.

In this

shared

public

for

understand

by

Canadians

We will also compare extent

which

we share

border.

privatized

which exploded

the

was first

has

grappled

harmony.

The term

embodied

American

The latter

it

have

and tribal

in social

1956). then

of blood

to live

culture

(Almond, since

1 Her government

of ties

a population

and

the

other

absence

political

a society

across

and

In the

state-owned

move

was dubbed

enterprises, the

Big

across borders, aided

made Bang

massive

because

cuts

of the

by electronic transactions

to social profound

(United

programs, impact

it

and had

deregulated on the

Nations, 2009)

finan-cial

movement

of

99

100

Chapter 5

The Roadto Political Culture 5.1

Explain the

A way station could

meaning of political

on the road to

be discerned

in

culture

political

and its antecedents.

culture

each country.

was the idea that

The concept

a national

of national

character

shared psychological and cultural characteristics in a country. Interest in people

more governable

preceded

national

character

studies

character

focused

on

what makes

by centuries:

Plato,

Aristotle, and Herodotus sought to discover the causes of differences among societies, cities, and leaders (Wiseman, The

proposition

2007, p. 13).

that

citizens

within

the

unique set of universal human traits from emerged

in

Europe

in the

Montesquieu, and Rousseau argued

that

qualities

each nation

that

social institutions 1987). For

along

is

differ from Montesquieu,

consciousness

of its

climate

to the

mix.

consciousness but the initial together

notions

(Kra, newly

of nationalism

The fascination comparisons

with our own,

weave a flattering

moral superiority about

racist

Hume,

Hume

manners

and

of differ-ent

role in

the

on national

attention

of nations

of national

states

character

Jean-Jacques

but added

to the importance

was important

nation

mindset

manners. His contemporary,

of distinc-tive

which contributed

character

to a

were later

to explore

criti-cized,

what bound indi-viduals

was a stepping

stone to

modern

culture.

has long

been a popular

weform,

of our own.

Americans,

pastime

for

wetend to stereotype Weare often accused

portraying

them

Canadians.

other cultures of asserting

as shallow,

our

materialistic,

(Brooks, 2014). Many of these perceptions are absorbed through

people from

other countries,

many of them

benign

and funny

but some

and unsettling. One cross-national

country

the

set of

celebrated in a nation,

pictures

narrative

over the

and individualistic jokes

a

with social and political behaviour in other countries and mak-ing

Based on the often inaccurate and

a central

Theories

and political

like

David

These are an artifact

of influences

that it

minted

shared

between laws and economics (Hume,

He drew

2002).

recognition

in

Philosophers

has a peculiar

mores, and

with his list

of a nation

with this concept.

neighbours.

played

history,

cultural and religious traditions national

century.

unique in that it

and the interaction

Rousseau, agreed national

seventeenth

were preoccupied

those

with religion, laws,

boundaries

which one could detect a national char-acter

about

study investigated

dominant

national

Chinese industrious,

of over

50 countries,

exaggerate

real

Self-perceptions culture

offers

character

traits

differences,

they

national

more rigorous

concluded

are fictions character

evidence

within

and outside

English

are inaccurate.

(McCrae

& Terracciano,

relying

dubious.

a

are reserved,

In their

that these stereotypes

were equally than

held

(e.g., that the

and Americans arrogant)

the researchers

of the

whether views

study

do not just 2006, p. 160).

Astudy

on impressionistic

of political generaliza-tions

to judge citizens of other countries.

WhatIs Political Culture? Scholars Political

Culture

The fundamental beliefs, that

are

political

political and

widely

within

culture in a

with broader

When the term

political

of political science. A countrys

val-ues,

orientations held

community.

have grappled

for centuries.

which it is embedded,

conceptions culture

that

which citizens surrounds

see their

us and

and

political system is inextricably

national

identities

became the

linked

political

pre-serve

with the

and this explains the nexus between the two.

culture consists of values and beliefs that condition through

of societal

was coined in 1956, it

Political

political action, the lens, or filter,

world (Bell, 2000). It is embedded

makes sense of our political

in the cul-ture

and social situations.

Just a

Political Culture

culture

is stable,

enduring,

(Wiseman, Deeply They

provide

and in

2007, held

political

political

in

institutions,

norms,

and

parliamentary

the

group

Through children

There

are

parties,

and

embed-ded

or the

of political thus

agents

political

is

which

union

culture

Glass-Steagal

activity).

is transmitted

socializing

these

the

organizations stone, way

it

politi-cal

play

changes

people

values

media, also

Political

groups.

with the

system,

in

of

Individuals

(e.g., the

beginning

in the

primacy

legislature

regulates

in

not carved

to changes

institution,

the

culture.

political

and social

by

of val-ues,

and institutions.

The education

political,

lead

which

of values

socialization,

peers.

culture

developments

American

continuity

political

Canadian

after individuals

Act,

nature

perpetuated

are a product

political

socialization,

and

of religious,

While

is named

behaviour

are embodied

reflecting

of the

system.

govern

and

and

A major

American

ensuring

of

2006).

Taft-Hatley

of a political

and symbols,

is true of

the reciprocal

friends,

a host

process.

political

of

parents,

when important

a part

by which

generations

and immigrants

are socialized culture

gradually

think

about

values

memories, symbols

that

about

its

and

founding

and

Similarly,

other

symbols,

such

Important

as the

culture

sets limits

government

Political

culture

a political Canada

and in

change

their

change took

in

what is

in

but

not the

over time.

Deference

industrial

a tumultuous

states

political

the trend

in

other

elites the in

with the

celebrate sym-bols

Canadian Box

5-1:

For exam-ple,

police

had the

would be outraged. p. 87).

declined

(when

United States

However,

over time

in

1996).

The

1980s (Nevitte,

Canada

myths

these

society.

1986, has

of

(See

and the

Canadians

since

period

accepted.

(Dacks,

to

to

1977). Some

adult

script

a set

and

on to succeeding

a particular

every

his-tories,

myths

Sometimes

universally

to

of

population

(Dittmer,

acceptable card

passed

population.

been

place and a free trade agreement

but also reflects

are

and demand to see it,

advanced

roots

not

Shared

a stock

develops

to the

the population

setting

can change other

had its

the

country

appeal

culture.

with

which

to

an identity

at random

provides

culture

on

issued

right to stop people

Every

with the

have

a political

along

events,

resonate

monarchy, Symbols.)

in

a role,

are invoked

manipulate

Canadian

Political if the

significant

that

are used by elites to

play

a community.

symbols

or humiliations

only ingredient also

help in integrating

generations. glories

are not the

experiences

constitutional

was being negoti-ated)

countries.

In Searchof Canadian Political Culture It is

often

shared

assumed

histories,

that the

each

but the

search

for

First,

broad

similarities

elusive.

democracies. British experience political

The

as values,

in

a void,

well

has its

such

of the

a unified

Canadian

colonies

country

characteristics

and exist

political as

isolated

and

distinct among

and

the

ideas

political

the

Canadian

bears

New

a strong

of other

2009). country

countries.

liberal

resemblance share

on

geog-raphy,

has been

Western

which

(Inglehart,

based

and the culture

especially

Zealand,

of a particular

culture

economy, political

countries,

structure

orientations

from

distinct

community

Australia

as an institutional

beliefs,

own

population,

the

to

for-mer

colonial

Furthermore, do not

The

usually

United

States

the de-velop is

Socialization

The process

world.

Fundamental

past

banking,

process

a number from

deeply

attitudes

and collegiality

cases legislation

captures

the

is

that

and

define

(MacIvor,

centrepiece

and immigrants,

absorbed

in the

to

myths

teamwork

rules

values

institutions

The opposite the

and in some

neatly

that

requires

the individual.

Act, relating This contrast

by political

blocks

unspoken

These

held in a country

system,

bills,

culture

building

and

community.

sustained

individualism,

introduce

political

are important

assumptions

It is recognized

beliefs

over

epitomizes

beliefs

a political

socialization.

the

to

and

underlying

expectations

cross-generational,

p. 13).

values

the

and

101

into

the

new political

102

Chapter 5

Box 5-1 Important Canadian Symbols By tugging

at the heartstrings,

role in integrating

a society.

myths and symbols

play a vital

They can be aninspiration

may be a lot

or a call

by young

to arms for citizens. have inspiring

the Declaration what

Stirring no frills pride.

prose is

Throne

the

among

a proud their

agreement

speeches flag

by a rancorous and

conspicuously

delivered

Canadian

the

symbol

backpacks

population

and to

absent in

than

debate

both

general that

in

House of Commons

American tourists

because it elicited

has

allegedly

former

become

sewed

a warmer response

on

by

is

Quebec

and a

number

another

controversial

matter

symbol,

Edward

of indifference

of people in the rest

of

Canadas

only

close

their

Canadian

mass

population

border,

Finally, often

despite

genuine

may be regions countries,

like

there

is

industry.

approximately

200

within Canadians

been influenced

travel

the scalping

a bounty

to

their

at that.

including

have

the

existence

by

anyone

scalps)

or

Not surpris-ingly,

a strong

American

In

to the

trading

political

addition,

kilometres

frequently

of a broadly

differences

exist

within

or groups

within

a country

have subcultures

cases, the

a single,

neighbour

countries,

entertainment

and

he issued

offered

ped-estal.

grounds,

of the

United

val-ues

most of the American

States

to shop

winters.

ours,

In some

two

from its

hunting

2018).

Canadians

of

cruel

powerful

the

in the

of statues of

that yesterdays

adult or child (producing

media

lives

and thousands escape the

between

Mikmaq

from them,

prisoner (Tattrie,

a very

ties

Culturally,

through

took them

neighbourand

are

relationship.

There

sym-bol,

can change

phenomenon

was removed

on

His government

an in-creasing who killed a Mikmaq

Canada.

there

or to

to

country

For example, the statue of

Cornwallis

resistance

proclamation.

of a symbol

demonstrates

villains.

The site he selected lay

re-jected

a

Although it

of what the

Canada. The removal

heroes in both countries

and, following

monarchy

evidence

witnessed this

U.S. as well as in

Halifax founder

the stars and stripes. The

we have

heroes can become todays

than

unequivocally

Canadians.

Canadian health care system.

and

southern

in attach-ment

of pride. The Charter is a unifying

It should be noted that the status over time,

was preceded

Since then it

this tangible

a source

as is the

When

as

However,

status than

of Rights and Freedoms is

detractors,

stands for is

national

President.

1965, it

within the

public.

to

wife, Kate,

spouse.

and positive symbol that unites

has its

blood like inaugu-ral

American

was adopted

our

celebrity

as exemplified

his

monarchy.

The Charter

that reads

an appeal

do not stir the by the

Canada:

document

monarchy

William and

more in their

to the potent

is a workmanlike

a lease

speeches

mobilize the

and

makes America great.

constitution

more like

to

the constitution,

in the

Prince

Harry and his inter-racial

symbols in spades: for in-stance, this is rooted

ofIndependence,

They are invoked

remind them

like

well as Prince

The Americans the flag.

more interest

royals

differences

unified

political

the

shared

that

that

political

boundaries

culture

in

of a particular

have clashing

are variations

values

on the

are so fundamental

that

each country, country.

and

beliefs.

national

it casts

There Many

political

doubt

on

cul-ture.

whether

culture.

Analyzing Political Culture 5.2

Discussthe theories used to analyze Canadian political culture.

Canadian

political

scientists

culture.

The first

approach,

building

blocks

of a countrys

and such culture about it

as

such what

may reflect as

Confederation Margaret

Atwood

as the late matters

to

outdated

was the

ambit

Gord

have

used

which

will

of

major

These include

debates.

From

and John Downie The

the

Ralston of the

in the

work Saul,

this

from

analyze

constitution,

and through Hip,

approach an era

Nevertheless,

to

module,

there

we can

political

draws

on the

governing

of contemporary

Tragically

historical

and concerns

governments.

approaches

be discussed

history.

Canadians. values

two

literary

figures glean

has its limitations when the franchise are formative

in

in-stitutions, fig-ures

popular

something in that was lim-ited, events

tha

Political Culture

cast

a long

shadow

economy

and

The ask

analytical

Canadians

about

issues.

a

as its

political

beliefs

a given at

or simply Canada

involves

values,

opinion

Understanding Political

their

at

public

and

even

approach

Well-designed

population

However,

a country

values

adapt

to

a changing

society.

second

specific of

over

the

attitudes,

use

and

beliefs

surveys

can

quite

moment,

with

a sample

a particular

and

of

1000

is

the

the

or

to

the

people.

National

an umbrella

A political

ideology

that

about

is a coherent

political

human

and other Box 5-2:

guide

under

action

nature.

(Bell,

2000).

cluster

These

are

major ideologies

are conservatism,

Ideologies

one ideology

that

and Perspectives.)

institutions

an orderly

society.

Liberalism

values,

An ideological

and

that

perspective

emphasizes

the value of on assump-tions individual freedom, based on a shaped Canada belief that individuals are gen-erally

based

have

liberalism,

on

may co-exist,

major ideolo-gies.

of beliefs, often

based

moral val-ues

established

maintain

that

to laws,

(religious)

and

a mashup of three

perspective

looks

traditional

to

more than

exhibit

and explicit

The three

Western democracies Major Political

which

most Canadians

about

Conservatism

to UnderstandingPolitical Culture is like

and

often

events.

A

Theoretical and Historical Approaches

attitudes

system,

An ideological

culture

be-liefs

nature.

generally

and, as weshall see,

and society,

on assumptions

human

Culture.

A political

values,

politics,

economic

based

val-ues

current

of ideas, about

views

2000

of

A set

on

fundamental

focus

Political Ideology

that

opinions

capture

reaction

lens

surveys

their

may reflect

or knee-jerk

a quantitative

sample

accurately

moment

a temporary through

of

103

and socialism.

Knowing

(See

the components

capable

of

of using reason

in pursuit of their own interests.

Box 5-2 Major PoliticalIdeologies and Perspectives The ideological

spectrum

conservatism emerged the

to

with the rise

power

structure.

socialism

in the

liberalism

Western

and

then

of the

merchant

At the

dawn

was born to reflect

world

evolved

socialism. class,

which

of the industrial

the interests

of the

from

importance

Liberalism

it

of group elitism.

challenged

liberals,

they

revolution,

field

the

working

for

class.

Conservatism

believe

provide

they

major

in

individual good is

holds that

interests

group interests

and that

elites

of society:

the

someone

who conserves

with enthusiasm. moral values, society.

Its and

concept

and

adherents

some

are

should

more important protect

of noblesse

the

oblige.

does

favour

established

They feel

are

not

means

also

institutions

to

born to lead

and

A conserva-tive

(often

in

reflects

pursuit

freedom

of their

the

believe

rejecting government

should

be

emphasis

This leads

religion, the

on

individual

belief that individuals

interests.

of speech,

egalitarian,

of

etc.,

notion

interference

can

logically are

essential.

Classical

society

and

the

are

liberals market-place

seeks

minimal.

Socialism Synthesizing

places

conservative

value

on social

and liberal

and values,

economic it

equality.

emphasizes

the

are

confusing

discourse

of the

are

and

are

women.

people

often

on

advocate and

sup-port

being

Canada.

relations

and

Environmentalism

growth

with nature.

culture

focuses Contemporary

in

power

economic

the

government

no longer

important

of

their

priva-tization conser-vatives

economy. also

from

neo-liberalism

privatization

male-dominated

relationship

dif-fer

favours

and the

on limited

values.

and

century

conservatism

democrats)

of the

of the

of

taxes,

but oppose

subordination

promote

over time,

Contemporary

Social

social

unsustainable a better

lower

emphasis

regulation

The takeaway high

gov-ernment

wealth.

or welfare liberalism

services.

of industry

end the

and

playing to

ownership

moral and religious

termed

the importance

Socialism

the look

redistribute

Supporters

measures.

perspectives

challenges develop

Reform

de-regulation,

challenges

to

levels

socialists

have evolved

government.

traditional

Other

but unlike

used in the twenty-first

neo-liberalisms

(often

Feminism

that

government

many government

government

belief that

Liberals

usage.

for

nationalization

use reason

to the

of privilege. in

liberty.

but re-jects

egalitarian,

all and to

perspectives

trade,

share

the

to

Labels

with tough-on-crime

socialists great

original role

maintaining

places

Individualism

active

state

Therefore,

favoured

exist.

believe in free

an orderly

to follow.

Liberalism Liberalism

an

the

religious),

maintain others

change

from

conservatism,

are

of production.

many variations

collective

embrace

traditions

than

a positive

services

These ideological Conservatism

as does socialists

disadvantaged.

to Formerly,

interests,

Like liberals,

and

seeks

Nationalism able to

to

empha-sizes

govern

them-selves

and values.

above used

discussion erroneously

is

that in

labels political

104

Chapter 5

Socialism

each of them

An ideological

perspective

emphasizes and

the

economic

generally

value

of social

equality

is

critical

economic

Founding

that

and

of the

spectrum. It is worth noting that it is primarily hold a coherent

set of values

system.

new

fragment

in

The founding

societies of the

of the formed

the

the

political

basis

culture

found-ing

only

mother

of the

a cul-ture

culture

fragments

(Hartz

founded

theory

the

new

on the ideological

members of an educated elite

that is consistent

of American

off point for

& McCrae, 1964).

by Europeans

He theorized

with a single

to liberal

society.

who

political

as Canada,

ideological

theory

the

heritage

to the

United

within

ideas

basis for those

States

the

ingredient,

had

daring

to

separate

still

views

express

to

in the

fragments,

dominated

one

liberal

The ideological

right to left: from

by the

evo-lution, conser-vative

Hartz

because

a lack

place

only

classical

became

the

of tolerance

political

the father

this

Lacking

that

States: it

Canadian

Hartz

ideas.

claimed

creating

other

of colo-nization

by other ide-ologies.

would take

United

Locke,

In

society.

and liberal

of the

views.

new

socialism

Indeed,

States John

settlers.

unaffected for

by the

at the time

development

superiority,

ideological

first

of the

of conservative

dogma

of new soci-eties

determined

country

fragment

ideological

United

French

eighteenth

France,

liberal

founders

(colonies)

spectrum that

development

was not fertile

perspective.

Canadian

and in

political

culture

and the

other

centuries

was a feudal

fragment.

of Canada,

development

Louis political

for

scientist

Gad

of liberalism,

was

1966).

Hartz,

seventeenth

a classical

new societies

culture.

or sole ideology

American

different

that

mother

unthinking of

god (Horowitz,

According

in the

historian

Canadian

was largely

Europe

a synthesis

the

Australia

from

America

of the liberal

remarked

one true

political

in the

as a classical

American

become

nationalistic

Horowitz

because

advanced from

and

dominant

represents

the framework

liberal

the

was that

major ideology conservative

States,

perspective

become

His contention

the

section,

was transmitted

ideological

tended

third

that

is the idea that the political

United

that

words, the leading

characterized

and of

and then to socialist.

The core of fragment such

scientist

of studies

of the entire ideological

for their

as described in the preceding

politi-cal

political

a number

were only fragments

existed in Europe, this had implications

country for

fit

Founding Fragments Theory Hartz has been the jumping

that

and beliefs

Canadians

ideology.

Fragments

The theory

where

capi-talist

Theory

of

will help you to comprehend

Hartz but

of Canadian

does

English.

when

does take

be analyzed French

Canada

of Indigenous

them

of two

established

conservative

English

note

in terms

Canada,

authoritarian

fragment.

not regard

political

should

as playing

values

was viewed

peoples, a significant

the

as

origi-nal

role in

the

culture.

Formative Events Theory Another

American

academic,

scientist, conducted Formative A theory

Events

that

importance event basic political

Theory

emphasizes of a crucial

in

establishing

character culture.

the forma-tive the

of a countrys

culture.

His early

an influential

birth

comparison

Lipset,

a sociologist

and

political

of Canadian and American political

events theory

Canada, one revolutionary

1970). Herevisited

countrys

Martin

work on his formative

United States and

(Lipset,

Seymour

compared

and the

the origins

of the

other counter-revolutionary

this topic in 1990. In his opinion, the nature of each

was significant:

while

Canada had a natural

had a caesarian section, and the different inceptions

birth, the

influenced

United

States

how each country

evolved. Lipset

argues

stripping

it

Canada,

on the

Britain

that

other

and therefore

all things

British

freedom, opportunity.

the

of British

is

American values

hand,

was shaped

retained reflected

refers

many in

a preference Lipset

Revolution

left

an indelible

and the institutional

the

for

to these

by the

of its

as the

slow

values

hallmarks minimal

mark

structure

of

process and

coun-try, them.

of disengagement

from

American

The rejection

political

populism, creed:

on that

supported

institutions.

government, American

that

a

set

culture: and

of

of indi-vidual

equality

dogmas

abou

of

Political Culture

the

nature

of a good

meant it

society

(1990,

p. 26).

began

a slow

march toward

to

contemplate

how

interesting had they

achieved

democracy

history

responsible

Canadas as it

might

government

counter-revolutionary

have and

was evolving unfolded

other

history in

Britain.

in the

baby

steps

It is

United

States

toward

greater

autonomy. Canada

did

not turn

system, reflected

in

respect

law

sense) Unlike

to

and

because

a

of

does

noting

of Rights

notably

through

and

attributed

Canadas

Lipset

that

instead

values

political

and

democratic,

state

and

its

them.

parlia-mentary

These are

and

to conservatism

a greater

(in the tradi-tional

past.

political

cultures

culture

have

congeals

at the

since

evolved.

Canada

since

the

especially

Americans

retained

of governments,

values

that

it

underpinning

view

these

believe

both

welfare

country,

counter-revolutionary not

Freedoms.

the

mother hence, the

more favourable

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more individualistic

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the and,

elites,

order.

Hartz, society,

become

against

monarchy,

deference

for

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have

accepted

affirmative

action

adoption

a greater

birth has

of the

role for the

state,

programs.

Different Perspectives The founding have is

fragments

questioned

perhaps

present,

becoming

controversial. American

traditional elite

that

on behalf concern

contends

that of the

of

for

the socialist

government

as it is

but

idea

argues

that

(Ajzenstat,

their

2014).

western is

version

to

of

good

brought

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this

because

(an

socialist

ideas

of accep-tance

also

waves the idea

important

of

that

aspect

of

as an alien

Canadian

culture.

and

Horowitz

degree

perspective,

political

nation

by subsequent

This is

of society

a of

by a privi-leged

1966).

had not been rejected

American

the

of the

some

Canada

also

who fled

rule

(Horowitz, for

is

was an element

hierarchical

1988).

good

and

Horowitzs

luggage

Another in

politi-cal

Liberalism

contribute

Canada

than

with of the

to

is the Canadas

in

parts well, it

felt.

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that

has gained

Catholicism,

which

(Forbes,

is

anti-liberal

Horowitzs

analysis

where

the

of

Ontario

and the

has been

version

popular

pointed support

of liberalism

Ajzenstat

has dis-missed

in

luggage

Toryism

liberal,

a more significant

of socialism

party

had

classical

country

most strongly

Liberal

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have played

of the

of

contained

areas

have been contested.

Empire

problem

those

welfare liberalismthe

century

analysis

United

from

form

the

government

touch

liberal

culture

British

collective

Wiseman,

States.

than

the

Socialist ideas

of

influence

nineteenth

brought

the

were also

as a classical

political Loyalists

foundation

conservatism)

conservative

of

that

acceptance

nonexistent.

2 This

were

ideas

Empire

rights

the

(1964)

Tory

defence

laid

Hartz

Despite

landscape.

the

wing

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as the

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parts

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has in the

to

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1966;

act for

more

ideology,

ideological

in

that

(Horowitz,

should

culture

found

touch

ideas

ties

viewed

whether

1987).2

liberal

Canadian

United

the

for

as well as traditional

perspective

and

included

than

McCrae

the

Canada.

Quebec,

Critics

and 1960s.

and

English

of their to

what they

order

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immigrants

socialism

that

conservatism

1950s

grounds. or

(Forbes,

French

Hartz

argued

streak

a greater

in

in the by

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with

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Quebec

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Canada

fragment.

British

that

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of authoritarian

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has

the claim

confusing

dominance

theory

their

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views

socialist

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is

ideas weak

role in the political Maritimes, out that in

where the

Canada

is

that is characteristic

or

culture Loyalist

social

demo-cratic

not that

dif-ferent

of the left

1987).

and

suspicious

of

Protestantism,

prevailed

in

French

Canada

in

the

105

106

Chapter 5

Horowitz

also

Hartz

argued

point

of its

at the

In

the

culture

fixed

and these years

settled

of a new

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waves

at the time

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to

Ontario

when the

were folded

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ideas

Canadian

rippled

policy

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events

States

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Theory

that those

and affluence give priority values rather

are

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to post-materialist

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participation political on the

decisions, quality

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to

concern

for

Inglehart and

tolerance

concern

to

from

higher

for

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1996;

criticized

and

gender

2006).

in

same

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per-spectives.

impact

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1988).

theory since

security

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prioritize

physical

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security.

with the

greater

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and

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activism,

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led

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development

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order,

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1940s.

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the

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equality),

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change

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72.2

conservative public

policy

election

mobilization

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end

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education;

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culture

contends

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than

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Nelson

of

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the

especially

United

Canada

culture. when

of their

interests

were influenced

to

who travelled

the

a very

they

Ronald Inglehart (1977, 1990) developed a post-materialist

who have

up in relative

political

Prairies,

warp

has not yet been established.3

Post-Materialist Post-Materialist

up from

Canada

culture

are numerous

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mother

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opinion,

(2007).

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departure

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because

200

disagreed

creation of

values and

materialist choice

slower

percent

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... the top

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2018,

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politicians.

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of social conservatives

and

growth

Canadians

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between

economic

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groups

March 17)

envi-ronment

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Mail columnist

Conservative

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would

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Political Culture

priority

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chose

the

more

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priority

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Values

only

Survey,

54.1 percent

of

Americans

2006).

A National Political Culture 5.3

Examine the

quest for a national

political

culture,

and determine

whether

one

exists. A frequently beliefs to

asked

that

build

binds

question

this

a unified

political

and linguistically suggests

that

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country

whether

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is

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society.

Quebec, country

of values

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against

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Regions

insert

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bumblebee,

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Chapter

which

come

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Canada

exists

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2007;

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search

Henderson,

there that

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rule

in

other

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safe

unique

political

to

Canada

to

say

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each

bedrock

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broad

despite

democratic

tolerance

of

is

coexist

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this

differences,

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beliefs

for

free-dom,

viewpoints,

in

commonalities,

in

(Wiseman,

the

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despite

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rights,

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subcultures

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democracies.

human

degree

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elections,

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are

unifying

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support in

there

a single,

2010).

competitive the

that

for

different each

and

countries

country

has

a

culture.

CommonBeliefsand Values At the

most basic level,

principle, other form

of government with

satisfied.

how

determining

said it that

was the

the term

establish

weaponized,

is

valuesopenness,

for

make us the

other,

first

post-national

sentiments, mentioned (Nanos,

when rights

to

for

state

asked

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compassion,

to identify

the

respect

top for

was

the

2015

fac-tor

of respondents One

parties

might

argue

of all stripes

to

identity.

a writer from

mainstream

in

willingness

and justice. 2015,

sat-isfaction

mostimportant

2016).

when he told

(Lawson,

and freedoms,

the

by political

identity,

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during

47 percent

(Graves,

Canadian

about

of the sample

discourse

election,

equality

as an or-ganizing

was 46 percent.

political

invoked

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no core

search

specifically

70 percent

States

values

of the

democracy

to

Those

December

three

and

work

qualities

hard,

to what

echoing

values,

kindness

New There

are

5). Largely

Canadian

others,

the

Canada.

respon-dents

and compas-sion

2016).

The discussion of navigating Canadians

their

respect,

each

in

When asked to identify

being

caused

There

United

2015 federal

as guardians

Trudeau

Canada,

role in the

best reflected

credentials

Magazine,

shared

be there

a prominent

belief

agreeing that it is better than any

When asked

in

for the

vote in the

that

Minister

working

and beyond.

their

has been

Times

these

played

party

their

Prime York are

values

in their

2016b).

was figure

election campaign

in

are strong

of respondents

(Environics,

democracy

The corresponding

Canadian

federal

Canadians

with 79 percent

of Canadas the

are confident

diverse

Canadian of the

population

cultural

values

that

(Chapter

3) demonstrates

landscape.

Yet, as Figure

define

and the image

them

the com-plexity

5-1 illustrates, they

have

of

themselves. Almost although (Sinha,

it 2015)

two-thirds should

of respondents be noted

that

in

believe Quebec

less

Canadians than

a

share majority

common (49

percent)

values, agree

107

108

Chapter 5

Figure

5-1

Human

MostBelievethat Canadians CollectivelySharethe Valuesof

Rights

and

Human

Gender

Equality

rights

Gender Equality

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Ethnic

cultural

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diversity

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duality

Respect for Aboriginal

Culture 0102030405060708090100

110 Percentage

SOURCE:

Statistics

Canada.

Great extent

Small extent

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(2013b),

extent

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https://www.statcan.gc.

ca/pub/89-652-x/89-652-x2015005-eng.htm#n8-refa

Canadians Figure

5-2.)

also have

for the government. concern

definite

Humanitarianism

views

and

on the ideal

development

vision

scored

high,

for

Despite strong support for ethnic and cultural

about a possible

dilution

of Canadian

values.

A bare

Canadian

the sample (Environics

values.

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who disagreed

country.

(See role

diversity, there is

majority, 51 percent,

Canadians agreed with the statement that too manyimmigrants are not adopting

the

as did an active

of

coming to this coun-try

comprised

43 percent

of

Canada, 2018c).

Views about Government and Politics The ringing

endorsement

of democracy

mentioned in the

previous

section

stands in

stark contrast to views about specific aspects of our political system. Only 4 percent of Canadians

had a very positive

Figure

opinion

of politicians,

Q. Which of the

following

choices

best

describes

23

11 Neither

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vision

23

(527)

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63 (527)

Reason

24

17 Neither

on adherence

Governmen

(4)

certainty

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development

64

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of Canada? and

(4)

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(123)

to

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(527)

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values:

42

accommodation,

tolerance,

11

(123)

and respect

45

Neither (4) BASE:

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your ideal Humanitarianism

(123)

Moral

had a somewhat

5-2 PreferredVisionfor Canada

Defence

Minimal

and 18 percent

Ekos

Canadians: Politics.

October (2016,

January

812,

2015 11).

The

(n51,

(527) 124),

Reinstatement

http://www.ekospolitics.com/index.php/2016/01/the-reinstatement-of-progressive-canada/

MOE1/22.9%, of

Progressive

19

times

Canada.

out

of

Retrieved

20

Political Culture

positive

opinion

of

politicians.

compared doctors (82

with 9 out of 10

(88 percent

percent)

and 87 percent,

followed

Politicians

on the

were dead last,

by 26 percent Political

trust

who inhabit

Canada

has not

political

trust

Only

10 percent

having

some

answer to

some

do

trust of

to

in the

taps into two-thirds

but

and

respect

Canadian

not

many

measures

such

Government,

as social

2017).

Civil

benefits

workers

who

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senior

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servants

respectable

is one

policy

wrong

agreed

and

survey,

that

a crackdown

75 percent

widespread

to

use

should

management

that

are trusted

more than

so

well: only

in

6 percent

(Environics,

government

sectors

superiors:

tax

havens priority

disagreed

that

respect

by large

and sparsely were

for

trust

institutions, with the

groups, 2017c).

pay enough

gov-ernment.

90 percent

corporations

(Environics,

the rich

workers.

of Canadians

dissatisfaction

ages, gender, and language

that

their

job such

2016b).

and

unanimous

for

their

and 45 percent some trust in these in them

on

(Institute

workers,

be a top

of a vast, cold, into

obscurity.

public

about fairness in the tax system (Macleans,

step

in

31 countries

who feel

almost

of legal

of respondents

concern

The imperatives government

income,

the

toil in

Frontline

services,

of trust

world in 2017,

by those

of trust

provokes

crisis

here almost 2017b).

in the

forces

or

mea-sure

criticized

public

trust

and

and

(Environics,

usually

work

a lot

of 51 per-cent

A related

general,

servants

govern-ment

undeserved.

are

do not fare

levels

Across provinces, Canadians

are often

had some

area that

making,

question.

with

2017a).

response

most effective

civil

(Ekos, trusted

in

in

government

reported

them

of government

enjoy

have alot

40 percent

Despite there

servants

deliver

public

because

policy

they

18 percent of Canadians them

that

to be the

agreed

same

did respect

parties,

the

Canadians

institutions

they

performance

as integration,

and the

political that

of trust

more respectable

political

with the

to the

a

and

Parliament

respondents of

favourably

Britons

was found

know

the

percent

of the

in

in

had a lot

thought

of Canadians

questionwhether

trust

rises to

if they

actors

most advanced

has declined,

polled

of trust

Asked

posi-tively

political

that in

Public

the total

had a lot

This compares

service

2005).

positively.

were viewed

institutions

of those

trust,

country67

reported

Canadians

compared

(Dalton,

36 percent

for the countrys

civil

The study

security

the

49 percent

of respondents

The

just

political

19 percent

2017b).

different

best for

government.

Americans

and

has found

and

veterinarians

were regarded who

fa-vourably,

Farmers

and

as well as the

research

of respondents

(Environics,

a slightly

what is

West, 2018). institutions

who have some

think,

that

politicians

nurses.

percent),

car salespeople,

of political

trend

views

and

(86

(Insights

to this

people

firefighters

professions after

2017, only

in those

what the

28

government

In

66 percent

In

in

is low.

Adding

about

of

Canadians

teachers

Cross-national

83 percent.

cared

list

been immune

parties

Parliament.

who respected

at the level

democracies,

one in five

respectively),

of respondents

exists

only

at 22 percent,

those institutions.

industrial

and

Thus,

is In

taxes,

of

morally

a different suggesting

2017).

populated

country

not commercially

viable

required for

the

the

private

sector. Consequently,

Canadians have long accepted a role for government in the

economy

There are few

and society.

enterprises

played

a central

the country together. promotion

role in

Crown

corporations

providing

left,

a variety

but these state-owned

of services

that

helped tie

Energy development, resource extraction, railways,

of culture

were undertaken

by

organizations

like

and the

Petro-Canada,

Air

Canada, and the Canadian National Railway, to namejust a few. These have all been privatized, level,

but

liquor

control

The declining is either

their

Crown

corporations

boards still

like

Canada

have a monopoly in every

number of these state-owned

an ideological

shift

Post still

respondents

government.

or a pragmatic

agreed that

income inequality

On the

government

subject should

At the

province

provincial

except

Alberta.

enterprises suggests either that there recognition

purpose. As Figure 5-2 demonstrates, a sizable

an active role for

exist.

that

have achieved

majority of Canadians prefer

of income implement

they

inequality, strong

49 percent

policies

of

to reduce

109

110

Chapter 5

Rights and Freedoms The

Canadian

Charter

constitution

in

symbolic the

effects.

Polls

source

Rights

making

and

it

So powerful

population.

are the

of

1982,

a

is it

consistently

of great

pride

Freedoms

modern

bill

as a symbol show

for

the

for

the

that

that

vast

was entrenched of rights

the

that

it speaks

Charter

majority

in

the

Canadian

has instrumental to the

and the

vast

health

of respondents

and

majority care

of

system

(Environics,

2010,

2015). Despite

strong

support

position Instead,

majority

of those

they

of

of the

or

(Maloney,

posing

polls

in

2015

given

restrictions

hatred,

on the the

to

the

attacks

and

free-doms over-throw

and

national

of those

who

of the legislation Canada

lib-ertarian

freedoms.

rights

safety

majority

in

the

revolutionary

public

disapproved

to terrorist

not take

on individual

advocating

that

C-51)

do

controls

threat

indicated (Bill

Canadians

to favour

a potential

law

publicity

most

few

tend

as promoting

anti-terrorism

widespread

very

Canadians

view

However,

aware

advocates of

government,

security.

the

that

the

Charter,

and

were

despite

around

the

world

2015).

Tolerance As

discussed

Canadian system

for

with

in

assessing

(Statistics

a

majority

of

1980s

ten)

multiculturalism

opened nature

constituted the

of

This followed

which

the

disagree

door

to

points

applicants

of the

Canadian

shifts

has

popula-tion

immigrants

on immigration that

new

policy

of non-European

views

by the

the

of these

22 percent

influx

negative

in

policy world.

The inclusive

Despite

and

(six

of ethnic

whether

Canadas

groups

minorities

Canadians

diversity

its citizens

Free and fair of

1967.

2016a).

the

a

the

immigrants,

in

visible

of in

in

immigration

into

many countries,

levels

are too

high

2018c).

Tolerance is

adoption

was a first

prospective

Canada, since

(Environics,

1971

ancestry

by 2016

country

3, the

in

non-European

meant that

the

Chapter

government

elections

150th birthday Quebecers

to the

health

of

second

Institute,

2017).

to this

political

place

of immigrants,

but

principles but

on the

that

important

dissent

test

the

political

negative

country.

Index

reaction

and freedom

Canadians

today

democ-racy

and

dissent?

of dis-sent.

Celebration of Indigenous

was not condemned

Further

evidence

of 148 countries

minorities,

of a liberal

competition

anniversary

in the

Prosperity

an essential

of democratic what about

was instructive:

many

Canadas

the

are a given,

and

tolerance

is important,

accept

in terms

of expression

and

tes-tifies

comes

from

of freedom,

beliefs

(Legatum

Equality There is little citizens equal of

rights

is

strong

than

for

gender child

United

Research,

hold

Gender

Likewise,

for

is

a

which

major

costs

equality the

very

women

male and female

equality,

care,

political

office. equality

important for

favour

to

highly

hurdle

have the

for

same

who

one-third

of all

support 94 percent

rights

as

was identical.

women

family

sense

majority

regarded:

respondents

a typical

in the

vast

men

Despite

want to

work

of its income

2017). have

past.

For

41 percent

rose from States,

and

men.

The figure

generally in the

vote

was very

2017).

rose from

the figure

to and

& Friendly,

Canadians

2017 (Pew

women

affordable

(Macdonald

in the

right

support

access to

marriages

that

the

said it

Research,

lesbians

doubt

for

Canadians

(Pew this

having

become example,

where support

to

more accepting

between

to 74 percent.

43 percent

2017a)

much

1997

In the

80 percent

has grown

province

(Crop,

from

and

of the

rights

2017, support of

2017).

35 percent

of gays for

and

same-sex

Quebec support There is a similar

is high-est: trend

in 2001 to 62 percent

in

Political Culture

Diversity and Political Culture 5.4

Assess the belief that there

Canada is a vast, result in pitted

geographically

different

Indigenous

are distinctive

political

political

and socially

cultures

in

each

diverse province

cultures

within

country.

Does this

(particularly

Canada. diversity

Quebec), among

nations, and within other groups? Is the social and political landscape so

with linguistic,

cultural,

and geographic

divisions

that

a pan-Canadian

culture is an impossibility?

It has been suggested that a Canadian identity

constructed

us from

to

distinguish

Americans

about the process of fashioning

an identity.

the Americans won their independence, 1990s, new

countries

(Nevitte,

1995). There is

From the eighteenth to

nothing

century,

to the collapse of the Soviet

have had to define themselves

political

has been un-usual when

Union in the

mobilize and unify the popu-lation.

Scholarship on nationalism and national identity identifies the use of invention and imagination

in fostering

Ranger, 1983; Anderson,

Arguably, successive a distinct

provincial

a sense of community

in the

nation state (Hobsbawm

&

1983).

Alberta governments

identity,

initially

have endeavoured

to fend

off threats

from

to

the

construct

Cooperative

Commonwealth Federation (precursor to the New Democratic Party) and later to help mobilize the population story

of Us

in its battles

was that

population that is self-reliant image

and reality

not necessarily

was noted

the

with

of an enterprising

practice,

if not the actuality,

province

and innovative by Roger of free

government;

The Alberta

government

and a

(Barrie, 2006). The difference between Astrong

a concomitant

conservative

belief in the spirit, if belief in the

governments;

and an intense

of energy resources are all readily acknowledged culture

with a small

Gibbins (1979).

enterprise;

of small, fiscally

affection, for one-party

Ottawa over energy resources.

commitment

desirabil-ity,

a tolerance,

to provincial

if

not

control

components of the Alberta political

(p. 143).

The greatest challenge to a Canadian identity who resembles lifestyle,

usin

many ways. Because

and share

many values, it

is sharing

a border

we share a common

was deemed

with a neighbour

language,

enjoy a simi-lar

necessary to highlight

why and

how Canadians are not Americans. To accomplish this task, organizations including the

Canadian

The former

Broadcasting

of experience ... the itself

Corporation

plays a vital role in creating

and the

window through

world around it

and the

National

cultural

boundaries

which the country

Film

Board

were created.

and a common

sees and takes the

thread

measure of

(Taras, 1997, p. 266).

In addition to strong economic and cultural ties to the United States and the influ-ence of the

American

to a single,

media, there are internal

distinctive

national

political

divisions that culture.

may pose additional

The next sections look

bar-riers

at these

subcultures.

Provincial and Regional Political Cultures Canadian

politics is regional

political life

pre-eminent

facts of the

Canadian

(Simeon & Elkins, 1974, p. 397).

The importance regional

politics ... one of the

of region in

variations

in

Canada cannot

attitudes

be overestimated.

among the residents

of

There are signifi-cant

different

provinces

or

groupings of provinces that are exacerbated by differences in provincial histories and economic,

social,

and ethnic

differences,

as well as by the vast geography

of Canada.

Wiseman argues that Canada is defined by at least five distinct regional/provincial political

cultures,

Quebec and

which he ascribes to the

Ontario are each a region,

a Mid-West covering Alberta and British

variable impact and the

of immigration

other groupings

are the

over time. Atlantic,

Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and the Far Westconsisting

Columbia

(Wiseman,

2007)

of

111

112

Chapter 5

Historically,

the countrys

has been concentrated

in

lives.

Not surprisingly,

those

who live

with

how

despite

the

on the

growing

provinces

Western

traditional In

this

democracy.

discipline MLAs)

region.

The

Both

Party

situation

(Lawson,

A belief that that

they

government

people

can influence does.

2005;

Resnick,

2000;

measure it

out that

western

systems,

Canada,

(which

prairie

by their

Prairies the

of central

of power

and

residents

did

voted

mechanisms

not impose to

(Barrie,

2006).

level

recall

resonate of

of

party

legislation

and recallstill

The

in

Albertas

the

United

of Reform.) monopoly

regions

have

There is

alienation,

similar

with their

also concern superficial

together

provinces

west-ern

efforts it

have

has been

as a distinct

have different

not surprising

lev-els

political

that

2002). In addition,

lumped

2004). Canadas

of regional

experienced

as only

(Henry,

often

on feelings

are dissatisfied

2002).

so it is

The

lack

with the

(which

engen-ders

to challenge

prairie

rhetorical

it

interests

repealed

hold a

province

demographics,

defined

of Canada.

many supporters

other

which is

(Henderson,

and

Alberta

Henry,

of that

rest

parties,

provinces

Alberta

outside

waned

has been

discontent

commercial

of

provinces in

the

and flirted

as do

within

and

to the three

were forged

Frustrated

a discussion

Citizens

waxed

that

entity,

histories,

when it

comes

to

trust and political efficacy, political scientists havefound that there are strong differ-ences

government to the

western

many in areas

more heterogeneous

education

responsive

the

the

at the

them, 8 for

that

the

referendums,

Chapter

of

dissatisfaction

This term

parties

Party

populism

may be primarily

made to

pointed

Political Efficacy

that

and

alienation

is

Credit

has been challenged.

of alienation,

been

Farmers

Social

invoked

Party. (See

from

with

United

has

primarily

apart

non-partisanship,

to

region.

Conservative

democracyinitiatives,

The assumption alienation

the

chagrin

resulting

which

believed

political

and

population

1980).

was unique.

Liberal

of the to the

of the

it is

aligned

region

the

and

Reform

Conservative

were

committed

of direct

third

preferred

initially) remained

trinity

the older

parties,

set the region new

that

sense,

by the

farmers

direct

that

because

heartland

two-thirds

and applied

(Gibbins,

and cultural

also resides,

alienation,

wealth in the

Columbia

which

parties

disillusioned for

in

almost power

discontent

is relevant

financial,

manifestation

western

and

of regional

beliefs

crucible

where

political

One

population

alienation

has fostered were the

where

works is

British

commercial,

Canada,

is

peripheries.

ideology but also to

Canada.

central

this

Confederation

as a political

two

industrial,

is and what

among groups

the citizens

(Simeon

of Canadian

& Elkins,

1974,

provinces

p. 404).

region, it is to be expected that for residents were low.

However,

of political

efficacy

Henderson

has

by

compare religion,

later

analyses were

areas that language,

minimal

suggested

provincial

found

and among

Given the lack

that

(Clarke,

provincial

clout

Jenson,

LeDuc,

regional

political

(2004).

She argues

in terms

it

are

would

and

social

and efficacy

structure

in lev-els

1996). not

be

of such characteristics

of immigrants,

Atlantic

variations

& Pammett,

cultures

language

in the

of trust

and regional

that

proportion

of different

of that region, levels

boundaries

have similarities

those

of political

always

cir-cumscribed

more fruitful

as ethnicity, (such

to

race,

as education,

occupation, and dependence on natural resources). Usingthese criteria, she identified nine

relatively

mid-northern,

homogeneous suburban

clusters

Toronto

(p. 604), including

and Vancouver, and the

urban

Canada, rural

manufacturing

and

belt. She also

found that these regional clusters accounted for variations in attitudes such as politi-cal efficacy

and leftright

ideology

nearly as well as for

differences

on province. In particular, she concluded that in analyzing needs to be given to the differences and rural

between

based exclusively

political culture, attention

north and south

and between

urban, sub-urban,

areas.

QuebecPolitical Culture It is

self-evident

77 percent,

that

Quebec is

is French-speaking, population

(Statistics

a distinct

and the

society.

province

Canada,

2016a).

The

vast

majority

is home to 90 percent French

settlers

of its

population,

of Canadas

brought

different

French-speaking idea

Political Culture

to the

New

World,

and

The clergy their

culture

and

of

has its tax,

by the

become

a strong

culture

differs

to rectify and

and

to

best

Church

had

and

a

to

ideas

preserve

in

was very in-fluential.

mission

capitalist

way to

Revolution

rural

had

dramatically. become

its

protect

of English-speaking

the

French

areas,

ushered

Quebecers

masters in their

own

other

provincial

lan-guage

avoiding

own

a new

the

own

era in secular

house.

tax

of its

in their

in

embraced

income

master

Canadians

to

strong

Angus

Quebec

do not

necessarily

that

and

Quebec corporate

financial

levels

house.

of education

and

like

religious

accommodation

is fiercely

the

differences

provinces

political

important Parti

but support

play

patients

such

who

public

is leaving

the

application

door

of this

liberal

open

attitudes

Muslim

women.

of legislation

from for

to

provision

in

wearing face

Regulations

coverings

pun-ishment,

were in favour,

piece

services.

wear face

lives

to capital

as

banning individuals

on

province

to end their

However,

in a controversial

an important

culture,

of their

held two

do allow

religious

reasons.

compromise

if

public

in the

Bill (CBC,

the

distinctiveness

lives.

In

maintaining look

order

referendums

for an independent concerns

part in

and francophones

aspects

Qubcois

to the twin

was the first

of Canadians

2012).

problems.

more liberal

With respect

cultures,

in the

2018).

more on Bill 62.)

Linguistic

protect

ill

2016.

different

when receiving

government

as

the

greater

programs

to social

Quebec

(Brennan,

provision

to the

2014,

63 percent

was formalized

people

daycare

be considered

terminally

that

of very

or burka

opposed

(See Chapter 3 for

separatist

to those

for

In

efforts

and to steer

a somewhat

solutions

also

was passed in

poll found

norm

niqab

that

Canada.

die, allowing

a contentious

coverings

This suggests

of

can

on

political

governments

given

subsidized

focused

Qubcois

Quebecers

have

to collective

the rest

the

Quebec

English

Heavily

was 55 percent

the

2017. Bill 62 contains

politics.

1960s that

that

The

and

province

culture

Reid

figure

from

of the

to

in the

to ensure

country.

French

legislation

extend

the

of the

commitment

than

Federal

nationalism helped

political

on the right

but in

rest between

Quebec

moral issues

deviation

of the

Quebec

help.

Quebec has also

development

to the

medical

threats

they

to remain

government

modern

that

economic

a 2013

to

out to

state

inequalities

pass legislation

the

Quiet

collects

similar

of

from

testify

opinion

that

the

flock

declined

provincial

quite

Contemporary

This

that

the

set

and

the

character

province

with

and

Quebec

historic

collectivist

to

1960s,

plan

development

building

social

Catholic

status.

The

social

the

materialistic,

their

Church

ideas

making

have

economic

early

pension

certainly

They

Canadians

believed

encourage

of the

socialist

own

They

was to

which the influence and

French

victory,

modern life.

However,

liberal

British

the individualistic,

America.

culture

temptations

after the

persuaded

avoid

North and

even

to the

to

retain

its

and

culture.

Neither

the

was success-ful,

wanes depending

In the

of

government

distinctiveness,

on sovereignty.

Quebec waxes and

of language

provincial

on perceived

1995 referendum,

Quebec

came within a hairs breadth of achieving independence (falling short by about one percent of the vote), but since that among

Quebec voters

day support

aged 1834,

1995referendum (Montigny

has waned. Support

had declined

for independence

to 25 percent two

decades after the

quoted in Dufresne, 2019).

Indigenous Political Cultures The

worldview

of political of the

of

culture

British

and

Indigenous children where schools

they

Canadas

Indigenous

because

the focus

French.

The

Peoples

to adopt

Canadian

were forcibly

removed

were

if

beaten

were church-run,

the

population has

they

been

spoke

children

has been

neglected

European

values,

especially

was determined

to force

government

Western

from

on

their their

values,

beliefs,

parents mother

were involuntarily

and

and sent

in

practices. to

tongues. converted

residential As these to

discussions those or per-suade

Indigenous schools, residential Christianity

113

114

Chapter 5

Thus, languages and

and

Reconciliation for

students

Consequently,

there

The

TRC

(See In

is

another

to

part

run

dependent

counter

different

perspective,

practices

and

ownership First

traditional

practices values,

traditional

along

of

and

are

Indigenous

The late

Gord

Downie

of First Chief chiefs Que., given

Perry

Bellegarde

assembly

in

blanket

Stars.

Downies

Chanie

Wenjack,

when he ran school

in

away

moved to cities

have

by the

Canadian

as communalism, approach

engaging

decision

politics

in adversarial

have

been

under

Nunavut,

population.

from

politics

they is

These territorial

govern-ments

to

have

that

has

the

more likely

to

been

view

maintained

of the

remote

areas isolated

state.

value

with

terms

the

Finally,

priorities

as

returning

a boy from

to

Nunavut

than

other

With

live

in

uranium economic

and

gold

activity

are being impacted,

mines, in the

hydro

from

outside

generation,

influences, silica

North is accelerating.

and recent

court

decisions

sands, Northern

require

As-sembly

was name

album, story

of

environment

to favour

welfare

materialist

the

In

of

system

leaders

elders.

protecting

an indi-vidualistic system

by the

of community

more likely

choose

than

and the

of community

are also

more critical

rather

practices

election

wisdom

They

a collectivist

traditional

Among final

evi-dent

where Indigenous

National

and the

a

and com-petitive assault,

of adversarial

and

govern-ment

lines.

on the

to

perma-nent commu-nities

at a special

OmaniWalks

The Secret Path, told

with

are

to

2007). groups

developments,

communities

of the

moved

Gatineau,

where the singer a star

Wicapi the

Nations

and

less likely

than

combine

jobs.

were

who

such

Territories

resources

often

much

values

changing.

oil sands

institu-tions.

and self-sufficient

Those

values

both their

drawing

creating

(Henderson,

is

in these

labour.

The rejection

also tend

and

they

Many Indigenous but that

of the life

communities

rather

2007).

party

also

than

are slightly

Canadians

meetings.

Commission,

groups

norms

traditional

reflecting

Nations

family

residents

opportu-nity

Reconciliation

been imposed

and

proportion

of land

of reserves.

have

Northwest

and the Inuit

orientation,

casual

Indigenous

these

of the

are not structured

more important

an

private

of residential

self-reliant

support.

consensus

make up a substantial

Nations

from

values

(Wiseman,

in the legislatures

political

that

harmony.

Although

been eliminated

collective

and

Truth

on the impact

picture

Indigenous

them

of low-paid

seeking

behaviour.

First

nomadic

to Indigenous

by consensus,

people

The

provided

public

and

unsettling

on government

democratic

making

not

policy,

which transformed

of an underclass

Western

an

(Truth

people.

11.)

disruptive

groups

become

2008,

in

of information

children

paints

Indigenous in

experiences

deal

of Indigenous

to

established

their

a great

Report

were lost

(TRC),

share

now

Final

Chapter

settlements,

have

to

on generations

2015).

practices

Commission

former

schools

spiritual

of

who died a residen-tial

Ontario.

Press/Newsco

Wyld/ZUMA

Adrian

Political Culture

engagement

and

is to processes

consultation

with them

be successful,

that

prior

governments

to

will

are part of Indigenous

development.

need to

political

If this

understand

culture

(Beatty,

economic

the

devel-opment

decision-making

Berdahl,

& Poelzer,

2012).

Social Class Social

class

labour as

has

parties

middle

class.

identified which

as

remains

to

are

more likely

in

doubled

to take

left-wing for

positions

that

countries

normally

70 percent

to

2017b).

around

who

43 percent,

as

working

class

The implication

individuals

on the role

where

self-identify

of respondents

identifying

(Ekos,

have found

other

percentage

of those

37 percent

as surveys

some

Canadians

almost

The ranks

to around

be seen,

vote.

2017, the

from

recorded.

as it is in

of the

2002 and

plummeted

ever

programs,

Canada

part

between

class

lowest

shift

as salient

a significant

However,

has almost

and social

been

middle

is the

people

not

capture

in the

of the state,

of this

working

economic

class

equality,

example.

Gender The

belief

research

that that

women shows

socialization, there

is

womens

to

which

Women

are less

capitalist

system.

for

particular,

the

about

that

and

more likely

in

responsibility

of

military

are

to the

borne

differences

(2002)

suggests

priorities permeate

force

and

(p.

52).

competitive

of an active

disadvantaged. views

in that

and the it

the

more supportive

of traditional

out from

due to

political

for

use

be critical

ONeill

distinctive

men, they

assistance

Mars is

differently

Brenda

is

the

with

to

politics

concern

toward

providing

men are from

experiences.

culture

Compared

and

Younger about

role

women,

women

in

in family,

politics.

are

political

to their

differences

of gender

gender

Canadian

identity

sisters.

more supportive assisting

the

military

force

are

Survey

Unlike

their

since

spending

United

the and

1970s

several States

dimensions concerns

of

that

women

are

government

approve

Deckman,

attach-ment

the

role for

women

(Dolan,

been found

policy

demonstrates

fewer

on defence

has

a strong

share

a more activist

male counterparts,

spending

and it

who have

across

Women in the

research

women,

Women

more progressive

welfare

and increased

men and

is important.

2017).

of social poor.

between

identity

& Goodyear-Grant,

their

think

of care

favourable

salience

(Bittner

Venus

and

political

in

are and

There that

they

an ethic

government

society,

that

circumstances,

a

degree

are from

of the

& Swers,

in use of

2007).

Ethnicity Canadas

population

the impact

of these

know to

is that

there

navigate

uncharted

cultures

attitudes

their

are

family,

causes

new

world

children

to

and the

(Tyysk,

position

of

New moral

analyze we do

parents

who have

2008).

as young

to

What

immigrant

hold traditional

tensions,

difficult

perspectives.

world

more likely

sexuality,

so it is

and

as old

do not endorse

intergenerational

groups,

attitudes

conflict

with their

parents

and religions

ethnic

on political

made cul-tural

Canadians and

try

from

patriarchal

women.

Not surprisingly,

persons

want to

be

this

more like

peers. A survey

patriots. adopt

of

Canadian

2018c).

from

26

because in

in

(Environics,

percent

in

and its

partners

the

Western

Canada found

of respondents

customs

Environics

2018

minority

Muslims

A majority

(up

and

waters

that the

regarding

sometimes

of numerous views

is intergenerational

adjustments some

consists diverse

2006)

Muslim democracies

(53

that they percent)

2016a). believe initiated

community

are among

believed Among

Muslims this is

survey

generally

their

the

the strongest

population

want to in 2006 a poorly

Canadian

co-religionists

wish to

at large,

be distinct

(Environics,

and repeated understood

36 per-cent

it in

2016

religious

115

116

Chapter 5

Youth The

politically

Canadians

are

people.

Surveys

older

previous

definition likely parties;

instead,

rather

and

participate

activities.

those

in

are

than and

vote in

culture

in the future.

they

and

on

have

to

adapted

magazines.

numbers,

in social

young

people

possible

value

movements

retain

between

Canadians

a flexible are less political

and

protest

sources

their

will change

stood

They

or joining

preferred

they

priori-ties

they

have

2017a).

as voting

are sig-nificantly

as same-sex

that

to complexity,

media are their

If

it is

Canada

(such

found

(Environics,

be involved

in

post-materialist

Millennials

ways such

as social

people

moral issues

embrace

in traditional

such

greater

young On

multiculturalism

more likely

newspapers

values

to

conducted

in that

New technologies

of

generations.

more likely

embrace politics

they

orientations

of older

generations

of family,

to

and

young are

out from

values

from

marriage) than

relevant

different

of news

different

political

Canadian

political

A Redundant Border? 5.5

Determine

There

are

shadow but

the extent

many reasons

of the similarities

that

of a superpower;

a language

and

and that

is

identity

culture.

and

differences

are trivial

not only

The strength

why there

Canadians

is important

it shares

is

Americans

a lively

of the

debate

are exaggerated.

and are

to this

a 9000

km

manufactured

as to

for

country.

with the is

whether

lives

in the

United

States

unique

the

any truth

political

Americans.

Canada

border

resemblance

Is there

and

among

differences

in the

na-tions,

between

assertion

that

the

purposes?

AShifting Value Landscape? As discussed

in

argued role

for

These Hartz,

saw also

strong

us from

English

that,

Horowitz

Canada,

Here

Locke

puts it, is

at his side

Lipsets

critics

Canadians

Johnston,

not the

(1966,

1990;

Dalton,

the

degree to

Canada

is

more like

2017; which

the

democracies. Americans

that

No doubt with respect authority

majority

to

(Nevitte,

referendum for

the

there

of

unquestionably

States, is

god;

he

United

must tolerate

group. Unlike

United

States,

country.

dominant

the

the 1990).

in

Others

Canada,

Christian

it is

& Campbell,

not a one-myth

lesser

Tory

and

cul-ture:

socialist

his

analysis

are far Brooks,

United

2014).

of elitism

there

Strong

grounds, he claims

of the

debate

Americans.

like

any

be seen is

in

other

Grabb,

on the topic

country,

whether

emphasizing

(Baer,

There is

even

&

revolves

no question

Canadians

Canadathe

has been a shift evidence

Charlottetown social,

to

than

other

that Anglo-American

are so similar

makes no sense.

are remnants deference,

numerous

Much

resemble

States than

really

on

more alike

Accord. and

of this (See

economic

monarchy,

to less comes

Chapter elites,

compliance from 10.)

the

the

for

examplebut

toward 1992

Despite Accord

political

constitutional

unanimous

sup-port

was rejected

by

a

Canadians.

A quest for outputs

the

in this

unlike

What remains

political,

tendencies

1966;

Canadians

border

1996).

on the it from

with

Americans

around

like

(Horowitz,

one true

than

(Lipset,

coun-tries,

a strong

p. 58).

quarrel

and

is

south

fragment

socialist

socialism

the two favour

individual

to the

as a liberal

while liberalism

As

on the

neighbour

and

who compared

and law-abiding;

emphasis

Canada of Tory

Lipset,

deferent,

our

and

deities

Culture,

elitist,

by conservatism

1974).

to

are

place less

evidence

argued

tempered

that

and

distinguish

who regarded

Lipset

Political

Canadians

government; qualities

have

Analyzing

that

potential

of their

differences

governments

in found

values

between

remarkable

the two similarities

countries in

and the

national

identit

pol-icy

Political Culture

and

pride,

trust

2017).

There

social

and

in

political

was also political

expectation

a great

values.

was that

was not the or quite

there

case. In

proud

both

to

be

in their

patriotism,

country

and its symbols. does

George even

Orwells

in in (32

is

an index

other

outlier,

with

the

role

same

and

of the

of

later

than

Americans

of their

and

proud to their patrio-tism

found

nationality.

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that

This fig-ure

Survey,

2013).

country,

Low-key

as noted

people

is

by

not vocal

or

polled

the

survey

by

Trust parties

figure

for

constructed

combined

tolerance

and found

was 16 points

hemisphere

appeared. Canadian

whereas

(which

were simi-lar

that

ahead

of

Canada

of any

of the

AmericasBarometer.

The

at 43 percent. to support from

seniors,

on the

in the

Box 5-3:

significantly

both

different

countries

and students,

conventional

elections

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in

The same

system)

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States

have

that

elections,

political

list

where the

wisdom

2017). There is support

mid-term

United

percent)

democracy

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respondents

doubt

(Dalton,

the

differences

(14 trust

are believed

care,

and

2016/17).

stable for

western

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campaign.

proud

attached

a survey

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but this

are loud

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some

half

of 61 percent.

Americans

casting

2018

election

groups, were very

of the common

Canada

a decade is less

on the list,

as health

government and in the

but

the

state.

areas, such

broad

pride,

where conspicuous

proud

emblematic

in

support

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institutions

a score

in

two

country:

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patriotism

favouring

generalized

Canadians

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(AmericasBarometer,

with

States

or somewhat

[the]

50 percent

33 countries

United

of their

on

national

Americans would

as Britain,

2013 (British

Kingdom

the

(Dalton,

1941).

of orientations

dissent was an

such

and

of citizens

Canadians

proud

that

between

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that

and

identity

90 percent

are still

parties

Only

roughly

gap

countries,

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67 percent

Americans

wide

United

political

percent).

Canada

and

other

political

2007 (Dalton,

American

Canadians

national

citizens

comment

for

between

be a

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government

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2003

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conscious

of

to

assumed

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either,

between

patriotism

expectations

Canadian/American.

of respondents

held steady

overlap

and

With respect

countries,

Dalton

not exist

82 percent

institutions,

117

that

United

States, it

of

more or less

government

Americans

for a government

A Canadian

views

the

should

prefer

mini-mal

role in health care,

was an important

issue

in

Icon.)

Box 5-3 A CanadianIcon In

2004,

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CBC

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was

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as

a result

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people

inventors,

humble

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country that

despite

some

areas,

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depth

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begin-nings

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lengthy

the

premier bring and

health

of

care

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waiting

beliefs? and

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medical lobby an

is

which

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needle

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coverage.

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2018

Canada

fundamental

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opposed

popularity

topic

strongly

among

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care

similar

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mid-term

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indicate

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enjoy

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gained

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and

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do

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Obamacare.

or

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funded

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important

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citizens

Obamas

and

campaign

to

Americans

to repeal

single-most

care

purse.

opposition

a reality

neighbour

even-tually

means

fierce

quality

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to

province

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despite

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care.

have lost

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Douglas

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gratitude

precious of

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adequate

a visiting

care to the

and,

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became

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in

medical

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of

Saskatchewan

considered

but a man from

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including

legends,

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compassion

care.

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choice.

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the

select

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Canadians,

hockey

was the

to

Tommy

Canadian

nominated

scientists,

by

contest

a slice to

committed precludes Although of the

to

on this file

and

individualism of a pub-licly

appears

population,

to inspire

south-ern

values

adoption there

public involvement. Douglas

and its

political

to

be

a powerful Perhaps

the

it

population

will

118

Chapter 5

Policy Reflecting Values Responses which from

to survey

one can the

policies

citizens.

solidarity,

then

culture,

geographic highly and the

capacity

to stabilize

In

contrast,

United

States,

two

to

to

evolution

enthusiasm

for

In in

both

the

and the and

was fear

individual

structural liberty

with

while

Charter

1992).

Though

debates political

banking

banks

and

sector

is

in stability

have long

financial

worked

institutions

The

and

Greater

distrust

this

between

influences

of concentrated

eco-nomic

has shaped

Canada

illustrates

and risk. It also illustrates sector

the

institutions

mindset

and innovation by

in

disparity

political

power,

an important

sets

1994,

of the

p. 337).

the

greater

the

Canadian

There

amica-ble

economy

Rights

These include

Bill

of

owes

of

Rights reflects Charter

has

that

Canadas not

concern

gradual

Americanized

mobilization,

has

an important

and

commitment

to

supremacy.5 at its

evolution

it

activ-ism would

historical

fervour

political

&

Americanization for

parliamentary

Canada,

becoming

judicial

pronounced

revolutionary

in

(Pal

officials)

eventuate

a less

system

that

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not

protect

much to the

of the constitu-tion,

consciousness

elected

supremacy.

provisions

democracies.

part

an American-style political

will

are entrenched

western

became

was also

Charter

that

other

to of

rights

democratically

of the 1992).

from

Canada

parliamentary

and

have

Freedoms

scream

challenging

adoption

(Smith,

apart

move primal

political

citizens

them

would

courts

the

States,

are the

(Dickson,

and

life

it

knell for

Canadian

American

Canadian

cultural,

an interest

American

path taken

of Rights and

judges

the

reasons in

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that

Gibbins,

death

Canada

this

rights in

United

Charter

unelected

prove the

oversight.

views.

different

and

state

and

day.

the

there

quoted

and

with

2014).

Canada

(i.e.,

The

other

competition

between

Canadian

of

banks.

constitution,

Taras,

to this

promote

competition

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system to

than for

& Porter,

and the

of

stability

relationship (Lavelle

have

and

world

a concentration

a desire

American

regulation

different

banking

and

of

to

prevent

of the

power

of banks

decentralized speaks

accords

economic,

Canadian

banks that

not surpris-ing

one that

American

political,

The government

It is

system.4

are thousands

with

countries

operation

about.

the financial

there

were configured the

it

by six large

of its

as equality,

policy. and

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comes

values

such

government.

industry.

2014).

and

values

public

ways in

evidence

beliefs

approach,

different

& Porter,

the

for

other

banking

by the

dominated

bring

any

are other

Indirect

Canadian

Canadian

of the

shaped

(Lavelle

and is

together

the

structure

characteristics

centralized

a unique

been

reflect

role

more than

but there

a country.

epitomizes

of a legitimate it

reflects

have

over time in

which

arguably

cherish

is the

systems

do vary

are espoused

a jurisdiction,

care system

area that

political

banking

in

Canadians

and

that

and recognition

that

Another

can

values

adopted

The health

social

its

questions

discern

origin,

(Dickson,

permeated

fixture

in

politi-cal Canadian

2007a).

Global Cultural Trends As

mentioned

Canada

and

school of

in the

of thought

Europe

than

the

our

to those

5 Section justified

factoid:

century

1 of the in

a free

to override certain

The

Charter and

Bank

of

portions

of

values

United

neighbour the

is

received

debate the

and

States.

American

Montreal

the

around

world

The

views

prompted at the

a commission

to issue

similarities

of the

dominant

self-doubt, colossus

about

extent

door

are

between

resemblance. much closer

One to those

political

motif that

in large

part

(Resnick,

government

paper

by

dis-tinguishes doubt

2005,

p. 90).

currency

prior

& Porter, 2014). Rights

democratic

Canadian

its

to resist

(Lavelle

discussion, revolves

of the

from

capacity

4 An interesting

the twentieth

States

holds that

Canada about

preceding

United

and

Freedoms

society.

of the Charter

says

that

There is also Section

some

rights

can

33,

which

allows

be violated Parliament

if

they

are

or provincial

demonstrably legislatures

to

Political Culture

The rise in trends raising

across

our

horizons

culture

might

is

have

These

shared

cultural

community

and

icons

cultures?

These

retain

political

the

and

developments loyalty

accountable

Canadians broader other

and

myriad

of political

Americans more

raise

action

resemble

momentous

other

questions

that

are

the

media.

detached

severed

from

from

its

spaces

geo-graphic

where transna-tional

and supersede the

ability

pale in

affecting

national

of the

legitimate,

& Stein,

might

are

where

2000).

about

(Cameron

each

of a global

through

is

transcend

an authoritative,

on

are exploring

environment

discourse

questions

as

broad-ening

Focusing

emergence

cultural

& Stein,

and

2000).

to the

and cultural

Will these

of its citizens

arena

and

Cameron

develop-ments and even

world

scholars

culture

new social

can flourish.

the

disseminated

process,

to the

these

state,

cultural

polit-ical

democracies

& Stein,

nation

a common

the

in

No doubt

established

and icons

In the

are constructing

identities

of authority

2006).

leading

dominate

quoted

questioning

(Cameron

create

commodified.

the

of the

messages

that

in significant

are shrinking

de-territorialized,

(Hannigan,

global

future

have resulted

in that

our loyalties

on the

to

Dalton,

governments

strain

access to the same

moorings

from

1990;

of globalization

New technologies and

to

becoming

The processes

people

the

societies,

But technologies

of globalization

whether

is believed

(Inglehart,

a challenge

democracies.

the impact

culture.

of issues

present

emerging

values

post-industrial

of new types will

in

post-materialist

119

state

to

representative,

2000,

p. S22).

comparison culture

Whether with

much

and identities

in

countries.

Summary and Conclusion It

would be a only

mistake to assume that

by contemporary

citizens

debates

beliefs, and values are not relevant to Canadian

politics.

The struggle

privilege is important, of ideas

for

are influ-enced railways,

and that

ideas,

understanding

power, position,

but politics also involves

and values among those

and

perspectives.

Both Louis Hartz (founding Seymour

into

Martin

Lipset (formative

differing in their it.

Hartz contends

States

share

Canadas

and

that

direction.

some

countries)

as undergoing

Nelson

thread

Canadians binds

politi-cal

emergence

Canada

major changes

in

is

in

a

play a central

p. 264) argues

contemporary

number

evidence

everywhere them

The

political have majority

(like

value

identified a large

country

basic

other priori-ties

values

of

that share

together. role in tying

against

Canadian

political

with them,

and

dimensions,

especially level,

a core

beliefs

The the

of values

Canadian country

and

government together

on

moral issues

had

through

provision health

and

than

enjoy and,

of the in

the

many

basic

val-ues

contains to

the freedom

over

time,

and

espouse

them. with

Americans,

by the

Canadians

do

them

willing

programs,

culture have

from

more liberal

more

of various

that

population

are influenced

we are

of

and the

be distinctive

deal

distinguishes

Generally,

Despite

at a very fundamental

to them

Still,

peoples

do share

They

a great

a sin-gle

of the country.

1960s.

underpin

which

health

who have immigrated

than

superpower.

funded

was

are emblematic

Canadian

share

global

to

groups

Canadians

of

publicly

differently

The

available

of govern-ment.

role

shared.

and continue

the

issue

the

of Indigenous

these

activi-ties sector.

Canadian

equality

of non-Europeans since

the

about

widely

developed

above.

slice

opportunities the

are

Nevertheless,

private

the

and

cultures

Qubcois

ways.

views

justice,

that

Canadian

worldview,

of the complexity

along

there

sees

both lib-eral

Canadas the

values

as these

for

to a uniquely

underpinning

social

services,

viable

has shaped

Canadas

the

decades.

because

differences region,

theory

more Tory

view,

in for

sees

solution

and

The values

United

Lipset

a

Horowitzs

elements

Wiseman (2007,

unifying

while it in

the foundation

Post-materialist

in recent

Gad

conservative

provide

delve

of political cul-ture,

Canada and the

tilting

In

socialism.

to

events theory)

culture,

counter-revolution

culture

culture

English political

pragmatic

care system,

and

views asto how the past has shaped

a liberal

conservative

that

fragments theory)

Canadas history for the foundations

This

and telephone

not commercially

accepted

a con-test

who hold different

airlines,

were

a different their

than to

inter-act of this

neigh-bours.

Americans

favour

govern-ment

including

universal

countries,

Canadian

care.

In common political democracy. fashioned

with

culture

has

What is a political

other as its unique

Western basis about

community

the

values

Canada that

does

of liberal

is that

it

not share

has

120

Chapter 5

common

ancestry,

of

and

blood

in

a common

Trudeau

language,

common set

Canada are being

and

histories,

of values

suggested,

or culture.

the

has

creating,

worlds

many other

challenged:

it

wrapped

as

first

Prime

ties

detached

itself Minister

from

and and

state.

too soon

around

world

geographic

and identity

the

are

becoming

within

their

geographic

communications

enable

post-national

countries

culture

Lacking

the

technology

formation

to tell

moorings

whether

of these

communities

virtual

as globaliza-tion

dissolve

developments

and

borders

communities.

undermine

It is

will

weaken

the

bonds

each state

Discussion Questions 1.

How

would and

those

you

describe

beliefs?

of your

Are they

family,

your

basic

similar

your

to

friends,

political

or different and

other

val-ues from

How

different

and

the

and

differences

political United

United

culture

States?

political How

cultures can

best be explained? becoming

the

of

Is the

more similar

Canada

similarities Canadian

to that

of the

States?

culture

of your

different

from

that

province

or region

of other

areas

of

Canada? 4.

are the

political

substantially

influ-ences

on your life? 2.

3. Is the

Does

Quebec

have

a distinct

what are the implications 5.

How

do the

differ

from

6. Is the

political those

Canadian

or does it still

for cultures

of the rest political

basically

political Canadian

If so,

politics?

of Indigenous

peoples

of Canada?

culture reflect

culture?

its

changing historic

rapidly, roots?

Further Reading Ball, T., Dagger, R., Christian, W., & Campbell, C. (2013). Political ideologies and the democratic ideal (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Bell, D.V.J. (1992). The roots of disunity: A study of Canadian political culture (rev. ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Delacourt, S. (2016). Shopping for votes: How poli-ticians choose us and we choose them (2nd ed.) Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre. Fierlbeck, K. (2006). Political thought in Canada: An intellectual history. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. Grabb, E., & Curtis, J. (2010). Regions apart: The four societies of Canada and the United States. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Hartz, L., et al. (1964). The founding of new societies. New York: Harcourt Brace. Henderson, A. (2007). Nunavut: Rethinking political culture. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Kaufman, J. (2009). The origins of Canadian and American political differences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lipset, S.M. (1990). Continental divide: The values and institutions of the United States and Canada. New York: Routledge. Nevitte, N. (1996). The decline of deference. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. Resnick, P. (2005). The European roots of Canadian identity. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. Thomas, D.M., & Biette, D.N. (Eds.) (2014). Canada and the United States: Differences that count (4th Ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Wesley, J.J. (2011). Code politics: Campaigns and cultures on the Canadian Prairies. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Wiseman, N. (2007). In search of Canadian political culture. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Chapter6

PoliticalParticipation and CivicEngagement

Phot

Stock

Durda/Alamy

Luke

Protestors 2015

at a London,

campaign

Ontario

promise

to

festival

reform

let

Canadas

Prime

Minister

electoral

Trudeau

know

how

they

feel

about

his

system.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 6.1a

Identify

different

forms

of political

participation

and civic

engagement. 6.1b 6.2

Discuss classical Discuss

and elite theories

Canadas

international

trends

democratic in rates

of political

culture

participation.

in the context

of political

of

participation,

interest,

and knowledge. 6.3

Discuss the formal

political

involvement

6.4a

Discuss the informal

political

6.4b

Discuss how and to

what extent

of Canadians.

involvement Canadians

of Canadians. contribute

to civic life.

121

122

Chapter 6

Much

has

day

been

under

30s

receiving

national

sustainable

presumed action

for

to live.

their

Samara holds

political

on issues

efforts

to

Canada,

an annual

backgrounds

make

of young

are

passionate

communities

a non-profit

contest

and

apathy they

about.

healthier,

organization

to recognize

motivations

Canadians,

are

as

diverse

as

to

brightest

Canada.

also

and

works

of the

every

are

kinder,

that

some

but They

more

promote young

These

po-litical

are

some

stories. Ontario,

campaign father

for

to

members

them

of

Parliament

a news

meetings

with the

Noah Irvine health

ongoing

called

Media

MPs

highest

level

to

his

tragedy mother

health

struggles.

letter

about

his experiences

of the

of government a

lost

mental

and

when

Mental

federal

Prime

Health

and

Kwanlin

Dn

the

of

his

of 338

mental

Minister Justin

out

health,

country,

elected

Minister

and

40

from

Addictions

a tireless

suicide

with

across

response

the

into

to

When only

offices

abysmal

Office (PMO)

establish

a personal

Irvine

constituency

coverage

Ministers

turned

strategy.

to Irvines

and

Prime

his suggestion

(Samara,

to

responded

not reply.

the

student mental

related

release

did

reached

discuss

school

national

overdose

why they

work

high

a better

a drug

he issued

asking

officials

Health.

Trudeau

Secretariat

led

Irvines called

in

the

to

PMO

2018).

Teagyn Lateral

Vallevand,

Kindness,

Indigenous

from

based

workshops

that

reconciliation

been

national

a 21-year-old a business

youth

encourage has

a

recognition

Their

Guelph,

and

the

political

engagement,

activists. of their

about

taking

places

democratic

to

written are

the

Yukon

address

between

recognized

by the

Indigenous

the

in

emotional

and

Indigenous

Council

organization

for

and

the

involved

First

Territory.

co-founded

for

physical

Lateral

violence

non-Indigenous

Advancement

in

Nation,

Youth

of

community

Youth

Kindness

against

ones

peoples. Native

The

peers

organiza-tion

Development

economic

for

offers

Officers,

development

(Samara,

2018). Calgarys

Nabaa

of a team gasoline

of

and

diesel

was expected 23 000

cars

to

and

the

off the

road

for

to

son

The

one

year.

a

Alam

says

Bangladesh,

to

convert

invested

000 tonnes

that

energy

on the

from

process

of Alberta

by 112

making

make animpact

on

province

emissions

ways of

of immigrants

working

fuels.

carbon

sustainable

and responsibility

24-year-old

engineers

bio-jet

to reduce

create

(Rieger,

Alam, chemical

$10

into

million in

for

work

world. I dont think

that

to removing

with oil and

everybody:

mem-ber

renewable

a project

by 2020equivalent

his goal is to

affordable

was a key

canola

It is

gas compa-nies

everybodys

right

you have to be an elected official

2017).

ChapterIntroduction Beginning

in late

2010,

a

wave

of

North Africa led to the toppling to civil

uprisings

by a desire

in

for

the

relied

social

uprisings.

human

most of these

met

with

and the

Americas

responses

of

traditions

mass

government, marches

about

civil resistance from

state

of liberal

Middle

The protesters,

in

awareness

countries,

violent

with long

raise

the

East and

Egypt, Libya, and Yemen and

the region.

transparency

campaigns and

across

in Tunisia,

across

rights,

organize

In

was

countries

on sustained

media to

Spring

of regimes

other

democracy,

conditions, and the

many

mass demonstrations

and

state

authorities.

liv-ing

to repress

with the

Countries have

better

demonstrations

attempts

associated

democracy

motivated

and

in

also seen

Arab Europe

creeping

authoritarianism. The and

public

enjoy their

the

done

majority

opinion right

political

may also be

vast

goals

Canadians political

freely

or civic opening

in

can

risking

express

through

participate by joining

Canadians

without

to

money to charitable

in the

of

their their

formal

civic

attempt personal views

by

influence liberty

about

and informal

affairs

a community

to

group

or security.

political

political

contributing

to

or association,

government

issues

policies By law,

and

participation. community

to

they

pursue

Canadians life.

volunteering,

or

This

can

donating

causes.

who are busy affairs vignette,

for they

with school, various devote

reasons. their

jobs, In time

families, many to

and cases,

a cause

hobbies such

because

get involved

as those they

feel

described strongl

in

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

about

a particular

liberal

issue

democratic

and

civic

paints

country,

life.

a telling

the

extent

elsewhere. causes

and

portrait

of the

to

Are

which

democratic

and if so,

personally may also

how state

of

Canadian

states?

that

types

do they

of

in

and

In this

chapter

denied

is

affairs

we exam-ine many

people

of activities

with

people

more involved

a

political

civic

to

What types compare

Canadians

Canada

political

are

or apathetic?

Because

get involved

in

democracy.

How

Are certain

not to

rights

activists

get involved?

by it.

participate

exercise

political

to

affected

choose

Canadians

Canadians

Canadians them

been

citizens

Whether

motivate

other

or have

123

and

living

than

in

others,

why?

Political Participation

and Civic Engagement 6.1a

Identify

6.1b

different forms of political

Discuss classical

Political issues,

meeting,

lives.

Ideas

about

These Protesting

in

Micheletti,

2005),

actions

physical popular

forms

like-minded

people,

an issue

might

(Samara

Canada,

to

discuss

it

office (Milbrath

activism

in

damage

causes.

sports service

clubs,

associations.

example,

helping

friends

There

and

or serving

or advise

governments

access to

post-secondary

and

of homeless of limited practices.

these their

2014).

a petition,

(Stolle,

strikes.

opinions emails,

write

and

strikes.

They

involve

the

damage

about

to the

editor

human

tuition

education. animals but it

groups,

focus

needs,

fees,

student

food,

debt,

welfare

low-cost

may also lobby

for

navigate

An animal

or finance

may also

arrange

on how to

and

spay

businesses

business the be active transit,

challenging and

other

organization and to

neuter adopt

donations

student

ethnocultural

on improving

they

financial

including

groups,

rights

more than

students about

means,

of organizations,

associations

do

affairs, refers to involvement in a or giving

peaceful and

may sometimes use of violence

property

to

or harm the

of the cause.

blogs.

strongly

a letter

non-violent

as signing

boycotts,

mobi-lize opponents

and to

such

marches, demonstrations,

Some

occasion-ally,

acts that include actions

as signing

or, very

who feel

or

Political

is an increasingly

sites,

directly,

religious-based

members

associations

also lobby

owners

many types

environmental

on campus

adoptions

are

clubs,

student

property

people

and family

and

take to raise

about issues, to

Protests

opin-ion.

and services

activism

networking offline;

other individuals

and recreation

Although

life

to

Online

to express their

social

such

people

awareness

actions

public

& Stolle,

expression

Actions

and

2014).

organization,

to charitable

(Vissers

demonstrations,

of the cause.

place

informal and

of products

Civic engagement, or participation in community voluntary

to include

Participation

the choice of govern-ment a po-liticalinfluence personnel, and to shape group, the content of legislation and & Goel, public policies.

or interest

organizations,

marches,

also take

public

of political

resulting

with their

party

for

Political

activi-ties

attending

a political

or buycott

act through

politics

the laws formal

of concern,

broadened

youths in particular,

others about

shape

emphasized

issues

sector

online

or joining

violence,

Conversations

have

a boycott

and

about politi-cal

1971).

private

peaceful

opponents

way for

& Kim,

and

involve

about joining

protests

harm to

personnel,

or running

participation

participating &

Nie,

governments,

can encompass

Hooghe,

an election,

Verba,

would include

a petition,

participation.

of participation

officials

or candidate,

political

at influencing

protest

in

& Nie, 1972;

studies

public

volunteering a party

of government

Early

contacting

money to

Verba

selection

their

as voting,

donating

aimed

the

affect

of political

and civic engagement.

refers to the actions people take to raise awareness

influence

that

such

1977;

and elite theories

participation

policies

participation

associa-tions,

associations,

Online Political

Activism activism

that

employs

online communications such as websites, and social

tools

emails,

networking

blogs,

services.

Buycott The act of buying

goods

and

or professional

services based on political of com-munityor ethical considerations or

quality in and

politics. health

situations. issues

For

both.

ser-vices They

related

to

Civic Engagement A set

of activities

might facilitate services cruelty-free

for

such

pet poli-cies

voluntary

in

the

as joining

a

organization, or giving to

charitable

com-munity,

volun-teering,

financial causes

do-nations

124

Chapter 6

Theories of Political Participation What level

of

influence

Classical Democratic

questions.

Theory

have

The belief that have a large from

it is desirable

number

different

to

participating

in

number In

protected

political

for

them

less

making

join and

Over

past world

that

there

Democracy

decisions

and

should

decisions

to

citizens.

informed skills

achieve the

several less

to

and

about

is

to

also said

majority,

affairs

promote

goal, they

of the

own lives,

broadening

public

even

making

their

inter-ests,

1976).

When

so that

tolerance.

are exposed

they

When in-dividuals

to the

if they

are

changes

Thompson,

knowledge

a political

decision

life,

1872/1991;

Stuart

interests

participation

over their

private

politi-cal

John

everyones

political

of control

in

philosopher

that

that

(Mill,

about

opinions

of

do not agree

levels

organizations

potential

in

in

with

Canada

deliberative

for individuals

from

that

citizens

best judges

is the

best

way to

to them.

are the express

democrats

among

members

of participation

diverse

those

Classical

and

democracy.

assume

activity

respond

private

more interested

the

They

political

officials

fair

all

stages

in

hold and

discussion

in forums

policy-making

process

express

weaker

politicians,

some in

Ontario

deliberating

community

of the

discussions

citizens

1998). Interest

involvement

The citizens

deliberative

open

(Uhr,

As citizens

public

easier to

involves

and

arguments

confidence

Columbia

and

more and

politics.

democracy

reasons.

ideas.

governments

be equal

in

reinvigorate

the

in

through

participate

it

to

on these

back-grounds of their

interests

and

also generally of

different

feel social

groups.

political by

energies

become

that

Deliberative

are

made based on discussion

a sense

are optimistic

how public

and economic

governing

them

decade,

participate

own interests

which

try

exist

participating

Government, guarantees

Participation

to

have

theorists

to judge

in

Who should

perspectives

backgrounds

Representative

all their

gain

decisions. a group

the

to

of democracy

they

different

He also suggests

better

must respect

the

Classical

Deliberative

broad

outcome.

around

A form

in,

make good

the

a democracy?

Two

participation

giving

devote

them

join

on

rule.

better, to

from

citizen

arbitrary

the

individuals

others

in

officials?

of citizens

broad

likely

and

can

is ideal

public

Considerations

that from

citizens

affairs.

of

Classical democratic theory is based on the idea that it is desirable to

Mill argued

backgrounds

participation

decisions

a large affairs.

of citizens

political

the

governments

between

has to

Internet

set

up by the

to examine

the

question

of electoral

Box 6-1:

Citizens

Decide:

democracy.

(See

been

people for

parties

and

political for

new

locations

provincial

of com-peting

developed

technology

people in far-flung

assemblies

merits

encourage

are looking

affairs.

government

of the

that

attachments

political

about

ways has

about

governments reform

politi-cal

of British

are examples

Deliberative

to

made

Democracy

of in

Provinces.)

Box 6-1 Citizens Decide: Deliberative Democracy in the Provinces In

2003,

a

bold

the new

whether the (SMP)

government experiment: province

electoral

would be proposed this

of

should retain

assembly.

systems.)

Nowhere

development citizens.

9 for

undertook

citizens

decide

single-member

by the

electoral

given to unelected

the

or replace it

and also Chapter

over the

Columbia

ordinary

system

chapter

power

British

letting

plu-rality

The

79 electoral

with a new one that

(See Voting

an explanation

else in the of an electoral

later in of differ-ent

world had such system

been

Citizens

Assembly

on Electoral

Reform

had

161

members, 1 man and 1 woman from each of British Columbias districts,

Members from in its

the

provinces

demographic

representation

voters makeup,

associated

by a computer,

The assembly

with gender, Those

of $150 for with their

members and a chair-person.

at random,

list.

being reflected.

an honorarium expenses

plus 2Indigenous were picked

each

was diverse

age, and regional

who agreed to serve re-ceived meeting day, plus any

work for the assembly

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

Participation members different they

in

began electoral

where they

50

listened

public

the

their

assembly

what

also

system

in in

switch

to

which

voters

electoral

In

Elite

ideas

membership

(a

public

for

17,

2005.

failed

This

approval

to

A second

reach

Although

2009

idea

democratic to

believe

economic

encourage

widespread

not everyone

they

are in

more

the

backgrounds

was often worried

on those

willing

political

about

who dissent from

mass conformity

them.

and intolerance

and

the

1915;

Mosca,

their

ground-breaking

democracies, citizens

Gabriel

expressed

only

involvement

in

of authoritarian group

most citizens strongly that

a

They

politics democratic

support

democracy?

more active

in than

political others.

political Verba

could

lead

favoured

well-educated

leave

of

Sidney

weak commitment

support

of involvement

and

politics

politics. of

study

Almond

by

members

the

to

virtues

Some

people

make

from

scholars

of public

have

participa-tion.

to impose

Hethought

that

its

own

democracy

factional

citizens to the values,

to to

experts. but to

rivalries

civic

affairs

extent

of the and

in in

and

in

take

examines certain

that

of

their

emergence which

politics

Chapter

do they

why

majority

and the

society

chapter

probes

contemporary the

norms

actively

As discussed what

five that

instability

culturea

participates

The remainder and

democratic

political

a civic

in

argued

member

pro-portional held in

who cast

and 5,

were

rejected

agreed

that

do you

be left

Do the that

a vote

only

a

where

Canadians

part in their Canadians

activi-ties levels are

in

only to

examples

broader

public

Classical

in

ben-efited

in the

pro-cess

about

the

process? professional from

British

democracy

is

politics?

Elite Theory only a small

class has the

and skills

both

they

feel

deliberative

and that

democratic

of

majority

cultures (1963)

and

The final

a referendum

necessary

what is in the

2007).

In

media,

mixed

expe-rienceThe belief that

political

inflame

the

policy-making

decisions

suggest

and trigger

benefits

of the

Ontario

the

than the rela-tivelyruling

classical

1979).

the

the tendency

than

dis-cuss the

involvement

How

in

political

political

involvement

(Mishler,

skeptical

about

possesses

2006).

is based on the

(Michels,

groups

personal

bureaucrats?

and

participation

social

to

efforts,

concepts.

in

in

meetings,

forums

of those

proposals

their

way of engaging

and

people

of their

from

with a

participants

involvement

and

public interest

electorate

between

differences

himself

tolerant that

that

politics,

social

practices

less feel

elite theory

an entire

to

online

spite

the

37 percent

& Aucoin,

citizen

a viable

more education

what is in the

a conflict

vast

he

of

Columbia

its

classical

with

decide and

replace

theory,

of individuals

they

and

should

grasp SMP

reform

from

Should important

assem-to

using

was rejected

under

assembly

(Turnbull

received

citizens

province

theorists

about

similar

the

the

enormously

referendum

proposal

system

talking

attention to

Once

spent

consultation

In

males

MMP.

provinces,

the

with the

the

in

Although

little

to replace

2007: just

supported

and

The

between

was Indigenous.

systems, public

selected

districts.

members

meetings.

struggled

(MMP) October

election

relatively

citizens

dis-tricts

The

submissions,

received

divided

member

holding

between

electoral

evenly

one

representation.

103 randomly

provinces

was

various

recommendation

by one

proportional and

arduous.

communities,

ordinary

of

of the

at least was

the issues

system

candidate).

task

studying

reading

a form

each

and

the

year

British

needed

conjunction

a

the

to tolerate

(Zakaras,

small

up

instigate

Because

and

active

set

apathetic,

Mill

assembly

politicians

positioned

On Liberty,

would

and

public

it

This time,

minority

could

that

from

discussed

multimember not

May

held in

to classical

decisions

In

was

democratic

instability.

to the

of approval.

election.

uninformed,

public

level

in

preferred

of voters,

whether

a small

of the

brought

Ontario

are better

argued

had studied

with

up of a chairperson

citizens1

their

support.

evaluate

In contrast

next

percent

reform

2006,

bly

different

par-ticipants over,

vote

votes

on

58

percent

with

referendum

general

39

made

again,

were

that

system

was

and females,

members

they

transferable

candidates

to the

60 percent

provincial

single rank

was

by

required

1965).

the

transferred

supported

sound

and

2004

assembly

recommended

of preference,

a province-wide

theorists

them,

It

on electoral

hearings

what they

had told

ultimately

recommendation

that

the

electoral

of

province,

from

to

After the

the

cons

issue

order

candidate

idea

available

the

views

submissions

considered

assembly

Columbia

only

made

and

world. In

across

Columbians

consideration.

Columbians

the

held

written

slackers:

pros

options.

The

on

British

members

British

different

hearings

to

not for the

used throughout

1600

were

for

was

by studying

public

More than

of the

assembly

task

systems

attended

reform.

the

their

125

knowledge to

decide

public interest

mass political

is undesirable

partici-pation

126

Chapter 6

Trendsin Political Participation, Interest, and Knowledge 6.2

Discuss

Canadas

democratic

rates of political Voting and joining stress in

parties are examples offormal the

that

patterns

trends

in

political participation that are under

of the Soviet

voter turnout

early 1990s. (See Figure 6-1.) In members constitute

of international

Democratization

a small decline

Africa and in

2016). Yet, despite the growth in

has decreased in all

world regions

since the

most European countries, not only do political party

percentage

over the past three

of turnout

processes in

Union led to an increase in the num-ber

have held elections (Solijonov,

the global voter population,

plummeting

world.

under the influence

of countries

in the context

participation, interest, and knowledge.

Canada and around

regions formerly

culture

of the electorate

decades (van

and

withering

Biezen, party

but

memberships

Mair, & Poguntke,

memberships

have been

2012). Similar

have been observed

over the same period in Canada.

As more people turn and around protests

the

driven

cuts,

by

diverse

capitalism

issueshave

away from

world, informal and

become

voting

political

issues

and

neo-liberalism,

and party involvements

activism

grievancesdemocratic racism,

more numerous

and

sexual

and social justice online

groups

to raise awareness

and offline

have relied

about issues

Canada

Large-scale

reform,

harassment,

geographically

2017). Cyber activism is also gaining in popularity. media platforms

in

has been on the rise.

auster-ity

among

widespread

other

(Youngs,

Since the late 1980s, counter-globalization heavily

and to

on interactive

mobilize

social

members to take

action.

Political Interest and Knowledge A certain level action.

time

of attentiveness to politics is necessary to form

People

who are interested

in

and energy to keep informed

evaluate

the

governments

political

affairs

are

opinions and take

motivated

to spend

so that they can discover their

performance

and act upon that information.

and the options

In 2016, two-thirds

presented

preferences, by the opposi-tion,

of Canadians

(67

Figure 6-1 VoterTurnoutTrendsAroundthe World 100

Total

Voter turnout OCEANIA

Registered

vote

53

100%

voters

90

EUROPE 80 GLOBAL

AVERAGE

70 AMERICAS Percentag

AFRICA ASIA

60

50

0 1950

SOURCE:

Retrieved

Solijonov,

from

A. (2016).

1960

Voter

1970

turnout

trends

1980

around

1990

the

world.

2000

Stockholm:

https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/voter-turnout-trends-around-the-world.pdf.

the

2010

International

IDEA.

percent)

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

Figure

6-2

WhoIs Most WrongAbout Basic Social Facts?

ACCURATE ACCURAT

MOST

LEAST

1

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10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

USA Peru

Chile

Italy Brazil

Africa

Kong Korea

India

China

Spain

Japan Mexico

Israel Russia

Arabia

Turkey

Serbia Britain

Poland

France Hungary

Malaysia

Norway

Canada

Zealand

Sweden

Belgium Germany

Australia

Denmark

Colombia Argentina Singapore

Indonesia Hong Philippines

Montenegro Netherlands

South

South Saudi

SOURCE: Ipsos.

(2017).

The

New

perils

of perception.

Great

Retrieved

from

https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/

documents/2017-12/ipsos-mori-perils-of-perception-2017-charts.pdf.

said

they

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with their

left,

will recognize

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right,

Hillary

presidential

or Jagmeet

of

prominent

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positions

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(Gidengil

Clinton

and

they

where civic

Canadians cabinet

Henry

knowledge,

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election,

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scientist

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ideological

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levels

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party

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low

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et al., 2004).

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Trump

as can-didates

may be tongue-tied

leaders

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opposition

tested

about

when parties

in

of Commons. Canadians Mori,

individuals

2017).

providing

social

issues,

6-2.)

Publics

strong,

the

countries relatively

political

Canadians

Andrew

(Ipsos

Figure

2006).

identify

Internationally,

rates,

with

followed

from

minister,

occupy

2016

about

facts

year,

a discussion.

Sweden,

(Howe,

prime

parties

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the

previous

Anglo-American

as suffering

to the

asked

the

of having

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diagnosed

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in

ways

2017).

Milner

the

politics

popular

were the

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have

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placed

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accurate

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of

answers

technology,

Sweden,

when

seventh

and

Denmark,

38 countries

about

terrorism

features

and

of the

Norway,

basic in

social

terms and

population.

where

civic

of

crime (See

education

is

most informed.

Formal Political Participation in Canada 6.3

Discuss the formal

The right

to

vote is the

an opportunity

to

a political

partys

community. However, of

this

Indigenous

only by birth

people,

of Canadians.

of

your

representative

elected Voting

all citizens

was not always

subjects

involvement

cornerstone

policies.

Virtually

Confederation,

British

hold

political

the case in

poor

18 years Canadian

owners

or naturalization

When you

were excluded

your and

history.

aged

could

cast

accountable

also symbolizes aged

male property

and the

democracy.

from

connection

over

you

and

Women, voting.

over

racial

right

6-1.) and

politi-cal to

vote.

At the time who

minorities,

These laws

have or re-ject

to the

have the

(See Table

21 years

vote.

a ballot,

and to support

were most

reflected

127

128

Chapter 6

Table 6-1 ATimelineofthe FederalFranchise Year

Group

Enfranchised

1917

Serving

members

Women

1918

aged

of the armed forces (including

21 years

where those

1948

Disqualifications

1950

Inuit

granted

1955

Last

1960

Franchise

1970

Voting

right

extended

Canadian

Charter

Legislation

to ensure of voting

Court

of voting

rights

commonly

held views

participate

in

removed

World

Voters

Act.

1917,

decision in Sauv

support

conscription

Voters

Act extended

active

or retired

two

close

the

vote from

religious British

female

subjects

Some

from

whose

passed

had taken root in and their

Franchise The right

or

at www.elections.ca.

groups

to the

were unsuited

of the

Act and the

number

of voters

opposed

subjects,

forces.

doubling

Elections

were

British

people

to

it.

2000

The

military

serving

in the

an enemy the

armed

country

exception

Military who

Austria),

and

of an enemy

were able to in the

Within

British

of

was maintained a decade

subjects country

vote in the

Province

after

by the

Confederation,

pacifist

naturalized France,

Italy,

of ori-gin

after

March

(Elections

Canada,

1997).

until

pre-Confederation

explicitly

British

also took

country

naturalized

colonies

Canada)

It

who became born in

were

Act gave

objectors,

of those

would

nursesthe

forces.

conscientious

elec-torate

Military

who

male or female,

Some

of conscription:

was that

that

preventing

North America a womens

women

Act, 1867

suffrage

move-ment

mostof the former colonies. In 1916and 1917, Canadas suffragists

allies successfully

Prairies, and

available

in Canada before the date on which their

of property

1997).

led

the

who

all

born in

Germany

restriction

Canada,

of

opponents

(1849

Act restriction

years

certain

Wartime

those

March 31, 1902 (with

laws

two

women to get the vote. The Wartime Elections

mother tongue

women

votinga

(Elections

by

that

with mental dis-abilities,

Canada Elections

than

movement the

Canadian

relatives

who arrived

was annexed

the

people institutions

2004).

to increase

vote to

individuals

after

or Denmark and

legislatures

to of the

likely

minorities,

31, 1902,

designed

judges,

correctional

longer

tradition

passed

the first

vote to

away

British

disqualify

in

Thisis an adaptation of the version rests with the author.

(Courtney, suffrage

members

elections

the right to vote

appointed

years

sentences

womens

and

Bluebirdsbecame the

on the

the right

prov-inces

with disabilities

v. Canada repealed

serving

affairs

were

federal

entrenched

people

than

Parliament

These laws

in

Indians

for federally

less

for inmates

War I and the

by 1918. In

from

to registered

access to vote for

serving

based

requirements

18

disqualifications

democratic

met property

eliminated

SOURCE: A history of the vote in Canada. Elections Canada. (2010). Reproduced with the permission of Elections Canada, but adaptation

to

who

vote

of Rights and Freedoms

and inmates

Supreme

alien-born,

discrimination

to

1992

2002

not

existed

unconditionally

age lowered

Removal

to

of religious

1982

1993

over,

on the basis of race

the

vestiges

and

requirements

women)

petitioned

provincial

governments

Ontario to allow them to vote in provincial

in

elections.

British

Columbia, the

The broadening

of the

provincial franchise andthe extension of the municipalfranchise to propertied women cre-ated pressure for change at the federal level. In 1918, women 21 years of age and over were

to vote.

given the right to vote, provided they

metthe same property requirements that applied to

male electors. The property requirement Following

World

WarII, racial

social attitudes toward

the

This was one of several to

vote

without

By 1948, the last

the

and religious

restrictions

Canada, 1997).

on voting

were lifted

as

minority groups began to change (Elections Canada, 1997).In

1950, Canada restored Arctic following

was dropped in 1920 (Elections

vestiges

who had been disenfranchised

measurestaken to protect the countrys

onset

having

vote to the Inuit,

to

of the give

Cold up their

of property

sovereignty in the

War. In 1960, Status Indians1 status

qualifications

and

the

benefits

and laws

in 1934.

were allowed

associated

excluding

the

with it. Chinese

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

Japanese,

and South

restrictions lowered and

electorate Freedoms right

against

the

unrest

voting that

had

grew

once

vote in

assembly

people

to

with the 3 of the of

Charter

for

states

the

that

every

House

of

and

denied

it: federally

This

resulted

sentences

of

of Canada

The and

has the

or of a legislative opened

the

of the

vote

extension

appointed

judges,

years

strikes

Rights

provision

in the

of two

Parliament

of Europe.

Charter citizen

vot-ing

student

parts

Commons

therein. that

serving

In 1970,

discourage

Canadian

challenges

been

and inmates

were dropped.

of the

of the

1955, all remaining

to

States

membership

court

In

United

adoption

members

previously

18 years

place in the

be qualified

disabilities,

minorities

21 years

of successful

who had

mental

had been removed.

religious

more

Section

and to

voting

been taking

an election

door to a series to

certain

age from

in 1982.

to

Asians from

or

people

with

more.

Turnout in Federal Elections Although

in

Canadians

the

Afghanistan, Although not

past

today

Iraq,

high

registered

citizens

most recent

it

more convenient

Although

a record

estimates

turnout

97th

voting.

71 percent a ballot,

There

of eligible

Some

offering

electors

time

were large

of

voted

writing)

argue that

mediocre ranking. systems

based

on

victorious

party

it receives

in the

Canada,

advance that

to

wins In

Some

use PR because votes pillar it

voters

dropped

Liberal its

Another voting.

from

promise

on the factor

the 26 countries

fines

15 points

higher

minds about

whether

Although elections,

nearly

turnout

1 Status Indians government

than

and

A Supreme

are who

has

countries

such

or not to

go to the

Canadian

declined

members of First are entitled

Court ruling

ancestry to a First Nation

and social

to in

over

Nations

a range

2016

the

who are listed

of programs

extended

these

and benefits

on the services to the

counts

and that

their

system

was a

election,

but in

countrys

on average,

2017

stability. is compulsory

12 have turnout sanctions

rates

above

on non-voters,

rang-ing

and

turnout

prison

rates that

make up their

are own

2002). and

decades.

over

(See

official registry funded Mtis

a party

of the seats

electoral

the

in

if

rep-resentation

that

vote

18 years

past three

support

a partys

to disenfranchisement

polls (Gratschew,

than in

countries

where individuals

aged

popular

with higher turnout

have,

as Canada,

coun-trys

example,

higher

2015 federal

rights

for the

20 percent

Canadas

impose

voting

citizen

is

voting,

countries

the

For

undermine

have compulsory

of these

compulsory

every

would

that

of civil

with enforced

it

has been associated

2019).

With SMP, the

systems,

about

every

in the

that

1990).

cast

Canada,

in SMP systems than

turnout

that

to

More than

New Brunswick

accounts

support.

Reforming

platform

basis that

2016). Some

and the removal

Countries

to think

2005).

campaign

and

(PR)

will receive that

dipped

provinces.

& Carty,

popular it

argued

more likely

institutional

Among

to its

day, prelimi-nary

(Elections

system

representation

have

(LeDuc,

Partys

81 percent (Solijonov,

time.

are

Island,

Labrador

(Blais

at advance

turnout

across the

electoral

make

on post-secondary

parties and efforts to improve

in the legislature

a PR system,

experts

will not be wasted of the

more seats

vote in

of election

tends to be lower

proportional

more closely

of the

be distributed.

SMP

2016).

to

offices hours

of

of turn-out

2017; Solijonov,

overall

has

percent

in terms

voting

in

and

representation

election.

as

elections 68.3

voting

show

Prince Edward

Election turnout

usually

many such

several initiatives

extended

in turnout

Newfoundland Canadas

proportional

corresponds wins 20 percent

differences

to 58 percent in

observers

vote,

national

election,

more temporary

and

voters in Saskatchewan,

compared

to

In countries

out of 196 countries

(Elections

opening

million

at the

right

in

2015 federal

65.95 percent, despite the close race between the two leading access to

the right.

Elections Canada undertook country

4.7

(available

worries,

elections

election,

across the

for

hard-won

In the

Canada

vote, including

campuses polls.

placing

parliamentary

to

this

people have died or have risked their lives to vote.

standards.

cast a ballot,

For the 2019 federal

tirelessly

about

do not have these

by international

voters

in the

have fought

more complacent

and Zimbabwe,

Canadian

been

Canadians

are

non-status

vote in federal 6-3.)

maintained

by the federal and

can

Figure

and

by the provincial

persons

Between

Canadian govern-ments.

who trace

their

129

130

Chapter 6

Figure 6-3 TurnoutRatein FederalElections,19882019*

referendums

40 000

000

80

35

000

000

70

30

000

000

60

25 000

000

50

20 000

000

40

15 000

000

30

10

000

20

000

10

and

elections

Percentag

federal

at

000

5 000

turnout

Voter

0

0 1984

4

1988

1992 1993

OctoberOctober 25

2

SeptemberNovember 26

21

1997

2000

June

2008

28 November

January

23

27

2006

2008

2011

2015

May

June

2

October

14

19

2019**

October October 21

Date of election/referendum Population

Number

of electors

on list

Total

ballots

cast

Voter turnout

(%)

SOURCE: Elections Canada. (2017). Voter turnout at federal elections and referendums. This is an adaptation the version available at http://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?dir=turn&document=index&lang=e§ion=ele. Reproduced

*Official

with the

turnout

**Preliminary

permission

in

of Elections

Canada is

results

based

on the

on voter turnout

1945 and 1988, voter turnout 2008, turnout

Canada,

but

number

do not include

rates averaged

had declined to

populations

in

particular

(

of electors electors

with the

author.

on the final lists who registered

of electors. on election

day.

Canada, 2008). By

of 58.8 percent. The 2011 and 2015 fed-eral

with turnout reaching 68.3 percent in 2015.

Between 2011 and 2015, large spikes in turnout Indigenous

rests

75.4 percent (Elections

a historic low

elections saw a reversal of this trend,

adaptation

were recorded for voters from

youth and

Canada, 2016a; Elections Canada, 2016b). Several

explanations have been offered asto why more Canadians votedin 2015,including and highly competitive

campaign

leaders, and the fact that the direction

that

of

gave people time to learn

along

about the parties and

manysaw the election as a defining momentthat would affect

of the country (Hilderman

is good news, it remains to be seen

& Anthony, 2016).

whether it

While the increase in turnout

marks the beginning

of an enduring trend.

Turnout in Sub-national Elections There are wide variations

in provincial

election turnout,

with participation

rates gener-ally

the highest in Prince Edward Island and Quebec.Turnout decline hasalso been an issue at the sub-national

level.

Between 2003 and 2017, turnout

rates dropped to their

lowest levels since 1965in every province. They have rebounded from these lows in the most recent elections British

Columbia.

held in

New Brunswick,

even though

municipal elections is lower than in federal local

governments

touch our daily livespolicing in

Canadas

roads

Manitoba,

Alberta, and

(See Table 6-2.)

Participation in

recreation,

Quebec, Ontario,

and sewers,

100 largest

are responsible

for

or provincial

essential

services

elec-tions, that

and emergency services, public health, parks and garbage collection,

municipalities

between

Participation tends to be higher in competitive

and recycling. 2004 and 2014

elections,

The average turnout wasjust

36 percent.

where moreinformation

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

131

Table 6-2 TurnoutTrends in ProvincialElections,19652019 Percentage Turnout Province

Maximum

Turnout

Minimum

Percentage

(Year)

Percentage

Turnout

Recent

(Year)

of

in

Most

Election

(Year)

New Brunswick

82.1 (1967)

64.7 (2014)

Nova

78.2 (1978)

53.4 (2017)

53.4 (2017)

Scotia

Prince

67 (2018)

Edward

Island

87.3 (1970)

76.5 (2011)

76.3 (2019)

Newfoundland

and

83.6 (1993)

55.3 (2015)

60.9 (2019)

Quebec

85.3 (1976)

57.4 (2008)

66.5 (2018)

Ontario

73.5 (1971)

48.2 (2011)

58 (2018)

Labrador

Manitoba

78.3 (1973)

54.2 (2003)

54.9 (2019)

Saskatchewan

83.9 (1982)

57.8 (2016)

57.8 (2016)

Alberta

72.0 (1971)

40.6 (2008)

British Columbia

77.7 (1983)

55.1 (2009)

SOURCES: the

Based

Annual

on

Meeting

about

the

(Breux,

Wesley,

of the

J. (2010).

Canadian

candidates

Couture,

Turnout

Slack Political

to

who to contact

than

in

when they

cities

with

than

Since the

early

across

in

smaller

provincial

websites

of

and

over

online

cities each

elections,

various

19652009;

provincial

where

paper

electoral

the

than

100 000.

provincial voting

and towns

other

presented

to

agencies.

outcome

is

But even in

uncertain

to improve

in

voter

This

towns,

accessibility,

was 1997).

municipal

turnout, online

in

higher

turnout

of

Democratic

com-plicated know

& Stanwick,

hundreds

for

and

has been true

Siegel,

deploying

of votes (Office

is less

works,

was, on average,

smaller

(Kushner,

offered

politics

politics

& Nie, 1972).

are also increasingly

other types

because how

10 000 people

elections

has been

as part of efforts

and

(Verba

with fewer

and

and

Canadian

available,

a problem

communities

elections

in official

know

a population

Indigenous and council

in

have

national

Canada

is

in towns

2000s,

Turnout

Association;

citizens

where turnout

still lower

system:

2017).

be higher

and impersonal;

Ontario,

the

and issues

& Koop,

tends

in

Science

64 (2019)

61.2 (2017)

elec-tions

and conve-nience.

voting

for

Institutions,

chief 2017).

WhoVotesand Why? Although

legal

participation in

historical

questions

restrictions

rates

periods about

on voting

in federal

when fewer

who is

voting,

the

since

franchise

Gidengil,

than

1980s.

those

Nevitte,

also less Canada,

& Nadeau,

2004).

2008).

This

generational

(Milner,

Figure

had

early

for

adult

twenty-first

citizens,

century

access to the franchise.

than

This raises

why.

1970

to

have

who felt

Furthermore,

pattern

born in

after

1960,

predecessors

people

eliminated

in the

not, and

born

before

their

virtually

has been pinpointed asthe mainreason for the decline

born

than

young

Canadians

Voters

likely

countries, average

the

been

are lower

who is

Generational replacement in turnout

have

elections

start

is

it

been was their

younger voting

or later

voted

estimated

voter

turnout

likely

duty

to

to

generations

as they

not confined

1980

less

to

rates

older In

are

time,

6-4 shows

that

than that

job,

more involved

and settle

they

are

down

political

issues

services

affect

electorate older

(Elections

Replacement

through

younger-age

which

cohorts and

enter

replace

the

their

predecessors.

21 democratic

than

the

national

the

of 18-to

of all other age groups (Library

24-year-old

Canadians

of Parliament,

2016b). Life-cycleLife-Cycle

effects are one reason for the lower rates of youth turnout; as people grow older, get

process

2005).

has been lower they

Generational The

vote (Blais, of voters

grow

Canada.

at lower

exercise

more likely

with such

their

in their

a partner, as taxes,

lives.

social to and

milieu

vote (Baum, become

economic

and

develop

2002). parents

development,

stronger

This is

they and

preferences

because

become

as they

more aware

access to social

and

over find of how health

a

Effects

The tendency

for

vote

rates

age

at higher

people

to

as they

132

Chapter 6

Figure

6-4 VoterTurnoutin Canadaby Age Group,20042015

100 90 80 70 751 60

6574

50

5564 4554

40

Percentag

3544

30

2534 1824

20 10 0 2004

2006

2011

2008 Election

SOURCE:

Youth

voter

turnout

in

Canada.

2015

year

Library

of

Parliament

(2016b).

Available

at https://lop.parl.ca/

staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/BackgroundPapers/PDF.

Other tend

to

socio-demographic

be wealthier

incomes

may be

or because 2000).

for them to

to

complex

2012).

pressing needsfinding

are

more interested

Gidengil,

they

and

&

Nevitte,

Nadeau,

Howe, 2003; Pammett the

parties

are also or

stand,

moral

female, the

political

Chu,

vote,

and

politics

Blais,

are also less likely

a belief

elected

that

life

of their

Fournier,

half (47

or an illness

have

Asurvey

as reasons

mentioned

or disability

life

(Statistics

2005;

where

have

Voters

of civic

outcome

and

duty

(LeDuc,

Indigenous,

experiences

perceptions

that

not voted (Bastedo, election

found

as the reason

circumstances Canada,

Nevitte,

disappointing

politics

who

vote (Blais,

urban

the 2015 federal in

to

a sense

politicians,

of interest

new country.

how to vote.

youth,

why they

following

a lack

percent)

and

most

and learn-ing

Canadians

&

will affect the

mentioned

servants,

work for them,

identified

vote

lower-income,

Uppal

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of the issues,

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representatives,

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from

civil

2011).

2007;

address

more likely

Everitt,

poli-tics

(Blais,

because it is easier

also differ.

are

for

concerns

(Tossutti,

political

makes it easier to

backgrounds

does not

Almost

out of town,

are

Canadians

of non-voters

not cast a ballot.

in the

about

in their

government,

& Turcotte,

close to one-third

vote

need to

and non-voters

Voters

household

and energy their

Canadian-born

newcomers

Gidengil,

leaders trust

and rural

system

of voters

2002;

2008).

with

Hilderman,

busy,

to

newcomer,

to

higher

Recent immigrants

and the

can get involved

who their

& Bastedo,

when interacting

messages.

knowledgeable

to express

obligation

Pammett,

have less time

does not address more likely

a ballot.

with

& LeDuc, 2006). This is because awareness

and

more likely

poor

casting

housing, and schools for their children

experiences

in

the

may be because

employment,

and life

with People

may be

political

This

associated non-voters.

system

immigrants

a new languagebefore The attitudes

political education

more established

& LaRochelle-Ct,

than

vote because

the

more formal

understand

vote than

to

feel that

with

are

more educated

more likely

they

People

attributes

and

related

to

that

they

did

being too

2016b).

Young Canadians and the Vote Young

voters

overall

voter

18-to

over

24-year-olds,

were previously than

a

driving

force

between

24-year-olds points

18-to

were turnout

who 2011.

were eligible

No other

first-time eligible

behind

2011

to

men up to age 64. (See

and to

age group voters

vote. Figure

the

2015.

vote cast saw

6-5.)

2015

election,

a ballotan

as large

cast a ballot

Across

seven-percentage-point For the

a boost in

at a higher

all age groups,

increase

voted

in

percent

of

of 18 percent-age

participation.

rate than

women

increase 57.1

their

Among peers

at higher

who rates

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

Figure

6-5 VoterTurnout by Age Groupand Genderatthe 2015

General

Election

90

79.0

80

78.6

76.0

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70

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30

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10

0 time

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5564

75

6574

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SOURCE:

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Elections

general

Canada.

election.

(2017).

Available

Estimation

Females

of

voter

turnout

by age

group

and

gender

at the

at: http://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=rec/

part/estim/42ge&document=p1&la.

Despite the encouraging

boost in youth turnout,

young

Canadians voted at rates

more

than 20 points below 65-to 74-year-olds in 2015. Manystudies have attempted to explain why younger that

people are less inclined

youths are less likely

than older voters to go to the polls. They have found

to agree that they

have a duty to

vote and are less interested

in politics (Blais et al., 2002; Gidengil et al., 2005; Howe, 2003; Elections Canada,2016a). In 2015, while

many young

people reported

that they

were very interested in the federal

election, they werestill lesslikely to vote than older Canadians. Youthliving in rural areas and unemployed (Neilson

youth

were less likely to say they

Consumer Insights,

were very interested

2016). Young non-voters

also reported

in the election

that they

were too

busy or out of town, or unableto prove their identity or address(Elections Canada,2016a). Alack of knowledge

about the electoral

process was another barrier to voting in 2015.

Almost half of youth (46 percent) wereunaware of other waysto cast a ballot in addition to voting in person at the polls on election of voting increases

day (Neilson

with knowledge

Consumer Insights,

about politics, but young

2016). The likeli-hood

Canadians are

more

likely to think that politics and government aretoo complicated for them to understand. While many correctly identified government

the party that

is responsible for education

premier of their

province

35 years and over (Neilson

or territory,

won the

most seats in 2015, which level

and employment

they

were less likely

Consumer Insights,

insurance,

of

and the name of the

to do so than

2016). Political scientist

Canadians aged Henry

Milner has

argued that declining newspaper readership and watchingtoo muchtelevision have con-tributed to low levels read

of political

knowledge,

and that

young

Canadians are less likely to

newspapers (2002, 2005). Some have argued that civics education

political

knowledge

for developing

and interest (Claes

effective courses in

& Hooghe, 2009). Scandinavian

which field trips and parliamentary

can boost youth

countries are noted simulations

are key

features of the curricula (Milner, 2010). Higher education can also contribute to increased awareness and interest in politics. Youths twice aslikely to vote, compared to their youth

Concerned

citizens

voting.

University

and

groups

students

who have completed peers with less formal

have come

have borrowed

up

a post-secondary

degree are

education (Tossutti,

with creative

from the flash

2016).

ways to encourage mob idea, in

which

133

134

Chapter 6

Armed takes

with a smartphone, a selfie

station, networks

urging

outside friends

to cast their

a voter

a polling on social own

ballots.

groups

use social

media to

encouraging

youth

organizations students to the

to

can learn polling

During

the

1.7 million Elections

Vote

federal,

holds

provincial,

government

participated

in

Turnout

varies

(Bedford

opened

registration

by the

From

and

get a free

offices

at select

registration, service

non-partisan

that

group

in elementary

and territorial

and

the

official

Civix

Thousands

parties

election

on election

mock federal

elections

process

in

have reported

had improved

as a result

of students

that

their

among

on-reserve

1996;

Gurin,

electors living 2003).

in different

Fournier

& Loewen,

2011).

on First

Nations

Turnout 61.5

percent

electors living

when special off reserve

Leaders from Indigenous to the

could

2 Electors not

Conservative

which ended

wish to

the

That

Historically,

governments practice

gap

reserves

turnout

ballots2

increased

who about

2011).

of the coun-try

among

Indigenous

attributed

divisive in

and

of those

addresses

station

during

an election

or referendum

for

points

Self-reported Canada,

the

turnout

2003; 2015 from for

2016b).

the large spike in on-reserve turn-out

tactics.

of vouching,

(Bedford,

14 percentage

are excluded.

which

may vote by mail or in person at the office of any returning at a polling

narrowed

was 68.1 percent (Elections

communities

attest to the identity

vote

official

Students

regions

substantially

Act,

officers and of the

knowledge

Gurin,

2011, reaching

about

discuss cam-paign

Consulting,

population

Indigenous

with

learn

and

Vote, 2018).

(Elevate

with

coincide

After the close

night (Student

2016b).

partnership that

and platforms,

candidates.

services

Peoples and the Vote

& Pobihushchy,

election.

ride

more than

of Parliament,

peoples has been much lower than among the non-Indigenous federal

there,

campuses,

voting

was used by

and high schools

elections.

publicly

dramatically

2003;

mes-sages off cam-pus

phones.

vote,

many 18-to 24-year-olds (Library

for the

previous

Indigenous

voter

process, research

are shared

and the electoral

to

with

day, students take on the roles of deputy returning

cast ballots

polls, the results

politics

information,

(run

municipal,

On voting

and

carrying

partnered to

register

Canada

provide

mock elections

and the electoral

issues. poll clerks

of students

have

be downloaded

riding,

Elections

an online

program

Canada)

can

in their

to

Canadians, including

The Student

or crowds groups

2015).

YMCAs

It also provided

mobs, student

an app that

election,

and

vote Some

candidates

(Scarth,

2015

Centres,

to youth.

provide

about

station

Friendship

organize

turnout.

At issue voters

was the

Fair

with acceptable

who lacked

it.

Elections identifica-tion

This created

barriers

officer using a special ballot if they cannot or do

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

to

participation

because

(Krackle, for Indigenous and

other

resulting

in

numerous

profile

have

earlier

those

income

(Fournier

general

who live

& Loewen,

voting

see

in federal

elections

to

participate

rates tend

in

(Bedford,

that

2003; explanation

been instruments

Indigenous

for

people

only if they

from

going

First people

to the

to

Afourth discourage the

system

Indigenous outcome

are concentrated

few

ridings

riding

and

and the

with

(for

nations.

Canadian

gov-ernments

Many also refuse

Indigenous

voting

or provincial

in 2015,

influence

or to

elec-tions

national

the

to

governments

Act) the

right

associated

enfran-chisement to

vote,

with it.

when the

Assembly 900 000

across outcome

of First

people

Canada, in

51 swing

of Canadas

in 634

Indigenous

ridings.

political

system, such

The SMP system

because cultural

groups

are better

from

a federal

people, they

results.

their

riding

Political

may

able to influ-ence

communities

when

1994).

very

(Barsh,

have fewer

parties

peo-ple

Nations,

living

urged

but

For these

parties.

within

elec-toral

assimilate

of political

of Indigenous election

institutions

not trust

in the past to dissuade their

elect representatives

numbers

numbers

the

efforts

voting

1960, the

more than

and towns

do

used it to try

benefits

on specific features

from

in large

have large

cities

outreach

of an election

they

to influence

people

peo-ples

society

political

Many

the Indian

representing

could

and the

deal

Canadian

Before

under

That changed

perspective focuses

electoral

in

have used their influence

they

2007).

as sovereign

1996).

government

2003).

defined status

and in

arguing

health than

oppressive

in federal

oppression.

Ladner,

organization

communities

vote,

of trust

the federal

(as

Indian

polls.

advocacy

Nation

2003;

leaders

than

and

As Indigenous

as irrelevant.

elections

a lack

because

up their

reasons, Indigenous a national

to

gave Indians

gave

perceived

of Indigenous

(Cairns,

poorer

polls (Prince,

see themselves

& Pobihushchy,

is

increases

more education

account.

As

do not

Indigenous

Turnout

who have

a historically

on the 2009).

2007).

refers

example,

policy

that

On average,

education.

desire to

elections

well off, and

also experience

with their

or territorial

Henderson,

have

from

2015).

& Bedford,

make it to the

at these

electorate,

has focused

are less

nationalist

increasingly

process

band

A third

system,

as the

in

to

basis (Bedford

an electoral

to be higher

is the

conflicts

on a nation-to-nation

and

quiet

in federal

(Howe

and

peoples

harder for them

11), they

voters

to cast a ballot.

cut funding Anger

(Puxley,

perspective

Canadians

who are older,

of decolonization

Chapter

voting

The first

of income

which

a usually

who are young,

levels

explanation

a process

reading

of Indigenous

2011). Indigenous

making it

competing

experience further

rates

are not as likely

have lower off reserve,

population

A second

Thus,

education

among

to encourage

Canadians

C-51,

of voter iden-tification

protections.

efforts

of Indigenous

module,

and

giant

explanations.

conditions

in this

are younger

among

broad

as a form

was Bill

environmental

a sleeping

participation

to four

a post-secondary

peoples

awoke

used vouching

of contention

weakening

and online

lower

and living

peoples

point

while

offline

historically

discussed

Another

actions

been attributed

social

the

2015).

organizations

government

The have

many Indigenous

have

Since

opportunities

also failed

to

give

sufficient attention to Indigenous concerns in their platforms, or to nominate Indigenous candidates (Ladner, candidates

2003; Silver, Keeper, & Mackenzie, 2005).

or when political issues are raised that resonate

turnout increases (Gurin, the election and contact

Whenthere

are Indigenous

with Indigenous

communities,

2003). Otherrelated reasonsinclude alack ofinformation with the candidates,

as well as general feelings

about

of being left

out

(Barsh, Fraser, Bull, Provost, & Smith, 1997). Astudy of turnout in federal elections held during 20042011 found that Indigenous it closely, are familiar

electors

with the party platforms,

who are moreinterested and feel strongly that

are morelikely to vote than those who do not (Fournier

in politics, fol-low voting is a duty

& Loewen, 2011).

Ethnocultural Diversity and Federal Elections A growing

right to to

number

of immigrants

vote in the countries

participate

in

elections

than

around

where they others

(Office

the

settle. for

world

become

citizens

However, they Democratic

and

obtain

the

are often less likely

Institutions

and

Huma

135

136

Chapter 6

Rights,

2017). Is the same true in

turnout for

rates

for immigrants

with

10 years (76

percent)

more than

similar.

By comparison,

years

or less

observed

that

cast

in

arrival

political

how long mention

life

2016b).

In

United

members In

the

same

more closely

high

been

1998),

rights

or the

of

(United

electoral

also

States,

turnout, United East

varies

Asia

and Ireland)

world,

(Bevelander

and lower

rates

in

& Pendakur,

of

from and

status

of East

policies that

Asian

against

do not

of awareness

the

place

a

of demo-cratic

and the relative

to

Anglosphere

New

Zealand)

from

Canada

countries had the

Europe

(Uppal

a lack

demo-graphic

marital

BC, 2005).

Asia. Immigrants

political

visible

when

and

politics,

that

individu-als

who have immigrated

of turnout

feel

rates than

state

in have

and identify

Canadians

Western/Northern

include

of trust

are

disappear

about

citizens

Australia,

South

differences

a lack

attitudes

from

older,

a lack

Asia (Elections

Ireland,

they

orientations

world. In 2015, immigrants

Kingdom,

for these

of the

rates

barriers,

among

2018).

Canadians generally

income,

of discriminatory

negative

Bureau,

Within the foreign-born

3, community

East

by immigrants

had significantly

Explanations culture

process,

across

who vote

differences

turnout

varies

other

vote at lower

education,

language

considerably

United

these

a history

from

2015).

status,

Chapter 1999),

of the

followed

Kingdom

parts

to

(Lapp,

different regions

although

Census

than

of to

2015 (Statistics

make a difference,

ancestry

The lower

in

mass immigration

Turnout

from

attributed discussed

can

2012). meaning

citizens

also

States rates

10

regardless

in

turnout

communities: vote

for

has been

challenges

voting

Canadians

& Turgeon,

as newcomer

2007).

on voting

other their

of Chinese

Asian,

such

(Tossutti,

priority

recency

(Bilodeau

as South

have (Li,

from

that

Canadian-born not

(United

were very

Canada

Immigrants,

than

at lower

minority

that

Canadians

priority.

democracies,

vote

in

& LaRochelle-Ct,

settlement

for

in the country

percent)

a trend

Uppal

various

groups

Visible

believe

with a party

are considered

ethnic

(78

confirming

as reasons

liberal

generally

as voters

characteristics

Chinese

and

vote,

population,

who identify

other

elections.

characteristics

ancestry

and

who have lived

more likely

issues

the self-reported

who have lived

highest

were

or health

racial

provincial

Canada,

election,

citizens

2007;

face

may not be their

States

a duty to

(Tossutti,

newcomers

in

minorities

have

minority

elections

Canada,

visible

and

they

2016b),

of different

Canada,

federal

Canada,

circumstances

the

citizenship

Canadian-born

(Statistics

have lived

Canada,

and

voters

participation

they

Canadian

of eligible

federal

in

For the 2015 federal

70 percent

a ballot

previous

Upon their

Canada?

high-est

(excluding

Eastern

the

Europe

& LaRochelle-Ct,

of democratic

institutions,

and

and 2016).

traditions

in certain

differences

in

political

2007, 2009).

Political Party Membershipand CampaignActivism Political issues

parties and

also choose of

the

Canadians and

They

are few

14 years

have

2003.

may also

There

barriers

Sports

and

and

to joining

large

and numbers

member

recreational

Canada

missions; other

for

party

fees

of Canadians party

quite

to their or group, more

making

and

low.

fold.

how

and

to

on job much to join political or intro-duce

a problem.

non-citizens are

are far

and

decision have

House

forces

incentives

access to jobs,

when they party;

for the

be spent

areas;

several

on

members

armed

much should policy

a role in

a political

organizations

send

socializing,

membership

of a political

who run

how

positions Party

should

supporters

help them

develop media.

district

important

offer their

members

They

and in the

each electoral

whether

Parties

who can

old can join,

were a

in

give their

democracy.

Parliament

opportunities

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not attracted

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health,

pay in taxes.

public

in

decide

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to

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peacekeeping

environment,

them

at least

they

a war or risky

get involved,

in

debates

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elected,

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education.

of

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in

creation,

a key role political

the leaders

Commons.

participate

play

dominate

people

In 2013, just

down popular

who are

Nevertheless,

from with

par-ties

4 percent

5 percent Canadians

in

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

with

31 percent

reporting

European

democracies

once

with

did,

2012).

Canadian

political

parties Just

to levels Caribbean

society;

they

are

political

organization

in

Denmark,

advocacy and

election

they

had

worked to

widely because

parties

have relied

that

campaign

software

of campaigns

have

not give them

a great

in 2014, America,

seen

belonged been

more likely

short

to

a

observed

to commit

the

to

environment

and low-budget

ask for

of this,

perform

and 40 percent (Mishler,

2017).

parties

contact other

reported

By 2016, that

the

campaign

voters

campaign

of Canadians

1979).

Australia, in

affairs

political

donations,

day, and

declines

and of European

2024

has also

are

of broader

activities.

events,

Canada,

born,

Because

on election

activity

also

styles

agencies,

dialling

parties South

not typical

as protecting

States.

20 percent

fewer

people

have

more and

advertising

&

United

figure

States,

volunteers

and

(Dalton,

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137

138

Chapter 6

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139

140

Chapter 6

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Chapter 6

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a strong

in these

acquaintances

to achieve

organizations,

have

One reason

to

new friends

new

of amateur

In the

to

groups?

community

and the like

more voluntary

a country

or to join

in

that

networks

and higher rates of volunteering

more tolerant Income

others

and social skills

(Putnam,

states

or asking

an interest with

dense

are meet

on a campaign,

organizations,

governed in

out take

for

voluntary

people

politics

cooperate

with

service

healthier

help

thing in

associations

because

about

leadership,

it is a good participate

in these

groups

meeting;

that

people

happens

meeting,

of voluntary

the attitudes,

and

This up talking

party

members

many

to racial

states

and

gender

are also lower

equality.

than

in

states

groups.

Civic Engagementin Canada The bonds

between

participation. members.

Volunteering Providing help

others.

unpaid

It

Civic

of

to

life is

Canadians

participants

in

or recreational

of different

in

nearly

a group,

groups

many

incomes

in

tends

groups

in three

organization

to

is free

reflect

and

of political Canadians

most popular

different

stages

and school open to

of education

group

activities, (65

everyone,

with

young

groups.

immigrants to

and

participate

their

While a mi-nority

countrys

in

civic

members

or

2003. Sports

and cultural,

Canadians.

politi-cal

organization,

were

61 percent

associations;

of life,

the

percent)

up from

with

or

organizations.

or community

were less likely

and informal

of communities

a civic

and non-profit

or professional

were the

organizations

and levels

well-being

or association,

unions

to formal

as joining

most types

two

organizations

to sports

the

such

money to charities

participate 2013,

are not limited

affects

activities

organizations;

or hobby

lower

In

society

engagement

or donating

healthy.

drawn

and

encompasses

volunteering, service

citizens

educa-tional

The popularity people Although

and individuals (Turcotte,

particu-larly partici-pation with 2015a)

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

143

Box 6-3 Does Mandatory Volunteering Build Better Citizens? In response

to

political the

declining levels

or civic

activities,

world have introduced

Service can involve with their reading

or homework,

is to help students Canada,

graduation.

and

High school

service

number

of volunteer

students in

efficacy (Niemi,

Hepburn,

of volunteering

during

Canadians

affected

and

by the cause

service organizations,

with

young

people

(Vzina

& Crompton,

Better

Citizens?)

In

and

older,

12

months,

down

were often

The

to

volunteer

vast

working

Volunteering

tasks,

were people highest

Island.

rates

Territories

and

Financial

conduct

life-saving

giving their

can

banks

time.

is less In

can

medical

make their

money

(83

percent)

also

&

care,

to the

to

commu-nity

doing

required

15 years

the

middle-aged aged

Build

aged

during

adults

1524

previous

adults

1519

unpaid

who

were the

volunteering

By

Giving,

out

to fill

help

education.

directly

helping

are helping to

without of

or tutoring,

with or car-ing

gaps in the

others

directly,

The provinces

were Saskatchewan

others

directly, Survey

coaching

most likely

a post-secondary

others

Canada 2012).

basis, they

were the

and

help

2010

Crompton,

offering

on an informal

of helping

donations

and food

can

once

and

were reported

in

views time

2013,

help

diverse

deliver

research; known.

and For

consuming

82 percent

causes,

essential

political,

people and

of

such

services;

Prince the

with

physically

Canadians

as ensuring universities

as with

Edward Northwest

busy lives

that and

religious,

and

$12.8

homeless

hospitals

can

environmental

or health

demanding

contributed

gradua-tion Students when it is

& Hanson, 1978).

programs

meaningful

The

also depends

placements,

experiences

challenges,

than billion

volunteer-ing to thes

What are the

Are there

charitable

Volunteering

of people

Women, young

back

Quebec.

shelters

groups

2010. and

according

incomes

rates

in

children,

aged

of one-on-one

The lowest

at least

personal

people

higher

or organization

give

and

to report

2006).

be done only

Janoski, service

graduate?

service?

perform

Mandatory

or 44 percent

(Vzina

and children

with

most likely Does

putting their

Canada,

the high school

were personally

or non-profit

Canadians,

Canadians

Participating

Young

24

Box 6-3:

were designing

to

Canadians

before,

may also come to view commu-nity

have

groups.

providing

elderly

state.

of

aged

15 to

want

was in-troduced

that it ticks

what to do and say

would you require that students

community

they

community

of volunteering

possibly

(Batson,

students

service in order to

Other

employers,

to volunteer

in-volvements

are

well

in the classroom

& Foster, 1999, 2000).

province,

they

commented

(Volunteer

and can share their

If you

or because

mandatory

of being told

of community

whether

(Meinhard

because

that

who had no intent

orrewarded

supervised,

2000), to

organization.

47 percent

an organization,

and

for the welfare

for

majority

through

household

from

of school-aged

on

knowledge

time

agrees

as an activity that should

effectiveness

commu-nity

by schools,

million

a group

slightly

parents

most likely

for

required

changes

experience

2012). (See

2013, 12.7

volunteered

their and

by the

to requests

service

service

volunteering

Shortly after the requirement

at risk

who are forced

Ministry

& Chapman,

skills

supported

in response

well as

and to

Musick, & Wilson, 1998).

not going to volunteer, prospects

high school (Henderson,

volunteer

use their

political

2007),

Ontario, one principal

students

theyre

Ontario are required

in

everyone

who will act out in defiance

hours be-fore

has shown that

can lead to improvements

of

off those

high school

These curriculum

higher rates

Millions

the

1999).

& Ellis-Hale,

a good idea. in

a minimum of 40 hours of

because research

communities

as

require

not

service is

of civic respon-sibility

and territories,

and political

their

hospital

activities to graduate (Ontario

and Training,

were introduced

at alocal

programs,

a certain

involvement

of Education

But

children

make to their community.

provinces

Pancer,

later in life (Janoski,

younger

an understanding

to take a civics class and complete community

Brown,

service requirements.

volunteering

they can

schools,

to complete

cer-tain

around

or any other activity that is not done

develop some

districts,

in

the quality of community life. The goal

and the contribution

students

institutions

community

or animal shelter, coaching,

In

engagement

activities such as assisting

for pay and that improves

some

of youth educational

curriculum in your perform benefits

any drawbacks?

community of manda-tory

144

Chapter 6

Figure

6-7 Volunteerand Charitable Donation Ratesby Province

(Percentage)

100 90

85

82

85

84

83

84

83

81

78

80

87

84

70

56

60

52

50

49 50

51

44

44

40

Percentage

50

46

41 32

30 20 10

0 Canada

Alberta

Columbia

Ontario

Manitoba

Brunswick

Island

Nova

New

Saskatchewan

and

Scotia

Quebec

Edward

British

Labrado Newfoundland Prince

Volunteering

SOURCES:

Turcotte,

of Industry,

pp.

and Participating, product.

organizations.

Volunteer

values

donor of

people for

Donation

rates

charitable

proportion

giving

General

Donations

in

Social

an endorsement

of donors

Canada.

Survey

Ottawa: Giving,

by Statistics

was down

substantially.

on

two

Minister

Volunteering

Canada of this

percentage

points

from

Donors tend to be older and

more

2015a).

and

of the

and

(2015a).

donated increased

conditions

volunteering

Canada

Charitable

This does not constitute

While the

(Turcotte,

economic

Organizations

Volunteering

Statistics

2013b.

2010, the amount educated

M.(2015c).

5, 16;

for

rates

varied

provinces

who

territories

highest

in

(See

Saskatchewan

Newfoundland

and

of differences

well as the

populations.

were highest in

because

as

make up sub-national

organizations were

across the country

and

and

cultural

Figure

6-7.)

Rates of

in

Quebec.

and

Labrador

in the

social

lowest

and lowest

in

British

Columbia.

Summary and Conclusion This

chapter

Canada involved

drawn

affairs,

others

and

to

a portrait

to

in formal

in civic than

has

by examining

to

political

whether

people

and international activists,

political

involvement

Canadians in

have

are much in

democratic

states.

part in

most types

small

core

civic

affairs.

living

the

tend

The attitudes, of

and

educated,

more likely

provincial,

and

There individual

na-tional, A large

decline.

In

this

through

and

diverse

social

to

dominate

explain

respect, living

civic

political

characteristics, these

with their

activi-ties

makeup.

A

alternative the

already

and

ways

and take

action.

in

Canadians

ways to

give

tend off,

well

and

become

public learn

their

vehicles opinion,

about

issues,

of life.

to their

growing engaged

as Canadians

representatives,

portrait

democratic

back

become protest

These

this

in

movements,

arena.

changed

spots

volunteering,

elected

Canadians

and influence

who are better

participation

ways of bringing

public

and

differences.

of

new

Thus,

bright

group

social

activism.

the individuals

of political

some

through are finding

power,

those

older.

majority

conventional

citizens

are

voice,

among

and

are not fervent

with

exceptions,

be concentrated

of

personal

Canadians

With some to

are numerous

Furthermore,

countrys

of individuals

conditions

in

in

forms

common

other

are

there

Canadians

several

life

become

activities

on a local,

scale, and

who take

do not reflect

some Although

get involved

political

democratic Canadians

and informal

participate.

opportunities

of

what extent

com-munities

numbers in

activity,

politics

and

cyber

more disillusioned they

are

developing

ideals

and

values

of

participation

policies, express

laws, their

into have

and

the

views,

Political Participation and Civic Engagement

145

Discussion Questions 1. Classical democratic theorists political

participation

are desirable on the those

in

premise

2.

by a broad

a democracy. that

political issues.

What is your opinion Should

citizens

about

play a larger

high levels

cross-section

Elitist

participation

who have the education

complex

argue that

of society

theories

should

of

are based

be limited

and resources

to

to

under-stand

Where do you stand? deliberative role in the

democracy? policy-making

process?

3. Is voting important?

4. Should

online

voting

be instituted

in federal

elections?

5. Hasthe growing popularity as a

means

bolstered

of political

of Internet-based

expression

or undermined

and

media

mobilization

democracy?

6. Can violent protest activity ever bejustified? 7. Should institute

high schools mandatory

or colleges community

and service

universities for

students

to graduate?

What can be done to encourage

more young people to vote?

Further Reading Everitt, J., & ONeill, B. (Eds.). (2002). Citizen politics: Research and theory in Canadian political behaviour. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Fournier, P., & Loewen, P.(2011). Aboriginal electoral participation

in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Elections Canada. http://www. elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=rec/part/ abel&document=index&lang=e Gidengil, E., & Bastedo, H. (Eds.). (2014). Canadian democracy from the ground up: Perceptions and performance. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. Gidengil, E., Blais, A., Nevitte, N., & Nadeau, R. (2004). Citizens. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Howe, P. (2010). Citizens adrift: The democratic disengagement of young Canadians. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Milner, H.(2010). The Internet generation: Engaged citizens or political dropouts. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Putnam, R.D. (Ed.). (2002). Democracies in flux: The evolution

of social capital in contemporary societies. New York, NY:

Oxford University Press. Samara Canada. 2015. Message not delivered: The myth of apathetic youth and the importance of contact in political participation. Available at https://www. samaracanada.com/docs/default-source/default-document-library/samara-messageno pdf?sfvrsn=2 Tossutti, L. (2007). The electoral participation of ethnocultural communities. Ottawa, ON: Elections Canada

Chapter7

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists,and Social Movements

Laskbroo

Alyssa

Canadians

take

how survivors

part in a #MeToo of sexual

assault

march, one of and

harassment

many organized

around

the

world, to spark

change

in

are treated.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

146

7.1a

Discuss theoretical

perspectives

7.1b

Distinguish

7.2a

Assess the ability

7.2b

Discuss

7.3

Discuss the growth,

between

different

of interest

whether lobbying tactics,

on interest types

groups.

of interest

groups.

groups to influence should

be strictly

and significance

public

policy.

regulated. of social

movements.

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements

The

global

spread

a platform

for

and violence

of the

people and to

A decade launched MeToo

the

Too

2017

against

after

the

powerful

#MeToo

who

went

had

been

viral

when

sexually

actress

harassed

social of colour

were

not

allegations

Harvey

Milano

or assaulted

to

of power.

abuse Tarana

the

was reig-nited

their

and

story

#MeToo

had

abuse.

movement

after

about

Burke

by sexual

harassment

tweeted

post

and

The

Shortly

create

harassment

affected

alone.

media to

with sexual

activist

of sexual

Weinstein.

Alyssa

of social

harassment

girls

they

reported

power

experiences

of sexual

and

survivors

producer

the

their

American

women

Times

film

share

hashtag,

help

assure

York

illustrated

to

of tolerance

of the to

to

New

Hollywood

movement

women

culture

campaign

the

movement

backgrounds

genesis

was a catchphrase in

social

diverse

challenge

before

a Me

#MeToo

from

147

assault

broke,

and

the

encouraged

experiences

on social

media. Millions and

of

peoplemostly,

harassment

channels.

In less

countries and

but

the

not

workplace

than

(Burke,

firings and

in

a

month,

2018,

of

9).

womenshared

Facebook,

#MeToo

March

resignations

solely,

on

had

Twitter,

been

A cascade

many

their

tweeted

2.3

of accusations

high-profile

stories

Instagram,

men from

and

million times

of sexual

the

of rape, other

worlds

from

media

85

misconduct of

assault,

social

different

led

to

entertainment,

the

media,

politics.

In the

wake

assaults

reported

declined

(Press,

provincial

to the

public

of

more than

harassment

Development

and

of

harassment

increased,

and the

misconduct

forced

cabinet

ministers

spoke

sexualized

behavior

in

1300

Canadians

3 percent

Canada,

of sexual

Canada

Allegations Federal

predatory,

survey

scrutiny

police in

2018).

politicians.

quietlyabout

sexual

of greater

had

found

assault,

(Press,

violence

2018,

ability

of

at

federal

Parliament February

and

Hill staffers

1).

of respondents

sexual

of sexual by officers

of prominent

young

30 percent

number

unfounded

the resignations

Ottawa

the

deemed

publiclyand

that

experienced

and ones

A 2017

had

on-line

experienced

work (Employment

and

Social

2017).

ChapterIntroduction A key feature join

groups

Through

in

the

their

interests

and to

and

to influence

groups

and social

identities

provide

political

and

is the

views

in interest

potential

mainstream

groups

democracy

express

involvement

their have

of liberal to

and

a voice

institutions.

movements.

In

Do decision

and

proposals?

Are some

and

movements

best achieve

try for

to

the

make their

interests

this

their

to

freely of

are

not

and take

into

They

represented

objectives,

what

obstacles

also

people

account

others?

ex-press

well why

than

and

can

heard.

we examine

more influential

and

government.

individuals

voices

that

chapter

organize

decisions

movements,

makers listen

groups

people

their

How

can

join ideas

groups

do they

have

to

overcome?

Interest Groups 7.1a

Discuss theoretical

7.1b

Distinguish

Interest

groups

that

influence differing values,

the

the

political

government

known

types

as pressure

common

(including affiliation,

many

pressure

from

different

on interest

interests

groups.

group

broader action.

policy

those

The term

used to distinguish

of interest advocacy

but not to govern

groups group

(Young

that is also

promote

gender, person

used

a common to

describe

& Everitt, 2010, p. 170).

may join

interest any

age,

interest

organization

but

or issue

do not that

Interest

Groups

Organizations common groups by trying

that

pursue

gov-ernment

necessarily

seeks

public

to influ-ence

the

interests

or values

of people,

particularly

to influence

or be rep-resented and implementation

devoted to influencing or goal

to

have

occupation,

a particular

groups that are primarily share

by trying

Because individuals

ethnicity, any

are organiza-tions

particularly

policies.

activities), to

groups)

of people,

on region,

formed

groups.

or advocacy

of public

and recreational

is sometimes category

of interest

of groups

based

A group

groups.

groups1

making and implementation

religious

1 The term on

(also

interests

by

focus

between

pursue

the

perspectives

policies

the

of mak-ing

of

148

Chapter 7

position

will often

or opposing represent

positions the

Often, both

to

with

Overall,

groups.

Some

participants

interest

the

same

and

the

interests groups

can

the

CASA

focuses

general CASA

in

tends

of

on

while

been

developing

perspectivethe be

more conser-vative.

yet

other

CFS (www.cfs-fcee.ca) features

stu-dents.

CFS has

to by

politics,

exam-ple,

Alliance

ideological

represented

Canada

active

For

post-secondary

usethe

the

contemporary

of

they

the

are

interest. Canadian

the interests

while

visit

political

different

tactics

while

Quebec

are regularly

in the

(CFS)

in the

left,

more information,

(www.casa-acae.com).

represent

also in their

in

promote

way, competing

represent

only

to the

to

in society.

activity,

students

For

In this

to

to

not

protest

to lean

Francophone

of interest

claim

differ in

groups

of Students

politiciansbut

CFS has tended

organizations.

issue.

claim

(CASA)

engage

of other

present

Federation

organizations

relations

same

organizations

Canadian

Associations

more likely good

creation

of interests

several

The

the

on the

diversity

the

Student

stimulate

student

and

CASA

a very

large

others

are only

number occa-sional

process.

Theoretical Perspectives Pluralist The theory

that

of individuals and join

with

that

by the

are

not

an ability

groups

as

course,

to influence

having

of interest brought

possible.

influence.

other

have

groups

expertise one

plentiful

possess.

area to

may be less

Overall, that

care

then,

will

role in

creating

than

group

not

biased

on it

by different However,

voices

help

them

of their

large

of group

business

when

groups.

exert

influence,

will

or the

vary

from

more influential

of free trade

government

Of some

membership

may be

pursuit

many a par-ticular

while

influence

groups

as the

to

as

toward

others.

by

among

satisfy

than that

groups

is

to

placed

pattern

(such

other

theory

(which

or interest

and join

be able to

agreements)

is considering

it is

in

the

influence

United over

groups, it is assumed that the public

democratic

a particular

was developed

has a dominant

influence

a liberal

Furthermore, promoting

policies

compromises

groups

view,

are influenced

edu-cation

policies.

people are free to form society

the

For example,

pluralist

no one

resources

make use of the

another.

influential

or health

pluralist

pressures

Furthermore,

to find

interest

more influential

financial

when it comes to economic but

to the

are

democracies

will try

competing

in the

reacts

groups

in liberal

Politicians by

may be able to

they

policy

groups.

Government,

interest

may

governments

forward

but rather

some

groups

a domi-nant

assumes that

variety

positions

interest

of groups

of government,

no group

theory

wide

the

government

a variety

decisions

a

freedom

establish

groups

in

having the

the to

controlled results

Pluralist

Theory

policy.

political

assumed

that

free

set of interests,

differing

Thus, interest

system

in

among

result

in

play

power

is

the

policies

sug-gests

policy.

If

interests

groups

which

competition

will generally

States)

public

a

in

major

widely

dis-persed.

groups, that

each

are in the

public interest. Critics

argue

cal influence. A

modification

theory

that

of views

as having position

pluralist business

in-terests

Not

govern-ment

making.

only

of their

that economic

A theory countries toward

that

views

as inherently the interests

and the

capitalist

clout,

2007,

toward

biased of capital-ism class.

some

working that

benefits of the class

is inequitable

have

large

largely

determine systems

makers

that

have

empowers

depiction

theory,

the

policy

to

and

economic

(Lindblom,

mak-ing. organi-zational

well-being 1977).

Because

access

influence

politi-Neo-Pluralism

views business

resources

guaranteed

them

of

government

financial

economic

corporations

its

of pluralist

in influencing

substantial

also

market

in

to

key

governments

views capitalist countries, such as Canada, asinherently

the interests

legitimacy

unrealistic

p. 181).

Marxist theory capitalist

position

they

free

decision

(Macdonald,

Theory

but have

is

a modification

a privileged

capabilities, of countries

theory

do corporations

government

Marxist

pluralist

Neo-pluralism,

as having

a privileged

in influencing policy

interests

that

of capitalism

and

the

capitalist

to the

working

class, this

capitalist

system

and

may not for

the

know

what is in their

majority

to

be

is

prevent

class.

Even if

viewed

as an attempt

serious

challenges

true

maintained

interests, even in

thus a liberal

biased

governments to shore

to capitalism. allowing

pro-vide up the The

a system

democracy

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements

Rational choice theory (also known as public choice theory) assumption groups

that

that

likely

to

the

seek

that

established. difficult

of the

have

boards

organized

from

or

into

than

themselves

for

own

consumers

their

members

that

are concerned

pressured

group

for

are

However,

because

the

to

their

assump-tion rationally

own

self-interest.

mar-keting to

be

consumers

benefit

pursue

on the

individuals

example,

operations

result.

based

that

more

to create

new

A theory

about

For

government

difficult

are the

interest

population.

Rational Choice Theory

Interest

for

of the

make it

self-interest.

groups

part

and

and

a strong

their

government

of a large

production

prices

organize

pursue

and influential

country

limit

Higher

to

benefits

organized

good

farmers

rationally

special

be better

general

dairy

individuals

works from the

149

are

each

con-sumer

is small.

Finally, state-centred theory as largely relatively

free

context

in

to

process, the

and

using

governing

to

theory,

and

then,

public

groups

is

(such

interest

as the

and try

persuade

Rather,

competing

shape

interests

departments

of and

as having

national

of

the

state

their

own

is

of social

thus

state

free

to

values

actors act

on

and interests.

that

public

and

and

are relatively

merits

Theory

that

independent

cer-tain forces,

assume

or conflict

agencies).

a strong

largely

political

of the not

perspective,

between,

The theory

policy-making

public does

in this

the

are

supporting

in the

the

in gov-erning) State-Centred

bureaucrats

and

theory

by the interaction

are not viewed

to

to include

State-centred

government

groups

groups

actor.

and

encouraging

means to

adopt.

degree

politicians

and interests

interest

a single-minded

of different

Thus,

may include

as a

to

a substantial

institutions

governments

which

plans

forces.

values This

selecting interest

state

shaped

own

operate.

government

Canadian is

of social

on their

they

groups,

policies

the

act

which

interest

views the state (all the institutions involved

independent

pol-icy

among, provincial

In state-centred

independent

effect

on

policy.

Types of Interest Groups Some interest

groups, termed

selective

benefits

from

self-interest government

groups, for their

are primarily

concerned

with gain-ing Self-Interest

Groups

Canadian

that

members. For example, the

Interest

Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) represents companies large and small that produce

about 80 percent of Canadas

year industry,

oil and natural

CAPP has various objectives, including

regulations,

streamlining

the industrys

approval

economic

processes

well-being

for

eliminating/modifying

and sustainability

concerned benefits

a

costly

toward

and promot-ing

(Canadian

Association

visit the Canadian Association of

group,

pursues

for the

public

goals that

group, termed a public interest

can be viewed

good rather

than

only

as advocating

benefiting

for

Particular made

members

of the

include the Sierra Club, which campaigns for environmental of

Canadians,

which advocates

public health care, and electoral reform. visit the Sierra

for

clean

and

group.

trade,

are

be

green

of Canadians

(www.

A group that that

public

collective Canadian

interest

groups

may also be considered

Council for International

organizations,

and human

dignity

The distinction as almost The Canadian

the

policies

they

benefits for society. Groups seeking to improve

world

85 voluntary

by various public interest believe

for

public interest

Co-operation

aims to end

(www.cic.ca),

for the

Association

may be will

will claim that they

For example,

a coalition

the

of Petroleum

the

of about

public good.

Producers, for example, in its extensive

emphasizes its commitment to protecting the environment

Group

pursues

public

goals as being

good and do not

members

of the group

Collective Benefits Benefits

groups can be conten-tious,

are pursuing

but public

pro-vide

conditions in other

all. groups

group

exclusively.

global poverty and to promote social jus-tice

between self-interest and public interest

all interest

groups

promote

groups.

are mem-bers

to the

can be viewed

benefit

Although the policies championed

parts of the

not available

Public Interest

energy,

canadians.org). controversial,

that

to the

as a whole.

and the

about these issues,

Council

benefits available

Examples

protection,

water, fair

For moreinformation

Club Canada (www.sierraclub.ca)

believes to

are directed

members.

of an interest

group or citizens

what it

that

their

are pri-marily with selec-tive

Selective Benefits

of

Producers (www.capp.ca).

Another type of interest

Council

a $110 billion

new developments,

Petroleum Producers, 2012). For moreinformation, Petroleum

gas. Representing

groups

adver-tising,

and operating in a

to

society

as a whole

150

Chapter 7

sustainable

fashion

Nevertheless,

they

On the

their the

justice.

Similarly,

in

public

that

they

individual carefully

Canadian

prosperity.

profitability

of the

representing

interest

that

groups

reflect

the

with

a particular

benefits

as they

for their

concerns,

many

orientations

concerned

values,

groups

achieving

not

that

(rather

represent

equality

group

might

generally

members.

pub-lic

of society

may be considered

ethnic

are

considered

of a sector

example,

sexual

are primarily

are generally

position

Rather

be considered

focused

they

and identities

public and social

on gaining

may seek changes of the

sector

of soci-ety

represent.

Overall, be useful.

and with the

that

the For

of different

material

policies

of organizations

members).

they

groups

selective

public

to jobs

concerned

on improving

and those

since

be basically

primarily

a number

dues-paying

groups

specific,

are

are focused

poor,

interest

to

hand,

groups

just

groups

its importance

represent.

other

interest

women,

well as noting

business

corporations

than

as

distinctions

between

Yet, claims

that

are in the

public

to

assess their

the

self-interest policies

interest

groups

sought

and

by any

are often

public

group,

controversial

interest

groups

corporation,

and

can

union,

need to

or

be examined

validity.

Interest Group Activities Political

activity

in addition

is often

to

professional and social

pursuing

only

associations workers

educating

one aspect

the interests

of the

of their

representing

lawyers

(www.casw-acts.ca)

and informing

also

their

of interest

For example,

political

(www.cba.org),

perform

groups.

through

activity,

many

doctors (www.cma.ca),

the following

important

functions:

members;

arranging conferences for their assessing the qualifications

activities profession

members;

of those

who seek accreditation

to

practise their

pro-fession;

and determining

whether

members should

be disciplined

for violating

the ethics and

rules of their profession. Similarly, business associations may beinvolved in helping markets, developing

certification

standards

colleges to ensure that potential although and

often active in

ensuring

that

politics,

employers

Legion (www.legion.ca) community

activities,

well aslobbying Interest

products,

and

working

workers are properly trained.

are primarily honour

concerned

collective

with collective

agreements.

Canadians of the sacrifices

government to improve also vary in

on one

The

Canadian

Labour

on a variety

whether they

particular

Council

of

issue

madein times

seek to influence

or a range

Canadian of war, as

the

of issues.

policies

adopted

For example,

directly

and the

try to influence

or indirectly

pro-life

be legal and acces-sible.

Canada (https://thebusinesscouncil.ca/)

Congress (www.canadianlabour.ca)

of issues that relate

and labour

bargaining

Royal

veterans pensions.

and pro-choice groups focus on whether abortion should The Business

with commu-nity

Labour unions,

provides social gathering places for veterans, participates in and reminds

groups

by governments

for

membersfind export

to the interests

government of big business

unions.

How AreInterest Groups Organized? The organizational A group has

of neighbours

quite

Association setting

structure

a

different or the

up a formal

of interest

who attempt organization

Canadian organization,

Nurses

groups

to

get their

than

the

than

city

as the

to fix the

Canadian

Association.

other

is as varied

potholes

Manufacturers

The neighbours

perhaps

groups

deciding

themselves. on their

street

& Exporters

will not likely on a spokesperson,

bother an

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements

The

Canadian

Federation,

lobbied

government

legislation (the

Teachers successfully

the federal

making

to

and com-munication

technologies

another)

pass

cyberbullying

use of information

embarrass,

151

threaten,

to

bully,

or harass

a criminal

offence.

Allenden/123R

Ian

the

group

will

particular

termed

but

be temporary.

has little

an issue-oriented

In

contrast,

Association paid

probably

issue

professional for

policy

and

policy

concerned

executive

organization

for

the long

government

policy

pro-life and

the

their

express is

and pro-choice

permanent

to respond

to

of the

and

and

2010).

is

and

groups

a well-established

have successfully

offices.

This

interests

through

regular

on various

groups

working fall

Medical base,

provides by

the

develop-ing

contact

with

groups are typically issues,

building

relationships

between

the

institutional

with

example

group.

key

of an

For example,

developed long-lasting

interest

the

on individual

groups

Canadian

university

500 000 students.

Likewise,

rather

than

organizations

agricultural

Canadas

federal

Because groups

often

government. Moreover,

members

of Students

consists

and college

campuses.

Indirectly

the

Canadian

Federation

of about

(Montpetit,

it represents

of Agriculture

many decisions are want to influence

many interest Furthermore,

between

has important

more

the

given the

Quebec branch

for

made by provincial

provincial

governments

governments, as

are established distinctiveness

in that

as federations

inter-est

well as the federal

of

of provincial

of

province, there is often a special relationship

of the interest

group

and the interest

group in the rest

of the country. In some cases, Quebec has a separate organization that is not part of the

national

in French

organization. and

English

A group that

has a formal structure,

For example, school

Federation (www.ctf-fce.ca).

boards)

two

Quebec teachers

are not

associations

members of the

Canadian

officers,

(teaching Teachers

staff,

permanent

offices,

and the capability to the interests

positions

policy

and promoting

them

regular

contact

policy

with

makers.

Associations

Organizations

particular on

to of its

by developing

government

representing

a

major interest

a number

groups

a

membership

respond

rather

asso-ciations. members.

Quebec and the concentration

Interest

organizational

Peak orga-nization.

interest-group

with

Group

through

(www.cfa-fca.

setting up offices in some or all provincial capitals.

groups

population

implications

but capacity

and usually not long-lasting.

members

80 student

associations. system

This mayinvolve

the francophone

or grievance

organizational

base, paid professional

ca)is composed of groups representing dairy, chicken, pork, and other farmers as well as provincial

little

well-established

majorinterest based

individual

Federation

to express

views on a particular issue, concern,

executive

of related

Group

A group formed

Institutionalized

their

bases.

For example,

unions than

on a

membership

interest

close

many

Canadian

members

group

proposals

developing

Of course,

as the

Peak associations are organizations representing a particular on a number

views

not long-lasting

a well-established

and

goals

views

term,

makers.

of neighbours

membership

to

usually

such

makers (Pross, 1992). Institutionalized

promoting

group

group

pursuing

with

informal

and

group

structure,

officers,

an institutionalized

government

is formed

Issue-Oriented

interest

organizational

staff,

positions

that

capacity

group (Pross, 1992).

an institutionalized

has a formal

capability

A group

organizational

of related than

based interest

individual

152

Chapter 7

AreInterest Groups Responsiveto Their Members and Supporters? Some

have

questioned

the

constituencies

on

some

positions

political

Their

ability

of the

that

leaders

that

are led

to influence

of

directors

their

professional direction

oversee

information

to

member

involvement

is often

organization

such

with some

as the

Federation

Canadian

while

others

causes.

A few

interest

regularly.

issues and

Business

encourage

advocacy

such

set

the

Council

group,

as protection

paying

of

board

to

which

fair

Beyond

professional Some

members claims

trade,

members

issues

be Canadas

larg-est

social

health,

on

back their

discuss

pursuing

public

Canadian

to

can

to

staff

organiza-tions,

and the

petitions

chapters

a

activities.

poll their

of Canadians,

elect meeting,

while the

to sign

so that

water resources,

members

(www.caa.ca)

60 local

mem-bers

an annual

of directors.

and supporters

about

questioned.

for hold

dues

chapters

features

credibility

is

for

(https://www.cfib-fcei.ca),

up local

members.

opportunities

organizations

by the

of

2004).

group,

Association

members

groups

For example,

public

the

to

and

may take

if the views

procedures

about

Automobile

of Independent

issues,

& Everitt,

of the

oversight

groups

majority

political

offer few

adopted

limited

memberships

may be compromised

(Young

members

of the

members

operations

provide

the

For example,

views

generally

have

the

and

the

staff

groups

represent

speak.

with the

officials

this, runs

groups to

representing

groups

to

which claim

are at odds

Many institutionalized board

to

they

government in

by

the

extent

behalf

to influence

groups

Groups

whose

justice

climate

change,

democracy. Some

have

groups,

such

supporters

Canada

as the

rather

considers

anyone

staff

or the leaders

cases, the

organizations for

its

groups email

are able to appeals

The

for

raise

opportunities policies

executive. a group

to

devote

great

interests

be

do not

ability and

groups

seek the input

for

members

efforts

to

to

not

of

Greenpeace In

responsible

groups

to raise

money

while

be a member.

directly

keeping

to set

to

money is the

policy,

members. may

groups

only

group

funds

track

from

through

Instead,

its

of past

such

to sup-porters,

decisions.

support-ers

donors,

direct

and to elect

some

mailings

and

on key issues

and

mechanism

However,

detract

the

from

goals. that

For

can

about

need ability

groups

groups

to focus

funds

a formal

leaders

to

on the

used to raise

without

group

groups

encourage

of some

appeals

organiza-tions

to the

will likely

their

make

the

leaders

support

Furthermore,

major

members leaders

or financial

and supporters.

the

of their

question

membership

fundraising

members reflect

to

direction, in

more responsive

always

lists

amounts

declines

of their

are

on its

mailing

group

voice in the

substantial

and strategic

Sharp

the

2004),

funds.

most responsive

provide

depends

By purchasing

to

a formal

(www.taxpayer.com),

& Everitt,

organization

have

Federation

(Young

donated

of the

do not

functioning

causes.

Taxpayers

members

who has

and supporters the

Canadian

than

mem-bership,

responsive

to

supporters.

Why Do PeopleJoin Interest Groups? Pluralist

theory

in order to percentage slightly,

assumes

advance

that individuals

their

interests,

of Canadians

from

who are part

political

(such

that

attract larger

voluntary

as recreational,

members than

found

with like-minded

through

of a group,

61 percent in 2003 to 65 percent in 2013.

belong or participate in of

will join

particularly

parties

some types

political

of politically

active

memberships

than

political

groups. groups,

parties

proportion

organizations groups)

(See Figure such

(World

to form

(Smith,

The

increased

of Canadians

that are not primarily attract

7-1.)

larger

Earlier

as environmental Values

groups

2005).

or association

Asignificant

and religious

other

action

organization,

groups, although

professional,

and

people

political

Survey,

numbers

surveys

have

organizations, 2006)

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements

153

Figure 7-1 Percentage of Canadians Involved in Groups People

who

were

members

or

participants

in

a group,

organization

or

association,

by type

of

group

or

organization,

2013

35

30

25

20

15

Percentag

10

5

0 Sports

or

Union

or

recreational

professional

organization

association

Cultural,

School

group,

educational or

Religious-affiliated

Service

or

hobby

neighbourhood,

organization

Seniors

Youth

group

organization

club

civic

Political or

party

Ethnic

group

or

Other

immigrant

group

association

or

type

of

organization or

club

community association

SOURCE:

Turcotte,

M.(2015a).

Civic

engagement

and

political

participation

Questions have beenraised asto whyindividuals and

be active in an interest

Olson (1965) to

Working

noted that individuals

devote

can benefit

group.

from

time

and

the

actions

of other

lower

group

organization

demanding

you? Instead,

you can be a free rider

In

Olsons

collective that those

analysis,

the case

where

of

workers

or students

represent

find

it easier to form

and they

which

to

of their

that

maintain the

personal

for

wrote

member his

book,

membership

has increased

way of exclusive

benefits

between

1500

and

some extent, people to attend compelling

2000

for

a group

that

(termed

purposive

gives

is the sense voice

seek.

contact),

the

considerably, their

members.

public and

groups

realize group

(particularly

will

one in it.

Third,

are not avail-able

useful information and other

have

has been

Canada

size much

estimated

(Wilson,

of satisfaction

that or

people

promoting

solidary gain a cause

incentives).

by joining in

which

2002).

To

A more

or supporting they

Solidary

Incentives

Incentives

and the

do not

it

to

purchases.

groups

most groups

in

will

group for social reasons, such asthe opportu-nity

with others (termed values

the

members that

interest

exist

groups

companies

can help to sustain

For example,

with-out

many profes-sions,

Second,

interest,

travel,

action

contributing.

particularly

case, individuals

provide

on insurance,

who enjoys the

of group

and associa-tions,

practise

group

to its

An individual pur-sue benefits

dues, once a major-ity

to

their

a small

groups

of

unions

In this

peer pressure

number

an interest

to their

incentives).

discounts

In

incentives

many interest

environmental

mayjoin

meetings and interact

reason

they

This is

student

or individual

represent

indi-vidualsFree Rider

may be used to ensure

association.

membership. aims to

some selective

For example,

and arrange Olson

that

work for

needed to

interest.

Likewise,

professional

they

1965, p. 2).

compulsory

of individuals

an active

benefits

a union.

of the

numbers

group

provide

non-members.

member

of small

have regular

or at least

voted to form a

gain the

may be able to

Since

in the

and

will not

members

members

have

do not support

Unions, including

worth-while

that

do the

membership

common

it

know

self-interested

(Olson,

First, coercion

act in their

membership,

will

rational,

have the

Mancur

to be active in a student

of others

Thus,

circumstances.

action

is compulsory.

the interests

that if they

specific

group

must become

that

a group

from

activity.

and

if they

Why bother

or group interests form

perspective, may not find

a group

fees if thousands

will likely

choice

own self-interest

be active in

on their

p. 5.

would find it in their interest to join

members.

common

have compulsory

a person

fail

groups

membership

generally

tuition

their

action in certain benefiting

and

Canada,

the rational

acting in their

money to join

will not act to achieve

from

in

believe

to join

social reasons,

a group

such

to attend and interact

for

as the

op-portunities

meetings

with others.

Purposive Incentives Incentives based is

to join on the

gained

values which

a group

satisfaction

by expressing or promoting one

believes.

that ones a cause

in

154

Chapter 7

Overall,

Olsons

groups

have

up their can

analysis

flourished.

membership

maintain

groups

a strong

in

(Downs,

hard to sustain

However,

and

may suffer

interest

seems

support

such

particular

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155

156

Chapter 7

Box 7-1 Talk and Dig: The Alberta Oil Sands Development

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157

158

Chapter 7

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166

Chapter 7

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168

Chapter 7

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as the temperance

some

social

activists.

the

old

movements

such

been formed

interest

measures

violence,

make it appear

American

carrying

(Quebecs

and

pepper

congregated

uncover

three

between

as well as seeking

As new

allowed

the

are also concerned

programs

with

the

force

Cooperation

used to

Prosperity

However,

used

protesting

and the

protest

to

police

focused

Moreover,

have

and

the

Qubec

were

been

initiate

have

Economic

minister

were in fact

tried

movements nature.

that

old social

and social

allowed

violence.

The distinction Some

and

on security

peacefully

protesters

organizers

du

violence,

that

forces

campus

Security joined

movement

of those

prime

were arrested.

protesters

a

Asia-Pacific

when

the

protest

in the

to $1 billion

security

Columbia

Canadian

The Sret

to instigate

1997

example,

revealed

police!

within

have sometimes

were covered

from

close

or

some

at the

discussing

whose faces

groups police

of British

For

a demand

spending

For example,

where the were

the

small

provocateurs

violent.

2007,

not involved

Toronto.

where

dictator

Indeed, were

defend

downtown

occasions

the Indonesian

in

to

in

of protesters

with

there

many

change,

peoples

has been increased

have the

that

of the issues

not achieved

all their

raised

awareness

inequalities

have

raised

often by the

recognition

that

goals,

between

been ignored. new

social

these

issues

government

and

they

have

of important women

and

Even if effec-tive movements are important

be resolved.

moderate in

environmental

environmental

groups reviews

(McCarthy,

were

ignored 2012b)

by

the

Harper

generally

excluded

are

PoliticalInfluence: Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Social Movements

169

Summaryand Conclusion Interest

groups

to influence

offer an important

public

cultivate

policies.

way for

people to try

Well-organized

groups that

ongoing relationships

are

most likely

Nevertheless, process

to influence

groups public

government

not involved

may be able to

strong

with key policy

of interest

support

perspective

decisions.

are likely

solutions

public

(Montpetit,

interest

win

and

Thus, interest

theory,

the growth

of interests

and policies

to reflect the

and

adopted

because of their

economic

position

from

or

diverse interests

outside

argue that

government

government.

business interests,

clout, continue

government

view

of

do not simply

on them.

what is in the

what is needed to maintain their

to the

as a result

public interest,

cannot

of their

be explained

do, at times, in terms

groups

groups

and

pursue

one narrow interest

groups

society

at the

diverse

the

interests

of society,

could

interests of

Because

achieve

expense

However,

feature

viewed

government.

the selective

segment

better

group

general

development and ideas

political

officials

life. and

members

is a risk that

benefits

of the

for some public

can

groups

be viewed

with

pro-cess issues.

component

or of

to

of

a variety

some may

in

add

quest for

tend

to

advance

to

a fully

the inter-ests

well-funded

of laws

regulating

continue

to raise

secret

backroom in

interest lobby-ists, concerns

deals,

the

and the

policy-making

raising

may be viewed by

the

about

2004).

of those

participating potential

social

social

that

the

social

to

might

can

posi-tions by

actions

make it

diffi-cult

governments. have

of the

otherwise

and

taken

movement

influence

thinking

values,

strident

and

movements the

as

encour-age

marginalized

actions

supporters

movements

by influencing

and

violent

to

power can

and

However,

in

intended

economic

issues

or even

of

By challenging

movements

disadvantaged

alienate

issues

and

social

the

numbers

actions

at large.

fundamental

disruptive

large

collective

of social

of

as enhancing

mobilizing

world

power,

concerns

Nevertheless,

gov-ernmenteffect

of different

groups

passage

in

and

(Philips,

for

as a positive

their

Cutbacks

will likely

structures

the

groups

representing

involving

disadvan-taged

established,

make the

transparency

political

and of

the

participate

debate

powerful

elements

been

and some

democracy

society

voice

interest.

of groups

Deliberations

policy

more difficult.

influence,

embedded

to

many interest

and

movements

of

people

poli-cies

as a threat

of their

there

of

equality-seeking

of lobbyists

greater

Social quality

or interna-tional of interest

are sometimes

good

oppor-tunities

political

representing

have

corporations

unfair

well as

Interest

the

makers is limited.

for

activities

for

adopt

pressures.

democracy

of

process.

of

win the next election, or a desire to

governments

range

development increased

in

groups

of influence

Despite

their

pres-sures need

a calculation

power in federalprovincial

relations, that

respond

Whether

broader

The

an important

policy

society

groups.

about

placed

are

funding

of large

of many groups representing

other interests. Governments

a

discussion

of society

The activities

to have a priv-ileged

which to influence

despite the development

understanding

of

provided

public

to influence

democratic

inside

theory

has

interest

elements ability

of

people

better

involvement

groups

Although

the imbalance

powerful

a

2010).

groups public

enhanced

of Canadians rather than the interests of a small group Critics of pluralist

in

consideration

democracy.

a variety

decisions

of

and

for

groups.

groups representing

problems

mo-bilize

cause and

may result

of

policy-making

behind their of pluralist

causes suggests that the by governments

mak-ers

make a difference if they can

the support of other influential From the

in the

perspectives

a long-term public

and

by

be ignored.

Discussion Questions 1.

Are

interest

groups

an

essential

feature

of

4.

group?

Why or

why

5.

democracy?

2.

Canadian

Are you active in an interest not?

3.

Does your effectively

Why are social

student represent

union

or student

your interests?

association

an important

aspect

politics?

Are social in civil

movements

movement

disobedience

activists justified to advance

their

in engaging cause

of

170

Chapter 7

Further Reading Clement, D. (2009). Canadas rights revolution: Social movements and social change, 193782. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Coleman, W.(1988). Business and politics: Astudy of collective action. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Hale, G.(2006). Uneasy partnership: The politics of business and government. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Macdonald, D.(2007). Business and environmental politics in Canada. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.

Pross, A.P. (1992). Group politics and public policy (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Rodgers, K. (2018). Protest, activism, and social movements. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Smith, M.(2005). A civil society? Collective actors in Canadian political life. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. Smith, M.(Ed.). (2014). Group politics and social movements in Canada (2nd ed). Peterborough, ON: University of Toronto Press. Young, L., & Everitt, J. (2004). Advocacy groups. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press

Chapter8

PoliticalParties

Image

Star/Getty

Osorio/Toronto

Carlos

The 2018 election riding

the

of

Doug Ford

wave of populism

that

as Premier brought

of

Ontario

President

led

many commentators

Donald

Trump

to

power

to ask if

Canada

and caused

was

Brexit.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

8.1 8.2a

Discussthe role and types of political

parties in Canada.

Discuss how different types of party systems influence the formation of governments, the ability of citizens to hold governments

to account,

and the representation

of diverse

interests. 8.2b 8.3

8.4

Discuss how the Canadian party system has changed over time. Tracethe policy positions and electoral performance larger political parties.

of Canadas

Discuss how muchinfluence party members have over party platforms and the selection and removal of their leaders and local candidates.

171

172

Chapter 8

Over the

past few

decades,

significant

political

success

quo

against

bankers,

Duterte

and

in

that

as being

separated

homogeneous groups: and the

and the

that

soci-ety into

ar-gues

be an

general

groups:

will

that

the

their

(Mudde,

Like

both

world

of

many

have

2016). and

The

that

enjoying

with the

parties,

Philippine

of populism

been

citizens

political

(Moffitt, Trump

revival

decision together

socialist

was launched political

sta-tus

Wall Street

worldwide

Occupy

President

Rodrigo

has come

Canadas

in

different

of the

New

of official

wave

an anti-elitist

after

had reached

surge by the

voters

gave

1980s,

more direct

elections.

by

control

These

Canadians

nationalists.

In

economy

parties

Federation,

the

Reform

Party

the right-wing

western

Quebec

shores.

of

populism

2008

Doug

political

from

traditional

Reform

policies

Fords

around

the

globe

crisis

and

generally

financial

Fords

Progressive

observers

challenge to 15 years of Liberal rule.

to put beer and winein corner

movements.

in-cluded

multiculturalism.

recent

Canadian

and

Trump

States.

national

citizens

recall

nativism minorities

United

parties

give

with

for instance,

Commonwealth

of

to

it

level,

generally

and/or

the

of the

and

alienation

hit as hard

election,

to

Co-operative

deferential

and

Ontario

provincial

also fought

political

be too

to the

was not

populist

Party. In the late

and

to

bilingualism

it

However, 2018

economic

immunity

that

Democratic

combined

into

domination

expression

have

immigration

coming

to

be an

populists

have

Rather, it

antagonistic

At a practical

campaign,

Muslims home

the

15).

left-wing

referendums,

help form

should

about

the

They

initiatives,

to

deemed

been

protested

Canada.

citizen

the

were

apparent

in the

central

1930s

has

politics

presidential

on

and

February

populists

his

a ban

parties

that

complaints

of society.

homogeneous

2015,

ideologies;

During

Canada

farmers

early

express

11).

called for

systems,

through

to the fact immigration.

April and

making

a critique

populist

2017,

and vision

two

argues

(Mudde,

with other

tap into

analysis into

and

while right-wing

elites in

that

elite, people

outlook

in the

to

parties

corrupt

economic separated

peoples

century,

predecessor

being

which

as rapists

business

as

with socialism,

democratic

and

victory

the

are traditional

Donald

of a global

will) of the this

Friedman,

other

political

of

Mexicans

early twentieth

over

around

discontent

organizations

a particular

and the

appeals

2015; to

came

and they

President

examples

(general

combine

or xenophobia,

the

cultural

society

people

general

politicians

combined

people.

regards

pure

volont

referred

but a few

politicians

anger

whether

U.S.

does not represent

an ideology

populist

and

should

of the

is

of the

people

elite,

politics

two

antagonis-tic

pure

corrupt

expression of the

regards

and

of

and

the

elites,

media

elections

are

parties

shades.

Populism

An ideology

of the

or

the

2016,

ideological

Populism

members

bureaucrats,

Movement

populist

by directing

wondered

campaign

His campaign

stores can be considered

been

For

it

the

at-tributed

embraces

Conservatives

whether

slogan

has

a

majority

was a sign

People

that

a

emphasized

promises to reduce the gas tax and

elements

of a populist

platform,

but he did

not criticize immigration. In a 2018 interview, in the

Age of Trump

have been left the type

Michael

behind

by the knowledge

of populism that

immigrants

and

Adams, a pollster

and Brexit, feels that

economy.

has grown in the

minorities (Global

and author

Ford represents

of Could It

a backlash

Happen

among

Here? Canada

people

However, he does not think that

who feel they

Canada

United States and Europe, and which is targeted

will see against

News, 2018, June 8).

ChapterIntroduction Political

Party

Canadian

An organization one

or

candidates

more

that of its and

support

endorses members

supports

their

as

political

battle online,

on the airwaves,

and on the ground

during and between elections. Political parties are organizations

who are

motivated

is to elect their

election.

parties

by a shared set of political ideas

members to

in the 2019 federal

and

public office. Twenty-one

election.

House of of the

Commons,

Northwest

not structured they

and they

Territories

along

and

party lines.

exist because they carry

Nunavut, Although

as well as parties

out vital functions

candi-dates

Constitution

convention.

Our Members

with a political

can sit as Independents.

purpose

parties fielded

mentioned in the

Acts of 1867 or 1982, nor are they a matter of constitutional

of Parliament do not have to be affiliated

of people

whose fundamental

registered

Yet neither parties are

for voter

party to be elected to the

The territorial most

governments

municipal

councils,

are not necessary for

in a representative

are

democracy,

democracy

popu-lated

by 35 million Canadians with diverse interests and identities, living in far-flung communities. Despite the central role questioned

whether they

nation-building.

In recent

with traditional

political

of political have realized decades there

parties in

parties in their

Canadian

promise

political

as agents

have been signs

life,

many have

of democracy

of public

and

disenchantment

many developed democracies (Amyot,

2007). A

Political Parties

discussed

in the

malaise they

any

to

right

very

strong

supporters

(Cross

& Young,

policy

parties

choices

usurped

(Carty,

ebb

policy

8 percent

trusted

about

of

Canadians

a quarter

said

political

par-ties

consider

them-selves

do not identify

2011).

influence

of pub-lic

Canadians

MPs and

& Kornberg,

with their

Since the

have

been

parties

have

given

the

with

Those individuals

on policy

positions,

shaping

party

about

development

expectations

of Canadians

different

and

and

voice

over

Office,

Mendelsohn,

parties

and campaign conditions.

It

also

selecting

why some

considers

to

whether

leaders

Ultimately,

sufficiently

in

tech-niques

The chap-ter

understanding

strategies.

adapted

in the twenty-first

to

others.

&

dis-tinct

has been

of political

political

than

campaign have

and

organizations. types

with a view

a powerful

clear

Ministers

(Meisel

structures,

social

fortunes,

parties

Prime

tanks

organizational

voters

as policy innovators the

think

and

successful

policy

whether

role

offer

and international

to changing

members

to

including

courts,

the roles

more electorally

you to think

1970s, their

and actors,

of party

their

for failing

movements,

in response

and flow

parties

and

2006).

and social

how their

the

is one symptom

Very few

Reifler,

criticized

we will examine

have evolved tracks

also been

commissions,

groups

chapter,

and

Scotto,

and

just

they

2017).

be dissatisfied

have

royal

2001), interest

Canada,

to

survey, said

party,

by other institutions

bureaucracy,

In this

of any

of populism

2006).

Canadian

largely

a 2016

Canada,

(Clarke,

tend

rise

47 percent

(Samara

parties

parties

global

In

and just

whats

of the federal

the

parties.

a party,

do

who do join

the

vignette,

with traditional

belonged to

opening

and

it

candi-dates,

encourages

meet the

needs

and

century.

Political Partiesin Canada:Their Role and Types 8.1

Discuss the role and types

Although

parties

activities

are not

support

necessary

Canadas

They recruit

of political for

parties in

democracy,

representative

and select

Canada.

political

parties

exist

because

their

democracy:

the leaders

and candidates

who

will represent

the

party

in

elections. They identify issues

different

for the

They run

public

election

They influence They the

to

They

educate

They

offer their

leaders In

and

their

other.

from of

members

election

to

their

sprawling

and

develop

positions

on those

organize

the

government

affairs

of the legislature.

in

the legislature

in

political

and

hold

parties

strike

and

participate party

parties Canadian

residents need

more recent so that

to

country,

compromise

diversity

issues.

debating

Historically,

larger

legislature

the

opportunities

candidates,

sea to sea to sea. In social

for

and

political

by connecting

Because

Canadas

about

governments.

sought

agenda

of support

Canadians

nation-building

generally

issues

account.

a geographically

and

each

governments

continuity

government

about

from.

campaigns.

the

secure

perspectives

to choose

with

voter

times,

governments,

parties decision

parties

in

that have

see themselves and in

public

life

by choosing

and campaigning.

also serve

support

positions

voters

policy,

as a bridge

have

been

between

expected

makers in

Ottawa

all constituencies, balance

represented policy

and they

the interests

been expected

outputs

peo-ple

to sup-port

of

with have voters

to be inclusive in

party

organi-zations,

173

174

Chapter 8

Types of Political Parties The

path to

distinguishing

do not

always

given

point.

Two

and

political

labels

parties

that

most commonly among

on how

distinguishes

electoral

on the

of the

differences

focuses path

between

agree

parties

will

organize parties

is

not clear-cut.

assigned

used

parties

between

are

to

approaches

be discussed

themselves

according

to

and

scien-tists

party

at

understanding

in this

module.

appeal

to their

Political

a particular

record

The first

to

voters.

of

winning

a

simi-larities ap-proach

The second office

and

support.

From the Cadreto Market-Oriented Party? Cadre Party Loosely

Political life in Canadas first half century

structured,

elite-centred

elite-centred

party

minimal

1954).

with

organization

outside

the

parties

They

and influence.

legislature.

caucuses.

Leaders

objective

of cadre

exchange

for

with

extra-parliamentary that large

organi-zation

aspires

to

percentage

party

parties

developed

enrol

of voters

a

to

enrol

a large

personal

was extended

legislature

of

determining demands

(Duverger,

men of

accountable

policy

of voters

money,

to their

power,

parliamentary

party

policy.

for jobs

and

The

principal

public

as party

development,

qualifications

and

a greater

give

emerged

after

of the

members.

by giving

and election

leader

property

outside

members

party

and

class lines

organizations

party

of the

women

across

mass parties that

developed

charisma

in

to local

to

to reach

grassroots

selection,

hand

the

groups

works in

support.

percentage

to

by and

was to respond

needed

highly

accountable

as

members.

free

outside

of small

were chosen

This gave rise to the

had

organization

composed

a largely

franchise parties

members.

highly

had parties

electoral

After the

Mass Party

minimal

Party leaders

were lifted,

Party

with

were predominantly

was dominated by cadre parties, which were

World

and

Mass

aspired

became

more

a say in leader

and

For party

members,

campaigns.

was less important

vote

War 1.

legislature

Party leaders

them

to

say to their

than

the

partys

candi-date the

ideas

and

principles. American that

emerged

political

party, in response

Catch-All

mainstream

attempts

to

and

often

appeal

party to

by adopting inconsistent

that

wide centrist party

platforms.

expense wider

of strong

tioners that

competing

interests.

attempts re-gional

Its centrist

the

on funds

that

the

party

Other

party

convictions.

on grassroots

analysts

platforms

catch-all

parties.

policy

preserve

national

described

described

unity,

the

of

is

parties

place

is

to appeal

party

professionals Political

votes at the to

more emphasis

of the individual

Canada

contemporary

distinctions

member

to communicate scientist

an example

Canadian

from

differ

is that

Ken

Carty

of a catch-all

ethnic,

incentive

and

or

to

adopt

with issues

they

share

of national

unity,

linguistic,

religious,

or class

cleavages.

to reconcile their

and former

party

Progressive

& Pammett,

claim that

the

wide

structures

variety and

Conservatives

parties with

middle-of-the-road

do not form

within

as practi-Brokerage

do not base their

similarity

parties

attempt

LeDuc,

parties

brokerage

Brokerage

they

Liberals

competitors

This is the

their

political

audiences,

relations.

country

Jenson,

their

principles.

out of a preoccupation

territorial,

While some analysts

or brokerage

Party

on long-standing

across the

parties (Clarke,

designed

membership.

of

War 11 (Kirchheimer,

platform

The role

mass parties a new type

pursues

politics. In order to appeal to larger

also arises

along

found

Liberal

World

on campaign

the

the into

party that

Catch-all

activism. reliance

outside

and federalprovincial

elections

have

have

Where they

positions

over time.

that

2015).

clear ideological

election

relations,

raised

modern

(Carty,

of brokerage

also avoid

partys

argued

themselves

following

mainstream

through

tent

conditions

and is inconsistent

and

has

transformed

a larger

and less

diminished

messages

Party

social

party is

Kirchheimer

century

on the leader

has argued

A catch-all

changing

ideological

audiences

Otto

twentieth

is

big

to reconcile

to

1966). The catch-all

Party

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audiences

scientist

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of competing

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ethnic

and fight order

to

inter-ests authors

as brokerage

1984, 1991, 1996).

Canadian

parties

have generally

mode, others have challenged the idea that

fit the catch-all

Canadian party politics i

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non-ideological.

number even

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cost

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importance

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with

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2010).

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and lesbians.

equality,

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taxes

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and

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to

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demand. from

right.

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pride

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rights

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1990),

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2006 to record

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Prime

the

announced

that

for

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it

gov-erned and

2015.

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budget

defi-cits,

a neo-liberal

Minister

Stephen

marriage

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of Canada

tenure

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outlook: abortions

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& Malloy, 2011). parties

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welfare

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Conservatives,

as shown

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care initiatives

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shape

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of Canadians.

media companies

then

provide

members, followers,

(Giasson

their

clients,

& Small, 2017). Parties

online sources to set the issue

including

political

par-ties,

or friends in their respective networks

agenda, to identify

use the information

gleaned

and communicate

with past

and potential supporters based on their personal profile, and to raise money.(See Box Digital

Media, and Courting the Youth Vote.) Political

market-ing

techniques also frame the permanent campaign: the polling, communication, discussion

that take

of the permanent

place during the inter-election campaign.)

period. (See

and

Chapter 9 for a

Party

attempts

prefer-enceswant and then

of vast amounts

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when con-ductingA party that

voting

to support

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policy

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market research techniques

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many Canadians

2001). This development

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policy initiatives

of

support.

emphasize the

adopt

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on social

during

allow for the collection,

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of

cost

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Thisinformation is provided by citizens themselves through party websites and social

8-1: Political

electoral

at the

2006;

regulation,

powers

data about the personal characteristics,

from

even

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or set

their

develop

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parties

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communities

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2007)

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challenges

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values.

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electoral

privatization

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5 for

parties,

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opposes

culture

Chapter

of ideological

175

to deter-mine

what voters shapes its im-age

and policies

according

preferences

of individuals

to

176

Chapter 8

Box 8-1 Political Marketing, Digital Media,and Courting the Youth Vote Since former of social

U.S. President

media to

presidential

campaign,

increasingly

Barack

Canadian

them and

send

political

restricted

about for

politics.

for

vote for the Liberals. to Twitter,

have

strong

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issue

priorities

messages, action.

raise

to posts

and

#Real

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Canadians

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&

mediain the 2015 campaign in spurring

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use of so-cial

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numbers

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in

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research

showing

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policy hold

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public,

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mar-ket

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office.

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1954).

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win office, or are

of those

who

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parties

have

often

Canada

at the federal

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provincial

to this

hold

parties

2007).

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parties

(BQ),

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endorses

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organizations

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policy

support

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the

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society

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eyes of voters, is an untried alternative.

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chats

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of all ages.

of political

a group

parties

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(Duverger,

been in power

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country.

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significance

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conversations whether

2016).

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his qualifications ads

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leader

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Chapter 9, social

way for

with each

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and for

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into

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made audiences,

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campaigns.

have become

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glimpses

#GenerationTrudeau

who use social

were a part of alarger

Nenshi

2010 (Giasson

Trudeau

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emotional like

videos

maintained

media platform.

provided hashtags

posted

Trudeau

2015).

and during his vic-torious

mayor of Calgary in

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policy, his tweets

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money,

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all candidates

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family life.

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The use of social

media before

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presence

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are also helping

and image-making

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campaign

voters

political

marketing

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was a prolific

as Facebook,

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voters targeted

mobilize supporters

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use

and politicians

websites to reach

elections.

collect information

preferences,

successful

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parties

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mobilize supporters

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Political Parties

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parties

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support,

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governments,

Tim

for

his-tory

have

example,

as the

and

Canadian

others

177

expe-rienced

has held

official

opposition,

level.

The Canadian Party System 8.2a

Discuss how different

types

of party systems

influence

the formation

of

governments, the ability of citizens to hold governments to account, and the representation 8.2b

Discuss how the

China

has

an

Communist

are

democratic

Party,

in a particular ability

democratic

parties

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have

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following

governments

tend

to identify

an

unhappy

next election.

party

policies

including

This

Canada

although governed

pattern

at times

voices

to

system

in

which

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Netherlands,

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in If

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countries,

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for

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many

government

Saskatchewan,

compete

win an outright or

have ruled Australia,

one coalition

Manitoba,

have been praised Critics

regions from

the

of rest

of

Hong of

A pattern

level

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have

China.

Kong

for

multi-party

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Macau, are

allowing systems

former

multi-party

colonies systems.

for say

been

of

a more diverse range they

European

may

powers,

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operate

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produce

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systems.

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sys-tems,Two-Party

1945

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systems be

government.

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competitive

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typically

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systems number

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governing

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wins

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2002).

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for

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a single-party

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Ontario,

Multi-party

also

are those

it is less

Germany,

Kingdom.

is

party

party

system.

Kingdom

accountability

is responsible

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systems

1954).

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legislature,

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are two,

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forms

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agreement

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representation

counting

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colonies

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performance

seats in the legislature.

different

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of comparing

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in the

government

parties

with the

because

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election

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relevant

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1 The

offer

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involves

1954).

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to enhance

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ways

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competition

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are

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countries.

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scientists

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1979,

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national

are

China

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interests.

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parties,

they of

a party

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is called

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development

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of citizens

of diverse

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influences

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for

voters.

in power

banned,

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to

party system

authoritarian

Communist

opinion

Canadian

Partyholds

parties the

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of diverse interests.

a

are two,

parties

in

or primar-ily

178

Chapter 8

government

accountability

coalition

partners

political

and the

often

parties

with

possibility

do not change

narrow

bases

from

of alternation election

of support

in

government,

to election.

are also

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more likely

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ideological

to thrive

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multi-party

systems. Jean the

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of competition major

parties

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parties

win 7580

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share

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a

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patterns

parties

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vote or

party

and

of

(Blondel,

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party

competition

1968).

popular

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vote,

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systems,

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40 percent

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placed to form

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percent

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vote,

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coalitions.

The Origins ofthe Canadian Party System

of the vote, and the parties

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together

win about two-thirds

origins

struggle

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2.)

support.

of party

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achieve

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privileged

Multi-Party System a Dominant Competition dominant

distinct

strength

win 90 percent

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is

vote.

Multi-Party System Dominant

four

may be subdivided into two types. In a multi-party system

win at least

of the

identified

vote share is small. In a two-and-a-half

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where there is party, and three

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Cartier

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1887.

nineteenth-century

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Pickersgill,

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Family

LiberalConservative Liberal

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economic

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emerged

2001).

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1977;

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of responsible

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date

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check no

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coalesce

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successors

responsible

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coalition a united of

government

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1962).

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Confederation

series

of stable

(subsequently

2 The Canada, legislative

Family

until

majority

1921,

renamed

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respectively. council

and They

the

Canada

governments. the

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had Power

comprised

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system

members their

of

wealthy roles

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produced

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Liberals,

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between

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in

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of the

Canada

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Political Parties

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parties

Canadian

society

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give

to

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most

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twentieth of

electoral

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century, people

conscription

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to

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class,

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support

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1993,

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vote

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popular

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to

processes.

2) contributed

of the twentieth

the

of the

was changing

under

decision-making

Chapter

shares

179

two

larger

a coalition

to

attracted parties,

with

one

of the

parties.

Party Competition since 1993 The electoral

earthquake

parties

on

of

based

MPsto the

just

two

(See

and

House, and the ruling

seats.

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party

1993 and 2000, the

establishing

or

themselves

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the

Alliance

played

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2.5 party

Quebec

competition

system.

nationalism

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has evolved

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elected

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were reduced by the

into

a

new regional

large

(PCs)

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in

part

contingents

were reduced to

multi-party

party

by the

system.

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won 40 percent governing

environment

in

2008. In of the

coalition,

In

2003, the

strategy

2004, and

Party

worked.

of The

were subsequently

elections

and three

hallmarks

vote Canadian

Conservative

merger

the three

vote the

where

command

of the right-of-centre

a new

The

governments,

The Liberals

Conservatives.

merged to form

2006

majority

a competitive

dominance.

minority in

in

Progressive

Liberal

to a

an alternative

party

consecutive

role in Parliament.

Conservatives

Conservatives

no single

to form

dominant

and the

challenge

defeated

won three

a significant

Party

Liberals 20042008,

Liberals

was facilitated

Reform

and

Canada

as the

more parties

of party

with

disrupted

alienation

Table 8-1). Between

four

of 1993

western

parties of a

held

between

were in

a posi-tion

multi-party

system

party.

Table 8-1 ValidVotes Cast(%) and CandidatesElected(N) by Political Partyin CanadianGeneralElections,19932019

Year (N)

Cons.

Progressive

Reform/

Conservatives

Alliance

1993

(295)

16 (2)

18.7%

1997

(301)

18.8 (20)

19.4

12.2 (12)

25.5 (66)

2000 (301) 2004 (308)

29.6 (99)

2006

(308)

36.3

(124)

2008

(308)

37.7

(143)

2011 (308) 2015 (338) 2019 SOURCE:

(338) Based

(52) (60)

Liberal 41.3

(177)

38.5

(155)

Party

BQ

6.9 (9)

Green

13.5 (54)

11 (21)

Other 3.6 (1)

10.7 (44)

0.4 (0)

1.2 (1)

40.8 (172)

8.5 (13)

10.7 (38)

0.8 (0)

1.5 (0)

36.7 (135)

15.7 (19)

12.4 (54)

4.3 (0)

1.3 (1)

30.2

17.5 (29)

10.5 (51)

4.5 (0)

1 (1)

18.2 (37)

10 (49)

6.8 (0)

1 (2)

18.9 (34)

30.6 (103)

6.1 (4)

3.9 (1)

1 (0)

31.9 (99)

39.5 (184)

19.7 (44)

4.7 (10)

3.4 (1)

1 (0)

33.1

15.9 (24)

7.7 (32)

6.5 (3)

0.4 (1)

data

26.3

(103)

39.6 (166)

34.4 on

New Democratic

(121)

retrieved

default/en_CA/Parliament/HouseOfCommons/partyStanding

from

Elections

Canada

at

https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/elections/1867-present.html

(77)

(157)

and

the

Library

of

Parliament

at

https://lop.parl.ca/sites/ParlInfo/

180

Chapter 8

The outcomes party

system,

The

Stephen and

Harper

backed

showing

of Commons,

in

2011 to

with increased

faltered

appealed

in

a strong,

socialist

New

and

national,

majority

party

majority

follow

Party the

2.5

Conservative

would

rose from

to the Green

after

stable, that

win a

return

for the

2011

Democratic

Liberals

Harper

support

and support

the instability

Trudeaus

defeat

a possible

majority

for

about

by the

suggested

a coveted

warnings

2011). In 2015, Justin

disastrous

Qubcois

won

invoked

coalition

BQ (Dornan,

Bloc

Conservatives

Minister

government Liberal-led

2011 and 2015 elections

as the separatist

languished. Prime

of the

from

a

and separatist

ashes

of the

partys

of seats in the

House

across the country.

Campaign 2019 By early in

2019, the

2015

wave

had subsided.

rate to

new

They

electoral

had

system.

following

affair.

the

child

Environmentalists

governments

in the

were threatening

their

British

Columbia,

major natural Throughout

changes

infrastructure

most

Conservatives

projects, the

and regulatory

resource

of

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Democratic

Trudeau

to

progressive On

vote and

in

national

public

in

2017, the

rules

when

writ,

Conflict

Ethics

offer

criminal

donned

younger

he and

they

of the

felt

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in northern

more difficult

to

approve

13 shy

Atlantic

unen-thusiastic

that

prompt-ing

might

divide

the

a government. the

Liberals

change

to

policy,

issues.

of the

from

and

seemed

slipping,

Liberals

campaign

6.5 points

Liberals

Voters

Liberals

reduced

other

the

polls.

the

Canada,

a

minority,

pipeline

con-struction,

With 33 percent

170 they

2015.

win a single seat in

racially

hopes

Act

his family island

needed

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to

Saskatchewan,

of

win a

generally

and the lower

held

mainland

Alberta,

offensive

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during

Khans

had

or the

private

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month

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concluded

that

Trudeau

former

charges. the and

Trudeaus

campaign brownface

when

photos

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to drop

violated

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reputation

makeup

helicopter

had

firm,

into

conflict

before

Attorney-General engineering

heading broken

Bahamas.

Montreal-based

blackface

Trudeau

Trudeau

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on corruption

was damaged

that

used the

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a vulnerable

ruled

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Mario

when

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of defeating

commissioner

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prosecution

Wilson-Raybould option

to

as a cham-pion

surfaced

and costumes

that

he

in

his

years.

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than

over climate

most of

to

private

of Interest

of diversity had

ethics

billionaires

to avoid

Quebec,

had high

In

to the

Meanwhile,

weeks, polls suggested

the

to form

won 157 seats,

had tumbled

they failed

SNC-Lavalin

federal

interior.

Conservatives

of interest

the

Liberals

Ontario,

Columbia,

election.

of the

the

vote share

and

electorate

among

vote,

the

by policies

campaign,

opinion

other

Conservatives

identity,

Quebecs

Columbia

travel

the

a polarized

and

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The

allow

a party

divisions

in British

the

choosing

21, 2019,

judgement

pipeline.

make it

the

of the

on oil tankers

In the final

ground

regional

ground

British

was gaining

of deepening

popular

majority. their

warn that

October

the result the

Party

reform

opposed

cancellation

election

about the parties and their leaders. the

will

and

Trudeaus

Mountain

moratorium

that

unemploy-ment

his handling

leaders

the

a low

power

projects. acrimonious

were deadlocked

Justin

were angered

pricing,

to

was a disappointment budget

and

Trans

Liberals

growth,

the

Minister

gas sectors

carbon

Gateway and Energy East pipeline

balance

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of the

the

record

commissioner

oil and

livelihood:

to

some

purchase

struggling

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Prime

ethics and

controversial

working

about

the

had swept

economic

the

promises

were doubts from

solid

rates,

election

rebukes

that

countrys

poverty

broken

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several

many

Despite

and reduced

some.

of Trudeaumania

Trudeau

Party

leader

as a phony

Andrew and

Scheer

a liar.

The

waged

an aggressive

Conservatives

campaign

won a slightly

share of the popular vote than the Liberals, and 121 seats, 22 morethan they 2015. They nearly swept the Prairie provinces

and elected new

MPsin

that higher

wonin

New Brunswick

Political Parties

but failed

to

make inroads

pricing,

build

an oil

LGBTQ

rights,

and

voters

in

urban

Trudeau repeatedly

reminding

Trudeau of political

western

in the the

electoral

did

do the in

stance

align

24, 2019).

budget

cuts,

same.

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parts

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of

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and stoking

west,

many

campaign, Ford,

fears

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musings

rights,

views

Premier

into

carbon

on abortion

During

of the

5) has turned

to

with the

Conservative

unpopular

frustration

promises

unclear not

October

Thunberg

effect,

share in

2015.

with just

of

24 seats,

that

a

failure

to

where a deeply-rooted about

a Wexit,

or

The

6.5

percent

and

Canada, not

support party

will need to form

Trudeau

has

a

undergone

multi-party

politics,

system,

their

they

with

vote

emerged

dispersed

(see

geo-graphic

Chapter

9). The

cabinet

reduced

with opposition government

minister

immigration

consistent or

leaders

and

major transformations

where four

double

pro-file

Greta

change.

meeting minority

and the

Conservative for

the

2015.

Columbia,

system

party

was a high

parties

electoral

on climate was

won in

nearly

campaigning

No one party has established

The

that

Party

the

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on this

vote,

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after

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environment

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challenges

2018

inaction

writing,

system

to evolve.

in

seats

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popular

plurality

formed

had

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of religion

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campaign.

capitalized

win outside

the

win any

of

it

the

Party

of the

member

government

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Green

a historic

than

history,

New Singh

the

official

separation

Jagmeet

before

20 fewer

to reclaim

on the of the

by leader

electoral

trail.

enough law

near-decimation

was anticipated

to surmount

did

and federal

2004.

that

face in a single

Party

Canadian

this

popular

campaign

Canadian

failing

won 32 seats,

Quebecs

to the

won just in

Despite

Bernier,

Canadian

of

An upbeat

winning

support

Maxime

defence

campaign

3 seats,

Peoples

by Yves Blanchet

Party

on the

since

and

dying,

Progressive

(Chapter

disaster

time

issue

in

Quebec,

would

21), contributed

Democratic

the

Ontario

over into

province.

For the first

for

of Fords

strong

and the state (Bill

levels

them

Bloc led

Blanchets

New

of

Scheers

separation.

status.

avoid

name

alienation

Quebec.

(Patriquin,

government

boiled

Aresurgent

caucus

through

Canada

Conservative

sense

and

medically-assisted

the

topple

Ontario

pipeline

central

invoked

federal

in

since

dominance

more parties

in

his search

pass legislation. 1993

in

play

and

The contin-ues

elections

held

a significant

role

persists.

Party Policiesand Electoral Performance 8.3 Trace the policy positions

and electoral

performance

of Canadas larger

parties. The authors argue

of

that

Dynasties

over

have avoided

the

that

and

are

from In

part

of the

to

win,

appealed in

part

the to

particular

because

with support wins the

These by

countrys next

and

need to

of a skilled regional,

that

is spread

(See

dynamics one

with

Chapter

party

change

prosperity,

their

proportion

can at-tract class

di-visions

different

on these

at every

2016).

same is-sues.

election

have

Parties

been less

system

penalizes

because

it rewards

of seats than

and

and

unity, and the social safety

& Pammett,

and

parties

emphasize

positions

or class interests

country

politics

so that they

parties

national

electoral

electoral political

religious,

of support

(LeDuc

plurality

a larger

competitors Such

coalitions

linguistic,

across the

fabric.

often

leader

Canadian Canadian

ethno-linguistic,

build

to economic

present in

the larger

with their

social

the single-member

most votes

it received.

differences

to the

direction

history,

the territorial,

parties

master key issues related

Past and

Canadian

bridge

one election

order

net under

of

clear ideological

more voters

issues

and interludes:

course

the

that

successful,

smaller

proportion

the

have

parties

party

that

of the

vote

9.)

have under

produced a skilled

six

dynastieslong

political

leader.

periods These

of

dynasties

political have

dom-inance bee

181

182

Chapter 8

interrupted

by shorter of todays

but the

decades

power

of the

with

the

Liberals.

electoral

performance changing

failed

to

to fill

all

the

the in

social

grievances

the

largely

Canadian and

a competitor

dominated

century

As discussed of

the

when

century,

political

address

emerged

Party

twentieth

twenty-first

to

reflect

of time

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century, first

interludes

electoral

to the

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political

parties

conditions. of

The fore-runners

the

of the

has

the in

positions

evolved

and

over

older

Canadians,

In

alternated

policy

have

nine-teenth

Liberals.

Party

When the

groups

office.

contests

belonged

this

of certain

wins

time

parties

have

parties

have

have

spent

new

vacuum.

The Conservative Party The

Conservative

more time

in

Party

assembling

a durable

Canadian

conservatives

the

end

pursued

first

American

strong

immigration

a stable decision

during

policy

Canada,

role for

strife

but

and the challenge

across the country. government

of

Originally,

in the

neo-liberal

economy.

economic

By

policies

(see

government,

However,

power

and outside

led the

a statutory

agenda

of

Constitution

with the

United

United

States

States

such

in

the 2003, they back the

1993

and

prime worst

support

a

interests.

However,

1885

Quebec.

and,

later,

enlistment

(See

farmers

Chapter

2.)

who had to

pay

they

address

for

1988 federal Goods

defeat

by 1993

for

to Kim

mounting Campbell,

election,

a governing

elect

a scattering

enjoyed

in the

of

Tax

the

MPs across

for

the to

early and

free

voter

the

signing

decentral-ization closer (FTA)

1990s,

ties with

a recession,

trade,

and failed

discontent.

Mulroney

Canadas

in

ambi-tious

ill-fated

for

resistance

Progressive

party

two

Agreement

Brian

an

conditions

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By the

also

of

pursued

demands

Services

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launched

Quebecs

a Free

pen-sions

to regions

governments

historic

election. and

contributed

In the

its

1942)

Nations.

Canada,

provincial

in

assistance

Mulroney meet

abandoned

was succeeded

to

reform.

little popu-list

old-age

agriculture.

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Great

prairie

Conservatives

financial

of

the

done too

increased

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to

had

Canadian

Co.

million-aire

battle

a firebrand

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vote to

Ore

campaigned

as the

minister.

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to

government

provided

designed to

self-made

governments

granted

also

reform

electoral

continued

and

party

the

the

western

economic

when it

during

policies

female

and

at build-ing

of government

the

boost

of Iron

and

1982

The

at constitutional

resigned

in

Canada

was skilled

Riel in

Diefenbaker,

Progressive

change,

Act,

powers.

unpopular

central railway,

Brunswick-born

thought

benefits,

and

the

political

New

(renamed

helped

president

at constitutional

of

Macdonald,

of compulsory

western

power

Diefenbakers

Bill of Rights

19841993,

by

in 1935. John

party

and

a former

attempts

Louis

popularity

on the

insurance

Canada,

Between

of

introduction

had alienated

Canadians

Liberals

19571963.

unemployment

Mulroney,

Macdonald

sentence

led

drew

many the

from

central

passed

policy

in

ProtestantCatholic

Bordens

A.

a transcontinental

Canada.

and death

manufacturers

for

Conservatives

(19301935),

Saskatchewan,

to

the

the

protect

support

western

Robert

high tariff

and re-elected

from

to

Sir John

goods.

Conservative

Depression.

tariffs

settle

Minister

1920s, the

Liberal-Conservative

FrenchEnglish

War 1 eroded

R.B. Bennett

too late

to

commute

Prime

by

government

of

not to

early

The

only)

interests

had embraced

led

of high

policy

more for industrial

efforts

they

governed

with internal

an active

century,

competition,

World

By the

the

supported

coalition

Conservative

the

have

of right-of-centre

government,

a national

from

back

have struggled

5).

Canadas

his

predecessors

They coalition

of the twentieth

Chapter

and its

opposition.

first

Canadian country

(and,

to

Conservatives

suf-fered

history. but failed

date,

Until to

win

1980s.

Many western Canadians had supported the Progressive Conservatives, expecting they

would address their frustration

with the

power centres

of Ontario

and

Quebec

Political Parties

Although

the

Program

Mulroney

(see

Chapter

with

to

for

and

give

and

kind

into

reduction,

of special

Quebec.

of affirmative

action

are for

heterosexuals

Reform party

in the

beyond

western

Progressive

beyond

Progressive

its

between

1993

and

Stephen

populist

Quebec

a new

to

provincial

MP and

such

as abortion.

imbalance policy

helped

most of the

Conservatives federal

voter

Canadian

Citizens

social

reached

out to powers,

of the federal

anger

with the

win and

and

Liberals

accountability,

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the

partys

spending

revenues

on government

the

and the govern-ments

eliminated

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lingering

a focus

Alliance

National

limiting the

to

(www.conservative.ca). of the

well as

some

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tax

hold

cuts,

office

from

20062015. While in to the

office,

provinces

the

recession,

all financed

programbalancing

ideology. giving

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the

payments

also

elements

and tax

for

groups

multilateral

of the

Their

strong

a moratorium

on the

for

social

European

pitted

programs,

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instead

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Union

and

energy

them

20082009 partys

a neo-liberal

non-renewable

reviews

development

with the

Conservative

Canadians.

with the

support

assessment

care transfers

deal

reductionsreflected

of individual

FTAs

health

plan to

chose not to create new federal

environmental

seeking

stimulus

Other

by 2015

to specific

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deficits.

budget

pursued

increases

an economic

by

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maintained

and implemented

against

gov-ernments

the

Trans-Pacific

projects

and

environmental-ists

Alberta oil sands and

new oil

pipelines. Following replaced of

the

by

partys

Andrew

Commons.

In

He opposed

2019,

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Liberals

to foreign

aid,

five

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platform

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sponsorship

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in

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for

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24). the

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pricing

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help

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Canadians

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and

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promised

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more seats

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as

with

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larg-est

support

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its

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of Canada

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positions

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to

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party

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was also critical

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in the

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Canada.

Alliance).

expand

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and that

a breakthrough

House

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National

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exclusively

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for

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interests.

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policy

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4), to

pleasing

was founded called

government

183

pro-mote to

and

ideas morality

184

Chapter 8

20 percent

of its

confidence

in

group

to trigger

his leadership

a leadership

at the

review.

partys

Scheer

biennial

will face

convention

in

another

test

of

2020.

The Liberal Party The

Liberal

since

Party

the late policy

Catholic

1890s,

leading

first

scandal.4

with a larger

Lauriers

and supporting

the

1911 election

role for

government,

initiatives

after the

English

William

and

a party

divided

the longest-serving

on raw

and they

provided

He rebuilt

processed

accused

them

the

Liberals

by combining

as the the

Old Age Pensions

universal

Laurent

family

During

the ties

Minister

passed legislation retirement,

he swept

into

principles

Suave

office

to

Quebec.

The last

Quebec

referendum

provincial

4

MacDonald

the

Pacific

in

1872

the

had

been

tenure

as

to

minister

resign

after to

farmers

Prime

policies

Minister welfare

Liberal

and

the a firm

helped

Liberal headed

opposition by

defeat

(See

major

policies

St. and

medical insur-ance After the

granting

His approach

of special

was based

Foreign

contributor

that

devel-opment

Investment forces

Review in

the

an agreement

1980 with

amending

for-mula

10.)

a lucrative to

constitu-tional

on progressive

with an entrenched Chapter

to

by the

economic

separatist negotiated

Pearsons new leader

was inspired

as regional

the

also

revealed a

the

and the

It

Louis

of the 1960s, and

1968 election.

such

Constitution

Freedoms.

the spirit

governance

policies,

Program,

such

governments

became

Confederation

toward

association. the

of justice,

in the

to

the

and pro-tectionist

the ideological

welfare

States (1965).

captured

place in hostility

Energy

patriate

of Rights

awarded

opposi-tion.

in

different inter-ests.

program (1940), and

(19631968),

United

Trudeau

approach

government

to

periods

States.

with the

economic

on sovereignty

Charter

was forced coast

and

Trudeaus

Trudeau

become

accommodated

mix of social

United

French-Canadas

National

premiers

and the

Pact

and free-spirited,

and interventionist

Agency.

nine

Auto

who had served

and

Liberal

he inher-ited

went on to

straddled

insurance

governments

with the B. Pearsons

individualism

programs,

King

and

with social

(1944).

on a wave of Trudeaumania

of liberal

policies

concerns

program

caucus.

the Canada Pension Plan (1965) and public

the

Trudeau,

reform

status social

establishing

party.

constitutional

Lester

negotiated

Pierre

Liberal

benefits

he

western free trade

His governments

the

Americans.

in 1919,

brief

French

cases in

Quebec, cost them

skills in reconciling

Act (1927), the unemployment

maintained

and

Canada.

defeated

Quebec-based

obstacles,

and

policy a reciproc-ity

and in some

as leader

save for two

of English

interests.

negotiated

were

the

support

English

while popular in

such as the

under

a cue from

too close to the

Laurier

railway

immigration

but

to a largely

to business

to close economic Prime

(1966)

central

allowance

(19481957)

a commitment

of the

from

responsiveness

and

Liberals

of being

19211948,

groups

elections

French

Despite these

as an alliance

opposed

manufacturers centre

has

Mackenzie

Pacific

of supporters,

goods,

King succeeded

minister, from

of ideologically

that

vote,

by taking

for the reduction,

and

and language.

by the

coalition

Kings success has been credited to hislegendary interests

English,

system

Alexander

Laurier,

The Laurier

were reduced

Mackenzie

by

an aggressive

stance in the 1917 election,

prime

and

popular

consecutive

Wilfrid

backing

railway. States that

by race

their

down

accommodate

included

tariffs

Lyon

1873

won four

Catholic

United

Canada,

When

in

a nationwide

Conservatives

Their anti-conscription

House seats than

period

and flexi-ble

French

An electoral

was brought

Liberals

successbuild

of import

most of the

of pragmatic

between

interests.

was formed

Roman

for

with the

removal,

of

government

the transcontinental

agreement

votes in

share

for

adoption

divides

and labour

government

18961911,

major policy

shrewd

country

dominance.

of the francophone

an expansionary

the

social

business

historical

formula

on its

bridging

Conservative

Between

Macdonalds

the

built in

and

Liberal

Macdonalds

leadership

skill

parties to its

Canadas after

and

Protestant,

also contributed

has governed

a success

positions and

rewards

(www.liberal.ca)

the

contract Conservative

to

build election

a railway campaign

to

Political Parties

Following the

Trudeaus

Progressive

minister

Conservatives,

with

a folksy

with the opposition majority

governments social from

Before

Chrtien

minister,

Paul

his tenure

the

minority

government

successors

were the

the

Democratic

resigned.

and eldest

In

2015, Justin majority

sunny

strong

aid, funds

to

The

also

help

2019, September House.

of the

of

2011,

in

position

leader

on

history,

Trudeau,

finance

in

2003,

were reduced in 2006.

the

when they

leader

but to

a

Martins

next two

finished

elections.

third

behind

Michael

a former

a dramatic

a bold

Ignatieff

math and

combat

the it

and

Rights

French

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gangs,

and to

of Indigenous

combat

housing

new taxes

coun-trys climate

to

modest

and

offset

law

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& Boutilier,

winning a minority was to form

student

spending.

Canadian

(Campion-Smith

next challenge

2016;

of the

featured

harmonize

Peoples

held on to power,

to

affordable

errors

(Jeffrey,

voters

platform

to

Trudeaus

and tactical

of fortunes

had implemented

for

victory

power.

reminded

taxes.

legislation

Trudeaus

in

platform,

reversal

assistance

guns

decade

Liberals

cut income

to introduce

come-from-behind

centre-left

partys

measures

and

writing,

an agenda

their

Conservatives

Conservatives

election,

30). The Liberals

At the time

Liberals

in their

staged the

pharmacare,

on the

Liberal

The

Conservatives in

to the

and poverty,

Declaration

the

with Justin

trail,

2019

cities

consecutive

by his former

became

Harpers

time

Liberals

the

promised

to resign

scandal.

lost to

ending

including

and a political

pursued

and reversed

cabinet

dissatisfac-tion

win three

governments

Martin

first

contributed

child

economy,

to

Trudeau.

campaign

economy,

proposals,

UN

2013

Trudeaus

During

reduce

party

in

a former

Widespread

Liberals

was pressured

over

the

of Pierre

on the

2016).

change,

the

son

Conservatives,

Dornan,

he

showing

for

government,

ways

by the

Party

was replaced

teacher

win a

prevail

losses

FTA.

sponsorship

disastrous

the

election

Chrtien,

1990.

reduction,

his supporters.

to

Liberals

He

Chrtien

deficit

in 2004 and then

unable

Following New

The

debt and

by the

Jean in

an upbeat

19932000.

American

consecutive

chose

government,

four

his term,

and

two

leader

helped

finished

Martin,

party

parties

North

was dogged

and

as their

Mulroney

from

1984

Liberal

style,

among

spending,

withdrawing

new

of the

was split

in

the

speaking

policies

that

of reduced

resignation

of seats in the

a stable

minority

government.

The New DemocraticParty The for

New

Democratic

better

working

World smaller

War I

labour

the

farmer-led

the

formation

gave impetus parties.

of the Regina

the

After

appeal, in

the

the

1961.

World

Liberals

Tommy

Douglas,

launched

medicare,

a

social

democratic

making

(Laycock

modern

decision Party

has

Parliaments,

the

won enough it

regulation,

has

New

some

As

won public

CCF

Party

in the

past to

power.

Since its

ownership,

of

Woodsworth.

of the and for

economy

other indus-tries

universal

agreed premier

order

the

founding,

pen-sions,

redistributive

create

of

Saskatchewan

federal

balance

tax

Cold

a new

of power

has

pressed

policies,

its party who

itself

voice New

War

broaden

to

a direct

it

of to

fashioned

unions

While the hold

wake

In

(www.ndp.ca)

labour

2015).

in the

policies.

Congress

gave

& Erickson,

of J.S.

companies,

declined CCF

former

and

members

insurance.

Labour the

of

MPs inspired

planning

CCF argued

follow-ing

development

inclined

leadership

well, the

of popular

Democratic party

support

never

the

War, CCF support

Canadian

and the

government

unemployment

adoption

CCF and the by

and

under

labourers

unrest

and independent

banks, insurance

importance.

care,

movement

Party,

and

Labour

more ideologically

advocated

of railways,

Second

Led

1932

of farmers

century.

union

Labour

CCF in (1933)

economic

and the

the

struggle

twentieth

between

parties,

socialist

health

to the

early

Cooperation

nationalization

universal

date

the

to the trade

Manifesto

of large-scale

tensions

roots in

progressive

The partys through

Partys

conditions

in

as

party

Democratic in for and

minority govern-ment a stron

185

186

Chapter 8

social

safety

toward

net (Whitehorn,

the ideological

friendly

toward Until

has been build

one source

official

of the

Mulcair the

2011).

took

first

visible The

low

minority New

in

after

his

on a leftist

platform,

pharmacare

video

and

wealthy

apps to

court

his profile.

(Ballingal,

in

2019,

While the seat count

Singhs

youth

and

vote,

New

position

as

strong

on

party

about

with

Singhs

in

voted

new

ability

2015.

Party

Aresurgent one

New

generally

Alberta,

but

Despite the losses, the

where it could

2017

on

targeting

corpo-rations

to

media

debates

Trudeau

not

universal

use of social

in televised that

had

give

the

campaigned

spending

style,

war chest,

to revive

party

increases

performance

of colour

in

was

MPP, and the

a small

The

as tax

to revelations

of

Party

basis.

campaign

people

(Blanger MP Thomas

Ontario

campaign

well

were promi-nence

in the face

members

extremism.

upbeat

wave

Democratic

a former

$30 billion

seats

Quebec

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become

raised

worn

up on

black-and

Canada

25).

from

only seat in

in Toronto.

calling

in 2011, and just

Democratic

its

Sikh

his response

his youth, October

doubts

2011, the

declining

dashed

to

federal

In

of those

and

and the results,

inability

a strong

Quebecers.

were

on a permanent

measures,

Canadians. the

power

and

for

an orange

election,

about

support

and the

winning

more than

change

for

2019

election.

Fifty-nine

after the

the

a federal

won 103 seats to

popularity

Singh,

more

geographic

New Democratic Party held onto official party status, its popular

wave

retained

proposing

declined

orange

polls,

of questions

He won praise for

brownface

The

opinion

climate

and

party

went into

in

many

history.

with Jagmeet

shifted

were

has been its

when it

groundwork

of

third

preference

by

2015 election,

a federal Party

public

Laytons

disappointing

him

to lead

handling

in its

party

that

dispersed

Another

shared

time

hopes

After the

than

challenges

Jack

in the

Democratic

standings

party

widely

the

2015).

with 9.)

1990s,

a vocabulary

due to its

months

But

and replaced

higher

Chapter

the

died just

place.

Mulcair

laid

juggernaut

to third

oust

issue,

and

parties

part

these

leader

as leader.

partys

not

the first

party

Layton

over

Liberal

relegated to

for

where

sovereignty

& Nadeau,

(See

Quebec, in

late

(Ptry,

finished

weakness

is

the

policies

smaller

overcame

opposition

Quebec,

never

that

Party

in

liberalization

penalizes

in

position

Democratic

won in

of

following

governmenta

the

had

that

Beginning

adopting

and trade

party

system

a strong

New

centre,

business

2011, the

An electoral

2007).

hold the

Bloc

had swept

Democratic maintained

away the

Party its

gains

MP was elected

support

in

made by the from

British

was shut out of Saskatchewan

vote and Quebec.

Columbia

and failed

to

and

win a seat

New Democratic Party emerged from the election in a

balance

of power

in a minority

Parliament.

The Bloc Qubcois In

1990

former

handful

of

federal

party

org).

Originally

1993

Conservative

Conservative

whose

on in

Progressive

dissident

aim is to

conceived Quebec

as a party the

with

minister,

Liberal

achieve

secession,

when it emerged

cabinet

and

an independent that

would

political to

Bouchard,

the

Bloc

and

a

Qubcois,

a

Quebec (www.blocquebecois.

disband

Bloc stunned

54 seatsenough

Lucien

MPs founded

following

a successful

observers

guarantee

in its first

it the role

ref-erendum

election

of the

official

opposition. During After

the

1995

Quebecers

politics

to

where it

become promised

leadership

to

unilaterally.

It

to

referendum,

independence

Premier

of

Quebec.

defend

(19972011), attempt

considered

Quebec

rejected

the

Quebecs party

codify

the

denounced

the

as falling

under

fought

Supreme federal

provincial

the

Bloc

campaigned

by a narrow The Bloc continued interests

in

against Court

the

for

margin,

to contest

Ottawa. Clarity

decision

the

Bouchard

elections,

Gilles

Duceppes

Act, the

governments

interventions

jurisdiction.

The

BQ lost

side. federal

federal

Under

that

Yes left

federal

Quebec in support

cannot

govern-ments secede

matters in the

that

it

199

Political Parties

and

2000

linked

elections

to rising

but rebounded

support

sponsorship

program,

referendum.

The Bloc

in

2006 and Waning

support

leadership

party

had outlived

its

purpose.

enough

Yves-Franois

would

fight

exclusively

a champion

of the

public sector

many

But in

to return

from

a former

provinces

popular

law

base,

party

low

on state

internal

1995 poli-tics

send also

laicity

won

down-played

Ottawa

positioned 21),

campaign,

minister,

MPs to

(Bill

symbols in the

the

and

the

cabinet

to

disputes whether

expectations During

Qubcois

Blanchet

wearing religious

and

wondering

status.

Quebecers

interests.

the

Quebec federal

2011 and 2015 elections.

Bloc defied

Parti

asking

in

was

in the federal

up following

party

observers

official

comeback

of corruption

donor

political

Blocs

had set

in the

2019, the

Quebecs

workers from

status

it to

Canada,

for

disclosure

a shrinking

had

MPs. The

as the leading

party

Blanchet,

independence

54

government

its status

sovereignty, policy,

elect

after the

Liberal

official

and

more than

Bloc leader

the

maintained

for

2004 to

sovereignty

which

2008, but lost

about

34 seats,

for

in

the

which

who

Bloc

as

bans some

workplace.

The Green Party Since the 1970s, Green parties

have been part of coalition

governments

in

New Zealand

and several European democracies. The Green Party of Canada(www.greenparty.ca) was founded the

party

in

1983, but did not elect an

had just

lawyer,

two

sitting

writer, and activist.

more seats, including

MP until 2011. Prior to the 2019 election,

MPs,including

leader

Elizabeth

Mayan

The Greens have faced several

perceptions

that they

American-born

challenges

are a single issue

party,

to

win-ning

a relative

lack of attention from the mainstream media, and the SMP electoral system (Harada, 2006).

Green parties competing

2017, the British Democratic

Columbia

Party

provincial

Green Party signed

minority

in the legislatures

at the

government

have enjoyed

a formal

in that

of New Brunswick,

level

agreement

province. In

some success. In

to support

2019, Greens

Prince Edward Island,

and

the

New

were repre-sented

Ontario.

In 2019, the Greenscampaigned on a mix of environmental and socially progres-sive policies, emissions pipeline, mining,

as well as proposals

of climate-changing a ban on hydraulic help for

for

fracturing,

unemployed

pharmacare,

part of the

platform

electoral (Green

reform

Party

share over 2015 to 6.5 percent, and May blamed

new pipelines,

lead the

and lowering

net-zero

of the Trans

Mountain

oil, and gas drilling and the creation

of new

withIndigenous

the voting

and

Peoples,

age to 16, were also their

vote

However, the results fell short of expec-tations.

Party attack ads on Vancouver Island

down as party leader,

caucus

They called for

of Canada, 2019). The Greens doubled won 3 seats.

New Democratic

May stepped

parliamentary

coal,

Canadas relationship

the partys chances to win moreseats (CHEK the election,

reform.

by 2050, cancellation

workers in fossil fuel sectors,

jobs in the green economy. Improving universal

democratic

pollutants

for

hurt-ing

News, 2019, October 22). Following but

will continue

to sit as an

MP and

until a new leader is chosen.

Party Organizations:Leaders, Candidates,and Members 8.4

Discuss how muchinfluence the selection

Historically,

and removal

party organizations

party members have over party platforms and

of their

leaders

and local

were a far cry from

candidates.

what we would now consider to be

democratic. In the 1860s and 1870s, parliamentarians and local elites carried out most party business, Party leaders

and there were selected

were no extensive

party

by the parliamentary

organizations

outside

caucus or by the governor

Parliament. general i

187

188

Chapter 8

consultation out

with

broad

public

works

contracts

their

party

(Carty,

are far

leaders

and

1973).

The cabinet

regional

selected

beyond

organizations

to select their

(Courtney,

of diverse

individuals

organizations

party

leaders

accommodations

prominent

their

party

demands.

candidates

and

1991).

After

World

Parliament

and

a small

more elaborate, candidates

and

or party

In the

offered War I,

worked

districts,

supporters

parties

have

and

expanded

notables.

acquired

degree, influence

lo-cally

jobs

gradually

of local

members

and, to some

electoral

party

number

leaders

Todays

more power

over the

positions

adopts.

TheStructure of Political Parties The

most formalized the

other

criteria

parties for joining

important

matters

a parliamentary who hold party

wing

members,

that

different

parties

When federal of they

decide

their

should

how to

they

exist

at the

Avenir

levels.

vote.

One

level?

Canadians

cons of the

to

at the

provincial

Provincial

begin

of all the factors

the

parties

that

a provincial

favourite This is

of the

Liberals

and that

The federal the

the

dilemma Party

pro-cess before

might

political

provincial

Saskatchewan

affect

party.

But

does

not

party facing,

for

or the

promote

are

ex-ample,

Coalition

closely

Quebec

only two

distinctive

operate arenas.

parties

(the

objec-tives,

of

members

which

party

and

consist

party

wing,

national

the

consists

of

convention,

name,

why some

and federal Party

structure

of party

time.

Some federal

at election

same

and

and

voters

some

levels

provincial

may belong

one level,

organizations

to the

and others

(Carty,

2006).

parties

do

parties

do

same

party

may belong to

See Box 8-2:

Worlds

Politics.

people

Party.

there

in

The

are

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the

although Qubcois

no formal

same

Quebec,

is or

the at the

party

be-tween

provincial

members

(except can

report

2010),

belonging

make it

levels

easier 2006).

nature

of federal

by the fact

that

independently In the

Atlantic

and parties

of one another provinces

provincial with the

party same

in federal and

sys-tems

Williams,

name

and

Saskatchewan,

pro-vincial

premier

for

exhorted

Liberal

The

that

activists

the of

mostly integrated

Members process

join

the

become

cooperation

party federal

of party

of the

same

2014), leaders

the

to

across

Canada

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Wynne actively party in the

and

other

the

hand,

Canadian

Justin

can

boundaries Progressive

Labrador, to

supported

2015

Ontario provincial

divisions

partisan

election,

Newfoundland

in

at the

structural

na-tional

campaigns

members

name

cross

2008 federal

voters

between

and staff in election

a majority

political

is

are New

Quebec).

Conservative.

Kathleen

parties

party

(Pruysers,

During

Liberal

sole

parties

premier

But

the federal

and

to

versa. Alberta,

Liberals.

considerable

party

vice

Columbia,

federal

the

and in the

in be

automatically and

provincial

from

divide.

level

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members are individuals

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192

Chapter 8

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Mulcair.

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parties.

higher

Qubcois

where they

Until

election,

was a record

among although

made in recent

had been

provide

across the

representation

in ridings

politics,

New Democratic and Green parties (Boesveld,

Bloc

impediment

minorities,

have been

2019 federal

The result

percent)

percent),

visible provincial

women

and to

candidacies

of female

few

candidates,

organizers.

in female

(39

very

Prior to the

more female political

and

House of Commons

Until the Figure

and

in federal

MPs) of the

be underrepre-sented

House. has long

been

was not elected

were elected

in larger

a until

multicultural 1957, and it

numbers

(Tossutti

society, was not &

but until

the 1993

Hilderman,

first

visible

when 2014).

visible

minority minor-ities

As Figure

8-

193

194

Chapter 8

Figure 8-1 TheRepresentation of Women in the Houseof Commons 1921

1

1925

1

1926

1

1930

1

1935

2

1940

1

1945

1

1949

0

1953

4

1957

2

1958

2

1962

5

1963

4

1965

4

1968

Yea

1

1972

5

1974

9

1979

10

14

1980

1984

27

1988

39

1993

53

1997

62

2000

62

2004

65

64

2006

2008

69

2011

76

2015

88

2019

98

10

20

030

40

Number

SOURCE:

Compiled

Elections

Retrieved

from

Parliament

from

of

50

of

60

Women

Canada.

70

80

90

100

Representatives

(2019).

Women

Candidates

in

General

https://lop.parl.ca/sites/ParlInfo/default/en_CA/ElectionsRidings/

womenCandidates.

shows,

more visible

minority

candidates

ran for

and

won office in

previous elections. About 15 percent of candidates from the minorities,

and

up slightly

Liberals (17

Conservatives 13). Arecord

from

2015.

percent) fielded

(15

percent)

51 visible

and

The

Greens (10

minority

New

Democratic

more visible

Party (24

minority candidates

percent)

MPs were elected,

(Paas-Lang,

population

is used as a benchmark

commented that parties need to make out to communities improve

diversity

and

a small increase

Allen, 2019,

MPs are typically

who ran in 2019, four (Lim

8-2). Liberal

the

October

from the 47 who

when their share MP-elect

Han Dong

a deliberate effort between elections to reach

get them involved

(Wright

While Canadians elected Parliament,

(Figure

in

percent)

than

C., 2019,

won in 2015. Visible minorities continue to be underrepresented of the

2019 than

main parties were vis-ible

in

policy

discussions

if they

want to

October 30b).

more women and visible

straight,

white

minorities to the 43rd

males. Ofthe 74 openly

LGBTQ2 candi-dates

were elected, down from six in the previous Parliament

& Gibson, 2019, October 24). In

Canada parties

have responded

they should implement under-represented

of Commons.) diversity

While these initiatives

tend to nominate

ways to the

question

of

whether

members of traditionally

office. (See Box 8-3: Electing

a Diverse

House

are some of several factors that influence the

slate of candidates,

which have adopted

different

measures to encourage

groups to run for

of a partys

and Liberals,

special

in

parties such as the

more proactive

New Democratic

strategies to recruiting

more of them (Equal Voice, 2015).

female

Party can-didates,

Political Parties

195

Figure 8-2 Visible Minority Candidatesand MPsin Federal Elections, 20042019 25 22.

20

19.1

19.1

17.3

16.2

15.1

15.0

14.9

15

14.1* 13.6

10.1 9.7 9.3

10

9.1 9.0

7.8 Percentage 7.1 7.8

5

0 2004

2006

Percentage

of

Candidates

(all

*Percentage

of

belonged

to

Based

on

and

MPs.

on

Griffith,

Democracy, Based say

work

for

of

Minorities

Liberal,

Racial

and

diversity

Parliamentary

New

Democratic

in

Party

2019

Visible Population

only

(excluding

other

parties)

and

who

October),

in

the

Review,

from

dataset

2011

36(3),

created

federal

election:

Visible

minority

Samara

Centre

2134. by

The

Hill

Times,

The

for

partners C.(2019,

be

2015

Percentage

MPs

Conservative,

J. (2013).

Canadian

research

to

ran

Visible

groups.

Black,

on Paas-Lang,

more

of

Minority

who

A. (2019,

and

2011

Percentage

candidates)

minority

candidates

2008

Minority

candidates

visible

SOURCES:

Based

Visible

done.

October

The

13).

Canadian

Diversity

Press.

of federal

Retrieved

candidates

from

up from

2015

but

advocates

https://www.energeticcity.ca/2019/10/

diversity-of-candidates-up-from-2015-but-much-more-to-be-done-advocates-say/ Based

on

Wright

diversity,

say

Allen, MPs,

S. (2019,

October

candidates.

The

30).

Hill

Parties

Times.

must

Retrieved

work

between

from:

elections

to

improve

https://www.hilltimes.com/2019/10/30/

parties-must-work-between-elections-to-recruit-diverse-slate-say-mps-candidates/221908

Box 8-3 Electing a Diverse House of Commons The

2018

number

mid-term of

American

women and

than

Muslim

in any

Canadian build the

parties,

the

previous

the

party field

percent

of ridings

at least

15 percent

has a reasonable reflect

of ridings

the

age

also assigns mentors

Liberal

of

to

women

running

parties

have to

for

office,

assistance the

Liberals

set

for

&

female

encouraging as

for

campaigns Judy

and trans-gendered Canadians

2014).

The

party

activists

(McGrane,

(Erickson, Fund,

party as

2011).

approaches.

representation

training

LaMarsh

who minori-ties;

hands-on

promising

providing

Party

visible

and

and

in

candidates

bisexuals

a nomination

of 60

candidates sessions 1998). which

to

and In

fi-nancial

1984,

provides

female

rules and

to

leaders

in

appoint

certain

a local

In

2015, a

women

they

receiving about

a group digital

women

of the

partys

after

party

does

not

that

has

a

been and

under-represented worked

to

date,

make

strong

in

Justin

2015

Trudeau

office. In of special

from

made, other

in the what

else

were

women.

with

the

one-third

During that

a promise

in initiatives

After up

About

pledged

contrast,

raise

the

women that

was

Conservative

to increase groups,

questions

diverse

women,

groups,

party

nominate

the on the

answer.

approaches socially

Liberal to

interest.

under-represented

are not the

party

candidates.

of his cabinet,

took

minority

party followed

also

ad-vantage

candidacies.

with the

some

took

Liberal

Canadians

who expressed

more

2011,

women involved

the

quotas

different

minorities

for female

make use

grounds

build

target

percent

of candidates

way to

percent

would

Liberals a nomina-tion

or visible

and

of nominations,

his party

number

female

inviting

the

Chrtien

2008

candidates

make up 50

fulfilled

bypass

In

of

Liberal leader

1993,

to

candidate.

appoint

campaign

believed

200

would

a 33

hundreds

election,

to

In

the leader

ridings.

established

launched

candidates.

allow

of this freedom candidates

The

have in-volved

to

party

meeting

most

has re-quired

Moreover,

women;

disabilities;

less

the it

Democratic

must run

Hilderman,

Of all

a minimum

New

politicians

well

up the

in

lesbians,

adopted

improve

and as

it

with

female

Other

identifying run

gays,

26 (Tossutti

established

strategies

where the

people

diversity.

support

changed

7).

of how to

1991,

financial

can-didates

November

of winning.

They include

peoples;

individuals;

Since

Native

LGBT

question

social

candidates

of winning,

a record

has introduced

has a chance

diversity.

Indigenous

under

female

chance

Canadas

Party

measures.

where it

2018,

with the

Canadas

Democratic

saw

the first

more openly

(Caron,

grappled

action

States

including

as well as

election

have

New

United

Congress,

better reflects

affirmative

that

in the

to

women,

parties

a House that

clear-cut

elections elected

Indigenous

including

House. might?

House.

If

peoples,

young

existing

about Although

people,

initiatives

the

best prog-ress visible

remain have

not

196

Chapter 8

Summaryand Conclusion Political

parties

perform

democracy. campaigns

and

albeit individuals diversity.

However, identification

Canadians well, to

in the

political

what degree

is

over

the

advisers

and

field

Canadas

at election social

Since

time,

that

are

candidates.

diversifying

Parliament

the

still

techniques

Although

Parties

does not reflect

social circumstances

party

competition

system

to a

has

multi-party

have emerged

in the

to chal-lenge

popular support

into

and, ultimately,

governing

potential to

more parlia-mentary power.

supporters,

changing

by adapting

volatility,

elites, and global social Canadian

mar-keting

set the

their

political

policies,

citizen

of younger

organi-zational

But in an

disillusionment

generations, and thrive

will hinge upon their of a diverse

and

with

movements that have captured

parties to survive

trans-formed expectations

system,

cen-trist

cleavages

structures, and campaign techniques.

century

a two-party

adopted

many social

have responded

the imagination

candidates

generally

interests

to identify

era of electoral

campaign

the

return

most successful

Minor parties representing regional, linguistic,

ability to translate

and their

over

bridge

have

a possible

The

issue agenda, and raise money.

in-fluence

adopted

history

that

suggest

system.

Thelarger parties areincreasingly adopting political

diversity.

Confederation,

from

of local in

have little

of

Canadian

representation

meaning-ful

Party leaders authority

their

As

selection

results party

the older parties, but the electoral system haslimited

engage

members

electoral

class, or environmental

pol-icies.

is limited.

and the

decisions

ultimate

made strides

to

in

platforms

and strong

power

members

government.

wield the

have

their

recent

two-and-a-half

country.

members

and influence

policies

and the suitability

parties they

policies is in

their

membership

Party

parties

and

offer their

debatable.

party

still

platforms

parties

leaders, social

of the country

to influence

personnel

when their

life

to the

Canadas

key officials

that

organiz-ing

more inclusive

provide

of party

suggest

opportunities key

rates

repre-sentativealthough

in and

reflect

into

that

to select low

Canadas

candidates

evolved

organizations

in

succeeded

recruiting

have

with opportunities

party

roles

have

who do not fully

They

democratic

vital

They

the

ability to

population

ability

of

in the twenty-first

meetthe

for

democracy

and

say in

removing

an

good government

Discussion Questions 1.

What role do political democracy?

2. Is populism

Arethey

parties

play in a representative

necessary for

a significant

6.

democracy?

political

phenomenon

in

Canada? 3.

number

What can parties

of Canadians join

do to engage

citizens

parties? in

party

politics? 4.

Do political

or party

7.

Why do a small

Who should unpopular

have the

8. Should

parties given their

over important political

of females parties

offer

Canadians

distinct

policy

parliamentary

caucus

members?

Have political influence

final

party leaderthe

If so, how should

parties

strive to increase

and visible they

members enough

decisions? the

pres-ence

minorities in Parliament?

go about it? If not,

why not?

choices? 5.

Why have some political success than

parties

enjoyed

more elec-toral

others?

Further Reading Carty, R.K. (2015). Big tent politics: The Liberal Partys long mastery of Canadas public life. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Gagnon, A., & Tanguay, B.G. (Eds). (2014). Canadian parties in transition (4th ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Johnston, R.(2017). The Canadian party system: An analytic history. Vancouver, Toronto: UBC Press. Laycock, D., & Erickson, L. (Eds). (2015) Reviving social democracy: The near death and surprising rise of the federal NDP. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. LeDuc, L., Pammett, J., with Andre Turcotte. (2016).

Dynasties andinterludes: electoral

politics.

Toronto,

Past and present in Canadian ON:

Dundurn

Press.

Marland, A. (2017). Brand command: Canadian politics and democracy in the age of messagecontrol. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Martin, L. (2011). Harperland: The politics of control. Toronto, ON: Penguin Canada. Wesley, J. (2016). Big worlds: Politics and elections in the Canadian provinces and territories. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Chapter9

Elections, the Electoral System,and Voting Behaviour

Ravelo/Corbi

Cheryl

These two process.

young Should

teens this

protesting

earn them

against

the

right

debt clearly to

vote

demonstrate

earlier

than

their

interest

in the

political

age 18?

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 9.1

Outline the rules

9.2

Understand

and procedures

the principle

plurality 9.3

Assess the benefits

9.4

Understand

for conducting

of representation

electoral

Canadas

single-member

system.

of other electoral

how election

and

elections.

campaigns

systems. work and how they

are

financed. 9.5

Discuss

what

motivates

voters in their

electoral

choices.

197

198

Chapter 9

For

many

sullen

Canadians,

inmates,

their (mail-in) In the down

to

of

have

To

deny

moral

that lies

at the

promised,

in its

in federal this

At

what

people

54

that

those

who

opinion

to

vote is ...

two

barbed

of prisoners

wire, casting

with the

Charter questioned

pursue

the

committed

struck the fran-chise

in

2002,

serious

of

right

for

the

vote

of teaching

on the

dignity

of

person

2000,

quoted

of this

amendment

basis

of every

Canada,

wisdom

Conservative

Court jus-tices,

means

v.

the

criminal

Supreme

to

the

(Sauv

a constitutional

However,

However,

an important

respect

rulings

vote.

of the

Party

to

court

Act, limiting

majority

to lose Denial

1992,

years.

of the

and the

in the

14-year-olds

lack

maturity the

and

have

House

of

to

16.

political

alow

vote is

level

Advocates

to

ruling

forbid

government

In

contrast,

in

and

a private

disputed

did

and

prison-ers

not

this

would

are affected

parties critics

knowledge

members

topic.

However,

knowledgeable

of political

Forces.

of interest

and

vote.

that

youth

in

hotly

age to

argue

that

members

rejected

another

minimum

process,

Armed

Commons

to

are interested

become

the

right

18 as the

people

can

can join

the

adopted

many young

17-year-olds

pursue

and

argue

decisions

about

politics.

young

politics

the

of govern-ment, all, they

partys people

and

like

young

After

their

proposed

that

encourage

by the

that

about bill that

help to

vote for

claim

Canada,

some

leader, generally

government.

lowering

the

In voting

16.

The right this

than

democracy

voting.

be lowered

get involved

and

age to

windows,

Elections

a narrow

the

right

in

Canada

in

arguing In

however,

the

Conservative

deserve

has

age should

out,

2005,

vote;

of less

responsibility

platform,

from

age individuals

and that point

election

countries,

to

The

to

provision

vote. the

Canadian

is the image

promise.

other

minimum

2006

right

is inconsistent

p. 38).

institutions

election

most

of

2004,

to

social

unworthiness

heart

Courtney,

and

this

ruling,

right

of barred

common

amended

a sentence

prisoners

values

of the

down

with this

up images

Less

of Parliament.

serving

their

conjures

Parliament

struck

agreed

however,

in

Members

were

forfeited

democratic

of jail

shepherds.

were stripped

Canada

everyone

attributed

elect

who

Court

mention German

In response,

prisoners

offences

them

to

prisoners

provision.

Supreme

very

snarling

ballots

past,

this

Not

the

and

of all citizens

principle

politically

justified?

to

vote is

Is a violent

apathetic

16-year-old

a fundamental

criminal

principle

who is

with a clean

politically

of democracy. aware

Are any

more deserving

exceptions

of this

right

to

than

a

record?

ChapterIntroduction Free and fair

elections

are the cornerstone

of democracy.

When casting

our ballots,

weare exercising a hard-won right: to participate in the selection of an individual represent

our electoral

district in the

House of Commons.

represent a political party, our vote also contributes (i.e.,

which

leader

party

will form

will become prime

government), minister.

kinds of issues that are important the incumbents

performance.

most of those elected

not only to the election outcome

but also to

During elections

Since

to

determination

of

which party

we have a conversation

about the

to us, dissecting party platforms and scrutinizing

Elections

also provide

an opportunity

for competing

parties to present policy proposals that they hope will be moreattractive to voters. The belief that winning

an election

has been

party. In a democracy,

won fairly

is essential in conferring

even those

legitimacy

who have voted against the

on the

victors accept

the result and respect their right to govern. The choice

of electoral

system is regarded

decisions for any country, 2005). In this Electoral The that into

System

system

by

people

cast

the

which

in

the

votes

are translated

representation

parties

electoral

the

of po-litical legislature.

chapter,

system

parties in the legislature. candidates revealing extent to of rule

as it has a profound

we examine

that translates

the

how votes

elections

most important

effect on its are conducted

political

institu-tional life (ACE,

and look

we cast into the representation

at the

of political

As well, we discussthe campaigns organized by parties and

as they try to sway why people vote the

voters. way they

which Canadian elections

by the people

as one of the

Finally,

we summarize

some of the research

do. As you read this chapter,

are effective in implementing

consider

the democratic

the ideal

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

The Rulesofthe Game 9.1

Outline the rules

and procedures

for conducting

elections.

Fair and Democratic Elections Several conditions be adult

must be met for an election to be fair and democratic.

citizens

with a reasonable

be no barriers to adult

citizens

opportunity

running

to cast their

for office

or for

Voters

ballots.

political

must

There should

parties to nominate

candidates and campaign on their behalf. Voting is secret to prevent bribery or in-timidation, and each vote counts and the counting witnessed

by candidates

the campaign,

equally.

of votes.

parties

An impartial

The process

and parties; they and candidates

organization

of voting

administers

and counting

have a right

to

demand a recount.

have a reasonable

elec-tions

ballots can be

opportunity

During

to carry their

messageto voters.

Voting The franchise

was limited

did not own a certain racial,

and religious

in the past, as discussed in

amount

minority

of property; groups

office. Almost all restrictions age through

was dropped the

from

Indigenous

Women; those

people;

and

various

21 to 18. The right

to vote is guaranteed 1982. In practice,

needed to vote can create problems,

however, requirements

particularly

for the homeless,

people, and students. Canada is responsible

staff.

minimum vot-ing constitutionally

Most voters cast a ballot at accessible polling stations in their Elections

who

ethnic,

were denied the right to vote and to seek public

wereremoved by 1960, and in 1970, the

Charter of Rights and Freedoms,

for the identification

Chapter 6.

Indigenous

Representatives

for the voting

of candidates

procedures

neighbourhood.

as well asfor hiring and train-ing

are present throughout

the

day to observe the

casting and counting of ballots,thus boosting confidence in the integrity Until 1997, armies

of enumerators

went door to

dropped, registering

voters for inclusion

This process had its

weaknesses: it

but as both leading

of cheating allow for the

on a temporary designated

wasreduced; the campaign

voters

list to be completed

constructed via the enumeration her or his name

was on the list.

which is updated

with information

were patronage

an enumerator,

had to be about two

(Landes,

writ

was

voters list for the election.

was open to abuse as these

parties in the riding

ofthe process.

door after the election

2002).

posi-tions,

the likeli-hood

months long to

When the

voters

list

was

process,the onus wasnot on the voter to ensure that Canada

now uses a National

collected

from such sources

Register

of Electors,

as income tax returns,

postal change of address forms, and motor vehicle registrations. To vote (or to beregis-tered at the polling

station),

an individual

must present valid

photo identification

that

includes the voters residential address. Elections the

Canada

process convenient

makes every

effort to

enable individuals

to vote

and accessible to as many voters as possible.

makeit to the polls on election day have options to vote through or

mail-in ballots.

There are also provisions

for those

who are ill,

by

Voters

making who can-not

advance polls

disabled,

or in jail.

Employees are entitled to three hours off to enable them to cast a ballot. However, this applies

only if they

the polling

stations

do not have three consecutive

hours before or after their

has recommended

weekend as they argues that it to

operate

while

are open.

Elections are usually held on a Monday, but former Mayrand

shift

do in

that

the

Australia and

government

stations

and it

holding

New Zealand (Elections

would be much easier to recruit polling

Chief Electoral Officer

consider

the

would be

number

Marc on a

Canada, 2016e). He

of qualified

more convenient

elections

for

people

neces-sary

voters.

Votin

199

200

Chapter 9

Voters

waiting

polling

station.

to cast a ballot

at a

Image

MacDonald/Bloomberg/Getty

James

is compulsory sales in

and

in

Australia,

democracy

schools

or community

Australians depend

can

Parliament,

vote

Elections

removed

only

of Commons

for

at polling

are

of

run

and Senate. For

democracy, These

opportunities

of their

choosing,

with

are usually for

and that

bake

located organiza-tions.

choice

might

on a website. an

The chief

by the

celebrate

stations.

fundraising

station

by

Commons,

cause

a day to

providing

listed

Canada.

House

is

on offer

at a polling

delights

elections

of the

E-Day

centres,

on the culinary

Canadian

but

sausages

independent,

electoral

holds

office

governor

non-partisan

officer for

general

more information

is appointed

a single after

about

through

10-year

a joint

agency

term,

address

Elections

of

a reso-lution

and

can

of the

be

House

Canada, visit

www.

elections.ca. The need to such

as scanners paper

modernize

the

(for

information

cards),

and

tabulation

voters

process. Elections in the New testing and

voter

2018

Ontario tested provincial

Brunswick,

them Nova

increasing

lists),

in

electoral

pilot

Scotia

number

The increased

electronic

been

and

machines

Ontario,

books

of digital

are either

option

using

2016).

of employing

Other some

cum-bersome

the

voting

to count bal-lots

provinces,

includ-ing

of these

Municipalities

e-voting

tools

(replacing

to streamline

2018).

Saskatchewan,

the

adoption

poll

poll books and vote tabulators

Alberta

(Elections given

has led to the electronic

(Elections

Scotia,

projects

have

vote

election

Nova

process

since

tools

in

or

Ontario

2003, and an

have chosen this tool. use of technology

in the

modernization

process renders

elections

extremely vulnerable to hacking. It took an 11-year-old boy less than 10 minutes to hack into

Floridas

state election

website and alter the results

News, 2018, August 14). He was a white

hat hacker

uncovering

of an election

(CBC

vulnerabilities

in the

system so they could befixed. For state-sponsored hackers with malevolent intentions, the task

might be completed

even quicker.

In the United States, manystates use voting trail

but can be tampered

the lock

on a voting

the machines chip led the

machine in seven seconds,

paper to call for 2009,

Constitutional

demonstrating

University

picked

that they could replace

with a malicious one within minutes (Washington Post, 2018). This an end to Americas

processes and a return to good In

machinesthat not only lack a paper

with quite easily. Researchers at Princeton

Germany

old-fashioned

abandoned

Court ruled

that

foolish

electronic because

experiment

with digital

voting

German

Federal

paper. voting

meaningful

when the public

scrutiny

of the

vote

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

201

Box 9-1 Online Voting: A Primer Given

the

spheres (or

widespread

e-voting)

seems

is

so last

basement

in

could

of

many

our

to

Many

pyjamas but

technology believe

the

why

cast

a ballot.

price

in

other

online

current

wonder

and

the

digital

Canadians

preferable

century.

proposition,

process,

such

Online voting

uses 2017).

is

elections

to

been

digital

make the

used

places

widely

at the

voting

place in

There

an attrac-tive

supervised

iPad,

is

level

since

such

pros

following

Assistance,

and

(Institute

also

Voting

to

employ

the

online

voting,

Democracy

and

which

it

Electoral

and

counting

Efficient

handling

formulas

in

complex

elec-toral

systems savings of spoiled

ballots

of transparency threats

electronic

Despite

issues

elections, that to

it is

unlikely

result

(see

be labelled

for

voting

that

was unconstitutional

have

they

will

Box 9-1:

arisen

a

or

of Elections it

Online

Voting:

of the

because

clear

and

13 friendship

centres

increase

exploring voting

barriers

are designed Box 9-2:

Canadas

modernize

Modernizing

project

vote

of their

the

project

Canada, the

Elections.)

to

As

franchise

Voters

in

but

most

vote chose

only

a province

(Elections

Despite

was

could

because

of online

youth

on electoral

the

person,

percent

although

expectations

vote, it is

37

where

PEI, 2016).

voting,

that

mainly used

middle-aged

voters

(Archer,

Beznosov,

likely

potential

who

as a

would

Crane,

split

unfazed ballot.

accept

tainted

call

of the

Canadians vote

breaches

are

a paper

siren

of to

for

Canadians

the

tools

used

increased

well, few

a return

make voting

for

the

on campus

by students

expand

(Elections to

to

(regardless voting

to

attempts

a pilot

universities

in

options

first,

a ballot

majority

& Brice, 2013).

digital

of the

A Primer).

by recommending

conducted

at 39 colleges

a large

80

anyway

somewhat

willing to

(Schwartz

as a result

be abandoned,

techno-peasants

all electors,

hold a province-wide

a plebiscite

or in

the

to

in

efficien-cies would

the

want

horse-and-buggy

era! As part

in

ex-ercise King,

by this

digital

the

Politics, and

middle,

prospect

almost

election

percent)

(Ekos

of privacy

down

That

(77

online

and 51

half the

results

testifies

world is too

secu-rity with

49 per

popula-tion to the

seductive

to

resist.

was impossible, security

about

confidence

disappointing

concept.

of respondents

that

electoral

2014).

preferring

fact

in

another

cast

among

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is

the

undermine

endorsement

franchise

very

cent

in

ap-plications voting

are suspicions

17-year-olds.

over

be a popular

2016,

percent

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usually

is raised,

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to

would increase

2016).

voted

was

chose

of convenience

were

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by telephone,

a ringing

to

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of the

confidence

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have

horse

reliability

was the first to

Turnout

is

& Morfitt,

of complicated

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16-and

of voters

e-voting

and tabulation

and

this

to include

option.

seems

accessibility

vote

2016.

their

Convenience

Trust

on a com-puter:

computers

or Trojan the

essential.

November

was not

tool

compromise

when Islanders

turnout

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2011):

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first

the

Not

Advantages

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in

percent

of a computer, 2017).

Edward

on the Internet,

a

personal

itself.

expanded

can take

with voting

of

spyware,

2012a).

ballot

reform

percent

absolutely

Prince online

a mall or library,

use

could

of the

democracy

being

station,

of Canada,

cons for

in

as a polling

with the

(Government

has

groups

are

associated

20

worms,

(ACE,

process

system

problems

viruses,

process

in

voting

and is

other

the integrity

deployed

2003

as a kiosk in

environment

are

been

elections. such

cast-ing

used

in the

that

Canada,

being online

has

Indigenous

council

location

there

the

more efficient,

municipal

and

of

are

various

and referen-dums

already

It

or cell phone

surprisingly, include

technology

environment

or an unsupervised tablet,

(Government

level.

chief

a supervised

partially

connection

Some

ballots,

elections

of trust

by insiders

possibilities

an estimated

accessibility

obtaining

political

federal

Ontario.

for

where

in

process

at the

used in

online

votes

an Internet

Although

some

a system

or counting

manipulation/fraud recount

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sit in the

This is

of

Limited

which

we cannot

we pay for

Risk

voting

be steep.

votes

not

use

of our lives,

permanent

2016c).

way future

next

residence). people.

election

Other changes elections

election,

to

to the

are conducted

and allowing

and Indigenous

and Indigenous in the

convenient

2015

Peoples This

students to

vote

contributed

Elections other

accessible

Canada and

to

Canada

groups

that

Elections operated.

at

is

face Act (See

Online/E-voting Casting

a ballot

at a polling

over the Inter-net station,

from

a home computer, or on some other

electronic

device

202

Chapter 9

Box 9-2 Modernizing Elections Every so often, issues problems

that

of Canada, the

electoral

300

governments

or to

correct have

that

Inserting

revealed

relate

to

the

updating

Billis

which

New

consti-tutes

period

election

that

limits

and third in right

to

will start

to

vote for

during

parties

partisan

Canada

compel

to

including

making

an offence

Elections

the

and

power

giv-ing

to lay

testimony that

election

measures

50 days June

While the

30 in

an

that

sell

advertising

ads from

foreign

down

on the

crack

to interfere

changes

curtailing

challenge.

parties

of Canada

organizations

of computers

security, process

from

know-ingly

actors unauthorized

with computer

data

use

during

elec-tions

of vouching

of a federal

spending

the

and

accepting

Card,

enhance electoral

Commissioner

Prohibiting

the following:

to

with the

charges

more than

year

outside

provisions

interference

C-76 (Government

The

Identification

practice

a pre-writ

themselves Restoring

Bill

provisions

include

Voter

the length

Introducing

lived

in

emerg-ing

election

of identification

to the

Regulating

political

other

to address

2015

with digital technology.

the

Restricting

The

addressed

but changes

a piece

election

and

process

Reinstituting

Returning

been

2018d)

pages long

amend legislation problems.

the

pre-writ

and requiring

period

them

for

five

to iden-tify

citizens

They

who have

consecutive

are

is

no

welcomed,

may not

and

to

have

monitoring

critics

survive

concerns

used,

are required

but there

been

also

collected,

it,

Canadian

There

for

advertising

at least

have

advertising

about

the

disclosed

by

a privacy

point

personal

in-formation

political

policy

or oversight

out

a constitutional

and

par-ties. publish

by an independent

body.

years

The Timing of Elections The Constitution

decrees that the

cannot continue for

be called.

(and

provincial/territorial

leg-islatures)

morethan five years without holding a general election.

An exception is allowed in times The prime

House of Commons

minister recommends When the governing

of real or apprehended to the governor

war, invasion,

general

party loses the confidence

Commons (e.g., if the opposition

or insurrection.

when a Canadian election is to of a majority in the

parties pass a non-confidence

House of

motion or if a major piece

of government legislation, such as a budget, is defeated),the prime minister will askthe governor

general to

ask the governor

dissolve

Parliament

and call an election.

A prime

general to call an election at a time that the prime

In 2007,the procedure for calling national elections that elections be held on the third

Monday in

minister can also

minister chooses.1

was modified by legislation

October every four

requir-ing

years. Similar legisla-tion

existsin all provinces except Nova Scotia andtwo territories: Yukon and Nunavut. The adoption

of fixed election

date. However, the generals

dates has not prevented

power of the governor

discretion

was retained.

2009. However, on two

elections from

being held at an earlier

general to dissolve Parliament

The first election should

occasions, in 2008 and 2011, the

at the governor

have been held in

Harper government

October

approached

the governor general prematurely to dissolve Parliament and call an election. Whilesome flexibility should

is desirable in

a parliamentary

not agree to call an early election

system, some argue that the governor unless other options (such as the

general

willingness

of

other parties to form or support a different government) have beenconsidered.

Running for Office Candidates must have their nomination (50 in some remote

areas), appoint

papers signed by at least 100 eligible voters

an official

agent and auditor,

deposit of $1000. Realistically, an independent in an election

are remote,

party to run

asthe

so individuals partys

appears alongside the candidates

1 The governor

general

Member of Parliament

has the

to form

right

to

refuse

a government.

candidates

and pay a (refund-able)

chances of success

most often seek nomination

nominee in an electoral

district.

by a major po-litical

The party affiliation

name on the ballot.

the

prime

ministers

(See Chapter 13.

request

for

an election

and

can call

on another

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

Similarly,

a party

eligible

to contest

and it

must run

have a leader,

must

meet several

elections. at least

three

Its

criteria

application

one candidate

officers,

be recognized

as a registered

must be supported in

an auditor,

to

each

and

general

a chief

party

by 250 eligible

election.

In

203

voters,

addition,

it

must

agent.

Representationand the ElectoralSystem 9.2

Understand plurality

Canada

the principle

electoral

elects

of representation

and

Canadas

Members

of

Parliament

via

a single-member

election,

Trudeau but

electing

committed

electoral

reform

one representative

or riding).

who

of the

have

skewed

population

principle

about

3 of the

absolute

voter

legislatures,

parity.

community or

minus in

voter

Canadian

cities

boundaries

the country

into

Constitution

requires

changes

after the comprehensive to each

Constitution the

House than to the

number

As well, the

seats than dwindles

one seat each.

by population.

might

and territory

Legislation

Alberta

39 percent

in

from

Alberta

is almost and

receives

by increasing figures

Guarantees

it can

adopted

by population

and

be argued adequate

December

continued

to

2011 number

Columbia

population,

resulted

in

gained and

for

certain

each

2004).

308 to 338. in the

3. Quebecs

Using

House

of

representa-tion

British

example,

of the seats in the

Columbia,

Ontario,

with

House of Commons.

wasthe responsibility drawing

that

representation

from

For

provinces

(Courtney,

Ontario,

no

popula-tion

representation

it is important

members

Quebec

a sin-gle

The three territories

provincial

15

while

under-represented.

in gerrymanderingthe

to

mem-bers

only

will have

of equal

Parliament

closer

of population,

Until 1964,the design of electoral districts This frequently

system

the

seats in

elects four

a province

representation

of

However,

would justify

of representatives

has 36 percent

population

have fewer

Island

a federal

6 each,

of plus

The number

Edward

of the country.

in

contentious

to reflect

can

that

that

of popula-tion

200 000

principle

Ontario

of Parliament.

of boundaries

for

out by a three-member

for each province,

chaired

independent

by a judge,

boundary

with the other

readjustment

members chosen

Gerrymandering The

for governing

com-mission by the

Speaker of the House of Commons. Both the public and Members of Parliament have

drawing

partisan

parti-san

advantage, particularly to the advantage of the governing party (Courtney, 2004). It is now carried

most votes is

1994).

population.

of the

moved

with the

permit-ted

1984 and 1988, even if its

representation

to its share be slightly

minimum

that in

2011 census,

British

between of the rest

of

The can-didate

representative.

as geogra-phy,

Deviations

10 years.

to its

Prince

a violation

the total

the

proportionate

of Canadas

as that

be considered

However,

Commons,

as fast

period

such

and sometimes

no province

of less than

ruled

the reality

districts

Act, 1985 guarantees

1976, or in the

single

not guarantee

are therefore

every

proportion

As a result,

population

Representation

it had in

and each territory

population

its

which

the

representation

areas (Johnson,

a complex

that

did

2013).

of electoral

in

limitations,

factors

populations

is

by specifying

of senators.

or does not grow

are guaranteed

province

is generally

principle

House, even though

member. fewer

its

districts

system in

elect a

vote, is elected.

Court

vote)

effective

(MacIvor,

census that is conducted

province

modifies this

to

accommodate

northern

readjustments

An electoral

voters in each district

principle

of these

to accommodate

and

2019

SMP involves

of the

on the

was to ensure

legislation

electoral

The

part,

right

constituency

in rural

the

as a constituency

The Supreme

(the

to

Single-Member Plurality System (SMP)

elected, regardless of whether of repre-sentation that candidate received the mean that each electoral district majority of votes. given Canadas geography and

but

interest

average

and sparsity

process.

seats allocated

purpose

electoral

for

Liberals. known

In recognition

is justifiable

in time

majority

in

would

Freedoms

community

the

electoral

in

Dividing

and

from

not a

people,

difficult.

and

as its

parity

history,

25 percent

density

is

the

(also

has been embraced.

of Rights

Instead,

relative

this

of

for

is based,

speaking,

system

district

most votes,

number

representation

Charter

a priority

of Commons

this

current

electoral

wins the

distribution,

of effective

Section

same

the

no longer

Strictly

the

changing

each

House

by population. should

is from

The candidate

Composition

to

plurality

system. During the 2015 elec-tion,Electoral

system (SMP), also referred to as the first-past-the-post Justin

single-member

system.

of boundaries

advantage, the

advantage party

for

particu-larly of the

204

Chapter 9

an opportunity However,

to voice their

the

opinion

commission

Each commission

to

also have to take into

account

of interest.

exceptional

In

the

large

these

average

electoral

cultural

of

characteristics

about

one-third

In 2003, the because of the

of the

average

separated

of

of plus

Newfoundlands

six

or

(Thomas,

communities

minus

25 percent very

terms

of less than

seats in

Loewen,

the

and in

not protect

each

above, they

of

26 000,

other electoral

of federal did

so that

For example,

geographically

commission

communities

based

has a population

a redistribution

readjustment

francophone

districts.

mentioned

are permitted.

province)

population

overturned

electoral

districts

As

deviations

is

of the

of electoral

and territorially

district

(which

the rest

to the

of residents.

communities

an electoral

Labrador

Court

boundaries

number

circumstances,

in

N.B. boundary

provinces

the same

changes

decision.

to draw the

existing

from

Federal

the

having

population district

proposed

makes the final

is expected

is as close as possible

from

about

districts.

New Brunswick

the representation

& MacKenzie,

2013).

The Electoral System An electoral

Ballot

Structure

governs.

The waythe ballot is orga-nized, requiring one candidates

ranking

is the electoral

formula,

assign

an electoral

or a

seats in

The

way voters

structured

(i.e.,

seats

candidates

in

to a constituency.

voters

Electoral

Holland,

Formula

The process are tallied

by which votes

Countries

The third

and used to assign

which

that

winner.

have

rules

for

party that

A governing majority

party of seats

of Commons, whether of votes

that in the

regardless

it received in

an

election.

a

receives

has a House

different

of majority

of seats) even

yet emerged majority Party

made, some

most votes

the

The

of the

121 seats,

vote the

46.4

percent

Liberal

must rank

up

a plurality

of the elections

of votes

Liberal

to

majority

of seats.

of seats in the 2015 election party

that

receives

received which Party

the

the

greatest 35.5

won

Conservatives,

the

Despite

the

votes that body.

For example,

40 percent

the

Conservative

not

popular vote.

other

Liberals formed

the

vote,

propor-tion

votes

Party

cast won a

Liberal

votes. most seats.

(See Table 9-1.)

34.4 percent,

With only

party,

nearly

the

in the 1993,

votes cast, and the

does

are cast

Typically,

of the

win the

any

leg-Majority

(i.e., one with a major-ity

of this phenomenon.

receiving

to

depend-ing

provincial

most votes

more seats than

House.

and,

of seats than

of the

of the

either

has provoked considerable

parties.

of the total

of the process

2005).

of the

share

percent

seats:

based on 39.5 percent

most recent example

equals

the

and

a legislative

Likewise,

coun-tries

are disadvantaged.

translate

about

based on 39.6 percent

in

(ACE,

Commons

proportion

only

between.

on how a win-ner/winners

in ajurisdiction,

in

went to other

in

allocate

others

and

end (ACE,

or a majority

minorities

while

House of

Party received

other

representation,

of

benefit

a district.

and straightforward

formulas

with alarger

to

out the rules

proportional

each party receives

majority

the

of seats in the

votes fewer than the

are at the

electoral system (SMP),

ends

provides the

Conservatives

won only

is

a cat-egorical

whereas Israel

fall somewhere

representation

groups

assigned

This can result in a majority government

with a comfortable

Occasionally,

district,

SMP does not accurately

of seats in the 2011 election

The 2019 election

seats

receives

utilizes

members to the

plurality

when the

won a majority

ballot

with its

voters

districts,

This is simple

mathematical

the representation

1997, and 2000 elections,

systems,

other

which spells

whoever

or guaranteed

for change.

the

and used to

how the

In

constituencies

which

of electing

of the vote it received.

Government

to

SMP system

electoral

formula,

districts:

are

proposals

according

of legislative

is a single

dictate the outcome

that

method

each party into

who

preferences); second

Canadas

with single-member

will be determined.

islatures, the single-member and

number

multi-member

balance

choices

Canadas

criticism

to the

is the electoral

employing

These ground on the

varies In

one candidate.

For any system

rural/urban

on

2005).

option).

spectrum,

country

a district

more complex

ensure

only

use single-member

votes is the is

of the

component in

seats

effect

preferences.

refers

where the entire

2012b).

have a profound

which votes are counted

with choices

or ordinal

of their

magnitude

process by

(ACE,

presented

vote for

Canada is at one end

that

(i.e., how voters express their

system

are

order

District

components

which is the

a categorical

choice,

of legislative

defining

which refers to the number of seats in riding; and finally there

name

Magnitude

allocated

magnitude,

an X beside

to a voter.

The number

has three

The first is ballot structure

is district

of choices available

District

system

but

33.1 percent

157 seats, represent-ing a quarter

a minority

of a

government

million

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

205

Table 9-1 TheImpact ofthe SMPElectoralSystem,2019Canadian Election Party

Vote

Liberal Conservative New

Democratic

Party

%

Seats

%

33.1

46.4

34.4

35.8

15.9

7.1

Bloc

7.7

9.5

Green

6.5

0.9

Independent

0.4

0.3

Peoples

Party

Other SOURCE:

Based

SMP spread the

on

preliminary

discriminates

relatively

New

than

votes in

3 seats,

but it received

out in spite

occurred

in the

1980 federal

Saskatchewan,

Alberta,

also tends

seats in the three

westernmost

prolonged

over

battles

most. The conflict by the federal

party, the

Western Canada

win a single

seat; in

Peoples

to exaggerate

Despite

when the region

in

of

is

1961,

House

of

With almost

a

2019, the

the regional

receiving the

over

Liberals

and energy

1980

party

Canada

won

was shut

at a time

22 percent

vacuum which

none

vote in

shut

out of

coincided

with

affected

of these

them

provinces

the strongest

of a candidate by-election

has no voice in cabinet

of the

the

National Energy Program (NEP)

NEP spawned

a provincial

of political

were completely

when

The

character

distorts election results

prices,

of the

and led to the victory

Concept, in

support

2011.

Party

This representational

issues

October

whose founding

of seats in the except

Regional grievances are magnified and the legitimacy questioned

its

election

in the imposition

history

proportion

The

House of Commons.

Albertas

those since

way the electoral system

provinces.

in

28).

vote.

Columbia,

constitutional

in the

movement in

British

culminated

government

any representation

of the

election.

and

to

vote.

October

example,

a smaller

of the

(2019,

particularly

For

vote in every

of the

1.6 percent

Canada

parties,

Party failed

6.5 percent

system

0

country.

of the

A momentous example

0

0.4 Elections

has received

Green

of receiving

The SMP electoral

parties.

the

proportion

2008, the

by

smaller

across

Party

its

reported

against

evenly

Democratic

Commons million

results

1.6

from

had

separat-ist

a separatist

in 1982 (Dyck,

1996).

of the national government is

or the floor

of the

House. The elec-toral

system provides perverse incentives to parties that have a strong basein a par-ticular region to exploit written

off (Cairns,

divisions for political

gain. Areas where a party is

1968), while areas where it is strong

weak may be

might be taken for

granted.

Voter preferences are reflected very poorly by SMP, producing a legislature that is dominated

by traditional

parties and freezing

out

most smaller

parties.

Given the

deficiencies of SMP, one may well ask why wehave clung to it for so long. Supporters point

out that

accountable

it is simple,

governments.

systems and its

familiar,

and

Accountability

efficient

doors. Although

many Canadians are unhappy

have proportional systems,

a single

representation party rarely

with coalition

Canadians

usually

enough

know the results

and

of SMP elec-toral

partners

behind

closed

withthe status quo, voters in countries

(PR) systems receives

stable

2017). SMP delivers account-ability

have issues too. In such votes to form

and negotiations among parties might drag on for is formed.

produces

is perhaps the greatest strength

most cherished principle (Dutil,

because there is no need to compromise that

and that it

a majority

multi-partyProportional govern-ment,Representation

months before a government

of the election

before they

go to bed!

An electoral the

proportion

Whetherthese strengths outweigh the weaknessesis a matter of opinion. In addi-tionreceives to producing than

a majority

false of the

majorities (when popular

vote),

a party receives a system

in each district reduces the chance of electing hail from traditionally

under-represented

groups.

that the historic numbers of women,Indigenous

a majority

where only

of seats

one candidate

with less is elected

MPs with diverse viewpoints Supporters

or who

of SMP have countered

people, and Muslims elected in 2015

reflects the

System

system in of seats

in the legislative the

party

proportion

obtained

which a party body of votes

206

Chapter 9

demonstrate

that

the

current

more representative

system

Parliament

does

(Dutil,

not

necessarily

preclude

the

election

of a

2017).

Reforming the Electoral System 9.3

Assess the benefits

Dissatisfaction reform and

of other electoral

with the single-member

in five

provinces.

British

Quebec all embarked

borne fruit,

but the

and

supporters

among

the issue.

(For

and exacerbate a case for

when looking

seats

system,

party

despite

runs

as

with

representing systems,

There

Closed

List PR System

An electoral voters

system

must

ranking ballot

in

accept

the

of candidates

which partys

adopted,

list.

In

voters the

which

them

do not have to accept

ordering

presented rank

system in

them

party

of the

played

a system,

but can

in any order they

of an open list so it

choose.

system

Countries always feature

groups

the

system,

and,

in

Unlike

SMP,

so pro-portional

party

vote

higher in

of representa-tives with

to

chance

and

of the

systems

each

rep-resentation

each riding,

votes received

more choices

a representative

of trans-lating

representa-tion

number

multi-party

election,

or win-ners

A proportional

30 percent

have a better

for

no perfect produces

to be somewhat

toward

providing

of candidates

parties

voters.

In

PR

of being

elected.

will likely

find

it

that

is

set of candidates.

depending

parties is enhanced

on the

version

or diminished.

In

a closed

system voters must vote for the party, which is then percentage

candidates on the

partys

ranking

parties

groups

has a negative

receives

but

of the

votes

district

listed

from

ballot

is crucial

it receives

and the

that

party

party and

in

an electoral

receives

50 percent

will be declared

gives

parties

dis-trict

winners.

a great

deal of

An open list system offers voters a degree of choice by allow-ing

give

under-represented

thus

are six seats in the

three

the

list

vote counts

PR list

to the

positioning

to ignore

every

is

1).

is,

produces.

between

tends

divide

there

of a proportional

district.

that

that

does a poor job

are seats in that

Voter turnout

presents

it

disparity

in this

would

there

elected

the

Island

will revisit The Liberals

and each

member

seats.

by political

according

one

a party

minority

that its list

2005). If there

While a closed

of candidates by the

such

of

representation

vote, the first

that

that

system.

use PR are generally

up a list

control over candidates.

Open List PR System An electoral

members

are variations

(ACE, of the

reduce

believe

it

version

proportional

as there

that

Many

accountability

has

News, 2018, February

weaknesses,

some

Edward

have lost interest

(CBC

SMP is that

more than

and interests,

draws

to ensure

seats

favour

has

because

views

and

the role

awarded

on its

and

of the

Countries

party

list proportional

the stability

by ensuring

PR systems,

advantageous

about

systems

30 percent

women

Because each

complaint

None

Liberals

representation

be stressed

and

Prince

in

Island,

2003.

www.fairvote.ca.)

Canadians

system?

mixed-member

(PR)

diverse

at

in the electorate

it should

and

Edward

in

the federal

proportional

electoral

many candidates

gains.

Canada

that

has strengths

system

obtained

will have roughly

a party

our

reform

the

electoral

seats

countries

differences

alternatives,

representation legislative

Vote

Fair

of interest

Prince

systems

Columbia

visit

small

advocating

(PR)

electoral

British

a flurry

Ontario,

who are hoping

maintained

Each

particularly

their

because, in their judgment,

The perennial

votes into

had triggered

country

changing

system.

Many of those

to reform

also

at possible

electoral

and losers.

each

reform

minister

system

New Brunswick,

is alive in

across the

electoral

Is there

neutral

on initiatives

quest for reform

matter. The prime Canadians

plurality

Columbia,

more information,

have shelved

systems.

by

is that

effect

and

a great placing

their

candidates

on party

choose

deal

candidates

of power,

in the

order

they

it also enables

them

to

candidates within

a party

on the list.

are competing

The downside with each

other,

solidarity.

with PR systems (such as Sweden, the governments

high

prefer. promote

based on a coalition

Netherlands,

and Spain) almost

of parties, asit is unusual for one party

to win a majority of votes when a number of competitive parties compete in an election.2 Canadas produce

2

Most countries

representation

SMP

system

coalition

with

PR (or

creates

an artificial

governments

MMP)

systems

that

set

a

require

minimum

majority two

percentage

or

for

one

party,

more parties

that

a party

but

PR sys-tems

to share

must

obtain

power

to

receive

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

to

deliver

stable

and

disproportionate

power

parties

representing

political

landscape

altered

beyond this

effective

wielded

regional (Dutil,

with

parties

and

Zealand, one for

and

the

party

district

are elected,

so as to

make the

votes

advocated

Preferential and ranked

they

but

by the

by each

New

potential

for

a permanent

of coalition

that

ballots:

that

Mixed-Member Propor-tional System (MMP)

on the might

they

be

coun-tries, An electoral

made. In some

have realized

need to

voters

for example, in

one for the

on their

candidate

Germany,

they

most votes in their position

on their

of the

parties

in the legislature

party

in the

election.3

In

electoral

partys

list)

this

one

they

the

Some

prefer

reasonably

Canada,

for

system

cast

party

who get the

Democratic

voters

multiple

place

partners

must be

as the

coalition.

(based

or the alternative involves

and the

to find

parties

Candidates

are selected

received

PR, such

system (MMP)used,

representation

voting, ballots,

others,

cast two

prefer.

others

overall

to the has been

proportional

with

platforms

a stable

Scotlandvoters

problems

parties

compromises in

to form

are

interests

The original

in instability;

other

marginal

due to the

In a mixed-member New

by

There

and sectional 2017).

recognition

has resulted

cooperate

government.

207

prefer

the

most votes, are

pro-portional

on the

the

they

received

while

other

selected

proportion

system

vote

prefer.

represent

which

legislators

the one

they

legislators in

which

for

and

candidate

district

in

vote

based

of votes

by their

re-ceived

party.

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vote (AV), also known

ranking

candidates

in

as instant

order

runoff

of preference.

vot-ing, Preferential If

no

Voting

An electoral voters

system in

rank

of preference. receives

which

candidates

of first

the second

prefer-ences

of the candidate the least votes

votes

of the

The process

order

If no candidate

a majority

preferences,

in

with

are added to the

other

candidates.

continues

one candidate

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has a majority.

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Stock

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in

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they

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referendums. system

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plebiscite

held in

of 52 percent

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2016, Islanders PEI,

2016).

chose

a

of

MMP for their

mixed-member

provincial

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would

elec-tions repre-sentative

in.

like

to

be the

for the

member

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208

Chapter 9

candidate

receives

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in the

transferrable for

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for

mark their

a number

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of candidates district

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to

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all the seats in the

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election,

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to

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2016c).

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a 2011 referendum.

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on

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Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

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14).

rallies.

are

are still

attention

crisscrossing

only five

gov-ernment

with the

and services,

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Harper

2014, January

draw

major campaign

organize

designing

and

adver-tising

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programs

leaders

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coterie

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Action

government

2012).4

Harper

past.

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were in the

program

posing

use of government

Economic

government in

to

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party. its

about

oriented, and

Stephen

campaigns

they

cited

scripted

2011 and 2015 campaigns, and

after the

to tout

kissing

extensive

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information

(Rose

the

to advertise

years

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as possible,

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exten-sive used in

particu-larly

by supporters. Liberal

Party leader

Trudeau during

the 2015 federal

campaign.

4 The 2015 Liberal platform included a promise to appoint an advertising commissioner to help the auditor general oversee government advertising and ensure that it is non-partisan. The government has reformed its policy on fed-eral government the

measures

advertising, fall

short

including

of appointing

a ban

on government

a commissioner

(CBC

advertising News,

2016,

for

three

May 12)

months

prior

to

an election,

but

Justin

greets supporters election

209

210

Chapter 9

Volunteers

assist in the campaign,

supporters

by phone

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their

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to

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of their

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to vote.

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signs

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Box 9-3: Fake

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Box 9-3 Fake News: An Existential Threatto Democracy? At first

blush, seem

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claims

to

are

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accusations

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election,

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countries.

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democratic

debates

tedium

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networks.

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scripts,

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views.

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results

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entire

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outcomes

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debates

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audiences,

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news

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elections,

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pitched

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length

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in the twenty-first

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an election

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than

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cover-age attention

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who is lead-ing informed campaig

211

212

Chapter 9

garner

a disproportionate the

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was

director: In

for

to

that

government news

change,

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military

decay

in

the

media

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strict

supporters

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other

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parties

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become

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technology. of the imagina-tive

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volunteers

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of voters

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to speak freely

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voters

public

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to

have

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social

to convey

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is

street.

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attitudes

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to engage

especially

portals

success in the

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views out-side

media have the

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media asjust

among

another conduit

for

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media in limited

ways, but they

have become a vital

users of various platforms. As a result of the multiplicity of

an election, each voter can experience

preferences (Francoli,

a different

campaign

and

Greenberg, & Waddell, 2016). There has been a move

media outlets to display content on different social and mobile platforms, during election campaigns.

During the 2015 campaign,

platform for election content through its partnership Facebooks

with some

campaign,

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workers in

national

an important

to voters (Francoli,

may use social

media

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(including

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parties,

campaign.

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issues

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part ofthe lives of individual

well.

election

to be largely

potential

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but parties and candidates

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potential to reduce the ability of politicians and the conventional the issue

2011).

specifically

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the scripted

thousands

have

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use of new communications

by the

features

electronic

potentially, blogs

of the

broadcast

as

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campaigns.

the risk

from

has the

be impossible

climate

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2008

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and recruit

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and hold

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discussion

Waddell,

parties.

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of

media

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parties

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and

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advertisements

media such as Facebook, effect

campaign

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their

website,

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on

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on their

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pooping

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was achieved

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clients,

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continued

hopes

but there

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of 300 000

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by companies

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use of algorithms, information

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campaign

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were great

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affiliate

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2016).

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practices

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CTV are also

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on

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has been

described

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corporations

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credit

for

dona-tions

of $400).

an electoral

party,

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ones, tax

donations

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financing or

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of corporate

contributions.

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of $200

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donations

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have been banned since 2007, requiring

donations

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maxi-mum

entities

of

candidates)

213

214

Chapter 9

candidates

for

the leadership

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by corporations,

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than

candidates,

advertising,

(CEO)

action

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be spent

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mainly to the length

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and

parties receive

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of valid

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limits for

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annual beginning

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leadership

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own

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candi-dates

campaign. of

votes

received

in

the

previous

election

was

phased

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

Thus,

the large

rewarded

parties

that

with the largest

spend

the

rebates,

most

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money

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on their

election

be used in the

campaign

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next election.

Voting Behaviour 9.5

Discuss

what

Unravelling

the

is of interest leader,

motivates

motivation

that

insights

into

the long-term

choices

that

voters

party

or the

as leaders,

toward

voter?

it espouses?

social

more enduring

that

are

provides

underlie

the

political

values,

mediated

party

or long-term

The literature

that

might

or candidate

party, the

of a party

characteristics,

elements

and issues

party

Is it the

platform

considerations

include

candidates,

a particular groups.

Is it the

values

and short-term

these

choices.

and interest

the

make, and these

However, such

electoral

voters

parties,

attracts

to a particular

identification.

propels

political

candidate

allegiance

concerns

that

to scholars,

or the

voters in their

and

party

by short-term

dominate

a campaign.

Long-Term Influences on Voting Behaviour SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS might

have

assume

similar

that

that salience;

enter in

is

is

little

for

been

have strong 2011

election,

the

suburban There

past, the

support

difficulty

(Fournier,

them

Culter,

Party

found

New

Democrats

Nevitte,

strong tend

Blais,

Canadian the spectrum traditionalists

politics

to

has expanded and

social In the

minorities

dimension

(i.e.,

social

great

charac-teristics

rural/urban

between

social

cleavages,

region).

the

Grievances

in

those grievancesdissatisfaction of the

Canada

electoral

since

system.

the

Although

also

have

1950s

the

The result

and,

generally,

Atlantic

not rejected

Liberals 905

provinces

Canadas

two

among

(Roy,

have focused

the

Perrella,

vote

the

years, the religious Christian

a

religious

2015,

palette

voters

in 2011

and

The

(Gidengil,

of religion

in

More recently, between

allegiances has grown

In

decline in

Christians.

conflict

community

dif-ferent

Conservative

divide.

of faith

p. 123).

over time.

the

discussion

in and

from

disappeared

religious

to examine range

Toronto

voters

evangelical

ProtestantCatholic

researchers across

among

elections,

than

cities. some

has been a steady

and rather

around

Catholics

of

are not found

has decreased

among

Historically,

large

suburban,

& Borden,

choice

but there

lead

exception

Canadas

area

of religion

secular

on the

and requires

past few

in

Conservatives

Conservatives

2013). In recent

2012).

in

The with the

to include

suburban

fundamentalists

& Fournier,

vote. but,

seats

and

Catholics, Liberal

& Blanger,

among

within

many

salience

by

their

towns,

be expanded

province

but the

progressives

affects

and small

differences

do better

would

non-believers). ethno-cultural

the

Stolle,

Everitt,

has

the

relationship

they

in

between

2000, and the

support

the

region,

to

vari-ables

and education.

nature

but in the famed

Soroka,

mistake

numerous

religion

and linguistic

winning

were favoured since

booth:

Quebec.

may need to

denominations, Liberals

from

live areas

been long-standing

religious the

had

areas throughout

have

countries,

religious,

Confederation,

many rural

areas,

be a

are

is a complex

western in

would

there

2011).

dichotomy

or rural

by the in

people

because battlegrounds

urban

other

in have

The ruralurban

argue,

within

of community support

age,

parties to reflect

parties

parties (Bickerton,

The type

polling

an added

Liberals

Conservative

some

characteristics

We will examine

the

to ethnic,

exaggerated the

it

because

In

means there

political

marginalized

traditional

the

for

in

demographic

However,

issue,

gender,

addition

contributes

and

support

support

have

In

country

highlighted

class,

population

voting.

politics.

more significant. voters

social

certain

calculus.

class is

Canada spawned

weaker

in

share

on a single

Canadian

diverse

of the

western

social

and

at stake focus

ethnicity,

Canadas

who

decision-making

influence

characteristics

that

the

religion,

vastness

would

others,

that divide,

interests

voters

People

(and

moral argu-ably

to encompass non-Christia

215

216

Chapter 9

religious

minorities.

in future

elections

Liberals 2010;

Blais,

2005),

have

vote in

shifted

their

Class voting

voted

for

voting

New has

the

overall

doing

2011).

Public

more likely in the

The

Party

younger

strongest

support

favoured

the

New

from

aged

Many 2015,

Support

for

those

VALUES values

people

support

that

Party;

New

men

women

was no gender

or

differ-ence

Democratic

Party

more of their

sup-port

declined,

Education

is

those

more likely

to

and voting

role for

ties

the

voting

party, regarding

choices

politics

Most voters it

as their

Liberals,

to the

Liberal

(Coletto,

2016).

proportion

preference.

In

2015,

or less,

education.

New

the

while the Those

Democratic

with

Party

choices are influenced speaking,

than

those in the

by a voters

who favour economy,

a free

and

hold

views on gender roles and opposition United

Liberal

Party.

Conservative

voters

States and less favourable

and

New

Democratic

role for government, of

Quebecers.

to

Party vot-ers

are less enamoured

of

party

Support

for the

with opposition

to

Bloc and the moral tradi-tionalism

government role in the economy (Gidengil is often

choices voters makeare related to basic political IDENTIFICATION

Party

education

the

Quebec is also associated

Canadian

the

per-cent

on moralissues. The question of sovereignty

and support for a substantial Although

vote

Conservative

distinctiveness.

Party in

percent

for

37.1

as a significant

government

with the

with a larger

large in the

24.4 percent

victory

university

vote for

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will vote for

35.9

people

2015).

market, and are moreliberal

New Democratic

to

with

draw their

of young

Liberals,

Liberal

who had a high school among

to

Party. In contrast,

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seniors

related

tend

Green Party (Ekospolitics.com,

among

of closer

comfortable

for the Green

New

also

draw

a quarter

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values (e.g., traditional

are usually

the

the

also

to

less than

to the

a limited

marriage)

be supportive

the

from

Preferences

Quebecs

political

was quite & Pammett,

2015 found

Conservatives

Party, 3 percent the

preferences.

accommodating

PARTY

women

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in

Alliance

2011 election,

LeDuc

men.

percent

for

(Ekospolitics.com,

AND BELIEFS

et al., 2012).

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day in

contribution

were

and ideological

has loomed

and

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Party tend

to 34.1 percent

switched

lead

education

socially conservative

the free

have

differences

2011;

Liberal

better

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the

while the

supported

among those

education

market system,

would

vote

2015 election,

10.1

a significant

Liberals.

led

to same-sex

In the

compared

a substantial

with less

voters,

and

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had

Democratic

65 and older

making

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than

to

older

New Democratic

to the

Liberals

Party

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seniors.

Party,

young

Party in

switched

than

Conservatives,

18.2 percent the 2015).

and the

rather

Democratic

of those

Green

does

members

gender

men and

election

Bloc

Quebec.

class-based

union

women. of

the

in

Party

their

& Fournier,

vote for

or leaning

of

Liberals

then

change

although

are also

patterns

the

of

2015).

Green

from

the

decided

level,

men than

before to

this

much

French-Quebecers

Democratic

majority

& Kanji, following

for

1984

Conservatives

New

behav-iour

regained

Support

from

there

Stolle, just

area.

particularly

voting

women

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on voting

community

but since

a

among

conducted

the

national

The

extent,

the

than

vote for

proportion

(Ekospolitics.com,

at the

Cutler,

this

benefitted

(and

better

between

polls

to

strong

into

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have

To a limited

more likely

(Bilodeau

Toronto

nevertheless,

(Soroka,

opinion

were slightly

The

Conservatives

gap

or insignificant

2017).

ancestry

a century,

Columbia.

somewhat

gender

small

greater

Party

been

parties. the

& Thomas,

However,

over

parties.

British

other

predecessors)

were

never

non-members;

with

in the

other

than

choice,

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of non-European

voters.

Democratic

in

an impact

made inroads

was high for

discernible

union

of voters

woo those

votes to

voting

is

among

the

to

will have

to be seen (Rayside,

2015, especially

and the

developments

Conservatives

French-Canadians

Qubcois

the

but the

campaign

ethnic

among

remains

used to be the choice

a sustained the

Whether these

have

described

as non-ideological,

the

values and beliefs.

a sense

regardless

of attachment of

whether

they

to

a particular are

members

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

participate

in

partisan stick

partisan

activity,

attachments with their

or an adverse election,

in

party

or even

Canada

through

reaction

lack

the

thick

image

parents

particular

to children.

drives

party

Many

as reflecting

voters

party

Those if they

attractive.

Nevertheless,

Over identify

with This

of the

any

party

grouping

a dramatic

parties.

Conservative

Compared

Commons,

Americans, parties

volatility

at 51

New

illustrates

that

fortune

of the third-place

young and

voters

who contributed in the

Despite

volatility,

over time,

this

even though

are still

to the

the

some

party

particularly

events

can

Until in

strong

have important

the

early

terms

of

Conservative

2000s,

party

the

victory

Party identification

of Liberal

identifiers

identification

also increased,

With their

decisive

declining

victory

2015,

the

among House

United

States,

2004).

and lost

The fact 51 in

2015

was the change

New

in

Many of the

Democratic

Party

had the

campaigns

lead

as a whole

and other

compared of

2006 to

from

2008

2011.

to

Party

politi-cal

to

other

Canadians

New

to

Party

et al.,

have

a

propor-tion

Democratic

2011 (Fournier appears

par-ties with

2004 to 2011, while the

from

Liberal

persist

outcomes

proportion

from

to

or stop identify-ing

Canadian electorate

political

the

tends

allegiance

and election

Party

particularly in

in the

& Studlar,

their

in the

However,

sharply

to the coun-trys

rate in the

of an individual

rose steadily

dropped

loyalty

return

had voted

exam-ple

1993.

2016).

on voters

Liberal

was a stunning

slower

In vot-ers

Progressive

when it gained 148 seats.

to change,

identification.

et al.,

Canadian

the

more stunning

identification

effects

of

before

In fact,

do, in fact, switch

and is subject

This

long

(Matland

with any party.8 Because party identification is not

(Gidengil

of an election.

by 66 seats in 2011

(Coletto,

voters

do not

Canada is an outlier

Liberal

more identi-fication.

as they

1974).

Party in 2015,

2011 election

of two.

Perhaps

political

not

do not

156 seats,

the incumbency

high.

party

strong

caucus

is

even if they

outcome

with

is

of attachment

2012).

42 percent

Turnover

A sense particular

vote for

do not display

85 percent

their

Liberal

Conservative

Party Identification

with a

party

a strong

identification

apparent

lowest.

rate is

rates

2015 et al.

not always another

have

on the

a caucus

electorate:

is the

party

government

Canadians

increased

turnover

In the

Canada

non-partisan,

unprecedented

to

will

identification

effect

(Sniderman,

return

Democrats

voters

on issues

identify

in

find

(Gidengil,

weak

had been

of its

percent,

where the incumbency the

that

party

party

election

a

an

was reduced

political

in the

that

(Clarke

as voters

or if they

be considered

only

majority

in elections

to the

oldest

25 countries

that

a

government

of the turnover

two

From

that

party.

outcome

identification

who do not

their

can

1993,

party

voters

an important

in

their

to the

a particular

retain

or report

election

but

in each

have

from

ensure

performance

over time

positions

case for

electorate

can

federal

switched

of

with

with its issue

identification

one-third

away

noted

values.

many voters

with that

has been to

poor

difference

may develop

who identify

the

It

starts at an early age and maybetransmitted

it

a party,

disagree

time.

and strength

voters

with

This is especially

vote in line

2012).

their

do identify

straightforward. their

For others,

all the

Perceived

made a decisive

2016). For some, this party identification from

it

durability

and thin.

to the leader

the leaders

vote for

2013).

reversed

its

fortunes.

Short-Term Influences on Voting Behaviour Campaigns is

matter. Asthe discussion

volatile, Thus,

campaign, Democratic

8 Because

the

proportion

and

many

the leaders

can

nature

and

be significant

Party

leader

of party

voters

candidates factors

Jack

competition

of the electorate identifies

on partisan identification decide

in

to

voter

differs

with different

between

political

the

during

and the

choices.

popularity

demonstrates,

vote for

themselves,

Laytons

often

whom

During and

national

issues the

and

the elec-torate

election

raised

cam-paign.

during

a

2011 campaign,

New

on health

the

his stand

level

the

the

parties in the two political

provincial

arenas.

level,

care,

a substan-tial

to a

party

217

218

Chapter 9

environment, from

and

15 percent

dropped

from

moved into generally

to

43 percent to third

first

place

parties similar, their

voters

by the

was opposed

(Johnston, with

it.

scandal

in the

2006 elections

are the the

can

centrepiece

party

leaders

are

2010;

Gidengil

popular

leader

will

Nevertheless,

the

For example,

Jack

Unlike

for

Justin

major increase the

her or his party. as to

most serious

With so

whether

affect

& Pammett,

the

Gidengil,

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an unknown campaign.

their

The strong prompted

leaders

Liberal

to

for

via the

candidate,

vote. effect.

to the

support

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reflected,

(Clarke

election

in

et

contrib-uted

the

election found

found

in their that

the

district

and

effort the

their

the

that

local

(Clarke, for

of Canadian

parties

vote

running

there is some

that

preference

of 5 percent

about

riding

considerable

one study

study

Canadians

their

at party leaders,

party can get elected unpopular,

desire to dethrone the Conservative of groups to counsel

voters

were advised

can-didates

LeDuc, local

can-didate

voters, leaders

inde-pendent (Blais,

without

bothering

to

as was the case for the

MPsand candidates cannot

on the left

government in the 2015 elec-tion,

voters to

vote strategically.

vote for the person

even if that individual

vote-splitting

particularly

most

partys

contributed

president,

Despite

of the

choice

their candidate

directed

campaigning,

feelings

that

2015

vote

with the

have a significant

in the

of

on the

party

Michael Ignatieff

image

they

support.

matter.

in the

influence

Liberal

leader,

because

decline.

a number

determine

support

evaluations

most likely

which candidate in

72

would enable the was most likely

Conservative-held

In

other

to defeat the

wastheir second choice. The con-cern Harper

Conservatives

re-elected. This wasthe goal of groups such as Leadnow. The organization polling

almost

an election;

Party

that

the

can

drop in

positive

directly

for a popular

Conservative candidate wasthat

Conservatives,

especially

2011 election

sharp

when a party is suddenly

partys

words, left-leaning

their

although

increase

Progressive Conservatives, in 1993, even very popular withstand

shared

Nevitte, & Nadeau, 2003). In some unusual circumstances,

candidate Likewise,

vote

Another

of their

that

can affect

fortunes,

or even

partys

Party

battles

factor

effects

of the

outcome

1979).

was a decisive of the

while the

minister

put into

Agreement.

well informed,

Progressive

in

through

Agreement

were

party

mean that

party

much attention

local

candidates

scarcely Jenson,

prime

the

are

as a single-issue

controversial

short-term

not

in the

Trudeaus

who

a potential

issues

Trade

not surprising

election

of the

Liberal

Americans,

for

question

in

on party

does

rating

negative rating

Undoubtedly,

indirectly

ratings

vote,

Free

decline

most important This

win the

increased

positions

et al., 2012).

the

positive

the

it is regarded

corruption

substantial

effect

et al., 2012).

Laytons

and candidates

Agreement,

like

was the

since the leading

because

Voters

The the

It is, therefore,

necessarily

in part, the strongly to the

(Gidengil

comparative

Partys

al., 2011).

to the

a decisive

generally

1992).

issues

leaders,

the

Party.

signed

Short-term

contributed

have

Crte, vote,

of a campaign.

(Bittner,

Democratic

&

percent,

up at nearly

on important

for

Party

25.9

support

ended

States

votes

Quebec

Democratic with

However,

in that

government,

in

2015).

and

views

Democratic

cast their

of the

the sponsorship 2004 and

and

Brady,

opposed

positions

CanadaUnited

New

stood,

Blais,

Party leaders

and

percent

of voters

the

and

2008).

their

New

parties,

was exceptional

Conservative

Liberals

43

their

party

began

(Grenier,

of the

his

Conservative

polls

(Pammett,

couch

being

parties

position

began

positions

expressing

Progressive

the

re-elected 60 percent

issue

by the

where

campaign

way they

who

support.

opinion

decisions

for

2015, the

Liberals,

public

The 1988 election

the

the

at 39.5 percent

may have trouble

campaign,

support

et al., 2013). In

to

when the

in the

choice.

Negotiated

ended

voting

increased

while

it is the issue

most to their

voting

knew

as

say that

are cautious

(Fournier

according

of support

matter

taxes

place,

and

steady,

Many voters that

corporate

first

quite

same level

higher

swing

to

defeat the districts.

to be

did local

Conservative

Canvassers

an

Elections, the Electoral System, and Voting Behaviour

the

media carried the

messageto

voters.

Over 90 000 persons pledged to

219

vote

strategically. It is difficult

to establish the success of groups like

were overtaken candidates

by the surge of support

recommended

by them

for the

Leadnow

Liberal

because their

efforts

Party. The group claimed

won in 24 of 29 ridings

but this is difficult

that

to prove.

A Forum poll conducted a few days after the election found that 32 percent of voters wanted a change.

New

percent) said they News, 2015,

Democrats in British

were voting

October 23).

Columbia

strategically,

according

However, it is not clear

or at the behest of groups like

Leadnow.

had been encouraged to vote for the

(44

percent)

and

to an Insights

whether this

Many seats for

Alberta (40

West poll (CBC

was a personal which strategic

New Democratic Party candidate

deci-sion voters

went to the

Liberals.

Summary and Conclusion Canadian citizens

who are at least 18 years old have the right

to vote and to run for office, but the single-member

Media coverage

plurality

(SMP) electoral system causes considerable concern.

but the

Despite

of election campaigns

mediascape

many

more

has changed,

has also become fragmented

platforms

available

to

voters.

with

Although

being simple and efficient and providing a connection be-tween elections are often considered to be the cornerstone voters and their elected representative,

it also distorts

the results by not rewarding

parties

to their share of the popular

vote; majority governments

formed

with the support

with seats in proportion

of a minority

democracy, involving

are

election the

manipulation

parties (and third

of voters. The elec-toral

campaigns

of voters

parties)

about the direction

might

of

be viewed

as

by the contending

rather than

promoting

a dia-logue

of the country.

system also exaggeratesregionalism by providing in-centives The rules for financing election campaigns and polit-ical for

parties to develop regional

strongholds.

is a keen appetite for electoral reform that

There

parties

would ensure a

On the

closer relationship between the popular vote and the num-ber of seats obtained

by a party.

However, hopes of reform

has been reduced.

were dashed whenthe Liberals reneged ontheir promise to campaigns

expensive,

highly

enterprises,

in the twenty-first

professionalized,

with the

use of experts

and advertising to

knock

companies.

on doors, erect signs, and

in the ridings

while campaign

and in

are

campaign,

centralized

analytics,

off literature

headquarters

bristle

However, this

PACs to

Studies

of

political the

with

that

voters

and religious

writ

period that parties are active. Fixed election dates make of hostilities

election

between

campaign,

voting

Social

impact

media

on elections,

were expected to enabling interaction

have found

determine

on class

and

including

perceptions

tune certain

and

voting

each gener-ally

However, volatility. of

which

most competent to

which

party is

with the values and issue positions Strategic

for

gender

considerable

issues,

ethno-cultural,

of Canada is reflected,

also reveals

factors,

that basic

The regional,

patterns of support

based

with important

have a sig-nificant important. between

permanent

characteristics,

party leader is best, which party is

mis-lead deal

voters and foster cynicism concerning politicians and government.

behaviour

Short-term

Concerns have been raised about whether campaign and robocalls

in the

have a weaker effect on voting choices.

with no suspension

parties for any period of time.

practices such as negative advertising

Differences

make.

diversity

party.

for a permanent

development

values, and party identification

choices

throughout

the

behaviour of social

to some extent, in the

It is not only during

positive

participate

voting factors

sophisticated technology that helps micro-target voters the campaign.

parties can be

corporate influence on parties

taking it to a different level.

poll-sters, the long-term

Volunteers continue drop

in recent times. to

may be cancelled out by the potential for unregulated, American-style

century

considerably

made only by individuals,

reform the system before the election in 2019. Election

have changed

one hand, since contributions

most in

of voters, are

may also be significant

in

elections.

voters and parties. Parties are using digital mediato com-municate Modern elections may be plagued bythreats to their with voters, but it is a one-way street. Troubling

accusations about Facebooks harvesting of data from of users chilling

without their

reminder

knowledge

or permission

mil-lions is a

that there is a dark side to digital tools.

very integrity

in the future

and deployed from This possibility of democracy

is eternal

by novel

digital tools

within the country

serves as a reminder vigilance

weap-onized

and off-shore.

that the

price

220

Chapter 9

Discussion Questions 1. Should

Canadians

be able to

vote

online

in federal

4. Should

elections?

2. Is the use of digital tools in election campaigns justi-fied given the dangers they 3. Should

donations

Should

Canada change

electoral

system?

pose?

If so,

what

would

plural-ity be the

parties

be strictly

be used to subsidize

lim-ited? polit-ical

parties? 5.

its single-member

to political

public funds

How

will

you

decide

whom

to

vote for

in

the

next

election?

best

alternative?

Further Reading Clarke, H.D., Kornberg, A., & Scotto, T.S. (2009). Making political choices: Canada and the United States. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Flanagan, T.(2014). Winning power: Canadian campaigning in the twenty-first century. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Gidengil, E., Nevitte, N., Blais, A., Everitt, J., & Fournier, P. (2012). Dominance and decline: Making sense of recent Canadian elections. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

LeDuc, L., Pammett, J.H., McKenzie, J.I., & Turcotte, A. (2010). Dynasties and interludes: Past and present in Canadian electoral politics. Toronto, ON: Dundurn Press. Pammett, J.H., & Dornan, C. (Eds.). (2016). The Canadian federal election of 2015. Toronto, ON: Dundurn Press. (See also similarly titled books for other Canadian elections.) Young, L., & Jansen, H.J. (2011). Money, politics, and democracy: Canadas party finance reforms. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press

Chapter10

The Constitution, Constitutional Change,andthe Protectionof Rights and Freedoms

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10.2

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for changing constitutional

the

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221

222

Chapter 10

10.3a

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ChapterIntroduction Aconstitution

sets the fundamental

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provides the organizational

institutions

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a statement

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addition,

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Desire to

goals

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constitutions

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Canadas

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The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

the

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peace,

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London

with the

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term

pre-Confederation and

Canadian

phrase

Canadian the

however,

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government

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act,

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as representing

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Furthermore,

the

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as the

that and

were the good

gov-ernment

2008).

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we examine

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Charter

Act, 1867

powers

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cited

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223

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Constitution.

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Outline the basic elements of the Canadian Constitution.

10.1b

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the

procedures

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the

contains

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constitution

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aspects

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The Constitution Act,1867

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Act, 1867 Parliament Kingdom

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Canada union Scotia,

of

Ontario,

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of that

es-tablished

as a federal Quebec, Brunswick.

Nova

224

Chapter 10

practices,

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provinces:

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rights

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certain

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constitutional

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Charlottetow

225

226

Chapter 10

Accord) to the

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Indigenous

rights

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cabinet

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population

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Manitoba)

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Module 3). The Constitution

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Canada.

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laws

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227

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court

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matters

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between

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since 1949

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228

Chapter 10

Constitutional Change 10.2

Examine

why formal

Because a constitution

constitutional

changes

sets the fundamental

of a constitution

have been difficult

rules for

governing

are expected to be stable features

to achieve.

a country,

of the political

the

scene.

provi-sions

However,

some flexibility is neededin a constitution to take into account changes in the country and its

values.

Canada

has expanded

from four

are much moreimportant than they has become issues that

provinces

to ten;

wereat Canadas founding;

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democratic

values

Canadas population

have faced a variety

of challenging

did not exist in the 1860s.

Constitutional conventions generally evolve gradually as new situations arise or different

understandings

of the

conventions

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interpreta-tions

of the provisions of the Constitution change asrulings in new cases sometimes modify interpretations that

in

previous

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who do not own property,

and Indigenous

various

aspects of the

Key issues have included of Indigenous

protection

of rights

nature,

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people the right to

vote.

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by a majority in

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have often been highly

formula,

peoples, the powers of provincial

and freedoms,

con-troversial.

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constitutional

and the Senate.

Quebec governments have long promoted the view that Canadais based on two founding as the

peoplesEnglish principal

attempts

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custodian

by the

of the

Canadian

Quebec governments

French

government

fact

in

to encroach

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Canada and thus

have rebuffed

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powers

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government.

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more constitutional

development.

powers to that

majorsocial and political changes in the early 1960s, the

sought

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governments

distinctiveness.

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1970s the

election of a Parti Qubcois created

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satisfy the industries by

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and

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resources

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government

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give the

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representation

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but also presented

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of Alberta, also

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of the benefits

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Newfoundland

provincial

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a stronger

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western

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voice

in

Alberta

bolstered

government,

government

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and

of high oil prices to

Canada. Thus the Alberta government,

provinces

province

change

Policy (1980)

province

governments

natural

smaller

provinces

of Canadian politics by Ontario and Quebec.

the

changes

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of the

the government

changes

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as robbing

constitutional

powers. And finally,

Quebec independence

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particularly

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Canadian resentment of the domination Not long

right

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Western Canadian governments, began lobbying

and culture.

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also argued

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changes that could result in a reduction Quebec

powers to lead the

Quebec governments

control

government

Parliament

over also

by advocating

elected and effective Senate based on equal

regardless

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size

of their

population

The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

Indigenous

peoples

what they own in

view

governments

national

political

rights

of

of

Rights

in the

and

of Canada

and

agreement

governments

in

1965

each failed

when

10-1.) (the

of events

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attempts

were

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Constitution

1971

changes

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adopted.

in social

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provincial

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Canada.

federal

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support.

diversity

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plan some

provisions

provisions

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229

230

Chapter 10

Figure 10-1 ConstitutionalTimeline

1867 British

North

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in

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Constitution

1931

1982)

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1870

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posed

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The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

231

1970s1980s Early

1960s

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Western provinces

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Revolution

and

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1995 1982

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232

Chapter 10

acquired

by land

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claims

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convention. (Quebec the

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234

Chapter 10

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sovereignty.

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Accord replaced

10-1.)

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the

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of

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The Aftermathofthe Failure of Constitutional Change The failure changes both

of the

to the

accords

Instead,

the

should

Charlottetown

were negotiated

was reduced

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The Liberal in

Party, led for

plan to

Quebec.

in

an offer

by Jean

a long,

avoid

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a referendum making

shut

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not be reopened

events

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Constitution.

1995

to just

time

constitutional

on

and

the

and

issues

seats in the that

won the

of seeking

major

held

while

House

1993

issues election.

upended wasted

should

become

to

of Commons.

Canadian

1994 and

partnership

power

constitutional

was, however, in

or not Quebec

political

process Party that

promised

was elected

whether

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Chrtien,

long

Qubcois

down

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Canada.

by political

no time

in

sovereign When it

hold-ing after

appeared

Table 10-1 Resultsofthe Referendum onthe Charlottetown Accord,1992,by Province

and Territory

(Percentage) Yes

Newfoundland

No

Turnout

63.2

36.8

53.3

73.9

26.1

70.5

Nova Scotia

48.8

51.2

67.8

New Brunswick

61.8

38.2

72.2

Quebec

43.3

56.7

82.7

Ontario

50.1

49.9

71.9

Manitoba

38.4

61.6

70.6

Saskatchewan

44.7

55.3

68.7

Alberta

39.8

60.2

72.6

31.7

68.3

76.7

61.3

38.7

70.4

Yukon

43.7

56.3

70.0

Canada

45.0

55.0

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that

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by a superior document.

consti-tutional

236

Chapter 10

bodies

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The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

opposition the

of some

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than

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freedoms

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used

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is to

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of

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legislation

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and

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act despite

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except

clause

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Day

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of

Quebec, view

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much

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ethnic

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nature

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foundation

premier

a centralist,

and

multicultural

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the

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groups

press for the adoption recognize

that

supremacythe

parliamentary

supported

particular,

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Lvesque,

it as imposing

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who

of

Canadian

is intended

Bill to set

be tested

(R. v. Big

Mart Ltd., 1985). The

Constitution

the

Constitution

the

provisions

or effect Section

is the

(s.52).

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legislation only

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in the

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ordinary

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clearly

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policies.

territories

of Canada,

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provides

Bill

Charter

is, to the

Charter

passed

also to the actions governments,

law

considers

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Constitution

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24 of the

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disability.

Quebecs

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various

rights.

Provisions ofthe Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The

Charter

rights it is

is

more comprehensive

and freedoms. often

complete

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compared text

(e.g.,

of the

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than scope

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of

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go to

equality

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to

rights).

which

(For

the

http://laws.justice.gc.ca/

en/charter.) The

Charter

establishes

Fundamental

freedoms,

of thought,

9 Striking Books than close

down

and

Art

religious on

the Ltd. terms

Saturdays

seven

Lords (1986), and

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opinion

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categories

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belief,

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of the

invalid.

was

framed

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have

In in

free-dom press

R. v. Edwards secular

a religious

rather duty

to

237

238

Chapter 10

and

other

media

of association

as

freedoms,

including

the

well as limiting

the

maximum

legislatures

to five

all provincial Mobility

freedom

of peaceful

assembly;

and freedom

(s.2).

Democratic office

of communication;

years.

including

of all citizens

term

Through

legislatures

rights,

right

of the

right

to

vote of

ordinary

legislation,

their

maximum

have reduced

the

to

House

move and

to

and

hold

elected

Commons

and

Parliament term

pursue

pro-vincial

and

to four

al-most

years.

a livelihood

in

any

province. Legal rights,

to a trial to

including

be secure

innocent

against

until

Equality and

discrimination sex,

or

equality

rights

Box 10-1:

Same-Sex

and

or seizure,

provision

This

does

was at the Marriage:

or

preclude

centre

Kevin

of the

and Joe,

to

laws,

under

origin,

Anne,

reli-gion,

or activities or groups.

of same-sex and

without

colour,

programs,

individuals

Elaine

the law

of the law

ethnic

issue

be presumed

is equal

benefit

of disadvantaged

the right

tribunal.

person

equal

national

not

person,

and the right

every and

as race,

conditions

of the

with an offence, the right

and impartial

that

protection

grounds

the

clause

search

equal

disability.

to improve

and security

of time if charged

by an independent

the

to the

on such age,

designed

guilty

including

right

to life, liberty,

period

unreasonable

proven

rights,

has the

Rights

the right

within a reasonable

The

marriage.

and the

(See

Charter

of

Freedoms.)

Box 10-1 Same-Sex Marriage: Kevin and Joe, Elaine and Anne, andthe Charter of Rights and Freedoms On January

14, 2001, two

couples,

Kevin Bourassa

Varnell and Elaine and Anne Vautour, exchanged vows in Torontos in love

Metropolitan

to register couples. 1866

Community

and ready to commit, the

The couples

common-law

but the

Christendom ... the voluntary woman, to the exclusion

violation of equality rights provisions ofthe Charter. Courtsin

Church. They were

of the two

undertook legal of

2008,

wedding

Ontario government

wedding licences definition

and Joe

actions

understood

union for life of one

of all others

same-sex

challenging

marriage: As (quoted in

re-fused

a number marriage registered

the in

p. 364). The definition

Russell et al.,

of provinces ruled that the was unconstitutional, the

The Canadian courts

Marriage, two

that

government

did not appeal the rulings

civil

purposes,

stormy

a reference

proposed

of all others.

Parliament

extending

The Liberal

on four

Supreme questions

The Supreme

has the legislative

may marry, that

union

of Court

related

Court confirmed

authority

the capacity

of

gov-ernment

to the legalization

asked the

opinion

legislation.

of

drafted its own leg-islation:

is the lawful

opposition

marriage and therefore

of Canada for to the

on same-sex

Ontario

of appeal but instead for

anticipated

Image

government

persons to the exclusion

same-sex

prohibition

and the

a

marriages in 2003.

the provincial

man and one

was, argued the challengers,

to

to

decide

marry to

who

persons

CP

of the same Charters

sex is consistent

guarantee

officials from

being forced

contrary to their religious

Denette/The

to answer the fourth for

Nathan

Recognition Canada Bourassa Vautour wedding in January

of same-sex

came (left, and

after

and Joe

Vautour

vows in front

until

(right)

2003.

marriages

the

in

Couples

Varnell

of Reverend

2001, but their

registered

rights

much struggle.

glasses) Elaine

equality

Kevin

and

Anne

exchanged Brent

perform

jeers first

protects religious

same-sex

beliefs. The Supreme

questionwhether

had not pursued on this issue.

had been legally

marriages

Court refused

an opposite-sex with the

re-quirement

Chartersince

an appeal to the ruling

Already, thousands married as a result

of

of same-sex of the lower

decisions. To the cheers of the gay and lesbian

Hawkes

were not offi-cially

courts

couples court

to

Charter, and that the

of religion

marriage is consistent

government

the lower

with the

of freedom

of Catholic bishops,

community

Canada became

countries to officially recognize

same-sex

one of the

and the worlds

marriages.

The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

Language in

rights,

English

or French

demand. rights

including

New

in the

Minority

from

Brunswick

language whose

Other

equally

to

with

offices

province

of the

that

and

receive

where there

has entrenched

do

not

any

require

services

is sufficient

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that

In

of

language

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applies

English

Charter

in the the

or

rights

other

in

only to chil-dren

be interpreted

of the

Charter

rights

educated

Canada.

shall

and enhancement

citizens

children

right

in

addition,

Canadian

have their

Quebec this

and freedoms

treaty

right

to

schooling

preservation

persons.

affect

In

primary

the rights

the

or French

warrant.

Charter

and that

including

English

their

with the

male and female

Charter

rights,

is either

received

provisions

of Canada

in the

communicate

government

only

where numbers

parents

in a manner consistent heritage

to

Canadian is the

education

mother tongue

in that

right

Charter.

language

whose

the

239

multicultural

are

guaranteed

and freedoms

or freedoms

specified

of Indigenous

peoples.

Limitations on Rights and Freedoms The

Charter

particular, through laws

does the

the

that

not

provide

Charter

allows

contradict

and

by law court

however, democratic

How

the limit

developing

principles in

of judgment

society.

justify

In

in

and freedoms

is

Act.)

legislatures

notwithstanding

is

only

five

well, pass

a free

and

democratic

society.

to

limit

also often

Proven

violates

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in

needed

hotly

to

on rights

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and

CLAUSE to

certain years,

explicitly

declare

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test

David

of the

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Charter

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out the basic is justified

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be re-enacted

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applies

Oakes and the

Narcotics

allows

Parliament law

shall

a declaration

by the legislative

to the rights

operate

is

body

or

as often

and freedoms

listed

in

Sections

2

3. equality rights.

male

be overridden. and

clause

female

As persons

well, and

rights

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freedoms

are

overridden

provisions

of the

guaranteed by the

Charter

equally

to

notwithstanding

(s.28).

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operates

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legislation

a provision

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of the

explicitly

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state

and

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makes it

a law

politically

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of

out

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that

Canada

basic the

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in the

and

Charter

Freedoms

Parliament

as

shall

and other

Court

A provision

the

rights

on

be demonstrably

a free

setting

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effective

freedoms,

and language

al-lows

provided

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mobility,

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Oakes Test

in

2. legal rights, and

Democratic,

can in

ruling

Charter:

1. fundamental

cannot

limits

justified

of

limits

and freedoms,

legislature

The notwithstanding 715

rights

Freedoms

reasonable

A Supreme

and the

particular Such

and for

Clause

Charter

society.

desired.

and

Rights

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Limits

of the

debated.

and freedoms

Oakes

The

A clause

demonstra-bly

Court of Canada laid the

A

evidence to

and freedoms.

is justified is

the

Reasonable pre-scribed

Charter.

provide

on rights

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limit

about

guarantees

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NOTWITHSTANDING

provincial

for

whether

more information

Control

As can

Charter

action

the Supreme

Until

freedoms.

reasonable

what reasonable

test,

In

legislatures

such

government

a reasonable

kind

Act see Box 10-2: Innocent

THE

in

what

Control

provincial

and freedoms.

to

or government

is

determining

case. (For

and

only

onus on the

much and

on rights

on rights

1 of the

subject justified

as to

the Oakes

to apply

a particular

or action

rights

and

Clause

law

of listed

provisions.

are

places the

the law

matter

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a particular

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be demonstrably

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limits

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CLAUSE

in the

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of the

LIMITS

may decide

reasonable

clause,

some

freedoms

guarantees

reasonable

notwithstanding

THE REASONABLE rights

absolute

to

law

sections

of the

operate

of al-lows

or a provincial explicitly

a particular

provisions

that

declare (related Charter)

notwithstanding of the

Charter

to

240

Chapter 10

Box 10-2 Innocent Until Proven Guilty? David Oakes and the Narcotics Control Act David Edwin

Oakes was arrested

outside

an Ontario tavern in

1981 and was found to be in possession one-gram

vials of hashish

under the

Narcotics

of $619.45

oil. He was charged

the

and eight

with trafficking

Control Act, which carries a much more se-vere than for simple posses-sion.

The act required that the accused

had to prove he or she

The lawyer Control

for

Mr.

up to the

Crown prosecutor to

was guilty of trafficking, innocence.

not up to the

After the court

of Canada provision

was eventually was a reasonable

In their

ruling,

the

criteria that together could

1. The objective

freedom.

in the

prove his

alaw

laid

criterion

was not fulfilled,

Court

1986,

the or

rights and freedoms

designed to achieve the objective in

Charters

Specifically,

right

or freedom

impair

and ra-tionally

provision

guarantee

in question,

as possible the

connection

to

use the notwithstanding

onindividual

the notwithstanding

had been sexually sterilized

The

to

on signs

outside

protect the law from

expression.

Code for

his classes.

provision infringed of speech.

The upon

However, the that hate pro-paganda

and the objective

wasimpaired

aslittle

as

values underlying

(quoted in

as little

the

guarantee

of

Russell et al., 2008, p. 282).

Books (1986) the idea that as possible

was interpreted

possible

(Hausegger,

measures as

mean-ing

Hennigar,

&

p. 357)

clause, as the government

may be accused

of

to limit

compensation

to those

who

headline,

Province

withdrawing

Revokes

Rights,

the proposed legislation

After

the pub-lic within 24

2005).

widely

publicized

when the Quebec National French

Supreme

without their consent by an Act of the legislature.

resulted in the government most

Criminal

between the law

with the

clause in proposed legislation

hours (McLachlin,

the

rights. For example, in 1998the Alberta government invoked

the Edmonton Journal ran the front-page outcry

of the

of expression

as reasonably

Riddell, 2015,

government

since

of the ac-cused.

of a high school teacher

speech

of freedom

in Edwards

impair

as little

and

trampling

(R. v.

many cases

upheld the provision, finding

of speech

Furthermore should

as little

of Oakes was dismissed

of hatred against Jews in

connected freedom

connected to the objective, measures should

section

and effect,

possible, and that the limitation of hate speech is only tenu-ously

be carefully

question

that

force

been used in

found that the hate

was a rational

must be balanced against the and groups.

concluded

was of no

R. v. Keegstra (1990),

of the law, that freedom

of individuals

oil

was for the purpose

was a pressing and substantial concern, that there

and substantial in a

measures contained in the law must

the

has

speech

majority of judges

society.

2. The interests of society

test

his wilful promotion

be sufficiently important

which are pressing

Act

connec-tion

of hashish

not always resulting in an acquittal

under the hate

Thatis, the objective must at least relate to concerns

was no rational

the judges

Control

and pressing

However, the second

of a small amount

of the acquittal

although

judges right

Therefore,

For example, in

with the

protected

since there

Court of Canada upheld the conviction

when reasonable

a constitutionally

the

Oakes case, the judges

that the possession

Narcotics

The Oakes

acts

Charter:

of the law must

are in

Oakes, 1986).

out two

that interfered

measures

more important

was a substantial

meeting the first criterion.

and the appeal

on a guaranteed legal right. Court judges

criteria to the

thus

of trafficking.

down the

Supreme

these

drug trafficking

concern,

8 of the

of the the

must be.

and the presumption

Oakes

decide if the

could help determine

free and democratic

the

the

upon to

Supreme

warrant overriding

societal

limit

to

effects

and freedoms,

between the possession

Charterit

prove that

case struck

trafficking,

called

be used to uphold

and freedoms

to

Narcotics

be considered

defendant

hearing the

provision in the act concerning

rights

the

until proven guilty that is guaranteed in the

was therefore

limits

challenged

Act, arguing that it violated the right to

innocent

Applying agreed that

when claiming only possession. Oakes

rights

objective

penalty (potentially life imprisonment) was not engaged in trafficking

more harmful the

limiting

use of the

notwithstanding

Assembly passed a law

businesses. being

The law invoked

challenged

as a violation

However, the Quebec government

notwithstanding

clause

when the five-year

clause

was in

banning languages the

notwithstanding

of the right

1988,

other than clause

to freedom

limit

ran

out; instead

it

passed less-restrictive

legislation. There have been only a very small clause by provincial

legislatures,

number

of

did not seek to renew its use of the

of other

uses of the

and it has not been used by the

notwithstanding

Canadian Parliament

The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

When the Assembly than

Quebec

National

banned

languages

French

businesses

from

from

Although

clause a Charter

French

have loosened

Phot

in this

Schwartzs

Stock

Dbtravel/Dbimages/Alamy

For example,

in

when amending couples. that

1990 the the

Marriage

This turned

defining

Alberta legislature

out to

Act to

define

be irrelevant

marriage is a Canadian

invoked

the

notwithstanding

marriage as involving

when the Supreme government

clause

only opposite-sex

Court of Canada ruled

responsibility.

More recently,

the

Saskatchewan government in 2017invoked the notwithstanding

clause to override a

court ruling

Catholic school

that

public funding

of non-Catholic

students

in the

sys-tem

is unconstitutional. The notwithstanding controversial.

clause that applies to certain sections

Supporters

of the clause

argue that it provides

of the

Charter has been

a degree of flexibility

to

ensure that legislators rather than unelected and unaccountable judges have the final say on some public

policy

interpretations

matters. Further, it allows legislators

of the

Charter

by the courts.

clause has to be renewed public and legislators

to reconsider

Critics ofthe notwithstanding fundamental minority

rights that groups

within five

to correct

The requirement

years provides

whether the limit

any undesir-able

that the

notwith-standing

an opportunity

for the

on a Charter right is desirable.

clause argue that it can undermine the protection of the

are established

and individuals

in the

Charter. These rights

are protected

against arbitrary

help to ensure that and

discriminatory

laws and policies.

The Charter and the Courts The rights

and freedoms listed in the Charter are quite broadly

even be considered

somewhat

vague.

The courts

written and can

have to interpret

these rights

as

they apply to the particular cases that come before them. Judges are expected to examine

precedentsthat

in similar

cases.

is,

The lower

how the courts courts

have interpreted

are expected

to follow

a particular

clause

the interpretations

of

the Supreme

Court of Canada. However, the Supreme Court has not always felt

bound

previous

by its

rulings.

passed legislation health and contracting

care

workers

For example,

in

2002, the

that changed provisions and their

out services

employer

without

allowing

discussion

British

of a collective

with the

such

Columbia

gov-ernment

agreement be-tween

measures as layoffs

workers

union. In

Health

Servicesand Support (2007), the Supreme Court stated that its earlier decision that the

Charter

did not guarantee

did not withstand freedom (quoted

of association in

Russell

the collective

principled provision

bargaining

scrutiny. protected

et al., 2008, p. 396).

rights

of public

Thus, it ruled that the the

process

of collective

sign

employ-ees

Charters bargaining

to

since

the protect

challenge.

must still

the language

other

outside

in 1988, it invoked

notwithstanding the law

signs

241

domi-nate,

restrictions 2003, as seen

outside

the

deli in

Montreal.

venerable

242

Chapter 10

Effectsof the Charter onthe Political Process The

Charter

has increased

legislation

and

policies

an increasingly the

unelected

find

it

important courts

Given the

to Charter

encouraged

This is

of the

that

& Knopff,

2000).

However,

use of the

Charter

Using the the

courts

Supreme

It can

also

from

part, this

slow

predicaments,

which

it

made

that

in court.

to

engage

have trouble

feminists,

The in the

making

civil liberties

interests

from

a

social

business

positions

The

and indi-viduals

their

parties.

that

seeking

interests.

of groups

their

special

support

groups,

have succeeded

majority

of the

change

interests

interests

as it

often

it

the

have

have

public

in

(Morton

gained

also

consider-able

made extensive

takes

(Mandel,

1994).

and

nature

years

before

It

has also

for

a case

core

made

2008,

abstrac-tions,

(Mandel,

has

In moral

(Herschel,

being

2010,

that

politics.

addressing

of politics

(Petter,

away

argued of

discussion to legal

of the choices

the legalization

fees.

makes it

groups

been

controversies

of political

a case to

in legal

of advocacy

on courts

political

democracy

Taking

of dollars

or judicialization

reliance

that

of Canadian

many

legalization

political argued

expensive.

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Doesthe Charter Helpto Promote Socio-Economic Equality? Social

Rights

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require such

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housing,

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employment.

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mother

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protection

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provisions, only

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rights,

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argu-ing

The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

economic, In

social,

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that

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Court

care

view,

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deduction

lacked

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opposing

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to equality In

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equality it

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to

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vote, rejected expense.

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major-ity

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Charter,

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despite give

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$24

of

accepted

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a per-sonal

child

care

infringed

in

challenge law

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care

Court

ruled

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the

cancelled

employees that

provincial

in

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law

governments

financial

crisis

decision,

back

by

that

health

severe

Courts

million

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a provincial

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in the

in

the

prov-ince

2006,

the

who

had

pay to those

development

of the

Charter

of Rights

protected

in the

Charter.

In

were not explicitly any rights

that not

purpose

Employees

limit

considered

110 countries

a 72

to increase

of the

to

in

as a business

by two

of

of Public

clause

hear an appeal

2017).

pro-vincial been

pay increase.

rights

does

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agreed

tax

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695, 1993).

was a reasonable

government

not to

income

held

454 S.C.R.

(Amnesty

of Canada,

ability

occupations.

that

deprived

view

womans

agreement

female-dominated violated

from

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equity

decided Court

an income-earning

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pay

argument

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(Lexbox

2004,

a 1988

Canada

be deducted

were

are not justiciable

Supreme

could

expense. expenses

also

of

Symes v. Canada, the

child

right

rights

243

have

to a clean

added

establish

and

healthy

environmental

human

environment,

rights

responsibility

to their

for

the

and

addition, unlike

the

constitutions.

rights

of

Freedoms, the

Charter more than

The

Charter

non-human

species

2014, 2017).

Doesthe Charter Helpto Foster National Unity? The

Charter

being

defines

Canadian

focuses

attention

different

on the rights

gender

also focuses particular

a set of national

identities,

attention

despite

Quebecers, the

Charter

the

or regions

like

people

in the

However,

support

Rather

than

groups,

that

the

aggressively make

and losers.

decisions

to

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overwhelmingly

can

respect,

courts

that

make their

ability

the

grievances

of

of the

rights.

In

up conflicts views

based of the

with It

Supreme

Charter. In

Constitution

Act, 1982,

the inclusion

an atmosphere

may stir

balance

those

disabilities.

(the

support

of

of

2011).

create

decisions

the

and

institution

as a result

2012; Simpson,

the

concerns

to the

assert and demand their

trying

may tend

visibility

government

Charter

of one group,

to

on the

with

And a national

sense

The Charter

women,

people

than

of Canada,

(Sguin,

and

rather

and

a common

and freedoms.

including

minorities,

Quebec

the rights

judges

winners

in the rest

of rights

1992).

power

of the

argue

and groups that

issues

(Cairns,

Constitution

critics

may help to create

groups,

and racial

has gained in

opposition

and

possession

of Canada-wide

ethnic

on national

provinces

Court of Canada) fact,

values

based on our common

which indi-viduals

making decisions between

or interests

on principles Charter

in

that

to foster

groups.

of different distinguish

national

unity

may be limited.

Summary and Conclusion Canadas

Constitution

document

but rather

The

Constitution

Constitution can

be

used

inconsistent

is

not to

consists

acts that

form

are the

supreme

by the

courts

with

the

be found

the law

to

in

of a variety

cornerstone of the

invalidate

Constitution.

a single

of elements. of the

country laws

Ordinary

that laws

and are of a

constitutional

judicial

components Canadas Nevertheless, around

nature,

constitutional

interpretations

the

of the

of the

conventions,

Constitution

and

are also key

constitution.

Constitution

acts

governments provisions

of the

are

have

difficult

to

been

able

Constitution

to

change. to adjust

work t

244

Chapter 10

changing

circumstances.

As

conventions interpretation in

and

of the Canadas

about

have

created

a country

peoples,

a partnership

settlers,

a diverse

changes,

of the the

of the

grounds

on

Although

reaffirmation

the

for

The

Charter

major

unacceptable

changes

providing

to

citi-zen

and

use

rights

with

parliamentary to

defend legislation

justified

a

Freedoms

allows

with funda-mental

as

Charter

freedoms,

well as legal, allows

and for

the

equal-ity,

reasonable

some

aspects

of

period

by

a five-year clause.

include

and

willingness

to invalidate

as undemocratic.

of citizens,

in

However,

social

the

rights

that

action.

the ability

that infringes

of unelected legislation

However,

and unac-countable

is sometimes

even though

of the courts to strike

on rights

democratic

down legisla-tion

and freedoms

values. Indeed,

some

majority

is consistent

the courts

Charter to expand the scope of rights

have

and free-doms

on controversial topics, such as gay and lesbian which politicians Overall, the by

Charter

actions,

clause.

However, legalistic may inhibit

have often hesitated to address.

providing

suprem-acy,

that

convince

court decisions do not reflect the views of the

government

an oppor-tunity

The

specifically

and ensuring that

use this

provides

can

interferes

notwithstanding not

judges

ernment

is a partial

that

be overridden

government

rights,

exten-sive

and

freedoms

and

can

does

require

Rights

rights.

of the

Charter

fea-ture

government

clause

clause

the

used the

of the

has increased

them

laws

been reluctant limits

Charter

it

are demonstrably

legislation

democratic

with liberal part

It

notwithstanding

government

a has

an important

system.

of

on

the

viewed

to

require

Freedoms,

become

principle

limits

able

constitutional

The expectation

and

by

have

or

of

mobility

provided

society.

to invalidate

and

freedoms

such limits

The ability been

proved

which to overturn

reasonable

groups,

public.

political

the

and

by a referendum.

has

courts

founding peoples

have

on

Rights

1982,

of the

governments Instead

of

Canadian

power

actions.

agreements

Act,

two

rights? leaders

and approval

Charter

of differ-ent

that

democratic

and

major

and

and

courts

be considered

of ethnocultural

and to the

engagement The

free

on sev-eral

because

Indigenous

individual

the

about

Canada

major constitutional

Constitution

on rights

the courts

flex-ibility

to

crises

provinces,

agreements

that

difficult

between collection

reach

of groups

developed

is

government

these

variety

for

changes

political

Should

of equal

with equal

Although to

of judicial

allowed

a consensus

Canada.

primarily

at times

severe

Constitution

about

a citizenry

patterns have

major

Developing

in the

views

of con-stitutional limits

Constitution.

occasions. changes

evolution

changing

Constitution

Disagreements Constitution

well, the

has contributed protection

entrenching

to

rights

and freedoms,

Canadian diversity is interpretation

democratic

discussion

good gov-arbitrary

against

of

Charter

maintained. provisions

and action about con-troversial

political issues.

places

Discussion Questions 1. Should

Canadas

statement

formal

of Canadian

Constitution

values?

If so,

what

include values

a

important?

2.

Why is it Constitution? reform

some

to

Should elements

change there of the

Charter

of Rights

and

Canadas

be another

formal effort

Rights

to

Constitution?

additional health

and

difficult

3. Should the notwithstanding the

4. Should

are

property and

rights, such asthe right to an edu-cation,

care, rights,

housing,

a clean

be added

to

environment, the

Charter

of

Freedoms?

5. Should parts of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms be suspended

when there

is a threat

of terrorism

clause be removed from

Freedoms?

Further Reading Bateman, M.J., Hebert, J., Knopff, R., & Russell, P. (2017). The court and the Charter: Leading cases (2nd Ed.).Toronto, ON: Emond Montgomery. Graham, R. (2012). Thelast act: Pierre Trudeau, the Gang of Eight, and the fight for Canada. Toronto, ON: Penguin Canada.

Greene, I. (2014). The Charter of Rights and freedoms: 30+ years of decisions that shape Canadian life (2nd Ed.). Toronto, ON: Lorimer. Harder, L., & Patten, S. (Eds.). (2015). Patriation and its consequences. Constitution making in Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

The Constitution, Constitutional Change, andthe Protection of Rights and Freedoms

Jackman, M., & Porter, B. (Eds.). (2014). Advancing human rights in Canada. Toronto, ON: Irwin Law. James, P. (2010). Constitutional politics in Canada after the Charter: Liberalism, communitarianism, and systemism. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. MacFarlane, E. (Ed.) (2016). Constitutional amendment in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. McCormick, P. (2015). The end of the Charter revolution: Looking back at the near normal. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

245

Russell, P.H. (2017). Constitutional odyssey. A country based on incomplete conquests. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Smith, D.E. (2017). The Constitution in a hall of mirrors: Canada at 150. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Strayer, B.L. (2013). Canadas constitutional revolution. Edmonton, AB: University of Alberta Press. Webber, J. (2015). The constitution of Canada: A contextual analysis. Oxford, UK: Hart Publishing

Chapter11

Indigenous Rights and Governance

Image

Press

Frayer/Canadian

Kevin

Under the Minister behalf of

gaze

of Assembly

Stephen of

abuse

all

Harper

Canadians

and

cultural

of First

stands to

loss

in

former

Nations the

students

involving

Chief

House

the

of

of the schools

Phil

Fontaine

Commons Indian and

their

(right,

on June

wearing

11,

residential

2008,

to

schools

for

headdress), officially more

Prime

apologize than

a century

programs

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 11.1

Describe the quality

11.2a

Outline the Indigenous

11.2b

historical peoples

Discuss proposals peoples and the

11.3a

of Indigenous

background and the

Canadian

in establishing

of the relations

Canadian

government.

of constitutional Indigenous

between

Indigenous

changes

and court

rights.

Examine the key features

11.4a

Describe the changes to government

11.4b

between

government.

11.3b

Indigenous

peoples.

for change in the relations

Explain the significance rulings

246

of life

of recent land

claims

settlements.

policy concerning

peoples.

Discuss

what is needed to improve

Indigenous

and non-Indigenous

the relationship peoples.

between

on

Indigenous Rights and Governance

In

2006,

the Indian

Indigenous from

home

were

Anglican,

supported

the last

residential

and

beliefs.

culture.

In

The

goal

of the

6000

about

150

in

000

children

students

as there

to

obliterate

Indigenous

was to

died

had

malnourishment

of the

victimized

Roman

the

discipline;

away

Catholic,

the

or disease

By

system.

frequent

languages,

into

on

people

was compulsory.

gone through

students

of

by the

traditions,

inflicted

young

attendance

was harsh

assimilate

damage

took

were run

1894,

for

schools

children

and

Beginning

the

that

The

physical

cultures,

dominant

and

Canadian

while in the

care

of the

schools.

2006,

the

1996,

recognized schools

government

Churches.

a determination

An estimated

residential

a class

abuse

suit

by the

billion

million for

Murray

action

suffered

of $3.164 $60

closed in

Agreement

The residential

Canadian

United

were very traumatic

abuse;

religious

Settlement

schools.

by the

and

school

schools

and sexual

Schools

by residential

Presbyterian,

the time

to

Residential

children

to the

establishing

on

behalf

Indigenous

children,

surviving the

students.

Truth

and

students

with a total In

addition,

Reconciliation

settled

payment the

38 098

by the

Settlement

Commission

in

claims

related

Canadian

govern-ment

Agreement 2008,

provided

headed

by Judge

Sinclair.

Part

of the

Commissions

in the Indian people

and

was promoting

Schools,

working

toward

a new

and

completing

the

experiences, Canada,

mandate

Residential

healing

awareness

and repairing

relationship,

giving

historical

record

to

Canadians

Canadas

survivors

(Truth

the

and

about

relations

what

hap-pened

with Indigenous

opportunity

to

Reconciliation

share

their

Commission

of

2018).

On

August

federal

15,

statutory

August

2018,

the

holiday

to

Canadian honour

government

the

survivors

announced of the

that

it

residential

planned

school

to

declare

system

a new

(Tasker,

2018,

16)

ChapterIntroduction Indigenous

people

lifespan,

income,

times

more likely and

drug

are

generally

housing, to

be victims

abuse,

water such

harm

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proper

mining,

of their public

services

reserves

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improving Indigenous

for

For

enroled

in the

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example,

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auditor auditor

Indigenous

general

their

education

to

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structures

difficult,

that

all

prior

24

that

there

2018,

Canadians people

occupancy

of land

school

percent

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Canada

to

to

Parliament

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a four-year

program

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46

that

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govern-ments percent

period.

education

com-pleted

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Canadian that

graduated

non-Indigenous

of those

not consult The

the 2018,

and

8 percent

preparation

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that

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Indigenous

did

to

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concluded

Only

program.

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people

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but important,

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progress evident

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many Indigenous

alco-hol

develop-ments,

inhabitants,

Canadian

two

life

dam

activities.

created

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resource

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significantly

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general

auditor

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believe

of

of suicide,

of life,

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and

socio-economic not

and

people

repeatedly

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people

in terms

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rate

natural

health

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probably

students

forestry, the

to Indigenous

people

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program,

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necessities

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Canadians

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has

people

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May 29).

other

and education.

facilities.

provided

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issues.

federal

off than

have a

communities,

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Trudeau

life

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lack

sewage

of their

sustainability

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murder

petroleum

environment

in improving First

of

communities

and

as

worse poverty,

and incarceration.

Many Indigenous drinking

much

employment,

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Canadian

challenges. as equal should

was often

taken

state While

citizens have

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special

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from

rights them

govern-ing

Canadians same

rights,

because illegally

of o

247

248

Chapter 11

improperly.

First

Nations

nation-to-nation their

basis.

sovereignty

without

their

consider

1.6

million as having 2016d).

in

and

2006

multiple

is

substantially

to

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peoples

percent

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will

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governments

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up

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identities.

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total

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bought the

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grandchildren

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HST on goods

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women

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2017).

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representing

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Affairs

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ancestry

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Northern

taxes

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2.8

identities

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they

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as First

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Indigenous future

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that

Canadians

Canada,

themselves 24 980

some

argue

to relate

approval.

themselves

population

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More than

(Statistics

typically

Indigenous

for Indigenous

by Indigenous

peoples,1

have increasingly

land

recognized

claims,

and the

move-ment

peoples.

The Problems Facedby Indigenous

Peoples 11.1

Describe the quality of life of Indigenous

Indigenous

people,

lower on reserves poverty

is

below

1

terms

has many

on

First

distinction

Aboriginal

generally

international Rights

been

Nations

between and

legal

of Indigenous

is

are

still

was and

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term

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offer

or

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35 rather

and

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Indian

non-Status

and

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national

than

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to

development

Act,

see Figure

for

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that

was

Canada.

groups

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as In

the

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word

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of

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institutions.

adopted

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very important.

collective years,

acknowledgement

under

than

population

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in

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people

policies

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rate

for Indigenous

the

living Canadians.

line.

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poverty

2013).

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the

the

unemployment

was 13 percent

those

of life than

(Hildebrant,

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particularly

quality

peoples.

federal

1876,

and

The term for

First

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government

Indigenous

Declaration

peoples

of the

Indigenous Rights and Governance

Figure

11-1

15 Years

and

MedianAfter-TaxIncome, byIndigenous Identity, Population Aged Older,

Canada,

2010

Aboriginal identity

$20

population

First

Nations

$17

060

621

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$24

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$20

551

401

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identity

$27

population 0

5000

10

00015

000

Median

NOTES:

Excludes

median distribution the in

of

into

second that

The

data

income

two

half

fare

for

one

or

a specified halves, above

more

group i.e.,

enumerated

of income

the

the

incompletely recipients

incomes

median.

after-tax

of the

first

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income

the

population

Indian

is that half

20

reserves

or Indian

which

of individuals

are

is

00030

000

income

amount

of a group

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622

divides below

calculated

settlements. their

the

from

median,

the

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income

size while

individuals

those

of

with income

group. three

Aboriginal

groups

are

based

on

reporting

a single

identity

of First

Nations,

Mtis,

or

Inuit. SOURCE:

Statistics

Canada,

National

Household

Survey,

2011.

as a whole. For those on reserves, the unemployment

rate

was 22 percent (Indigenous

and Northern Affairs Canada, 2011). Slightly reported

more than

that they

44 percent

were living

percent of non-Indigenous (Statistics

old

of First

people

Canada, 2016c).

Nations

in housing that

people

needed

who thought

that their

Only 57.1 percent of First

with on-reserve

major repairs,

housing

compared

to 6.8

housing needed repairs

Nations between 25 and 64 years

were employed, compared to 75.8 percent of non-Indigenous

people (Statistics

Canada, n.d.). Indigenous

people living

in remote

or northern

of serious problems. Theseinclude care, costly

food, lack

of activities

housing. As well, education Residents living the south to complete their

Indigenous

for

children

may belimited,

in remote

areas of Canada often face a vari-ety

unsafe drinking

adults,

and

poor-quality

with teachers often leaving remote com-munities.

communities

high school

water, very limited local health

and young

education.

may have to go to larger This can be a traumatic

cities in

experience.

people who movefrom remote areasto the cities often live in rough neigh-bourhoods where there is a high rate

of crime,

alcohol

and drug abuse, and prostitu-tion.

In some cities, they are harassed by the police.

The Sixties Scoop In the

1960s about

children)

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off from

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from welfare own

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in

20 percent the

Sixties

non-Indigenous was often

done

of all

Canadian

Scoop). homes,

without

Most

thus

the

cut-ting

consen

249

250

Chapter 11

of their

parents.

Saskatchewan Inquiry far

and

of

away $25

New

000

percent were

1999).

and

2017,

$50 000 to

each

2018,

in

percent

of Indigenous

care (Report were sent

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settlement

fees (Scholey,

70

children

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million

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Zealand.

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in lawyers

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Manitoba

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murdered

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women

Canadian

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report

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Seattle)

women did

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by an acquaintance,

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women

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women

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of

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charges

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many

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devastating society

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49

with

for

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a reserve

by strangers.

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been

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2014).

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a First

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Fontaines

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to the

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was provided to families and friends Chiefs and an Indigenous

coalition

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who testified.

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Indigenous Rights and Governance

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3, 2019.

The Historical Backgroundto Understanding the Situation of Indigenous Peoplesand Proposals for Change 11.2a

Outline the peoples

11.2b

Unlike

many

and

Upper

cash

(18501854)

Indians

with

territories

or as,

not

non-Indigenous reserved

for

Indigenous

having

been

and

ceded

or

individuals

people.

Although

vol.

continue

phrase

title

our

over

the

parts

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of the

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British,

between

about

British

in the

various

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40 First

Nations

Maritimes

(17251779),

of land

of Vancouver

to

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who live

by

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parts

purchased

dominions

of

our

and territories

territory

(Royal

to

from

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internal

was that

Commission

land that affairs,

the

British

on Aboriginal

Act, 1867

Act, 1867, gave exclusive jurisdiction

make laws

has

them,

indicated

their

not and

exploitation

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of

shall

dominions

from

in

former

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prohibited

Royal

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over

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under

of such

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control

several

concerning

Indians,

and

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to the

reserved

Parliament of

for

the Indians

(s.91 [24]).2 However the Canadian government decided whois an Indian

provision

in

Island

1, p. 124).

Canadas Constitution

2 This

world powers.

and

parcels

in the colony

the

possession

private

The Constitution Canada to

that

settlers,

would

by

ceding

formalized

grounds.

Indigenous

1996,

1763

the

other

French,

with the

treaties

declared

hunting

of the

peoples

Nations.

as their

sovereign

Peoples,

in

Peace (1701)

Douglas

we are connected

people

implication

claimed

of It

and

conquered

(17641836)

with 14 First

disturbed

of them,

Indigenous

between Indigenous

with the

treaties

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Canada.

whom

molested

Great

treaties

Proclamation in

between

Americas

never

treaties

the

payments.

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were

signed

Canada

were signed

French

any

Canada

Nations

in the

peace and friendship

the

for

The

peoples

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New France,

Ontario

in

First

governments.

the

of the relations

government.

government.

Indigenous

peoples

Instead,

or

Canadian

many other

Indigenous

be

background

Canadian

Discuss proposals for change in the relations and the

and

historical

and the

usually

been

viewed

by the

Canadian

government

as applying

primarily

to the

(generally

members

of the

First Nations living on reserves. Provincial laws and programs can also apply to First Nations, but the federal Indian Act is considered superior to provincial legislation. Generally, the Canadian government has provided services such as education,

health

been inferior

to those

care,

and

enjoyed

housing by

other

to those Canadians

living

on reserves,

although

the

quality

of those

services

has usually

251

252

Chapter 11

Status

Indians In

that

the

living

2016, the Mtis

and

on a reserve) Supreme

Court

non-status

Indians

and thus

the responsibility

to

600 000 Indigenous

nearly The

Constitution

of Indians.

people

Royal

in

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and

open

1871 to

Ontario

rights).

areas

and

other

In

many

oral

with the

of First

of land

Aboriginal

in

the

the

return

Canada) ruled

Constitution

Act, 1867, Indian

concerning

a policy

minister,

rights

the rights

of trying

Sir John

A.

system

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to

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and

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immigration. North,

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from

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to share

way of life

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hunting

agreements

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treaties

now

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and

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the

numbered

reserves,

treaties

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ammunition,

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were

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involved

made to the

to

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and

small

text

treaties

provisions

government

as clothing,

written

did

Peoples,

v.

juris-diction.

1996, p. 165).

the

promises

that

any

Columbia

(such

and

Nations,

the

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adopted

inhabitants

large-scale

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benefits

manner

government

vote (Daniels

with the tribal

Canadian

British

cases,

a 90

prime

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agreements

a peaceful on

do away

northeastern

of large

the

was to

1921) in the

and

not include

first

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it

Canadian

under

governments

all respects on

in

to

government.

As Canadas

Confederation,

country (from

did

Canadian

goal

Commission

Canada are Indians

Canadian

Act, 1867,

Canadas

of

subject

people.

peoples.

Parliament, Indian

of the

Instead,

Indigenous

and thus

perspec-tives

the land

(Royal

in

Commission

1996).

TheIndian Acts Under

the Indian tried

Acts passed

to strictly

The

control

Canadian

The people

than

Efforts

First

Nations

prestige

wisdom In

than

the

under the

Canadian

values

First

in

and

assimilate

1920,

is

not a single

there

is

p. 351).

it

(the

Penner

& Abele,

Indian

few

their

wards

including

with

models

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in

personal

govern-ment communi-ties.

in charge

of the state

cultures.

America

that

Report),

potlatch,

wealth.

of

rather

example,

which the

some a feast-ing

host

gains

As well, many

Canadian

models

of governance

into

a state

2005,

p. 243).

get rid in

question, First

that

and

Nations

and

that

of gov-ernance

relied

on

the

and

goal

Status

Indians

(a

problem.

no Indian

to give termed

adopt

of Commons

disorganization

from

the

Canadian

However,

up their

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the

status

enfranchisement). of Indian

Affairs,

is to continue

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into

gave

remain to

self-sustaining

Our object

Department

voluntarily

social

Nations

general

to

The overall

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of assimilation.

process

has not been

needed

free

of

be incapable

civilization.

previously

with the

to

be encouraged

to a 1983

First

whose rac-ist

the subjection

people

or superior

superintendent

people

powers

deemed

had to

according

population

of the Indian

were

Indigenous

to isolate

deputy

Canada

they

of dependency

to encourage

general Scott,

the imperialist

was to turn

was inconsistent

the

like

government

tended

tried

into

want to

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agent)

North

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was thought

Canadian

of reserves

no Indian

and

was used to try to justify

world.

government,

Campbell

in

acted

more advanced

and thus

As Duncan

peoples

illegal,

keeping

Canadian

Indian

Nations

Nations

of the

government

I

the

communities

mainstream

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in

Canadian

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councils

by the

Prince

(the

by destroying

government

of the

report

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(quoted

declared

practices

of control

committee

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of Europeans

themselves,

and

band

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the tutelage

effect

Nations

1876, the

elders.

peoples

of governing

were

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were considered

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belief in the superiority indigenous

First

an official

of northwestern

to elect

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effect,

of

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were required rather

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peoples

beginning

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practices

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by giving

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of First

were

cultural

ceremony

the

government

each reserve. citizens.

by Parliament

the

(quoted up their

until

body in

politic Cairns,

status.

stated there and 2004,

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Indigenous Rights and Governance

those

who

elections, give

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a government

owned

up their

property,

Indian

offer

or served

of

in

money

the

and

Armed

land,

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voted were

in

often

253

Canadian required

to

status.

Proposalsfor Change THE

HAWTHORN

major study

REPORT

of the

condition

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First

Nations

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rights

people

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WHITE

PAPER

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discussion to

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paper end

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identities

while

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of Indigenous

rights. opposed

Report.

turned

and duties

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rights

normal

of First

Nations,

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(1969)

who

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itself

people

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254

Chapter 11

THE Royal

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The Constitution Act, 1982,Indigenous

Rights,and Land Claims 11.3a

11.3b The

Explain the significance

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Examine the Constitution

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Nations, rights

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council

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exercisable

pos-session

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by

virtue

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255

256

Chapter 11

to

British

had

Columbia.

was ended

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tradi-tionally

Indigenous Rights and Governance

257

Box 11-1 Big Oil VersusIndigenous Rights: The Northern Gateway Pipelines In

2012,

hearings

began

on the

proposal

Corporation to build a dual pipeline that barrels of oil per day from northern

Albertas

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Roddy

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of Canada (R. v. Powley,

Marie

Steve

Powley, with

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of the hunting

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Mtis

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moose

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a licence.

community

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which Indigenous

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against the

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States

potential Northern

major political issue. government

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pipelines

would carry 800 000 barrels

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proj-ect.

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approval

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pipelines.

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project.

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approved the $7.9 billion pipelines in 2014. However,

threatened

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controversial.

many conditions),

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route

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of

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pipelines, the

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over a period

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leaving

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would deliver

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product

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benefits from the

made the

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an oil spill

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oil sands to Kitimat,

Albertas

Asian markets, particularly

Enbridge

were anxious to gain

Gateway pipelines that

crude oil and diluted bitumen from

billion to

by

would carry 525 000

Northern

directed Gateway

258

Chapter 11

Box 11-2 Standoff at Burnt Church: The MarshallRulings On

October

3, 1999,

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after

traps.

season Court

The traps

by

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furnishing

Canada

people

products

(quoted

of allegations

with illegal

leaders

negotiations

obtained

unlimited depriving

closed

1760

midst

a right

Scotia.

linked

as evidence

be

season

Peltry.

of

a

peace

the

their

necessaries

have

a Supreme

to

began

eels

he had

Indigenous for

of the

the

Church

selling

Nova

provisions

by aboriginal

Burnt

Mikmaq

Court

minutes

In

the

that

was not disputedthe

case involved

that

treaty,

any

during

back

New

Mikmaq

their

closed

1760

Exchange contain

could

of season.

at

out

dating

one thing

the

posts)

set

maintained

a treaty

claimed

governor

1760

been who

Church,

destroyed

Jr.

Marshall

Marshall

the

out

with fishing

fishing

under

on

at Burnt

fishers

had

actions,

Marshall,

charged

occurred

fishers,

of the incident

Donald

for

violence

non-Indigenous

under

Section

35 (1) of the

because it established Specifically,

the

addition

to their

mixed ancestry,

identity

separate

from

their

Mtis

that were

developed

their

or Inuit

and

Indian

Constitution

members

defined own

Act,

of a

Mtis

as distinctive customs

European

and rec-ognizable

forebears.

TheSupreme Courts Interpretation of Indigenous Rights Overall, has into

as the

played

cases in

account

the

a narrow that

For example,

these

be justified,

and

Indigenous

peoples

and are a part Crown

pages illustrate,

determining

and circumstances

rights

of those

are

rights

an exclusive has

of, a broader

asserted social,

(Delgamuukw

Supreme

Court

Indigenous

and treaty

rights

of Indigenous

peoples

rights.

not absolute,

government

Indigenous

Court

is sovereign

in

interpretation

on them.

Supreme

preceding

role

history

legal

indicated

the

the

a significant

Nevertheless,

but rather

regulations

for

to fish

hunt

right that

the

and

some

the

to commercial distinctive

rather

the

limitations

food

political

and economic

v. British

Columbia,

1997)

than

can

apply-ing

Court

community,

may

necessarily

resources.

societies

has

be placed

of resources

do not

use of these aboriginal

Canada

by taking

Supreme

conservation

for

of

give

Likewise, exist

over

within, which

the

Indigenous Rights and Governance

Generally, from

that

the

of

decisions

arguing

that and

that

this is

to

title

group

claiming

ruling

particular,

differs

the

from

the

to self-government,

between

First

Nations

an Indigenous

Code, the

in light

different

Nevertheless,

use of land

on the right

must be looked

the right

is

Nations.

negotiations

Criminal

to land

property.

and the

When rejecting

self-government,

of each case and, in aboriginal

avoided

through

title

private title

many First

governments. Canadian

Indigenous

regarding

of

best achieved

with the

that

Indigenous

has generally

provincial

right

law

defining

Court

conflicted

asserted

in

Indigenous

The Supreme

established

common

courts

about

federal

have

Canadian

of the

perspective

courts

259

Supreme

Court

at in light

of the

of the specific

(R. v. Pamajewon,

and the

gambling

history

stated

law

that

specific

any

circum-stances

and culture

of the

1996).

Negotiating ComprehensiveLand Claims Agreements As a result began

of the

to

Calder ruling

negotiate

(discussed

comprehensive

treaties in the past. In negotiating also referred

to

settlement

as

of land

Indigenous

modern

claims

groups

has been

drawn

1976; $84

chiefs

an agreement million

the

provisions

been awarded for

have

that

Freedoms. constitutionally the

First

Nation

(1975

and

1978)

agreements

5 This Act,

Lisims

the

of

spec-ify

Rights

the

and

are

approval

for

recognition

land

the

with the

of

does

not of

require

rights

that

to

acquired

(with

number

of

May 2018, 26 trea-ties have

Columbia

treaty

make laws of traffic

been signed

land

was ratified British

concerning

Section agreements.

in

1992

2000,

Columbia

The treaty

as claims

in

governments

such

35

(See

provides

and transportation,

amendment, through

by these

been reached

was established

Outcry.)

constitutional be

to block

claimed

as of

northwest

regulation

a formal may

in

Quebec possibility

much larger

British

a landmark

a Public

the

(landclaimscoalition.ca).

and

Nisgaa

works,

a

commission

Canadian

authority

have

agreements)

provisions5 treaty

lands

Overall,

claims

avoid

an injunction

flood

However,

of negotiation.

Sparks

public

would

northeastern

to

agreements

controversy,

Self-Government

and

Cree and Inuit

that

agreements).

an independent

After intense

protection

project

process

involving

government

for

northern

self-government

and language,

provides

right natural

The treaties

Charter

without

government

might grant the

land

self-government

constitutional 1982,

the

their

set out in recent agreements

Canadian

or comprehensive

Columbia,

Nisgaa

as culture

have

provisions

recognize

Nation.

be changed

of self-government

including

Nations.

Box 11-3: Nisgaa

a number

negotiations

establishing

First

group

groups

and

manage

Canadian

Bay area and

hydroelectric

of comprehensive

British

First

cannot

by the

Court of Canada of a large

of them

to facilitate and

in the James

modern treaties

with some

of their to the

governments

and therefore

are still in the lengthy

(called

In

Nation

were negotiated

Since then,

many as part

citizens

the

Indigenous

services,

off the

below).

removing

generally

public

began in

paid

of the

the

matters land

Constitution

that giving

government.

development

groups.

treaties

many

Agreements involving

with the

finally

(discussed

involve

Most

an es-sential

a treaty)

Nisgaa

treaty

Act. In return,

are subject

of First

agreements

that the Supreme the

2014 the their

Comprehensive Land Claims Agreements

settlements

negotiations

demand

are

rights.

claims

the

that

self-government land

example,

generally

Modern

provide

who are the

protected

The first

reached

2008).

governments

The powers

1998. In

(which

has insisted

to

1973

not signed

agreements

of reaching For

in

had

of Indigenous

of the right

of the Indian

to

determine Nation

settlement

pursue

that

and benefits (such as a cash settlement)

governments

and First

benefits

rights

(Papillon,

Nation

resources,

been

claims

Victoria in 1887 to to

government

Nations

government

process

until

that and

land

difficulties.

to

had incurred

specific

self-government

of First

with

had canoed

they

The agreements from

The

Canadian

First

Canadian

establishment

was not reached

debt that

the

with

and final

settlement.

out and fraught

Nisgaa (whose

the

a full

made the

of any

claims

comprehensive

treaties),

provide

have

component

above),

land

First Na-tions

had not signed trea-ties up their land

260

Chapter 11

Box 11-3 Nisgaa Self-Government Sparks a Public Outcry In

1998, the final

land

claims radio

people,

claims by various Indigenous Columbia

Opponents for

and

Columbia

British

legislature.

demanded opposition

Similarly, the

delay its

Reform

in the

passage.

because

it infringed

powers.

However, the

upon federal British

and

Columbia

Campbells

the treaty

British Columbia

of their legal

British

Columbia

the

proposed

Liberals

British Columbia in

2002 to

such

for treaty

provincial

legislative

large

Court ruled

to fill out the

use, solemnization

of

of the

marriages,

Nisgaa

Nisgaa law

as Private

prevails.

should

forest resources

of 2019 square

provided

the agreement

included

those on the reserve.

they

kilometres

The Nisgaa

elements

of the

with such statements

of the

electorate

by

bothered

2004).

services.

The

in these areas, but on some sub-jects

or provincial

government of land,

meet or exceed provincial

a phasing

the treaty

not be expropriated

welfare, and education

with federal

referen-dum

whether they agreed

various

mail-in ballot (Lochead,

The Nisgaa

Nisgaa treaty. Instead,

were asked criticized

Voters agreed

is not exclusive

power in a not to appeal

(although

law;

out of the exemption have to pay provincial

on other subjects

received

levy income and sales taxes and collect royalties on their lands also given ownership

et al.

controversy

property

settlements.

health, child

government

law

that

gained

held a non-binding

margins, but only 35 percent

prevails if in conflict

or provincial

address the

with eight statements

chal-lenged treaty,

did

exer-cise

was compatible

but decided

challenge to the government

was already in effect). Voters

to

to

state (Campbell

Liberals

the loss

Gordon

government

Canadian

on the treaty, leader

Supreme

federal

and that of the

Parliament

Act, 1867,

2000).

was unconstitutional

authority

Nisgaa

victory in the 2001 election

Columbia

arguing that it

powers

sovereignty

v. Nisgaa,

of the

between

Constitution

landslide

House of Commons

The British

the treaty in court,

with the

powers

in the

action.

Party of Canada

to the treaty in the

oflegislative

the right

legislative

that

peoples.

referendum

Liberal

not preclude

discriminated

political

distribution

and provincial legislatures

with scath-ing

were raised

to Indigenous

a province-wide

that the

Open-line

could result in all the land

mounted a 30-day filibuster

471 amendments try to

the treaty

groups

being returned

comprehensive

were filled

and fears

of the agreement

They lobbied Campbell

Nisgaa

British Columbia.

Critics argued that

non-Indigenous

in British

on the

shows and letters to the editor

comments. against

agreement

caused a public outcry in

the authority

to

resources. They were

with the authority forest standards. from

to

manage

In addition,

paying income

and federal

tax for

sales taxes.

The Nisgaa government received a payment of $190 million spread over 15 years, along provide

with fiscal

equivalent

arrangements

that

health, education,

government

to

and other social services to those enjoyed

would allow the

Nisgaa

by

other people in the region. They werealso given a share ofthe total allowable salmon catch in the region.

Although

some

Nisgaa

argued that their

negotiators

had given

up too muchto reach agreement (e.g., by gaining less than 10 percent of traditional lands),

61.2 percent

information

of

Nisgaa voters approved

about the

British

the BC Treaty Commission:

Columbia

the treaty

treaty

(Lochead,

process and the

2004). (For

more

Nisgaa treaty,

www.bctreaty.net, and for the Nisgaa treaty:

go to

www.gov.

bc.ca/arr/firstnation/nisgaa/default.htm.)

As of August 2018, only four final treaty agreements had been reached and rat-ified by the Nations

British

had reached

Columbia

and

an agreement

Canadian in

governments,

principle.

in British Columbia did not have a constitutionally $523 million in

debt has been incurred

the costs of negotiations. In treaty

process

by British

while eight

One hundred

ninety-eight

protected agreement. Columbia.

other

First

First bands

Morethan

Nations to pay for

May 2018, an agreement on a new plan to expedite the

was reached (Hayward,

2018,

May 16).

Nunavut In 1993, a comprehensive eastern

land

Arctic, giving the Inuit

claims

agreement

ownership

was signed

of 18 percent

mineral rights in 2 percent of the vast territory),

with the Inuit

of the land

(including

in the sub-surface

$1.173 billion over 14 years

Indigenous Rights and Governance

The 22 independent the

Nunavut govern

the

need for

inherited

Without between

and opposition the legislature

in Iqaluit round,

from

Territories. a division

government

Image

of

assem-bly

using the consensus

Northwest

benches,

members

legislative

model, a system the

261

chamber

was designed and

members

assembly

in the of the legis-lative

meet in

a circle.

Press

Hayward/Canadian

Jonathan

co-management

of land

and hunting

and fishing

establish the

new territory

resource

and resources, natural resource royalties

on Crown land,

rights

an agreement

(Henderson,

of

Nunavut,

2007). It also involved

which

would take

over

wildlife

management, land use planning, and property taxation. The benefits of the

Nunavut

land

claims

agreement

are administered

for the social,

cultural,

and eco-nomic

well-being of Inuit by Nunavut Tunngavik Inc., the legal representative Inuit in

to

and natural

Nunavut.

The Nunavut

persons in the territory

(rather

government than

is the public government

based on ancestry).6 (For

of the

representing

more information

all about

Nunavut, go to Inuit Tapirit Kanatami: www.itk.ca.)

Specific Claims Comprehensive land claims agreements in areas where notreaties the only category exist,

of claims that

based on allegations

government

need negotiating.

that treaties

have not been fulfilled

administered

the lands

Alarge

and other legal

or that the

weresigned are not

number

of specific

obligations

of the

Canadian

government

and other assets of Indigenous

peoples.

claims

Specific

Canadian

Claims

has not prop-erly A number

based

and

of the

of the

to settle specific

have

to be settled.

A more streamlined

the independent claim

was extremely

Specific

monetary

consisting

within a specified

The tribunal

compensation

with claims taking

an average

process created in 2008 allows

Claims Tribunal,

has not been resolved

for negotiation.

slow,

has the power to

of up to $150

of superior

period of time

million.

First

of 13 years

Nations to

use

court judges, if their

or has not been accepted

the not

The specific

claims

process

does not

establish rights to self-government. As of were in

March 2018,

more than

process; and additional

460 specific claims

claims

had been settled;

were being prepared.

about 481

more

The process for settling

specific claims has been criticized for being very slow, despite efforts to improve the process. In process

October 2017, the

would be overhauled

moreinformation

Canadian government

announced

for the second time (APTN

that the specific claims

National

News, 2017). (For

about specific claims, go to Specific Claims Tribunal

Canada: www.

sct-trp.ca.)

6 Similarly, the Kativik regional government in the far north of Quebec (established in 1978) is elected by and pro-vides services to both Inuit and non-Inuit people, while the Makivik Corporation administers the benefits of the land claims

agreement

for

the Inuit

people

of the

region.

other

been

Canadian properly

assets.

that

legal

Canadian not

Indigenous

make binding decisions and provide

groups

on allegations

claims go back to the nineteenth century. The negotiation process established in 1973 claims

Claims by Indigenous

trea-ties

obligations

government fulfilled

or that

government

has

administered lands

and

other

262

Chapter 11

Indigenous Self-Government 11.4a

Describe the changes to government

11.4b

Discuss

what is needed to improve

and non-Indigenous Inherent

recognizing to Indigenous

Policy.

government an inherent

policy right

self-government.

Specifically,

in relation

to

Indigenous

matters that

cultures, identities, special

the relationship

the

relationship

Charter

federal

peoples

are internal

traditions,

and their

the right to govern themselves

communities, resources

applying

integral

would

relations,

to their

unique

and with respect to their (quoted

to Indigenous

would prevail

The Canadian government such as defence and external safety

Right of Self-Government

in

would be exercised under the existing

importance

of national law

would have

to their

of Rights and Freedoms

and provincial

peoples.

between Indigenous

languages and institutions

to their land

2007, p. 178). This right

Indigenous

peoples.

Right of Self-Government In 1995,the Canadian government announced its Inherent Policy

A Canadian

policy concerning

Abele

& Prince,

Constitution,

governments.

over laws

with

Laws of

passed by these govern-ments.

maintain its exclusive authority in areas

management

and order and criminal

of the

law,

national

economy,

and protection

main-tenance

of the health

and

of Canadians. A proposed first step toward

implementing

self-government

was the First

Nations

Governance Act (2002), which would give greater independence to bands to their own affairs.

However, among the specific

werethe setting

of minimum standards

of band governments, The Assembly

of First

including

and added to the cost of governing government

out that they decided

Assembly of First

available

objected to the

inherent right of self-government, imposed chiefs pointed

for leadership

publicly

Nations strongly

Nations, go to

gover-nance

selection and the adminis-tration audited financial

statements.

Act, arguing that it violated the

morebureaucratic controls on their govern-ments, First

Nations (Hurley,

had not been consulted

not to pursue

manage

provisions to provide for effective

2003). As well, several

about the proposed

Act. In 2004, the

passage of the

Act. (For

moreinformation

Assembly of First

Nations:

www.afn.ca.)

about the

Nevertheless, band councils have become largely responsible for administering most programs

and services

and generally

to suit the particular

circumstances

does not create full

self-government.

that is limited

to specified

the minister of Indian proportion

local

Band councils

However,

delivery

programs of services

were given only delegated

matters, and they can have their

coming

band councils

Abele, 2005). Band councils allocated for their

of their community.

in shaping

bylaws

power

overturned

by

Affairs (Bakvis, Baier, & Brown, 2009). Further, with a very high

of band revenues

attached,

have some flexibility

still

from the depend

are accountable

programs,

and the

Canadian

heavily to the

government,

on government

often support

Canadian government

Canadian government

with con-ditions (Prince

&

for the funds

can unilaterally

change

or

cancel mostprograms (Papillon, 2008). In its 2011 Throne Speech, the it

was committed

to

making First

Harper

Conservative

government

Nations

governments

democratic,

accountable. The First Nations Financial Transparency salaries

financial through that their

and expenses

of chiefs and councillors

as

announced transparent,

that and

Act (2014) requires that the

well as the

audited

consolidated

statements of each band council have to be disclosed to the general public a website.7 The Assembly accountability

should

of First

be to their

Nations

was critical

of the

Act, arguing

own people rather than to the government.

As well, they pointed out that the large number of reports (averaging 160 each year) that

are required

to

be submitted

to the

Canadian

government

placed

a huge bur-den

on each band council. Further, they argued that the government failed to con-sult with First

7 First

Nations

were

Nations leaders, that the bill represented

already

required

to

provide

this

information

to

the

a continuation

Aboriginal

Affairs

of colonialism

Department

Indigenous Rights and Governance

and

paternalism,

(Simeone

& Troniak,

The

Budget

Act passed nearly

and that

helped

by four

and

allowed

to

the

spark

such

with the

real

women

in

for their

of lakes

and

reduced

were

goals

and

issues

Idle

No

facing

First

More

number

Nations

but

housing.

In June

2018, the

allowed

the

the

with

(See

peaceful,

and

protection requiring

without

consultation

Indigenous

environment,

Environmental

of projects

movement.

vocal,

that

Canadian

environmental

of band lands

the

and

the

the

without

of promoting

rivers

to

the

made

2012, this

protecting

as education

changes

2012 reduced

the surrender

grassroots

of treaties,

protection

and rivers,

These changes

support

services

December

council.

Indigenous

and intent

deal

Act and

in

lakes

protection,

and

not

2011).

by Parliament

band

did

Implementation

all of Canadas

of the

it

gained

rights,

upholding

providing

equal

con-siderable

the

spirit

funding

provisions

surrender

Nations

6.) Founded

movement

2012

approval

First

Chapter

of envi-ronmental

that

of band

for

reduced

lands

were

eliminated. In

2015,

announced

Carolyn

Bennett,

funding

withheld

that

Transparency

Act

not comply

with the

would peoples,

to

develop

on

the time

new of

would

toward

2015). In

it

First

Indigenous

Nations

be suspended.

recognition

approaches

of

and court

a renewed

and

under

actions

the

Instead,

respect,

to improve

financial

transparency

what the

that

new

and

working

with

and

approaches

that

the

did

govern-ment

with Indigenous

co-operation, began

Financial

Nations

relationship

government

Affairs,

Nations

First

she indicated

Canadian

was not known

Northern

First

against

nation-to-nation

of rights,

2017, the

writing,

from

be returned

Act

work

based

(Bennett,

would

Minister

partnership First

Nations

accountability.

At

would involve.

Self-Government Issues and Challenges First

Nations governments

majority

having

face

only a few

many challenges.

hundred

people.

responsible for developing and administering in some cases, to those

provided

Most First

Establishing

Nations are small, the

a substantial

by provincial

governments

is a daunting

Asizable expert staff is also neededto coordinate the laws, regulations, of First

Nations governments

Although

there

with those

has been a substantial

government

various programs and services equiva-lent,

of the federal

increase

and provincial

in the

number

task.

and programs governments.

of Indigenous

people

with university degrees, only about 44 percent of 18-to 24-year-olds on First Nations reserves

have completed

(Indigenous

high school,

The 1996 Royal Commission of Indians

compared

to 88 percent

of other

Canadians

Service Canada, Quality Education, 2018).

into

numerous

small

policy designed to bands be consolidated

on Aboriginal bands

Peoples pointed

was primarily

the result

out that the of past federal

division govern-ment

weaken and assimilate Indians. It recommended that Indian

into

60 to 80 nations

based on similarities

in language

and cul-ture.

However, merging existing First Nations bands might not be acceptable because these bands often have different identities, most First

Self-government operate

Nations

would still

histories,

and cultures.

have small

populations.

And even

agreements generally require that Indigenous

democratically,

with a constitution

that Indigenous

laws

with con-solidation,

governments

and governing

pro-cedures

mustfollow (as well as being subject to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and other

provisions

democracy

into

of the

practice

Canadian

Constitution).

can be challenging.

problems resulting from factionalism, levels

of poverty

and unemployment,

First

However,

putting

Nations communities

a

can face gov-erning

nepotism, and corruption.

and an inadequate

supply

meaningful

With high

of housing, it is not

surprising that politics in some First Nations communities is very contentious. Some chiefs and band councils

have been accused of rewarding

with scarce resources

very high incomes

such asjobs and housing,

their family,

clan, and sup-porters

and a few chiefs have obtained

263

264

Chapter 11

Good

governing

requires

government

accountable

particularly

where

for

employment,

that

for

a high

Indian

its

actions.

peoples

This

proportion

of people

and

benefits

housing,

former

Indigenous

Affairs

other

Department

can

be able and

be difficult

depend (Bedford,

was often

willing

in

to

small

hold their

communities,

on the

chief

and

2010).

The

Canadian

been criticized

band

for its

council govern-ments

paternalism

and ineffectiveness. In

2017, Indigenous

government and Indigenous with the

capability

Affairs

Canada

make First

The

development

and

publicize

Nations

was split

Relations

and

into

Indigenous

new federal

Affairs

of independent

governments

two

Northern

Canada;8

Indigenous

peoples

issues

more accountable

media and

prob-lems

to the

people

serve. Most First

exist:

Nations

that or

in

Affairs

Canada,

Some

successful

the

to to

Assembly

the

land,

however,

heav-ily

exceptions

have

the

an increasing

2011,

urban

precious

lack

of oppor-tunities

proportion

56 percent

of the

areas (Indigenous

ownership

major factor

to

build

their

to

of the

1.4

and

million Northern

own

the

& Le

home.

land looking

such as allowing

Dressay,

held

develop-ment

2010).

Without

businesses

Most First

or for

Nations

arguing

that

for

future

at

ways to combine

non-band

title

economic

money to start

on reserves,

traditional

has suggested

property,

with the legal

hindering

borrow

landowning

of their

of land,

in

Alcantara,

difficult

private

governance

despair

faces

an array

chiefs

it

would

generations.

Instead, communal

members to lease reserve

of

and

Nunavik to

effective

dependence.

(Quebec)

establish

community.

major northern

the

Some

First

used

and challenges,

self-government

communities

of the

operates

various

have

help

gained

development.

money

Corporation,

there

can

that

and community

some

Makivik

The corporation

airline,

of problems

Establishing

have become active in economic

agreement

Inuit

in

(Flanagan,

Nations

of

Inuit

claims

of the

a

side to self-government.

the

In

depend

A few

2011).

self-government land

of

Indigenous

attitudes

example,

lived

it is

control

of First

(Curry,

change

idea

with private

a positive

is

mortgages

Nations

Although

valuable

Generally,

cities.

they

autonomy.

occupy

meant that

the communal

of property,

obtain

First

property

that

communities

ownership

ownership

identity

government,

of Indigenous

opposed

to

their

2011). argued

Canadian

threaten

they

has

migrated

base. Inevitably,

limits

businesses. areas

has

an Indigenous

have

individuals

economic which

because

and isolated

population with

private

wealthy

operate

persons

a limited

funding,

are

remote

Indigenous

by the

have

government

bands

resources,

is

Canada.

to investigate to

on federal

are

Northern

Crown-Indigenous

Services

may help they

and

departments:

provided

owned

by all

businesses,

For

by their members

including

the

Air.

Sovereignty and the Rightto Self-Determination Some

First

Nations

arrangements, early treaties

that

independent

some

has a long sovereignty.

in

keeping

control

of the

8In July 2018, it Northern

history

(See is the

Affairs,

to share

specific

with international whole

country

was renamed and Internal

are sovereign

law,

to

involved

Nations

retained

Crown.

The Six

Powers:

establish nations.

Crown

sovereignty

their

has never

First

continued

accepted

Wampum Nations

view,

Belt.)

has been

possession

and

the

between

sovereignty

Confederacy,

The Two-Row over

self-government In their

an agreement

Nations

and

by long-term

(Flanagan,

Department

British

its independence

Sovereign Canadian

they

First

to the

Crown-Indigenous Trade

negotiations

that

territory.

of asserting

that

enter into

with the

powers

Box 11-4:

claim

to

asserting

were signed

nations

delegating

view

have refused

with some

while in

partic-ular,

Canadian A differ-ent acquired, effective

2000).

Relations,

with

Northern

Affairs

moved to Inter-governmental,

Indigenous Rights and Governance

265

Box 11-4 Sovereign Powers: The Two-Row Wampum Belt The

Haudenosaunee North

(Six

America

long

had

before

the

European

two

rows

European

powers,

of beads

the

travelling

side

used to

the

down

of a canoe Each

neither

vessel

crew

tried

should

with other

of the

Confederacy,

basis for the nations,

perspective,

Important,

Indigenous

concept

The

beads a ship

avoided

their

people.

enhancing

the

by the

Instead

wampum

Holland,

France,

and

goal to

be pursued

but less radical,

by First

is the

Britain. Nations

United

separate

From should

Nations

their

economic,

social,

and cultural

autonomy or self-government in well as ways and

the right to and cultural

determining

of the

systems

nations

and the

means of financing

their

autonomous

society.

parallel

system, but

separate

and non-Indigenous of

Canada

of Indigenous and

peo-ples. requires

people

constitutions

relationship

as the

and for

between

nation.

of

peoples pur-suing

the right

to

and local affairs as

In addition,

it includes

maintain and strengthen their distinct political, legal, economic, social, institutions

political,

while retaining

economic,

social,

their

before adopting

may affect them.

right to

and cultural

commitment to obtain from Indigenous

dismember

This includes

Canadian

with the

self-government

the

government,

In

Nations

not representing

governing

a nation-to-nation

Rights

status and freely

mattersrelating to their internal

to

by the

First

territory

as

Indigenous Canadian

sovereignty

Indigenous

set

Constitution.

share

view

decolonization

of laws, and

on the

and they

looks

the

conditions

belt tradition,

Indigenous

nations

political

development.

tradition

Indigenous

Declaration

their

in the

perspective,

Peoples (2007). This declaration focuses on the right of Indigenous is, freely

of viewing

of sovereign

the full recognition

Six Nations

which

the

Canadian

sovereignty

participation

development

ves-sels

their

the

wampum

government,

in-terference two-row

steer

of the two

signed

including

the

the

early treaties

to self-determinationthat

sovereign

reassert

under

within

with the two-row

a re-lationship Canadian

and

to

of self-government government

keeping

of

document

consist

Canadian

with

symbolism

and

not

sys-tem

treaties

with Europeans.

a river.

and

their

traditional

in terms

other

northeast-ern political

In this

view

was the

in the

In

describe

and friendship

by side

in

a democratic

vessel.

In the

this

they

relationship

with the others

Confederacy)

colonization.

(wampum)

of peace represented

Nations developed

life

participation,

of the state.

peoples their free,

and implementing

legislation

prior and informed

or administrative

However, the declaration does not justify

or impair,

totally

and independent

or in states

Although the declaration

part, the territorial (Article

any

integrity

a

con-sent,

measures that

action that or political

would unity

of

46).

was passed by the

Nations in 2007, the Canadian government

if they so choose,

Likewise, it includes

General Assembly of the

voted against the

Declaration.9

United

However, in

2016, Canada fully agreed to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous

Peoples.

Summary and Conclusion Indigenous early

peoples played a major role in

development.

European

to the

However,

ancestry increased,

as settlement First

Nations

Canadas

by those

were pushed

In recent

decades, Indigenous

peoples

relationship

with

political

Canadian

action.

Nevertheless,

people and communities housing, inadequate

governments

through

legal

many Indigenous

continue to suffer from

services,

poverty,

attempts

three signed

other the

countries UN

that

Declaration

voted

against

the

the Constitution

United

States,

rights

Constitution right

Although

of self-government

to

have not succeeded, the Canadian gov-ernmen

Nevertheless, Indigenous extremely

were recognized Act, 1982.

has declared its commitment lengthy

and costly legal

rights

to this

principle.

nations have had to undertake

and have faced

battles in the courts various legislative

obstacles to full self-government.

serious social and

Declarationthe

and treaty by the

to add the inherent

to secure their

poor

health problems, violence, alcoholism, and drug abuse.

also

affirmed

have ac-tively

pursued their rights and sought to change their

9 The

and

margins of society, and treaty promises were often

ignored.

and

Indigenous

of

In those

areas of the

country

where First

Nations

did not sign treaties, a few recent comprehensive land

Australia,

and

New

Zealandhave

266

Chapter 11

claims

agreements and

have included

have removed

of the Indian have to

been

band

subject

councils. to the

the

small

Nations

For

from

to

600 First

questions

Nations

responsibilities.

to

exercise

provi-sions

communities the

finan-cial

most

of

more than

of

governing

wide range government

is

First

a diffi-cult

challenge. The

of

often

Status

and

less

Nevertheless,

can

though

who qualifies

is

unclear,

Likewise,

the

much

a substantial

population

often

of

receive

Indians.

represent

beyond

Mtis

these

proportion claim

inadequate

Mtis rights

attention

non-status than

diverse

of the

constitutional

as a

and their

and

attention

World

First

are largely has

been

Indian

undefined. paid

to

(as

among

Nations

in

urban

devoted

grand

and

to be seen

Canada

relation-ship

on its

original

respect

there

has

need for

Gord that

government attention

how

Assembly

effective

peoples

Downey),

includ-ing

Indigenous of Justin

and been

reconcil-iation

non-Indigenous

by

the

commu-nities,

the

mutual

a

of Canada

of the

about the and

of the injustices

considerable

rectifying

reset

Increasingly

is

However,

nature

chief

want to

example,

While the

meaningful

of the

Canadians

for

have faced.

2011).

peoples record.

and

recognition,

Indigenous

promoted,

remains

the

live

many Indigenous

We

mutual

(Atleo,

between

of

rethinking

stated,

of

rights

past injustices

Asthe former

between foundation

recognition

even

now

of Indigenous

conditions

Nations

discussion

groups

who

human

for

may be needed. of First

Indigenous

or a non-status

Canadas

apologies

Third

those

rights,

treatment

on

partnership

circumstances

Indians

people

a fundamental

of

capacity

the

blot

Furthermore,

the

good

Overall, serious

are still

lack

of Indigenous

areas.

powers

populations

a

Developing

the

government

generally

about

pro-visions majority

Nations,

self-governing.

and impoverished raise

from

Canadian

these

Act, and

be truly

Nations

most First the

However,

Indian

resources

First

Act.

delegated

self-government

peoples

Trudeau

has

to Indigenous

issues,

this

achieving

will be in

it

change.

Discussion Questions 1. Should Indigenous of their

people have special rights

occupancy

of the land

be-cause 4.

engaged in prior to European contact? Nisgaa

agreement

a suitable

First Nations? 3. Should

Indigenous

How to

does the the

Indigenous

peoples

be encouraged

move toward

an

Indigenous

equal

partner-ship

nations

and the

Canadian government? 5.

model for other

Canada

between sovereign

control? Should these rights be limited to activities 2. Is the

Should

before European

migration

cities peoples

affect and

of the

many Indigenous relationship

Canadian

peo-ple between

governments

to inte-grate

into Canadian society?

Further Reading Asch, M.(2014). On being here to stay: Treaties and Aboriginal rights in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Borrows, J., & Coyle, M.(2017). The right relationship. Reimagining the implementation of historical treaties. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Frideres, J.S., & Gadacz, R.R. (2011). Aboriginal peoples in Canada (9th ed.). Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall. Macklem, D., & Sanderson, D.(Eds.). (2016). From recognition to reconciliation: Essays on the constitutional

entrenchment of aboriginal and treaty rights. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Russell, P. (2017). Canadas odyssey: A country based on incomplete conquest. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Saul, J.R. (2014). The comeback. Toronto, ON: Penguin Canada. Timpson, A.M. (Ed.). (2010). First nations, first thoughts: The impact of indigenous thought in Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Chapter12

TheFederalSystem

Image

CP

Kilpatrick/The

Sean

Prime

Minister

First

Justin

Ministers

Trudeau

Meeting in

meets

Ottawa

with first

ministers

on Tuesday,

October

and

national

Indigenous

leaders

during

the

3, 2017

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be ableto 12.1 Explain the characteristics/advantages constitutional division of powers. 12.2 Trace the evolution 12.3

of a federal system and the

of Canadian federalism

since its inception.

Describe the pros and cons of centralization

and decentralization.

12.4 Understand the nature ofinter-governmental 12.5 Explain the financial relationship provinces.

Federalism

can

sometimes

work like

are

driven

agendas,

challenging:

a well-oiled

by ten

often

partisan

be very

ranged

complexions

different

a federal machine

governments

against of the

a number

might

if

seize

you include

government

governments

Ottawa and the

contains

at others

(thirteen

a federal

various

between

system

and

relations.

trying

change,

to

of

up. In the

territories)

juggle

positions

moving

Canada,

too

many

parts

dynam-ics

with

differing

balls.

on important

that

the

As the

policy

issues

may be reversed. For

example,

when

Progressive Quebec does

and

California

not stay in

alow-carbon

Kathleen

Conservatives

Ontario:

economy

that

Wynnes led

by

was designed

Fords

volte-face

were in tatters,

Liberal

Doug

government

Ford

withdrew

to reduce

its

meant not but it

also

carbon

only that

had

in from

Ontario

was defeated,

a cap-and-trade footprint.

Ontarios

a negative

effect

the incom-ing

agreement

What happens ambitious on

plans to

Canadas

in

with Ontario

establish

commitments

267

268

Chapter 12

on climate Scott

change

Moe and is

also

The

offside

carbon

assertive

This

tax

2015

Paris

Premier

Fords

Pallister

decision

provided

with a powerful

Saskatchewan

ally. The

New

Premier

Brunswick

govern-ment

matter.

debate

exemplifies

has

the federal

Accord.

Brian

governments

strategy

negotiations,

the

on this

provincial

action.

in

under Manitoba

the

(four

worked

in

difficulty

this

well in the

government

in

case) past,

unilaterally

obtaining

can

a consensus

mobilize

most

notably

set the

their in

in

Canada

electorates

Alberta

price

of oil via the

and

when there

when

against

when,

after

National

federal

protracted

Energy

Program

1980. Citizens

in federal

a province provincial

premiers

others it trill

is

might

the

card

inherit

carbon

a planet

will be swayed

have

national to

Often the

laying

regional

the

opposition

not.

of a songbird

providing

to

countries

and

claim

divided

Ottawa

that

to

territory

desirable

by their

the

citizens

environmental

provincial

to

change,

governments

field

on it

In

clash

many

of provincial

since

for inaction

but in like

the play-ing

government

Young

forebears. on the

the

whether

the federal

provinces. by their

rights,

not clear

be-tween

cases,

governments

p. 52). It is

especially

arguments

an inevitable

of other

recalcitrant

inflicted

is

strained.

assertion

1987,

in the four scars

is

clear the

(Leslie,

on climate to

allegiance

will be a legitimate is invoked

directly

bears

their

constitution

will be successful rebates

loyalties,

government,

people Whether

climate

will they

file remains

be seen.

ChapterIntroduction Federal System A system which

Afederal

of governing authority

shared

is

between

government

and

governments, its

divided

the

and

central

That almost form

provincial

with authority

system is a natural

of the relationship

in

of government

de-riving

from

the

constitution.

a federal

union

political

of a group

testifies

of the planet live in countries

to the

popularity

units surrender

divides

and flexibility

sovereignty

and shares power

of afederal

of contiguous

cleavages,

jurisdictions

benefits

that

or religion,

matters like

that flow

matters that of federal

from

wish to

adopt

that they

that

prudent

or culturally

authority

rests

government;

would

be swamped Maritime

by the

and local subordinate government.

governments to the

with the

authority significant

are

A federal

central

In

their

In

based

neighbours.

which encourages sub-units to cede re-sponsibility can be attributed

The guarantee

to the

mutual

of autonomy

is a very attractive

over feature

Nigeria, and South Africa to

Canada, French-Canadians

by the

English

provinces

shared

more populous

majority

and quickly

French-Canadian

provinces.

were concerned assimilated

concerns

However, the fact that

in

about

a

being

provincial

gov-ernments

over local

matters meantthat afederal union wasa

differs from

a unitary

are subordinate

over them.

legislative system

have agreed authority

umbrella.

alternative.

governments

regional

a single

needs

are territorially

them from

salient to sub-groups

of government.

The Canadian federal system local

under

distinguish

accommodation.

would have jurisdiction

which

but

government

to suit the specific

there

prompted countries like Ethiopia,

form

state. The

overwhelmed

central

government,

systems.

a federal

unitary

unify

defence and the economy,

political

are socially

Ethnic pluralism

in

to a single national

units are not homogeneous;

such as language for

of governing

use a federal

between the central (federal)

In such situations, the promise of federalism,

A system

that

of the concept. In a uni-tary

system is that it can be tailored

many cases, these territorial

System

because the ex-tent

and provincial (or state) governments. These powers are set out in a written constitu-tion. The attraction

Unitary

commitment-phobes

among parties can belimited to the comfort level they can tol-erate.

half the population

state, constituent

each

choice for

to

The

powers also

differs

delegate

some

while retaining

their

to the central

United have

Kingdom

devolved

from of their

authority

is basically

to the

a confederal

system, in

government, Scottish

system, to

a joint

in

which regional

a unitary Parliament which

and

which exercises com-plete system,

in recent

sovereign

government

although

that

times.

countries has limited

sovereignty.1

1 Confederal systems are rare; the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy is an early example, while the European Union is often depicted as a combination of federal and confederal systems. Although the formation of Canada in 1867 is often described as Confederation, Canada has never had a confederal system

The Federal System

In

practice,

complex,

as

requiring The

powers that

see, governing

a high level Canadian

in the twenty-first

of interaction

federal

but also requires

affect

close

system

between is

cooperation

not

in

century

the federal

only

a

making

is

and

matter

of

much

more

provincial

divided

and implementing

gov-ernments.

legislative the

decisions

our lives.

The North it

we shall

269

adoption

of a federal

American

easier

to

a federal

colonies.

develop

the

system,

the

Skogstad,

1867

and

and goal

was necessary

one country

with

provide

governments

traditions,

challenging

in

in

economy

provincial

cultures, embraces

system

Uniting

for

military

could

identities.

other

together

unite

and

words, unity

the

British

government

defence.

maintain

In

of bringing

to

a central

made adopting

nurture the

and

By

their

federal

diversity

dis-tinctive

system (Bakvis

&

2008).

The Constitution andthe Federal System 12.1

Explain the characteristics/advantages constitutional

Sir John

A.

political

unitary

and

limited

and

with

his

the

uniting scope

war, and it central

peers

which they

the of the

reasons

was to

have

system

and the

central

United

government,

model for

was reflected,

to

to replicate

a unitary

above.

a strong

The

role

preferred

However,

mentioned

establish

new country.

was a negative

government

would

were familiar.

for

state

of a federal

of powers.

French-Canadians

get to

building

civil

Macdonald

system to

could

division

central States,

Britains

state

was not ac-ceptable

The closest

Macdonald

government

capable

whose constitution

had just

gone

Canada.

Macdonalds

a considerable

through

extent,

of

greatly

a devastating

idea

in the

of a vigor-ous Constitution

Act, 1867.

The Constitution Act,1867 The

Constitution

of exclusive In

legislative

particular,

Canadian

provincial

in these

divides

most government

authority:

the

document

lists

Parliament

many areas

jurisdiction.

(See Table 12-1.) In two

Canadian

and

laws

jurisdiction

provincial

take

into and

precedence

two

categories

provincial

of government

legislative

Parliament

although

Canadian

activities

has exclusive

immigrationboth

authority,2

legisla-tures.

activity

where the

and somewhat

policy

fewer

areasagriculture

legislatures

received

if

and

Canadian

areas

legislative

provincial

laws

areas conflict.

The not all,

Constitution

Act, 1867,

of the important

provinces

retained

which charitable

in

the

areas

into

A constitutional

might in the

gave of

legislative

century

as

well

as

major governmental document

2 In the case of criminal law, Parliament them (Bakvis & Skogstad, 2008).

Act)

legislative

in the

in

areas

were

activities

the

in

anticipate

many, but

However,

as education,

health,

responsibility

of religious

These

and

the wel-fare, and

responsibilities

modern times. all

power

was basically

given

and provincial

over

century.

governments.

The residual

makes the laws

authority

nineteenth

such

often

municipal

cannot

want to legislate. Constitution

Parliament

governing

authority

nineteenth

organizations

have evolved

listed

this

Parliament

of exclusive and

Act, 1867,

matters

(the to

the

about

power federal

governments

which

over

govern-ments Residual

matters

government,

are responsible

for

not

Legislative

as

not listed

enforcing

Power power in the

over

matters

Constitution

270

Chapter 12

Table 12-1 TheDivisionof LegislativePowers in the ConstitutionAct,1867 Exclusive Exclusive

Powers

Regulation Raising

of Parliament

of trade

and commerce

money by any

and

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273

274

Chapter 12

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to

period

federal up the build

a

as one

of

because of the dominance of the federal government, particularly

Court did indicate

systemic Ottawa

of tying

Canadian

risk,

and the

and

that a national securities

data collection.

provinces

might

It

also

meet the

regulator

suggested

constitutional

might deal

that

a cooperative

with some approach

matters, such as national to

securities

regulation

test.

7 Federal principles and practices can be discerned through most of human history. From the 12 tribes in the Old Testament to the confederacy of Indigenous peoples in North America, autonomous

of Israel groups

united

in

in

Fenna,

2015)

a covenant

or quasi-federal

pact

that

shared

power

and

provided

security

(Elazar,

quoted

Hueglin

men-tioned have &

The Federal System

through

its

use of the

legislation

powers

(Wheare,

golden

age,

1967).

but federal

of reservation

and

For supporters

dominance

disallowance

of a strong,

to invalidate

central

275

provincial

government,

this

was a

was short-lived.

ClassicalFederalism In

addition

Canada began

to the JCPCs

off the

to challenge Oliver

Ottawas

Mowat,

minister

Quebec

the

mid-1890s

and

featured

However,

during

greater

powers

on the

little

back burner

dominant

role

peace

in the

1930s.

$40

the led

indebtedness million

in

and

that

Liberal

and the

pre-mier

earliest

of

pro-ponent

Conservative

comrade-in-arms

governments the

in

have energeti-cally

Quebec

system

national

and

War I, the

government

was quite

provincial

Canadian

the two

recognized

the

decentral-ized

governments.

government

World

assumed

Wars, federalism

need for

Canada

until

unprecedented

governments

were unable

especially

in the

provinces.

totalled

Mackenzie

the

million,

Ottawa

and

example,

A prolonged

was

to

play

the

between

& Wardaugh,

a

to

war

Great consti-tutional

private

and

cost

of

govern-ment

coincided

bankruptcy

with that

it

Commission

on

make recommenda-tions responsibilities

Marchildon

to classical

their

Alberta

Royal

jurisdictional

Quoted in

not revert

the

to

Commission) their

of the

as the

an average

drought

He established

Rowell-Sirois

did

discharge

close

(the

system

to For

so

balance

such

representing

Saskatchewan act.

outbreak

was so dire that

(Barr, 1974).

King to

fiscal capacity (Ferguson War II, the federal

$395

The situation

Alberta

Relations

Prairie

the

problems

Provincial

sending

World

Ontario

views

moved

or nations.

during

address

Depression,

how to redress

view

federal

characterized

to

payments

on

World

payments.

Dominion-Provincial

their

that

on loan

Minister

on the peoples

Committee

defaulted Prime

an ally

Arguably

Alberta

in interest

1896,

Ontario

Quebec

and

governments

was restored.

federalism

responsibilities,

of

most

between

after

and

Mowat found

Canadas

interaction

proved inadequate

Depression

public

1939,

as the Judicial

until

The classical

in 1939

until

war effort.

1872

powers

provincial

centralist

based

founding

at federal

assertive

with the

Ever since,

two

and shortly

in the

horns

autonomy

Canadas

away

some

of the interests

1880s,

Mercier.

provincial

one of

whittled

Between

locked In the

Honor

defended

From

defender

rights,

Macdonald.

premier

represents

that

federalism,

dominance.

fierce

of provincial prime

decisions

path to centralized

and

et al., 2009). After

federalism.

Cooperative Federalism Following

World of

Keynesian The

propose

that

stimulating

in

The period

to

the

government

crisis,

about

1945 to the

increasingly (the

Highway.

Provincial

welfare

Harper

early

and and shared

the

provincial in their

federal

Maynard

a downturn,

For

example,

delivered

Economic

a

Action

to and fol-lowing

$61-billion

Plan (Finance

of Keynesian referred

gov-ernment.

Keynes

stabilizing

expenditures.

1960s is typically

level

of federalprovincial

became

involved

in

state)

as

as the

well

it

paying

generally was the federal

interaction.

developing

economics.

to

as featuring

for

The

and funding

construction

were responsible

government

governments funding,

more active

John

is an example

and the in-fluence

Cooperative Federalism The feature

of the

administering

Canadian

various

social

Trans-Canada these

of

in

which

governments under in

cooperated government

of the in

cost.

developing that

took

the lead,

and generally

federal

developing

the

War II

provincial cooper-ated

leadership welfare

state.

programs

Because the these

fed-eralism

World

federal

These shared-cost programs gener-allyShared-Cost one-half

Canadian

following

was,to a considerable extent, an era of centralized federal-ism

governments

Canadian

a

war effort

government

Canada

according to national guidelines and conditions. involved

during

government

package

for

economist

role

via the

to the

support

British

the

stimulus

with a substantial

programs

growing

more active

economy this

contribution

led

by increasing

cooperative federalism. It combined

a

financial

Arguably, from

saw

play

economy

arm

Canadas

experience

governments

2009).

in

economics

2008 global

the

Canada,

pride

Depression

the

the shot

War II,

fed-eral Provincial

programs although

the

Programs

programs

Canadian paid

in

government

half the costs

which gen-erally

276

Chapter 12

some

programs

were initiated

insurance)

Spending

Power

The

of the

ability

government as it

to

sees fit,

under

provincial

under

Canadian

spend

even

and later

the Canadian

on

money matters

In the form

United

on them

grants,

was and

with the federal

put in

of

hos-pital

particular,

matters that

the

servants

promised

of block

general in

for

spending

are

be appreciated

cooperation

particular

policy

that

is

next

welcomed

by Canadians

across

this

by

municipal

pri-orities

is

despite

weakened.

of this

era

were

especially

2006). is

work

The argu-ment

has been

provinces,

decade

to

provincial

were a key feature

areas (Simeon,

over the

objec-tives

favoured

programs.

next section,

other

the

spend-ing

willing

distorts

conditionality

of the

in

policy

which

welfare-state

in the

that

its

was not

jurisdiction

grants,

programs

infrastructure power

of

states

use of its

government,

programs,

As discussed

welfare-state

has imposed governments

Quebec

social

of provincial

be curtailed.

with the

of public

doubt

In

in

money to the

Congress

Canadian

development

in areas

with the introduction

Ottawas

Saskatchewans

program.

transfers

The

federal

on the

it should

place

spending

shared-cost

1930s The

contentious.

spending

Nevertheless,

the

2015).

opposed

government

and that

level

remains and

federal

the fact that,

(e.g.,

power to get involved

government

and since

& Fenna,

federalism

is that

a national

used its spending

States, the federal

(Hueglin

power classical

into

government

jurisdiction

of conditional

jurisdiction.

turned

government

provincial

by a provincial

at the

Currently,

federal

an example

of the

governments

and

use

will no

the country.

Competitive Federalism Despite

ongoing

inter-governmental

more reluctant

Ottawa

has replaced

in this

chapter).

1960s,

prompted

of

provincial

the

by nationalism

change.

for

Quebec.

Competitive A feature

Federalism

of Canadian

beginning 1960s, in

in the

competitive

federal-ism,

butt

early

voters

which provincial

national

governments

to

maximize

It

would

with voters.

some

Federalism

in

contemporary

in

which both levels

of government together

not

be an exaggeration

at a boiling 1990s

A trend

try to

2006.

point

highly

charged

its

This

and

autonomy,

assertiveness provinces

clashed

Canadian

resulted

national

in

various

any special and

what

Alberta

some

governments

jurisdiction,

and over

with

and avoid the

early

controversies

frequently

between

later

the

term

inevitably

and standing

with the

pp. 78).

to

rocky

major

Health typically

Accords.

Canadian Canada-wide

(SUFA), government priorities

Federal attempt

relations federalism

battle

include

these

in their signed

and

two

the

worked and

1999, with

objectives

and

provincial about

Agreement

and is

the

early on

replaced

governments

began change.

as equals

in

estab-lishing

2002). on Internal (1998),

not legally

effectiveness. an example

provincial for

are

from

referendums

constitutional

work together

Harmonization

were some-times

federalism

bring

& Simeon,

agreements

scope in

to

of government

(Cameron

on Environmental

However,

been limited

Agreement

goals

agreements Accord

than

both levels

national

Collaborative Canada-wide

of competitive

constitutional

relationship. rather

means that

some

period

federalprovincial

peace broke out and the era of collaborative

agreements

Collaboration

the

say that

prolonged

federalprovincial

negotiate

to

during

After the

Quebec separation,

fed-eralism the work

until

as equals in deciding major policies.

2008,

resource-rich

Program.

from

growing

the

government

developed

Energy

maximize

and

central

which provincial

& Skogstad,

Quebec, the

Trudeau

(discussed

relations

be-come and

Collaborative Federalism

au-tonomy,

power, and popularity

Collaborative

in

as each seeks to

(Bakvis

policy, Pierre

also

in

have

government,

with block funding

between

a strong

conflicts National

governments

Canadian

and

com-peted their

the

federalism,

heads

energy

Minister

maintain

Serious

over

programs

and separatism

over

to

of the

in federalprovincial

disagreements

Prime

as he sought

provincial

leadership

was common

government

governments

the

most shared-cost

governments,

Canadian

premiers

cooperation,

accept

Conflict

constitutional

status

to

Trade

and the

The Social

new federalprovincial

the 2004

enforceable

and

Union

of collaboration

and territorial

(1994),

2003 and

governments social

have

Framework

in

action:

the

to identify programs

The Federal System

It is expected of a

majority

programs

of

the

Despite

only

a

policy the

effect

most of the

until

& OReilly,

2006

governments

was truly

can

Canada-wide

collaborative

agreements,

somewhat

between

federal

will require

met agreed

about

controversy on the

Johns,

1990s

they

government

considerable

(Inwood,

early

not sign

programs

Provincial

provided

federal

minimal

social

governments.

funding did

with

Quebec.

from

provincial

government

agreements

social

new federalprovincial

and receive

Quebec

had

that

its supporters

system

(Fortin,

2011).

Overall,

collaborative

their

instead

The

reached

provisions

and

for

SUFA

on the

not clear

(Simmons

own

objectives.

and critics,

2009) it is

the support

design

equivalent

277

has

making

that

of

federalism

& Graefe, 2013).

OpenFederalism Before former

Prime

to open As he autonomy,

this

remarkably

limits

programs, if they

did

not come

and

the

Harper

involving

offered

government

compatible

a seat at the

United

the

spending

power.

affairs

and

The

provincial

to federalism

powers,

opt

out and

included

and

to its

constitutional

Nations

Educational,

Scientific

and

open

federalism

did

mean that

public

scrutiny

division

be compensated

giving

the

and provincial

Quebec

limiting

responsibilities

Cultural

became groups

more open to (Bakvis,

Baier,

basic ideology

of free

his preference

for

classical direct

as social

programs,

would pointed

spending

Organization

retreat

the

on environmental

government, meaningful

national

Liberal

to the

Harpers

government

on climate

under

Justin

to

as

prime

committed

to

working

Paul

well as

responsibility

with few

national

and in

of

its

greenhouse

provinces

on these

estab-lished

refusal

to

take

from

habitats.

commitment

in

a

Conservative

withdrawal

most fish

In

environ-mental

standards

Harpers

be

the ten-ure 2010).

for

Canada,

2012 the

proclaimed

with the

during

of the

gov-ernments

It should

(DiGiacomo,

under

in such

provincial

began

Martin

protection

reductions

standards

business.

Environment

Trudeau

and substantial

attract

accelerated

change,

and the

protection

national

decentralization

provinces,

cuts

environmental minister

as reflecting

protection, to

much

The trend

substantial

other

and

example,

assessments

government

role for

establishing

greater Chrtien

for

2010).

action

impact

relations

by non-governmental

be viewed

environmental

with each

Jean

was delegated (Weibust,

in

and

toward

policy,

with further

environmental

care,

to compete

Ministers

regulations

participation

it could

and a reduced

involvement

health

tendency

Prime

or enforced

more open to

federalprovincial

federalism.

federal

be freer

out that

of Liberal

or

2009). Instead,

market conservatism

By reducing areas

the

& Brown,

not

most

Although to

greater

gas emissions, important

the

issues.

Canada:A DecentralizedFederal System 12.3

Describe the pros and cons of centralization

By its

very

units.

The extent

nature,

a federal to

which

jurisdiction

is

quasi-federal

provisions

decentralized

federal

Constitution

on Its

a

system the

measure

in the systems

Head.)

confers

national

of how

Constitution in the

a

and decentralization. measure

government

world

centralized Act, (Watts,

of autonomy

can intrude that

Canada 2008).

into

federal has become (See

Box

on sub-national areas system

of provin-cial/state is.

Despite

one of the 12-1:

ap-proach

involving

such measures astransferring be-tween more money to provincial gov-ernments, placing respecting the con-stitutional

imbalance

(UNESCO). Despite its label,

Harper governments

which looked

fiscal of

gov-ernments. Open Federalism

With regard to new shared-cost

could

related

made a com-mitment

with provincial

the

division

Open federalism

a role in international

2006, he

of federalism,

fixing

governments

programs.

in

federalism

new style

entailed

respecting

territorial

office

decentralized

This

federalism,

on the use of the federal and

of

as a surprise.

provinces,

assumed

a new relationship

advocate

to classical

provincial

through

Stephen

was a strong

similar Ottawa

formal

Minister

federalism,

Turning

most the

the

of powers

autonomy,

and

use of the federal

power

278

Chapter 12

Box 12-1 Turningthe Constitution onIts Head Canadian political

provinces

are

landscape, constitution.

taken the

States

and

given

(i.e.,

to

the

hand This is

state

list

has

their

The

slavishly

on the

of

powers

evolved

is

founders.

the

Australia

the

centralist

& Fenna,

2015).

It is

curious

departed

for

the

was

a

major role,

American

national is

In

supposed

states

they

gov-ernment.

silent

and

the

rest two

Bryt

What

to the intentions opposed

by 1901 was

it

to

was

the

were

the

political

so dramatically

anticipated setting

courts,

and

cultural

road

hand,

of their

to

review

any

con-stitutions.

met

Quebec

guards

federal culturally

these

trample

in

the

tend

toward do

for its

would

the

observed,

af-forded

culture,

of judicial and

Erk

a geo-graphically

and

autonomy

jealously,

States

have

protection

language

regardless

states

not

in-terests

European United

that feared

needed their

pres-ence

and

their the

population

As Jan

states

was the

did

on their

powers

federal

from

countries

preserve

suit.

diverse

Skogstad,

of the

(quoted

concerns by

Canada

French

its

played

constitu-tion,

wheels

common whose

stiff resistance

have followed

chariot

overlooked

to

to

with

had fondly

the

opportunity

had in

French-Canadians

future

federalism,

to the

in

to

so. In

of Australia,

states

protected

populations

was that

attempt

been

decentralization.

centralized

countries

by federalism

coun-tries

done

Minister the

will be its

completely

survival.

(Hueglin

centralized

Judicial

on the

other

text

the

Australia

never

and

power

p. 79).

concentrated

that

of the three

the legal

resisting

founders.

Canada on the

from

outlier,

by its

evolution

need

What distinguished

Canadas

unravelling

1972,

Prime

were

decisions

have the

have

although

bound

Their

all three

founders.

of their

evident

rights

of Indigenous

countries

second

Tenth

(Hueglin

Commonwealth

judicial

but

of the

history

states

tax

that,

were financially

& Crean,

al-most

for

their

Commonwealth.

on

was patterned

that

Australian

the

observed

clause

Australias

through

income

statement,

Deakin,

with a single limiting

in these

country

Arthur

Similarly,

The

through

powers

of constitutional

ascendancy

over finance. revenue

residual

dustbin

p. 317).

gained

a prophetic

so that

Canada is the that

with the

Commonwealth

opposed

raise

mod-est

states.

give the

model

control

the

the

2015,

government

residual

to

was emphatically

vision

on the

constitution

though

with and

constitution

way federalism

even

both

states,

was drafted

American

diametrically

quasi-federalism,

federal

occurred:

to

& Fenna,

In

United

relegating

Amendment

has path.

the

government

American

the

federalism

has

essentially

quasi-federal

expected

conferred

Australian

for

However,

its

on the

the

countries,

relationship

why the

powers.

states.

be true

national

constitution

in

Canadian from

reversal

else)

actors

considering

federal

to

the

everything

countries upper

turn

a similar

were supposed

powers

words,

Anglo-American Australia,

powers

both

other

assertive feat

180-degrere

two

countries

the

In

an almost other

powerful,

a remarkable

have

review.

other

prov-inces

culturally

centralization,

not (Quoted

in

ho-mogeneous while

Bakvis

&

2012).

Provincesonthe Ascendant Thefederal government continues to be involved in jurisdiction, fund them

such as social programs like

entirely.

This concerns some premiers,

child care, and poverty reduction ensure that

matters that are within provin-cial

health care because the provinces but advocates

often look to action by the Canadian government to

all Canadians, regardless

of where they reside, can enjoy equal treatment

and that this contributes to social solidarity (DiGiacomo care system,

underpinned

by the

and is a source of great

cannot

of better health care,

Canada

Health

& Flumian, 2010). The health

Act(CHA),

pride, and it probably

epitomizes

would not exist

Canadian val-ues

without conditions

set out in the CHA.8 Provincial

leaders

and advance their actions to care. In

mobilize their

provinces

interests.

preserve cherished

a federal

electorates

Nevertheless,

social

system, jurisdictional

Fathers of Confederation

oversee capital

8 To receive Act.

These

them to take

many Canadians

programs,

especially

boundaries

should

on Ottawa

appreciate fed-eral

access to quality be respected,

health

yet, as the

were not prescient, they could not envision the need for con-certed

action to address environmental was also impossible

to support

issues that transcend

for them foresee the benefits

provincial

of a national

boundaries.

It

regulator

to

securities

markets.

funding

from

principles

are

Ottawa, public

all

provinces

administration,

must

abide

comprehensiveness,

by

the

five

principles

accessibility,

enshrined universality,

in and

the

Canada portability

Health

The Federal System

When Ontario

withdrew

cap-and-trade Quebec its

California

footprint,

government impose

its

with to reduce

the federal

announced

a carbon

and

from

agreement

and

carbon

279

tax

it

would

on the

pay rebates

prov-ince

directly

to

Ontarians.

Pres

Canada

PMO

the

of

Office

Asymmetrical Federalism One wayto curb centralization is by asymmetrical in some countries. relationship

with the

sub-national

This national

government,

with some asymmetrical

including

different

have a different

powers, from

other

elements.

These already

exist in that the

A federal some

Constitution

use both

English

The Charter of Rights and Freedoms

rights in

and French in its legislature

provided

more-limited

Act,

asthe only province that is officially

and French linguistic

bilingual

and recognized

edu-cation

New Brunswick

the equality

of English

groups in that province. (See Chapters 3 and 10 for

more on

rights.)

The notwithstanding

clause

within the

Charter

can be used to limit

certain

rights and freedoms in a particular province but it has been used infrequently 1982. (See

Chapter 10.) However,

Ontario

Premier

Doug Ford threatened

since

to invoke

it

frequently if the courts strike down bills passedin the Ontario legislature. Immediately after his election in 2018, Quebec Premier use the notwithstanding

Franois

clause to override

court

Legault

announced

that

decisions that interfere

he would

with

Quebec

legislation that bans religious symbols. Constitutional lawyers and other legal profes-sionals have expressed be utilized

concern about the possible routine

only as a last resort (Global

The Constitution

News, 2018).

Act, 1982, also allows

changes that reduce its rights

use of an option that should

any province

to opt out of any constitu-tional

or powers and be guaranteed

reasonable

financial

compensation if the change relates to education and other cultural

matters. However,

this

are several joint

provision

has not

federalprovincial Quebec Pension

been used thus

policy

areas in

Plan, immigration

harmonization,

agreements,

and the 2004 Health

have a special as a distinct

status

society

Nevertheless,

which asymmetry

Theidea of asymmetrical federalism should

far.

and that aroused

there

exists, including

human resources

Accord (Gagnon,

considerable

Notions that

be recognized

opposition.

Canada/ environ-mental

2009).

has been controversial. Quebec should

the

training,

For

Quebec

in the consti-tution many in

English

which govern-ments

a different

with the

and courts.

minority-language

Quebecthan in other provinces. It also established

in

sub-national

government,

to

Federalism

system

have

but

Quebecto retain its system of civil law and Quebec wasthe only prov-ince

was required

language

Asymmetrical whichis a model ad-opted

governments

governments. Canadas federal system has beenlargely symmetrical

1867, allowed that

federalism,

means some sub-national

including

powers,

from

rela-tionship

national

other

governments.

differ-ent sub-national

280

Chapter 12

Canada,

asymmetrical

and

national

rationale

unity.

of asymmetry

p. 2). Treating of national right,

federalism

unalikes

so this

distinct

This

public

and that

provides

a rationale

for

promotes

greater

flexibility

challenged

in

policy,

if

but

Qubcois

constitute

asymmetrical in the

to suit the circumstances

federal

and

of opting

that

within

different

the (2004, out that

2004).

to

by allowing

of the

that

has exercised

of Commons

with regards

system

wishes

The choice

a nation

federalism

prov-inces

unequally

Quebec

(Smith,

House

of the

who argues

unequals

only

not law

by the

equality

Smith,

to inequality.

provinces,

recognition

the

by

the

of treating

leads

all

asymmetry

opposition,

society

to

as undermining

validity

actually

available

represents

is

in the

alike is

viewed

notion

is rooted

programs

Despite

is

Quebec is a

a united

Quebec. for

Canada

Asymmetry

different

arrange-ments

provinces.

Inter-Governmental Relations 12.4

Understand the nature of inter-governmental

The

Constitution

Act,

1867, is

governments. operate that

in

any

watertight

disputes

frequent

on the

the

consultation

obviating

division

federalism,

the two

welfare

orders

need for

would

orders

between

the two the

of powers

when the

between

interaction

was that

compartments,

about

era of cooperative

silent

The assumption

relations. and

in court.

was being

sub-national would

any interaction,

be settled

state

national

of government and

also

However,

the

established,

required

of government.

ExecutiveFederalism Without powers,

Executive The

nature interaction

and

executives

since

the

of the

federal

governments.

meetings

minister with large of

supporting ministers,

along delega-tions

aides,

and

decision

making From

meetings

Informal of the premiers.

Ministers private prime

Meetings meetings

minister

and

and

and

provincial

of great

in the

of first

are called

Victoria

ministers

when

desired

be held

and

They

shared

with inter-governmental

(i.e.,

ministers,

meet-ings

and their

are also referred

constitutional

Since then,

more

meetings are held. Atthe peak of (termed

Charlottetown

minister,

care and

were held.

premiers

were not adopted.

prime

and deal

federalism

as health

ministers

and

to

cabinet

of government.

such

minister

divided

These gatherings have been the site of conferences

Charter

by the

executive

ministers

prime

of

mechanisms

significance

1992, 80 first

are the

realities

premiers,

levels

private, and less frequent first

first

Accord

Instead,

who chairs

first the

ministers).9

that

regular

annual

ministers meetings

meetings

and sets the

agenda. addition

responsible

First

pioneered

minister

on issues

1945 to

federalism

Proposals

In

officials.

Canada

of the federal

prime

and premiers,

(IGR).

executivesprime

the

informal

ministers conferences (FMCs).

executive of the

with

developed

entourages)

informal,

Conferences

confronted

to as first change.

Ministers

Formal

and

relations

the interaction

provincial

First

governments

of the

of federalprovincial

involving

of the

map

Federalism

basic

1940s,

a road Canadian

There

for

are also

provincial Generally, friendlier

to

FMCs,

particular numerous

often

(as

relationships

among

officials

and

more cooperative agreements executive

decisions

undemocratic

premiers

as the fact

in that legislatures

have

been

regular

place

regularly

with support

the

and

from

groundwork ministers

relationships

Critics

process

of

that it is conducted are frozen

participants

since

out.

1992

ministerial

different first

by the first

to

An additional

secretariat. national

and

meetings. are

However,

ministers. there

make them

numerous behind

ministers

governments ministers.

efficient,

employed

have identified

between

for

among

finalized

between a full-time

contacts)

can be breathtakingly

made and the

2012, p. 321). such

lay

are usually

federalism

being

(Simmons,

than

take

well as informal

which

federalism,

9 Territorial

areas,

meetings officials,

Although why the

policy

meetings

government

inter-governmental

scrutiny

numerous

closed

problems doors

concern

are reasons merit

greater

with exec-utive and that

it is

is that the rules

The Federal System

and

norms

Bakvis

are fluid

and informal,

et al., 2009; Simeon Negotiations

secretive

and

open

Many agreements approval and

debate

exercise

the

to scrutiny reached

Yet, these

for

unity. the

dynamics

elected

Conflict

who oppose

First down

Conferences

departments

and

departmental and about

work

the

officials

and

practical

cooperation a half

that

challenges

that

federalism

has

was first in cen-tral

governments

unpredictability

into

the

to

of

Canadas to forge

through

bargaining

more likely

to

Canadian

could

not have

been

dense

network

cope

political

leaders

arrangements watertight

and

with

and consensus

that

elite

identified

have slowly

evolved,

the result

if

be political

p. 153).

worked

treatment

There is

govern-ment

2008,

are

among

because

would

Canadian

compromises

2009).

a

above.

the

(e.g., differential

with

governments,

(Hueglin,

accommodation & Brown,

and rela-tionships

come

Canadian

unilaterally

Baier,

of

a century

responsibilities

diversity,

flexible

over

patterns

of inter-governmental

among

cultural

delicate compromises

compartments,

pro-vincial inter-ests

more concerned

demand

anticipated

overlapping

negotiations,

(Bakvis,

filters

and

professional

by those

hence the shortcomings

through

this

federal

share

governments

manage the relationship

a national

succeed

issues

by

great regional

unable

particular

extent

government.

and the

developed

has also been argued that

their

faced

in an ad hoc fashion,

Because

informal

and

national

Couillard elect

Generally,

may be overruled

of their

a mechanism to

has evolved

are

for

Trudeau

and to some

governments.

with

but they

autonomy

Executive

cost. Lacking

Instead,

pos-turing

and therefore

Phillipe

inject

of

federal

does little

Justin

and

politicized,

within

dealing

and engagement

ago.

is

2012).

frequently,

as provinces

developments

are highly

branches

cooperatively,

power

The

Wynne

money.

relationship.

Ministers

to

Kathleen

premiers of inter-governmental

between

but

Minister

tax is inevitable,

and

and a degree

and conflict

changes

much scrutiny

of public

& Nugent,

pub-lic.

need leg-islative

negotiation

media coverage

Prime

to

minister

the

often

or the

do not

of dollars

(Simeon

stage

Since

such

in

great television

political

either

not subject

billions

is confrontation

allies like

and

2004;

are

legislatures,

The prime

power

maximum

dramatically.

one on principle,

and

2004).

enforceable is

makes for

carbon

(Smith,

of government

meetings

which involve

on the

on the

federalprovincial

it

which

of characters

he has lost important

Canada.

of

Often there

can change

levels

provincial

discretionary

meet there

governments,

The cast

two

deal

(Smith,

are not legally

effect.

of the

Parliament,

a done

of

some

ministers

political

provincial

by

amount

agreements

When first

of institutionalization

2012).

passage

agreements,

level

at inter-governmental

legislative

enormous

a low

executives

or are considered

before

an

& Nugent,

between not

with

281

out. It

of Quebec)

national

and

no alternative

governments

pro-vincial

to the

retreated

to

paralysis.

Interstate andIntrastate Federalism Executive

federalism

reflects

a basic

characteristic

as interstate federalismthat are represented

primarily

can be characterized the

system,

the

required substantial The not done minister.

interests of the

several

cabinet

(along

with

proportion Canadian so,

mainly

Another

by provincial

units

approval

and

Canadian

federalism

governments.

often

de-scribed

which provincial inter-estsInterstate

In contrast,

some

are

effectively

are taken

Bundesrat

because

(federal from

by the

of national

possible

account.

ministers

approval

Senate

into

in

national

For example,

council each

Bundestag,

in the

composed

in

to

a national

head

of gov-ernment

election)

is for

a

senators

are appointed for

Intrastate

representing

provincial

interests,

on a recommendation provincial

interests

but it by the

is through

by provincial

Federalism

A federal

system

provincial

interests in

to represent

which are repre-sented

governments.

federal

a province])

in

interests

primarily

institu-tions

German

of the

Land [equivalent chosen

political

Federalism system

provincial sys-tems,

legislation.

was established

channel

represented

A federal

countries

primarily in terms of intrastate federalism. In such federal

sub-national

where their

of

is, a federal system in

has

prime the

institutions

in

national

which are rep-resented political

282

Chapter 12

federal

cabinet,

because

imperatives

of a

and secrecy

coupled

cabinet

in this

to

province.

the a

with In

vote

addition,

along

into

particular much

the

interests

dispute

over

was up to defence

often

relationship

equalization

payments and

of his provinces a province

between

the two

discussed

in the

Premier

and the federal

and

orders

premiers

advocating

sometimes

Fiscal

for

leads

to

In

the

Federalism,

Williams

no role

of their

of government.

section

of

members

provincial

this

Danny

played

solidarity

with the interests

initiatives

the

effectiveness cabinet

institutions,

federal

The Senate

the

discipline,

conflicts

However,

as cabinet

limit

Not surprisingly,

Labrador

interests.

such

party

national

challenging

province.

provinces.

minister,

of tight

in

all

system,

prime

even if this

embedded

Newfoundland

between

lines

of their

more combative

by the

as a result

party

breach,

MPs from

parliamentary

dominance

With no champions

have stepped

includes

Westminster-style

regard.

are expected

it typically

to

mount

in this

or any

their

dealings

it

a fierce

other

con-flict

government.

Inter-Provincial Cooperation Provincial

governments

Canadian met to that

demand

An organization the

premiers among

and territories.

established to enable the

annual

by

meetings

of the

meet twice

commitment

to

prime

ministers

has for

a first

are not

ministers

Alberta

to restrict

British by other that

would

Columbias

also from

when approach

In

to fiscal

includes significant

and

can

to

the

provincial

premiers

inter-governmental

West Partnership

of the and

established

not

more united

voice Early

Premier John Horgan

Notley

Horgan

threatened

announced

a ban

the fragile

a less

provinces

the

national

state

across

the

only

from

Provincial

and the

Atlantic

Federation,

there

formalized

among British

is

Western

and the three territorial

down

trump

Columbia,

but

provincial for

to

soli-darity

example,

a

offshore

Council

Premiers

premiers.

particular

British

the inter-provincial

(relating

also

British

government

government,

Accord 2012).

pipe-line

through

provincial

abandoned

accepted

Gateway

and

pipeline

& Nugent,

2010 among

Northern

interests

meeting,

strategy

province

the

Labrador

militate against

2012 council

energy

of the

with the federal

agreements in

called

be a challenge.

When

Kinder-Morgan

be struck

(Simeon

Council

to

at the July

the issue

bitumen of the

and signed

Ottawa

(www.cap-cpma.ca) four

not address

Newfoundland

relations with

2014).

Brunswick.

(B.C.)

between the

Clark rejected

and citizens.

deals

govern-ment

premiers

moves illustrate

For example,

opposition,

groups

and

government,

clash.

Albertas

fierce

bilateral

addition

did

pre-miers

name

(Wallner,

a stronger,

proving

his province,

and interests

Expansion

Indigenous

resources)

Premiers

it

territorial

Canadian

New

Democrats.

through

and

Council

meeting in

New

coopera-tion

Despite its

when the

Columbia

of

was not until

and the federal

with the

moves and counter

Christy

transport

Nova Scotia

both

many issues.

because

provincial

give them

a variety

it

Inter-provincial

secretariat.

but this is

British

bitumen

These

Premier

has faced

when

would

view

Council of the Federation

Federation,

COF

premiers

on the

also aired

However,

and favourably

2018

when interests

coastline.

Columbia

Notley,

differences

premiers

rapidly

out between

on

13

based

They

with the

of the

cooperation,

solidarity

Columbia

Council

that the council

wines.

a consensus

of the permanent

collaboration

at their

of oil sands

Vast structural

provinces.

with the

when some

government

be addressed.

willingness to engage

Rachel

Columbia

in

1887,

were established.

consists

responded

broke

Premier

of provincial

premiers

of the

little

hoped

the flow

on British

reaching

part

inter-provincial

in 2018, hostilities

among should

greater

conference

The premiers

of the federal

and a small

developing

government

and facilitate

and

a year)

demonstrated

The Trudeau

front

back to

in 2003 with the creation of the which

(who

a united

be traced

powers

believed

(www.canadaspremiers.ca),

its

present can

(agreement)

that they

wasinstitutionalized

coop-eration

provinces

in the

was a compact

grievances

1960 that

to

This strategy

a reduction

Canada

provincial

Council of the Federation

have tried

government.

Alberta,

Atlantic

Conference

There

provinces,

of

petro-leum

that

have also been

such

as the

and Saskatchewa

New

The Federal System

(presumably

Manitoba

Cooperation to trade,

is

Agreement,

investment,

part

of the

Old

West) and

2009. These agreements

and labour

the

OntarioQuebec

seek to remove

Trade

inter-provincial

283

and

barriers

mobility.

Fiscal Federalism 12.5

Explain the financial

A bone more

of contention money than

their

for it

Canadian

needs

have

also

expensive

constitutional

discharge

them

sources

and

block

grants,

in.

They

by the following

other

is that

nub

of the such

feel

that

post-World

the

grip

been the

address

era that

The

required. exceed

of a series

provincial

shared-cost

to the

programs,

to discharge constitutional

Taxes Both levels

of government

share.

As Table

their

revenues

each

provincial

tax

from

rental

levy

some

system

of the

of the federal

to

tax

rate.

provincial

tax

collection

income

Another

sales tax

in

its

Canada

since

of revenue in

for

The

Quebec

both levels

Revenue and

but

in

1962

allowed

tax

rate

as a per-centage

personal

Agency

income

also collects

not in

the sales tax, features others.

Newfoundland

Ontario, and Prince Edward tax

in-come

Alberta.

of government,

provinces

a value-added

collects

raise

centralized

Quebec, which has had its own

Canada

except

of the

income

Agency

gets the li-ons

governments

agreements

provincial

(except in

New Brunswick,

(HST),

collection

own

government

provincial criticisms

Revenue

1954).

some

and

Facing

1941, tax

all provinces

Nova Scotia,

harmonized

sources.

determine The

coordination

and Labrador, the

for

major source

federalprovincial

same

but the federal

Canadian

of government

system

taxes

taxes,

the

established

government

taxes on behalf of both levels corporate

income

12-2 indicates,

on a common

tax

Island

base.10

use

The other

Table 12-2 Federal,Provincial,and MunicipalTax Revenues Federal Personal income Corporate

tax

income

tax

Sales tax

Natural resource

Provincial

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

revenues

Municipa

Yes

Property tax

Yes

Payroll taxes

Yes

Customs

and

Lotteries

and gaming

excise

duties

Yes

Yes

Yes

Alcohol sales

Yes

NOTE: The federal SOURCE: federation.

Based Toronto,

government on

Bakvis, ON:

has the constitutional

Baier, Oxford

& Brown, University

Contested Press,

2009,

authority to raise federalism: p.

money by any

Certainty

and

ambiguity

mode. in

the

Canadian

141.

10 The harmonized sales tax (HST), which combines the federal and provincial retail sales tax, is collected by the Canada Revenue Agency. B.C. adopted the HSTin 2010 but withdrew from the HSTin 2013 as a result of a provincial referendum.

rev-enue

and revenue

the amount

revenues

were introduced.

between

Federal revenues

government

financial

of subsidies

mismatch received

to

on revenue

root

Fiscal Imbalance

have

the revenue

its

were a variety

War II

far for

provinces

but lack

has

raises resources

Quebec, but the other

loosen

to

there

by

care,

This

government

government

is that

should

more revenue.

mechanisms

raised

as health

provinces.

have sufficient

problem

Ottawa

Canadian

in the

the federal do not

was first

Confederation

was only

and

The

Ottawa and the

provinces

imbalance

access to

introduced

but it

the

responsibilities,

them

needs. Immediately provinces,

chimed

adequately.

allow

measures

fiscal

between

provinces

and that

needs. This vertical

provinces

of

relationship

the federal

needs, and provin-cial are insufficient the

provincial

responsibilities.

284

Chapter 12

Table 12-3 FederalSupportto ProvincialandTerritorialGovernments, 20182019 ($

millions)

Major transfers Canada

Health

Canada

Social

Transfer

38 584

Transfer

14 161

Equalization

18 958

Offshore offsets Territorial

Total federal NOTE: the

95

Formula

75 393

payments and

Social

do

not

Transfers

education,

SOURCE: Retrieved

3 785

support

Transfer Health

Financing

and

Data extracted October 19,

include for

the

the

transfer

purposes

of tax listed.

points.

Social

Provincial

Transfers

governments

include

are

transfers

for

not

required

social

to

spend

programs,

post-secondary

children.

from Department of Finance Canada (n.d. 2018, from http://www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/mtp-eng.asp.

a). Federal

Support

to

Provinces

and

Territories.

provinces levy and collect their own retail salestax (except Alberta and the three terri-tories, which have avoided

using this tax),

while the

Canadian government

collects the

Goods and Services Tax(GST) in provinces and territories that do not usethe HST.

TransferPayments To enable provincial

governments to

health care, education,

and social services, the

considerable

amounts

of

pay for expensive responsibilities,

money that it

Canadian government

has raised itself.

for example, the Canadian government transferred territorial

governments

(as detailed

in

Table 12-3).

including

transfers

In the 20182019

to them

fiscal

year,

about $75 billion to provincial and Overall,

provincial

governments

receive, on average, about one-fifth of their revenue from the federal government, al-though the

poorer

provinces

Canadian government

Figure

receive

a higher

than the richer

proportion

of their revenues

Government

Newfoundland Prince

provinces. (See Figure 12-1.)

and

Revenue,

By Province,

Labrador

Edward

20172018

16.26

Island

37.28

Nova Scotia

33.88

New Brunswick

34.68

Quebec

20.69

Ontario

16.51

Manitoba

25.93

Saskatchewan

17.26

Alberta British

16.08

Columbia

17.41

Yukon Northwest

75.68

Territories

79.13

Nunavut

89.14 020

40 Percentage

b)

Retrieved

the

12-1 Federal CashTransfersto Provincial Governmentsas a Percent of Total

Provincial

SOURCE:

from

Compiled on

and October

calculated 19,

2018,

from from

Department

of

Finance

Canada,

http://www.fin.gc.ca/frt-trf/2018/frt-trf1805-eng.asp

60 of total Fiscal

80

100

revenue

Reference

Tables

2018,

Tables

18

to

31 (n.d.

The Federal System

285

Conditional Grants The

Constitution

each

provincial

Act, 1867, required government

and

responsibilities. governments the

Great

of their

section

However,

would

been

have

in

to

the

the lead,

Canadian ensure

citizens

lived.

Generally,

Quebec

government

(because

within

they

are shared-cost at times,

provincial

had to

pay

only

half the

the

post-secondary the

mentioned

in the

of

War II,

World

provinces

initiatives

the

have

grants.

these

legisla-tive

Although

programs

and

money for them.

of basic

because social

had

It

it

was

wanted

services

wher-ever

Conditional Federal

Grants

grants

governments programs conditions

to provincial for specific

that

have to

set by the

meet Canadian

government

governments

of some

post-secondary

because

cost)

ex-panded

and

the social

programs,

set

Another

grants

scale

greatly

programs.

the

jurisdiction.

by conditional

so the

them.

social

a similar

during

government,

As

aftermath

to receive

national

provin-cial

welfare,

welcomed

administered

grants because health,

were distorted

federal

which

government

help

point,

made use of conditional

launched

and,

the

in the

in

governments

these

social

programs.

who paid for areas

were able to receive

The

exclusively

of

at that

for

consti-tutional

governments

care,

from

these

System,

government

that

they

as health

to

funds

their

unemployment

War II,

democracies,

in

set by the federal

government

that

Federal

massive

bankrupt

revenue

provide

discharge

were inadequate

by

World

provide

western

provincial

objected to conditional fall

to

programs

Canadian

meet conditions

the

without

unable

regardless

national

authority, took

such

other

were being introduced,

Ottawa

services

help them

sums

were almost After

government

to

caused

clear.

A Decentralized citizens

To establish

to

providing

education.

like

small

Many provinces

role in

Canadian grants

problems

was painfully

Canada:

Canadians,

the

these

with the

Depression.

provinces

that

However,

deal

problems their

that

per capita

concern

was that

the temptation

was politically

other

education,

provinces

and provincial

of 50-cent

difficult

welfare pri-orities dollars

to resist.

Block Grants Responding

to

cash transfers

to a single some

concerns

health

care

governments. other

1977,

the

post-secondary

is, a basically In

social

in

and

block grantthat

provincial and

provincial for

1996, the

programs,

Canadian

government

education

from

unconditional

Canada

grant of a block of

Assistance

was added

to the

Plan,

block

which

grant.

divided into two blocks: the Canada Health Transfer (for insurance)

and the

assistance,

early

government social

provincial Block

basis,

grants,

Canadian

government

into they

are is

the

programs,

it

the

Canadian

government

problem.

has

for

not

to

and

how the

province

on the

to

unilaterally the transfer

in its

governments

for

19961997

now

pay

Transfer

what is

health,

majority

some

strings to

of public in times

cut

the

Health

attached. back

on

administration,

its

public

to

withhold

health some

and The

Social Canada

payments

to

Transfers Health any

system.

money from

The

described

Act (1984)

province

comprehensiveness, care

are

that

allows does

costs

of

particular,

post-secondary

universality, Canadian

provincial

the

portability,

government

governments

that

has

costs for these

there

are

govern-ment

the

principles

and

accessibil-ity

used this

allowed

to fund

care and hospital some

insur-ance,

condi-tions

areinvolved.

extra

Canada

Act at billing

Social Transfer

A block grant intended post-secondary social

deficit

Canadian

not respect

Health Transfer

although

Since the

grants,

to a provincial

Unlike

a serious

as block

government

of

the fed-eral

A block grant intended

programs. Although

transfer

money from

government.

a per capita

of the

Grant

a block of

health

be used.

of the

and with

Block

The unconditional

Canada

However,

of the costs. In

deal

social

Canadian

programs.

welfare, to

was

categories:

government.

50 percent

its share

a substantial

is to

essentially

of provincial

budget

three

programs.

providing

reduce

grant

The

for

of a provincial costs

committed

slashed

on

welfare

education,

programs). funding

Social

money to

provides

In 2004, the

child-related

revenues

based

care into

its basis

health care and hospital

post-secondary

child

Transfer

decide

each

no longer

one-third

Provincial

to

general

managed

by about

and

Social

is free

the

(for

education,

are calculated flow

shared-cost

education

the

post-secondary

grants

Transfer

education,

divides

government

and they

Social

childhood

notionally

programs,

each

Canada

changed

a shared-cost

assistance, education,

programs.

to fund

education, early child-hood and child

care

286

Chapter 12

of patients attached

and

user

to the

residency

Canada

Because

that

for

block

In turn,

the

transfers

soaring

to address

the

Health Canada

a commitment

In

addition,

Payments

Unconditional

grants

Canadian governments

to

bring

revenue-raising up to

a national

the

for

accountability

monitor

and

report

Council

certain

to

the

on the

and some by the

other

cuts

by the

a

government

by in

the

Health

of the

provisions

of the in

2004

of

care

there

per

year.11

provided

special

purposes,

medical

Council

health

to increasing

specific

purchasing

it

help-ing

20162017,

3 percent

and for

funds for

of the federalprovincial

After

at least

2003

and

the

public

committed

were earmarked

operations

the

10 years.

guaran-tees

government. for

As a result

system.

for

federal

accountability

care

Accords

government

impose

governments and

from

Transfer

public,

provincial

government

per year for

performance

Harper

care,

some

Canadian

that

cannot

well as kudos

health

Health

times

as

Health

governments

health

unilateral

by 6 percent

condition

such

equipment.

Canada

was set

systems.

up

However,

federalprovincial

Health

the

Accord

2014.

Equalization Payments

to the

of the

provinces

the

2004, the

Transfer

the

governments

Canadian

wanted

care,

Accord in

to increase

were cancelled

from

government

health facing

waiting

To improve

Equalization

for

to

has

The only

assistance.

the

be subject

government

provincial

as reducing

Health

from

care services.

provincial

of providing

federalprovincial

for

is that

problems

Health

is

to

not

health

of social

costs

provinces

(core)

Transfer

funding

funding

Canadian

basic

recipients

greater

to the

funds

for

of the

for

Social

requirement

have lobbied

the

charges

poorer

Equalization

their capabilities

equalization

standard.

of how it

payments are now enshrined in the constitution, is

strongly

works.

supported

(See

Box 12-2:

by

Canadians

The Politics

despite

and the principle of

serious

of Equalization.)

misunderstanding

There is a wide

disparity

Box 12-2 The Politics of Equalization In

2006,

from

Alberta

that

the

illustrates

was included

Alberta

Treasury

poorly

There

is

strong

should support,

headlines.

support that

being

and

for

not receive

changes alot

program, of the

the

underlying who live

topic

seats

neatly

in the

in

up now

decisions

for

on equalization

minister,

who can

and

are

ultimately

do in

equalization. and territories Tax,

Danny

ordered

the

Prime

Minister

promise

that

removal

buildings

offshore

a have

not

(Newfoundland

of all Canadian

flags

in

December

Paul

Martin

reneging

allow the

province

would

energy

payments

Williams

revenues that

province.

2004. It

without

Newfoundland

which

was a protest a federal 100

a reduction

11 There

is

in the

Labrador of it

negotiate

Labrador)

provincial

to retain

some

to

from

on

and

Normally

and

also

a commitment Health

Lecours,

percent

of

be clawed

to increase Accord

(including

the

retain

Stephen

end the

offshore

prime

min-ister

and quite

a

so valued

an independent

body,

politically

the

authoritative from

body,

of the and

states

Services

Commissioners

economists

often travelling

who con-sult

to them

on fact-finding

decision-making

the

de-politicize

as they

administers

Goods pool.

for

to

neutral

(CGC),

entitlement

prominent

dynamics different,

mechanism

Transfer

funding)

preferable

equalization

and

program

be

the federal

political

by

by with

realm

Australian would

perhaps that

role (Bland,

is

and

Canada so

Canadian

be difficult should

vulnerable

to

to repli-cate explore partisan

Canadians.

3 percent the

of so it

Nevertheless,

politics

Social

equalization

2017).

CGC.

yet

from

equalization

to

Canada

would

would

determines

CGCs

alternatives

long-term

to

campaign.

Commission

as the

The

are

their

as

CGC

nature

federalism

equaliza-tion

Weakened

anxious

he became

an independent,

and territories,

et al.,

The

it

over to

servants

removed

election

received

would

a new

against

has

he

when

use the

Grants

serves civil

trips.

gov-ernment

it

to revenue

with states

Premier

to

There

The

are former

reasons.

was

2004

was that

is irresistible,

Commonwealth

entitle-ments

political

June,

he broke

by handing

being

a

the

temptation

Australia.

the

in

promise

purposes it

in the

it for

province

payments.

Martin

2006.

As the

in

equalization

scandal,

a promise

partisan

hits the

enshrined

is that,

manipulate

of

provinces

election

Despite

calculating

other reason

the

claw-back,

affluent

services.

are

formula

The

principle

the

sponsorship

Harpers

why it is

in less

flares

payments

of heat.

prime

the

sub-standard

periodically

generate

from

by the

imply-ing

This

is

back

natu-ral

thus

raided.

equalization

Canadians

While equalization

constitution,

hands

the formula,

was

away

Albertas

in

namely

provinces

federal

in

understood

to walk

because

charged.

equalization,

public

Klein threatened

program

wealth

how

politically

Ralph

equalization

resource

the

Premier

the federal

provinces

per

year. in

the

The 2015

Liberal election

party

promised

campaign

The Federal System

Table 12-4 EqualizationPayments,20182019 ($ millions) PEI

419

Nova

Scotia

1 933

New Brunswick

1 874

Quebec

11 732

Ontario

963

Manitoba

2 037

SOURCE: Retrieved

Compiled October

between

from Department of Finance Canada (n.d.). 19, 2018, from www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/mtp-eng.asp.

provinces in terms

of their

ability

Federal

Support

to raise funds

to

Provinces

through

and

Territories.

taxation,

with some

better equipped to provide services to their populations than others. Since 1957, the Canadian

government

has directed

equalization

payments

to the governments

poorer provinces. Acommitment to the principle of equalization, that

provincial levels

governments

have sufficient

of public services

in the Constitution

capabilities limited the

to

Although persons

year, six

misconceptions

payments;

and

rather the

does not create total The adopted

method in

(fiscal) raise

from

equalization

product. based

average

As discussed government

of

provinces

in

tax,

are limited

to the

economy.

equalization

former

to change

the

down

arguing

Ron Liepert that

Ontario

decided

to extend

Territorial In the

past, the

government.

how

tax,

equal-ization govern-ment. from

equalization

much each

sales tax,

growth

in

From

its

property

provincial

Ontario

Premier system

should

have to

2018, the federal

royalties

equalization

have

McGuinty

nature prove

Liberal formula

(including 2009).

condemned

that

called

on

until

resi-dents

tax

former

money

of the

Ontario

of federal

of equalization the

the

work on develop-ing been critical

billions

government

by the from

this traditionally

News, 2008). Albertas

unconditional

domestic

perspective,

that transfers

and total

can obtain,

was strongly

Alberta,

Dalton

gross

(Smart,

debt and to

and

can

tax,

provinces

source of wealth, allowing

its large

revenue-raising

province

equalization

revenues)

formula

The system

governments

Canadas

receiving

resource

of the

the current

For

per capita

over time.

equalization-receiving

provinces (CBC

provinces

2012). In June

into

as the average

in the federal

a province

Labrador.

equalization

was critical

recipient

wisely (Walton, had

nominal

as

of

income

of their

such

paid by Ontarians to other

growth.

provinces,

has varied

Increases

of the

and

provinces,

is

Table 12-4.)

flows

revenue

poorer

gov-ernment

payments

of the federal

standard

in terms

oil are only atemporary

Other

the

national

Box 12-2, the equalization

system:

to fight

capacity

pay

Canadian

(See

revenue

more tax

than

corporate

revenues.

to

was in-cluded

revenue-raising

(GDP)

billion.

revenues

payments

provinces

and 100 percent

a chance

compa-rable

provinces.

equalization

Newfoundland

offshore

province

Minister

receives

resource

fiscal

payments

product

$19.0

general

their

of equalization

no provincial

in 2009 sets the

income

payments

on the

its

among

of all ten

natural

reasonably of taxation,

bring

domestic about

provinces

There is also a cap on the amount

equalization

poor

source, out of the

government

modified

personal

of its

of gross

come

to

amount

received

on their

of calculating

capacity

its

50 percent

average

in the richer

equality

2007 and

levels

grants by the

provinces

The total

provinces

they

federal

businesses

poorer

standard.

moving

fiscal

comparable

are unconditional

of the

a national

a three-year

Despite

payments

governments

up to

20182019

at reasonably

defined as ensuring

to provide

Act, 1982.

Basically, equalization to the

resources

of the

dol-lars

Finance

payments, is

being

announced

2024 (Maimann,

used that

it

2018).

Governments northern

Beginning

territories

were largely

in the 1970s, the

Canadian

under the control government

of the

gradually

Canadian

transferre

287

288

Chapter 12

responsibility

for

the territorial

governments.

similar

to that authority

to the

territories

2014,

Nunavut

have

have

obtained

payments

substantial that (and

flows

related

Territorial

of their

to

environmental

resource

to

devolve

the

government

concerns)

quite

rather

than

Northwest responsibili-ties

responsibilities

are

to

(transfer-ring

and the

management

ongoing.

to the

Indigenous territories

and

lands. government depend an

the

federal

generally

on federal

share

control

equiva-lent

government

unconditional

concerning

and

a position

in the three

Financing,

Issues

services

Parliament 2003

negotiations

territories

Formula

holds

these

negotiations

the

social

of devolution

in

and

of responsible

revenues.

the federal

Yukon

on their

adoption

now

Canadian

in

devolution

governments,

(the

majority

and

revenues

and the

of provincial

of the

of land

in

and

The process

acts

2014,

of resource

devolution

to that

in

education,

commissioner

Negotiations

participants

a share

Despite

transfer

began

been

care,

completed

transfer

government.

government

peoples

through

was largely

with the

to the territorial

as health

lieutenant-governors.

change)

in

such

Each territorial

of provincial

a constitutional Territories

major services

grant)

for

of resource

of offshore

a

reve-nues

resources

are also important.

Local Governments Local (municipal) as they

governments

are creatures

jarring

reminder

unilaterally

of their

provide

essential

building

contribution

subordinate

to the

public

that

to

various

One could

growing

them.

derived from their than

that

New

At times,

tax for

provides

goods

(e.g.,

Torontos for

as initiatives

funding plan.

in rural

for their

marijuana

from

public

considerable

crisis

stretched

will strain

their

for

existing resources

own

vis--vis control

governments:

provincial

Toronto

in

2018

municipal

financial

leaving

gov-ernments

options

with some

them

to

funds

dependent

budgets

was $11.12

are

government.

because

have

funds

Canadian

for

that

on

are larger

billion,

whereas

municipalities

and

remain

Municipalities, underfunded but also for municipalities,

to

projects. $180

under

green infrastructure

in

more

funding

infrastructure

12 years

pay in

Gas Tax Fund

were promised over

This has

governments

governments

functions many

municipalities.

local

per year) in stable

of local

of Canadian

even

autonomy

their

of revenue,

money that

government

governments

capabilities

the

transit

us

year).

a variety

2018 as

areas (Federation municipal

Toronto

well, the

the federal

Projects include

Nevertheless,

The Fentanyl

news in

affect

Metropolitan

but limited

by 2 percent for

and

Municipal governments

by their

source

has provided

As

governments

Canada

of

at this level

budget

to refund

and services.

financial

like

the same

government

commitments

per year (increasing

good

by provincial

municipalities

These are insufficient, cities

and

can be altered

responsibilities

Major

$2 billion

infrastructure

not just

fees.

and territorial was some

in

in

Their functions

to loosen

primary

protec-tion,

to them.

set down

are their

was $9.6 billion

the federal

bylaws.

fire

recreational

decentralization

exists

to

make an important

been reluctant

the six

imbalance

taxes

provinces

been formalized federal

a fiscal

government.

of small

for

A

decision

disposal,

also

playgrounds,

as expressed in areferendum.

various licence

Brunswicks

existence

and important

Property

provincial

pressed

and regulations

argue that

have discharge

rules

zoning

status.

Fords

half in 2018. Local govern-ments

They

parks,

attention

generally

amalgamated

1998 despite fierce opposition also subject

have

have

whose very

government

and

Doug

water, garbage clearing.

through

pay very little

of governments,

no constitutional

by almost

as drinking and snow

transportation,

government

governments,

Ontario

such

Cinderella

have

was Premier

City Council

our lives

yet citizens

governments

the federal over local

of

as the and

position

maintenance,

quality

activities,

Provincial

services,

and

daily and directly,

the

be described governments

cut the size of Toronto

road

cultural

can

of provincial

pro-vincial There

billion

in

the Investing

in cities

as

well

2018). and

new issues

require that

money crop

and the legalization

up. of

The Federal System

Climate plans

change

to respond

will

to the

with the cities a research can

emergency

threat

of climate Finding

to

There

the

We

partnership

to

the

size

city

the

of

in the

for

transportation

possible

and

that

Ontario

to

on cities to

Canadian

fail

to take

between

in

our

of Canadas governance

cities

and

the

seem to

the

communities

is

1980s

federal

an and

system

and the fed-eral

financing. (FCM)

collaborative

greater

in

the

municipalities

of infrastructure

major cities, would

in

Municipalities

goal of a true

of federalism

Efforts

governments

provision

FCMs

processes

federalism.

local

Canadian

with the issues

Canadian

embarked

of areas from It is

place

in collabora-tion

Centre

how the two

in the

relationship

of

are no closer

and importance

voice in

in

out

2017).

sets

Saskatchewan

Canadian

a role

Federation

deal

putting

one example, Climate

which

Centre,

governments

future

most notably

home.htm),

Prairie

a number

like

many are

seriously.

for

of the

and

To cite just

the

City,

Climate

has been a developing

view

pose.

in

provinces

constitutionalize

government, in

(Prairie

change

will

Edmonton,

management

up the slack if

challenge

1990s

failed.

risk

ways to include

important

it

and

on cities,

a Climate-Resilient

management

will pick

early

challenges

Building

in climate

cities

major impacts

of Calgary

series,

engage

have

289

However,

(https://fcm.ca/ inter-governmental (2012,

p. 14).

self-government

Given

and a stron-ger

be desirable.

Summary and Conclusion Depending

on your

point

of view,

Canadas

brand

of

federalism is in crisis or is a remarkable achievement. It has come a long challenges In

way since 1867, overcoming

and adapting

addition

to a rapidly

to incorporating

and linguistically

of immigrants Wherethe country Indigenous

changing

a province

distinct, it

from

existential

that

world.

is cultur-ally

has adjusted

is in its relationship

with

people.

Despite the

of decentralization issues,

rich

and squab-bling

and poorer

prov-inces

do enjoy reasonably comparable levels of services. provinces gulf

payments, have averted

between

health care, and transfers the

prosperous

emergence

and

poorer

to the

of a yawning

regions

that

exist

elsewhere. economies

out citizens

and

on voicing requires

and interests

However,

their

makes a looser federation

differences

should

made it

difficult

Chapter 6 and 7, civil society, social

and issue-oriented and even internationally.

groups link

citizens

The advent

of electronic

widens horizons and facilitates

As

navigate

and

womens

rights. Still, premiers often mobilizetheir citizens in battles with the federal population

government,

although

may disagree

a significant

slice

with the stand they take.

often

system

cooperation garner

the

most

that it is the dominant

a tug-of-war

between the two lev-els

has endangered to

the shoals

Ottawa pursues

deal

national

with national

of shared

national

and

objectives

unity

problems.

and Some

as participants

divided

jurisdiction.

affecting

as a whole, while each provincial

the

popula-tion

government

has its

of its own province.

Federalism is an ongoing process that requires flex-ibility and enables it. national

There is built-in

and sub-national

tension

goals and the

Questions powers

abound:

between

push and

but these are accompanied by the

and legislative

tech-nologies services that

mobilization on

issues such as climate change, human rights,

a monop-oly

modern federal

inter-governmental

move-ments Is a central government

nationally

process shuts

leaders

tension in the federal system is inevitable

of loyalties,

boundaries.

The

but conflicts

of government

address them.

many bonds cross provincial

highlighting

characteristic.

inevi-table.

not be exaggerated:

a role in

political

attention, giving the impression

also true that

discussed in

views.

considerable

although it is still easy to stoke regional resentment, it is

of their

gives their

eye on the interests

The presence of Quebec and provinces with diverse

plays

divisions as the high-stakes, closed-door

At times, though,

degree

about jurisdictional Equalization

federalism

to the ar-rival and collaboration,

over one hundred countries.

can improve

Executive

meansto

Will Canada survive?

with strong financial resources needed to ensure the equality

most Canadians expect? Should has demonstrated

remarkable

in the past, so there is reason to hope that it respond

equally

well in the future

of

we embrace

asymmetrical federalism? These are imponderables, Canadian federalism

pull

but resil-ience

will

290

Chapter 12

Discussion Questions 1.

Does

Canadas

federal

system

need

to

be

4. Is

modernized? 2.

What

poses

the

greatest

threat

to

Canadian

5.

federalism? 3. Is the

Canadian

an

national

federal

system

too

centralized

or too

decentralized?

6.

asymmetrical

federal

system

a threat

to

unity?

Should

there

within

national

Does

Canadas

be greater governing

provincial

representation

institutions?

equalization

system

need to

be

changed

Further Reading Bakvis, H., Baier, G., & Brown, D.M. (2009). Contested federalism: Certainty and ambiguity in the Canadian federation. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Behiels, M., & Rocher, F. (Eds.). (2011) The State in transition: Challenges for Canadian federalism. Ottawa, ON: Invenire Books. Bland, D., Lecours, A., Marchildon, G.P., Mou, H., & Olfert, M.R. (2017). Fiscal federalism and equalization policy in Canada: Political and economic dimensions. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Chaudry, S., Gaudreault-Desbiens, J.-F., & Sossin, L. (Eds.). (2006). Dilemmas of solidarity: Rethinking redistribution in the Canadian federation. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. DiGiacomo, G., & Flumian, M.(Eds.). (2010). The case for centralized federalism. Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa

Press.

Harrison, K. (Ed.) (2006). Racing to the bottom? Provincial interdependence in the Canadian federation. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Hubbard, R., & Paquet, G.(Eds.). (2010). The case for decentralized federalism. Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa Press. Rocher, F., & Smith, M.(Eds.). (2003). New trends in Canadian federalism (2nd ed.). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. Smith, D.E. (2010). Federalism and the constitution of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Smith, J. (2004). Federalism. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Stevenson, G.(2009). Unfulfilled union: Canadian federalism and national unity (5th ed.). Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Tindal, C.R., & Tindal, S.N. (2012). Local government in Canada (8th ed.). Toronto, ON: Nelson Canada Watts, R.L. (2008). Comparing federal systems (3rd ed.).

Kingston,

ON: Institute

of

Chapter13

TheExecutive

Wattie/Reuters/Newsco

Chris

Former future Harper

Liberal role in

foreign

in

affairs

Afghanistan,

minister presents

John his

Manley

advisory

(left),

groups

chair

of an independent

recommendations

to

panel Prime

on

Minister

Canadas Stephen

2008.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 13.1a 13.1b

Explain Identify

what it

means to have a constitutional

the powers

of the

governor

13.2a

Outline the bases of prime

13.2b

Explain the two

13.3a

Discuss

13.3b

Explain the key factors in constructing

13.4

Examine regular

general.

ministerial

and cabinet

aspects of responsible

government.

whether the prime

how the cabinet

and budget

monarchy.

minister is too

decision-making

power.

powerful.

a cabinet. process

works for

policy.

291

292

Chapter 13

In

2006,

newly

extend

its

elected

military During

the

committing promise he had

a

Minister

minority

Harper

Prime

leader

Afghanistan,

election

campaign,

his party

Forces

to foreign

to introduce

government.

Minister in

He knew

of the

handling

of the

had

that

that

winning

whether

prerogative to include

Harper

the

on

the

promised

would

Canada of the

Parliament

in

to

of the

other

ex-ecutive.* deci-sions

honour

be a confidence

support

would

power

was determined

certainly

Liberal

of the

to follow

believing

that

matter

parties

cabinet

Manley

minister

panel

leader

chose

Peter

veteran

when

would

be improved Goodale

to

next steps. the

The

prime

be

a

suggest

When

end

date

Harper understood

Dion

of 2011,

the

prime

of the executive

The executive

onits actions. In checks vignette

Montreal

based

Kingston:

could

must answer to the

House

of his

govern-ment

mission in

could

the

Report,

be phrased

the

mission in

to them.

and writing

After a debate

mission, the

in

motion passed.

on its exercise.

on an important

The pre-rogative

policy question.

it needed to be sanctioned prime

minister

would have an easier time

questions from the opposition,

The

persuaded

wily political

of the

criticisms

power and the limits

requiring

must cultivate panels in order

securing the support

the

prime

of

minister to justify

House and ultimately to the people. It also demon-strates

played by central agencies like the

PMO and PCO in

Canada, the executive is expected to act decisively,

on that is

and

agreed

situation, the

future.

not

the

and ceding authority to independent

to do so. In a majority situation, the government

the crucial role

on its

criticisms

mission

was to have legitimacy,

Prime headed

Conservative

supporting

minister

a seri-ous

the

panel

Dion

scrutiny

on the for

from

leader,

on the

minister the power to act decisively

of the other parties, even creating

his decision.

motion

had

Afghanistan.

Manley reports

conditions

Dion

governments

Anticipating

advise

House

and forced it to justify the

that if his decision

House but still face tough

their

to focus

of the their

Stphane

with

to

Parliament

continued

House of Commons. In a minority government

the support

This

the

surprise

it.

of the

and included

send

ways that

outlined

captures the fullness

power gives the prime However,

conceded

wording

Liberals

an

would

suggest

was critical of the government

This decision

by the

to

how the

When the

Liberals

of troops

carefully

much to the

public.

and

have

despite

separately

caucus,

continuing

mission

opposing

and

of the

would

a blue ribbon

mission

Liberal

deployment Dion

the

offered created

the

but,

mission

from

and

support

for the

Bloc

House

Duceppe,

Canada,

more difficult.

of the

advice

within the

with

minister

forward.

vote, including

House that

the

opportunity

the

of

easily

and the

was even both

Manley to review

meeting

that

it

Office (PCO)

debated

of his ensure

a path

intervened

possible

to

Dion the

and

John

passed

in the

Gilles

would

Party

on support

information

took

on a reconfigured

Goodale.

gave

withheld

Council

was fiercely

timing

Van Loan

Ralph and

the

mission

minister

Privy

motion

supporting

parties

met with

Bloc

Liberal

divided

was critical

had

prime

and the

were

he

that the

of the

the

the

and

they

the

who

opposition

House,

believing

of Liberals

Party

of the

in the

leader

of debate,

on renewing

Liberal

its recommendation

Harper

before

majority

House

support

meeting

interim

members

one day

Office (PMO)

by former

the

Graham,

party

Parliament,

need the

the resolution

After

of the

in

would

with the

mission,

challenge Ministers

it.

leader

Bill

uniting

vote in the

elected

report

in

minister,

The 2008 been

he

and left

that

supporting

prime

knew

Qubcois,

He knew

challenge

personally

*

a decision under

operations.

a resolution

Prior to introducing

Bloc

mission.

a serious

Harper

2006.

of the

the

the

faced

Kandahar,

Canadian

having

Stephen

to

matter.

Commons

the

2006

the

despite

tricky

Prime

deployment

advising the executive

but there

are subtle

but impor-tant

power. on Ian

Brodie,

At the

McGill-Queens

centre

University

of

government:

Press,

2018,

The pp.

prime

minister

and

the

limits

on

political

power.

4851.

ChapterIntroduction Before there

were legislatures

These advisers hence the

name,

government is a tale

and

democratic

the rule

with

any

in form his advisers

manage

will,

of justice,

to state

use of, Privy

secrets Council.

tradition

the

of how courts

were

monarchs the

The executive

of pre-eminence

representing and

there

and counselled

and

is the

oldest

dominance.

people

have attempted

have tried

to constrain

and their

monarch

branch

Modern to

the

ad-visers.

on them; of

history

bind the

execu-tive

use of power

by

of law.

As

and

we still

has a long

of how legislatures

to

and courts

were privy

entity that

Privy

British

tradition,

has grown from

Council the

for the led

monarch,

by the

evolution

over

centuries,

specializations

were unchallenged,

a parliament

as the

that

follow

later

the

executive

in function.

came the

prime

minister,

his cabinet

(who

minister),

and a burgeoning

prime happened

gradually

in the

over

has taken

Where once the

British

centuries

whose job tradition

on dif-ferences monarch it

bureaucracy. and

was to

doubled

peacefully

In the fo

The Executive

the

most part,

the

Westminster

variations

model

Westminster

Parliament

and

the

model,

and

responsible

for

the laws), Commons passed

cast

votes for

power

because

the

majority

laws,

they

discusses

Westminster

Model

of the formal

important

strong

executive.

the

powerful.

of the

decision

chapter

the

discussion

in

of the Once this

minister,

and

the

of the

role

decision-making

has been

branch of government

given,

House

the

of

the

of

the

cur-rent

while the

reflects

chosen

general

to form

a government,

who is

the

explored,

able

confidence

of the

of a

elected the

by

house

House

of

Commons

an

While

the

of gov-ernment, question

has become

too

followed

executive

in

person

by the

model

and raises

on the

is

executive.

the important

of the

of democracy

Crown

are exercised

minister,

including

governor

pro-posals majority

that

of government, the

to retain

version

parliamentary

is

Minister

head

meaning

Canadian

political

prime

Prime The

are successfully Before

it.

leg-islative

(execut-ing

countries

emulate

min-ister,

by outlining

powers

cabinet

chapter

and the quality

that

minister

components

the

begins

of the

prime

process,

of the three

and in other

which

the

government

of Parliament,

in the

It

the

in

model of representative

used in the United Kingdom

proclamation.

of the

of the

Model of Par-liamentary

and responsible

party

prime

government

proposals

most of its

especially

The

of

normally

executive,

proposals

executive

to the role

and and

of

explaining

powers

construction

cabinet)

turns

of the is

of Commons,

its initiatives.

and

is an advantage

executive,

overview

and

system,

then

making

cabinet

process.

of the

Houses

Because the prime

political

these

Government.

Canada

political

outlines

political

Next, the

powers

the leader

House

the

budgetary

assent

Westminster

are situated.

who becomes the

will support

royal

the

of Commons

seats in the

Usually

House

and

and

the government.

and

of Parliamentary

The chapter

centralized

whether

in the

role

where monarch)

functioning

on them.

as

Government

of the

House

means that

day-to-day

legislative

executive

component

political

That

will receive

This chapter

role

its

to the

have

known

have adopted

London

The party leader,

the

questions

of

candidates,

forms

law

systems.

area

residence

party

is fused.

present

answer

the

elected

exceptions,

overseeing

and common

Other countries

Westminster

and therefore

with few

will

and

become

this

after

of candidates

the cabinet

and executive

the

call

named

Palace (principal

citizens

cabinet,

convention,

government.

we still

upon to form the government.

minister

of

which

number

nominates

is

of precedent,

model is

Buckingham

with the largest

called

a wealth

model of parliamentary

of this

The

Under

creating

293

by

a

budgetary

(Crown,

need for

prime

reforms

to

Canada.

The Formal Executive 13.1a Explain 13.1b

Identify

One result

whatit

the powers

of the

and informal

meansto have a constitutional of the governor

evolutionary

parts

of the

expected to be non-partisan to the

political

largely

executive

from

aspect

executive.

(prime

custom

general.

of executive

The formal

and avoid

and

and convention

growth

executive

political

minister

monarchy.

is the

refers

controversies.

cabinet),

existence

to the

By informal

whose far-reaching

but also from

their

of formal

monarch,

political

who is

we refer powers

de-rive

resources.

The Queen,the Governor General,

Formal

and the Privy Council Sections 9 to 11 of the of their

authority.

authority

of the all

ceremonial governor

1 If

a king

Executive Letters

of the duties general,

takes

the

Constitution

throne,

for

Canada,

upon

the

Act, 1867, outline the formal

government

Patent,

monarchs

That

and

1947, the

powers

and

with the

changes

governor

accordingly.

is vested

general

authorities.

exception

the recommendation

wording

authority

the

of appointing prime

in the

permanently

Thus,

of the

executive

queen

and aspects Queen.1 exercises

By vir-tually

performs

only

her representative,

the

minister.

Executive

part

of the

comprising general, Privy which

executive

the

Council

queen, and

for

possesses

of the

political

acts

gov-ernor

Queens

Canada, formal

authority convention

the

the

and

on the executive.

con-stitutional by advice

294

Chapter 13

The governor

general

on behalf

of and in the

Provincial

lieutenant-governors

the

queen

remains

have

The formal

royal judges,

of the

of the

advice

summoning

These functions to the

The the

the

mandate

of the

Government

remove,

of

members

have ever

of advice

of the

been federal

The

Queens

Canada. Privy

to the

part of the

Council

for

Queens

active

part

Council.

Thus, gen-eral

for

plus

to

number

the

in an the full

The second

is

aid

set

and

advise

and

also

of

of honorific

Privy

officially,

who

appoint-ments.

is the

Council

in may

of all those

Council

By convention,

acting

do not capture

consists

Privy

Nevertheless,

Senate,

results

below.

Council

the

gover-nor

as signing

in the

who appoints,

a limited that

general. when

but

Canada

Privy

the

such

(which

government.

general

The

functions

membership

discussed

Council governor

However,

to

generally

and are

(s.13).

Crown.

governors

cabinet,

Parliament

of cabinet

ministers,

general

people

dissolving

Act, 1867, establishes

governor

of the

and

Privy

let alone offers advice to the governor

The active

include

Council.

cabinet

Constitution

general minister

are known

It is the

the

purposes.2

some

prime

power

of Canada

representing

provincial

governor

operation

prerogative

words for

even though

summoning

of the

Government

as such.

Parliament,

and so on.

from

other

of state,

of the

election),

on the

Crown

to themselves

assent to legislation,

office

in

the

head

duties

on the

carrying

Queen,

formal

importance derive

with

represent

or nominal

appointing

duties

Privy

name

referred

performs

and giving

entrusted

Canadas

occasionally

general

Cabinet

is

main source

seldom

meets,

the cabinet is the only

the

cabinet

will rely

on the

Canada.

Com-posed formal authority of the Council. of the prime minister Overall, then, the formal executive is the legal facade for the informal executive. and ministers, it controls most By adopting a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom (word-ing of the executive and legislative found in the Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867), Canada took on the relevant powers of government. customs and conventions that had developed in the United Kingdom. Specifically, the

monarchs

advice

representatives

of the

act only

government

business

of government

can thus

be described

of the in the

upon

the legally

day. Thus,

name

the

of the

as a constitutional

and constitutionally

prime

Crown.

minister

Canada,

like

tendered

and cabinet

direct

the

Kingdom,

United

monarchy or as a parliamentary

the

democracy.

The Crown, Monarchy,and Prerogative The best

way to

monarchy, its

many

The Crown The

and the

of all

powers

of the

of the

supreme

powers

state

authority

for

government.

meanings

of the

or kingbut term

thus

used in

cases,

The

which

Prerogative

have

not

Parliament.

sources

been

form

monarch possessed taken

away

that by

Crown

power

monarch

Crown

both

(the

power

2 The

lieutenant-governor

minister, New

which

is

Brunswick,

the

counterpart 1889)

from

to

and

power

make laws

act

monarchthe

The sovereign The

as a symbol

of

body

that

queen

authority

Crown

is

what belongs

prosecutes

instances

(legislation) grants

(e.g.,

ancient

These

and

the

power

in

of

also

a

to the

criminal

regarding

Crown

common

the

past, the

nature

common

were called

law

the

(the

powers,

the laws)

or subordinate

powers

law

statutory

to implement

of a delegated

well.

of all of the executive

of the

Parliament.

specific

(the

In the

as

Crown,

is to review

and in the

allowed

prerogative

power, as Dicey(1965) says, is the residue of discretionary

at any

of

in

Parliament

executive

the

Crown

of Canada). statute

or orders-in-council).

to legislate

not

as the

peoples come

name

authority.

and

as a trustee

decisions).

Crown

power. A prerogative authority,

Crown

among

the

powers.

on in the

corporations),

of the

differentiate

be the repository

the supreme

acting

of judicial

of its

many circumstances:

powers

give the

is to

way to investigate

to

is carried

the

sense in

as government

of regulations

the

from

(e.g.,

best

understood

of the Indigenous

legislative

Power the

uniquely

various

of some

accumulation

once

the

Crown remains comes

executive

In turn,

Government

a looser

public

and

interests

powers

and the

state.

the

government

Canadian

The

discuss the formal

prerogative.

The Crown is generally

repository

executive

and

each of the

given

province, governor

time

is left

in the

appointed

by

general

(Liquidators

the

hands

governor of the

general Maritime

of the

on

the

Bank

Crown.

(p.

recommendation of

Canada

424).

of the v.

Receiver-General

This

prime of

The Executive

means that

the

been taken

ancient

away

prerogative

powers

the

by Parliament

powers

and

monarch

are still

prerogative

once

intact.

uniquely

possessed

Two types

powers

devolved

have

to

that

evolved:

have

295

not

discretionary

ministers.

DiscretionaryPrerogativePowers There are a few

discretionary

or reserve upon

powers)those

his or her own and

governor

or

does

not

circumstances, the find

governor

In

1896,

the

question

dissolution

times,

unilateral action

Up

General

Minister

Paul

(Levy,

if

six

minister

Schreyer

Minister

Constitution

a request months

for

revealed

that

dissolution

after the

that

had

2004

(as

she

and

election

an election

that

resulted

pre-rogatives

powers.

to

few

however,

Box 13-1:

more recent

been

pressed

prepared

on

with the

Court in 1981 declared

discussed

would

or reserve

to grant the

In

he had

discre-tion.

personal

of the

(See

Affair.)

Trudeau

convention stated

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called

rejected

1926,

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KingByng

after the Supreme

of constitutional Clarkson

ministers

her own Also

rep-resentative upon

the

confidence

In

monarchs

after

been irrevocable,

situation.

the

a few

courts

Aberdeen

the

or

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recommended

have

his

excep-tional

only

Prerogative

may exercise

the

parties

in

and the

Lord

have

in this

Pierre

powers

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was highly

later

between

Senate

not

In

party

that

The

violating

Commons.

mediate

would

The

is

or extreme

General

did

power

an election

Prime

of the

Adrienne

Martin

the first

Governor

Controversy:

Edward

an election

a violation

to the

discretionary

and call

General

Charles

power to refuse the prime

Stirs

amendment

Governor

within

use of the

General

on his own to call

Minister

prime

of

prerogative

supporters

election.

of Parliament

Governor

discretionary

or

and the appointments

discretionary

A Governor

government

Prime

a general

electorate)

the

use of the

used

Since the

(and the

the

minister

Powers ap-pointment

the

of Parliament.

government

House

prime

may

These include

dissolution

if the

of the

of the

of his partys

in

recommendations.

would

has

Conservative

was defeated

Commons

this

lead

of a number

his party the

could

p. 284).

and the

discretion

preroga-tives Discretionary Powers exercise

as personal

representative

2006,

confidence

general

general

appointment

the

death

The instances.

have as the

leader.

governor

minister

personal

known

monarchs

(Hogg,

prime

use

such

a government

the

discretion

of the

may also

powers (also

that

personal

dismissal

general

Constitution

prerogative

in

not have

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10). Prime

if

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govern-ment

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Box 13-1 A Governor General Stirs Up Controversy: The KingByng Affair Prime

Minister led

the for

governor

William Lyon Upper

King,

Rebellion in

whose grand-father

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his challenge to the discretionary

power of the

minority government

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partys first leadership

he became that relied

prime

support

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101 Liberals, 116

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censure

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minor parties

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1926, facing

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with his sup-port

him, he asked

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general election,

will of the

King resigned,

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and the

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motives of

censurewere

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House and call an election.

request

government

and to form

Meighen

accepted

a government.

was defeated

the

governor

Three

days later

vote.

This time,

by a single

Governor General Byng had no alternative but to grant disso-lution.

2 indepen-dents.

King did not resign

and governed for a year withthe support ofthe Progressives, Labour,

avoid the

generals the

The next election, in 1925, returned

Meighens

con-vention. evident.

minister as head

on the

noting that the

Arthur

had passed since the last Kingto

King won the Liberal

Two years later,

Byng refused,

still re-membered to support

general in 1926.

In 1919, of a

Mackenzie

Canada

King used the situation to his advantage. the 1926 election,

he argued that the governor

As he fought general should

not have used the prerogative power to deny hisrequest for an election, (Beck,

1968).

1926

election, prime

and

was treating

Kings Liberals

Canada like

and he went on to become minister

a British colony

won a majority government

in the

Canadas longest-serving

296

Chapter 13

Finally, when,

Governor

on

December

prorogue

(end

had sat for

only

the

13 days

Liberal

and

1926,

prime

when

Parliament,

like

expressing to

in the assume

October

vote

Stephen

that

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controversy

Harper

Bloc

a

minority Given

to form

Qubcois

to

Parliament

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an agreement

separatist

his request

case,

had returned

budget

had signed

of the

considerable

26, 2009. In this

14 election

parties

support

ministers to

will. that

Prime

Furthermore,

of

prorogue

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a coali-tion

party,

it is

In

in

Kings

censure

in the

prevent

the

a primary

this

Parliament

Mackenzie

would

is a government

Commons.

to

was facing

Parliament,

there

House

request

his government

dissolving

its

ensure

Minister

until January

Democratic

was comparable

in

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and a confidence

had the

generated

the

gov-ernment

to fall.

of the

situation

request

House

case, the

the

dissolu-tion

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of the

has the

coalition

of

that

for

Commons.

responsibility

place that

argued

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governor

support

gen-eral

of the

government

major-ity

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office.

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experts

prime

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minister

week of sitting

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the confidence

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advice

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election

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government

be

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survived,

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controversy.

of

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advice

decision

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prime

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to

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power

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to

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general

by the

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judgment

minister

governor

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prime

also

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be lost,

to table 2018).

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campaign

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as established

time

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since the

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and

was likely Critics

Jean

of) Parliament

government,

government

Michalle

4, 2008, she granted

the session

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and that

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cases it

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governor

general

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the is

minister.

Prerogative Powers Devolvedto Ministers Other

prerogative

act in

the

powers

name

of the

have Crown.

making treaties services

in international

accrediting matters appointing

as granting

powers

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consult

Counsel,

of

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alone

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governed

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before

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be evidence-based

precedent

Canadian

similarly

limit

missions

limiting

the

the

honours, exercise

recent

in

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discre-tion on policy

decided

Afghanistan

exercise

of

years,

ministerial

not founded

Stephen

and

more routine

In

on

and

Minister

the armed

granting enjoy

who

policyincluding

states,

In

Parliament.

an important

the

power.

ministers

to involve

ministers

recognizing

passports,

clemency,

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to

of foreign

war, deploying

prerogative

issuing

having

When

field

declaring

by

to laws,

decisions

monarch

large

ambassadors,

has imposed

2013).

the

the

agreements,

necessarily

(Brock,

Parliament

and

from

example,

appointing

exemptions

without

Court

preferences

and

largely

Queens

all these the

and trade conflicts,

diplomatsis such

devolved For

in

of these

to 2006

discre-tionary

powers.

3 Harpers parties

detainees,

two

successful

claimed the

months

it

request

to

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government

used

prorogue to the

muzzle

Parliament criticism

upcoming

in

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related Winter

to

2009

an inquiry

Olympics

in

was also controversial. into

Vancouver

Canadas to justify

role

While the in the

suspending

torture

opposition of

Afghan

Parliament

for

The Executive

297

The Political Executive 13.2a

Outline the

13.2b

Explain the two

The political

bases of prime

executive

Constitution

the cloak

is

power.

government.

made up of the prime

minister, cabinet

ministers, and

on its existence

and constitutional

and operation.

convention

It operates

(politically

mostly under

but not legally

practices) and occasionally under usages of the Constitution (non-binding Thus, the political

min-isters Political

most powerful part of the political system, but surprisingly, the

is silent

of custom

and cabinet

aspects of responsible

of state. It is the formal

ministerial

executive

takes

much of its direction

from

The

Executive

prime

and

minister,

ministers

cabinet,

of state.

binding

practices).

convention

rather than

statute.

The Prime Minister, Cabinet, and Ministers of State The prime

minister is sometimes

role in the cabinet. Councilthe

government,

The language to

or cabinet of the

as the

Council.

Governor in

council is a decision of cabinet, power

dictates that

of government decision

in the name of the Privy referred

referred to asthe first

Convention

daycan

exercise

Governor

is the formal

centuryor

and an order-in-council The term

acts on the advice

even attends

general

governmental

Governor

General in

cabinet

Council (usually

clemency,

in

Council

or the

or pardon,

does not imply

Canadians sometimes

Governor in

Council.

involvement

given to federal

take their

for granted, thinking

governor

general

cabinet

authority.

are undertaken

These include

in the name of the

some aspects of the

in international

affairs;

is

acting

Queens

pre-rogative

of privy coun-cillors, the

and the

power

the cabinet

of

Westminster System form

of government,

and especially

cabinet

govern-ment,

number

of forms.

The legislatures

of Nunavut

makefor fascinating examples. They do not have politi-cal

run as independents;

all

and cabinet in a secret ballot;

members of the legislative and the cabinet

assembly

as permanent

minor-ity4

often seesits policy and budget decisions subject to change by the legislature. The major similarities

to other legislatures

in

Canada are that the premier

portfolios that cabinet members hold, and certain votes and cabinet Other interesting

solidarity

examples

apply (White,

of variations

chooses the

Westminster principles such as con-fidence 2006).

on the

Westminster system exist outside

Canada. Forinstance, the parliamentary caucuses ofthe United Kingdom Conservative Party and of the

Australian

Labour

Party can choose and remove

with the former subject to a ratification Australia

and

ministry.

Also, in the

United

prime

minis-ter,

vote of all party membersif necessary.In

New Zealand, the parliamentary

members of the

the

caucuses Kingdom,

of the

Labour

parties select

the Government,

which can

number as many as 100 members, encompasses many different types of ministers: the 4It is a permanent

its program.

minority

because

it cannot

depend

on a party

to

marshal

a

majority

in the

legislature

to support

Council

name

in

decisions

offenders.

come in a surprising

candidates

premier

that

Governor in The formal

that only one variety exists. This is not the case; parlia-mentary

and the Northwest Territories elect the

of

practice that ended in the

meetings, but that the

of the cabinet

The Flexibility of the

parties;

by virtue

that

functions

and senators;

systems

a minute of

is a decision taken

power delegated to the cabinet collectively: the appointment judges,

Privy power.

of the cabinet.

Many of the executive governor

the lead-ership

part of the

name of cabinet,

the governor general actually presides over the cabineta nineteenth

to indicate

making reminds us that the cabinet operates

For example, Council)

delegated to the cabinet.

minister

only the active

given

to

order

to invest

with

constitutional

The

phrase

the

signi-fies

governor

on the

general

advice

Privy

Council

active

part

its

of the for

of

Can-ada,

which

is

298

Chapter 13

20 to

25 or so senior

called

the

inner

cabinet),

The

Canadian

does

not choose

political

party

members.

(See

with the

of that

Whitehall

and

practices.

prime

minister.

Instead,

the

normally

chosen,

in recent

8.)

The

of the

prime

caucus

prime

minister

United

Kingdom,

Clark

government

minister

the

partys

to

vote

play

(19791980),

party

general

on the

than

does

exception

recourse

of a

of all

other

The government

with the

cau-cus

is the leader

governor

role

and cabinet.

secretaries.

by a direct

advises

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private

prime

has little

(sometimes

The governing

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minister

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departments

parliamentary

of these

the

short-lived

ministers,

follows

ministers,

for

who run

few

Chapter

board

size

junior

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of all

a sounding

ministers

ministry

who is

appointment

to the

cabinet

that

of

not swell

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to

an inner

cabinet

is

unknown.5

Categoriesof Officein the Ministry Canadian

practice

not in

also

ways identical

differentiates to

the

between

categories

United

Kingdom.

prime

minister.

of office

The following

in the

ministry

are the

but

most common

categories.6 The first of the

category

prerogatives

and

The prime

minister

over

cabinet,

consulted

by

the

certain

public

Third are The the

secretaries

cabinet

government

without very

of state

ministers period,

term

that

is

the

term

power, 6 Occasionally of

defencea

is

that

of

and the there

are practice

the

the

Clark

full

cabinet

deviations that

goes

was simply back

to

most

of

them

for

the

rest

a forum

pattern, the

Clark

1940s

for

particularly Cabinet

had

referring of

an inner

discussion in War

the

to

cabinet.

an

have

elite

and

of

by the

committee the

cabinet

of state

specified

However,

cabinet

the

within

sense

ministers

in with

which final

repre-sent ques-tion prime

cabinet we

use

decision-making

coordination.

occasional

Committee

and attend

committees,

committee

and

and

to the setting

Ministers

areas

years, Ministers

century

can

parliamentary in

Chrtien

ministry

of responsibility.

respon-sibility

manage.

of state

leadership

directions

to

Like

ministers.

meetings.

were valuable

between

and were

cabinet.

of collective

previous

a department

portfo-lios.

cabinet

of cabinet

basis in the

they

minis-ters

in their the

the

duties.

and in the latter

all cabinet

times;

years,

These junior

salary

post in the

meetings,

(1979).

the

attend

Ministers

areas

meanings,

government

from

to

distinction

policy

policy

of the

coordi-nation

in their

but not of the

on a rotational

of state.

of

broad

them

between

Council

three-quarters

were not given

to their

a variety

sets

Privy

to this

stakeholder

has or

of the

In recent

ministers

health).

policy

ministers

a distinction

services

and

with

of state). cabinet

depart-mental ministers.

Administration

of agriculture

to guide

cabinet

more recent

demonstrate

cabinet

most influential here

relevant

at events,

inner

the

but

ministers

and they

and is

providing

and finance).

ministers

secretaries

cabinet

in

maintained

meetings

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ministerstermed

in

more concerned

created

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officials

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ministers

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appointed

Harper

committee

5 The

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earned

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ministers

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Martin

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electoral

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departments

Act set

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minister

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The Executive

The 2015 with

Canadian

Governor

299

cabinet

General

David

Johnston.

Image

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Geoff

minister

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Unlike

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is to act as intermediaries committees,

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or liaisons among the

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Members of the House of Commons.

Responsible Government Whereascertain conventions executive, Responsible

other

govern the relationship

conventions

government

guide the

is the central

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political

Canadian

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Constitution.

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maintains that the cabinet needs the continued support of the majority of the elected House of Commons to stay in office.

This is also known

as collective

Responsible government is a British heritage, because Britain our struggles ministerial

for

democracy

responsibility

in

and the

Canada. It involves collective

two

related

responsibility

responsibility.

wasthe

model for

aspects: individual

of the

Individual

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Ministerial Responsibility

responsibility

is essentially

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and

necessary. A minister has to submit his or her departments estimates and plans to the departments

improper

behaviour

operations. or of failure

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The

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minister

does not have to answer

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may be expected

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to resign if

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relating to the ministers present portfolio. minister

to

questions

minister to complete

this ring

for

actions

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decisions department

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aspects guilty the

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of

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as a group

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at him or her, but public opinion of ministerial responsibility.

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The convention de-partment.

According to parliamentary rules, the

directed

of individual

ministers

of Commons

they

House, to defend them there, and to answer

responsibility

cabinet

defend, and to resign, if

of the

duty to submit,

Ministerial

Responsibility

whole cabinet.

the

House

decisions government.

that is

of Commons and

the

cabi-net

responsible

actions

for of the

to the

300

Chapter 13

In

addition,

blame

that

whole.

may taint

The classic

action

that

a ministers

place in

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responsibility

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Johnston

principles

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minister;

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303

304

Chapter 13

apply

to

foreign

affairssome recent

affairs, of the

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policy

affairs

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ministers

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as ambassador retain

reviews

considerably

learned

to

of prime

305

of the other ability

cabinet

to see

business

a true

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example,

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authority

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cabinet

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Trudeau current would be

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306

Chapter 13

not cabinet

committees

leadership

power

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is to

Office,

Chapter

15)

vertical

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to

the

Treasury

of

power

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focus

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timetable

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power

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307

image.

Cabinet The cabinet

carries

out

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most of the legislation expect

this

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because

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bills, Fund;

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ap-propriation

United States.8

Parliament

out the

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unconstitutional

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54 of the

Congress, its counterpart and

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and deals

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legislation,

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legislation

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as being

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authority.

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such

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is responsible

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source

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direction

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in

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8 The

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partys

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a primary passed

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for

legislation

is extensive.

(Delegated)

or agency

made

by

308

Chapter 13

senators

have

provinces

been appointed

that

reflected

did

not elect

a commitment

(See

strong

from

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certain

if at all

from Trudeau

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Montreal,

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representation

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at least

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Liberals

Quebec;

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Harper of the

were Stephen

he could

2013, stung

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min-isters

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popularity,

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himself

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Box 13-2: Justin

In constructing a very

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Box 13-2 Justin Trudeau Appoints a Cabinet During the that

2015

election

50 percent

campaign,

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Stephen

October

promise

The cabinet to a considerable like

15

39-member up to

women

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2015

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to appoint

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prac-tice

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of environment

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title. In addition to being Trudeau took

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Quebec, three

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cabinet reflected

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equality

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of around

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Justin

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government

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the number of on the

British

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Historically, the

appropriate

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Stagesof Cabinet Development Cabinet the

has taken

cabinet,

THE

several

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forms

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(1985)

TRADITIONAL,

CABINETS

primarily

state a

described

cabinet

when

mechanism

arose and

for

when the ministers

autonomy

was

public

sector

making

politician

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ministers

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for

primary period.

displayed

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departments

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PRIME

MINISTERCENTRED that

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CABINET

days

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cabinet

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have

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implicitly

replaced

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government).

committees serve personal

organization

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de-cision

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nominal

collective such

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policy

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minister

central

system

committees,

non-partisan

departments

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of departmental

and the

central

cabinet

coordination.

achieve it by a highly

minister. and

on the

and full

Institutionalized

[combined]

and the formulation

agencies

prime

to achieve

structures,

techniques

of government.

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minister

dominant

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matters

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decisions,

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designer

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receives

deputy

making the

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Privy

aims

finance

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departments

decision becomes

coordination,

more comprehensive.

monitor

minister

ministerial

and relies

collective

p. 4).

structure,

emphasizes

autonomy

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organization

1995).

making, 1985,

in struc-ture,

or

of cabinet

prime

departments

was simple

minister

management

(Dupr,

has a complex

central

partisan

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objectives

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prime

and

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collegial

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decision-making

to their

cabinet

decision

cabinet (1920s to

formulation

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was

voicing

government had

of formal

and

collegial

and

prime

combinations

budgeting

cabinet

degree

1995).

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various

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of the

and

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before

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1920s) was

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models.

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role

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three

(1867

governments

regional concerns, and awarding 1960s)

Confederation.

DEPARTMENTALIZED,

The traditional

administrative

since

agen-cies, ministers

310

Chapter 13

Donald

Savoies

Governing

process to the

prime

and

the

prime

the

collective

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and central

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president and

with

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cabinet

committee

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but

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trusted

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to

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development

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2008, p. 238).

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minister

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services).

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differentiation

governance

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spenders,

2008, p. 229).

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different interests,

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setters

2007).

have combined

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departments

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ties to key sectoral and regional cabinet

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Howthe Cabinet Decision-Making Process Works 13.4

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outlines

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311

312

Chapter 13

Figure 13-1 TheRouting of Memoranda to Cabinet Submits

Political

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313

314

Chapter 13

Figure

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world

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organizations

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315

from

control

partnership

model.

can

centres.

Summary and Conclusion The executive is

presented

is complex.

It

to us in the

has a formal

Constitution

face,

which

Actthat

of the

The

queen, governor general, and Queens Privy Council for Canada. It has its informal minister, cabinet,

but powerful

and bureaucracy.

with it the still-powerful prerogative

in

of the distant

and regu-late

executive.

sidethe

past:

Although

validity

of monar-chy

Canada and the pros and cons of having an elected

head of stateby political

far the

executives

most pressing issues

ballpark.

or if the centralization era of social minister

in

global-ized

of

power

in

the

and some influential

hands

advisers,

Office, raises important

questions

democracy

Nevertheless,

in

policy-making

Canada. continue process,

is a majority

of the particu-larly

about the cabinet

to be an important while the finance

quality

government,

moreinformation public

and cabi-net

minister

and

department play the key role in the budgetary process.

and is

general

the actions

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provides

them

with

to do so. Ultimately, though, the choice

of whether a government to the

for

by ques-tioning

decisions and actions.

to investigate

the creation

officers such as the auditor

needs

is responsive

will rest

and accountable

with the governments

lead-ership

and the public view of that leadership. In terms

of representativeness,

do not fully society.

represent the

Nevertheless,

they

or visible

or non-Christians.

Progressive election

for

one

Diefenbaker,

only a few

Conservative

defeat.

As

woman,

diverse

Kim

people, Campbell,

minister; her prime

minis-tership

months in 1993 before her

party suffered

well,

all prime

more

not to include

minorities, Indigenous

Only

cabi-nets

of Canadian

much

which tended

has held the office of prime lasted

contemporary

diversity

are

before 1957,

women, ethnic

of

part of the

of Parliament

remains limited

than cabinets

in the Privy Council Office and the Prime Ministers

committees

of government

divided

of power is inevitable

The concentration

ministers on government

much power

media.

serves as both a support

and a check on the government

While the ability

are in the

Opinion is firmly

on whether the prime minister now hastoo

prime

face car-ries

mark it even today

with the informal

issues arise from the formal

prime

The formal

elements

and convention

its relations

facethe

House of Commons

the government

with the

ministers

a catastrophic

exception

of John

have been of British

or

French ancestry.

Discussion Questions 1. Should 2.

Canada retain the

Did the governor proroguing

general

Parliament

3. Is the prime

monarchy?

debate and approval

make the right

decision in

in 2008?

5. Is responsible

minister too powerful,

or are the checks

on the executive subtle but effective? 4. Should

Prime

government

Minister precedent

Trudeau

of requiring

6.

the

Harper

parliamentary

government

Does a representative merit

follow

of any

missions

committing

Canadian armed forces to conflicts? still important

cabinet

alter

the

today? definition

of

316

Chapter 13

Further Readings Aucoin, P., Jarvis, M., & Turnbull, L. (2011). Democratizing the Constitution: reforming responsible government. Toronto, ON: Edmond Montgomery Publications. Brodie, I. (2018). At the centre of government: The prime minister and the limits on political power. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press, 2018. DOmbrain, N. (2007). Cabinet secrecy. Canadian public administration, 47, 332359. Dunn, C.(2018). The central executive in Canadian

government:

Searching for the

Holy Grail. In C. Dunn

(Ed.). The handbook of Canadian public ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Goldenberg, E. (2006). The way it works: Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart. Good, D.A. (2007). The politics of public guardians, priority setters, and financial Canadian government. Toronto, ON: Press.

administration (3rd Press. Inside Ottawa. money: Spenders, watchdogs in the University of Toronto

Heard, A. (2014). Canadian constitutional conventions: The marriage of law & politics (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Mallory, J.R. (1984). The structure of Canadian government. Toronto, ON: Gage. Savoie, D. (1999). Governing from the centre: The concentration of power in Canadian politics. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Savoie, D. (2008). Court government and the collapse of

accountability in Canadaand the United Kingdom. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Simpson, G.(2001). The friendly dictatorship. Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart. Ward, N. (1987). Dawsons the government of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. White, G.(2005). Cabinets and first ministers. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press

Chapter14

Parliament

Phot

Stock

Dagnall/Alamy

Ian

The

Centre

Canadians. to kick

off

and territories arms for the

Block

of Parliament,

Prime Canadas

Minister

centennial

to signify newest

with its

Lester

celebrations.

Canadian

territory,

Peace Tower

B. Pearson

unity.

Nunavut,

lit the

soaring

The flames During

the

into

Centennial bowl

150th

the

Flame includes

anniversary

blue sky, is an iconic out front the

image

on December

shields

of the

of Confederation,

for

31, 1966,

provinces the

coat

of

was added

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be ableto 14.1

14.2a

Describe the two strengths of the Westminster model of parliamentary government and the three general functions parliaments. Describe the components

of

and features of the Canadian

Parliament.

14.2b

Describe key differences in the principle, purpose, and operation of Canadas Parliament and the United States Congress.

14.2c Explain the origins and evolution from the British model. 14.3a

Describe the specific functions

of the Canadian Parliament

of the House of Commons.

317

318

Chapter 14

14.3b Explain the operation, committees.

purpose, and types of parliamentary

14.3c

Assessthe effectiveness of the its roles.

14.4a

Describe the specific functions

14.4b Evaluate the implications Senate. On October the

2, 2014,

Argyll and

Memorial in

a gunman

Sutherland

downtown

Ottawa.

Cirillo died. The gunman then shooting

fired

shots into

of Canada,

Despite the

drove

of honour,

where the prime

minister had been

the

minister and his party

As he ran, he ignored Commons

Security

Mounted

caucus

Police (RCMP)

moments

before.

and the leader

of the

and instead

him.

Feeling the shockwave others, including

the

Two additional

Nathan

Cirillo of

National

him to save him,

House of Commons,

the rotunda,

and down the hall

Heran past the rooms opposition

exchanged

War

Corporal

containing

and his party caucus.

gunfire

with the

Kevin Vickers, aformer

House of

Royal

Canadian

officer. gunman took refuge

the other side. The gunman emerged whenfour walking toward

Corporal

guard at the

Hill and burst into the

Sergeant-at-Arms

Near the Library of Parliament, the began

of

around

up the stairs, through

calls to drop his weapons Services, including

back

of those

onto Parliament

before running

the

who was standing

efforts

one guard in the leg

prime

of the Senate of Canada.

of current and possible reforms to the

three

Highlanders

House of Commons in performing

behind a cement

Whenthe gunman shot at the officers

of the gunmans prime

pillar, with Vickers on

RCMP officers, led by Constable Curtis Barrett, Vickers dove out and shot at him.

bullets going by and believing that their lives

minister, were in jeopardy,

RCMP officers also fired.

Barrett and the officers fired

and safety

of

on the gunman.

These shots did not incapacitate

the gunman.

wounds inflicted.

Corporal

Barrett fired

the final and fatal shot. The gunman three

died

with 31 gunshot

other individuals

shots in the

during the attack, threatened

House of Commons.

werein retaliation The shootings and support violence

could

legislature

for

occur at a national

monument

how such tragedy

heart of our democracy,

the Parliament

government

he had

could occur

struggled

of Canada.

As expressions

to

understand

our veterans

of sym-pathy how such

and then at the national

order, and good government.

beneath the they

Citizens

Peace Tower in the

While Canadians value their freedom

and elected representatives,

of

his ac-tions

and Iraq.

Canadians.

Canadians to peace,

volleys

made a video declaring that

Afghanistan

commemorating

committed

Cirillo, wounded

with the gun, and fired three

world and shocked

world leaders,

constitutionally

fathoming

and criticize their

military actions in

around the

poured in from

in a country

had trouble

Prior to the shooting,

Canadas

reverberated

He had killed

others

hallowed

to question

believe in the sanctity

and impor-tance

of our political institutions.

ChapterIntroduction Parliament cynical

is the

about

heart

elected legislature

is the

decide if they

election.

But all too

are not fully

Although

window

will fire the often, the

understood

government

government

that gap by discussing the important democracy Canadian

and then Parliament.

the

Canadian

in

more depth

looking

functions

composition,

the

its operations, Senate.

of the

functions,

However,

the

served of the

an

Parliament

helps to rem-edy

by parliaments in a

and functioning House of

and effectiveness much-maligned

helps

chance in the next

Canadian

This chapter

nature,

Given the central importance

Parliament, than

at the

making that

or give it another

by Canadians.

and

of having

on the actions of gov-ernment.

decision

and operations

or appreciated

are often critical

the importance

and shines a light

into

nature

Canadians

most realize

that passeslegislation

Parliament citizens

of democracy.

our elected representatives,

of the

Commons in are discussed

Senate,

why it is

much-maligned, and possible reforms to it are discussed in the final section of the chapter

Parliament

The GeneralFunctions of Parliaments 14.1

Describe the two strengths government

The Canadian

of the

and the three

Westminster

general functions

model of parliamentary

model of parliamentary of parliaments.

government

is a variant

of the

model existing in Britain. The Westminster model of parliamentary two important

advantages.

First, it is predicated

upon strong

Westminster

democracy has

centralized

power.

As

wesaw in Chapter 13, the executive is intended to be able to act decisively and to execute its elected

mandate. Second, the

of responsibility

between

Westminster

the government

model is based on a clear

and opposition.

divi-sion

The government

is

intended to govern, that is, to provide leadership through its governance and policy decisions

and their implementation.

The opposition

is expected to

hold the

govern-ment

to account by questioning its decisions, exposing its actions to the light and scrutinizing

its

come together.

expenditures.

The government

House of Commons in the form them.

The opposition

demands

Parliament submits

is the institution

its

policy

model does not always bear in

mind

deliver

when considering

where these roles

and spending

of bills and expects its party that the

government

justify

the current actions of the public sector in implementing on these two any reforms

to the

decisions

its proposals they

Canadian

to the

membersto support as well as

policy decisions.

core strengths,

of day,

Whilethe

are important

system

to

of parliamen-tary

government. Asthe opening extends

vignette

demonstrated,

beyond these two

the importance

core governance

may be divided into three categories

of a parliament

roles.

with important

The functions

in a democ-racy

of parliaments

sub-categories:

Policy-making activities Members of a parliament They also perform

support

a surveillance

of government

and,

the government function

more generally,

and its law-making

by scrutinizing by holding

the

activities.

decisions

the government

and ac-tions

accountable

to the public. Representational activities Members of Parliament

perform

a representational

and promoting the interests of their constituents. decisions

role

by voicing

the concerns

Members of government

make

on the behalf of all Canadians.

The House of Commons performs an electoral conversion the results

of elections

become opposition

into

decisions

parties, and

about

which

party

role by converting governs,

which

who leads each of these entities in governing

ones the

nation. System maintenance activities Elected representatives through

are recruited

from the public and then trained

various roles in the law-making

process; they

and social-ized

may go on to other

positions in the political system. The prime

minister chooses the cabinet from

of Parliament (almost all from the The opposition

in the

among the governing

partys

mem-bers

House of Commons).1

House of Commons

provides the public

with an alternative

to the current government. 1 Very occasionally, a Canadian prime minister has chosen a cabinet minister who does not hold aseat in Parliament, but this has been quickly followed by the person being elected to the Commons or appointed to the Senate. The appointment received

of Judy considerable

Manning criticism

to the

Newfoundland

cabinet

in

2014

without

seeking

to

be elected

in

a by-election

319

320

Chapter 14

Elected

representatives

where solutions

to

be articulated Parliament

engage crises

mediated.

confers

legitimacy

unless

function

like

the

behaviour

accountable.

Legitimation perform

to

its

particular and

Parliament

regular

debates.

a

a public

Question

This influences

and fosters

support

public

for

political

seem

by examin-ing on

military

ac-tions

legitimates

more transparent when the provides

specific

sup-port to

gov-ernment,

government.

by raising and

and

debating

reports,

government

by building

and

legislature

support

toward

hearings

institutions

gov-ernment

Parliament

more diffuse

of how

way

and

debate

This

function

may

manifest

performed

manner

feelings

expectations

of

them

but also

committee

a

decisions

activities.

education

divisions

in

Parliamentary

or positive

Period,

rituals

a latent

a forum

proposals

it is

by rendering

of government trust

and

whether

in

social

occurs

government

law-making

generates

performs

through

votes,

occurs

and

providing

on legislative

of 2008.

actions also

by

This

vote

debating crisis

and

outputs

this

and

understood,

or by

financial

government

government.

debates, is

or spending

or crises

meets to

upon

management

may be debated

debate

The lengthy

this

legislation

conflict

disputes

meets to

actions. quaint

and

and

when the legislature

in

and

is-sues

budget

should

operate

public confidence

and

support.

In sum,

Parliament

government

and

it

performs

provided organized

(www.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo)

works

and

how it should

operating

these in

provides

work,

and

functions

builds

well.

a public

public

We now

window

confidence

turn

to

how

on how

in the

pro-cess,

Parliament

is

Canada.

The Canadian Parliament 14.2a

Describe the components

14.2b

14.2c

House

the origins

British

model.

Parliament of

In contrast,

House

queen)

until

follows

legislation and remain houses

the

aloof

and

its jurisdiction,

with two

Parliament cham-bers

from

and

as provincial

Parliament

(queen),

district

in

governor

minister

and

with the

legislature. House

of

in

in the

does retain

cabinet.

Parliament

and the

the

royal

some

provinces

once

had

bicameral

legislatures,

all

provincial

legislatures

assent to

of the two

power

provincial and

to advise,

each of which

must adopt

are

now

within jurisdic-tion,

Freedoms.

or houses.

2 Although

the

be non-partisan

chambers,

Senate

MPs).

minister and

is sovereign

of Rights

That is, it has two

mem-bers

or

(representing

to

within

and the

the

deliberations

general

are sovereign

Commons

elect

granting

is expected

Charter

Senate,

of Parliament,

general

and cabinet

Canadian

the

of the prime

governor

general

from the

Canada

members

not participate

legislatures

must comply

Crown

as

The

minister

does

the

prime

Both the

to

age 75.

prime

However,

is a bicameral

meets separately.2

the

The governor

politics

warn the

all

at

of the

Canadian

electoral

referred

Parliament.

Congress.

on the recommendation

by Parliament.

just

but now

of each

retirement

advice

of the

elements:

(often

are appointed

of Parliament.

encourage,

Legislature

Commons

their

passed

three

Canadian

purpose, and operation of

United States

and evolution

The citizens of

senators

office

and the

comprises

Commons.

of the

hold

Parliament

Explain

Canadas

A legislature

of the

Describe key differences in the principle, Canadas

Bicameral

and features

unicameral

legislation

Parliament

in identical

form

Each chamber

before

has the

it

that

holds

be submitted

authority

must be introduced chamber

can

to initiate

by the

the

to the

to

general

most legislation;

government

government

governor

in the

for

however,

House

of

that

Canada

royal

assent.

financial

Commons,

legisla-tion

making

it the

account.

British Roots The

preamble

similar

in

adopted that

to the

the

had

rich

to

Act, 1867, states

of the

system

from

OBrien

Crown,

upper

United

that

Canada

Elected system,

in

legislature

adopted

has a

which

government

an elected

Britain

with

include

a

Constitution

means that and

the

monarchy.

Canada practices

The

the following

particu-lar

(adapted

and

& Bosc, 2009): (Senate)

and lower

The practice that all legislation parliament

Kingdom,

of parliamentary

to reconcile

of this

expanded

that

tradition

developed

features

The

Constitution

Principle

(Commons)

houses;

would need the consent

of the three components

of

to become effective;

representatives in

which

are selected

one

member

through

is chosen

a single-member

to represent

each

plurality

electoral

(SMP)

district

(repre-sentative

government);

Elected representatives tend to belong to parties, and it is through the parties that the leaders

are chosen, including

and

who the governor

The

party

largest

or

parties

the leader

general asks to form not forming

one becoming

the

official

Executive powers are formally behalf by the prime

of the

party

with the largest

support

government;

government

become

the

opposition,

with the

opposition;

vested in the Crown but exercised on the Crowns

minister and cabinet,

who are drawn

mainly from the

House

of Commons; Expenditures (commons

made on behalf or peoples)

The prime

of the

Crown

house (confidence

are subject

to the

approval

of the lower

convention);

minister and cabinet are responsible to the House of Commons and

must answer to it for any actions and decisions they take; The prime of the

The rights

minister

and cabinet

House to remain

and freedoms

and protected in of expression,

in

must have the support office

enshrined

(confidence

and protected

Canada,including

thought,

conscience,

of the

majority

of the

mem-bers

convention);

by the

Magna Carta are adopted

the rights to criticize government; freedom and assembly;

and others

vital to

democratic

government. Key differences

exist in the

operation

of the two

and from the other variants in the

However, they all hold to the traditions More variation

exists

between

systems

Commonwealth3

of parliamentary as they

gov-ernment

have developed.

of representative, responsible governments.

parliamentary

democracies

and congressional,

repub-lican

governments like the American one, whichthe Canadian founders intentionally rejected.

(See

Box 14-1:

Canadian

and

American

Legislatures:

Dispelling

Common

Misperceptions.)

3 The (most)

Commonwealth or

associated

refers with

to

Britain

an inter-governmental historically

organization

of over

50 countries

that

were

British

territories

321

322

Chapter 14

Box 14-1 Canadian and American Legislatures: Dispelling Common Misperceptions4 Canadians

are

Parliament

sometimes

because

so

highlights the are bicameral houses their it

using

by the

workings

U.S. Congress.

system functions

like

Canadians

Congress

However, the two

often

Originally the the system and

monarch

evolved

made responsible

of this

governed

House by having the legal leaders.

Sovereignty

The principle

and

from the

but as

In

contrast, that

the

a congressional

the

government.

the

the

system is

represents

There is

are the

in the

on the

people is le-gally head

To prevent

incorporated

by

of state

Thus, sovereignty

flows

government.

This is captured

in the

the

The congressional

people.

separate

between

the

election

houses

active role

of

but

years,

from the

president,

Congress

of the judiciary

by by

and their

conventions Members

lead

to

key

differences

that they known

In

Congress,

laws

all

members

by introducing,

Parliament, made in the review

not require

refining,

Cabinet

bills in a highly

participate and

developed

state

and few

errors

or omissions

the larger

staffs

of an ordinary

all

changes

Members

bills for

bills.

almost

are

of Parlia-ment

and thus

do

member

of

Congress. Money:

All

preparation In

members of the

Canada,

House by cabinet

4 This box and chapter

of

budget

Congress

in the

of the

money bills are introduced

ministers, and the

wereinfluenced

participate

and expenditures

is

into the

by the oral teachings

of

William Coleman and

2018). In the

past 10

bills have

passed,

of parliamen-tary

because the

government House.

making legislation,

party or electoral

In

trad-ing

Parliament,

their

outside interests.

party

The

As a result,

modern version U.S. practice

par-liamentarians

orlobbying

by

of the term lob-bying of interest

members in the lobby

In the congressional the

Senate

groups

of Congress

and

bills

and that

are

written

that

the

money

bills

are

confidence

perceived

as less

will of the

House.

The two

systems

Adopting

must be done

carefully

consequences

Michael Atkinson

in

the

Senate must

be introduced mean that and

vary

greatly

in

reforms

from

and

with

In

appointed

important

one

normally

principle, system

much thought

elect-ed

U.S.

Sen-ate

appointments

body, House.

is

measures,

as a result.

the

with longer

powerful

both

Representatives,

executive

smaller

more

of

Because

review

is

system,

House

making. to

as the

facts

and

in law power

treaties,

money

and

This is

of individu-als

1950s!

perceived

joint

position.

subject to influence

Congress

are important

and

district.

the role

much smaller, with party discipline ensuring that are less

gov-ernment.operation.

House can only ap-prove

of

depending

maintaining support in the

want for their

as logrolling.

Institutions:

mak-ing

passing

ministers introduce

House or committees.

in

70 percent

Parliament,

may wheel and deal in

has the

Bills:

making it through,

small portion

discipline

upon

members support

in the

in

as

85 percent

their support for a billin exchange for a concession

practice:

In

of party

houses,

different foundations

may have

Members of Congress are not subject to the

is not dependent

actions. These

work.

with about

members

a relatively

most

with less

Congress

60 percent to

of private

bills.

for the

business.

influencing

government

and amend

7 percent

derived from the

separation composition,

in reviewing

and about

business, Committees

priorities

of sittings (Brodie,

dozens

also tempered the

improve, sets

bills are passed in

people to the

phrase government

as equal.

sitting,

Canada

but they remain

that they

are retained

principle is

of the

of the

of inalien-able

pro-posed

no distinction

members

are less important

two-year

on the length

elected

tyranny

the idea

government

people.

and the

based

there is

initially

eliminate,

committee

government

of the politi-cal

some rights are so fundamental

be exercised

by the

killed in

down to the

the

no separate

governors.

U.S. founders

rightsthat cannot

a typical

As a result

Crown in Canada because representatives people

elected,

body that

Congress

government

Operations:

principle

by the

In

whereas in

political (advis-ers)

Crown

amounts in the

many as 10 000 bills introduced,

people.

like the

Parliament,

parliament

are bound together

the

and private

are treated

must sort through, In

British tradition.

head follow the advice flows

In

government

part, and committees

people.

(Crown)

constitution

when

made statutes,

it to the

the legal

of the

and

business:

so all bills

1977).

out the

House

assume

that

not increase,

money bills. between

were drawn from the

through

development,

elements

evolved

advisers

sys-tems

differ in fundamental

The House of Commons is not a congress. government

or restrict,

for the lower

and are surprised

systems

as well as operation (Stewart,

of responsible

of

enter-tainment

Because the two

and choose representatives

SMP systems,

does not.

principles

baffled

much of our news and popular

terms, even

it

Canada, not

the

elected

in the the

House

Senate

bows

the

about

is

to the

purpose, for

is

though

the

and other an-cillary

Parliament

323

The Evolution of Parliament in Canada Although

created

were

not

Assembly

for

influence

by the new.

the

did

In United

not come

government.

At least

dissolution,

or change

possible

loss

survived

for

existence

Constitution 1840, the Province

until

nine

of some firm

overwhelmed were faithful

only

now

more

to

Canadas

but

(governments) and

Assembly. be called

the

and

fickle

in

when

in the

government

fish

could

and

supply

they

of

life.

the

advise

faced

Province

normal

party alignments, loose

of responsible

had to resign,

personnel

ministry

Legislative

parliamentary

of the system 1848

institu-tions

elected

increase

governments

nascent

politically

whichever

No

an

after

other

the

parliamentary

established

Canada,

leadership

factions

by the

1867,

Union

1848, after the adoption

of the

would

of

of

ministries

their

of support what

Act,

Act

the

Canada

Despite

the

ministries

were

ministerialists, them

who

and their

ridings

with favours. This which

time

political law

the

making

stable

continued

became

governments

government.

of

answers but

a decade

disciplined

also

from

the the

allowed

King in

government government.

significant

1926)

new

country

parties

parliamentary

began

has changed

for

to

Canada, change

the

in

legislation

This change

history

of

involvement

introduced

time

post-Confederation

Mackenzie

in the

parliamentary

Gradually

more restricted:

Over the of

about

considerably.

demanded

(that

for

growth

dynamics

opposition

the

pattern

opposition

hands

without

for to

only

the active

and the

provided

of Parliament,

at

more

criticize one

gov-ernment

an election

held.

The Houseof Commons 14.3a

Describe the specific

functions

14.3b

Explain the operation,

14.3c

Assessthe effectiveness of the

purpose,

of the

House of Commons.

and types

of parliamentary

committees.

House of Commons in performing its roles. Following leaders of

Commons

party

elected Gerald

Regan to the speakers

chair.

resistance,

expected

Chris

the

newly Speaker

feigns

Wattie/Reuters/Newsco

tradition, drag

to

do.

House

as the speaker

He is

324

Chapter 14

Although the

upper

two

Confidence the

House

body

(in

continued

majority

necessary

for

the

to remain

in

office.

house,

of Commons the

House

is

of

often

termed

Commons

whose

support

the

lower

is considered

The House of Commons is a confidence government

Canada,

of Commons)

House

house

the

and the

Senate

more important

of the

houses:

Chamber

A legislative

the

rests

Commons.

is

the

government

on the

whose

choose

their

behalf.

It is

primarily

The prime answer

these

the minister

members

and

where

holds

of the

Senate

of the

members

of the

is of no consequence

ministers

can

to

for

government. make decisions

accountable

hold seats in the

criticism

of the

for

its

Commons

opposition

on

actions.

in

order

parties

to

members

and expenditures.

present

for the

representative

elections

government

management

them

offers

and fair

the

to the

members

and flag

elected,

in free

cabinet

government

House is

are

individuals

and respond

who scrutinize The

meaning that the life majority

measures in the

House that

questions

government

of a

continuance.

Commons,

Citizens

chamber,

support

Defeat of government

governments

The

continued

citizens

media and

grievances

and

problems

to the

public.

Representationin the Houseof Commons The composition

of the

by population. Commons in

that

Chapter

is

Quebec

of the 35.8

Commons

percent

of the

principle,

in the the

means that

House of Commons,

principle,

their

larger

regional

by

diversity

given the small

mainly

Canada,

number

House

to

ensure the

Ontario is

Canada

of

members from

and

58.9

per-cent

amounting

population

of

fair

central

Ontario

comprise

is

of

As discussed

populations,

populous

representation

of representa-tion

in the

2015 election,

of

more

seats

population.

this

After the

with the

the

of the

population

Although

of the

a key

not fully

to

demo-cratic

reflected

some areas of

country. In

2011,

number

that

Parliament

of seats in

was to

House

legislation of

that

Ontario,

British

their

growing

populations.

smallest

proportion

provinces

of the

Canadian

went into

House

members

of of

and

effect

Commons Parliament

with

Commons

given the

the

passed

the

ensure

formula

in

to Given

of the

membership,

a share

share

numerically.

62 percent

Commons.

it

to

to its

provinces.

dominate with

entitled

qualifications

smaller

provinces

together,

is

proportionate

are some

of the

Canadian

province

nearly

9, there

representation

House of Commons is based upon the concept

Each

Columbia,

Quebec

the

308 to

and

Senators

would

338.

and

Table

and

is

2016

would

be fairly

also intended

the the

the

The intention

& Gagnon,

raised

14-1 shows

the

calculating

repre-sented,

to

ensure

be under-represented

(Bosc

election

for

population.

Alberta

not

dropped

2015

from

and

formula to

The formula

population for

a new

according

if their

2017).

The

new

number

of

current

number

populations

of

each

considerable

time

seats

in of

province

Canada.

Styles of Representation Individual the

members interests

of the of the

particular,

may raise

members

bills (Soroka,

try to

concerns

members functioning

with the

in a hurry, immigrate

of government

Canada.

Commons

of their

spend

electoral

constituents

& Blidook, problems

determining to

of

of their

Penner,

help constituents

a passport

House people

face

eligibility

for

This role is

often

and its

in

2009). they

democratic

district.

As

Question well,

with

Period

MPs and their

governmentsuch

an old-age overlooked

legitimacy

Opposition

putting

for-ward

members, or in small

in

private staffs

as getting

pension,

or helping

and

yet vital to the

family good

Parliament

325

Table 14-1 Members of Houseof Commonsand Senators by Provinceas of2015 Population Jurisdiction

MPs

Senators

2016

Census

British Columbia

42

6

4 648 055

Alberta

34

6

4 067 175

Saskatchewan

14

6

1 098

352

1 278

365

Manitoba

14

6

Ontario

121

24

13 448 494

Quebec

78

24

8 164 361

New

10

10

747

101

11

10

923

598

Brunswick

Nova

Scotia

Prince Edward Island Newfoundland

and

Labrador

Yukon Northwest

Territories

Nunavut

7

6

519 716

1

1

35 874

1

1

41 786

1

caucus

to adopt

meet regularly partys

important

and

viewpoints

certain

members venue

vetting

having the support

with the prime

and try

this

case.

ministers

in

persuade they

province will

in a well-prepared

is important

to

objective,

their

make a stronger

Cabinet

parliament

of their colleagues

district

party from

to

While

in

their

728

MPs may alert their col-leagues Caucus

To achieve

own

interests

legislation.

be introduced

in

positions.

members of their

who have similar

for

that is ready to

and

35 151

partys caucus,

of people

policies

with other

35 944

105

meetings of their

to the interests

that

142 907

338

In the closed-door

their

4

1

Canada

their

4

Caucus

present

form,

maintaining

belong

members

to a particular

who

party.

with is an

legisla-tion

they

their

may

or

Parliamentary

know

own cred-ibility

minister. They often listen to caucus colleagues whenideas are

first raised and then later to know

where the legislation

Caucus provides a window into the public

is likely

to encounter

opposi-tion.

mind.

Party Discipline Party discipline is usually very strict in the decided

on its

with that MPs

position will in

with

the

position

on a particular

even

have

if it

broader

members of the

clashes

had a chance

a national national

Those

partys

that

of designated

that they represent.

in

interests

of their

caucus,

by the

party.

always

supported

government

for the

votes on

ousted from their

next election.

Breaking

members of the opposition

(where matters

MPs are freed of conscience,

from

rare for

members of different

those

positions all

of the

legislation

The

that

party

pro-posed

discipline

parties.

Withthe

discipline) and

party cau-cus.

parties from the same prov-ince

of constituents

their

caucus

partys caucus

party

expectation

that

members

that is consid-ered

such as abortion

work together to advance the common interests

Party Discipline

in keeping as repre-sentatives

Therefore,

legislation

keeping constitu-ents.

but then

to reconcile

as defined

nomination

vote in

MPsrarely vote against the position taken by their

It is also increasingly

or region to

expected

mayfind themselves

have been held infrequently

capital punishment,

concerns

are

who vote against

free

and

to

have almost

can also have similar consequences for exception

MPs are expected views

air their they

interests

a matter of confidence and denied their

to

party

House of Commons. Once a party has its

with the

parliament

governing

by the cabinet.

issue,

with the party

parlia-mentary will

vote

position

has adopted

in

326

Chapter 14

The 2015 election House will

of

Commons

be free

platform; shared

in

Party

of

Canada,

2015).

promised

members

of: those the

guaranteed

by the

By late

budget;

all

Liberal

those

that

of Rights

vote on

votes

electoral

address

and

government

vote, the

votes in the

Caucus,

the

and

Charter Liberal

a free

free

Liberal

implement

2018, the

of legislation

to make

of the

that

matters, like

protections

vote on a major piece

Party

For

exception

confidence

and the

Liberal

practice.

with the

traditional

one

of the

standard

votes

values

(Liberal only

platform

our

Freedoms

had

medical

declared assistance

dying. Although

political

parties

wishes their

the

individual

rather

than

of constituents)

constituents. problems

for

directly.

However,

are clearer,

who

MPs are

interests,

by developing

speaking

discipline

individual

special

2005;

and

positions

on

does

national what it

views

(represent

against

constituents advantages:

can try

as being

what is

to

this

caucus

the

to the

or

of

cre-ate

wishes

ministers

of each wishes

differing

in the interests

best) can

or to

positions

balance

by

unmediated

of

the interests

in

to act according

party

primarily

Not surprisingly,

of acting

have

is

own judgment

1978.)

their

not pressured

each

as delegates

Eulau,

for

representation

their

may be accused

despite party

acting

(exercising

Docherty,

MPs,

constituents

not irrelevant,

by individuals

or trustees

(See

of their

MP is

party

of power-ful

perspectives

of the

country

as a

whole.

Diversity and Representation Representation of the the in the

House of Commons.

diversity current,

of the

Visible

of

Commons

are foreign-born,

are

and in

the

American,

Black

percentage

of the

are overrepresented The percentage

election,

The raw

occupation

(70 no

face

needs to

under

are

of the

percent

25 percent,

population.

population after

the

had

2011

(Adams

seats from

not significantly to

percent),

and

of

of society

be done

married

than

here if

its

from

educated (63

education Commons

338 is considered.

different

be highly

post-secondary House

308 to

American is to

and

after

Parliament

the

2016).

is

more tell

with

professional/business

working

better

class

the

and single

(Rana,

in terms

Australian

reflect

approxi-mately

seats

The percentages

under-represented much

are

their

a

2011. percent),

percent), being

is faring

Parliament

(76

2016).

than

& Griffith,

of these groups seem to suggest that the current in

with

Canadians

& Griffith,

of the

of

Asian,

compared

peoples

3 percent

election

House

much lower

Indigenous

and

percent).

the

West-Asian

percentage (Adams

to about

Canadian

Southeast

underrepresented and

(2016), members

(21

in

However,

Arab, South-Asian

of

of the

Survey

representation

are

Griffith

percentage

Household

mem-bers

as not reflect-ing

Andrew 13 percent

compared.

Canadians

upward

share

their

their

to the population

inched

and

approximately

when

while

Canadian

also tend

Canadian

diverse

Chinese

2.2

2015 is

Members

the

and

Adams

National

parity

population,

the increase

story:

with

population

up from

until

different

citizen

of the

numbers

diverse

at

51 percent

4 percent

2011

of the

House has been criticized

Michael

which is still

almost

women

the

to

Parliament,

in the

in relation

of

approximately

2015

previous,

as represented

minorities

Latin

According

the

of the personal characteristics

Traditionally,

Canada.

and like

House

population

their

can also be viewed in terms

2016).

peo-ple While

of representing

counterparts,

diverse

in

nature

more of

Canada

the work in its

composition.

Minority and Majority Government One of the is

strong

holds

a

main strengths centralized

majority

By imposing

of the

decision

of seats in the

party

discipline

Westminster making. House

on its

of

This

model is

of

Commonsthat

members,

parliamentary

particularly

the

is, prime

true a

government when

majority

minister

and

one

party

government. cabinet

ca

Parliament

be almost they

certain

propose.

confidence

that

In

the

House

addition,

of the

the

House

will

pass

the legislation

government

and

thus

can

does govern

not

for

and

have to

a full

financial

worry

measures

about

four-year

327

losing

term

the

without

an

election. If the a

governing

minority

government,

Parliament and

is

negotiate

losing

power

of

Alternatively, to

from

division

tend

demise.

to

(See

If

pass its

cabinet

normally

in the

House for

14-2:

could

key

and

House

minister

Box

opposition

votes,

A leading

A

and

to

during

bargain

support

proposals

with

one

the

Harper

or risk

Government that

are reluctant

proposals

forms

dominate

has to

Minority

introduce parties

as occurred

the

argument

delay is

compromises

oppo-sition

to force

or

an

more opposi-tion Conservative

argue

that

compromises.

they

more to

accountable

each

for

the

other

and

in the twenty-first

century.

danger

recession,

that

force

to

be unstable

and

sense

of citizen

efficacy

than

to the

public,

Decisive

tended

action

not

also the with

rather

and

than

diplomatic

to increase indecision with

to

deal

may be forced

may decline, public

to

missions,

their

majority

There is

expenditures

the

that

instruments

may encourage

and

noted

governments

public

welcome

governments

military

minority

that

(1987)

par-liamentary

government.

and

accountability.

appropriate

and

coalition)

minority

not

parties

tend

Finally,

are

governmental

governance

Franks

that

to

(and

in

C.E.S. and

of economic

also the

with the third

minority

of responsibility

governments

in the face

There is

of

Parliament,

principles

with regard

aberrations

more efficient

of governance

necessary

conditions

on

be

minority

complexities

initiatives.

to

core

that

scientists

as unwelcome

authority

tended

compromise

political

under

see them

governments

Others

those

among

performance

the

parties

the cabinet

may be able to

minister

prime

other

defeat.

of seats in the

prime

case, the

non-confidence.

unwilling

abstaining

majority

of the

more) of the

one (or

a

governments.

There is

Some

ability

with

cabinet

parties

not hold

In this

are

the

minority

the

Balance.)

parties

does

more limited.

on a vote

Hangs in the

election,

party

into

unduly.

and endless

politicians

knowing

listen-ing

who to

hold

what decision.

Box 14-2 A Minority Government Hangsin the Balance It

was the afternoon in the

the

of Thursday,

May 19, 2005,

House of Commons

minority government

and the

was electric.

of Paul Martin, in

at-mosphere attention

The fate of

office only a year,

defeated

on its

government

had agreed to a demand

Party (NDP)

for

$4.6

an amendment

billion in the budget for

support

of the

additional of the

New

votes to stave

rewarded

star of the

with a cabinet

Parrish (who

had

been

after a TV appearance American support

the

to vote

with the

by the

in

Bloc

Belinda

one vote fewer

combined

forces

had Liberals

Independent

expelled

from

the

those

With the

to

opted

still having

bring it

down,

majority

the

ill, literally

raised

vote.

after

The inde-pendent

government, himself from

Suffering

was etched

amendment.

made it clear that they

His vote created in

The minority government eight

MPin 1987

was a poll he had taken in

which kept the government

on a doll rep-resenting

Party

in 2004.

could topple

critical

House Speaker Peter

caucus to

decision

as he voted for the

deciding factor

where a sizable

W. Bush) decided

government

face

an election.

Liberal

MP,

as an independent

party nomination

to attend the

recently was

as a Reform

North (B.C.)

who was terminally

and

MP David Kilgour

determined

Conservative

Cadmans

MP Carolyn

which she stomped

Liberals. than

Cadman, his sickbed the

independent

make up his mind until half an hour before the vote.

needed

in

on another

elected

Surrey

MP, whose did not

with the

position.

Liberals. Independent

the

Even

Stronach

George

losing

Liberals

Qubcois.

House to join the

President

Liberal

an additional

programs.

off defeat

the

New Democratic

added

Party, the

party and the

Conservative the floor

social

budget,

by the

that

Democratic

Conservative

crossed

was first

and represented

being

focused

Cadman.

Cadman

hung in the balance. To prevent

became

Chuck

a tie:

152 to

152.

He said his district,

did not want Citing prec-edent,

Milliken voted for the status

of Paul Martin survived for another

months. Then the New Democratic Party, influenced

intensifying

Liberal sponsorship

Conservatives an election,

and the Bloc to

quo,

office.

scandal,

bythe

decided to vote with the

defeat the government

which resulted in a Conservative

and force

minority government

328

Chapter 14

In recent often

find

decades, value

in

governments Political

them.

since

science

prime

ministerial with

autocratic

action

minority

Russell in

the

are

since

more than

250. (Sitting

1921

(2008)

in

such

argues

those

as fixed

that

minority

Loat and

unstable,

election

dates,

days,

as calendar or that

miti-gate

and

(2014)

14-2 clearly half

and

have

toward shows

of the

of these,

days.) been

espe-cially

counter

his tendencies

more than

150 sitting

the same

minor-ity

duration.

governments

MacMillan that

and

nine

of long

dominance,

Table

as

been

been

executive

reveal

governments

have

have

situations.

more than

minority

there

toward

minorities

not necessarily

have lasted

with

of them

However,

Harper

days are not always

been adopted,

some

our system

government. MPs in

governments

have

Peter

to live

demonstrates,

and

were not tempered

governments

that

14-2

mid-1950s,

propensity

interviews

have learned

As Table

the

Professor

the increasing

that

Canadians

that

minority six lasted

Further,

reforms

proposed,

such

Table 14-2 Federal MinorityGovernments in Canada,19212018 House Ministry William

Lyon

Mackenzie

General

Term

Election

Parliament

June 12, 1921

King

of

March

of

Commons Sitting

8, 1922,

to

June 27, 1925

Days

Minority* Government116

366

Opposition119 Minority3

William Lyon Mackenzie

King

(to June 28, 1926) Arthur

Meighen

(June to

October

29,

1925

29, 1926

September

January

7, 1926,

to July 2, 1926

111 (Meighen the

House

of those

for

days)

met three

Government99 Opposition146

Minority47

24,

1926) John

October

George

June

Diefenbaker

John

June 18, 1962

14, 1957,

February

1,

Government112 78

Government116

72

1963

April 8, 1963

Bowles

November

Pearson

Pierre Elliott

October

Trudeau

30,

1972

January to

May 22, 1979

January to

Clark

to

8,

18, 1966,

April 23, 1968

May 9,

October

Charles Joseph

Government129

to September 1965

8, 1965

4, 1973, 1974

418

14,

Government109 256

to

Minority46 Government136

49

4, 2004,

November

29,

January

23,

2006

September

7,

Government124 292

2008

Stephen

*As

at

the

Harper

general

October

14,

2008

October to

Opposition173 Minority38

April 3, 2006, to Harper

Opposition146

Government135

160

2005

Stephen

Opposition155

Minority10

October

June 28, 2004

Opposition134

Minority3

9, 1979,

December

Opposition136 Minority7 Government131

405

1979

Paul Martin

Opposition149 Minority33

May 16, 1963,

Bowles

Opposition153

Minority41 27,

1962, to February 6,

Pearson

(Joe)

to

September

George

Lester

1957

1958

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2011

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Chapter 14

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Chapter 14

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Chapter 14

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336

Chapter 14

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337

338

Chapter 14

Committee Scrutiny of Appointments The SO of the

House

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Increasing the Number of Officers of the Legislature and Their Structural Independence Officersof the legislature are neutral officials whofulfill roles central to the operation of the legislature

as a collective

and independence

body in a way that is above politics. In recent years, their

of status have increased.

These officers are discussed in

number

Chapter 15.

Recognition of Parties in Parliament7 Some resources and this

are provided

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moves to strengthen

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party discipline

hold

has remained

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to loosen

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Harper, party discipline

promises

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tight.

have rarely

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Prior to the 2015 election,

Justin Trudeau stated his view that party discipline should be less rigid. Specifically, party

discipline

would

apply

only to

budget and significant financial and Freedoms. consequence

promises in the

Liberal

election

platform,

the

matters, and values related to the Charter of Rights

However, it is not clear that it hasloosened. of the centre whipping

its

However,

members but rather

often this is not a

party

members sharing

a common allegiance to the goals of their parties. Former Speaker of the House Peter Milliken

has suggested

that

a more effective

means of strengthening

House to perform its surveillance (accountability) speaker to select party lists.

who will speak in the

Still, the

dual role of supporting

most effective

function

House rather than requiring means of ensuring

that

the ability

of the

would be to permit the the speaker to fol-low

Parliament

performs its

and surveilling the government is an attentive public.

TheSenate 14.4a

14.4b For

Describe

the

specific

functions

Evaluate the implications many years now, opinion

of the

of current

Senate

of

and possible

has been poles apart

Canada.

reforms

to the

as to the feasibility

Senate. and necessity

of the Senate of Canada. Despitethe reams of paper devoted to possible reforms, the Senate is one of the

most misunderstood

institutions

in

our system

of government.

Whenit is compared with the U.S.Senate,it seems like an antiquated, impotent When contrasted

7 Parties

are

officially

with the British

recognized

only

if

they

House of Lords, it appears like a quaint relic

have

at least

12

members

in

the

House

of

Commons

body. without

Parliament

purpose, the

harking

German

it looks

back to a time

Bundesrat,

inferior.

Senate serves

in the

of the

Canadian

rather

when

Senate,

enhancing

system

it.

provoke

effect

To understand

houses

around

the important and

unintended

When it is compared

upper

obscure

parliamentary

purposes

nobles ruled.

or other

comparisons

may have the

than

its founding

past

Australian these

Senate that

system revisit

the

However,

long

of diminishing

its

as well as the conventions

current that

the

world,

functions calls for

it is

its

that

reform our

role,

govern

with

the

of ab-olition

parliamen-tary necessary

operation

to

today.

Reasonsfor Establishment The Senate wasestablished (along Act, 1867, to serve three against

popular

with the House of Commons) by the Constitution

purposes.

representation

First, the Senate

in the

House of Commons.

would not be as subject to the passions and carry them into

office. In this

was designed to provide Appointed

whims that animate

way,the older, established

representatives

elected

senators

a balance

politicians

and

would serve as bul-warks

against unfettered democracy. A number offounders, led byJohn A. Macdonald, viewed the Senate as a body that initiatives

would provide

sober

second thought

and thus act as a check on possible rash decisions

some founders,

such as Macdonalds

Cartier,

Quebec ally in the

made it clear that second-guessing

by the

to legislative

Commons.

Confederation

the

Commons

Second,

project,

George-tienne

would balance

de-mocracy

and protect private property. In their day, property owners provided stability and continuity

to economic

of the nation. In the to give

Confederation

the country

democratic

and political institutions Debates (1865),

a Constitution

element;

for the

that

which

were vital for the flourishing

Cartier stated that it

might reconcile

weak point in

democratic

wasimportant

the conservative

institutions

all the power in the hands of the democratic element (Parliamentary Subject of the

Confederation

order to represent

of the

propertied

to own lands or tenements they

were appointed,

British

interests,

North American

the

over and above their debts and liabilities. United

Kingdom,

elite,

Provinces,

1865, p. 571). In

Act, 1867, required

them to have a personal

Canadians

of

Debates on the all sena-tors

worth at least $4000 within the province for

and required

of the propertied

Constitution

with the

is the leaving

which

net worth of at least $4000

By establishing a body to represent the in-terests were trying

to copy the

which had long served such a purpose.

House of Lords in the

Appointments

to the Senate

over the years favoured the business, professional, and commerce classes. Asa conse-quence, the Senateespecially

its

Banking,

Trade and

Commerce

Committeeoften

acted as alobby for the interests of big business (Campbell, 1978) and has always been viewed

as critical in the review

Third,

the

Senate

of fiscal,

monetary, and economic

was established

to

protect

regional

and

policies. provincial

interests

against a strong central government. French-Canadians viewed this protection as the most important

part of the

whole Confederation

agreement,

which provided

equality

in the Senate between Ontario and Quebec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia saw the Senate as protection the Senate

against

was established

domination

by central

with equal regional

of Ontario and Quebec qualified as divisions, Maritime

provinces

formed

the third

division,

well as representation

Newfoundland

for

Prince

and Labrador,

Edward

representation.

of a fourth Island

and the territories.

goals,

The prov-inces

with 24 senators each, and the two

with 24 senators

expansion of Canadaled to the establishment as

Canada. To achieve these

(division)

between

division,

(within

the

them.

The

western Canada,

Maritime

division),

(See Table 14-1.)

Appointments to the Senate The governor and,

loyal

general

with some

party

appoints notable

senators

exceptions,

on the recommendation prime

ministers

of the

have filled

prime

the Senate

minis-ter, with

members. Senators have to be at least 30 years old and can serve onl

339

340

Chapter 14

until

age

attend

75.8 They

two

senators

or

Senate

process or territory

However,

Harper

board governor

being

general

for

more transparent Despite

in

and

Senate

keeping

vacancies

declared

left

clearly

in

the

it

staffed

Canadians

the

75. Like

also from

of

Recent

MPs, senators

political

government

being

the

or

Liberals belong

and activist

to

was to

tend

backgrounds

not be

filled

advi-sory to

the

make the

process

partisan

based.

and the

governments

has resulted

with senators

Conservatives

in

the

who have

but sit as indepen-dents.

to the Independent

Senators

Group

independents.9 of the

characteristics

of

as of 2017,

approximately

40

minorities,

and almost

6 per-cent

were visible

be from

could

recommend

process

For example,

appointees

tend

bond limits.

an independent

then

more representative

15 percent

process

board

sit as unaffiliated

is

general

term

predominantly

the

appoint-ment province

formula.

could

than

inter-est.

the local

to introduce

created

advisory 2018),

Commons.

were female,

were Indigenous. turn

rather

the

governor

amending

and

national

modify

proposed

and

citizens

to the

His objective

of the

a couple Senate

House

percent of senators

Senate.

senators

although

the the

provincial

to strengthen

minister

(Masereeuw,

either

way, the

than

purposes

in the

minister

Trudeau

prime

based

Harper to

that

under

operation

by the

2016,

a limited

the

merit

over

an allegiance

formed In

or

residents

He also tried

Justin

to the

Most of the independent (ISG)

of

province

the

with the to

by the

prime

ruled

office,

whom

interests

was intended

approval in

represent

he attempted

by the

Canada

appointment

controversy

difficulty

not

people

local

appointment.

of

of his term

name

to

$4000 free

to the three

with the

senators

be elected

This change the

provincial

to

fail

or are convicted having

of $4000 in the

consultation

that

minister,

nominees

Senate.

without year

to

correspond

without ensure

recommended

Court

In the first

to

was prime

Supreme

implemented

excess

qualifications

only if they

bankrupt;

addition

in

but can balance

that

and legitimize

the

In

a value

minister

province

to the

senator

These

positions

become

crime.

with

prime

by requiring

appointment

of the

of Parliament;

is intended

to the

before

secure

above.

governments

When Stephen

their

infamous

represent.

by the

are not beholden

from

property

mentioned

Appointment territorial

other

must hold

which they

of the

for

sessions

a felony,

territory

be removed

consecutive

of treason, debt,

can

to be younger

but

may still

business,

professional,

(Griffith,

2017).

sit until

or legal

they

careers

but

The Significance ofthe Senate The

House

of Commons

All legislation

must

precedence bills

is given to the

involving

House

of

Senate

and

amendments the

to

Senate

government generally

been

amendments proposed

the

which

not reject

8 Until

1965, senators

declared who under

the that

previously the

new

Senate there

House

were appointed spending would

had process

the

declared have

scandal, be

a formal their continued

check

(and

government)

to the

Harper

for

consider.

are

authority.

the

For

to

vote not

the that

Further, by re-jecting Senate

preferring

of the

appointed,

in

government

to

example,

important

version

financial

first convention

passed,

outright,

have tended

senators

its

of the has

governments

in the final

by Trudeau that

power

to

that

be introduced

exceed

Commons bills

However,

by the loose

bills

government

powers.

bodies.

requirement

and

the

of

legislative

by both

must

Senate,

House

to reject

Given

in their

words

taxing

of financial

potentially that

appointed bills.

equal

same

and by the

were incorporated

senators and

9 During

can

150 amendments

Act, 90 of

the

spending

or rejection

reluctant

are nearly

exactly

approved

bills

for

Senate

House by the constitutional

government

Commons

although

and the

be passed in

has

propose senators

Accountability Act.

along

Even the inde-pendent the

Liberal

elected

like

in January

2014.

lines

MPs, has

life.

Trudeau

expelled

separation party

allegiance this

practice

between as of

the

senators

the Liberal, disavowing

from

Liberal

Party

would

now

a party

his caucus machinery sit

and

as independents.

affiliation

senators.

At the time These

Senators

senators, appointed

he

Parliament

341

Box 14-3 Pandemoniumin the Senate The

Senate

tends

chamber in

1990

major

of the Mulroney

that

To

majority

upon

the

in the

Act,

1867

Senate

senators

a vote.

were

supremacy

the

26), that four

pre-vented

people

The

Liberals

the

media

kazoos,

they

House Liberals,

time

govern-ment

the

queen

members

to

debate

allow

to

the

additional

the to

general prime

supporting

were incensed. onto

the

approached the

GST.

Liberals

senators,

the

when a new

party comes to

power

it

the

to give it a majority, it

will of the

House and

will typically

confront

may find that its legislative

face delays and obstacles in the Senate. This occurred when the

Progressive

in a number

Conservative

of confrontations

Senate rejected important plans,

drug

time.

led

with a dynamic

legislative

patent legislation,

the Senate eventually

government

by

Liberal

a

and changes

to

unemployment

The

spending

insurance,

although

bills for a second

or third

While Liberal senators generally accepted that they did not have the legitimacy

needed to kill legislation

approved

by the

House, they

the public about their criticisms of the legislation. stalled the

passage of the unpopular

were effective took

of legislative that

is the Senates important

contribution

between the Senate

to the technical

review

proposals. Some senators are very diligent in their review

has been passed by the

technical

highly controversial

in the Senate.)

More common than the occasional dramatic confrontations and the government

in informing

However, when Liberal senators

(GST), the government

action. (See Box 14-3: Pandemonium

errors that the

House of Commons.

House did

in the details of legislation. Joint

engaged

Senate.

the governments

House repassed the

pro-posals

in the 1980s,

Mulroney

majority in the

proposals, including

gave in after the

particularly Brian

Standing

Committee

not notice

Senators

on Regulations,

and have suggested

which reviews

of legisla-tion

have often caught many improve-ments

Senators have also been active

members of the

subordinate

or delegated

legislation. The Senate has been especially partisan

atmosphere,

the

good at policy

work.

Senate can engage in the

With its

more relaxed,

more long-term

less

investigatory

work that is usually within the scope of royal commissions. In the past few decades, Senate committees

have produced

important

reports

poverty, the mass media, aging, unemployment, relations,

security,

institution,

and national

defence.

some Senate committee

reports

on such topics

as palliative

care,

science policy, CanadianAmerican

Despite the establishment have been surprisingly

image critical

of the

of the gov-ernment.

The Senate hasalso been effective in serving as an early warning mechanism for some

national

issues.

For example,

the Senate Standing

Committee

on

National

Security and Defence wassounding the alarm about the decline of defence prepared-ness of the (For

Canadian

more information

Committees/.

Forces and airport about

Senate

security

a decade before they

committees,

visit

prime

appoint-ment

became issues.

https://sencanada.ca/en/

passed

protocol

Senate.

time

With the

Senate

broke

to

compromise

additional

tax.

Senate dominated by the party it defeated. Until the new party can fill enough vacan-cies with its own supporters

the

recommended GST for

speaker

A hasty

some

proposed

of the

bills.

Nevertheless,

effect,

the

They

floor

legislation.

to the

(in

minister

Senate.

of the

on the

deferring

to

of

governor

committed

Minister

provision

of Senate generally

eight

of the

Not surprisingly,

undermin-ing

Mulroney

allowed

minister).

to the

of the

or eight

recommendation

impo-sition

of the

opposition

Senate,

(s.

had

Prime

senators

se-date

events

the

never-before-used

by either

given rise to the practice not rejecting

to

the

more

However,

legislation,

the

an obscure,

Constitution

expand

coming unelected

overcome

quieter,

Liberal

government

and challenging

the

drew

partisan, Commons.

image.

of

GST, from

Commons.

the

this

asserted

had

a less to the

piece

democracy

who

be

contradicted a

of

to

compared

to

support the

Then, demand

by in-viting blow-ing more

was reached voice

their

of the unpopular

criti-cisms eight GST

342

Chapter 14

Finally, viewed

in

tasks,

the

Senate is

media

scrutinize

bills;

legislation

and to

symbolic

balance

role

where

or is

national

governor

However, and

complementary

very

seriously

an important

reads

the

hard

work

of senators

is

of the

Senate

the

appointed

nature

that

the

should

act

more complex

plays

general the

to

populations;

and

It also

to

disproportion-ate

vulnerable

financial

interests.

of

these

Throne

Speech

and

often

not

garners

While some

a

past,

whole

believe

many see

variety

promise

of possible

Senate

in

be abolished

a reformed

functions

for

upper

it, some

as a relic

house

old (and

and

have

modified)

and

new. AND

that areas

of

PROVINCIAL

reflect

the

Canada

provinces the

need

in the

hold.

Senate

to

has

also

reflect

been

have

criticized

that

senators

or that

their

six seats

the

of the

notion as

go over that

population

with

senators

to

pro-vincial

each

of

that

of the

seats prov-ince.

Edward

Island

a reformed

provincial

province

required

or to

well in that

in

or

of the

populous

provinces

Prince

Ontario

pro-posals

well, representation

one-quarter

governments

the

more

allotted

As

not

many

regional

nearly

would

provincial

province,

of the

equality

from

of representatives

proposed

nominate

to represent

one-tenth

often

of the

Quebec

been

meaningful

as inadequate.

principle

than

have

power

more West, the

viewed

the

number

with

of the

reducing

less

same

growth

There the

Senate

are often

However,

people

have the

should

not

slightly

Likewise,

counterbalance

a new

region

does

people

should

to

With the

in this

Senate

many

REPRESENTATION

by creating

representation.

It

visit.

underestimated,

REFORM

REGIONAL

in

particularly

with

where the

often

undemocratic

suggested

the

regulations,

and

purposes perform

achieve

duties

minority

is generally

the

it can

and

and

their

for

that

polity

duties

take

and for

house

criticism.

SENATE

some

their

of senators

concerns

body

of state

newsworthy significant

and

extent

Canadian

neglect

provinces

local

as the

heads

of the

majority

their

upper

structures

To the

of the

senators

the for

of the institutional

component

some

coverage,

representative

and integration.

a vital

Although

as spokespersons

a regionally

component

representation,

House.

to

country

as an essential

legitimation,

the

a federal

Senate.

legislatures

should

seek

elect

re-election

sena-tors

at regu-lar

intervals. LEGISLATIVE

REVIEW

legislation

must be a review the

Senate

better.

continue

with a clearly

would

exist

to

suspend

an absolute

more

passage

body.

partisan

upper

house

Commons.

If the

Senate

would

Commons. between

likely

House

the

against that

coordination federal

the interests it could thus

of the

in

the

review

Senate

role. In this

of the legislation

a specified

of

it

perspective,

but to

a suspensive

period

pro-posed

but that

of time)

make it veto (the

rather

than

Commons.

willing

on the

different

likely to

important

result

in

challenge

basis parties

if it

the

and

passed

provincial

controlling

were to

more active

legislation

of equal

help to ensure that

a

by

representa-tion, Senate

a deadlock

did

and

the

not occur

Senate. Areformed

of federalprovincial that

might

government

relations. hurt

provincial

representatives

provinces

(as is the

act as an intermediary

between

help to reduce

that

for

by including

would

more

would

idea

would be particularly

RELATIONS

policies

provincial

for by the

were elected

and the

principle

Senate

was

result

veto

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL for

passed

that

often

A suspensive

the

the

of legislation

An elected

the role

and supportive

be highlighted

the powers of the Senate

an elected

this

would

stress

be an important

subordinate

veto over legislation

Redefining become

role

the

sometimes to

not to challenge

This subordinate

ability

the

Reformers

should

federalprovincial

the

could

It could

also

interests

approve

case for

conflict

Senate

federal

and

protection

example,

legislation

Bundesrat). provincial

as a chamber

provide

by, for

federal

Germanys

serve

that

requir-ing affects

Alternatively,

governments

and

Parliament

REPRESENTATION recognition for

Quebec

OF MINORITIES to the

is

English-speaking that

the

affecting

PROTECTION theme not

of

prime

the

OF

Accord

and

French

language

a

DEMOCRACY

Act, 1867.

of the

Representation

province.

recognized

for

Indigenous Chapter

of the

gave lim-ited

representation

(see

majority

in the

Senate

as a

by, for

women,

proposed

that

to the

REPRESENTATIVENESS

Canada

has too

or counterbalancing

Supreme

Court

the legitimacy

say in

Parliaments

with the confidence

and

of the policy

convention

various

One

many centralizing

elements.

agencies,

Senate role.

and

both

whole should

a

have

One

common

elements

way the

power

minister could be held in check is by giving the Senate a role in ratifying

enhancing

the

suggest

Senate

peoples, 10)

for

Some

and culture.

AND

is that

Senate

Act, 1867,

providing

more fully

representation

senators

countervailing

of the

Townships

be

Charlottetown

Constitution

thereby

Eastern

should

many Senate reformers

enough

equal

The

role

districts,

in the

Canada

of francophone

pass bills

protector 24

guaranteed

minorities.

majority to

of

providing

various

into

enclaves

diversity

example,

minority

divided

The original

boards,

by electing

However,

and core

its

this

reform

principle

appoint-ments

and commissions.

members

would

would

of responsible

allow

need to

and of the

As

well,

a

more

it

be reconciled

government.

Attempts to Reform the Senate As discussed in Chapter 10, Senate reform has been oneimportant of comprehensive

changes to the

of a movement for in

western

a Triple-E

Canada, former

premiers,

pushed

Constitution.

part of the discus-sions

Reflecting the develop-ment

Senate (one that is equal, elected,

Alberta

hard for

Canadian Premier

Don

major Senate reforms

Getty, supported that require

and effective)

by several

constitutional

other

amend-ments.

The Meech Lake Accord proposed that senators be chosen from alist of nomi-nees put forward

by the

The Charlottetown

government

Accord

of the

proposed

province and one from each territory. or by the legislature

to choose

of the provinces

for the prime

which there

was a vacancy.

of six persons from

each

and territories.

Alberta has held elections to choose senators-in-waiting

1989. Saskatchewan

nominees

for

Senators would be elected either bythe popula-tion

Although these accords failed, since

province

that the Senate consist

passed a law in

ministers

2009 providing

consideration,

for

elections

but no election

ever took

place, and in 2013 the legislature repealed the act and passed a motion calling for the abolition

of the

upper chamber

(CTV

Harper recommended the appointment movement

who had

2007, Betty

won two

Unger (who

News, 2013,

Alberta senatorial

finished

November

6). Prime

Minister

of Bert Brown, aleader of the Triple-E Senate

second to

nominee

elections

to the

Brown in the 2004 election)

Senate in

in 2012, and

Scott Tannas(the second place finisher in the 2012 Alberta senatorial election). From its first term in office in 2006, the

(unsuccessful) have limited

presented

a series of

bills to Parliament concerning Senate reform. In 2006, Bill S-4 would

senators to renewable

have provided

Harper government

for

consultative

eight-year

elections

for

names were to be submitted to the prime Senate recommendations

to the governor

terms

of office. In 2007, Bill C-20 would

nominees

for Senate posts: the

winners

minister, who would consider them for

general.

OnJune 21, 2011,the government presented yet another effort. The Senate Reform Act (Bill

C-7) proposed to allow

a province

or territory

(if they so choose) to hold an

election to select nominees for the Senate, nominees the prime

when recommending that

senators

minister

must consider

Senate appointments to the governor general. It also proposed

appointed

after the

October 2008 general

election

would be subject to

a nine-year limit after the bill came into effect. Elected senators would be prevented from

seeking re-election. general

election

A Senate election or during

municipal

could

be held at the same time

elections

provided

there

election dayfor all, or at a date determined by the provincial cabinet

as the pro-vincial

was a common

343

344

Chapter 14

The Supreme that

Parliament

alone

exercisesthe ends.

Court of Canada in

As

well,

nature requirement

and the

the

Senate

maintain

challenge,

representatives

in

take

property

favour

of their

could

arise,

charging

For the time

being,

the

that

preferred

altering

reform

to the has

become

the fundamental

worth

senators,

appointment not

garnered

more active duties

then

nature

funda-mental

net

Quebec

their

these pro-cedure.

its

or the

appointments

interests,

both

unanimity

(or, for

or neglect

ruled

or consultative

achieve

qualifications

senators

legislation

to

without

Trudeaus

independent

own

limits

with the

by Parliament

Justin

to reject

only

Senate

to recommend

but if the Senate

place

the

be changed

body

term

was necessary

or change

Quebec legislature).

of the

senatorial

as changing

an advisory

powers

challenge

could

that

of using

for

the

senatorscould

a constitutional using

provide

procedure11

and rolesuch for

Parliament

not

amending

abolishing

Measures

process,

could

general

Referencere: Senate Reform (2014)10

in

as regional

a constitutional

of the

Senate

is

being

changed.

a perceived

but frustrated

important

Senate faces need for

work that

largely

the

daunting

change.

mixture

And the

good

goes unappreciated

by

of lack

senators

of legitimacy

soldier

and

on perform-ing

Canadians.

Summary and Conclusion The House of Commons is at the centre of representative

democracy

of Canadas

and responsible

sys-tem the

govern-ment. will have its

The prime minister and cabinet can govern only as long

as they retain the support

representatives.

majority

but it is also the

of elected

the activities

key institution

of the government

House

of

Commons

for

Senate

but they

are not ineffectual.

of proposed

legislation

party

new laws and

Commons limits

discipline

that

the representational

threat

House helps to

characterizes capabilities

MPs. However, party discipline the positions taken

by the opposing

makes individual

by powerful

lobbyists.

is especially

of an election

opposition

parties.

House,in

intense

overshadows

Sometimes

between the gov-erning

more of the

The Senate, as currently

which

and the constant

all of the activities

the

MPsless likely

Senate performs

of indi-vidual observers

helps to clarify

parties, thus

making

was in of

Bill

11 The general the

provinces

agreement would

response

Earlier,

of

to

method of selecting Achieving

Even though

and important

Senate reform

work,

is long

agreement

of

questions

government

had

prepared sought

and the number

to amend the

of the Senate

by the

an

Canadian

opinion

from

the

most

overdue.

powers of the Senate, the

senators,

major reforms

a series

Quebec

agree that

often criti-cized

of senators

amendment.

Constitution

to insti-tute

would not be easy.

government Quebec

based

Court

of

on various

Appeal

on

the

reform constitu-tionality

C-7.

amending containing

of be

the

is

for each province require a constitutional

to be pressured

proposals.

useful

However, changes to the

When one party has a majority in

10 This

constituted,

as being an undemocratic institution.

the

it easier for the public to know where each party stands. It also

and one or

House of

as opposition

in governments legis-lativethe members.

As well, debate in the party

measures

or desirable.

the fate of the government.

exam-inationparty competition

inform the public and legitimate the work of government. The tight

greater importance,

Othertimes it results in a dysfunctional

can result in significant

modifications and improvements proposals.

assumes

parties determine

do not

Their detailed

policies in its

In a minority government situation, the

Commons

and holding

believes are necessary

this leads to a degree of cooperation and the

usually play a majorrole in developing policies,

way and be able to enact the

that the government

it accountable for its actions. The

ensures that the government

election platform, and also to pass unpopular

Not only can the Commons makeor un-make

governments, scrutinizing

of the

House, party discipline

Parliament

a fundamental

formula at least and change

all

requires one-half the in

the of the

provincial the

Constitution

agreement

of

population legislatures. and

Parliament of In

thus

all

the

the requires

view

and provinces. of the unanimous

the legislatures The

of at least

unanimity

Supreme agreement

Court,

two-thirds

formula

requires

abolishing

the

of the Senate

Parliament

345

Discussion Questions 1.

Dothe the

House of Commons

Westminster decision for

model making

supporting

and the Senate deliver

promises

and

for

a clear

and

strong

division

holding

the

on

central-ized

Canada differ?

Do the

of the

Can they learn

United States

anything

from

each other?

of the

House of Commons

merits of party

discipline

needed?

in the

House of

Commons outweigh its drawbacks? 5.

Dothe

procedures

Commons

How do the national legislatures and

Are reforms

4.

of respon-sibilities government

to account?

2.

3.

for

provide

time to scrutinize

the

passing

bills in the

opposition

House of

with adequate

legislation?

6. Should the Senate be abolished,

reformed,

or remain

asit is

Further Reading Axworthy, T.S. (2008). Everything old is new again: Observations on parliamentary reform. Kingston, ON: Centre for the Study of Democracy, Queens University. Campbell, C.(1978). The Canadian Senate: Alobby from Within. Toronto, ON: Macmillan.

Joyal, S. (Ed.). (2005). Protecting Canadian democracy: The Senate you never knew. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre for Management Development. Loat, A., & MacMillan, M.(2014). Tragedy in the Commons: Former members of Parliament speak out about Canadas failing democracy. Toronto: Random House Canada.

Canada, Library of Parliament. (2003). The Parliament we

Smith,

want: Parliamentarians views on parliamentary reform. Ottawa, ON: Author. Chong, M., Simms, S., & Stewart, K. (Eds.). (2018). Turning Parliament inside out: Practical ideas for reforming Canadas democracy. Madeira Park, BC: Douglas and McIntyre Ltd. Franks, C.E.S. (1987). The Parliament of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

of democracy in contention. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Smith, J. (Ed.). 2009. The democratic dilemma: Reforming the Canadian Senate. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Thomas, P.G. (2018). Parliament and the public service. In C. Dunn (Ed.), The handbook of Canadian public administration (3rd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press.

D.E. (2007). Thepeoples Houseof Commons: Theories

Chapter15

Public Administration and PublicPolicy

Minister

Prime

the 201

of

Office

Canada,

the

of

by

Right

in

provided

Queen

the

Scotti/Photo

Majesty

Her Adam

Clerk

of the

Privy

Minister Justin professing

that

Council

Trudeau.

Michael In

April

he was not sure

Wernick (right) 2019, the

he had the

hands

Clerk stepped confidence

over

his report

down

from

of all parties

on the

Public

his position going into

the

amid

Service

to

controversy,

2019 election.

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 15.1a 15.1b

Define bureaucracy. Discuss the influences bureaucracy

in

on the

development

Canada, including

the

of the

main reforms

public in recent

years. 15.2

Provide

a general

overview

of the functions

a general

overview

of the staff

of executive

institutions. 15.3a

Provide types

15.3b

of executive

who work for the three

departments.

Discuss and distinguish

between

central

agencies

and central

departments. 15.4

Provide

a general

parliamentary

346

overview

branch

of the staff

of government.

who work for the

Prime

Public Administration and Public Policy

Provide a general overview branch of government.

15.5

of the staff

who work for the judicial

15.6a Identify and discuss the policy stages theory government. 15.6b

The clerk

of the of the

was running wellinto In

and practice in

Discuss the policy roles of the public sector.

Privy Council

knew he had to fix the patience

347

public sector

out.

of the

2009, the federal

centralizing

the

him

when he was appointed

260 000-plus

public, and both

public servants

government

in 2016.

of Canada.

and opposition

of his report in 2018, he knew the remediation

work

He The

parties

would continue

Privy Council, 2018).

government

pay services

began to transform

and replacing

In 2016, responsibility was transferred

pay system for the

employees,

By the time

2023 (Clerk

had his work cut out for

Phoenix

for

to the

the

the

40-year-old

administering

460 pay advisers

the

pay system for

system

that

pay systems

and 90 support

public employees

was used

of 46 departments

staff in

Miramichi,

by

by 101 depart-ments. and agen-cies

New Brunswick,

under the new Phoenix pay system that Public Services and Procurement Canada had paid IBM to help develop.

The other

payments,

but the

55 departments payments

retained

were issued

responsibility

for

data

by the pay centre (Auditor

modifications

to em-ployee

General of Canada,

2017). The pay system 105 collective the

was complex. It involved

agreements

with the

unions.

manual systems retained in some departments

a result,

more than

Phoenix

wasimplemented

The result

200 custom-built

According errors in

2018). The Senate committee 600 000 pay requests (Senate,

and

2018).

$1 billionand Phoenix

raises

the flawed

had to

and departmental had to

be added.

to the auditor pay by June

on Phoenix reported more than

half of the

By 2018, the pay system

a projected

Liberal government

programs

had been developed

The system

human resource But to

under

be coordinated

meet the

with

systems.

2016

As

deadline,

without a full pilot program to test it.

was a disaster.

a billion dollars in unresolved

the

over 80 000 pay rules that

public sector

$2.2 billion

important

system.

public sector reported

that

about

public

problems

but the Liberal government

half

2017,

were almost

had reported

pay prob-lems

million a year had cost

more than

accountability.

Harper

Conservative

of the Treasury

his government

The Justin

Trudeau

government

for initi-ating

Board replied that

had not proceeded

had made the implementation

decision (Zilio,

had prioritized implementation

over functionality

when

to imple-mentation,

2018a,

2018b).

Three senior

public sector

concerns to

meetthe government deadlines. The auditor general and Senate blamed the public

sector culture that

employees

more than

expenses.

president

with Phoenix,

were

General of Canada,

employees

sector

previous

Conservative

there

by the end of May 2018, there

public sector unexpected

blamed the

The former

report,

meant to save $70

morein

questions

elected in 2015

generals

30, 2018 (Auditor

discouraged

In the end, the public is left even pay itself

public servants from

wondering

advising

political leaders

about the state of competency

of the

and security

of potential

problems.

public service if it can-not

correctly.

ChapterIntroduction The business of government is public policy. in the

Canadian

course

government

of government

with formally

delivering

action

approved

or inaction

policy

of agencies that implement 1998, p. 2). In

do, purposefully, chapter

or

other

words, public

examines the administrative

(Kraft

public

& Furlong,

problems ... associated

structures

2015, p. 4). Thomas

what government

in

others to

Dye

which public

does or does not

do or not to

Public Policy It is does

and prac-tices what

governments choose to do or not to do

policy is

or encourages

well as the policy roles of administrators.

to

Public policy is a

means, as well as the regulations

programs

what it compels

policy for citizens.

in response

goals and

offers an even simpler definition: Whatever (Dye,

Over 260000 people are at work daily

public

do. This

policy is developed

as

others

what not it

government

compels to

does

do purposefully,

or or

or encourages

do or not to

do

348

Chapter 15

Bureaucracy 15.1a

Define

15.1b

bureaucracy.

Discuss the influences

Canada, including Bureaucracy Rule

by offices

The word bureaucracy and

officials.

that

supported

classic

of

of the

governments

German

in conducting

sociologist

Max

their

Weber, the

organization

featured

organized in terms of specialized of hiring thought

and

promotion

bureaucratic is still Bureaucracy staffs

of a variety

institutions.

in

the

and efficiency.

chain

and

by senior

Weber, a

work that is

Although

he worried

officials

(Heywood,

In the

rules; and a sys-tem

merit.

was inevitable,

ideal

For

of command;

on qualifications

controlled

citizens.

of bureaucracy

detailed, impersonal

of society

democratic

work for

structures

Weber

that

pow-erful

would dominate

2002).

Webers concern

valid today.

tations, of gov-erning

based

organizations

and sabotage

Although The

a hierarchical

positions;

that the bureaucratization

government

bureaucracy

development

reflected the focus of modern society on rationality bureaucratic

public

mainreforms in recent years.

was developed to describe the administrative

elected

view

on the development

the

the terms

we prefer to

bureaucracy

and bureaucrat

use the terms

more neutrally.

may have negative conno-Public

In this chapter,

bureaucracy is used to refer to the staffs of a variety Governing

institutions

are important The prime

require

sizable

and influential,

assisted by top

staffs to be effective.

the claim that

minister and cabinet

bureaucracies

play a leading

role in the

public servants in setting the

direction

the term

Although rule

bureaucracies

is an exaggeration.

Canadian governing

Structure of the Bureaucracy

Webers

organization

model of bureaucratic

However, it

might

employees

still

be used to

mask the two roles of public servants. administrative

hand, public servants

and implementation

of public

Onthe one hand,

tasks that

play an important

policies that

are decided

and thought

in

designing

effective

role in the

run-ning.

development

upon by cabinet

programs

public sec-tor

keep government

by Parliament. Putting laws and policies into effect can involve of creativity

describe the large

who work primarily in the departments of government.

do execute the routine,

On the other

could

system,

of government.

The Administrative number of public servants

public

of governing institutions.

and passed

a substantial degree

and dealing

with changing

circumstances. Beyond the

public

staffs also support

service,

the

a wide variety

workings

of the

of organizations

political

executive

can be found

(prime

whose

minister and cabi-net).

Andrew Graham (2007) insists it is necessary to define government expansively, given the extensive out that

there

reach of the public sector in

is a shadow

government:

modern times.

people

working

under government grants or grants to non-profit organizations. organization

delivering

aid in

another

country

would be a good example of this type of arrangement. achieves its aims practices that

by using a variety

depend

inducements, Examples

in

private

he points

private

on behalf some of

implementation,

non-governmental

of Canada,

often

which are

such as regu-lations,

and persuasion designed to change private sector behaviour.

would include

the

markets. In addition,

own bureaucratic

sector

Aninternational

As well, government

instruments,

sector for their

the

medical associations

that

oversee practitioners

medically assisted dying or securities regulators that oversee investments

financial their

on the

of governing

For example, for

legislative

organizations

and judicial

institutions

and officials. In other

engaging

and the

receive support

from

words, bureaucracies

take

on many differing forms. Since understanding

the rather labyrinthine

even for public servants themselves,

federal

public service is a challenge,

wetake a different tack and arrange the publi

Public Administration and Public Policy

service

according

service

is to see it as a series

words, there

to a rule

of threes. of influences

national

three

bureaucracies

three

categories

of executive

three

categories

of executive

three

levels

three

kinds

of officials

in

three

kinds

of officials

in judicial

This is of the

way to

and

understand

bodies

the

arranged

shape

of the

in sets of three.

public

In

other

are

three

size

The

349

influences

of bureaucratic

a unique

on the

development

(executive,

legislative,

bureaucracy

in

Canada;

and judicial);

departments; elite in

departments;

parliamentary

simplified

in

Canada,

public

of the

institutions;

and

bureaucracy

focuses

on the

institutions;

and

institutions. way to it is

bureaucracy

present

difficult

at the

complex

to capture

national

information.

its full

level

Given

character.

the

This chap-ter

of government.

Influences onthe Public Bureaucracyin Canada There

have

Canadian to

been three public

British

bureaucracy,

and

Whitehall

convention.

(See

sources

has retained

INFLUENCE

as the and

it

of influence

especially

American

However, BRITISH

main sources

the

The

Canadian

service

Canadian British

consists

The

owes its

ori-gins

reforms

interna-tionally.

as well. administration,

modified

of a number

known

by Canadian

of interrelated

practice

Whitehall

Model

The traditional

principles.

British

style

Table 15-1.) The British

such features

model

a familiar

generation

to

was a subject

and relatively

generation,

AMERICAN

of both

workable

pride

set

but it also resisted

INFLUENCE

American

and

consternation

of principles

that

like

winning sector

Woodrow

political at

party

all levels

Progressive

movement

public

first

contracts

themselves

at public

15-1

had its

political

Canadas

Table

gave

government

have

also

strongest

half century,

break

the

jobs

to its

supporters)

Whitehall

Parliamentary

supremacy

Ministerial responsibility

effect

at the local

had their

greatest

went to friends

of the

expense,

by

anonymity

service

neutrality

norm

a lasting

Model

Modifications Subordinate

system by the

(in making

political

and state levels,

Boards

were given

to

political

political

by Canadian

figures

projects;

Practice

and

which the the realm.

legislatio

officers

access

Rights

to

to

public

engage

in

The rule of law

Canadian

The

merit principle

Employment

representation

Representative

Charter

and commissions

servants

various

Access to information

forms

or freedom

of political

ofinformation

of Rights and Freedoms

equity bureaucracy

public The

where the

support-ers; enriched and

Convention

and accountability

of Crown corporations

Media

public

anonymity

activity

service

and neutrality,

se-crecy,

merit principle.

Progressive A late

recent

Movement

nineteenth-century

movement

that

break the spoils government public

construction

(delegated)

Answerability

responsibility,

with

ministerial

mark in

hold.

government;

padding

Accounting

The secrecy

spoils

it from

jobs

left

The Traditional Whitehall Model andIts Canadian Application

Traditional

Public service

shielding

government

often

It

from

movement, spearheaded by

to

and

machines

Canadians.

be passed

as

and the

influences

sought

more businesslike

patronage-ridden In

Wilson,

to

could

change.

Canada.In the late nineteenth century, the Progressive individuals

Public

Canada.

of public administration

offered

Public

sector

of public

but

in

bureaucracy,

public

traits

style

model adopted

variant

bureaucracy

more recent

uniquely

was the

public

and to

The traditional

model,

on the

by

sector

businesslike from

the

sought

to

system

at all levels and shielding

political

in

making the

realm.

more it

350

Chapter 15

immigrant

communities

received

polls.

the

at the creation

Among

of city bodies

managers

to

manage

special

favours

Progressive

for

urban

some

in

exchange

movements

governance,

politically

effects

the

sensitive

for

in

Canada

foundation

services,

voting

sup-port

were the

of special

and

reforms

pur-pose

in

public

budgeting.

Scientific

Management

A complex

system of the

process,

of

Around the turn

man-agement

production

often

popularly

management popularity.1

as-sociated to

studies,

which

maintains

there is one best

that

way to in-crease

output.

Taylor

Harvard

with time-and-motion

today

and

was a

but instead sector,

would

Scientific

first

current

him

to

as

to

better

part in

well as finding

of the

by American

who

burgeoning

study

manu-facturing

and then of the

popular

gained in was accepted

American

as an engineer, Tireless

his immensely

of

managers

workers

nature

work

was to acquire

and to

He rather

organize

one best

The

as

what

of

work

Principles

principles

to

influenced

century.

In

adopted

an extensive

consultants

(Dawson,

knowledge

referred

organization

way

the

it so as to

optimistically

meant the

the

twentieth

1908)

then

consultant.

he simply

management

(established

worker,

in the

class

of

1911).

the job

which

immersed

publish

managers.

by

New England

become

ordinary

belonged

Scientific

report

upper

management

that

and future

knowledge

Taylor (18561915),

of the

(Taylor,

reckoned

management,

the

a

led

traditionally

motion by Frederick

as an

Management

Taylor

set in member

chose to

be called

management

that

of the century, the second American influence, the scientific

school, first

tasks.

the federal

public

particular,

the

employee

this

as scientific

quantification

perform

Civil

work

available

to

and

of

make it

to

of such

administration Service

classification

for

Commission

system

based

on a

1929).

RecentInternational Influences Toward in

the

end

Canada

of the twentieth

century

has been influenced

Whitehall

not designed

model to

were its

policy

The

the

1980s

developed It

New Public (NPM)

Management of the

business

administrative

practices in the

activities

are

the

bureaucrat,

supposed of the

Theory

based on the idea

coexist

Based

to follow

minister often

knowledge

the

will

or the legis-lature,

uses specialized to thwart

this

or servant)

arrangement.

of

NPM

alleged

1 The

term

in the

in

of public

the

reform.

systems

exercised

public

turned

sector

more costly and complex.

many parliamentary controls

administration

sector

by the

remained

to reforms

that

was just

elected

gov-ernments

responsive

to

were intended

to

drive Public

for

New

Public

more efficient

Governance in its

and

(NPG), ability

problems.

The principles

most recent

set of reforms

Management effective

which

to

arose

resolve

bureaucra-cies.

in response

complex

introduced known

by

(NPM)

and

NPM and

as deliverology.

to

multi-faceted

NPG These

below. and

of two

practices

assumes

theory

from

(NPM)

overlapping in

that

Britain,

is the

activities

As discussed

the

United

adaptation

influences: Chapter

(See

rational

7, rational

States,

choice

including

Table

choice

theory

theory

(also

bureaucrats,

to

was on establishing

follow

the

knowledge

will

of the

to thwart

institutional

and

principal this

New

NPM and known

busi-ness

emerged principalagent as public

are self-interested.

(the

nominal

agent,

(the

minister

or the

arrangement.

behavioural

Zealand,

of private

15-2.)

is based on the idea that the bureaucrat

uses specialized

and

of the practices

of government.

all individuals,

who is supposed often

theories

major reform,

was limited

and economic

Principalagent legislature)

state

Management

theory)

that

executive

one

New

administrative

theory. choice

the

briefly

result

who is

1990s,

by

on ideas

to the

ensure

of an international

uneasily

discussed

as the

and

that

New Public

PrincipalAgent that

now

of

government.

A theory

perception

adopted

public

in control.

was followed

social

The adoption of private

the

out

to

political

century,

World WarII, it became

and the traditional

not adequate

directives.

ensure that it remained In

after

of bureaucracy

be so large,

this

by new international

As the public sector expanded The

and into

The empha-sis

counters

to

these

two

tendencies.

scientific

Commission

management

was

coined

by lawyer

Louis

D. Brandeis

in

hearings

before

the

Interstate

Com-merce

Public Administration and Public Policy

351

Table 15-2 Principlesof NPMVersusBureaucratic Government Principles

of New

Entrepreneurial

Public

Management

(NPM)

Traditional

government

Steering rather

Emphasis

Bureaucratic

on spending

Concentration

than rowing

on one

(or

Competition

Government

or a few

governing

instru-ments

means)

Monopoly

Performance

measurement

Customer-driven

Rule-driven

government

Ministerial responsibility

Decentralization

Centralization

Market

Command

orientation

Empowerment

and

control

Service

Other factors

were at play as well. Ideologues

such as British

Conservative

Prime

Minister Margaret Thatcher and U.S. Republican President Ronald Reagan convinced many people that

behind

poorly

performing

governments

were self-serving

public ser-vants

who in some areas had scaled the heights of power and needed to be checked. book Reinventing

Government by David

entrepreneurial

argued that

government

governing

than business

rowingdelivering

sector

Canada. In particular,

steeringsetting

services that

as much as possible.

use private

in

should involve

Task Force on Program to

Osborne and Ted Gaebler (1992)

For example,

Review (1985) expertise

should

was created

to review

Osborne and

the policy be contracted

under the auspices by Prime

all government

of

Gaebler

directionrather

out to

private

NPM, the

Minister

The

was key to pop-ularizing

Brian

programs

Nielsen Mulroney

and advise

on

which ones could be cutback or better delivered by the private sector as part of a cost-cutting of liquor,

exercise. ending

traditional

In

government

bureaucratic

bureaucratic

a similar

ills,

way, the

control

form

Alberta

in 1993.

of government.

which, it

was claimed,

government

NPM

was seen as the

In fact, it

resulted

privatized

was hailed

in inefficient

the sale

opposite

of the

as an antidote

governing

and

to poor

service delivery.

Results-Based Budgeting

Under the later Management

variants

of NPM,

(RBM),

conscious

accountability and responsibility of the

policy

process

and service

and team-based delivery

efforts

Budgeting

were

made to

(RBB)

restore

and

clearer

Results-Based (RBB) lines

of

delivery

approach

of key policy

and the

mandates and revenue

raising

Gallo, & Kronick, 2017). RBM emphasized a to

management,

objectives.

with

managers responsible

RBB was a subset

for

for

Economic

Cooperation

incentives, and performance objectives. fairness

emphasis

to ensuring that results more effective

Development,

moved from

procedural

were achieved in a cost-effective

Audits, evaluation, effectiveness

and efficient

and

way that

& Gaebler, 1992). Under NPM, governments aspired to be

steering

than focusing or instruments, private,

and

Governance

(NPG)

on the internal intended non-profit

to

with

responsible

efficient

delivery

for

of key

the policy

Results-Based A subset

the

Manage-ment

(RBM) of RBM that

budget

to

priorities,

allocated

achieve

defined

objectives,

and

results.

organizations. New Public

New Public Governance (NPG) New Public

public

which allo-catedobjectives.

of RBM,

2010).

to

management,

measuresbecame meansof checking results against gov-ernment

The states

was measured (Osborne leaner,

and

and team-based

approach sector

managers par-ticipatory

the budget to achieve defined priorities, objectives, and results (Besrest, 2012; Organisation

A participatory

by drawing stronger connections between the results

capacities of government (Richards, the efficient

Results-Based

arose

out of and

yet in contrast

operations of government, achieve

sectors

policy results.

were an effective

action and achieving results, particularly

Governance

(NPG) to

NPM.

Rather

NPG emphasizes the tools,

Networks

comprising

means of catalyzing

the

An approach the

the state into

in

achieve

nonprofit

the

in-tended

policy

particular,

comprising and

emphasizes

or instruments to

public,

as the autonomy of the public sector from

tools

that

re-sults,

networks public,

sectors

private,

352

Chapter 15

government

hierarchy

and

governance of decision

and

on policy of

networked

delivery;

the

decentring

knowledge

working

together

control

direction

(Osborne,

allocation

networks

of

retain NPG

collaborative trust

of the

public

some

departed

the

in

that

the

based

than

the

driven

2016).

net-worked

centre

of

public

sector

resources,

respect,

state

networks

authority. and

of

and

exclusive

in the

to resources

on reciprocal

on contracting

design

acknowledgement

from

philosophy

by steer-ing

policy

of actors,

Partners

according

in

a shared

are autonomous

exercise

private

models

with

a plurality

Dickinson, and

and

into

governance

policy,

of hierarchy

rather

contributors

of organizations

and

networks 2006;

from

partners

state

partners;

resources

governance

among

in

elements

as full

Collaboration

delivery.

interdependence

of the

knowledge

2006).

interorganizational

the

and

in the

or service

NPG include

leadership;

(Osborne,

and agencies

issues

of expertise

and

increased

drew individuals

making

The core ideas or

control

share

However,

the

expertise

dif-ferentials.

NPM to

emphasize

interdependence,

and competition

and

as the

animators

NPG,

and tradi-tional

of relations. The contrast

between

bureaucracy by the ideas

of

sector

control with

process

reveals

(Allen

arise?

records

and information

health

care

government

providers, agencies

accountability General

to solutions

because they

multifaceted,

with changing and far-reaching

are

components

of

health

and

depart-ments

services

services.

and for

However,

it

also

not

of leadership

which can

partners

be found

sector

private

in

e-health

the

responsibilities

Ontario,

designated pay

a new form

The networked

resulted

Miramichi

when seri-ous

examples

online.

payroll

to coordi-nate

in

NPG: who is to be held accountable

understanding

Similar

new

and

the

relinquished

Works

facility

and for

with

across

actors Public

of records

partner

systems

a central

departments

with the

model of

but

2001).

to create

non-profit

vignette

relationships.

sector

government required

and

opening

networked

payroll

Guided

private

As the

a private the

also

transfer

resources

NPG requires

authority

et al.,

in the

IBM,

process,

most government

of human

problems

the

government. with

online.

integrate

Phoenix

NPM,

digital

complex

with

governments

centre

a weakness in the

abdicating

They are resistant

and local

with the

the integration

In

to IBM.

for

services

to

of

to

partnerships

establishing

knowledge,

direction

payments work

shift

in

developed

departments.

and

provincial

to

Wicked Policy Problems

and

transition

engaged

involves was

philosophies

in the

help them

shift

government

some

operational

governments

system

expertise

federal

to

pay

the

be captured

to

this

Phoenix

superior

NPG,

partners

demonstrated, The

can

of

that

with

the

arrangement

consultants, scandal

leadership

does

are responsible transition among

and

in

of

what health

governments,

semi-autonomous

Ontario,

became

mean

for

when

obscured

lines

of

(Auditor

2016).

Despite such difficulties,

NPG is especially

well designed for addressing

wicked

policy problems. These problems are resistant to solutions becausethey are multifac-eted, with

changing

components

and far-reaching

externalities

(Klijn,

2012).

What is

required is multiple sets of skills and perspectivesto break through the barriers to resolu-tion.

externalities

One sector possesses insufficient In these situations,

knowledge

to define and decipher these problems.

NPG is a means of overcoming

bureaucratic

paralysis, lethargy,

intransigence through building strategic alliances and partnerships from the private and non-profit

or

with organizations

sectors. For example, to address the perceived

potential

problem of drug-impaired driving in the wakeof the legalization of cannabis in Canada, the federal

government

increase the

it

powers

can strengthen

of law

the criminal

enforcement

code provisions

officials, and engage in

on impaired

driving,

public education,

but

will also rely on partners in the private (wine, beer, alcohol companies, restaurants),

nonprofit

(MADD,

Operation

Red Nose), and quasi-public

well as provincial and territorial to ensure public compliance

governments and community

with safe practices.

citizens into the desired behaviour

(health

Acomplex

providers)

sectors as

clubs and organizations

network is created to nudge

Public Administration and Public Policy

Some

scholars

Dickinson

are critical

(2016)

consequences emphasis

maintains

for on

and

governments

that

still

to fund

According

its

effect

the

NPM

imprint

on

Most

and

not resulted

control

in

that

shape

NPM

is

with

the

present

of

such as nudging,

Nudging

& Sunstein,

Nudging is a means used

2008).

meaning

behaviours

still

serious

governance

of hierarchy, the

Helen

a relinquishing

(Thaler

shadow

NPG.

NPG,

notably,

policy instruments,

place in the

with

mix of

society. has

of interactions

and

view,

various

civil

softer

associated

relations to this

incorporates

the

take

set the rules role

has left

and

means of exercising

relations

The steering

of the

collaboration

but effective

argues

resources

NPM

partners

over society. Instead,

may be an indirect

society.

that

nonprofit

horizontality

state control Dickinson

of the implications

that

by state

and

the

of partners

in

the

use

of state

state

embodies

from

actors to influence

behaviour

of people

organizations

without

and coercing

them

changes.

arrangements

353

a form

these

NPM

of

and

hybrid

governance

NPG reforms.

that

The results

are that individual

agency

relationships sector

is

underestimated;

and collaborations

values

are

under

incentives

resulting

the

and

public

pressure

in

mission

non-profit

of service

are in constant as new drift;

sectors

delivery

flux

values

and renegotiation;

are created

will increasingly

including

by state

actions

and

and, finally,

trust

need to focus

and legitimacy

and

on relational

not just

as-pects

efficiency

and

effectiveness.

In sum, the hybrid

state is

much more complex

to navigate.

Deliverology Deliverology is a hybrid operational philosophy. It developed out of the framework of

NPM

and its

policy

variants

making, of

measurement,

and

of policy

was designed policy

expertise

into

elected

priorities. mandates

to their in their

methods gauge

feedback

of the policy

original priorities

is iterative,

linking

the

is

process

Priority/Goal

and

Target

the

and

objectives

needs

of the

Measures

polycentric

and

drawing

exter-nal

for

and relayed

Consultation

those

Consultations made in the results

back to the

with the

This approach

and

objectives

Correction

initia-tives

objectives

leadership

involves

providing

objectives

of govern-ment

must engage objectives.

departments

in

Third, stay

but

are assessed centre. of the

Results

stra-tegic clear

on track

with end-users process

of

with clearly

ministers

departments

that

Go Crazy,

reform

policy

cabinet

policies

achieving

Finally,

that

central and

Dont

managing

efficiently.

ensure

be

to

without

provide losing

in relation

to

The entire

process

executive.

In sum,

Repeat

is a hybrid philosophy

with

a focus on policy results, evidence-based

policy

measurement,

efficiency,

below, deliver-ology

well as by

ensure

strong

on the

priorities.

public

to

Second,

objectives. can

model

and Taxpayers

approach

minister

based

corrections

objectives

the

prime

benchmarking

toward

necessary

are less

state in resolving

Benefit

and

needs

platform.

that

and control

making.

execution

and set clear targets

progress

so that

the

delivery

command

as

ele-mentsoperational

also incorporates

and service

reforms

effectively

electoral

and

of the

Citizens

policy

It

Deliverology Deliverology

evidence-based

model. As explained

deliverology

a government

measurements

their

the

departments

exercises

of

so that

that

This involves

as defined

Westminster

decision

are achieved First,

making

the traditional

management

of policy

on results,

effectiveness.

the limits

through

emphasizes

key steps.

planning

with the

states

and

than

Government

governments

defined

the

Run a

with the focus

of policy

circumvent

heart

government

following

sight

the

Barber (2015)

in

and

to

RBB,

efficiency, models

problems

How to

Michael

and

more collaborative

making associated

complex

clear

RBM

NPG by adopting

hierarchical

In

of

effectiveness.

making, and

354

Chapter 15

Federal

Justice

Minister

Wilson-Raybould, Deputy

Justice

Drouin,

left,

legalization meeting

Minister prepare

of federal,

and

Justice

public

Minister to the

Jody left,

and

Nathalie discuss the at a 2017

provincial,

ministers

is seated

to

of cannabis

territorial justice

centre

and

responsible safety.

Kathleen

for

Alberta Ganley

right.

Image

CP

Dyck/The

Darryl

As part units

of this

(PDUs). and/or

timely

Independent leadership not

and

to

units

monitor

that

policy

the

to focus the

its

of gov-ernment

and to

PDUs

achieves on the

development

machinery clarity

Barber,

apply

results,

PDUs to

the

desired

provide

ensure

in

part

by

goals.

indirect

that

mea-sure

pressure

government-defined

problems

achieving

of policy

central provide

policies,

on policy

from

is to

government

actors

progress

creation in the

To paraphrase

implementing

or stalled

the

located

departments,

objectives.

to ensure

get sidetracked

bodies,

government

nudges

of the

recommends

of these

made on policy

but relentlessly

providing

Barber

purpose

in the

progress gently

process,

The

policy

departments

outcomes

of the

sector

as an integral

do

political

leadership. Barber of this

borrowed

approach

new ideas

to

and

under

the idea managing

methods

policy

change

objectives,

brought

and the

emerge

with

solutions

and

operate

using

either

traditional

or design

The virtue breaking

private

that

governments

together

individuals

sectors

of actions

in

to

were

from

ideate,

implement

on policy

period

of time.

prototype,

part

labs,

the relevant

of experimentation,

means of shifting or apathy

These

brainstorm

a specified

define,

lethargy

could

pp. 114116).

techniques

(empathize,

was that they

private

2015,

scientific

bureaucratic

the

(Barber,

non-profit

plans

thinking

of the labs through

and

from

and ensuring

of proceeding

government

verification

of laboratories

orga-nized fields

ideas

in and

Labs tend testing,

to and

test, implement).

performance

indicators

and

to change.

Canadian Development Although

influenced

has developed, paid to the (a public the

to some merit

service

governing

Whitehall unions

job

servants

NPM and servicealthough

as a political

to

next

dominated. of the

model further.

as a violation

For

maintain

their

also had

not to the

same

ideas,

way.

Until

person

for

favour

to

50 years Since

Charter

example,

of the freedoms

NPG have

own

right

For the

adoption

Court

American

in its

(the

seen

model largely

public

and

extent,

principle

party).

and the

Whitehall

by British

strict

an effect extent

Rights

and

restrictions

nominal

bureaucracy attention

more to

on those

was

patronage

who supported

merit-systemfocused

bargaining Freedoms

by public have

on the

political down

service

modified

the

activities

by the

of

Supreme

Charter.

development

as in some

public

and

the

were struck

by the

on the

job)

be bestowed

(19181967),

neutrality

protected

Canadian

1917, only

a specific

1967, collective of

political

the

other

of the

countries.

Canadian Deliverology

public has

Public Administration and Public Policy

been

adopted

as the

soon

to

if it

know

will leave

will last

its imprint

The long-term

effect

management

and responding

philosophy,

developments

government.

It is too

NPM

NPG, it

but, like

is the current

results-based

on cross-sectoral

and

Trudeau

and

reforms.

of all of these

emphasis

administration

of the Justin

as an operational

entrepreneurial-based,

an important

managing

philosophy

on future

bargaining-based,

of

operational

355

public

collaboration.

to

public

to complex

The

sector

social

blend

of rights-based,

sector

management

with

move from

traditional

pub-lic

governance

reflects

and economic

the

complexity

problems.

ExecutiveInstitutions 15.2

Provide

People the

a general

often

think

employees

are

many

in

kinds

overview

of the functions

of

bureaucracy

each

department

as involving

or branches,

cabinet),

and the judiciaryeach

the

answering

of bureaucracies,

powers,

of executive

and

to

only

one

has its

standard

a cabinet kind

of governmentParliament,

public

service,

minister.

answers

the

own

institutions.

to

ministers.

executive

bureaucracies,

there

The three

(prime

with

with

However,

minister

a variety

and

of specific

aspects. Executive

institutions

fall into

three

categories:

1. Executive departments headed by cabinet ministers 2. Semi-independent boards,

public

agencies:

Crown

corporations

and assorted

3. Alternative service delivery (ASD), a variety of different public

agencies,

and commissions

methods for delivering

services

Executive Departments Headedby Cabinet Ministers Ministers in

preside over executive

Schedule

only

by

I of the

Parliament

are financed of the

and

through

for implementing

and the

of the

employees

exclusive

delegated

or finances

Act,

which

to the

management

other

administration

is shared

under

provisions

the

operate

of the

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the

the

Public

This

responsibility

Treasury

Board

of a

Commission

often

but it

Personnel

Board over

is

and the financial deputy

excluded.

politically

is

Service

departments

minister

merit-based,

Public

delegated,

Treasury

the

staffing,

responsibility

the

control

and

most

Parliament

department.

Similarly,

Act, and the

principles

is

of the

minister.

direct

Service

of the

by cabi-net

Act.

under

power

minister

to

headed

depart-ment.

management,

exercise

The

2005.

Administration

to reinforce

not in fact

not to the

the

in the

personnel

of

Departments

ministers.

Departments

of the

responsible

of departments

effect in

not

in the language

management

them

for

department.

is the

minister,

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Executive Organizations

may be amended

or cabinet.

and

upon

are those listed

that

minister

are individually

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minister,

Financial

of the

Parliament but

came into

than

deputy

a list

is conferred to

for

deputy

departments

minister

that

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responsibility

departments

direction

ministers

mandate

Executive Act (FAA),

appropriations. have

convention,

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Employment is

discretion

may be responsible

finances

the

given

not at the

departments,

to

A minister

departments. Administration

parliamentary

acts creating According

over

Financial

These

neutral

pub-lic

service.

Semi-Independent Public Agencies The semi-independent from

its

departmental minister,

extent.

Ministers

public

agency, the second type

counterpart

Parliament will

does

generally

in not

important usually

submit

less

of executive institution,

ways.

scrutinize readily

Semi-Independent Agency

the to

Although agencys questioning

both affairs

have

differs

to the same

in the

A government

a desig-natedthat

House

of

organization

has a degree from

Public

of indepen-dence

executive

and parliamentary

controls

scrutiny

356

Chapter 15

Commons

on

agencies

matters

generally

staffing

have

practices.

and some

to

CROWN

to

commercial

affect

Crown

of

out in

Crown

corporation,

ministers

that

are evident

raises

for

Crown

has

for

statements

to

the

Crown

the

minister

terms

corporation the

Parliament,

reason

in

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parent arti-cles

Act.

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Atomic

and

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a

A parent

are set out in the

not

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have

Canada,

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Broadcasting others

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objectives

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corporation.

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by the

is

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of

gov-ernment

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and

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relationship

orthodox for

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came

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arms-length

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but the

direct

all

doctrine matters

of

admin-istrative

with this

have

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2006.

Crown and

problem

been three the

outline

to the

Canada. known

efforts

over

to

Since

oversight have to

audits

1984,

as special

most

past

Administration for

corporations annual

the

frameworks

Financial

mechanisms

Crown

are subject

of

audits,

All

reform

of accountability

other

corporations.

general

various versions

amendments

They

most of them

auditor

in

major

of their

have

financial

been

examinations,

and prepare

required

at least

once

years.

The Federal

Accountability Commission

commissions,

was eliminated

2012.

Act of 2006 to

and

in

appointments to

to Information

Act to cover

However, Corporation,

have

some

merit-based

all Crown

the

Crown

this

to

with the to

exempt

of CEO and chair of the board for

former the only representative servants from

participating

In 2013, the

Harper

Conservative

between government and the Canada Council for the

Arts, the

by the

end

government

Canadian

and foun-dations.

Access to Information Crown

Access

Broadcasting Act.

corporations

from

legislation.

Crown corporations,

As well,

making the

public

boards. altered the

CBC and three other

National

of its

of 2017

the

of managementto the board; it also restricted

on Crown corporation

and

make a number

of Parliament,

as the

the Public Servants Disclosure Protection Act,its whistleblower it split the position

functioned

has announced

process,

officers such

fully

of a Public government

The Act also extended

corporations,

power

to

government

appointment

comply

to

never

continued

Trudeau

corporations,

establishment

commission

positions.

governments

the

appointments

government

While the

of unfilled

been reluctant

Act also removed

Harper

basis.

number

anticipated

merit-based

However,

Thus, the

a transparent,

were a record

assure

agencies.

on a patronage

commitment

The

Bank Research

Corporations

them

bureaucracy.

where the

whereas

objectives

specific

The

to

Canadian

owned

and

minister

was to free

used

value-for-money

Appointments

there

those

the

by the to

five

for

up by the

The type

as the

legislation

Business

departments.

dealt

statements,

to submit

boards,

and

There

1984,

accountability

every

through

corporations,

of 1951,

financial

are rare

political.

decades.

Acts

report

responsibility, and

and

functions;

Crown

Canada,

and

special

powers,

corporation

the regular for

wholly powers,

is

mandate,

place

of

Development

mandate,

Canada

and

in

Parliament several

The

set

a parent

day, such

entity

the

in the first

difficulties

ministerial

budgeting

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entities

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ways: (1) there

under

between

existence

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regulatory

objectives.

called

Bank

Business

distinct

or (2) the

policy

every

International

directors.

corporations

into

in their

activities

are legal

with is

or the

as the

the

one of two

of incorporation

with

corporations.

perform

activitiesall

public

directly Atlantic,

is a legally

by a board are set

or other

such and

corporation

Crown

Crown

controls

some

corporations

are familiar

Marine

Canada,

relationship

or

central

or business

Canadians

impact,

of

from

agencies;

Crown

Canadians

(CBC),

more indirect Energy

commissions,

advisory

commercial

most

of these

boards,

perform.

pursue

Corporation

case

are

CORPORATIONS

corporation Some

in

to

more freedom

Some

engage

departments

related

arms-length

relation-ship

Crown corporations (the

Arts Centre, and International

Development

Research Centre) by giving cabinet control over their collective bargaining. The Financia

Public Administration and Public Policy

Administration require and

Act

the

Treasury

collective

the

legislation

Board to

Liberal to end

legislation,

a rotating

such

role

from

(See

Box

For

and

responsibilities. research

agency,

these

Athird

can

for

in

related

umbrella

departments Agency

of the

licence

and

CRTCs

of

Quebec

regulations

in

gov-erning

2005

of two

without

the

satel-lite normal

some functions

might beinefficient pricing

policies,

should

the to

or different

levels from

body

away

services

of government. a department

1999. This agency administers federal,

that

managed by a board of

involve

(Revenue

orga-nized to

the controver-sial

installation

environment. from

the

in the

the

political outcome

desire to

different

the

have

government

Canada

Revenue

Canada) to agency

status in

and territorial

management

not

manner. include

For example,

provincial,

up

Treasury

highly

capital

interest

hearings in a court-like

deliver

from

functions

form

set

are less foreign

policy,

no particular

non-departmental

been

would

in

a non-partisan

quasi-judicial with

to

much political interference

monetary in

uneasy

ratio-nale

organizational

or the

that

if too

be decided

is to remove impartial

adopting

organizations

need to take

that

organization

other services. It is

to join

and com-missions

supposedly

may feel

organi-zations

departments

have

Commission

of opinion.

decisions after holding

was transformed

prefer

that

Service

researchers

of

agencies

wage policy

arts

boards,

need for the

Some

arms-length

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inability

to expressions

of services

justification

for

provide.

Public

and

agencies,

and the

conducts responsi-bilities.

activities.

government. alleged

activities

have

governments

promotion

use of the from

(NRC) funding

endowments,

and arts

and

and

the

animals,

agencies

Council

research

by

food,

Some federal

to artists,

for the

by the

undertaken

safeguard

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has been the

and

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argued

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length

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more open

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Other reasons an

the

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agencies

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like

or similar

freedom

reason

make the

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licences

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Canada,

is to

mandate

funding

arena. Some functions

so that

cases

industries.

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with radio

Sirius

roles,

decides

broadcasting

renew

whose

at arms

independent

departmental

and

to

a number

Canadas

media.

responsibilities,

Council

been

operate

As well, businesspeople

were allowed.

and

comply

and

serve

which

of

have

broadcast

communications,

functions

possible

locations,

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adjudicative

particular

was the licensing

Others

provides

non-departmental business

A second

can

to

consumer

Canada

have

political

enact

of the

as a threat

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Regulation

as refusing

Radio

development.

generally

experience

realm

overall

rationales

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offices

(ABCs)

Radio-television

over failure

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Various

been

The

controversial

operating

research,

part to allow

the

may have

Rights

in the

Satellite

performs

have

their

2004

and

that

occupied

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companies

such

Also

the

arts funding

flexibility

Canadian

For example,

and

For example,

in

in

provide

scientific

the

2018,

or not it should

the legislation

They

Act.

Crisis:

content

have

research

for

approach

2013). In

In the face of the threatened

commissions

Human

Canadian

Inspection

and to

undertake

and

Rights

controversial,

agencies

that

to

controls.

Food

plants

whether

members

bill,

bargaining

(Naumetz,

workers.

extent.

which

Canadian

content

Other

Post

decrying

Canadian

the

language.

services,

Canadian

implementation

collective

over

a large

determines

CHOI-FM

offensive radio

budget

bargaining

boards, to

Financial

example,

been

popular

a

a dilemma

Workers

Human the

for

have

Canadian

by the

Dodging

sets requirements

Citys

such

Environment,

of agencies,

(CRTC)

decisions

of

corporations

Canada

of Postal

Canadian

15-1:

Commission

by

may overlap

played

the

Institutions.)

the

through faced

and

variety which

as the

arising

Union

means

bargaining.

A wide

of functions,

approve

strike

Innovation,

of collective

by

reached

government

Canadian

of Finance,

ABCs

amended,

agreements

Trudeau

rights

was

tax programs and

with 15 members appointed

by the cabinet, 11 of whom are nominated by the provinces and territories

357

358

Chapter 15

Box 15-1 Dodgingthe Financial Crisis: The Regulation of Canadas FinancialInstitutions In 2008, the in the

world was hit hard by afinancial

United States

one the

worlds leading

long-standing

financial

world faced

be bailed

bankruptcy

major banks

around the

and In

many countries,

major financial

highly speculative

institutions

investments

that

an associate officers

wave of

Fortunately, financial

Canadian

crisis intact.

since

1985.

a house of

Canadian

Indeed,

banks

have been encouraged

by

maintaining substantial

the

Office ofthe

The primary

agent for regulating

created in 1987 and led from and

sector

branch

anindependent to federally

2007 to

of the department

financial

cooperative fall

administered

Others, Canada

Dickson.

countries,

econo-mist The OSFI,

This

means that

associations,

pension

plans. Its

depositors,

best

the

However, the

change its

control

a tough-love with the

Williams (2009) framework

OSFI can discipline

business

ofits

plan, acquire

pro-tect

prevent

with the

Looking

differently.

assisted

by other

the

mortgage loans

for activities

Canadian

Although banks they

by

held.

out, there is a huge gap in of Canadian financial in-stitutions

Noregulations

banks from

institutions,

in

investing

were

heavily,

highly risky invest-ments.

(p. 50). Since then, the

banks to

strengthen

the risk

back, some analysts, including

Canada

compared

skillful handling

a bank by re-quiring or

out as

and financial

OSFI has

management

measures in the industry.

usually

more capital,

economy

experienced

points

holdings is insufficient

worked

Dickson

and they

2009). Housing

monitoring the

situation

government

American financial

banks

plan members

approach.

banks,

Dickson,

Mortgage and

of banks

minister of Canada, attribute the lack practices

goes to

It wassimply lucky they did not, as monitoring ofthe

also regulates

mandate is to

and pension

see the

Canadian

much

allowed the

2014).

about $75 billion of the

place to

as did

and insurance

The agency

that

mem-bers

But

magazine (Perkins,

engaged in securities trading. in

all

reserves

Canadian

& Carmichael,

however,

the regulatory

regulates

policy.

OSFI pays special attention to

avoided the collapse

purchasing

loss.

took the hint. by taking

is

(OSFI),

or registered trust and loan

purview.

OSFI often takes

it to

offinance.

of financial

Canada

current risk to the

minister of the fi-nancial As Russell

minister of finance,

credit

under its

the policyholders, The

the largest

agency of the Canadian government that re-ports institutions.

discussed

by Julie

deputy

chartered

from financial

institutions

Rudin, an ex-academic

the assistant

banks and federally incorporated

federally

2014

the

companies

be cautious

and the

market, which the Bank of Canada has singled

system (Perkins

financial

Parliament through

companies,

to

the

chief executive

Each of these

crisis of 20082009

with overseeing

housing

the

finan-cial minister,

institutions,

institutions.

Report on Business

Corporation, the

deregula-tion,

of Financial Institutions

by Jeremy

most recently

to

Charged

capital reserves.

Superintendent

She was replaced

weather the

mandate is fi-nancial

of the larger

of the finance

financial

different facets

according Canada has not had a bank fail-ure

Canada also engaged in

of financial

banks to

banks came out of the 20082009

Although

largest

of the credit for the strong financial

cards in 2008.

Its

management

minister in finance,

Canadas

represents

make complex,

collapsed like

deputy

of

superintendent

1980s and 1990s to

not act in a vacuum. but the

sector falls to a group composed

or had to

the

OSFI does

institutions,

institutions

and either failed in the

The

Brothers,

Within weeks,

other financial

of the financial industry

allowed

crisis that began

of Lehman

institutions.

bankruptcy

out by government.

deregulation had

with the

The regulatory

with the

prime

United States and Europe to the

of the 2008 financial structures

the former

of the rise of populism in crisis here (Harper,

seem to have served

2018).

Canadians

well

both in the crisis and in its aftermath.

assets.

Alternative Service Delivery (ASD) Alternative Service Delivery

Thethird kind of executive organization, alternative service delivery (ASD), is aimed

Methods

particularly

of delivering

services

apart from

use of traditional and agencies, of

govern-ment the

departments

with the

goal

making government

businesslike and responsive to the

needs of the recipients

services.

increasing and to the

more of

at improving

programs, needs

organizational termed Alternative and

flexibility,

and

forms

within

special

operating

service

delivery

non-governmental

or contracting instruments

generally

of the recipients

voluntary

(Inwood,

the

delivery

of government

improving

coordination

making

government

of services.

This

departments agencies

services,

may also involve organizations,

the role

government

more businesslike

approach

or outside (such

among

reducing

as the setting

may include traditional

up

departmental Passport

partnerships

out services to private business or to former

departments and responsive

establishing

self-financing

commercializing

of gov-ernment,

the

struc-tures, Canada).

with provision

government

new

business of ser-vices,

employees

2009). Overall, ASD can meanturning to unusual organizational forms and that

do not fit the traditional

view of government

instruments

Public Administration and Public Policy

359

Executive Departments 15.3a

Provide

a general

executive

15.3b

overview

of the staff

who work for the three types

of

departments.

Discuss and distinguish

between central agencies and central departments.

Three types of executive government departments exist to carry out the

mainfunc-tions

of government:

1. Central agencies and central departments 2.

Central coordinating

departments

3. Line departments

Central Agencies and Central Departments Central agencies,

such as the

Privy

Council

Office (PMO), are headed by the prime and control functions.

Office (PCO)

and the

Prime

Ministers

minister and perform service-wide

Their authority

comes from the statutory

Central

and

conven-tionaland the

with the setting

right to intervene

in or otherwise

The central Secretariat)

of objectives

departments

also perform

by cabinet.

influence

They have a formal

the activities

(Department

these service-wide

but they

Treasury

are headed

Board

by

are usually collectively

to intervene

central

in

or otherwise

set or influenced

influence

by cabinet.

the activities

They also have the right

of other

departments.

agency is often usedto refer to both types of structures.

between the two can be useful, since one type,

the

The Department

of Finance

and the Treasury

Board

which,

However, differenti-atingcentral a venue

agencies,

influence

the

policies

of the

and the central

agencies for relative

In contrast, line government,

such

and defence.

actions, they

departments

exert

do not have as large

minister

with delivering the basic services of

Line departments

great influence

a staff or budget

do not normally

have a

Line

advise

cabi-net and

direction

and

government.

Although the central agen-cies

over

government

policies

as most government

and

Departments

Departments basic

mandate to intervene in the affairs of other departments. and central

with the prime

Secre-tariat,

with the

influence.

departments are charged

as health

jockeys

along

and its committees

one of the central

Finance, occasionally

of

by cabinet.

for direct prime ministerial power and the other, central departments, does not. In fact, departments,

minister setting

Central Departments

The term

central agencies, provides

assis-tance

min-isters

rather than by the prime minister; their authority comes from statute; and their objectives

Office,

direct prime

and facilitate objectives

Office

Council

provide to the

or informal

of departments.

of Finance and the functions,

Ministers

Privy

which

authority of cabinet itself, and their roles are to assistthe prime minister directly and to help

Agencies

The Prime policy, fa-cilitative,

that

programs

deliver

and

the

services

of

government

departments

do. Despite their importance, the central agencies and central departments are the organs of government

that

parliamentarians

(and

most Canadians)

and whose workings are the least transparent, compared

know least

about

with the others.

The Prime Ministers Office The Prime Ministers and is staffed

Office (pm.gc.ca) gives partisan political advice to the prime min-ister Prime

by supporters

the Public Service Employment

of the party in power, although Act. They are classified

as exempt

they

are hired under

staff

behind this is that the prime

ministers

government

was elected to set a certain

direction for the country. The prime ministerthus needs aloyal group to to the program.

1. Advising

The PMO has the following

on political

strategy

and the

functions,

among others:

political implications

2 Each

Advising

cabinet

on the

minister

prime

also has a small

ministers senior

political

staff

separate

of new policy

appointments

from

the

public

servants

in the

is

department.

staffed

party

monitor confor-mity

initiatives 2.

political

partisan

to the

or ministerial

staff in order to free them from normal public service hiring practices.2 The reasoning

Ministers

Provides

in

prime

Office political minister

by supporters power.

ad-vice and of the

360

Chapter 15

3. Organizing the prime ministers correspondence,

media relations, speeches, and

timetable

4. Liaising

with

ministers,

members of caucus, and national

party officials

The Privy Council Office Privy

Council

The central

Office

agency

non-partisan to the

The Privy

that

pro-vides

policy

prime

ad-vice

minister

and

cabinet.

Council

the

secretariat

policy

for

advice

to

The administrative

The

and the link

the

department,

between

minister,

the

PCO

is politically

responsible

department, public

department.

who

head

and the servants

territorial non-partisan

in the

prime

of the of the

PCO

advises

between

federal

for the

adviser

the

specialized

ensuring

Public

as

public

the

cabinet

agenda

and

Service

minister

who is

servants

governments

that

departments

minister,

pro-vides

serves

is im-plemented.

machinery-of-government

prime

public

It

governments for

like

agency that

cabinet.3

and

Council

appointment

head of a depart-ment

politically

in the

strategy

agencies) (Privy

on the

as the administrative

the

the

provides

accountable

who functions non-partisan

Privy since

(See

public,

15-2:

Master

Box

The

designation provide

public

service,

for

for

as

responsible

department.

for Finally,

in federalprovincial

and

Canada

Council,

who serves

cabinet,

and

the

of the for

as some

public

report

core

public

agencies

The public

the

service

public

for

service on the

Duties

as the

the

status

Clerk been in

of

Canada.

to pub-lic

politicians

of the

public

and

Revenue

of the

Agency,

Agency, and the

to

service.

employees

Canada

as

head

has

matters relating to

Food Inspection

the

of the

service

administrationthe

such

Canadian

the

Multi-Tasker:

head

an annual

Agency, the

Council

Privy to

the clerk is responsible

means the

well

of the

secretary

leadership

representing

issuing

service

Research

the

1990s to

and

departments

minister,

early

renewal,

The public

Council is the clerk

deputy

Council.) the

service

Parks

Privy

service.

As head of the the

and

and

of the

and

that

major structures

the

ministers

public

place

of

and

relations.

The head of the

the

designer

the link and

coordinates

for

main

and

central

minister

It is responsible

smoothly

minister,

provides

a department the

minister.

design

is the

prime

committees

runs

a high-performing

2007).

and

to the

and its

prime

also the

of each deputy head of

cabinet

the

foster

Office,

Minister

advice

process

(meaning

tries

the

the

to the

It is issues

(www.pco-bcp.gc.ca)

policy

decision-making

Deputy

Office

non-partisan

the

National

Canada.

Treasury Board Secretariat The

Treasury agency,

Treasury

Board that

Board.

Financial

Secretariat

serves

audit, under

the

Official

Equity

public

Act. In

financial

a number

general,

the

gives

department, board

and

acts, such Access

to

responsibilities

for

and

the

the

mandate

department

management, pensions

of other Act, the

a central

establishment

which

service

Languages

is

management

Board

Act,

policy, and

(TBS)

central

The Treasury

Administration

administrative internal

the

as the

of the

service,

and

in for

management

policies and

2. Directing expenditure 3. Serving as principal

3 The PCOs

name comes from the

monitoring

Employment the

Act,

Employment

TBS (www.tbs-sct.gc.ca)

include

performance

management and performance information

employer

Queens Privy

of the

public service

Council for

Canada, discussed in

the gen-eral

has respon-sibilities

the following:

1. Setting

the

management,

It also

Service Act,

a cen-tral

are outlined

resources

programs.

Public

Information

than

public

responsibility

human

benefit

rather

Chapter 13

systems

Public Administration and Public Policy

361

Box 15-2 Master Multi-Tasker:The Duties ofthe Clerk ofthe Privy Council The clerk of the

Privy

Council is

arguably the

public servant in the government to

set the tone

at the top

working smoothly,

most important

efforts,

of Canada. It falls to the clerk

for the

public service,

to keep it

and to rally it behind the efforts

If this

of the cur-rent their

G. Lynch is a good

clerk is relied

upon to

latter

new clerks

are expected to

power.

of what an individual

do. He was appointed in February

in the new Harper government. often appoint

example

Even though when they

be non-partisan

new prime

and to speak

most good

of the government

clerks have to

do, balanced

min-isters

with the needs of the

As the

Wouters

1930s, Lynch department,

worked

worst since the

with the

prime

been deputy

a wide-ranging

year before, he had

worked

an international Depression

stimulus

with the same people to

in the

is often identified

Afghanistan had seen in

(Laghi,

Office is the health

(hiring

his political

different

with

as the

all aspects

framework provides

policies

of legislation resources

(see in

and the management

Procurement opening

for

Canada,

vignette

public

service.

testimony by Ian

Arctic

Lynch

boost federal

of the

Office

Board in the

several

employer

of salaries

leadership

2009

people

organizations

government

from

strengthened

Canadas

a public service renewal

Treasury

managing

Conservative

and

Shugart,

SNC-Lavalin along-time

minister of Foreign

public

and Figure

human

benefits.

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It also

15-1),

analyzes

resources the

deputy

own

departments. centre

The prime

had

minister

OCHRO

policy across

represents

the

employees

develops

broad

performance

ministers

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on the

Within take

public

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deals

indicator and

framework for

Public

pay fiasco

Canadian and

service,

policy

responsibility

TBS, along Phoenix

the

Officer

scattered

service

data

minister for

human

Works and

outlined

Aboriginal

Development,

Girls Inquiry

experi-ence

when two im-portant

Missingand

and the redefi-nition government

was called into

and

question

bythe

Party parties following

controversy.

his

He was replaced

public servant

and former

all the similarities in their

must choose

resources

been

Harper

by Michael

werelaunched: the

and contributions

Resources

human

public

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challenges

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which

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deputy

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carefully.

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management.

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service),

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in relations

the

exercise,

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from

between the federal

recruitment

Secretariat

affairs. Charette

was occupied

Northern

New Democratic

in the

deputy

Wernickresigned and stepped down in

April 2019 after his impartiality

he

demo-graphic

secretary to the cabi-net,

transition

Women and

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masters to

in

the

pushing

on rebuilding

of the nations

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within and

Americas ...

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position

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Indigenous peoples.

military

affairs focus

with the

to the Trudeau Liberal government.

government initiatives

monitored by clerks of the Privy Council

The establishment (OCHRO)

most intense

a half century. In addition,

set of challenges.

that served him well as the top civil servant

2009).

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convinced

war, the

with changing the foreign

US and [focusing]

no exception.

smooth

of the relationship

Africa and Europe to the infrastructure

the

government

(now Indigenous)

manage

A consensus-building

of experience in the

dealing

Wernick, who was previously the deputy

The

program.

ties to the

by Janice

that had played a key role in the new gov-ernments Murdered Indigenous

conflict the country

Lynch.

a different

himself to

after 33

was secure.

30 years

he faced

Then, until early 2019, the

Lynch also took responsibility for overseeing Canadas involvement

hislegacy

ex-actly

will be in

average length

minister ofinter-governmental

managed

a crisisin asset-backed commercial paper and to help design the tax reductions

years, the

Privy Council and associate

Conservative

minister, to

package.

or four

thats

they

When Lynch retired in 2009,

more than

was followed

adeptly

of the

with

ofthe service as many public servants retired.

and deputy

minister and the finance

where he had previously

design and implement

public

function

multi-tasking,

Wouters replaced with

renewal

public administration

world reeled from

crisis in 2008, the

G.

public service,

wants

aturbulent

office.

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clerk for the

policy environment. financial

Wayne federal

that served it. Few clerks have had to operate in such

about three

official

truth to the

an exercise in

years in the public service,

This was the case with Kevin Lynch, say Ottawa insid-ers.

He, as

position is

come to office, the

human resources

Clerks know that the longest

of service for the

2006

the

advisers.

seems like

what it is.

government. Kevin

and reorganized

the help of outside

in the

of each these

mandates,

clerk are unique.

public

servants

very

362

Chapter 15

Figure

15-1 Performance ManagementAnnual Cycle

Annual

Cycle for

Performance

Management

Mid-year Establish/update employees

work

professional plan;

the goals

and

development

The supervisor

a performance

agreement

is

progress

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by the

supervisor

a suitable

may

action

the

action

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for

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and

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employee and supervisor. The

in

plan

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objectives

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and

skills/competencies

in

the

evaluates

agreement; the agreement is

adjusted

employee

raises

as

or

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provides

of the

employees

appropriate.

formally

and

performance.

affecting

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performance.

employee.

year-end Start

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of

supervisor

reviews

development

the fiscal

making

plan

any

with

appropriate

the

professional

the

employee

changes.

year

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feedback,

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SOURCE:

Government

of

Canada

recognition, appropriate,

Performance

performance an action

Management

development

or talent

for

throughout

management

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OCHRO.

professional

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developed.

Retrieved

from

https://www.canada.ca/en/treasury-board-secretariat/services/performance-talent-management/p

The Department of Finance Finance is often considered

and indirectly the annual federal

budget,

will be expansionary, developing

the

most influential

department

in the government.

It di-rectly

affects everything that happens in government. It helps prepare which dictates

stay-the-course,

whether government

or restrictive.

expenditure

in general

Finance is also instrumental

in

taxes and tariffs;

arranging federal borrowing; advising

on and

managing

transfer

payments

to

provincial

and

territorial

governments; representing

Canada

International

Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, and the World Bank;

within

international

financial

institutions

such

as the

and

acting as the governments

analytic think tank

with regard to

major economic

issues.

The finance

minister hasresponsibilities that touch

these responsibilities

the onethat

is of great significance,

view the budget

as one item,

of the budget.

but federal

insiders

parts, four of which are the direct responsibility (e.g., benefits to the elderly

payments to provincial and territorial the

Canada Social Transfer,

expenditures

budget is undoubtedly

matters mostto the majority of ordinary Canadians. The pre-eminent role

of finance is evident in the construction

to individuals

many areas. Although each of

the annual federal

(tax

and equalization

breaks, such as the

David

Good says that

view it as comprising

of finance:

and employment

outsiders

five separate

majortransfer payments insurance);

major trans-fer

governments (the Canada Health Transfer, payments);

Registered

public

Education

debt charges; and tax

Savings

Plan, designed

to achieve a policy objective). The Treasury Board Secretariat oversees operating an

Public Administration and Public Policy

other

expenditures,

but

in

expenditures

are really

p

of government

programs

share

of some

words

a residual

of the

an important

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category

(Good,

and

2007,

most important

budgeting

of a senior

these

what

officials

are

p. 46).

transfer

official,

operating refer

So, it is finance

and

economic

and

other

to as the small

that

has the

programs,

as

major

well as play-ing

role.

Central Coordinating Departments In

addition all

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policy

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(i.e.,

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Act of 1996

for

departments,

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have for

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they and

units in

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Defence

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and

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down

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of Public

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armed

role.

be struck

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virtu-ally

decisions,

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of public

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that

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services

department)

and

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also

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jurisdiction

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has been responsible to

to the legal

effect,

exclusive

trying

departments

major role in

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minister

a

of justice

as a violation

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play

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proposals

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agencies and

department

legislative

the

central

decisions

by the or by

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Works and

Act of 1985 to

is al-located

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goods

forces.

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departments They

are the

function

third

as the

have come

to expect

protection

of aviation.

type

of organization

backbone

in the

of

way of services

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they

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do not

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delivering

government, usually

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intervene

the

govern-ment.

of

what

military

in the

we

to the

affairs

of other

departments. Line

departments They

by

of, but

(1992)

noted

at the that

push for

compelled

to

dominated

between reform

staffing

generations.

the

need for

Some being

academics

in IT (information

constantly operating

managers difficult However, challenging are attracted

and

legislation, changing

in

today

than it

others

consider

place to by the

work.

with

firmly

believe

was forty

desire

(2008)

bodies,

crises (often

an emphasis collective that

line

getting

felt have

a human

echo

line

across

between

creative

and

flex-ible

bureaucracy

describes

measurement

to

tension

for

of the federal

no bottom

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planning

view

Savoie

Council seem

and inflexible

constant

2007).

new

as

it thus:

schemes,

manage-ment

major developments

caused a much

on

by information more aggressive

managing

bargaining, ... [no things

publicly and

wonder] done is

not

unionized Front-line much

more

years ago. (p. 223)

the line

bureaucracy

Some theorists

principalagent

and the

legislation),

priorities,

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workers

business

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one

Privy

1960s.

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domi-nated

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government,

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technology),

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7).

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area

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or those as a significan

who

363

364

Chapter 15

power-seeking

agent,

have enough the

NPM

much tried

Innovation. Privy

Council

policy

Office

behavioural

to

out

are

goals

in

and

integral

to

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achieved.

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normal

employees.

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how

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of ensuring

operations.

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methods,

impact

priority

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to

apply

measurement Critical

to

which

departments

issue

challenges.

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tendency

toward

incremental the

this

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approaches

financing

evaluation

tracks

models,

is the

domestic

is intended

policy

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and to

change

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whole-of-gov-ernment

innovative

to

in

new

approach

challenges

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this

and

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that

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ver-sion

Unit (IIU)

that

and

with

as Impact

and Innovation

departments

government

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departments

philosophy,

of the

with

that

imposition

policy

key

their

in

the

across

works

in

under

address

departments

IIU

insights

Initiative,

partners

control

was discussed

partnering

under

management

bureaucracy

deliverology

into

the

new

and

not

1995).

were implemented

approach,

goals

13, the

were integrated

approaches,

been (2015)

Chapter

goals

Canada

central

Barbers

In

of the

do

to control

organization

(Aucoin,

has

superiors

or resources

control

to reassert

Michael

nominal

sector

power

priorities

of

and

the

central

quest

government

to

public

fear

to reassert

the

to

politicians

whose

information

approach

The

one

global

break

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as government

on

all

government

departments.

The Three Levels of Bureaucratic Elitein Departments Three levels

of bureaucratic

1. The deputy

elite

exist in

departments:

minister (DM) level (and in some departments, associate deputy

ministers)

2. The assistant

deputy

3.

appointments

Director-level Deputy

and

minister appointments

associate

deputy

appointments

because

they

cabinet

in the

name

(acting

the prime doing

are

prime

can

be trusted

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day. The clerk

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out

of the

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called

governor

Council).

takes

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his or her

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the

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provides

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the

(GIC)

advice

it is the

of the

prerogative

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to appoint these individuals.

account

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in

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practice,

minister of the department,

minister

carry

are

made by the

of the

minister, not the

so, the

ministers

need to ensure

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appointees

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on these

appointments.

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deputy

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officer

parliamentary

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Act (2007)

accounting

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and

associated

are retained

is expected

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minister

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department,

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is legally

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prime

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unpalatable

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Public Administration and Public Policy

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mentality; This

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government

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level

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merit-based

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science

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level

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a competent,

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merit

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principle.

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service

early

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public service focuses on the qualifications in its merit

hiring

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public

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well, supporters

speakers

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in

Quebec.

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workforce. public

of

a represen-tative

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society.

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still

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fit

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merit

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people

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as a criterion

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2007).

15-2 indicates,

the

peoples,

ranks.

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selection

represen-tational

develop

aspects

bureaucracy

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in terms

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have been set up to increase the

promoted

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Commission,

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higher

a position

merit

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diversity

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merit efforts

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report

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the

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quite in

representative some

positions.

more representative

365

366

Chapter 15

Figure

15-2 Representationof Employment Equity Designated Groupsin the

Federal Public Service March 31, 2016

Against

Workforce

Availability

from

March

31, 2006,

to

60 54.4% 53.8%

50

40

30 Percentage

20 14.5

8.6%

10 5.8%

5.6%

5.2% 4.2%

0 Women

Indigenous

Persons

peoples March

SOURCE:

Treasury

20162017.

Board

Retrieved

of

2006

Canada

from

March

Secretariat.

with

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disabilities

2016

(2018c).

minorities

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Employment

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equity

in

the

availability

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of

Canada

https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/tbs-sct/documents/reports/eepsfy-emefp/2017/

eepsfy-emefp-eng.pdf

Parliamentary Institutions 15.4

Provide

a general

overview

of the staff

who work for the parliamentary

branch of government. In the

Canadian

Parliament,

political

officers,

three

officers

sets

of institutional

of Parliament,

players

and

procedural

keep the institution

run-ning:

officers.

Political Officers Political

officers

are

do some

routine

administrative

rendering

not

accountability,

of Parliament.

leaders,

Political

officers

of the

machinery working attached

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as the

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deputy

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House

These indi-viduals

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and the party are at

House

of Commons.

officers

workadministering

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party

House Officers

bureaucratic

officers law

and in

of Parliament.

Officers of Parliament Officers

of Parliament

Independent

officials

who

in

holding

assist

Parliament

government protecting Canadians.

accountable various

rights

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of Parliament,

with the offices they

of Parliament,

parliamentary

Paul

(2002)

and of

along

agencies accountable

created and,

Thomas first

to

second,

assist to

has

watchdogs, described

Parliament

protect

head, have sometimes

various

in

or the

them holding kinds

parliamentary

as independent ministers

of rights

and the

of individual

been called control

accountability bureaucracy Canadians

bu-reaucracy.

Public Administration and Public Policy

(p.

288).

These

are offices

than

the

executive,

that

bind

the

and

departments as

triple-E

1878is

Since

most

economically,

efficiently,

(also

to

become

strong

criticisms the

the

branch

normal

rather

constraints

to

of the

oppositions

of and

General

with

adequate

means for

money [VFM]

auditing)the

Phoenix

pay

critiques

of the

government

life.

system

For

have

the

AG audits

federal

organiza-tions

presented

directly

to

to include

is implementing judging

poli-cies

their

effective-ness

auditors

example,

the

spurred

governments

The

was broadened

whether

political

other are

Act

certainly

Canada.

reports

on

for

Canadian

Parliamentand

(AG)

AGs

Auditor

and

as value

central

fuelled

from

corporations,

and the

when the

of

general

Crown

reportingcommenting

have

to the legislative

been freed

officers

auditor

territories,

1977,

referred

have

of the the

agencies,

as the three

Parliament.

end they

pre-eminent

in

and well

and are responsible

government.

most

established

serve

to that

executive

One of the oldest,

that

367

reports

auditor

generals

government

difficulties

action

and

in remedying

the

situation.

has

Over time,

the

The current

list

no exact

other

In

other

to

words,

the

failure

analogies

can

be

officers

is

post

of the

take

with

commissioner,

to

regard the

Table

as have 15-3.

officers

from

perform

to the

privacy

some

Although

of their

have

citizens

duties

it

and

of

commissioner,

in

level

many

prov-inces

quasi-ombudsman public

has taken

commissioner

pow-ers.

the federal

a post found

federal

complaints

of government made

in

of ombudsman,4

some

they

has expanded,

presented

the

jurisdictions,

regarding

information

of

of officers

equivalent

and roles.

category

official

and the

servants

on itself.

Such

languages,

the

public

sector

integ-rity

commissioner. The

Harper

Parliament The

but

PBO is

For

in

to

in

Issues

whose

by the 2018,

parliamentary the

right

Federal

v.

chief

data

budget

of

a broad Mulcair, officer

of

auditor

to the

The

Office

transparency. for

Canadas likely

a five-year

involvement deficit

from

of economic

and

Yves

chief

was far

of the

day,

However, in

of the

information

the former

office. officer,

may be constrained

controversy.

financial

Agency,

of this electoral

government

officer

independence

Girouz,

Revenue

the

political

the

viability

or the

budget

avoid

affirmed

2018,

Canada

of

and

general

independence

desire to

In

budget

governments

parliamentary

Canada

range

2013).

cost

(PBO).

and economic

appointed

the independence

as the

the

librarys

Court

to request (Page

that

provide

officer high

of the

financial

of

estimate.

includes

concerns

the

officer

who reports

of both chambers.

and to

budget

estimate

such

explicitly

been

role

an officer

budget

of Parliament

non-partisan

detailing

concerning

of Parliament,

mandate have

2009

government

been raised

officers

there

and

have

in

his offices

greater than the official

provides

who is like

parliamentary

to speakers

parliamentary

a report

As well,

the

official,

Library

oversight

Page, the

2008, issued

called

reports

Officer

Parliaments

another

of the

who, in turn,

Kevin

Afghanistan.

Unlike

as such,

Budget

support

created

officer

librarian,

example,

term

not designated

Parliamentary

analysis

also

an independent

parliamentary

of the

government

PBO from

assistant

and its govern-ment

commissioner

was appointed

parliamentary

officer.

Procedural Officers of Parliament Procedural officers of Parliament are essentially the public servants of Parliament,

Procedural

providing

Parliament

the

the

Senate.

House, the

equivalent

of department-like

The key figures deputy

clerk,

the

and the sergeant-at-arms.

4 There

is,

however,

an

Office

in the clerk

In the

of

the

House

Ombudsman

services who furnish

assistant,

the law

Senate there

for

the

to the

services

clerk

and

are similar

Department

of

House

these

of

clerk

parliamentary

procedural

National

Commons

are the

Defence

and of the

counsel,

Senate

officers.

and

the

Canadian

The staff to the

Forces.

Officers of

who provide

services

House of Commons

and

368

Chapter 15

Table 15-3 Officersof Parliament andTheirMandates Name

of

Auditor

Officer

General

Date

of

Established

Relevant

1878

Legislation

Financial

Canada

Mandate

Administration

Auditor

Act,

1985;

Prepares

General Act, 1985

the latter

a statement

Prepares

fits Chief

Electoral

Officer

1920

Canada

Elections

Elections

Act,

2000;

Fair

Act, 2014

regarding

purposes

federal

Registers

eligible voters

of Official

1970

Official Languages

Act, 1985

Appoints

election

Supports

independent

on

and

which it

whether

practices

whether

spending

was appropriated

officers boundaries

of voting

party

commissions

methods

registration,

party

and political

Ensures recognition

leadership

races,

po-litical

broadcasts

of equality

privileges for English Supports

accounts

accounting

elections

financing,

Languages

public

VFM

for

Conducts

Supervises

the

stated federal

reports

with the

Pursues studies

Commissioner

for

represent

of status, rights,

and

and French in federal institutions

the advancement

oflinguistic

minority

communities Information

1982

Access

to Information

Act,

1985

Maintains

Commissioner

the

availability

purposes

are limited,

reviewed

Launches

1982

Privacy to

Act, 1985,

governments

which applies

handling

information, Information

and the

Protection

Documents law

applying

Personal

and

Act, 2000, to

the

which is

Canadas

Ethics

of Interest

and

2007

Commissioner

of Interest

Parliament

Registration

An Act to

Amend the

Interest House

2007

Commissioner

Act,

Act, 1985; Act,

1985;

Conflict

Members

the

Members

of the

imposes

of

2008

Disclosure

Act,

Federal

2005;

FAA;

of the

Protection

illegal

of interest

code

or disclo-sure

applying

compliance

monetary

penalties

of the

Act,

1985,

as amended

Federal Accountability

wrongdoing

Maintains

Act,

under the

to

by

to

orders on

and

public

of-fice

Act

The clerk of the procedural

of lobbyists

Lobbying

Act and

and

who register

themselves

makes such registration

public a lobbyists

code

and

the

of conduct

and ensures

compliance

with

Act

plenary

(whole)

House and looks

after the ongoing

House of Commons. The clerk of the Senate performs the same

role for the Senate. The clerks

role is comparable

executive

Commons, the clerk is the permanent

departments.

such,

arising from reporting

House is the senior permanent official responsible for advice

aspects of the

of the

code

servants,

regarding

adjudication

a registry

information

the

by public action

about reprisals

Conducts investigations

In the

to the role of deputy

ministers in the head, responsible

management of staff and daily operational affairs. The clerk takes direction

from the speaker in relation

in

use

personal information

and issues

corrective

complaints

Develops

for the

Act and

Electronic

House of Commons

wrongdoing

recommends

2006

administration

to

privacy issues conflict

under the terms

Investigates

Accountability

refers

Lobbying

on the

access

Commons

Public Servants

2008;

Privacy and

regarding

administrative

holders

of Commissioner

are

Act (PIPEDA) complaints

Administers

of

Act, 2006

Lobbying

ex-ceptions

decisions

regarding

Protection

Advises, investigates,

Lobbyists

1993;

Code for of

2006;

of Canada

Lobbyists

Registration

Public Sector Integrity

Act,

citizens

with both the

Information

Monitors various

Conflict

ensure

access

government

sector Conflict

disclosure

of, or denial of access to,

private

are to

that

complaints

compliance

Personal

Investigates

pri-vacy

that

from

independent

Documents

Electronic

which

information

Oversees

of per-sonal

and

complaints

government

Commissioner

Act,

information,

independently

Investigates

Privacy

of the

of government

to policy

management from the Internal

matters. In turn, the speaker takes overall

direc-tion

Economy Commission, an all-party committe

Public Administration and Public Policy

As they during start

accompany

daily

procedural the

officers

clerk,

and the

supports the

Image

CP

Howe/The

Geoff

statutorily the

charged

with administering

the House. In parliamentary

House itself, the speaker is supreme

except the

will of the

and takes

direction

from

matters, within

no one in

particular,

House.

Judicial Institutions 15.5 Provide a general overview of the staff who work for the judicial

branch of

government. The Supreme

Court of Canada, the Federal

Court, and the Court principle length

ofjudicial

Court, the Federal

Court of Appeal, the Tax

Martial Appeal Court are administered federally.

independence,

from the executive

the administration

of these courts

Reflecting the

operates at arms

government.

The staff of the Supreme Court of Canadais headed by the registrar, whois respon-sible to the chief justice

of the court.

The registrar

and deputy registrar

are Governor-in-Council

appointees who oversee a staff of nearly 200 public servants who managecases and hearings;

provide legal support to the judges;

manage the flow

of documents;

and perform

edit, translate,

a variety

and publish judgments;

of other essential tasks, including

operating the court library. Law clerks, normally recent law school graduates, are assigned to each justice and provide legal research court attendant

manages the judges

officer to handle the

responsible

other federally

administered

Service. The chief administrator,

for the overall

public servants.

while ajudicial

executive

operations

The chief justice

to the chief administrator.

courts is provided courts

of any of the four courts

There is also a kind of third

to the above, each chief justice

has authority

and their

officer. by the

a Governor-in-Council

of these four

assistant

also has an executive legal

media, a senior legal officer, and alegal communications

Support for the four

Administrative

assistance,

office. The chief justice

staff of about 600

mayissue binding

administrative

over such

Courts

appointee, is directives

option. In addi-tion

matters as determining

workloads and court sittings and assigning casesto judges, and mayappoint ajudicial administrator

from

among the employees

the time and place of court

hearings.

of the service for such duties as establishing

walk to

session,

the

and staff

of

House of Commonsthe

sergeant-at-arms, law

the speaker

the ceremonial

the

369

the

pagerepresent

bureaucracy

the speaker

House.

clerk, the

even the

and

that

370

Chapter 15

Public Policy Role 15.6a

Identify

15.6b

and discuss the

Discuss the

Whatis the role

policy

policy roles

of the

stages theory

of the public

sector.

public servant in public

policy

scientists engaged in a debate about this topic. the public servant of the

should

discussions? In 1940, two social

Herman Finer (1940) maintained that

be just that, exercising

day and following

and practice in government.

no independent

as closely as possible the

judgment

will of the legislature

on issues and political

masters. Carl Friedrich (1940) held the opposite view, stating that the public official owed it to the polity to share his or her specialized

knowledge

in the

public

dialogue

on issues and thereby enrich it. Such a debate still resonates. For example, sources as

wide-ranging

Network

as the

Canadian

Science

that the

Harper

Canada charged

Writers

Association

Conservative

and

government

Climate

Action

muzzled

public

comments of climate and fisheries scientists and weakened the research capacity of Canadas science community. To better

understand

the role

to divide it into two understood

in terms

of the

separate

public service in

categories.

of the stages or cycles used to

minister further

illuminates

the

policy

develop

role that public servants play in providing information prime

making

First, the

policy, it is neces-sary

process itself

policy.

can be

Second, the actual

and support to cabinet and the

work of the bureaucracy.

The Policy Stages(Cycles) Approach The policy processis anything but tidy and straightforward. explanations

of the

movements in

policy

process

have been advanced.

Canada tend to operate on the basis of sociological

applied theories of policy communities less on contacts organizations

than the literature

for business interestssuch

asthe

Atlantic

Institute

Public

Policytend

Centre for

theories

social

and also of

and advocacy coalitions, although some de-pend

with government

Board of Canada, the the Frontier

A number of theories or

New and established

for

would suggest.

C.D. Howe Institute,

Market Studies, the

Umbrella

the Conference

Fraser Institute,

and

to use a mixture of welfare economics

and

public choice analysis. However, some version

many governments of the policy

using some rational all around

Canada and the

stages or policy cycles

techniques.

the

in

Still, the

Commonwealth

have adopted

approach to public policy, as well as

model is popular

world because of its strongly

among analysts and govern-ments

utilitarian

nature. It allows

one to

disaggregate a very complex set of phenomena and study each in considerable detail. It also corresponds work; for every

Stages (or Policy Cycle) that

process

number

sees

that

the

dominant

in the literature,

a sequence

of events

in logical

succession cyclical

policy

which noted policy academics more outstanding

structure

scholars

& DeLeon, 1983). Given that this approach it is the

elements,

that

fashion.

in

Authors

add

(1935, 1951, 1971)

was at the lengthy

end

process.

of policy (1997),

more common

approach

who had six (initiation, (Brewer

and

Hoggwood

is to list five estimation,

to the

name cycle.

& DeLeon, 1983), and

policy evaluation)

with his seven

with popularizing the notion

Gunn (1984): they

implementation,

Howlett,

leading

of the spectrum

or six. Such is case

selection,

five (agenda setting, policy formulation,

and

a num-ber

of events that

of the stages of the policy

stages. So was Charles Jones, who is generally credited of stages

fashion,

the

has also become

up to a sequence

in a more or less cyclical

disagree on the exact nature

their

offering

model used here to explain the policy

or stages, that together

succession

cycle.

Lasswell

add

unfold

more or less

a

elements,

altogether

up to

a

take on it (Brewer

unfold in logical

as including

of separate

or stages,

definitive

of separate

An approach

way in

The stages (or policy cycle) approach seesthe policy process asincluding

Approach policy

closely to the

stage, one can name one or

had 10 each!

with Brewer and evaluation,

Ramesh, and Perl (2009),

The

DeLeon,

and termi-nation) who have

decision making, policy implementation,

and

Public Administration and Public Policy

The policy

model serves

or policy

what

area

Hessing,

resource

both

and

Howlett,

policy

reflect

as an organizing

and

have

and

tool.

a ready-made

Summerville

environmental

political

One can, for

economy

research

(2005)

policy.

and

example, plan

at hand.

do in their

The authors

stages (policy

examine

This is, in

examination

assemble

cycle)

a specific

of

their

data

approaches,

fact,

Canadian so as to

using

an inter-disciplinary

body

of policy

perspective. Stagist

approaches

literature.

Howlett,

amount

policy

stages

Cairney

Table

categorization

The stages

chaotic

and

order

at times.

a government

is in the

selected;

chore

In the

to the

working,

of the

office,

to

a year

But like imperfect of the

phases

the

dominant

it is a guide

It tends

whereas the

or steps

can even

sense that

to

fur-ther

to suggest

analysts

tidi-ness

process

happen

in

cannot

use

and

In

government,

promises

cabinet,

pull

stages is

of the

with the into

public

phase,

back and

Program

offices

must be

Throne

usually

government

will

assumes

more of a

election

in

promises

being

new

nature.

transition

books

made by the

not

phase, just

election

maintenance

preparing

to

working,

and results-based

announce As the

and

corresponding

what is

evaluations

implementation.

regu-lations,

is greatest

of public service in this stage. In the final the

speech

legislation,

service

assess

is the must be

administrators,

begins

where

existence

then

are transformed

or terminated.

the

the

as well as senior

to

policy

programs, approaches,

The for

public

each

major parties.

ser-vice

depart-ment

The election

recommence.

policy

world.

(since

of a governments

In the third

tend

an election,

during

phase

that the role

government.

to the election

and the

of the

when assessing

decisions

of post-election

slows

active

according occurs

mas-sive

finally

step in the stages

unfolds,

in the

has chosen

election

phase

elements

before

work

becomes

process

whole steps,

advisers

policy

be altered

with a promise

government

miss

The first

governments

or needs to

months

policy

minister

partisan

phase,

analyses are important usually

a final

a

field

summary

limitations.

to consider

cycle.

prime

It is in this

success

year in

but adds

been called

be a theory

of prioritizing

next

or programs. critical

It can

electoral

including

the third

makes an untidy

abbreviated

important the

not to

element

Once the

and the

approach

vast

development. additional

phase.

budget.

the

model to categorize

way that

has sometimes

way that

It is said

set up; personnel,

and

a

a highly

has some

unpredictable.

policy

An important

transition

as it

in the

reverse

organizing

literature.

or research),

is often

predict

gives

for

use the stages

in

uses a similar 15-4

heuristic,

predictability

as a tool

Perl (2009) literature

of policy

examination

it to

and

(2011)

revision.

and

also serve

of policy-theoretic

manageable. for

can

Ramesh,

stages,

reality,

this

the

outline

phases

the likelihood

are

of

policy

highly

phases

changeable

of re-election,

external

is

an ideal

according

(domestic

type to

in

the

an

nature

and international)

Table 15-4 StagesSchema for Organizing PolicyLiterature Policy

Agenda-setting: Policy

recognition

formulation:

and narrow Decision

policy

by government actors

explore

or the

public that

relative

merits

the

down the list for the decision

making:

Implementation:

an option putting

considered

decisions

into

Stages

a problem

of options

exists

and

and needs

alternatives

to

attention solve

policy

prob-lems

stage

at an earlier stage is adopted practice

by devoting

as a course

personnel,

budgets,

of action and

rule

making

to

effect

them Policy in

evaluation:

the

assessment

of how appropriate

the

aims and implementation

of a policy have been

practice

Policy

maintenance,

policy should Modified (2011).

from

M. Howlett,

Understanding

modification,

be kept in

public

or termination:

place, changed

R. Ramesh, policy:

& A. Perl, Theories

the

decisions

or ended according

(2009).

and issues.

Studying

public

Basingstoke,

to the

policy.

Don

UK: Palgrave

are made on whether evaluation Mills,

ON:

MacMillan

and how the

results. Oxford

University

Press;

P. Cairney,

371

372

Chapter 15

influences, is

and the

vital in

each

policies

being

considered.

However,

the

work

of the

public

service

phase.

Public Servantsas Actorsin the Policy Process The policy acting

role

of public

as information

engaging briefly

in

servants

can

guardians;

policy

being

formulation

explained

be divided

(Van

policy Loon

into

three

innovators;

&

1987).

First,

are guardians

of information.

They

minister,

will

analysis

servants to

the

any information

its

cabinet

vast

other

actors

amounts

be used in

In the

documents,

and

of information

in their

way to the

a large

what

will be interpreted.

preparing through

as advisers

Each of these

and

roles

is

here.

Guardians

be presented

These include

and serving

Whittington,

Information public

basic types.

policy

minister,

Not only

of policy

online

issues,

will

and

on government

policy,

do they

also can control

what information

of advising

formulating obtained

sector.

they

process

decide

public

servants

and from

control

how priori-ties,

must sift

citizen

groups

and

what information

who has access in

public

wends

consultations

to

extent.

In

this

meaning

guardian

that

This

role,

they

may be useful

government

restraint,

particular

interests

dangerous

tool

public

may help in

since

can

it can

a

to

to the

means

undermine

become

groups

ministers

of information

become

also

or encourage

persuading

leaks can

servants

organize

act

the trust

on their

public

of stymying

social

advice.

or the

In

by

poli-cies.

times

of

encouragement

cutbacks.

of the

animators,

who are affected

However,

elected

officials

of

this

is

in their

a

per-manent

officials.

Innovators The role

Policy Innovation They are usually

Labs hybrid

comprising often from

the

and non-profit solutions problems.

to

orga-nizations

system

and design thinkers

private,

sectors

to find

policy

servants

are

as innovators

labs, innovation

all tools

being

Whether it is introducing

and others

public,

wicked

of public

Policy innovation

assistance

in

dying,

housing,

or eliminating

embracing

a change

The current balance

that

this

and

sector

to

with attention

federal this

change

sector

neutrality (2012)

to

encourage

years.

policy

of cannabis

wicked

problems

sector

net-working

change.

use or

like

employees

and

which is

med-ical

Indigenous

are increasingly

Policy

development

innovation. allows

why

This

people

policy

agenda

innovation

fairness

and

traditional

partners

is

critics.

against

labs

(Bellefontaine,

public

and transformative

with its

without

and the innovation

are

matters

adopted thinking.

politicization

and

2012)

must

balance

to adjust

problems

tends

to change.

persist.

is limited

sector

to

on a few

constitutes In this of the

The

a step

the

process

Given priori-ties,

on results

policy

of rules. is

toward

the

as an net-works

with limited strategy

of the

talent to ensure

ensuring

that

between

may become

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and

the

line

pub-lic

viewed

results,

new staffing

and

traditional

organizations

has the right

transformation, sector

on Hybrid

achieve

public sector

focus

application

focus

and fairness.

hubs

whereas

even-handed

change.

designed

to ensure that the

thinking

is in line

not

change,

is that

procedural

government

sector

Aucoin

the

efficient

to

recent

overstated.

procedural

external

paid

to

purpose-driven

agenda,

impediment

public

incrementalism

labs

criticism

values

innovation

that

is often

are

to

of the law

approach reply

more serious

impacts

solutions

is

certainty

of innovation

problem

A

sector

in

hubs, cross-sectoral

as the legalization

of plastic,

on innovation and

innovators

the focus

public

such

new

use

more popular

philosophy.

focus

an incremental

However,

by the

policies

devising the

predictability

to favour

used

new

has become

hubs, social innovation

obscured,

the

public public

as noted

by

Public Administration and Public Policy

373

Policy Advisers, Evaluators, and Formulators Public

servants

policy

advisers,

serve

of cabinet and

orderly,

minister

Office,

Although

be said

on the

deputy

1.

can

as information

gatekeepers

and formulators.

documents.

it

depending

not only

evaluators,

that

purpose,

will

gets approval

this

cabinet

again

the

most evident

makes the

submissions,

pass through

from

and innovators

This role is

policy

which

three

main

government

the

seem

various

processes

after

as

prepara-tion

process

may take

to initiate

but also

in the

tidy

shapes

an assistant

work (Privy

Council

2018):

Ateam

of policy

policy

officer.

advisers

Not only

stakeholders,

it

will involve

communications in the

unit.

folk

policy

3. The submission and

departments

strategy

attached.

policy

work

advances

staff.

can

toward

for feedback. minister

It is then

There

or it can

notes,

should

policy

work.

staff;

and

as

well as

and the central

a final

time,

a costing,

and sent

and heads

financial,

translated,

and

be no surprises

be derailed

with

policy

of the

departments

revised

with speaking

be arduous.

cabinet,

and

to other affected

of a

legal,

and the

to the operational,

communications

senior

staff

will be advised

review

and

will be circulated DM and

departments

direction

and consultation

environmental,

ministers

sectors;

committee

and sent to the

This

and

and

under the

research

with the financial,

for internal

draughting

the relevant

agencies

agencies

draft

extensive

department

will be circulated

legal/legislative

involve

work

in the

The central

2. The draft

will prepare the initial

will this

a communi-cations

as the

submis-sion

back to the first

step for

rethinking. Integrated policy

into

monitored

and

The costs is

process

of operating

using

the

whether

whether

a program

in the

past,

how

Under the

principles

strongly

linked

policy

an important

Once the built

upon

policy

process

presumes

of options

calling

NPM,

against

should

be

evaluation

is ready,

of decision

it

that

decision

in

reach

those

to

policy

are

be as complete

objectives.

as a series of steps that approach,

makers

making in a democracy

an assess-ment

modified,

remain its

a policy

as is,

defining

adopting (Smith,

the

problem,

developing

on the problem,

a series

to

which

policy, administering 2013, p. xxi).

policy

cabinet

the role

oriented

policy

results

than

through

a process

of public

sector

with regard

to

model is this:

based on this simple theme: and evidence-based

costbenefit

decision

making.

exami-nation that

although

of solving

not

of prior action or

deliberating

the alternatives,

policy, [and] changing what you

policy

want, examine

Manytechniques in public policy are

analysis,

planning

theory,

budgeting

analy-sis,

policy that

objectives

process decision toward and influ-enced

by a desire to be as com-plete

prob-lems

activities:

maintains

achieving

with

knowledge

you say

Model

makers are oriented

model

are compatible

process

Rational

objec-tives A model of the

rational

F. Smith,

of steps that

offi-cials

model of the

achieving

not, the

Catherine

including

what is the best way to get it, and choose it.

in are

back to cabinet

toward

as possible

alternatives,

and implementing

Basically, the

and

operate

1995). The rational

is an institutional

knowledge

proposing

or be

objectives

should

where

who can

that affect society or its environment ... [and] includes the following inaction

objec-tives.

adviser,

and reporting

More often

are advisable.

presents

and

process.

proceeds

making

it is

effectiveness.

its intended

has achieved

deliverology,

policy-making

and

a policy

made on how

Once a

or service,

benefits,

for

or service

program

its

collection

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efficiency

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NPG, and

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can

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to each step taken by cabinet (Dunn,

and influenced

is presented

data

program

as a program

or service

or service

objectives,

model

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weighed

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submission

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element

cabinet

of

an assessment

future.

to

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is

usually

standards

programs or not the

By examining

development

operating,

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element

recommend

has been

policy

an important

discontinued. performed

of

and is

evaluated

made of This is

then

this

has been implemented

as possible

to examination reach

those

with regard of options

objectives

to

374

Chapter 15

The rational central

model

agencies

policy

sector

specialize

lines

or areas and

making

tradeoffs

between

Cabinet submission. whereas

the

policy

sectors,

the

whereas process,

evaluation.

Figure

Treasury

a significant Privy

element

Council

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departments, room

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advantage

assumptions.

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Management,

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Results-Based

as policy

for

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the

and

objectives, most new

public

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Policy

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Public Administration and Public Policy

375

Box 15-3 Recruiting and Retainingthe Next Generation of Public Policy Leaders Recent clerks of the Privy Council have to renew the

public service

by demographic

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the increasingly to

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2018).

public service as a future of the

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be successful

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policy

has been

been taken.

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be? There

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that

time is spent.

One important

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secondary

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An Open Question should

and

https://www.canada.ca/en/public-service-commissi

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of government

for

bring the new ideas,

digital governance, affairs,

defence,

programs

As the clerk of the Privy Council said in his 2018 report, Students

Secretariat

and

facing

for the next generation and able to

security

and post-secondary

to

of society.

Treasury

Indigenous

national

and disruptive

and the requirement

be tech

made it a high priority This interest is

showing the aging profile of the pub-lic

need for innovative

governments; leaders

of Canada.

to

As

a steady For demands

announced

in

open information, will

be released

of government

in

infor-mation

access to information

(Clerk

across the

of the country

376

Chapter 15

requests; citizen

and the latter engagement

forward

how

in improving

collective

benefit

institutions their

from

the

2018).

public

voice in

and

online

policy

making

Expectations

or the

for

public

of

and

sector

and

broaden

made significant

remains

divided

Gov 2.0, predicated

networked

norms

forms

government

upon

on seek-ing

of governance,

of information

digital

service

have

government

ethos open

public

departments

profiles,

more outward,

with traditional (Roy,

either

citizen

be. There is an emerging

but it is clashing confidentiality

the

new technologies.

government

open it should

within

to expand

through

While all of the strides

aims

management are not likely

and

to abate

institutions.

Summary and Conclusion Public

officials

forms.

The

work in

government

under

the

political

and the

minister.

have

developed

of

variety

central

of

governing for

in

we think

institutions,

Parliament

Parliament trying

hold

with

the

assist

those

of various

executive

people

help

have

officers

for

its

complaints

Bureaucratic

is

organizations

of good

required

to

programs. role in

policies

and

more likely

than

an important

and

administer

new

source Through

diverse

public of

their

truth

role in the The

to

pursuit

public

departments

multitude

in

to

public

of good

people

choice

and

subject

and

theory seeking

not oriented

businesses. view

bureaucrats

to expand

the quality

minister

groups

play

to

Those

the

who

good use the

as self-interested

government

so that

they

criti-cism.

service rational individ-uals can gain

While

to the

to

as policy

offering

sound,

because

much of the

and involves

and cabinet,

and

cabinet

devel-oped, of their needs work of

providing

pro-grams

maintain-ing

Canada. power

of bureaucrats.

working

departments,

increasingly

of advice from

of Parliament,

a

is too rule-bound

providing

serve

are able to serve the

and central

and think

executive

of considerable

officials

are limits

commissioner,

in

serve

with the cen-tral are able to

set

the direction of government policy. As well, the prime

cabinet

can

also

innovative

they

It is largely

effectively.

minister

agencies

be

Moreover,

servants

can

offi-cials

governments

advisers,

of life expected in

Still, there The prime

make gov-ernmentsources

can

elected

of and

elected

or services on a daily basis, it is vital to

government.

bureaucracy

been the

for

concerns.

Some argue that the bureaucracy and inflexible to

and

the public service is routine

may be

are able to

to

through

most importantly,

and

cycle

gatekeepers

vital They

problems

life

advice as policies are considered,

citizens

major

perspec-tive

advice

servants

of their

exist-ing

with interest

societal

power,

a

servants

They

non-partisan

work that

the

of govern-ment play

a long-term

interest.

public

for

evaluating

public

interactions

service

has

and

to take

more responsive

vital

decisions.

process

are involved services

by encouraging

evaluators,

non-partisan

is so

important

policy

the

are the

that

policy

Perhaps

the

servants

government

servants

change

wicked

ac-tions formulators,

professional

officials

Career

backgrounds,

by speaking

the

politicians

necessary A large,

policies

programs.

what is in the

ministers.

are

government.

Many government

developing

on

into

and implemented.

achievement

who rely

the

and throughout

policy

for

solutions.

government.

staff

Public

in

Public

of policy stages

making

address

about

perform

of information

in

critics

undemo-cratic

ministers

are important,

servants

at all

im-portanceas catalysts

Parliament

accountable

who

who

some

excessive

cabinet

cautions

public

purveyors

Indeed,

wield

not be overlooked.

governments.

vari-ous

power.

advice.

in the translation

Of particular

staffs,

that

should

and

bureaucrats

by influencing

for

ac-cordingprograms

of public

ignore

senior

While these role

a

operate

of the

courts.

their

over the

staff

establishment

who,

to

and

the

the

depart-ments

model

of the

we often

and

has been of

not

departmental

When

on them

semi-independent do

privileges,

that power

deputy

Furthermore,

and

argue

a cabinet

influence

commissions

to the traditional

of

central

departments.

more status,

work in

of the

and

a considerable

and

administration.

work

direction

corporations

boards,

organizational

direction agencies

government Crown

agencies,

of

employees

administrative

However,

direction

multiplicity

of

departments minister

a

majority

tanks.

Furthermore,

power

the convention

public

(even though reforms

on alternative advisers, the various

of the executive of

scrutiny,

ministerial

have brought

offi-cers

provide

bureaucracy.

responsibility

for

can shield the bureaucracy

access-to-information

legislation

imperfect in its application)

to the activities

con-sultants,

general, informa-tion

and privacy commissioner,

the actions of government from

rely political

such as the auditor

some checks on the Although

partisan

some transparency of the bureaucracy

and other

and account-ability

Public Administration and Public Policy

377

Discussion Questions 1. Is bureaucracy

a threat to democracy?

2. Is it important

to have a non-partisan

or

would

it

be better

to carrying

to

have

out the

senior

political

4. If bureaucracy, officials

com-mitted

direction

of the

government?

3. If you strikes

what you

would

5.

branch

as being

of the

yourself

as a future

government

and

most interesting?

public

what level The

most

challenging?

were to lead in

the

and

of policy phase

6. Is it important a representative

7. If you what

a program

government

of

of public Canada,

service on

what

it focus?

What type stage

were to envisage

servant,

you

reform

role is

of policy

to the

most important

in each

development?

development

of policy to have

bureaucracy?

were hired by the public service of Canada, role

or

policy

area

would

interest

you

the

most?

Further Reading Aucoin, P. (1995). The new public management: Canada in comparative perspective. Montreal, QC: Institute for Research on Public Policy. Barber, M.(2015). How to run a government so that citizens benefit and taxpayers dont go crazy. UK: Penguin. Dunn, C.(2018). The handbook of Canadian public administration (3rd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Bourgault, J., & Dunn, C.(Eds.). (2014). Deputy ministers in Canada: Comparative and jurisdictional perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Dickinson, H. (2016). From new public management to new

public governance:

The implications

for a new

public

service. In J. Butcher & D. Gilchrist (Eds.), The Three Sector Solution: Delivering public policy in collaboration with not-for-profits and business (pp. 4160). Canberra, AU: Australian National University Press. Good, D.A. (2007). The politics of public money: Spenders, guardians, priority setters and financial watchdogs inside the Canadian government. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Graham, A. (2014). Canadian public sector financial management (2nd ed.). Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Harper, S. (2018). Right here right now: Politics and leadership in the age of disruption. Toronto, ON: Signal McClelland Stewart. Inwood, G.J.(2011). Understanding Canadian public administration: An introduction to theory and practice (4th ed.). Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada. Roy, J. (2018). Digital government. In J. Craft & A. Clarke (Eds.) Issues in Canadian governance (pp. 277294). Toronto, ON: Edmond Publishing.

Savoie, D.J.(2003). Breaking the bargain: Public servants, ministers and Parliament. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. London, UK: Yale University Press

&

Chapter16

TheJudicialSystem: Law andthe Courts

Pres

Canadian

The

The

statue

Parlby,

of the Nellie

judgment

of the

persons

Famous

Five

McClung,

and

on

Louise

Judicial

Parliament

McKinney,

Committee

eligible

to

sit

in

the

Hill and

of the

depicts

Henrietta

Privy

Council

the

reactions

Edwards of the

on

of

Emily

hearing

United

Murphy,

the

news

Kingdom

Irene of the

declaring

1929

women

Senate

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to 16.1a

Examine the significance

of the rule

of law

and the independence

of the judiciary. 16.1b

Explain

how the legal

system

of Quebec differs from that

of other

provinces. 16.2

Outline the structure

16.3

Discuss the procedures

16.4

Discuss the problems judicial

Emily

Murphy

her husband

for

appointing

in ensuring

judges.

that justice

is provided

by the

system.

was born in and

of the court system.

three

1868 into daughters

a family to

Alberta,

of prominent she

lawyers

became

and

politicians.

a prominent

After

campaigner

moving for

with

womens

rights. In Earlier

378

1916, that

Emily year,

Murphy women

was had

appointed won the

as the right

to

first vote

female in

Alberta

magistrate and

were

in

the soon

British elected

Empire. to

the

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

provincial

legislature.

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of Canada,

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role in

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political

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1933

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an important

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women.

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and

part in the

affairs.

of Canada,

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natural

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the

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to take

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to

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common-law

of decorum,

public

v. A.G.

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in

expansion

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women,

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women

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barbarous

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rights

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upper

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chamber:

members of the Famous

Five to

be

senators.

ChapterIntroduction When

we hear about

person

is accused

may result

in

a lengthy

some important after

The judicial

can check

Charter courts

judicial

system

democracy, In

this

system,

the

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is

we often as theft,

think

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drunken

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as the responsibility

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deemed and

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driving,

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murder

court

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has a key role in

politics

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be unconstitutional.

Freedoms the

role in

adopted

validity

in

of laws

ensuring

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down In

1982

and

and

legislation

particular,

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government

the rule

government.

of law,

Court and

the

gov-ernment

constitu-tional

the importance

actions.

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a basic feature

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of liberal

upheld. we examine

procedures

the

court, such

sentence.

also

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chapter

discuss

to

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of Rights in

going

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system

actions

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disputes,

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decisions

someone

of a criminal

for

various costs

appointing

issues

of legal

Canadas

legal

judges,

systems, and their

about

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system,

action,

and the

high

the

structure

of the

decision-making

including

proportion

the

delays

of Indigenous

court

processes. in

obtain-ing persons

379

380

Chapter 16

Laws 16.1a

Examine the significance

of the rule

of law

and the independence

of the

judiciary.

16.1b Explain how the legal system of Quebec differs from that of other provinces. Rule of Law The

to

principle

A basic feature that

should

be subject

known,

predictable,

impartial the

rules

arbitrary

governing

rather orders

only

rather

and

than

only

than

of the Canadian political system is the rule of lawthe

that individuals

individu-als

to

of those

should

to the

meanthat

positions.

known,

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and our relationships

with authority, including laws,

only to

orders

predictable,

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weare expected to abide by the manythousands

our behaviour in

be subject

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procedures

with others; crucially,

those responsible for

for

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passing

principle

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means that

making, implementing,

with the law, including

and changing

laws.

In

rules

This does not

the legal

particular,

people

and enforc-ing and con-stitutional

the rule

of law

can protect people against arbitrary actions by government and those empowered to act for the state, including young

person

compelled Traffic

police

was charged

to

make statements

Act, this

violated

and security

with drunk

the

services.

driving.

at the roadside prohibition

For example,

However, as required

against

in R v. Soules, a

because the accused by the

self-incrimination

Ontario in the

was

Highway Charter

of

Rights and Freedoms. The rule it from

of law is a key feature

various

all individuals status,

forms

of dictatorial

are equal

or political

of liberal rule.

democratic

The rule

government,

of law includes

before and under the law, regardless

position.

The rule

of law

so that judges can be impartial

also requires

in settling

distinguishing

the

of their

principle

that

wealth, social

that the courts

be indepen-dent,

disputes without interference from

government. The judiciary justice

is important

by applying

in the

laws

also essential in interpreting

and

governing

penalizing

the law and the

process.

those

Not only

Constitution.

validity

(i.e., the power

of judicial

admin-ister

but they

As well, the courts

authority to review laws and the decisions of administrative their

do judges

who break the law,

are

have the

tribunals to determine

review).

Laws Laws can be thought

involving & Riddell,

of as rules

individuals,

2015). Laws fall

each of which involves the relationship Public Laws

Law

operations

concerning of the

and laws

state

the

to individuals

concerning and

relation-ship

operations

the

au-thority

of behaviour

concerning

the relationships

businesses, groups, and the state (Hausegger, primarily

into two

basic categories:

public

and

dis-putes

Hennigar,

and

private,

various specific areas of law. (See Table 16-1.) Laws concern-ing

of the state to individuals

of the state are referred

and laws

to as public

law.

concerning

the authority

There are four

and

major types

of

public law: 1.

Criminal

law

deals

importance

of the

alleged

state.

with behaviour

that is an offence against the

public

of suf-ficient

that the state (the Crown) is responsible for prosecuting the

offender.

2. Constitutional

law deals with the rules concerning those aspects of governing

that

are set out in the

the

national

and

Constitution,

provincial

including

governments

the

division

and the

of authority

rights

between

and freedoms

of

individuals. 3.

Administrative

law

concerns the standards

required to follow in their administrative

that

and regulatory

4. Tax law refers to the rules for the collection and corporations

government

of revenue

and its agencies

are

activities. from

individuals,

busi-nesses,

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

381

Table 16-1 Typesof Laws Public

Law

Criminal

Private

law

Law

Contract

law law

Constitutional

law

Property

Administrative

law

Family law

Tax law

Torts Various

others

organization, SOURCE: process

Adapted (2nd

from

ed.).

Hausegger,

Don

Mills,

L.,

ON:

(e.g.,

Hennigar,

Oxford

intellectual

property

rights,

real estate, and consumer M.,

University

&

Riddell,

T. (2015).

wills and

trusts,

business

rights)

Canadian

courts.

Law,

politics,

and

Press.

Private law (often termed civil law) deals withissues in the relationships individuals, general

groups,

and businesses that

public interest.

Various

are primarily

types

of private

of private interest

law

exist.

among

rather than

For instance,

contract

Private Areas

to owning

including the law result

and

possessing

property;

of torts

establishes

rules for the remedies

negligence,

or

deals

real estate transactions,

area of private law involve

available

words of another

law relate to such topics as intellectual

side (the

law

with

domestic

to an injured

party.

property rights, and the rights

party as a

wills and trusts,

of consumers.

one side (the plaintiff) initiating

are

rela-tions,

Other areas of private

business

Disputes in the

action against the other

among

groups, that

rules related to the consequences of the break-up of a marriage; and

of the actions,

organization,

family

dealing

relationships

law establishes rules for enforceable agreements; property law concerns the rights linked

Law of law

and

rather

public

businesses

primarily

interest

with the individu-als,

of private than

general

interest.

Torts Harmful

actions,

or

that

words

party

to

sue

negligence,

allow for

the

injured

damages.

defendant).1

The Sources of Law The Canadian

Constitution

provincial legislatures, provincial

legislatures

is responsible

divides the authority

have legislative

for criminal

law,

divorce,

and

power.

passlaws

between

Parliament

and

which both Parliament and

For example,

while provincial

subjects related to private law. and

to

with only a small number of areasin

the

legislatures

Canadian

Parliament

are responsible

for

many

However, some areas of private law, such as marriage

patents and copyrights,

fall

under the legislative

authority

of the

Canadian Parliament. Laws that are known

have been passed by an Act of Parliament

as statutory

laws.

Legislative

legislation to other institutions Parliament

or a provincial

legislature

Statutory bodies often delegate the ability to pass sub-ordinate

Law

under the authority

has been

can delegate to cabinet the authority

to

of an Act. For example,

make regulations

in

keeping

with

A law an

Act

municipal

governments

with provincial

the authority

to

make bylaws,

provided

the bylaws

of Parliament

passed

by

or a pro-vincial

legislature.

the general principles of an Act of Parliament. Provincial governments often delegate to

that

are con-sistent

legislation.

Manylaws are not set out in statutes but rather are based on common law and codified

civil law.

except

Public law throughout

Quebec, is based on the

started in the twelfth use the

common

century

legal

(i.e.,

actions

criminal the

attacker

can

proceedings for

of the

entire

examining

damages

involve on the under

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decisions consists

both charge the

law

public of

and assault

of torts.

in

may

previous

law.

For

law.

kings

This system

courts

basis for their

began to decisions

used by the courts of various nobles

that

be launched

of common

as the developed similar

of court judgments

private

with private law in all prov-inces

powerful

country

of different localities

et al., 2015, p. 11). The practice

Common law thus

1 Some

English

as the increasingly

customs

rather than the traditions (Hausegger precedents

Canada, along

example, by the

to

one Crown,

many centuries

person while

attacks the

injured

another, person

use

through court binding

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of cases,

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in-jury, sue

Law

A body of law

future

cases) to guide their

from

if

was for judges

Common

developed

the accumulation decisions

that

precedents cases

of

become for similar

382

Chapter 16

first

in

single

England

and

document.

In

court,

relevant

to

the

consider are courts

The

values find

thus

of common

Code Civil A codified is the

Du Qubec system

of law that

basis of private law in

Quebec.

Quebec system

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of codified

along

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by the

Nevertheless,

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statutory

or the

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and

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they prece-dents

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reflect

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laws

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the

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cases,

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provi-sions

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foundation

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2015).

in

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et of law

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when

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principles

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on the

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based

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out

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of its sixth

a codified

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cases.

applying

laws

2015). and

Quebecs

Box 16-1:

Lola

Civil

and

parliamentary

law

Qubec

commissioned

law

these

law

of

Civil

of

outdated

of legal

differences in private law

see

doctrine

in

which

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passing

its

Latin

provide

Quebec

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and

Code

et al.,

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set in

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civil

apply

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cases

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Louisiana).

them

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systems

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example,

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traces

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law

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in

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together

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sources.

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been

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preserving

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have

present

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criticized

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lawyers

common-law

changing

Canada,

on lower

Commonwealth

judges

in

case

most relevant,

are binding

been

then

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Eric:

Code continue

be important

sources

of law,

Quebec and the rest of Canada.2 (For an

The Civil

Code and the

supremacy

modified

to

between that

or replaced

Canada

Common

inherited

a considerable

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from

proportion

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Britain

means

of common

law

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Judicial Review In

the

traditional

British

authority, decide

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and thus

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or

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desirability.

ambiguous

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provisions

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based

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or invalidate

however,

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is the

play

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legislation

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established

to

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principles

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interpretation. In

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in

of legislation. actions

that

Constitution provincial

contrast,

they

divides

groups,

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businesses)

2 Because a few

has always

have to

the

be in

violation

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is

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upon

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to invalidate of the

be called

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legislature

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a piece

the

judicial laws

Constitution. national

review or

govern-ment

Because Parliament

the and

a government,

individu-als,

of legislation

passed

constitutional

authority

by

of that

body.

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consider

or a provincial

legislative

door

courts

legislative

legislatures,

Parliament

the

That is, the

increased

of these universities

the

Charter political

differences, offer

most law

of Rights significance

lawyers

students

are the

and

Freedoms

(discussed

of the courts,

educated

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opportunity

to

can qualify

practise in

in

as legislation

in both

only systems

one

of the

Chapter and

two

legal

10) has

government

systems.

How-ever,

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

383

Box 16-1 Lola and Eric: The Civil Codeandthe Common Law In 1992, 32-year-old on a Brazilian her father rejected in

that

requests

Quebec for

separated.

seven

Eric,

and

(Patriquin,

years

case,

Eric in

On appeal, the

they

for

a billionaire,

provided

Lola

child support

as

childrens

Quebecs only in

tuition

particularly

and travel

Code on the of the

for

ruled

should on

marital status.

that the

sharing

because

the

Medically

have occasionally

couple

Charter (Hogg,

after

disclosing

that

principle

a share of assets

infringement

freedom

of choice

of those in non-marital

principle

the

of unjust

The Supreme

as entitling

proportionate

violated

for re-fusing

justifiable infringement

relation-ships

enrichment

equality rights

Court of Canada inter-preted

each common-law to their

of spousal

allows

for their contribu-tion partner to

contribution.

Quebecs

support for unmarried

provision

because the

of Charter.

couples

But it

was a

Code enhances freedom

of

choice and autonomy.

was

had freely

*Names

by the courts

in

additional

to

to

words to

have

been

changed

have violated

to

protect

the

privacy

of their

children.

the

make a law

conform

make a law to the

more

Charter, or

or groups from legislation that would violate the

2006). For example, in 1991, an instructor

Act did not prohibit

sup-port provi-sion

Dying.)

chosen a narrow interpretation

granted an exemption to individuals

deci-sion

Nevertheless,

are deemed read

was a justifiable

monetary compensation

Civil Code exclusion

would con-stitute

equality rights

Code enhances

Thus, the rights

(s.15).

of property

Assisted

the

the

of spousal

Quebec continue to differ from rights in other provinces

this

equality

not be grounds

down if they

Charter. (See Box 16-2: The courts

the

violated

However, it

to the relationship.

pro-vision

for an

Court of Canada in a 54

Charter.

where the common-law

a right

down this

basic needs and thus

relationship

can be struck

provided

couples

a partner to claim

marriage or a civil union.

basis that it violated

based

of appeal

a $50

was no requirement

Civil Code exclusion

because

and autonomy.

dismissed

Charter of Rights and Freedoms

discrimination a contractual

seeking

Court of Appeal struck

to claim support court

court

Supreme

Quebecs

unmarried

of the

well as a house,

Civil Code

a legal

The nature of the relationship

Supreme

he

children,

Quebec superior

Quebec

provision

Edmonton,

but

marry. Thus, there of property.

having three

and $56 000 a month. The court

support

in the

inclusive,

of Lola,

not to

in

noting that

However, the

actions

care

2009).

to spousal

the

decided

equal sharing ruled that

and

their

Lola*

wooed her. Eric prom-ised

married. After living together

who had become

money for

Lola sued

rights

saw 17-year-old

would take

month for

million payment the

he

by Lola to get

with $34 260 a a car,

Quebecer Eric

beach and persistently

he

was gay.

discrimination

wasfired from

Albertas

Individual

on the basis of sexual

Court of Canada viewed the discrimination

Kings

Rights

orientation.

as a violation

College,

Protection

However, the

of the equality

rights

clause of the Charter and read sexual orientation into the Act(Vriend v. Alberta,1998). Similarly, provide

the courts can cut out a part of a law that is deemed to violate the a remedy if an individuals

rights and freedom

Charter or

have been infringed

or denied

Box 16-2 Medically Assisted Dying In

Canadas

serious

Criminal

criminal

Code,

offence.

assisting

Although

Canada upheld the prohibition

of assisted

v. British Columbia in 1993, the the

decision

overturning its decided

stand)

unanimously

principle

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previous

was contrary to the

that the

In 2016, assisted

a

whose

Court

of

seeking

suicide in Rodriguez of stare Supreme

prohibition

unbearable

of assisted

Carter v. Canada (2015 passed

patients

of the

from

suicide because person

SCC 5).

Bill C-64, allowing

suffering

mentally competent,

Court from Court

incurable

death is

Doctors

give informed

illness

voluntary

procedure.

Individuals

18 years old, be consent,

be reversed,

physical or mental suffering that cannot

are not required

dying and, in fact, the Although

ruling in how assisting Criminal

forseeable.

must be at least

state of decline that cannot

Code

to

participate

majority of doctors

in

be in an and have

berelieved.

medically assisted will not perform this

Bill C-64 does not go asfar as the

Carter

a person in dying can be done, it is still

a major change from the medically

reasonably

assistance in dying

advanced

Supreme

and security

natural

decisis (let

Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Parliament

dying for

dying is

Supreme

decision. In 2015, the

it violated the right to life, liberty and equality rights in

a person in the

prohibition

of assisted

suicide in the

384

Chapter 16

(Hausegger (s.33, this

et al., 2015).

discussed clause In

Act,

in

addition

to the

and

Charter

First

by the

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human

rights

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in

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These and

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Chapter 16

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Canadian Judicial

Judicial

about

it can request

Council

the judge

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some judges

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feder-ally that

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can recommend

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of Justice) from

ajudge,

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resolution

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dismiss

use their

of the judiciary

by a joint

reviews

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of law.

judges

only

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federally

75 and can

of judicial are expected

with impunity.

tool

age

is that courts

governments,

independence, until

the

legislative

individuals

as an important

judges.

by both the House of Commons and the Senate. The Canadian Judicial

complaints appointed

receive

to intimidate

for appointing

of liberal

people

judicial power

To protect

Canadian Judicial

procedures

Justice

from

office.

have resigned Robin

his removal

Camp

fro

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

the

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assault

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trial

keep

that

pain

her knees The

Justice

Berger

publicly

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his integrity,

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not recommend

from

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the

attorney councils

dismissal

general

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(Hausegger

to

provincial

ministers, contact

judges

particular

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1987,

p. 218).

been removed

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for

dismissal

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mis-conduct

resigned suspend,

most provinces,

a judge

has

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pro-vincial

on the judicial

provincial

legislature

is required

principle

of judicial

independence

the

appointed

maintained

judges

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government

up to ensure

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can reprimand,

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to

2009).

that

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convention

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facing

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of Tom

2006).

to

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have

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Bora Laskin

Van Loon

can choose to

Ontario,

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et al., 2015).

a sexual

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of provincially

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rights

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expressing

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Chief Justice

in

Court

resolution,

her

Supreme

his removal

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Columbia

that

involvement

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or recommend

remove

political

political

by a parliamentary

ruled

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court

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a statement

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Council

his independence

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also issue

1981

who testified

March 9).

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of speech

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woman

go together

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they

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example,

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government,

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2017,

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behaviour.

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a judges

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salaries.

The Appointment of Supreme Court of CanadaJudges The Supreme judges

in the

minister.

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from

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legal

posi-tion

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judges

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western

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Supreme

Quebecs

two

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be, or

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Canada,

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Supreme

2011 and

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2012 involved

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three

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candidates,

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parliamentary

the

House

Harper of

and two

candidates.

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appointments

informally

members

but

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of the two

recommended consulted

minister

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of qualified

recommended

minister

committee

list

a public

presence

at least

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parties

unranked

to

effect, have to

Court

Three

from

of Justice

prime

2008,

of five

Ministers

for

Quebec

so as to

prime

justices,

by the

political

Court

of a province

usually

past,

candidate.

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bar for

authority

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holding

are

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in

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selected

places

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the

general, 2004,

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judges

Atlantic

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appointed

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389

390

Chapter 16

Box 16-4 Controversy over a Supreme Court Appointment In

2013, the

judge,

appointment

Mark

caused

a serious

of Canada is

or has

provides

been

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an additional,

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of

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question

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1993.

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bar

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of having two retirement judges

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committee.

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Quebec,

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minded, there is a risk that

Supreme a prime

Minister

(Fine,

2017

2016.)

was both

females

hope that

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issues in the territorial

Court

simply

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Alberta.

of four

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than

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to

Canada

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of former

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gender

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in

western

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make law

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before

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experience.

stick to

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first

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independent check on the power of the prime people appointed

by

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a selection

of Justice

Because the choice of Supreme Court of Canadajudges hands of the prime

have

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this

of Canada

aspects

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ordinarily

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experience

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Malcolm

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law

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of Canada.

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appointment

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agree).

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are expected to be functionally,

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to

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selection the

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appointments

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selected

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for

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and

Supreme that

without

Court

the

proposed

fundamental

2014).

2015

the

apply

Federal

altering

made three

and

the

amendment,

confirmed

of

(Peach,

modified

appointment

wrote that

2014

to

of three

diversity

first

Newfoundland, Rowe

for persons

a short

the

Trudeaus

Harper

criteria

Association,

minister. The candidates and represent

Court

Stephen

Trudeau the

and

Supreme

was unconstitutional

of the

Act 2014

Court.

that

all provinces

appoint-ment.

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under

to

an om-nibus

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the

Supreme

protection

process

Supreme

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of three Bar

to the

role

in

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qualified

also ruled

(requiring

added

in the

had

Commissioner

Canadian

ruling

to the

by a constitutional

he

that

of

only

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Court Court

Quebec

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or judge

Deans,

be appointed

Supreme

to legitimize re

a change

Court

government,

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Supreme

included

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Reference

Canadian

that

formula

re-quired

appointment

by the

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Quebec

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bar.

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government in the

by Parliament

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appointment

of

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qualifications

bill passed

or a

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the

required

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bar.

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Quebec

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whether

Quebec

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the

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of a province

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as to

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government),

seat

must be appointed

Quebec

of

of the

lawyer

or

of the

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qualifications.

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Appeal

members

court

10 years. requirement

for

of Appeal Court

may be appointed

of a superior

stricter

Court

Supreme

5 of the

person

at least

raised

or

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Quebec Section

any

Court judges

among

judge

a vacant

controversy.

of the

of Supreme among

of semi-retired

to

Act states that

member

from

Nadon,

first

with the of the would

minister could,

be

time,

she

courts.

ultimately rests in the does not provide

a fully

minister (Russell, 2008). Although

have been

nine

well qualified

most

and independent

over time, try to stack the Supreme

Court and superior courts withjudges likely to promote the prime ministers ideologi-cal perspective

through

their judgments.

It could

also be argued that the largely

secre-tive

processfor choosing Supreme Courtjudges does not reflect democratic principles. Others argue that the

Canada should

United States. In the

selection

of Supreme

United

avoid adopting

States, the

Court judges.

powerful

a more open system like that

of

Senate can veto the presidents

Public hearings conducted

by the

America

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

Senates

Judiciary

partisan come

questioning before

the

of the

However,

for

of nominees

court,

their

of selecting public

change

the

of

procedure

Court,

of the

Federal

Canada, that

Meech

Lake

Supreme among this

disputes

and

Court the

judges

would

Accords

politicize

superior

the

United

judges

body

to rule

provincial

minister

in

Canada. recommen-dation

Supreme

Court

on constitutional

Chapter

governments of the

of

issues

governments.

Critics

where

retirement

on the

the

provincial

government.

a prime

States,

court Canada

in

a part in

mandatory

whether

and

appointment

of

inde-pendence

decisions.

a prime

is

of

(discussed

by

Canadian

there

Court

questions

national

be nominated by the

further

provincial

is an appropriate between

Charlottetown

nominees

like,

play

in the

might

of judicial

Indeed,

Unlike

that

and their

can

and

The politiciza-tion

principle

judges.

Supreme

also raises

appointed,

involve

the

issues lives.

of the judges

Court

as they

and

to the

personal

undermine

judges.

aggressive,

on contentious

considerations

as long

Court,

minister

as currently

often

selecting

of judges

prime

can

detailed,

their

for the fairness

Supreme

can serve

The appointment

views and

or ideological

for

involved

their

judges

Canadian

Court judges

Supreme

about

respect

patronage,

selection

sometimes

past judgments,

process

political,

Supreme

have

and reduce

ministers can

Committee

Both

the

10)

proposed

that

and

selected

from

Accords

argued

that

procedure.

Diversity in the Court System Until fairly recently, the judiciary in 2016, only Indigenous Justice

1 percent

and 3 percent

Minister Jody

the judiciary.

waslargely composed of white males. For exam-ple,

of judges

were from

in

Wilson-Raybould

To pursue this

provincial

aracial

positions

objective,

the appointments

A public

process

the screening

was adopted

committees

committees

to increase process

were

diversity

was opened

in

up to

status, and other character-istics.

by the federal justice

that assess the applicants

receive training

courts

position. For the first time, applicants

were asked about their race, Indigenous

to screening

and lower

2016). However, in 2015,

made a commitment

allow any qualified person to apply for ajudicial for these

superior

minority (Tutton,

to avoid

department

for the

to select nomi-nees

positions.

unconscious

In addition,

bias in identifying

suitable candidates. From

October 21, 2016 to

appointments Canadas

October 27, 2017, 50 percent

were women, 12.1 percent

population),

(Wherry,

the judiciary,

visible

and 4 percent Indigenous

2017). Thus, although

visible

of the 74 federal

minority (compared (compared

judicial

to 22.3 percent of

to 4.9 percent of the popu-lation)

there is an increasing

proportion

of

women in

minorities continue to be under-represented. Indeed, there has

never been a non-white

person appointed

to the Supreme

Court of Canada.

The Appointment of Superior CourtJudges In

addition

and the

to

recommending

Chief Justice,

of the

chief

superior Canadian

general

appointments

be

experience European

Canadian

appointed

judges

path from

and seminars

or

for

for lawyers,

for

chief justices

minister

Court

of

Canada

recommending

of each

of Justice

appointed

of the

the

provincial

judges appoint-ment and ter-ritorial

makes recommendations

to the

provincial

superior

to the

to the courts.

provincial

cabinet

The for

courts. (and,

in

provincial a judge.

Unlike

are not given

the

a

provincially and

practice

extensive

However,

Administration including

most cases,

bar association

other lawyers. the

of Supreme

is responsible

makes recommendations

judges

of their

countries,

Institute

judges

provincial

as a lawyer

career

associate

The federal other

members

appointment

minister

of a province

to the

All federally have to

and

courts. for

the

prime

justices

cabinet

attorney

the

the

in

training

of Justice week of courses

put for

at least

a number and

National

appointed

have

on a

wide

new judges

of

of continental

do not follow

Judicial

judges)

10 years

Institute variety

a sepa-rate and the of courses

391

392

Chapter 16

Judicial

Advisory

AJudicial

Committee

to the

A committee

that

candidates

for

a superior

court

assesses

superior

appointment

federal

court

as

chief

judge.

Advisory

Legal

Model of Judicial

The

view

that

decisions of the

decision

judges

base their

on a careful

relevant

reading

judges

The

view

process

that

a bargaining

among

takes a

Model of Judicial Making

place

the

for

majority

them

their

view

Decision that

own

policy

pursue

the

influenced

attitudes

toward

law,

as

well

of decisions

facts

from

who supported

police

his

composition

of

representative

In the legal

base their

of the law

decisions

and

model of judicial

on a careful reading

cases. If a statutory

by those

But do legal

who developed

factors fully

those at the highest level

decision often reflects

& Riddell,

Court of the

of

law is ambigu-ous, it; for

explain

of the judicial

example,

the

decisions

system?

The stra-tegic

making assumes that a bargaining process among compromises

model of judicial

among judges

decision

own policy preferences in interpreting

decision.

Thus, the

with differing

opin-ions.

making postulates that judges

the law, as well as being influenced

& Wetstein, 2007; Hausegger,

2015). and strategic

models

were developed

United States, where individual

or conservative

criminal,

economic,

among the judges

by their the

Judicial

of judges.

the law to particular

Finally, the attitudinal

liberal

bar asso-ciation,

on the

to the

a

pro-vincial

ideological

positions

in studies

of the

Supreme

judges are quite consistent in taking on

many cases before the court.

Astudy

of the decisions taken by the Supreme Court of Canada between 1984 and 2003 on

preferences

as being

case.

the

The

representatives

was added

cases before them?

debates.

particularly

The attitudinal

Making

judges

three

sit

wanted judges

dropped

become

provincial

to

takes place for them to reach a majority or a unanimous

pursue their

Model of

in interpreting

the

selects

by their attitudes toward the facts of the case (Ostberg

Attitudinal The

appointment

discussion

model of judicial

Hennigar,

Judicial

in the

the

to

has two).

using precedents, or in the case of Quebec,the principles of the Civil

made by judges,

wording

or a unanimous

Trudeau

on the

can examine legislative

to reach

decision.

decide

turn to the

the judges

judges

society,

representative

Justin

Quebec

persons

Harper

making, it is assumed that judges

Code,to aid them in applying

law.

law

government

Stephen

who apply

and

recommend

makesa recommen-dation

Decision Making

the relevant law

they Strategic Decision

equality

lawyers

provincial

each

a police

Minister

on gender

How do judges

Decision Making

Minister

and thus

Prime

Judicial

the

attorney

Prime

on crime

has focused

committees,

while the federal

public.

Committee.

concerning

has three judge,

provincial

Committee,

general

of justice

(Ontario or senior

the

crackdown the

minister

judge.

justice

and

the

Advisory Committee in each province or territory

of

and fundamental

freedom

along liberalconservative

cases found lines

that ideological

were significant

differences

but less

definitive

and moresubtle than in the USSupreme Court (Ostberg

& Wetstein,2007, p. 11). For

equality

or conservative

and civil rights

orientation voices,

cases, gender rather than liberal

was particularly important.

particularly

to protect

2007, p. 152). Similarly,

judges criminal

weresomewhat cases that

women and vulnerable

a study

of the

Ontario

morelikely than

did not involve

ideological

Femalejudges speak in distinctively minorities (Ostberg

Court of

Appeal found

different

& Wetstein, that female

malejudges to vote to convict the accusedin

Charter rights, to take the side of the female litigant

in family law cases, and to favour the rights claimant in human rights cases. As well, judges

who had an affiliation

were more likely

to favour

with the

Ontario

the accused in criminal

Liberal

party before

cases than those

being appointed with a Progressive

Conservative affiliation (Hausegger et al., 2013). Overall,

many of the Supreme

Court of Canada judges

tend to be ideologically

consistent in how they vote. However, this does not meanthat they always take con-sistent liberal to take

or conservative

a hard

line

positions.

on the criminal

Chief Justice

McLachlin, for

cases (a conservative

liberal approach favourable to civil liberties

when ruling

position)

example, tended while taking

a

on other cases (Ostberg

&

Wetstein, 2007).

The attitudinal

modelstruggles to explain why afairly high proportion of Supreme

Court of Canada cases results in are sometimes

willing

unanimous

to compromise

decisions.

Research suggests that judges

to reach a unanimous

decision, that they

are

open to persuasion by their colleagues on the court, and that the law and precedent

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

Canadas

Collectio

Canada

of

Court

Supreme

may lead

the judges

to a common

where the

most important

high

profile

public

Even if the consistently indicated them

that

have

changes

in

Canada

Supreme

follow

in interpreting they

values.

Further,

do not rely

heavily

on the

of their and

can

also

institution

not fit

eyes they

the

the

cases has a

will

of legislative

as being of the

public

may try

to

Most of

not be bound in

statutes,

as

have

making.

they

(Gall,

model

Court judges

interpretation

in interpreting record

attitudinal

of decision

Constitution,

adjust

be viewed

cases,

in

if the issue

Supreme

model

the legislation

in the

contentious

do

the will

who developed

is less likely

particularly

Canadian

the legal

social

Court judges

visible

judges

do not strictly

of those

the legitimacy

Court

Rather,

unanimity

2009).

Court judges,

and

judges

the intent

highly

Supreme

wording.

society

are at stake,

U.S. Supreme

made it clear that

original

However,

issues

& Siripurapu,

Canadian

they

by the

of

(Songer

as do

position.

political

response

Supreme

discussion

to Court

to

deter-mine

2004).

concerned

about

maintaining

and

political

actors.

key

avoid

making

On

a controversial

decision. For example, in the SecessionReference, the Supreme Court of Canada avoided clarifying

what

needed duty

for to

constituted

Quebec

to

negotiate,

This allowed

become

even

their

a clear

(Radmilovic,

independent.

though

judgment

majority

that

on a clear Instead

wasnt

to largely

evade

their

raised

question judgment

in the

criticism

would

emphasized

hearings

by both

that

on the

federalists

be the

reference.

and separat-ists

2010).

TheJudicial System: Problems and Alternatives 16.4

Discuss the

problems

in ensuring

that justice

is provided

by the judicial

system. There

are several First,

backlog

of cases engage time.

As guilty

problems

it can take

well, the plea to

due, in

It

a long in

in

part,

delaying may take

backlog a lesser

ensuring

time

for to

of cases charge.

is

A Supreme

by the judicial

Most courts

of judges.

As

busy

an innocent

encourages

provided

go to trial.

or are too for

also

justice

a shortage

tactics years

that

a case to

to

prepare to

Court

of

their

clear

bargainingthat Canada

decision

will fre-quently

cases in his

or is,

sys-tem.

a lengthy

well, lawyers

person plea

have

her

a rea-sonable name.

accepting

(Askov)

found

a

Supreme

Court judges.

393

394

Chapter 16

that

a delay

the

of nearly

underfunding

tried

in

of the

a reasonable

Although

Court

of

SCC27,

[2016]

expert

aid

for time.

not

and thus

costs

with

the

Legal

in

aid

Third,

David

Milgaard

Dumont,

detailing

Justice

delayed

Supreme

v. Jordan

2016

turn

up in court

explain

many

be a severe

the

rules

days, if

financial

without

a long not

weeks

hardship

a lawyer.

of procedure

time

for

or the

This can cre-ate

to those

without

in

as the

criminal

coverage

for

thus,

the

led

and to

private

other

private Unlike

a small

has capped

also

be challenging

paid

by the

lawyers.

In

family law

disputes, cases

varies

countries,

legal

proportion through

law

clinics

that

lawyers

are substantially legal

complex

immigration

from

province

insurance have

and the

aid

often

cases.

and

of Canadians

pays

amount

to find

addition, in

legal

of Canada the

system

representation

other

is available

of cases

have

wrongfully

behind murder an

rates

adequate serious

government

it

However,

is

Legal prob-lems.

to

prov-ince

not

widely

purchased

pro bono

cov-erage.

services

lawyers.

overturning

years

by

for

can

assets.

the

systems, It

cases,

only

assistance

have been

aid

hourly

charged

hours

with limited

Although

legal

governments.

rates

a number

many

mother

underfunded.

enough

and some

people

come

of a number bars.

For

and

spent

overturning

to light

convicted.

in

which

of convictions

example,

those

The development after

16-year-old

23 years in

of his conviction

prison

innocent

David until

by the

accused

of seri-ous

of DNA testing people

Milgaard

determined

Supreme

Court.

has have

was con-victed efforts

by

Several

wrong-fully

for

to

begin

support

convicted.

quotes

until

Michel

Saskatoon

conference

Milgaards

wrongfully banner

wife of Quebecer

wait in

a 2005 news

a dial-a-dope

the

(R.

be with-drawn

and Solange

(seated),

convicted

can involve

people

to low-income

aid cases,

Canada;

of rape

Tremblay

and it

can

to be very limited.

students

crimes

his

conviction,

by

to or

judge

It can take lawyers

court

who have to

normal

Some legal

spent

trial

unreasonable

to

of provincial

covers

but tends

resulted

right

with

by the

of the

delay

caused

stayed

was charged

appeal the

Charter being

convicted

can be prohibitive.

case,

Going

provincial

legal

generally

of law

dismissed

courts

some

available

provide

available

was not

the

charges

B.R. Jordan

he

deemed

a court

are chronically

to take than

does

prepare

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will share

lower

of using

for judges

programs

willing

decision

aid is

one-half it

of appeal

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violated

and trial,

knowledge.

Legal aid

court

of court

person,

problems that

when 2008,

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months,

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system,

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to 50 000 criminal

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a criminal

1 S.C.R.631).

adequately

even

court

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the

Canada

Second, to

in

between

Ontario

2006).

operation

years

time.

(MacIvor,

2013.

three

of the

The table

William is justice

Gladstone: denied.

Image

CP

Howe/The

Geoff

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

years

later,

he for

murder DNA he

of

his ordeal.

his

testing

that

of

a forensic to the

police

and

at the

centre

have

and

to

vision,

lacked

objectivity,

have found

that

the

Ghomeshi

case. (See

victims police

Box 16-5:

the

inappropriate

touching

three

to

were

of

hair

many:

analysis

of the

fibre

evi-dence

who claimed

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2006).

come

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verdict

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in

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his innocence,

on appeal.

analyst

evidence

next-door

proved

by the

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Likewise,

misconduct

of evidence

by

nine-year-old

was acquitted

evidence

to

was exonerated

395

or

The case

of

in

a sexual

assault

of sexual

assault

ranges

rape.

Indigenous Peoplesandthe CanadianJudicial System A highly

disproportionate

Canadians) find plaguing

their

including

many Indigenous

and

to their

of Indigenous

in prison, in

communities,

abuse. In addition, community

number

themselves

moved to foster

family

high levels young

homes

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people

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the

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people

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mistreated

and

to leave

rest

substance their

home

often lose their by their

of

problems

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con-nection

parents.

Box 16-5 The Trial of Jian Ghomeshi Jian

Ghomeshi

from

2007

was the

to

2014.

to female his female reluctant

very

listeners,

producer. to take

and

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by three

charge

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the

police

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Henein,

victims

in

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sex. of

charges.

afterward,

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Ghomeshi

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his lengthy

verdict,

was found the judge

the

Ghomesi

apology

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sort

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friendship

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Ghomeshi

producer.

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testimonies.

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a peace

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many felt victims

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statements

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back

police

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1, 2016,

Marie

womens

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media

apparent

a woman later

in

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against

of choking,

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action

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popular

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were the

that

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likely

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victims

of

assaults

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guilty,

lawyer,

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discrepancies

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Ghomeshi

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of

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critical

behaviour

given

the the

trial.

would the

who

victims.

As

testimony lengthy As

have

well, been

evidence

of time some more of the

396

Chapter 16

Moreover,Indigenous injustices

by the

peoples have endured a long history of insensitivity

Canadian legal system,

and they

have faced

ajudicial system that is based onthe culture of the non-Indigenous awareness

of these inequities

peoples be established.

noted the fundamentally and recommended

has led to proposals that

a justice

For example, the Royal Commission

different

and

problems in dealing

with

majority. A growing

system for Indigenous

on Aboriginal

Peoples (1996)

worldviews of Indigenous and non-Indigenous peo-ple

that the inherent

right of Indigenous

peoples to self-government

should include the right to establish and administer their own justice system. It is often argued that the adversarial Britain does not

mesh with Indigenous

judicial

system that

traditions

Canada inherited

that focus on conflict

from

resolution.

The

Canadian legal system emphasizes the punishment of offenders. Efforts to rehabili-tate those in prison

Restorative Justice The

perspective

should

that

focus

taking actions,

on offenders

reconciling

the

harm

caused,

the

Circles

A group

may include

individual,

their

families,

elders,

interested

prosecutor,

what

and

length

as

measures

are the

a responsible and

justice

has

provincial

courts

is less than

their

families,

along

addiction treatment,

conventional

use sentencing

circles

two

about

what

measures are needed

banishment

penalties only for

and to assist the

counselling, community service,

circles occasionally

peoples:

well as the

and other interested

member of the community

Sentencing

of Indigenous

elders,

with the prosecutor, defence lawyer,

have also recommended from

of jail

offences

the

and

for

community

probation.

which the

for

a

Normally,

maximum

pen-alty

years in jail.

A provision

needed

offender

to

The Gladue Case

goal about

member

community

of restorative

lawyer, The

a consensus

to reintegrate

of time,

victim,

as a responsible

to the victim.

victim,

with the

the

community,

Measures mayinvolve

and reparations

penalty

other

that is, taking

has been caused, and reconcil-ing

The concept

The goal is to reach a consensus

the offender

the traditional

along

officers.

is to reach

individual,

and police officers.

the

of the

defence

police

guilty

to reintegrate

members

community,

and

the

the

victim.

Sentencing guilty

the

the harm that

and the community.

members of the Indigenous

community.

have often been inadequate.

been applied, in some cases, through the use of sentencing circles. These circles may include

and

offender,

and the

that

their

offenders into society

often focus on restorative justice

for ones actions, repairing

the offender, the victim,

for

repairing

has been

victim,

responsibility

justice

responsibility

that

and reintegrate

In contrast, Indigenous traditions

as

Criminal

other than imprisonment

of the

assist

in the

for all offenders

the

by the

when imposing

with particular

principles

a court

available sanctions

attention

to the circumstances

of aboriginal

offenders.

meaning of this provision bythe Supreme Court wasprovided

Gladue case ([1999]

mother, stabbed

one of the

a sentence is that all

that are reasonable in the circumstances should be considered

Some clarification ofthe

victim.

Code (s.718.2-e) states that

should take into consideration

1 S.C.R 588). Jamie Tanis

her common-law

husband

to

Gladue, a 19-year-old

death. She had

drunk

Indigenous a substantial

amount of alcohol and believed that her husband washaving an affair with her sister. Because she

was not living

in an Indigenous

community,

the judge

did not take

into account Gladues Indigenous status and sentenced her to three years in jail.

Her

appeal

the

was eventually

circumstances

heard by the Supreme

of Indigenous

Court of Canada. In their judgment,

people are unique,

and in sentencing,

judges

into account the broad systemic and background factors affecting Indigenous and the

priority

Although circumstances

that Indigenous the

Supreme

Alternative

places on a restorative

Court upheld

of all Indigenous

or reserves should

culture offenders,

be considered

the three-year

approach

people

to sentenc-ing.

sentence, it ruled

not just those living

can take

in Indigenous

that the commu-nities

in sentencing.

Alternative Dispute Resolution and Collaborative Family Law

Dispute

Resolution A process parties

in

which

choose

(rather

than

resolve

the

a third a judge)

dispute.

disputing party to try

to

Alternative

dispute

party (rather

than

of alternative

working

resolution

a judge)

dispute

resolution.

with the parties,

involves

the

disputing

to try to resolve the The first,

dispute.

mediation,

most often informally,

parties

choosing

There are two

involves

to try to find

a third

basic types

a mediator

a solution

actively

to th

The Judicial System: Law andthe Courts

problems in

that

which

led

the

to the

arbitrator

makes a binding decision

the

listens

decision

arbitrator

mediation (union)

dispute.

bargaining,

in

some

of settling to

this

mediator

process

to

Alternative

amicable courts less

to

solution often

involved

resolution

than

facing

in

parties

the

adversarial

backlog

of their

private

they

to

disputes

be-tween

gaining

popu-larity

divorce.

law.

to both

at

collective

related

Rather than with

to

using

experience

Collaborative

to

hires its

parties.

approaches

are

often

allow

preferred

for

a faster

by the

family

A process in

in

law

which each party

own lawyer,

family law may allow some com-mon the parties settlement a dispute and thus lead to a more court. format of a court. With Canadian

of cases, these

Furthermore,

attempts

(particularly

own lawyer

is acceptable

the

after

is

and

whatever

used in

linked

family

hires its

parties

and in some

disputes

process

accept

resolution

as those

settle

and collaborative

is likely

a severe

because

that

between

outcome.

dispute

party

to

is chosen

is collaborative

each

by the two

businesses,

to

more formal

are commonly

such

courts

and support)

be found

expensive)

the

a settlement

dispute

ground

between

disputes,

using

a

agreed

arbitration

Alternative

or an arbitrator,

help reach

already

arbitration

disputes

is

put forward

have cases,

and

family

alternative

arbitration,

positions

parties

consumers.

divorce and child custody a neutral

the

Mediation

and

as a way Another

to the

(if

makes). In some

have failed.

businesses

The second,

397

reach

who helps

an acceptable

without

going to

(and

individuals

nature.

Summary and Conclusion Therule oflaw is afundamental democracy.

principle of Canadas lib-eral

Although there are instances

when agen-cies

ofthe state have not actedin accordance with the rule of law, for the from arbitrary

most part

policies.

Supreme

The

of judges and

limits

responsibility

on what governments

the notwithstanding to pass laws

in

Canada can do. Although

clause in the Charter can be used

notwithstanding

the

Charter, this

has rarely

the

been used.

Canadas legal system reflects, to some extent, the diversity

of the

country.

Quebecs

Quebecs

distinctiveness.

have

from

maintained

constitutional common

are

system inherited

hiring cases, time

or

exceptions)

that supersede the provisions

Quebecs

wrongful in

for

that

officials

in

those

on their deemed judicial

trial.

laws

to

cases

laws.

order

to of

uphold

The courts

be in decisions

The courts violation have, in

of law

them strike

effect,

established a

not only

down

courts

decid-ing legisla-tion

the

The

is

in

to

to

maintain

and

all

persons

established

new

subject

to intimidation

does

and

does

by

many

by Indigenous

high

and

proportion

application

cases.

task

of

Laws

new challenges,

a fair from

can

for the trial

and is

courts and that

government

of laws of applying

by the courts

independence

respect

have

faced

Too

system

suffered

a technical

particular

of judicial public

Me

the treatment

traditions

very

interpretations

can

The

prison.

circumstances,

Constitution,

the

not simply

rules

principle

problems

interpretation

by changing changing

and abuses

in

some

in lengthy

well, the judicial

the

find

and, in

about

values

in

has

includ-ing

people

have resulted

individuals.

The

reflected people

Overall, by the

and

receive

and

people. are

equity

system,

court,

concerns

consider

Court

with Judicial

gender

costs that

case in that

As

Indigenous

Indigenous are

legislatures,

are involved

can

peoples

involving

the law

of the

Indigenous

certain

cases.

primary

of judges.

high

by innocent

adequately

Canada

The courts

the rule

violating

but also in interpreting

validity.

(with

of governments,

accused

and impartial

in applying

that

hearing

territorial

to be independent

public

ensure

government,

system

trials,

has highlighted

not reflect not

of its

court

and

of

times,

minister

the

Supreme

with the judicial

make their

assault

of

selection

convictions

prison

of sexual

code.

nature

responsible

provincial,

expected

civil

unified

is

national,

with their

to

prime

have

in conjunction

In recent

waits for

lawyers

on

makes the selec-tion

The

of Justice

problems

ability

references

importance.

appointment

in the

is the

hear

decisions

court judges,

lengthy

of

and territo-ries

can pass laws (consistent

Despite the federal

some

provinces

the common-law

authority)

law

has a basically

fair

Other

of codified

maintenance

the

important

Great Britain. Both Parliament and provincial or ter-ritorial movement legislatures

and

system

element in the

for

There

to

significance.

minister

Committees.

become

civil law is an important

of great

and superior

importance

Canada

of judicial

federal

Advisory

of

and constitutional

The importance

rule of law and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms place

political

Court

matters of legal

Canadians have been protected

orders by those in positions of authority.

Of particular

of the

be

that

modi-fied reflect

new ideas.

very important by ensuring judges

that are

not

398

Chapter 16

Discussion Questions 1. Should

Parliament in the

Court

of

and

selection

provincial and

legislatures

appointment

be in-volved

Canada judges?

2. Should judges of Canadian

3. Should

of Supreme

4.

be selected so asto reflect the diversity

Are changes sexual

5.

society?

all Supreme

Court of Canada justices

befully

bilingual?

needed to

harassment

deal

and sexual

with cases involving assault?

Would it be desirable to establish an Indigenous system

of justice

for

Indigenous

peoples?

Further Reading Hausegger, L., Hennigar,

M., & Riddell, T. (2015). Canadian

courts: Law, politics, and process (2nd ed.) Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Manfredi, C., & Rush, M. (2008). Judging democracy. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. MacFarlane, E. (2013). Governing from the bench. The Supreme Court of Canada and the judicial role. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. McCormick, P.J. (2015). The end of the Charter revolution. Looking back from the new normal. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Panagos, D.(2016). Uncertain accommodation: Aboriginal identities and group rights in the Supreme Court of Canada.

Vancouver:

UBC Press.

Sharpe, R.J., & McMahon, P.I. (2008). The Personscase: The origins and legacy of the fight for legal personhood. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Songer, D.R., Johnson, S., Ostberg, C.L., & Wetstein, M. (2012). Law, ideology, and collegiality: Judicial behaviour in the Supreme Court of Canada. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Tutton, M.(2016, July 18). Canada must boost racial diversity in judiciary of whiteness, advocates urge. The Star. Retrieved from www.thestar.co

Chapter17

CanadasGlobal Affairs

Image

Hagberg/Getty

Lars

In by

April

2018, the first-ever

Canadian

SOURCE:

Foreign

CBC

G7

Affairs

News. (2018,

April

Women

Minister 22).

Foreign Chrystia

Retrieved

from

Ministers

Meeting

Freeland

was held in

Montreal,

orchestrated

(right).

https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/g7-ministers-meeting-toronto-1.4630734

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be ableto 17.1a

Outline the evolution historical context.

17.1b

Discuss who and whatis influential Canadas global affairs.

17.2

of Canadas foreign

policy perspectives in

in shaping and carrying

out

Explain and evaluate how Canada pursues its objectives through international and regional organizations, international assistance, and other multilateral approaches.

17.3a Explain and evaluate Canadas security interests and the various tools to achieve these goals. 17.3b 17.4

Assess Canadian

military spending

Discuss how Canadians influence image

abroad,

this regard.

and explain

the

and engagement. global affairs and Canadas

Canadian

governments

role in 399

400

Chapter 17

Canadas range

hosting

of the

of issues

Donald

that

Trump

escalated

his firstand

very

after

up

he took

unfair

tariffs

to

elite

this

office.

the

a trade

war

June

2018

affairs. with

Canada, Statess

As a result,

West and

United

States

despite

Russia.

and the

that

the

privileged

Summit

for

part

Russia

role in the

representing

a year

club,

global

and

a half

to

about

be invited

back

prior for illegal

underscored

of the

wide

complained

years

Summit

not

States

ally,

Trump

a few

Charlevoix

the

President

trade

G7 Summit,

expulsion

China

demonstrated United

upcoming

unsuccessfully,

its

with

Wests

Summit,

most important

the

And

Quebec,

the

despite

He pushed,

powers,

Crimea.

the

Charlevoix, before

following

arrangements.

of economic

in

Right

United

At and immediately

neighbouring

about

global

to the

and trading

between

in

its

briefvisit

alliance

in its relations

G7 Summit

makeup

the

questions

economic

incur-sions strained

reverber-ated

and

multilateral

movements

gathered

system. Meanwhile, in

nearby

protesters

Quebec

change,

capitalisms

summits,

and the

of having its

from

City to

civil

decry

uneven Summits

messiestand

trade

wide range

wealth

distribution,

guest

committed

society,

a

invitation

war crimes.

unions,

and

of concerns, the

to

high

cost

Rwandan

The events

environmental including and

President

surrounding

the

failures

to

address

undemocratic

nature

Kagamewho

faces

Summit

exhibited

climate of these accusa-tions

globalization

at

most interesting.

ChapterIntroduction Canadian politics often focuses on what are seen as basically domestic issues, such as man-agement of the economy and taxation,

health care, resource

management and the environ-ment,

and social issues. Nevertheless, with Canadas heavy dependence on exports, the wealth and employment of our

opportunities

major trading

of Canadians are strongly

partners and the functioning

Many Canadians are concerned about their foreign Some issuessuch

as conflicts

in the

of the

homeland

Middle

affected by the econo-mies global economic system.

or that of their

East, uprisings

ancestors.

against

regimes, and extreme poverty in a number of African countrieshave the interest

of

important stocks

many people

political

without

issues such as climate

are global in nature.

and communities

in the

connections, opportunities, and

greater

a spotlight against

attention

on patriarchal women,

a direct connection

giving

to those

change, terrorism,

areas. In addition,

and the depletion

Many young

people have a deep interest

worlds

developed

least

countries

horrors

systems

of sexual

of oppression

violence in and

urgency to cross-national

peo-ple global

movement glob-ally

conflict

discrimination

solidarity

of fish

in helping

and in building

and careers. The advent of the #MeToo on the

dictato-rial

captured

have shone and

and organizing

violence to com-bat

these scourges.

Finally, Canadas identity participation

in

positive international national

security,

has been shaped, to a considerable extent, by the coun-trys

wars, peacekeeping image.

and

Global affairsincluding

participation

one of the few policy areas

and peace-building

in

where the

diplomacy,

multilateral Canadian

organizations

government

governments generally having a relatively

efforts, and its generally military

action and

and initiativesis

is the key actor,

with pro-vincial

minor role.

Canadas Global Affairsin Context 17.1

Outline the evolution

of Canadas foreign

policy

perspectives

in

historical

context. 17.2

Discuss global

In the

social

who and

what is influential

in shaping

and carrying

out Canadas

affairs. sciences,

or global

affairs

the choice and relations

of

words carries

used to

discuss

connotations

and analyze

of different

interna-tional

perspective

Canadas Global Affairs

and

frames

their

of reference.

interests

policy

is

in

and

a term

In

with

this

context,

lessening

countries

the

countries world

or its

processes,

or

and

advance

while

foreign

government-led

strat-egy

relationship

organizations

borders

see and

stage,

more formal

relations

actors, national

how

on the

a

international

transnational of

to

and with

international

and

importance

refers

associated

a states

governments

affairs

other

generally

of conducting national

Foreign

to

movements

conceptions

with

which

it

can

in

401

other

belongs.

describe

the

an interconnected

world.

WhatDo We MeanBy Global Affairs? We have

chosen

that

to

use the

a variety

Canadiansposition in and

a

in

world

affairs.

We also seek to

address

growing

state-led

freedom

borders

also

simply

the

to

(Global

studies.

Affairs

It

abroad,

Canada,

switched

its

Affairs, Trade and

recog-nize

of ac-tors

reverberations

influential can

less

in

have

relevant

relevant,

world

an us

in

vs.

a globaliz-ing

particularly

also

other

in

when

the

tracks

Under name to

term

a shift

Justin

and

is

to

name

refer

of

freedom

of trade,

of

capital,

and ideas creating

a

more

world.

Canadas

as consular assistance

government, (GAC)

movement

no

diplomatic

well

Canada

Globalization The increasing

people, culture, dis-ciplines, across borders, to a interconnected rela-tions

related

humanitarian

Trudeau Affairs

affairs

Canadas

and institutionsas

Global

across

international

the

for

ideas

and

selected

classic

in

responsible

the

science

more

development,

public

to the increas-ing

and

where foreign

political

the

states

2018a).

not simply culture,

world,

than

trade,

Development

refers people,

is increasingly

department with

Canadians

department

thus

capital,

approach

relationships

support

global

foreign

remains

to

Canadasand

interdependence

have

is simply

Likewise,

affairs

government

relationsor

context,

of states.

state-centric

international

federal

that

that

more interconnected

of global

less

chapter for

are increasingly

policy

of trade,

purview

study

and or

of a

this

or initiatives.

movement

but

broader

foreign

in the chapters

of

the

the term

the

often

concerns

polarization

perceptions

Globalization,

recognizes

actors

othering

in

are responsible

decisions

non-state

describing

affairs

and

The term

where

Nonetheless,

global

individual

and

world.

main

term influence,

world.

states

connotationan

longer

shape,

the

where

repercussions,

them

broader

of actors

in

2015, the

from

Foreign

Canada.

General Perspectives on Canadas Global Affairs Today,

Canada

player in

the

is

generally

on the

1920s

world

and

1930s,

isolationism as a founding Nations,

1920s,

which

and

alliances 1945.

and

as leaning take

a variety

a

and

than

role in acting

promoting

More specifically, the

governments

Canadas of

1919, the

However, tended

to-ward

despite its role to the

holds

(Nossal, policy

2013, as it and

by

United

has often

that

each

working

supporting

end

1931

Isolationism

United

of

military Nations

been

other

international

in

described

country with

of the

Statute

both in

the

War II

actively

by the

on the

participant

including

conflicts

(19481957)

policy based

an active

approach

global

foreign

Canada

precursor

foreign

World

It involves law

contribut-ing

War I.

involvements),

country

since This

St. Laurent

Depression,

organizations,

perspective

international

certainly

World

War II.

became

managing

and

role in

A desire to steer involvements

an independent

unilaterally.

in

independent

subsequently

affairs

Great

of foreign

Nations

World

a fully

influential

an active

the

of

internationalism.

constructive

rather

played

of international

global

toward

after

became

The country

Canadas

League

exercising

officially

Westminster.

moderately

throughout

of the

was founded

began it

and

as a

Canada

(a desire to steer clear member

Canada

seen

stage.

should coun-tries insti-tutions

p. 23). developed, Pearson

particularly (19631968),

dur-ing can

be

clear

of for-eign

402

Chapter 17

Liberal Internationalism The idea that of liberal rights

termed liberal

the application

valuesincluding and freedoms, the rule

justice, growing

among of the

peoples,

and

economies,

the

the

world

particularly

pos-sible,

through

the

of international

perspective

contends

order,

each

country

of its

own

have

Realist Vision of Interna-tional

interests

Relations The perspective the

world

because

has no central

able to impose each country

au-thority

and promotion

of its

own

na-tional

as a

foreign

middle

UN

power

& Paquin,

to

avoid

2011).

Union

building

as a threat

the

including

military

the

contain

the

of its

tended

to

in terms

and

United

Security

middle to

five

follow.

persuade

the

a

emphasis

during

North

on

to

member Security Canada

international

con-flicts

historic

ally,

war (Nossal,

promoting

the

Roussel,

peaceful

coop-eration,

like

Pearson,

saw

Cold

War. They

thus

supported

Atlantic

can

all

on the

its

world

estab-lishing

At times,

resolve

by

develop-ment

approach, the

number

gives

decisions).

to

the

powers

to

policy

powers

Likewise,

Nations

great

to

lead

great

powers)

try

of a substantial

be said

recent

Treaty

of

Organization

Canadian

versus of

little

evil

(although

in

the

troops

2010.

that

in

the

(NATO), Europe,

to

Harper for Minister

a characteristic

Conservative

Under

of

govern-ment

internationalism,

Party.

characterizes

often

multilateral

Nations and seeking

as

the

perhaps

his tenure,

there

international

characterization

is

Prime

fall

in liberal

Liberal

the

support

many blaming

Council

interest

to

and

Certainly,

approach

Canadas

rise

decades.

connection

Canada as a renewed the

Liberal national

foreign

the

to

might

of the

more hardline

with

Security

as an appropriate

War, to try

peace

Harper displayed

worthy

mixed results, at the

security

to constrain

internationalist

world

in

perceived

of good

good

while

United

the

diplomacy

that

strength

policy

be a

gov-ernments

Union.

foreign

of Stephen

promotion

and

on important

despite

internationalism

Canadian

because

to

This

able to impose and

internationalism,

other

as the

Cold

liberal

stationing

Soviet

Liberal

quiet the

actions

of the

defend-ing

more right-leaning

are expected

though

a veto

Nevertheless,

advocates Soviet

used

during

with

such

(even

hold

has

to

needed.

Canadian

viewed can try

all countries

a vote

particularly

been

cooperation

that

each

defend

Canada

organizations and

of liberal

and

survival,

these

tended

of interna-tional

when

authority

security,

practice,

to

have

policy.

in

States,

tenets

has often

law

with

pos-sible,

(Nossal,

considerations

has no central

in

sought

(particularly

of the

United

core

power,

a voice

or,

the

As a middle

multilateral countries Council

interests.

their

world

the

world

vision

power,

and

among

governments

military

of

of law,

institutions

a more realist

on security

primarily

themselves

of international

the

However,

internationalism

encouraging

pri-marily

survival,

embraced

through

Canada.

order,

is concerned

with security,

for

because

interests.

have

Liberal that

Conservative

value

rule

make a peaceful

of international

through

concerned

the

interdependence

worldcan

by touting

including

that is

national

governments

Subsequent

internationalism

interest,

democracy, and

development

which places greater

national

institutions.

freedoms,

of the

the

the idea that the application

interaction

countries

2010).

liberal

and

growing

through

relations,

and

the

and

& Paquin,

de-emphasize

This involves

rights with

particularly

worldcan

make a peaceful

development

combined

Roussel, and in-terdependence

economies,

countries

valuesincluding

with the

interaction

peoples,

liberal justice,

de-mocracy,

of law,

combined

internationalism.

of

which

controversial).

This

Canadas

failure

Justin

Trudeau

to

affairs

countries

are

approach

had

win a rotating has sought

to

seat char-acterize

player, announcing Canada is back at

the coveted

rotating

Western bloc seat on the

UN

Council for 20212022.

Hard Power The use of coercion

to get

another

act in a cer-tain

country

to

way.

Hard power involves Hard

Soft Power The

use of a countrys

political

values,

culture,

and foreign

policies

to influence

countrys

behaviour

non-coercive

Hard Power and Soft Power

means.

another through

power

includes

sanctions. imposing racist

For

example,

economic policy

using coercion to get another country to act in a certain the

use or threat Canada

sanctions

of apartheid.

of

convinced on

Joseph

South

world politics can come from its soft

its

political

(provided

force

a number Africa

Nye (Nye,

in

values

military

of other

to

pressure

2004)

asserts

power:

it acts consistently

as well as the

that that

countries country a countrys

the attractiveness with them),

way.

use of economic to join

in

to

its

end

success

of its culture,

and its foreign

policie

Canadas Global Affairs

(when

they

2013, in

are seen

p. 18). Joining

Canadas

the

military

Canadian

(Ljunngren, Canadas other

on

hard

Canadas

note that

past

in

and

development

In

NATO,

and

authority

announcing Affairs

(quoted

a substantial

Minister

sometimes

and can

by

Clark,

investment

Chrystia

require

be used

Conservative

Trudeaus

spending

with

moral

Freeland

the

backing

noted, of

hard

6).

despite

military

in

Foreign

is limited fact,

wars,

Canadas

the lowest

2017,

power

having

minister

June

2017, June

countries.

and

Defence

in

diplomacy

power

with

as legitimate

403

effectively

Prime

pledge

to

renew

as a percentage

perceived

chronic

only in

Minister the

armed

of national

underinvestment

in

conjunction

Harpers

empha-sis

forces,

income

critics

is

among

infrastructure

and

equipment. Canadas

soft

federal

system

emphasis

on

youthful,

in

human

liberal

perception. is

power

can

a

multicultural

rights

Prime

(See

sometimes

Minister

with

a positive

Trudeaus

Trudeaus

by the

Canadas

society

has created

Box 17-1:

marred

be significant.

rise

Global

treatment

a prosperous image

to

power

Affairs

and

democratic,

in

economy many

further

Record.)

condition

politically

sta-ble and

an

countries.

The

entrenched

However,

this

of Indigenous

this image

peoples

and,

Box 17-1 Trudeaus Global Affairs Record When Prime that

Minister Trudeau

Canada

leader

was initially

in countries travels.

is

around

Several

back

came to

a global the

power in

on the international political

and

has

Generally, Trudeaus

he prom-ised The youth-ful

media darling,

world vying to take

years later,

2015, stage.

selfies

he delivered

with fans

with him on his

Press/AP

on his promises?

re-engagement

with the

multilateral Canadian

system, including

the

pledge to increase lauded;

UN, has

Canadas

been favourably

participation in

received.

His

peacekeeping

was

however, his failure to deliver on the targeted

Canadian uniformed personnel for peacekeeping back the governments Canadas

record. (See Figure 17-3.)

part ofthe governments

feminist foreign

policy, could improve

that of UN peacekeeping argue that

Trudeaus

Development

Trudeau

Justin

under

widespread

with the

Official

Prime

Trump

attempts during

to shake

the

Image

hands

G7 meeting in

2018.

https://nexus.prod.postmedia.digital/wp-content/

uploads/2018/08/g7-summit-201806081.jpg

(in

https://

www.thewhig.com/opinion/columnists/mixed-record-on-foreign-affairs)

resulting in tit-for-tat

United States, quickly administration,

Minister Harper (Delvoie,

Still, Trudeaus

with Trump,

government

which

2018).

He

whose anti-UN, opposed

to

has attempted

to

Trumps insistence

has had less

progressive

free trade

success in relations negotiations

stipulations

that

due to

China,

efforts to in-clude

were seen as

meddling

by the Chinese (Delvoie, 2018). Canada also got caught up efforts to reign in

Huawei,

Chinas telecom

giant,

visit to India,

of Chinese and Canadian another important

was mired by an official event invitation national

convicted

donning

ofIndian

of terrorist clothing,

cultural appropriation One important Canadas

effort to

on re-negotiating 20212022,

with

detentions

Trudeaus

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

to launch

U.S.-led

President

SOURCE:

praise for re-engaging

Obama

weather the storm, skillfully handling

in

Trudeau

near the proposed

world order views are diametrically

Trudeaus (2018).

Trudeau

Still, crit-ics

ally, the

more difficult challenge

the

with

Minister

Quebec in June

multilateral record.

mostimportant

relations

anti-liberal

a

Canadas perceptionand

continued failure to increase its

also received

a

shift toward

Prime

of national income (see Figures 17-1 and 17-2)

with Canadas had soured

Tang/The

Nonetheless,

more broadlysignificantly.

is a blemish on Canadas

improving

applauded

Assistance (ODA) to anywhere

0.7 percent target

failing

of

missions has set

Elsie Initiative to increase the number of women in UN

peacekeeping,

has faced

number

test

Harpers

considered (not to for

withthe vote taking

Council electionsthe countries

by many to be inappro-priate

mention expensive). Trudeaus

record

UN Security

will

first such lossin

support

for Israel, and the

assistance for

be

Council for

place in June 2020.

in the region,

perceived cuts to international countries.

extended to a dual

win a seat during the 2010

countrys

uncompromising

many Arab

na-tionals. part-ner,

acts, and the Trudeau familys

win a seat on the

Harper, failed to

trade

His pre-decessor, Security

part due to which angered governments

many African

404

Chapter 17

for

some

countries,

previous

support

for

a lesser

to transport

prioritizing

been

In the

of Israel

has

world,

particularly when

to the Soft

image.

gas from

tarnished

over

environmental

decade,

trying

at odds

mining

its this),

view

and

markets

damage

the

of

United

UN

in

the

mem-bers.

many

Canada

to

divi-sions

unqualified

majority presence

as a

diplomatic

strong,

casts

has,

it

domestic

with

its

Harper

portraying

involvement

and

the

respected

occasionally

workers

Canadas

governments

despite

highly

has a large

South)

of exploited

by

of a large

(which

well,

sites to

interests,

resurrect

Global

under

image

once

has reduced

the

change

production

to with

As

The Trudeau

Canadas

Canadas

industry

in the

scandals

on climate

States.

parts

in a nega-tive

environment

surface.

power

to

is

been

Canadas

light,

oil and

Canada

Trudeau

Further,

action

United

international

eyes,

past

weakened;

defence

come

some

economic

issue.

(though

of the

a negative

and in

to the

strong

pipelines

Nations

the

to take in

on this has

connection

resulted

degree

country

corps

close

unwillingness

government

to

our

is

not always

achieve

successful,

important

best of intentions,

and

objectives.

can

have

hard

poweror

However,

negative

the

its threatmay

use of

military

be nec-essary

force,

even

with

Canada

was

consequences.

HistoricalBackground At its founding basically

in

1867,

Canada

self-governing

relations.

Only

in

was part

domestic

gradually

of the

British

matters,

was Canada

Empire.

Britain

able to take

Although

directed

control

the

countrys

external

of its foreign

policy.

was

part

of the

laid

the

Canadas Early Years In

1871,

Canadas

delegation

for friendly

of issues

took

London

Canada in

Affairs

and the

sign

have

treaty

up (housed

itself

at

power. an

of

In

Canada,

1909,

Ottawa

Macdonald

a high

the

a tiny

trade.

although

1893,

ambassa-dor

Canadian

Department

barbershop),

1880,

In

British

as the

was

In

commissioner

and

with France, although

with a va-riety

expense.

to immigration

British

groundwork

dealt

out,

Canadas

by appointing

on behalf

above

States and

As it turned

Britain

related

agreement

treaty-making

a British

by

which

United

relations.

interests

the

Macdonald,

Washington,

representing

a tariff

had to

was set

remained

Britain made

Canadian

A.

of

CanadaU.S.

toward

voice

not

Sir John

Treaty

concessions

negotiated

did

between

the

a step to

Paris

the

affecting

with

Canada

minister,

negotiated

relations

unhappy

to

prime

that

govern-ment of

External

foreign

policy

responsibility.

World WarI and Its Aftermath Canadas

contribution

War I, along table

that

League

(and

Nations, the

1 Liberal

Canada

Minister

would

Canada

for

by Turkish

Prime

Parliament

should

would

decide have

600 000 soldiers

casualties,

of peace.

In

an organization

precursor

a request

threatened

that

heavy

set the terms of

refused

of over

with its

to the

military forces

Mackenzie on replied

not automatically

take

had

course aye,

part in

became

a founding

the

Nations).

In

protect

not

been

consulted

action.

ready

British

Although to

the

wars

British

Empires a place

after

to

British

country

Canada

demilitarized

of

the

1920,

assistance

King

Ready,

to the

created United

in the

Canadas

earned

war to try to 1922, the

British

and

the

issue

Conservative request,

and party

the

incident

World

member

of the

future

Canadian

In

in

negotiating

prevent

French

Dardanelles.1

about

forces at the

con-flicts

government

troops

that

1923, despite

responded leader

that Arthur

established

the

British

Canadian

Meighen the

were

principle

stated that

Canadas Global Affairs

objections, Pacific

Canada

negotiated

signed

a treaty

with the

United

States

to

protect

halibut.

A resolution Statute

of

own

France

at the

1926

Westminster)

subordinate its

and

405

to

Britain

foreign

in

domestic

policy,

(1928),

Imperial

Conference

made it clear

(confirmed

Canada

and external

Canada

and Japan

that

appointed

and

the

affairs.

by the

other

To reflect

ambassadors

1931

British

dominions its

to the

were not

new control

United

over

States

(1927),

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Chapter 17

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412

Chapter 17

Global Rulesand Rights Liberal Internationalist Conception of International

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413

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414

Chapter 17

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of nuclear

is

coordinated based in

president

the

self-defence

the

and leader-ship.

next section.)

Combat Missions Canada

is

wars and

often

thought

other

to

military

1953 to the end of the Since then, In

1991

Gulf

5 Disclosure:

War against

the

Cold

Canada

Canada,

chapters

be a peace-loving

missions.

country, 17-1.)

although

From

the

has taken with

Iraq.

This

Kaila

an active

role in several

33 other

countries,

combat

mission

Mintz,

works

for the

Code

has

of the

participated Korean

in War in

engage in active com-bat.

conflicts.

participated was authorized

Blue

it

end

Warin 1981, Canada did not directly

along

author,

(See Table

Campaign

in the by the

United UN

Statesled Security

Canadas Global Affairs

421

Table 17-1 Canadian CombatMissions Mission

Date

Nile Expedition

(Sudan)

South Africa (Boer World

War)

War I

Siberian

1884

386

18991902

8300

19141918

Expedition

World WarII Korean

Number

War

Gulf War(Iraq)

Involved

16 242

Over

600

000

60 661

19181919

4197

19301945

About 1.1

19501953

About 26 000

19901991

Deaths

19

million

42 042 516

Over 4000

0

Yugoslavia

1999

300

Afghanistan

20022011

2500

Libya

2011

630

0

20142016

About 600

1

Islamic

State

0 158

NOTES: Figures for World WarII refer to troops sent overseas. Deaths include disease and accidents as well as those that are combat related, but they do not include deaths that occurred after the end of the war related to injuries suffered during the war. Different sources provide different figures for the number involved and number of deaths. Two aid workers, one

diplomat, and ajournalist

were also killed in Afghanistan.

SOURCES:Isitt. (2006);

Council

Morton. (2007);

after Iraq invaded

The only casualty in the war against ISIS was byfriendly fire.

Veterans Affairs Canada. (n.d.);

Government

and annexed

Canadas

Kuwait.

of Canada. (2014),

participation

in this short

warincluded the use of fighter aircraft to protect American bombing vessels to

enforce

wounded.

Canada refused

which lacked ground

a blockade

specific

combat

known

to take

and

missions in

a

mobile

part in the

UN authorization.

Mission: Afghanistan.) (also

of Iraq,

Americanled

missions, naval

hospital

invasion

Afghanistan.

(See Box 17-4:

Daesh) in Iraq

Canadas

mission to

to treat

participated

Longest

in

Combat

defeat the Islamic

and Syria ended in 2016,

the

of Iraq in 2003,

From 2001 to 2011, Canada

While Canadas combat

as ISIS and

military

Brewster. (2015).

State

Operation IMPACT

Box 17-4 Canadas Longest Combat Mission: Afghanistan On September Osama United

States.

other bin

11,

the

members

to

Afghanistan

sent

and fought

troops

defeat al-Qaeda

continued

Canada

control

troops

deployed

forces

in

its

troops

Kandahar

2003,

Canada took

Security

Force,

a NATO force

and to

provide

support

authority 2005,

security

the

Canada

good

governance,

leaders, repairing insurgency a combat This two-year a close

and

fight

the

authorized

by the

to

Afghanistans for to

building

mission that included

Kabul,

team to

with local

and

com-bining

develop provin-cial

projects, includ-ing

schools.

As the

in the region

House

to

of Commons.

of promoting

of

eliminate.

However,

incompetence

After a

in Afghanistan

women and

participation in this lengthy

such values as democracy

girls,

which the

Afghan governments,

and corruption,

State group formed in bombings

Taliban

The

Taliban

continues

controlling

On December

about

conducted to

be

a number a

one-half of the

where tribal loyal-ties

As well, a small Islamic

significant

Afghan government. role in governing

the values that the

death

would

with the

United

However, if the Taliban

but not with obtain an im-portant

wouldlikely

Canada promoted in that troubled Canadian

in area.

that they

country

Afghanistan, this

force

countrys

States, which still has armed forces in Afghanistan, the

of suicide

2018.

of the

30, 2018, the Taliban indicated

be willing to discuss the future

to with

have had difficulty in exercising

are strong. 2015

and

sought

often plagued

and other attacks in Afghanistan in

Afghanistan,

2011,

role in Afghanistan

control of many areas of the country

Wasthe by

home in

remained

NATO countries.

the rights

Taliban

undertook

2009, confirmed

most other

effective

returned

Overall, Canada played alarger

mission in terms

killing Taliban insurgents.

mission was extended

troops

and regional warlords

relief. In

Kandahar

reconstruction

until 2014.

govern-ing

humanitarian

reconstruction

in

UN Security

capital,

of a transitional

security

in the

Afghanistan

alongside

Canadian

military and police trainers

Canadian governments justified

the

Afghanistan)

extension,

although than

capture

of the International

Canadian forces

vote (149145)

of

further

government

Afghan government.

build relationships

a dam grew,

to

some

However,

areas

to

civil personnel

and undertake

and

try

by

on the

leadership

sent a provincial

military and

to

(southern

establishment

and provide

NATO

country.

many

and the

2002. In Council to

of

attack

Taliban

a base in that to

group, led

major terrorist

the fundamentalist

the foreign

American

a

al-Qaeda

In response,

and

have

extremist out

had given

Taliban

the

carried

countries Laden

that

2001,

bin Laden,

challenge

country.

mission in Afghanistan that resulted in

of 158 Canadian Forces

$18 billion spent a necessary

personnel

or wasted effort

and

more than

422

Chapter 17

continues

to

provide

Trudeau

announced

support that

mission in Iraq Canadian

Armed

to the Iraqi Canada

from

Forces,

fall

security

forces.

would

command

2018 for

a one-year

In July

NATOs period

2018,

Prime

training

Minister

and

(National

capacity-building

Defence

and the

2018b).

Critical Perspectiveson Canadas Military Engagement One controversial critics

issue

in

have complained

expand

its

military

from

that

its capacity

Russia,

China,

increase

of up to 70 percent

security

networks

1.4 percent

relation

to

next two

billion

for

(Hansen, and

barely

referenced

investment 17-5:

Minister

has

Prime

As outlined

in

more feminist

Minister

defence of

gender-based

analysis

assessing

policy,

their

in

of its effect

priorities.

of

ministers

it focused

2017

to increase

is

and

every

foreign

military

spending

devel-opment,

policy

speech military

As discussed

Trudeau, to

the

Revenue

$1 for

on increased

Versus

in fore-cast

more than

2017).

Harper

to

NATO rec-ommendation

spending

Canada for

Cooperation,

Engagement:

the

particularly

that

significantly

International

critical

military.

Services

$4 on defence

protect

on

Amounting

spending,

Defence,

Indigenous nearly

to

With program

National

Foreign

while for

Liberal

a higher

in

Prime

level

than

Harper.

previous

women

policy

military

NATO

a spending

was focused

less than

GDP on their

of

in-terest

posing

from

attacks.

this remains

of their

Passage,

pressure

efforts

anticipated

like

of increasing

in 2018

which involves

and

would

announced

spending

from

levels

spends

proposed

the

high

the

Military

Trudeau

Conservative

that

Council

Canadian

government

combined,

Canada

development,

(Canadian

Liberal

years,

modernize,

Northwest

the

Department

spending

note

using the

In 2017, after

2 percent

the

maintain,

many analysts

Canada.

2018),

In recent

Arctic in the face

much of the

and foreign

2018).

critics

States in

infrastructure

spend

to

For example,

GDP by 20242025,

the

departments

Canada

Box

domestic

enough

spending.

for

defence (Hansen,

denounce

military

Canadian

by 20262027;

members

critics

at $25.5

United

spending,

of anticipated

other

patrol the

and related

that Yet, some

not spending

concerns

defence

and cyber

computers, about

to

and the

USto increase

policy is its

as helicopters.

and sovereignty

and the

cyber

foreign

Canada is

assets, such

Canada to increase

environmental

Canadas

module, which

the

the

Trudeau

includes

Canadian

such armed

policies,

plans,

and

on diverse

groups

of

government goals

forces

and

activitiesin women,

has

promoted

as addressing better

a

under-representation

incorporating

other men and

the

words,

analyti-cally

non-binary

people

Box 17-5 Canadian Military Engagement: Harper Versus Trudeau Both

prime

ministers

a priority for

Canadas

made fighting armed forces,

NATO and other allies through capacity-building

support

to

global Islamic

terrorism

participating

alongside

military options, governments

training,

throughout

on a platform that included

a combat focus.

peacekeeping,

the

150

Engaged

moving Canada away from

However, his governments

Strong,

UN peacekeeping

his tenure to

and

Middle East and North Africa. Prime Minister Trudeau was elected

in

Secure,

predecessor,

Harper,

regular forces

to

While under

to alevel

higher than that under his

with a plan to increase

70 500 (slightly

Harpers tenure

there

the

higher than was reduced

number

under

of

Harper).

participation

352

Canadians

end), Trudeau

with a 2016

police officers.

at the

start

of

pledged to return

to

of 600 troops

and

commitment

Although it took longer

than

expected

to

shape up, eventually Canadian support was givento the UNs peacekeeping in

2018.

defence policy, issued in June 2017, proposes in-creasing to the military spending

(from

112 by the

to the In

mission in

Malifor a one-year

Yet, as of March 2019,

period beginning

Canadas

total

contribution

UN was only 192 uniformed personnel, including mission in

addition,

fighter jets,

Mali(United

Trudeau

proposed

up from the

Canadas

aging

Nations

Peacekeeping,

purchasing

66 that

CF-18 fleet

144

2019).

88 new advanced

Harper had

proposed

to re-place

Canadas Global Affairs

(Status

of

Women

Canada,

approach

at the

global

Agenda,

which

stems

The

WPS approach

affects

women

peace and a

girls.

security

UN Security

holds

developed

marking

a new

armed

peace. and

a set

value

a series

to

Security

and

disproportionately

a right

and

progress

reports

and contributes

through

(Government action

and a collaborative of

to the

societyto

to

a 2000

national

Department

a chapter

civil

and

can contribute

second

The

1325.

resolution

resolutions

respected

progress.

(WPS)

Resolution

was elaborated

of subsequent

Canadiansespecially

and

defence

Council

in conflict

and

a highly

monitor

of indicators

way for

participation

The agenda

a feminist

Peace,

uniquely

with annual

society

achieve

Women,

conflict

developed

to

UN Security

womens

(20172022),

civil

the

an intrinsic

has

Canada

2000

that

both

Canada

with

Defence

promoting

that

is

means for

seminal

sustainable

WPS agenda group

by

Resolution

2018b).

plan for its

is

One

the

It

efforts and

Council

Canada,

working

level from

recognizes

and

more effective

of

2018).

National

annual

report,

hold it to account.

Canadiansin the World 17.4

Discuss how and explain

An important

Canadians influence the

Canadian

way that

of Canadians

who

global

affairs

governments

Canada

exercises

work internationally,

and Canadas image

abroad,

role in this regard.

its

soft

live

power

abroad,

is through

and

participate

the

vast

numbers

in

global

affairs.

TheInfluence of Canadiansand Canadian

Businesses Canadians films

are

prominent

to

dominating

Culture.)

Canadian

Montreal

bagels,

diplomacy

is

influence

help

part

and

how

the

world,

image

a

more formal would

Beyond

the

bring values

rather its

to the

Canadian

mining

mandatory

and

operating launched

with Canada, directly

the

powers

Canada,

to

with

2017,

the

used

by

arts

are in

government,

in

ability

and

Cultural

In

the

Popular

poutine

communicate

and

Canadian and

affect

part to

see

whether

Ottawa

and

around

to

to the

2018, January

spread

is

a positive

been

responsibility

Conduct

who finds

will

have

involved

as compensation

as cor-ruption

voluntary,

standards the

Abroad

will

powers in

human

strategy

allegations

(Global make com-plaints

to recommend wrongdoing,

in

Enterprises

be able to

or apologies

for

Canadian

Responsible rights

at large

and such

having

more proactive,

of human public

crimes for

for

these

controversysome

environmental

social

to appear

its

that

play in transmitting without

criticized

Business

the

not

GAC through benefits

with financial

Ombudsperson

and such

this

corporate

that

by

economic

mired in

investigations

it investigates

17)

has

In an effort

Ombudsperson,

recommendations

been

Responsible

conduct

supported the

been charged

enforceable,

It is likely

also only

but also the role they

have

have

by a Canadian to

2018b).

on companies public

to

neighbours.

was launched

Of course,

Canada

globally.

2018, supported

are

economy

companies

laundering.

Affairs

Hollywood in

2007).

and their

not

abroad.

money

(CORE),

artists

businesses

and identities

and

government

and

Canadian

recognizing

other firms

January

other

Canadian

and

than

strategy

This

icewine

American

Potter,

culture

by the

scandals

companies

how

in

in

Canadians

famous

its

policy

quoted

Canadian

service,

Canadian rights

foreign

from

starring

Famous

globally. arts,

Canadian

Canada

and

17-6:

Niagaras

diplomacy.

role

support

commissioner

companies

on and

directing

Box

wine, from

(Tuch,

policy

from

(See

distinguish

a study

of Canada

trade

and

publics

foreign

arts,

scene.

of a Canadian

launched

Canadas

the

rap

food

foreign

Senate

in

the

as

(Global

sanc-tions well

as

Affairs

423

424

Chapter 17

Box 17-6 Famous Canadiansin Popular Culture These

famous

influential exposure

Americans

and the

rest

Twain Fire

and

Drake,

and

Samantha

Ellen

and the

side

of their

Canadian

fame

satiristsfeel in

order

as

to

YouTube

career

Image

they

in

like videos

reach star

2015? Shawn

of cover

that

Mendes songs

to what

many

and live

can

Cara,

moved

to

now

be discovered his home in

artistsmusicians,

and

the

is

say about

Canadian

in

their

there

does it

and

changing

from

Canada,

comedians,

who

Weeknd,

While we celebrate

prominence

Singh,

And is

Alessia

so

work

a global Lilly

The

bring

first

Canada:

and

stand-up

must

have to

and

consider:

that

stars,

globally the

Rogen

they

to

landscape movie

world

Bieber.

profile

the

being

McAdams

Seth

Justin

in

often

of the

Rachel Page,

Bee and

achievements

the

prominently

landscape,

Arcade

another

figure

cultural

Shania

and

Canadians

American

political

United

States

audience,

such

LA to further that on

a

mega

Vine

her pop-star

by posting

Pickering,

Ontario?

Pimentel/WireImage/Getty

George

Drake, and

multi-award

global at the

SOURCE:

winning

ambassador Juno

National

for

Awards Post.

in

hip-hop the

artist,

NBAs

actor,

Toronto

Rap-tors,

2015.

Retrieved

from

https://

nationalpostcom.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/drake-junos-08_24563153.jpg?quality=80&strip=all&w=780 (https://nationalpost.com/entertainment/celebrity/drake-gets-his-own-heritage-minute-with-most-canadian-mashup-of-all-time)

Assisting Canadians Abroad Canadian

Part of the

Consular

Services Support

and

Canadian to For

governments

Canadians help

provided

government

Canadians

in

distress

more information,

by

officials abroad.

passports to example,

in global Peoples from

Populations who

a foreign

originally country.

many Somali-Canadians

investigations,

represented

in international

Canadian

in

Canadians

such as the

Canadians to

politics

politicians

state authority.

institutions for

ulti-mately

in these scenarios.

are prominent

militia groups fighting

GAC plays an active role in lobbying

occupy

United senior

criminal tribunals, and other institutions that Canada

or use to heighten its own influence.

(For

more on Canadian youth

affairs, see Box 17-7: The Role of Canadian Youth.)

People from came

acts.

of the countries they find

will choose to attempt to) intervene

have joined

roles at the UN,in international

Diaspora

and transparent

under local laws and regulations

For example,

are disproportionately

seeks to influence

to assist

such as lost

Canadians play an active role in shaping and influencing

while others

Nations, and

services

of Canada, 2016). There are no guarantees that the

will be able to (or

in other countries. Somalia,

consular

from inconveniences

such as being detained and accused of criminal

officials to conduct timely

in (Government

Individually,

Canadian

in trouble,

while Canadian officials may play a role in providing assistance,for

Canadians abroad fall government

provide

themselves

more serious incidents

by urging local

themselves

emergency-info/consular.

role is to

who find

In these situations,

see

https://travel.gc.ca/assistance/

abroad

populations

around

the

have an increasing

world

make their

voice influencing

home in

Canada, too.

the federal

These diaspora

government

on foreign

policy priorities, such ascalling out human rights abuses by Chinain Tibet or supporting

Canadas Global Affairs

425

Box 17-7 The Role of Canadian Youth Canadian youth are among those influencing affairs

policy

and how

When Canadians

Canadians

study

or travel

non-governmental with the

Government-funded

to violence and foreign

and

a YouTube Ontario,

star of Punjabi

Sikh

moved to the

United

heritage

such

as climate

pursue

her career. SOURCE: CBC News. (2018, taking

a break from

November 13). Lilly Singh announces

YouTube.

Retrieved

from

shes

https://www.cbc.ca/

news/entertainment/lilly-singh-break-youtube-1.490345

the

decision

However, ruling

to

the

party

support relative

Ukraine

in its resistance

influence

sees them

of these

as critical

to

against

diasporas

obtaining

Russian

tends

and

territorial

to correlate

maintaining

to

power

incursions. how

much the

domestically.

The NegativeSides of Canadaand Canadians

in the World This chapter for

good

foreign,

has highlighted

in the

development, On the

In

a UN

of the

in

official

side,

Haiti

light.

ISAF remains Harper

doubtful and

despite

as second-class Individual participate

Arabia (including

local

documented citizens, Canadians

in shady

human

rights

and its role in the acting

dealings

has

outside

and activities

accused

the

women.

not just

without

made the country Canadian

abuses, devastating

the remit abroad.

that

the

an

military

or

NATO-driven

controversy,

and it Both the export

assault

treatment

of

Yemen (Brewster,

Canadian

in

mission

in the

of heavy

of government Many

military

more secure.

countrys

war in

members

corporations

worth

ac-tors. abroad.

by

Canadian

participation

was not

of dollars

of crimes death

UN peacekeeping Its

Canadas

supported

many billions

been

a force

governments

as independent

was beaten to

with the

Afghanistan

have

Canadian

or acting

1993, casting

wrongdoing:

in

governments

boy

serving

exploiting of

whether the intervention

Trudeau

arms to Saudi vehicles),

intervention

in

police

are not necessarily

in the

have

a Somali

Regiment

accused

Canadians

objectives,

peacekeepers

Canadian

of sexually

coalition

policy

Somalia,

Airborne

peacekeepers

where

participating

military

Canadian

Years later,

were accused

individual

or

collapsing

now-disbanded

examples formally

trade,

mission in

unsavoury

a few

worldwhether

in

and the mining

help

marketplaces.

On the

of

combat women 2018).

military

also

companies

movements

of marginalization

Canada.

Others

care about, from

mobilize environ-mental

accords to refugee rights

even helping to resettle

from

States to

ambassa-dors and values.

work placements

due to feelings

causes they

Stephen

Singh,

on internships

up in global terrorist

communities

Lovekin/WWD/Shutterstoc

Lilly

with inter-national

youth are also at risk of becoming radical-ized

on global

issues protection,

take

Canadian culture global

and swept

in their

domestically

volunteer

act as informal

break into

wars, sometimes

or isolation

Scarborough,

they

internships

Canadians

flip side, Canadian

world.

abroad,

Canada, helping spread

younger

global

organizations,

UN, or work abroad,

for

Canadas

are viewed in the

refugees

in

Canada.

and

426

Chapter 17

have

been

accused

of human

environmental firm

SNC-Lavalin

been

blacklisted

ethnic

participation Africa.

from

in terrorist

Stronger

international

in

activities

and

Canada

and

that

by their

Quebec-based

World

Bank.

abroad,

often

has

of differ-ent

acts of terror-ism

including

the

bombing in

East and

from

participation

act as a force

of

1985

Middle

resulting

can sometimes

and

Canadians

all 329 passengers

wars across the

per-sonnel,

engineering

abroad

in international

killed

legislation,

protocols,

violence

and corruption

by the

and foreign

cited

The

fraud

participated

to India

domestic

of the challenges

abuses.

projects have

Canada

Canadian

conventions

of excesses

in

movements

flying

other

as sexual

RCMP for

backgrounds

terrorist jet

and

by the

participation

and religious

Air India

violationssuch

degradation, was charged

from

or joined the

rights

and

North in

to rein in

some

above.

Summaryand Conclusion Canadas liberal

foreign

policy

tradition

helpful

through

of quiet

fixer,

is

as human

a

operations

and

Canadian

under

the

Harper

on the

Canadian

has also

been

commitments be seen perception

the

to

economies

of the

of

the

action

United two

Canadian

such

and

family

to live

American

on and

up to its

can reverse tax

close

products,

many international personal

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with respect

on immigration

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Likewise,

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of Iraq,

has tried

on the

States

America-first

that

Canadian

system.

government

and investment

more hardline

security,

defence

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from

with the

2003 invasion

dependence

As the an

a

Canadian

affairs

Nevertheless,

Vietnam

economic

countries.

would take

world

direct involvement

years the

Canadian

in

avoided

domes-tic regional

NATO, Canada is

increasingly looking to other partners to pursue its global goals.

And other

countries

Canadas leadership, resettlement rights,

are increasingly

including

and the

given rising

looking

to

on such issues as refugee

promotion

of womens

US hostility to the

and LGBTQI

multilateral

system.

The world has changed dramatically since the days of Lester Pearson world

still

and liberal

needs countries

advance

relationship

militaries,

cultural

to

plan.

affected

The integration the

recent

government

of action

and global alliances such as the of

reputa-tion

as a carbon

States.

media and

interests

and it remains

are strongly

countries,

perspective

cross-border

change, government

affairs

the

American

similar and

new

global

relationship

by its failure

American

American

takes

direc-tion

more generally,

and the

the

Canadian

course

governments

pursues

was highly

internationalist

climate

Trudeau

through

Canadas

between

weakened

on global

whether

and

economy Canadas

develop-ment countries.

once

the

peace-keepingnegotiating

government

government

businesses.

con-flict,

Canada

with

comparable

increased

Canadian

on such

Nations

diplomacywhich

of the

as a

disease,

generous

that different

orga-nizations. States in the

However,

other

unlikely

in-ternational

peacekeeping,

leadership

United

is less

from

the its

effectiveness

poverty,

in

many

built

to international

rights,

player

than

respectedsuffered

a focus

in

its

sustainability.

major

assistance well,

role

has demonstrated

problems

no longer

As

its

diplomacy,

and environmental

reflected

Canada

and its commitment

Canada global

extent,

perspective.

reputation its

has, to some

internationalist

human

development.

Canadas

internationalism. that

rights,

can

and

ability

promote

to

Yet, the

help resolve

meet the

challenges

of democracy, diversity, and good government

issues,

Canada a soft

make it

and influence

power in the

that

can still

con-flicts,

sustainable

command

gives respect

world

Discussion Questions 1. Should there

be a greater emphasis in Canadian

poli-tics

3. Should

Canada increase

on global affairs? 2. Should

Canada increase

its financial

assistance

to

poorer countries? Should assistance be given only to countries

that

human

demonstrate rights,

protection?

its involvement

in

peace-keeping

missions?

progress toward

womens

rights,

democ-racy,

and environ-mental

4. Should

Canada

participate

only in

military

opera-tions

that are sanctioned by the United Nations? 5. Should

Canada encourage

to come to

Canada?

Canada

more refugee

and resettle

claimants

more refugees

in

Canadas Global Affairs

427

Further Reading Bratt, D., & Kukucha, C.J. (Eds.). (2015). Readings in Canadian foreign policy: Classic debates and new ideas (3rd ed.). Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Briggs, E.D., Soderlund, W.C., & Najem, T.P. (2017). Syria, press framing, and the responsibility to protect. Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier Press. Cull, N.J., & Hawkers, M.K. (2019). Canadas public diplomacy. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Dubinsky, K., Mills, S., & Rutherford, S. (Eds.). (2016). Canada and the Third World: Overlapping Histories. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Hillmer, N., & Lagass, P. (Eds.). (2018). Justin Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Hampson, F.O., & Saideman, S.M. (Eds.). (2015). Canada among nations, 2015: Elusive pursuits: Lessons from

Canadas interventions abroad. Waterloo, ON: Centre for International Governance Innovation. Livermore, D.(2018). Detained. Islamic fundamentalist extremist and the war on terror in Canada. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queens University Press. Manthorpe, J. (2019). Claws of the panda. Beijings campaign of influence and intimidation in Canada. Toronto, ON: Cormorant Books. Masaeli, M., & Munro, L.T. (Eds.). (2018). Canada and the challenges of international development and globalization. Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa Press. Mulroney, D. (2015). Middle power, middle kingdom. What Canadians need to know about China in the 21st century. Toronto, ON: Allen Lane

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Index Page numbers followed and those followed

by f indicate figures, those followed

by n indicate

A ABCs (agencies,

boards

and

commissions),

357, 358b Aberdeen

(Lord),

Aboriginal Acadia,

2 Act, 356

for

activism,

campaign

debates, 210211,

68

Act,

Bernier,

163,

335

big

340

Adbusters

bills,

140b

adjournments,

parliamentary,

administrative

law,

advertisements,

380,

campaign,

councils,

Afghanistan,

Agenda

and

234,

240,

Committee,

308b

275,

1994,

276

Almond,

Gabriel,

343,

378,

383,

Robert,

(buycotting),

125

Braidwood,

resolution,

396397

alternative

service

delivery,

355, 358

legislature,

322b

Revolution, Act,

anti-discrimination

sovereignty

Arctic

Council,

Asia-Pacific

of

Buy

262

Chiefs,

279280

See also specific

Atlantic

in,

in,

model

of judicial

392393 auditor authority,

458

decision

role

of, 309310

Act, 367

general (AG), 34

367

Canada

Social

and,

making,

Transfer,

Canada-United

cabinet

decision-making

ministers, secrecy,

cabinet

solidarity,

Cadman,

Chuck,

Advisory 158,

Trade

Council

362

Agreement,

on the

Status

of

of Student

Associations

148

Canadian

Alliance

Canadian

Association

(CAPP),

party, 179, 183 of

Petroleum

Producers

149, 160

Canadian

Automobile

Canadian

Auto

Canadian Canadian

Bankers Association, Bill of Rights, 236

Association,

Workers

Broadcasting

152

Union (CAW),

160

159

Corporation

(CBC),

81,

356

Canadian

Coalition

Canadian

Constitution.

on Acid

consular

See

Rain, 155 Constitution

of

process,

311312

services,

424

Council for International 149

Environmental

Protection

Canadian

Federation

of Independent

152

Federation

of Students (CFS),

162

Food Inspection

Agency, 357

Canadian

Human

Rights

Canadian

Human

Rights Tribunal,

Canadian

Icon,

Canadian

International

(CIDA), Canadian Canadian

Act,

273

Canadian 308b

297, 307, 355 301302

Free

286n,

case, 272

158n

Alliance

Canadian

312313

327b

Act, 154

285286,

States

Canadian

148,

302

357

80, 218

Business,

313315

committees,

cabinet

312f

of, 307

appointed,

285286

Plan, 1965, 184

Canada Temperance Federation

1985,

308b

of, 294, 307

cabinet cabinet

General

Agency

79

Canada

process, 311315,

models

(CHT),

Agency,

(CETA),

285

Health Transfers

Co-operation,

legislative

1984,

Revenue

Canadian

Trudeaus

7273

Act,

Revenue

C functions

201, 211,

Comprehensive

Canada

cabinet

reform

91

community,

82, 423

295b

of, 307309,

80

Agreement

Canada

Canadian

188b

in, 3033

unemployment

Attawapiskat

180,

Union

Pension

Canadian

78

295296,

285

193, 198,

and Trade

Canada

111,

and assistance,

law,

executive

of, 182 party

regionalism

Auditor

regulation

America

construction

111

economy

of, 348349

348349 258b

decision-making

disaffected,

attitudinal

standoff,

Plan (CAP),

Act, 190,

Health

Canadian

provinces

Liberal

structure

organization,

250

5861

Canada.

12, 263

159

Byng (Lord),

364365

federalism,

40

2012,

policy

FIPA agreement,

Elections

(CASA),

Act,

29

See public

Assistance

Canada-China

Canadian

348

Church

growth,

context

49, 52f

Canada

Women,

process, 313, 314f John,

Burnt

63

minister,

seekers,

Atlantic

331, 362 Implementation

administrative

Cooperation

Nations,

128,

model, 320

25,

Budget

bureaucratic

Manitoba

deputy

asymmetrical

George,

business

of First

Act, 1867, 2527,

174

budget,

418

League,

111,

Bert, 343

bureaucracy,

411

Assembly

asylum

340n

411

Exclusion

Assembly

party,

Bulloch,

in,

94b,

404

parliamentary

budgetary

386

Economic

(APEC),

America

Brown,

273

Senate, 339340,

Arctic,

2021,

North

Brown,

Act, 418

appointments,

assistant

3637

63

courts,

81b,

177, 203, 226, 228, 282, 324, 384n

British British

of. See historical and,

Act, 1982, 226n, 232

Canada

51b,

323 policy

duality

policy.

Canada

223224

measures, 6465

Anti-Terrorism

32, 51,

in,

context

Canada-European

123

Empire,

brokerage

Act, 1975,

appellate

Columbia,

policy

See foreign

Canada

Canada

142144,

213, 227

329

12

British

104105 387

demonstrations,

anti-Semitism,

186187,

232233

Thomas,

124b125b,

19

anti-conscription

179180,

186, 301

Bourassa,

anti-Confederates,

187

238b

boycotting

dispute

Anti-Inflation

Lucien,

British

Anti-Combines

181,

See public

of Parliament policy.

Economic

155, 156b, 183

alternative

Asiatic

390

421b

American

167

182

Kevin,

of, 7375

population

357, 358b

Bourassa,

policy.

public

Economy,

Bouchard,

domestic economy

linguistic

66

in, 124125,

144t

foreign

333f

37, 175176,

Robert,

210n

260b

engagement

evolution

257b

285286

of Internal

Borden, Trade,

282283,

oil sands,

American

Qubcois,

boards,

168

40, 51, 51b, 74, 91, 203, 226, 228,

Alberta al-Qaeda,

Bloc

Kim, 182

historical

of, 332335,

Yves-Franois,

grants,

Board

on Internal

3132,

320

216, 296, 327b

358b

Results

Agreement

300

rights,

Neil,

block

216

agents provocateurs, Alberta,

Blanchet,

421b

357358,

191,

Black Bloc anarchists, 211

Campbell,

143b,

52, 52f

Bissoondath,

158

and,

agencies,

330

381t

136137

Gordon,

civic

35, 38, 35

passage

174

Campbell,

190

legislature,

101,

parties,

Canada

vs. Indigenous

bilingualism, Bill

magazine,

182,

Maxime,

oil

Act of Union, 1840, 23, 323

voting

R.B.,

bicameral 11, 319320,

Accountability

age,

24b

Berger, Tom, 389

Harmonization,

276

accountability,

advisory

413

Robert,

Bennett,

immigrants,

on Environmental

1998,

campaign

Lloyd,

Bank of Canada, 356

accommodation,

Accord

cadre

Axworthy,

Baldwin,

20

Access to Information

by t indicate tables,

Auto Pact, 1965, 184

B

295

title,

by bindicate boxes, those followed

footnotes.

Act, 357,

384

357

117b Development

414 Judicial

Council,

389

Labour

Congress,

15

Agency

Index

Canadian

Labour

Canadian

National

Canadian

Pacific

Canadian

party

Congress

Railway

160

classical

81, 109

Company,

81

clerk

Canadian

178181

clerk

177178

Public

Canadian

Appointments

Radio-television

Commission,

305

and

Telecommunications

Commission

Reform

Conservative

Canadian

Satellite

Radio,

Canadian

Security

(CRTC),

(CSIS),

in

Canadian

Taxpayers

Canadian

Teachers

tax,

the

World,

Harold,

Federation,

152

benefits, responsibility,

25, 339

committees,

63, 113,

215

departments,

central

departments,

359,

363

(Premier),

68

144t

234t,

343

Conference,

Louise

(Justice),

Charter

dialogue,

Charter

of the

1864, 25 7

387388

French

Language

Charter-proofing,

363, 387

Charter

and

Rights

(Bill

Freedoms,

101),

3839,

38

4849,

conditional

grants,

conduct

unbecoming,

confederal

system,

Confederation

Debates,

chamber, of Interest

freedom

and,

of religion,

historical judicial

7b

review

and,

national

and,

notwithstanding

voting

rights

Michael,

301

Minister),

235,

313

277,

Assembly

group,

citizenship,

qualifying

engagement,

disobedience, society,

Clark,

for,

6869

123125,

141144

166, 167b

(Premier),

282

Copyright

classic

peacekeeping,

classical

democratic

classical

elite

classical

theory,

federalism,

418

theory,

cost,

124

Couillard,

238

Democratic

Republic

of the

and

of

Finance,

362363

Department

of Foreign

Affairs,

242244,

226

271273

Department

of

Department

of

Phillip

336

394

(Premier),

125

Council

of

Canadians,

272, 275

Council

of Federation,

152,

282

213

minister,

281

303,

Viola, 6263,

North

Durham

413

Act, 1867,

2627

2223

2324

Canada, 2729

independence,

Julie,

2930

424

358b

John (Prime

Minister),

56, 182,

420

Dion, Stphane, democracy,

directors,

America

populations,

Diefenbaker,

direct

410411,

reforms, report,

303n

63n

of government

312,

162

309

364365

assistance,

Dickson,

parties,

163b

Government

Economic

cabinet,

prime

political

242,

Regional

minister,

diaspora

and

91

development

185

fees,

of

expanding

275276

Defence (DND), Works

development

Act, 81

Trade, and

414

National Public

departmentalized

Federation

Affairs, 404

Act, 1996, 363

Department

Desmond,

407

110

107110

(DFATD),

democratic

to political

and freedoms,

Development

British

Labelling

Congo,

Department

deputy

Commonwealth

165

of External

Act, 1996,

6

donations,

of legal

Watch,

freedoms,

values,

22

government,

Act, 2011,

corporate

Democracy

deputy

227228

federalism,

210b

on, 108109

democratic

law, 380, 381t

179,

to,

Expansion,

conventions,

Packaging

(CCF),

threat

Services

Amendments

of, 343

9

Department

228229

Act, 1791,

173

56

protection

social,

and, 124125

and,

democratic

235

cooperative

parties

339, 341b,

237,

of, 227,

of changing,

Consumer

political

272t,

of, 223,

interpretations

constitutional

68

participation

rights

226, 271

changes to, 236

Co-operative

Clark, Joe, 308

236,

124b125b

democratic

Canada

future

226,

141142

231f,

documents/aspects

politics

124b

269270,

formal

constitutional

Act, 2000, 54, 227 Christy

of

Constitutional Reform,

34, 49, 52, 55,

279, 287

constitutional

plus, 253

civil

Clarity

on Electoral

Government

223

229232,

Constitutional

318

149

civic

civil

307,

83, 185, 192,

Progressive

Act, 1982, 21, 53, 182, 223, 224226,

judicial

Jean (Prime

Citizens

citizens

Act, 1885, 55

Nathan (Corporal),

citizens

56

189, 191,

124,

political

views

Representative

amendments, Act, 1923,

368t

407

Constitution

81b

Chinese Immigration

195b,

Company

See also

279, 280, 285, 293294,

254261, Oil

404n.

236,

226n,

89,

Senate

Act, 1867, 2526,

Constitution

and, 199

Exclusion

Cirillo,

and, 242243

124b125b

6

representative,

273274, 343,

124,

5

3637

251252,

89,

353354

plebiscitary,

223224,

129

Offshore

(CNOOC),

Chrtien,

Constitution

238b

equality

rights,

National

Chong,

239241

307

democracy,

103b

defined,

Act, 1985, 363

326

liberal,

party

on

312f

270

legislation,

deliberative,

324

402,

278b

process, 311315,

power,

defined, 339

124

constitution,

of, 242

of, 237239,

socioeconomic

Chinese

(Mill),

243

clause,

effects

provisions

voting

Considerations

of, 236237

political

China

383b

and, 66

unity

overview

382383,

212,

Conservative

210n

democracy

party, 159, 175, 179185,

204205,

of, 235236

268n

U.S., 322b

Conservative

development

multiculturalism

on

387

210211,

vs. centralization,

deliverology,

Act, 299

103,

powers

140b, 141f

409, 419

Defence Production

and ethics commissioner,

crisis,

102b

Romo,

deliberative

268,

conservatism,

court

agreements,

300

25, 26f

of interest

4448

14

delegates,

Confederation,

Conflict

state,

135136

126, 139141,

declaratory

claims

285

conscription

101,

and,

decentralization

276

land

Canadian

and,

Seealso diversity

decision-making

conflict

358b 273

4348

debates, campaign, peoples,

Joe, 301302

Congress,

356358, company,

diversity. Canada,

dams,

of Indigenous

53, 59, 61, 64, 66, 102b, 110, 229230 identity

Zellerbach

delegated

confidence

389

D

238b

federalism,

Comuzzi,

142143,

Crown

Dallaire,

259260

Accord, 7, 53, 116, 233234,

Charron,

335338

336

382, 411

comprehensive

369

294295

corporations,

cyberactivism,

294, 381

rights,

competitive

278b

Janice, 361b

280,

368t

255, 255n

363

vs. decentralization,

Whole,

relationships,

communal

Service,

37

Crown,

voting

House of Commons,

common-law

384f, 384n

358b

of the

law,

384

multination/polyethnic

368t

241

381t

Thomas,

Crown

421t, 421b

of lobbying,

and,

380,

James,

in

and,

by, 387388

385386

law,

cultural 299302

missions, 420422,

common

coordinating

Charlottetown

149

of official languages,

359

giving,

the

241

collective

Committees

Charlottetown

396397 276277

bargaining,

Commonwealth,

Jean

law,

357,

central

of

federalism,

commissions,

325

255,

Cross,

family

Freedoms

of, 384385,

Cromwell,

commissioner

agencies,

charitable

381382

War, 405406

collaborative

and

Administrative

criminal

96b

central

Charette,

Courts 177

collective

review

system,

collaborative

161

system

Rights

structure

127

civil law,

of

judicial

253

21, 46,

centralization

367

government,

Program,

Seealso judicial

governing/policy-making

333

codified

Challenges

Charter

360, 361b

9394

commissioner

174

Catholicism,

Charest,

Hillary,

combat

151

party, 174

caucus,

Clinton,

closure,

367

Council,

Senate,

change,

collective

423426

George-tienne, Ken,

catch-all

Service

Federation,

9596,

Cardinal,

Carty,

183

418

Canadians

Cartier,

Alliance,

357

Intelligence

Court

courts.

Privy

of the

Cold

Canadian

47

House,

climate

coalition

81, 357

carbon

of the

Clerk of the

of, 178

overview,

liberalism,

Clear Grits, 24

system

competition,

origins

(CLC),

Railway,

459

36436

180, 192, 212, 292, 305 5

460

Index

dirty

politics,

211

single

disallowance

power,

discretionary

prerogative

Distant

Early

Line),

distinct

270 System

clause,

accommodating,

Elsipogtog employment,

House

of

of judges,

Commons,

political

Dominion

See public

Douglas, Douglas

policy

117b, 185

Gabriel,

Dumont,

John,

Duplessis,

251

Durham

Paris

12

Canada,

2022

Plan, 209 See income

inequality

7375

development

and,

rights,

110

equality

rights,

Nations

7980,

81b

trade

and,

ethnic

diversity,

ethnic

groups,

immigration

401

and, 56

management

of, 8283

Journal,

education,

3435,

Edwards,

Henrietta,

216

campaign,

210n

211

results,

electoral

groups

federalism,

280281

executive

institutions,

and, and,

213214,

214n

160

and, 198201

95t

goods,

district

188

184, 198, 204206

mixed-member

proportional

215219

association,

proportional,

voting, 209

208

208

representation,

election,

7980,

foreign

investment

promotion

and

protection

Agency

(FIRA),

312

331332

on politics,

fuels,

378379

free

Accountability

Court of Canada, 385

Act, 2006,

129130,

130f.

federal

party

federal

Plan A and B, 5354

356

See also

206208

188b

conflict,

342

104

General),

300

fracturing),

12

128, 128t. Seealso voting C.E.S.,

327

153

trade,

7679

agreement

votes,

(FTA),

182183,

185

325326

of association, and

Indian

241

War, 20, 20n

Carl, 370

de libration

du

Qubec

freedoms,

(FLQ),

37,

239241

G G20 countries,

411

G20 Summits,

140,168

Gardiner,

of Yugoslavia,

329,

410n

407

Jimmy,

Gas Tax Fund,

63

288

gender

federalism,

Constitution

Act and,

279280 269270

277280,

evolving,

274277

executive

federalism,

278b

federalism,

local

governments,

280281

283289

288289

of, 268269

19, 25, 103, 161, 416 Michael,

Katherine,

income

163b

498499

inequality

political

voting Gender

fiscal

Fierlbeck,

theory,

Gaebler, Ted, 351

system

Ferguson,

94b

(hydraulic

G8 countries,

asymmetrical

overview

9495,

fragments

fundamental

Federal

Fenians,

104105

308

3940

Federal

Republic

293296

139, 236

pre-Confederation,

politics,

408b

Fox, Francis (Solicitor

Front

elections,

407408,

Michel,

culture

and, 8990 and,

behaviour Equity

in

115

and, 215216

Indian

Regulations

Act,

2011, 248 general

amending

General

Don (Premier),

Gladstone,

344,

40b

replacement,

gerrymandering, Getty,

procedure,

Motors Strike,

generational

81b

80

Review

events theory,

freedom

163b

(FIPAs),

policy,

free trade

16

537t

Investment

Friedrich,

Five,

181 534538,

executive,

free

influences,

decentralized,

129

system,

Committee,

export

federal

199201

behaviour,

and ownership,

free rider,

government,

Federal

202n

Canada,

investment

Franks,

294

Review

federal-provincial

202b

of, 202,

foreign

franchise,

355358

expenditures,

8586

aid,

fracking

elections

of, 198

preferential runoff

179t

209212

overview

electoral

executive

federal

rules/procedures,

voting

302310

farmers,

of, 208210

modernizing,

Elections

dominance,

Famous

211213

finances/expenses

voting

executive

power,

355, 359366

Act, 1970, 331b

foreign

founding

F

elections

timing

departments,

246

246b

Doug,

fossil

297302

F-35 stealth fighters,

platforms/promises,

banks,

French

211

210211,

interest

of, 292293

Chief),

262

Ford,

Fortier,

executive

external

180181

advertisements,

campaigns,

293296

executive,

Drugs

formative

378379

campaigns

2019 election

302310

2002,

257

elections, Phil (National

formal

Expenditure

240

rights,

foreign

dominance,

Act,

489

agreements

6270

executive,

executive

of, 337

45f46f

2014,

Act, 257

Foreign

origins/powers

8183

45f46f

Act,

337

welfare,

Fisheries

47, 115, 215

minorities,

political

7374,

4445,

executive

7273

and, 7680, and,

diversity,

115

formal

peoples,

331

4445,

executive

9296

286b, 287t

265b

Transparency

Governance

overview,

food

286287,

264265,

Financial

Nations

Fontaine,

238239

budget,

ethnicity,

243

payments,

and racial

75t76t

7679

globalization

overview

Nations

fiscal

168, 168n

claims,

and, 128t, 129, 129n, 134135

Food and

ethnic

investment/ownership,

media and,

94

of, 114

262263 fiscal

movements,

equality,

the

of, 7475,

environment

debates,

9293

Agreement,

ethnic

2019

First

agreements, First

changes,

environmental

economy

election

voting

change

peoples

7273

of, 224

sovereignty

fixed-date

Action

Edmonton

94b

climate

248

fishing

of

overview

9495,

registered,

Act, 273

347

government

96b

and,

of, 255

culture

277

2324

See also Indigenous

claims

rights

280

inequality

political

Protection

inequality.

free

3435

and

500b

280

meetings,

Nations.

protection,

settlement

of First

34

358b

policies,

370

Ministers

land

of, 357,

of health

Ministers conferences,

3637

and education,

Act, 298, 355356, 360, 364

First

First

214n

regulation

First

Environmental

E

foreign

Herman,

environmental

1839,

Canadian,

See also Quebec

9596,

environmental

estimates,

Economic

sustainability,

309

Robert,

economic

financial Finer,

9394

equalization

early

institutions,

2324

Report,

Dziekanski,

fuels,

overview,

300

Dye, Thomas,

48,

257b

religion,

international

Maurice, 36

J. Stefan,

45n,

Administration

financial

of, 33

tax,

fossil

28b

Durham (Lord),

Act, 1995,

economy

carbon

Michel, 394

Duncan,

89, 365, 366t

background,

language,

Gilles, 186187

Dumont,

Financial 75t

crisis,

party, 213214, 320

economic

historical

25

and

government,

relations.

development

18501854,

finances

Nationalism

environment,

treaties,

Duceppe,

209

1

Corporation,

EnglishFrench

194

Tommy,

system,

360

conscription

of Canada,

Han,

Dupr,

Equity

1011

policy.

Nation,

Employment

366t

335

minister, 499, 502

election

equity,

of stare decisis, 383b

domestic

Dong,

365,

vote

by industry,

Enbridge

and, 111116

service,

and,

193195

filibuster,

281

First

6465, and,

culture

public

unity

326

system,

24b

employment

391

candidates

doctrine

195b,

electoral

finance

accommodation,

diversity

10

plurality

206t

transferable

232, 232n

See also cultural

local

single

Elgin (Lord), elite

society

in

295296

(DEW

420

diversity.

in

powers,

Warning

member

204205,

131

203204 343

William, 39

344n

80

Index

global

affairs,

Cold

404406

contemporary

liberal

world,

definition,

406407

in,

foreign

policy,

historical

omnibus

407408,

408b

refugees

Trudeaus

413415

immigrants,

record,

world,

412413

403b

404405

World

WarII, 405406 change,

9394,

global

cultural

trends,

118119

global

rules

and

rights,

410

head

412

historical

context.

See also

influx

Good,

362

Louis

A., 310,

government,

Goodale,

goods

1113

Ralph,

and services

Gordon

tax (GST),

Commission,

governance, Governing

284, 333, 341b

304

from

the

Centre

(Savoie),

310

hoist

government constitutional,

defined,

6

and,

8183

executive

branch

expenditures,

of. Seethe executive

income

inequality

and,

peoples

109

group

support,

155157

326329,

327b, 328t

on,

293296,

Act, 334

representation role

Council

appointments,

Governor

Council

(GIC),

Governor in Graham,

Great Depression,

251

human

187, 210n, 216

152,

M, 370371, smuggling,

hunting

35

rights,

hydraulic

271

402404

tax

(HST),

fracturing

283,

283n

539

Minister),

209212,

of judges

cabinet

construction

cabinet

solidarity

218,

175176,

246, 277,

First

and,

301

federalism, and,

powers

Ministers

389390,

of, 308, 312 and,

senators

executive

(fracking),

ministerial

Individual

Rights

inner

1315 overview

of, 15

No More movement,

Ignatieff,

Michael,

immigrant

integration,

185,

263

210,

218

era

180,

292, 296,

cultural

diversity

current

attitudes,

debates

392

and,

and,

and

Refugee

1952,

Imperial

Conference,

1926,

bill of rights,

236

inclusiveness,

in

good

cabinet,

309 groups,

politics

and,

of Advice, Bureau

case,

immigrant,

interest

151

16

303

of Canada,

Reference

159

273 67

groups of, 150 147148 influence

of, 157161

sponsorship/support,

155157 influencing

Act (IRPA),

56

public

organization representation

13

successful

policy,

157165

of, 150151

reasons for joining,

405

government,

Policy, 262

240b

interest

direct

5556

implied

372

313

guilty,

institutionalized

government

56

Protection

policy,

institutionalized

defined, 61, 62f

298n,

proven

activities

67

343

280

45f46f

57f

opinion,

of, 306

meetings,

5661

of, 2122

and nation-building, Act,

4448,

5658,

public

system,

368t public

372

integration,

5961

157165

106107

298,

until

Insurance

reforms,

context

integration

Immigration

275

and

historical 390b,

cabinet,

Insurance

immigration

policy,

299300

Act, 383

78

Instruments

and, 6870

262265

Right of Self-Government

institutions,

67

259n

responsibility,

Protection

Ronald,

initiatives,

12

265b

258259,

134135

self-government,

Inherent

246247

264265,

Indigenous

innovators,

conservative

298, 301, 303n, 308, 308b, 338, 375

elected

for,

Court and,

individual

innocent

contemporary

Harper, Stephen (Prime

cooperative

413

257258

citizenship

255

appointment

for, 262265

and,

Inglehart,

immigration

Buzz, 160

190,

60

I

Viscount,

183, 185,

371t

181

419

Laureen,

194f

humane internationalism,

159160

Idle

Harper,

324, 326

248t

253254

of, 116

schools

guardians,

1701,

sales

activities

voting

110, 113115

by, 248251,

information

ideas,

Elijah,

for change,

Howlett,

effect,

Harper,

faced

proposals

Supreme

329

104,

problems

182, 272, 275

Joseph,

identities,

harmonized

of, 8485

249t

and,

commissioner,

War, 420

power,

poverty

195b

and, 232

of, 247248, culture

public

Peter, 231

Hargrove,

Accord

sovereignty 333f

395396 193194,

information

311, 374

H hard

28f,

and,

political

88n, 90

2122

candidates,

influencing

Thomas,

Haldane,

system

self-government,

325326

in, 203206,

and,

366

Greenway,

Haiti,

330332

20

of immigrants,

19

Canada,

Gulf

of, 236

Howe,

Greenpeace

Greyson,

rights

House officers,

Green party, 176, 180181,

Thunberg

schedule,

of, 324325 in,

settlers,

inequality

254261

90

European

348

Peace treaty,

Greta

styles

by, 20

inequality,

residential

of, 292293

women

Council submissions,

Andrew,

305

297

early settlement

protest

329b

officers,

295b

Governor in

326329,

319

discipline,

presiding

Organization

general,

in

of, 329330,

passage of bills, 332335,

108109

Government governor

government,

328t

Parliament,

party

of, 47n

overview

326

and, 166

and, 228, 231232,

Meech Lake

336337

parliamentary

of, 3

421b

of, 324

officers in

over, 2021

groups

judicial

335336 195b,

255, 259

385n

and, 156b

disobedience

and

330

mission,

8789

peoples

as local

minority/majority

of, 108109

views

Great

features

259,

288289

power

303,

politics,

385,

oil sands

influx

combat

in,

offences,

income

292,

327b,

minority/majority, role

8386,

and, 252253,

260b

interest

23, 23b

335

leaders,

9091 and

Act, 248n, 251n, 252253,

economic

Gad, 104

diversity

8687

human

effectiveness,

Indigenous 259n,

2930

24f

committees,

good, 1113

local,

1812,

approving

331332

workers,

92t

constitutional

House of Commons

economy

work,

distinct

government,

motion,

House

3

2122

Peter, 387

Horowitz,

women,

British rule

issues

23

War of

Hogg,

minorities,

civil

independence,

responsible

315

9192,

visible

84b

of, 138, 140, 140b

big oil vs., 257b

of

2728

rebellions,

90

comparison,

regional,

Alberta

25

Riel,

people,

Indigenous

361b

development

of immigrants,

political

292

360,

90

protesting

indictable

pre-Confederation

Confederation,

40

good

service,

276, 286

The Globe newspaper, David

238b

Accords,

210

Confederacy),

252

public

government;

newspaper,

54

Nations

Health

401 Mail

of, 8386

political

and, 180

(Reverend),

Report,

of the

incidence

Indian

Brent

Hawthorn

climate

375

116

(Six

and, 8990

international

and,

104106,

and farming,

gender Indigenous

268n

Hawkes,

global

Trade

340

Louis,

265b,

War I,

and,

inequality

farmers

and, 277

instability

Haudenosaunee

423426

World

globalization,

Hartz,

and

independence

on Senate,

402

of, 334

government

Quebec

on, 401402

and

Globe and

open

income

and,

407

bills

party system

assistance,

perspectives

the

404

246

Security

open federalism

on, 408410

international

and,

American

Perimeter,

416417

background,

influences

rights

internationalism

North

401

feminism

in

Indigenous

War, 405406

461

152154,

by, 154155

influence

of, 16116

153t

462

Index

interest

groups

(Continued)

theoretical types

kirpan,

perspectives

to,

148149

of, 149150

interests,

intergovernmental

relations,

international

280283,

and regional

410411,

Klan,

Klux

organizations,

international

climate

International

change

Criminal

International

Fund,

international

organizations,

International

Panel on Climate

International

Security

international

2014, 93

281282

federalism,

281282

Inuit,

248,

Lamer,

land

land

by, 20

inequality

claims

political voting

for,

Investment

mechanism,

401

issue-oriented

and Syria), 421, 421b

law

making,

of Her

leadership

J Jean,

Canadians,

Michalle

(Governor

Jessop,

Christine,

Johnson,

A.W.,

Johnston, joint

General),

296,

411

General),

299, 301

336

Charles, 486

Judicial

Advisory

Judicial

Committee

(JCPC),

judicial

Committee,

227,

of the Privy

236,

decisions,

271273,

judicial

independence,

judicial

institutions,

judicial

interpretations,

judicial

review,

judicial

system

227,

dispute

family

law,

appointment courts

and,

diversity Indigenous

of law

392393

388393

action,

legal

aid

programs,

Suzanne,

bills,

Keynesian

economics, XL Pipeline

Kilgour,

David, 327b

King,

William

Minister), 312,

379

Lyon

392

307

342

34,

307

Letters

Patent, 1947, 293

37

Mackenzie

37,

53, 230,

402

179180,

and,

189,

191192,

174

of, 184185

governor,

line

linguistic

diversity,

linguistic

duality,

Lipset,

Seymour 162165

and,

211

187,

210n

Don,

312

Nellie, 378379 William,

28

McGuinty,

Dalton (Premier),

McKinney,

Louise,

287

378379

Beverley (Chief

coverage,

Justice),

of election

392

campaigns,

219

Lake

Accord,

Arthur,

319320,

322b,

to

Honor,

system,

20, 2728,

139, 248, 248n, 257258.

See also Indigenous

Mexico,

policy,

First

Milgaard,

Nation,

Voters

Milliken, Milner,

ministers.

49, 52f

ministers

Martin, 104106

ministers ministry,

501 2, 311b

David, 394 engagement,

(MDG),

peoples

140, 147, 166, 400

7879

Mikmaq

422423,

422b

Act, 1917, 128

Stuart,

124,

125

Development

Goals

414

Peter, 393b, 330 Henry,

127

Seecabinet of state,

without 29829

203,

311, 312f,

33b, 275

Military

46

158159,

354

military

131

(MPs),

Cabinet (MC),

172, 251b

363364

255,

335

374f

Millennium

359,

53, 232233,

295b

of Parliament

217219

270n

1987,

301, 343

Mill, John

effects on voting,

departments,

lobbyists,

and,

and, 184185

103b

lieutenant

campaigns

174

microeconomic

2015 election, 103,

185, 192, 295,

148

election

MeToo movement,

politics

Ron, 287

Minister),

327b

Elizabeth,

Mtis,

184185,

and, 195b

Liepert,

258b

Mazankowski,

merit

internationalism,

life-cycle

23, 30, 36, 56, 184, 295b, 296,

383b

Donald, Jr., 258b

media,

374,

6, 7b

behaviour

Canada

31

party, 174

238b,

Mercier,

party,

See Atlantic

Movement,

market-oriented

Memorandum

(Premier),

party system instability

(Prime

356

Rights

307,

democracy,

liberal

382

94

292

Maritime

Members

Jean,

liberal

143b

384n

provinces.

Meighen,

358b

Lesage,

Ren

service,

Judy, 319n

Atlantic,

Meech

vs. American,

320

Brothers,

2

medicare, 185, 303

Canadian

diversity

83, 275

John,

media

294

ideas/performance

project,

308b,

McLachlin, 336

327b, 328t

264

Act, 1870, 35

McDougall,

333f

review,

legitimacy,

386n

Keystone

making,

167b

32, 35, 40, 51, 61, 111, 139, 226,

Maritime

May, decision

332335,

brokerage

82

255,

mass parties,

375

power,

195b

Maynard,

2728,

McClung,

legislative

liberalism,

John

160161

238239

winning

Keynes,

groups,

204, 208, 210

139

Nation,

community

Manning,

mass

394

committees,

395b

K

261n,

Marxist theory,

385n

of judicial

rights,

voting

kettling,

204, 326329,

Corporation,

306307,

385,

legislative

380

I (Emperor),

190192

of interest

model

Liberal

Fund,

government,

marriage,

232, 237

making,

and,

duty, 386387,

Justinian

legal

395396

of, 393397,

LaMarsh

jury

389b

and, 380384

problems

330

Nations, 404

Lvesque,

independence,

laws rule

388393,

384388

and,

Opposition,

190192

218

appeal,

Lehman

of judges,

decision

judicial

Judy

resolution/collaborative

396397

in, 391

judicial

Loyal

company,

314f

Makivik

Marine

217

1985, 304

majority

Manley,

319

337

184

313,

Paul (Prime

legislature,

alternative

389

1989,

Bloedel forestry

Estimates,

Martin,

to

25,

306

selection,

legislative

383b

Harold,

leadership

subordinate,

382384,

Alexander,

Macmillan,

rulings,

369

271273

Mackenzie,

Marshall

leave

19,

163b

Marshall,

of

227,

Peter,

192

group,

Minister),

Commission,

305306

388393

Constitution,

Royal

250,

legislation

of

Commission,

Macdonald

power,

Legault,

285

227

Macdonald

review,

legal

Council

161n

Minister), 35, 184, 190

Majestys

163 A. (Prime

leadership

legal

392

John

leadership

League of

363

David (Governor

Program,

conventions,

Leadnow

472b

committees,

Jones,

236

Jason,

Macdonald,

Manitoba

210,

G., 361b

MacDonald,

Manitoba,

Justice),

186,

272

105106

Maliseet First

381t

Jack,

leader

Japanese

21,

mandatory

parliamentary,

380384,

Layton,

151

and, 3435

37

Wilfrid (Prime

case,

Kevin

MacKay,

239

Support

Pierre,

Bora (Chief

laws,

groups,

395

112

4852,

Rights

Laporte, Laurier,

420421

State of Iraq

256,

and, 309

and,

211

288289

Day Act, 237, 237n

Main

relations

rights,

Laskin,

7879 ISIS (Islamic

24b

52

culture

Language

isolationism,

282,

259260

of, 46

language resolution

Prohibition

MacMillan

political

128t

dispute

226n,

334

EnglishFrench

Canada, 80

318,

Lucien, 255257,

192195,

28, 31, 33b, 40, 182, 184, 269, 339, 404

Justice),

construction

of, 114

128,

204,

(Sir),

(Chief

diversity

of, 259

investor-state

Iraq,

Antonio

cabinet

and, 90, 92t

culture

95, 144,

language

See also Indigenous

settlement

governments,

M

77

337

bilingualism,

income

5658,

Louis-Hippolyte

claims,

peoples early

78,

Report,

Lamoureux,

federalism,

intrastate

case, 272

286b, 287, 300, 308, 395 Lambert

212

282283

interstate

local Lords

86

3233,

Lafontaine,

cooperation,

candidates,

Local

40, 40b,

unions,

Labrador,

420

408

248n.

Conventions issues,

labour

Force (ISAF),

and,

47

936

Act, 2008, 164165

local

Lynch,

Labour

411412

campaigns

interprovincial

William,

L labour

411

Assistance

trade,

election

9394

Change,

63

Protocol,

162164

Lobbying

Loyalists,

agreements,

Court, 411b

Monetary

lobbying,

Alan, 58

Kyoto

411b

29,

Ku

Kymlicka,

342

of, 6, 7b

War, 419

Kurdi,

13

Internet,

banning

Kosovo

ministers

297

portfolio,

298

Index

minor

parties,

minorities. minority

176177

North

See visible

minorities

government,

204,

326329,

minority language

education

minute

297

of council,

Missing and and

mixed

modernizing Morin,

North

(NAFTA),

Women

(MMP)

207,

elections,

Guy

Mulcair,

Thomas,

Mulroney,

Brian

Treaty

Agreement

395

Nova

and

Parliament

Trade

Organization

(NATO),

421b

pipelines,

Territories,

257b

29, 288, 297

website,

Scotia,

239, 240241,

279,

2526,

26f,

29, 31, 62, 178,

33b,

275

nuclear

186, 192

(Prime

weapons,

Nunavut,

Minister),

158, 164,

182,

29, 92t, 114, 260261,

Nye, Joseph,

Gurbaj

Singh,

multiculturalism,

immigration

Multiculturalism

multilateral global

7b

and, 6566

Act, 1988,

66

rights,

412

and

international

and regional

410411,

Multilateral

Agreement

multination

organizations,

on Investment,

162

state

ethnic

and racial

linguistic

and

diversity,

religious

multiparty

systems,

multiparty

systems,

4445,

45f46f

diversity,

46

177, 179, 181 with/without

dominant

Munk

School

Murphy, Muslim

of

Emily,

Global

210

63

Napoleonic Narcotics

Control

Act, 240b on the

Status of

Defence Act, 302 Energy Program, 1980, 32, 91,

183184, 268, 276 National Household Survey,

2011, 326

minorities, 47 Policy, 1879, 31, 91

national negative

Occupy Occupy

unity, 243 campaign

ads, 211 148

Office of the (OCHRO),

206, 224, 233, 239, 258b, 268, 279, 339, 384n New Democratic Party (NDP), 111, 175177, 180181, 185186, New France, 20 New Public New Public

189, 205, 207, 327b

Governance (NPG), 350353 Management (NPM), 350, 351t,

352353, 373 new social movements,

old-growth forests, Oliver, Joe, 313

Nisgaa tribe,

255256,

Officer

Officer,

260b, 259

188b,

government,

discipline,

13

325326,

338

213215

216217,

190192,

organizations,

217n

303

leaders,

candidates

and

198

since

367369,

competition,

prime

pay

89

equity,

order,

Pearson, 306,

and

Perl, Group,

156b

151 Minister),

181

371t

permanent

residents,

personal

prerogatives,

Plante,

56

295296

Francois,

82,

111, 125b, 131, 283, 287, 392, 395 Cooperation

334

democracy,

plebiscites,

61, 7374,

theory,

policies,

Senate review

and

148

policy

communities,

policy

cycle approach,

policy

(OECD),

and

411

internationale of American

maker,

States (OAS),

political

411

David, 351

labs,

270t

as, 303

Action

Committees

(PACs),

214

culture

analysis

of, 102107

diversity

and, 111116 of, 100102

formative

events

founding

fragments

symbols

theory,

theory,

approaches

political

education,

political

efficacy,

political

executive,

political

ideologies,

political

independence,

political

interest

political courting,

104105

theory,

104

106107

of, 102b

theoretical

94

372 minister

values, 118

post-materialist 356

158n

370

prime

explanation

P

158,

policy reflecting Political

de la

411

Management

System, 312

policy innovation Co-operation

of, 341

Expenditure

297 Economic

680

7n

pluralist

Policy

System

374

plebiscitary

Trade and

of, 269270,

49, 184,

426

A., 370371,

277

powers

272273

Peter, 300

order-in-council,

Osborne,

government,

418420

420,

open federalism,

Organization

142

good

Party of Canada,

(PPBS),

2009, 283

Francophonie,

303

Planning-Programming-Budgeting

96, 105106,

Development

and,

Persons case, 378379

177, 201b, 203, 223224,

LOrganisation

179t

418420

312,

Peoples

online voting, 201b Ontario, 3133, 35, 40, 40b, 5051,

for

minister

Lester B.(Prime

Penashue,

186

179180,

Reference, 1981, 227

patronage,

peak associations,

360

188b

330

peacekeeping,

338

179

178179

of, 177178

peace operations,

368t

4950,

1993,

vs. provincial,

whips,

peace,

On Liberty (Mill), 125 ONeill, Brenda, 115

Ontario-Quebec

platforms,

Pay It Forward (film),

House of Commons. See House of Commons members of, 158159 259260,

55, 113,

189

financing,

Patriation

Canadian, 319322 functions of, 319320

Nicol, Rob, 163 niqab, 69b, 113

party

post-1993

Olson, Mancur, 153 omnibus bills, 12, 334

Paris Agreement, Parliament

282

conventions,

party

167b

384n, 395 Newfoundland

Employees, 243 New West Partnership,

in good

party

235 53,

confederation1993,

of Financial

Languages Act (OLA), multiculturalism, 48

Parizeau, Jacques, 38 Parlby, Irene, 378379

of Public

participation,

overview

367n Budget

of the legislature, bilingualism, 49

Newfoundland, 2729, 32, 78, 95, 144, 204, 226n, 228, 233, 243, 255, 282283, 287, 308, Association

232, 234

federal

Chief Human Resources 361, 362f, 365

Page, Kevin, 367 parent Crown corporations,

165168

3738,

competition

Office of the Ombudsman, Office of the Parliamentary

Organisation

New Brunswick, 12, 19, 2123, 2526, 26f, 35, 4952, 51b, 74, 96, 130, 182, 187, 200, 204,

Qubcois,

228229,

94, 160, 407

Ocean Dumping Control Act, 273 October Crisis of 1970, 37

Agreement,

neo-pluralist theory, Nevitte, Neil, 138

299

supremacy,

movement, 140, 140b Toronto movement, 84

86, 89, 9192,

national political culture. See democratic values National Research Council (NRC), 357, 360

secretaries,

parliamentary

party systems

240b

Oil Sands Consultation Advisory Old Age Pensions Act, 1927, 185

Women (NAC), 156157 National Council of Welfare, 155, 158

national National

Edwin,

Official Opposition status, official party status, 187

Code, 382

nation, defined, 47 National Action Committee

National National

David

Official official Mark, 390b

parliamentary

party

officers official

Band, 257

N Nadon,

O

Institutions, 358b officers of Parliament,

378379

population,

Musqueam

Affairs,

330332

367

366369

members, 187195

337, 367 Office of the Superintendent

party, 178, 180

306

schedule,

party leaders,

402

Oakes test, 239, 240b Obama, Barack (President),

411b

leadership,

parliamentary

party

Oakes,

actor rules

officer (PBO),

party identification,

297

185, 232, 301, 306, 312, 334, 341, 341b, 351, 411 Multani,

Act, 318

budget

parliamentary

party

420

vs., 322b

Canada

institutions,

Parti

224, 283, 339, 384n

(Premier),

of

parliamentary

212

clause, 2, 1823,

See Senate

parliamentary

419420,

Gateway

notwithstanding

46

Oliver

Trade

387388

Paul,

Mowat,

Senate.

407

NotaLeader.ca

202b

Command

U.S. Congress

Security

Atlantic

Northwest

Defense

403b

16, 402, 405406,

294295

mother tongue,

7778,

American

Northern

259

Free

Perimeter,

electoral

207n

238 255257,

Aerospace

406, 420

American

North

206n,

treaties,

monarchy,

239

Indigenous

proportional

125b,

mobility rights, modern

rights,

328t

250251

member

system,

327b,

North

Murdered

Girls,

American

(NORAD),

463

112 293, 297302 103

and

marketing, 175

to, 103104

320

of Canada, knowledge,

digital

2930

126127

media, and

464

Index

political

officers,

political

participation

campaign

366

prerogative

activism,

defined,

prime

ethnocultural

diversity,

elections,

indigenous

135136

134135

groups/social

membership,

movements,

activities,

sub-national

voting

140b, 141f

137138

elections,

130131

youth,

132134,

133t

parties

definition

federal

election

interest

groups

local

of 2019, 172173 and,

candidates,

membership

origins

in,

136137

party systems policies

and

public

policy,

roles

181187

160

and types

defined,

23,

ideas

16

and, 1315 15 and,

legalization power

and,

views

3

on, 108109

rights,

polyethnic

state

ethnic

and

racial

diversity,

and religious

polyethnic

rights,

4445,

diversity,

48

self-government

rights,

4748

special representation rights, 48 state and cultural diversity, 4647 polyethnicity Canada,

immigration

and, 5562, and,

population populism,

112,

29, 29f, 203

theory,

post-materialist

values,

8485,

Roddy, 257 Steve,

provincial

government

party

provincial

political

Appointments bills, 332

public

bureaucracy

rights,

3638

women, 39 voting,

207

3338

crisis,

3738,

3637

5255

of, 3536

Revolution,

racial

diversity,

racial,

ethnic,

37

4445, and

45f, 46f

religious

356

minorities measures,

discrimination

6465

and exclusion,

integration,

multiculturalism, racial

and,

minorities,

Radio

349

Reference

Ramesh,

bureaucracy,

rational

6263

67

6566.

See also reasonable

359366

elite, 364365

renewal,

of threes

and,

model,

360,

148,

vision

reasonable

limits

rebellions,

23, 2728

8

recess,

parliamentary,

River

380,

381t

policy

157165

information

guardians,

question,

and,

157165

375376

advisers,

formulators, stages

public

servants,

evaluators,

(cycles)

7, 7n, 3638,

229,

235n

and

255

5355,

184, 186187,

approach,

Senate,

342344

and retaining,

375b

371t

and,

Reform

Act, 192, 314n, 342343

Reform

party,

refugees,

370372,

204206

minister/cabinet

Regan,

372

system,

prime

Refugee

372375

policy

Nation,

230n

referendums,

electoral 372

372

groups

230,

233235,

319

reform

of, 347

influencing,

239, 240b

2728

Lake First

cases,

Regina

6, 6n,

179,

183,

191

System, 5860 56,

5859,

402

68

330

settlement,

Red Sucker

156

relations,

by Parliament,

reference

149

376

group,

clause,

recalls,

303

groups,

anti-feminist

accommodation,

Red

350,

of international

366369

370

149,

reasonable

recruitment, 350,

371t

model, 373

361b

349

272n

theory,

Women

realist

369

institutions,

sector

choice

REAL

355358

6270

case,

R., 370371,

rational

349355

parliamentary

recruiting

opinion,

Queen, 293295

56

Commission,

institutions,

policy

3839

Nationalism,

383b

and public

accommodation

on,

interest

382,

Nationalism

immigrant

institutions,

innovators,

Code,

anti-discrimination

of bureaucratic

open

4346

regionalism,

3338

111112

departments,

law,

37

4748

R

366t

definitions

3940

the

in, 131t

188b

diversity/representative

executive

239241

5455

Quiet

sectors

executive

and,

of, 112113

342

conscription

270t

nominees,

public

5253

clause

Civil

33

Public

in,

Quebec

3033

face,

relations,

trends

cultures,

rights,

365,

and,

roots

politics,

35

Act, 1774, 21, 34

Act,

in Senate, 342

provincial

public interest

4851

Senate

137138

turnout

226n

and, 49, 52f

Quebec

384

of, 269270,

public

relations,

EnglishFrench

preferential

Elections,

public

farmers/workers,

Quebec

courts,

rule

System

and,

independence,

modern,

Provincial

106

issues

CanadaU.S.

129, 205,

34

Canadian

for

Quebec 121125,

in,

duality

culture

279280

in, 209

Quebec independence

Immigration

and,

private law in, 381, 381n

5960

106107

257

pre-Confederation

330

283,

relations

and, 228236

amendments

self-government,

parliamentary,

223224,

federalism

issues

political

211

system,

203,

Constitution

identity

quest

representation

Canadas

151,

notwithstanding

349350

campaign,

provincial

public

Powley,

provincial

movement,

choice

84b

minorities,

party

activities,

274275

campaigns

national

367369

Conservative election

142

Seealso EnglishFrench

language

party, 106n, 158, 174,

232, 234, 341, 392. See also

public

power, 3 Powley,

Parliament,

153

19, 21, 148,

linguistic

of

355,

406

Robert,

election

306

292, 301, 360, 360n,

179, 182183,

proportional

incentives,

Vladimir,

constitutional

300301,

Act, 356

357

Q

500b

297298,

Conservative

public

172

post-materialist poverty,

62f

67

growth,

350

374f

officers

levels

47

integration

Office (PCO),

373374,

judicial

and, 6869

defined,

45f46f

46

Act (PSEA),

quasi-federalism,

and,

Council

influences

4448

citizenship

(Taylor),

Protection

360

asymmetrical

policy

Privy

provincialism, 48

Employment

332

293294,

provincial/territorial

87

polyethnic

linguistic

286b

Service

Canadian

health

provincial

of equalization,

Poloz, Stephen,

bills,

representation

13 of, 242

Public

382390.

Council,

powers

and, 16

interests

politics

on,

355,

Putnam,

367, 367t

Privy

Protestantism,

2n, 13

institutions

sector, 348

2012,

influences

identity,

members

private

protest

Commission,

Putin,

350, 363 Management

Service

purposive 201b,

Disclosure

368t

Public

Quebec,

private

Protecting

politics of, 1316

143,

364

commissioner,

Servants

381, 381n

prorogation,

of, 173177

analysis

27, 130,

348349,

Public

359,

206n 338n

of, 189

external

bills, 332

promises,

performance,

of, 338,

structure

private

Progressive

and, 177181 electoral

recognition

candidates,

25,

of Scientific

commissioner,

Progressive

organizations: leaders, members, 187195

359360

privacy

procedural

190192

Office (PMO),

theory,

The Principles

364,

of, 178

party leaders, party

160

192195

309310

Island,

privatization,

of, 172173

313315,

cabinet,

sector,

public sector integrity

203, 206, 207n, 226, 308, 339, 342

private law,

as. See voting

political

in

139

Edward

principal-agent

online activism and, 139141, overview, 127129 protest

137,

136137

public

390b

Ministers

Prince

295b

147n. See also

293, 297, 303306,

minister-centred

Prime

137144

interest

minister,

prime

294296,

147148,

groups

389391,

129130

peoples,

informal,

groups,

interest

136137

123

federal

powers,

pressure

412413

Geoff, 330 Manifesto,

1933,

regional

alliances,

420

regional

political

cultures,

185

11111

313315

Index

regional

representation,

regionalism

in

British

Columbia,

Labrador,

3233

Maritimes,

31

Ontario,

securities

regulation,

274n

security,

Canadas

national

3233

Council,

security

Registered

priorities,

Scott,

and,

128t,

129,

9192,

129n,

92t

for

248n

institutions,

Nisgaa,

357, 358b

212 (Osborne

& Gaebler),

351

of, 46

voting

of, 113

behaviour

religious

and,

diversity,

religious

rights,

removing

in

216

46

minorities,

religious

6270

Report on Business

192

magazine, 358b

representation

in

and,

House

of

minority,

Commons,

203205,

339,

342

203

bureaucracy,

representative

365, 366t

democracy,

reservation

powers,

56

power,

responsible

justice,

396

2728,

28b,

Louis,

Roma community, Roosevelt,

23, 24b, 2728,

good

government,

33b,

139,

182

D. (President),

Commission,

Royal

Canadian

Royal

Canadian

Royal

Commission

405

Police

(RCMP),

on Aboriginal

250

Peoples,

304

Care

in

on the

Canada,

Proclamation

Rudin,

Jeremy,

rule

of law,

rule

of threes,

running

Future of

Health

304

of 1763, 2021,

251, 255

358b

380 349

for

office,

election

Russell,

Peter, 328

Russian

Federation,

Rwandan

Saskatchewan,

31,

John

Ralston,

63, 138,

143144,

226,

127b

Donald,

310

Scheer,

Andrew,

180181,

schools,

6, 7b, 246247

Schreiber,

Karlheinz,

Edward

scientific

management,

350,

Campbell,

Scott,

Thomas,

28

social

media,

social

rights,

Social

330

General), 350n

252

295

183

141f,

210211,

1999, 276

103b

426 153

Violence

special

examinations,

356

special

representation

rights,

Claims

Theresa

Tribunal,

(Chief),

power,

sponsorship

terrorism,

407

to

public

Samuel,

policy,

370,

371t

214

387

333334 de, 141

110 24,

530

381 policy,

539540

cabinet, payments,

Trans-Pacific

184, 401

99, 351

19

transparency,

Minister),

(TPAs),

Alexis

transfer

164n, 183, 183n,

Minister),

Debate, 331

allocation,

traditional

306

Louis (Prime

Allison,

Speech

trade

163164,

(Prime

158 advertisers

261

276277

5758

287288

Paul, 366

Toronto

310

workers (TWFs),

Margaret

tanks,

331

dichotomy,

scandal,

approach

foreign governments,

tolerance,

138

175

Act, 271

Tocqueville,

73,

350

territorial

tort,

381t

advances,

temporary

Tilley,

48

380,

284t

Temperance

time

261

spender-guardian spending

Against

362

Frederick,

Throne

336

the Throne,

342

154n,

283284,

Thornton,

House, 334, 338, 367

committees,

Specific

taxes,

154,

Thomas,

special

claims,

law,

third-party

Women, 336

specific

veto,

expenditures,

think

264265

on

257b

344n

of, 384385

Thatcher,

406

Committee

343,

421b

Taylor,

welfare, 488

Special

236

of, 369

technological Agreement

stages

210b

139, 165168

Social Union Framework (SUFA), 493

of the

and,

31

tax tax

140b,

by, 273274

Tannas, Scott, 343

Agreement,

Union,

238b,

T

9

claims,

237,

and, 258259,

reforms,

suspensive

103b,

incentives,

390b

women in Senate and, 379

19

Union Framework

St. Laurent, 298

(Haudenosaunee),

215

power, 402404,

Freedoms,

by, 387388

of rights

rights

structure

tariff,

speaker

bill

staff

330

242

103,

388393,

and

interpretations

indigenous

Taliban,

140,

Rights

on Senate

movements,

social

218,

319 of state,

democracy,

Spence,

(Governor

Duncan

secretaries

social

Speech from

Scott, scrutiny,

183184,

164

Schreyer,

conservatism,

of judges,

of

implied

205t

177

142

Indigenous

291b

Savoie,

class, 115

social

Soviet

241, 282, 343, 384n Saul,

social

sovereignty

407, 419

51b,

characteristics,

solidary

407

marriage,

203204,

F., 373

social

soft

S same-sex

254,

Catherine

314f

governing/policy-making

electoral

249250

capital,

38, 54, 86, 161, 198,

constitutional

208

(SMP)

Confederacy

socialism,

208

genocide,

129,

social

social

202203

system,

system,

Albert J. (Premier),

Smith,

333

of Canada,

appointment

357

Scoop,

Smith,

150

Mounted

Royal

vote

government,

nations

390b

313,

240b

parliamentary,

Sixties

304

Legion,

Commission

runoff

Six

81b

Franklin

sittings,

384n, 389390,

Estimates,

230

306 plurality

Canada,

307 165

384385,

Court

227,

264, 265b, 268n

motion by a minister,

Rowell-Sirois

299 1213

Sirius

courts,

Charter

124b,

130131

movement,

Supreme behaviour,

134

legislation,

Supplementary

275

Act,

327b

elections,

superior

330

Citizenship

143b, 148

subordinate

on voting

transferable

decision

program,

sub-national

National

7b

single-party

278b

government,

restorative

on 341

War, 20

Jeffrey,

participation

219

Belinda,

suffrage

programs,

system,

246247

in

396

single-member

269271,

responsiveness,

263,

single

295296

schools,

circles,

religion,

of judicial

Canadian

Vote

students,

Committee Defence,

public

69

Stronach,

341b

Act, 2011, 343

influences,

Simpson,

power, 270

residential

Royal

Sikh

against

154, 154n

voting,

Student

and

248n

1931, 30, 224, 226, 401

454n

model

2014,

217219 1985,

law, lawsuits

strategic

339

339

parliamentary,

short-term

129n,

48

making, 392

343

Standing

shared-cost

343

Act,

representative

routine

Reform

Seven Years

of, 324325

residual

Senate

128,

Westminster,

strategic

of, 340342,

4748 rights,

149

(SLAPPs),

340n

rights,

theory,

Strengthening in,

Act, 1867,

sessions,

339340,

establishment,

Senate

sentencing

319

Representation

Riel,

324325

343

Senate,

reserve

342344

Security

regional/provincial, styles

for

reform,

326

Parliament,

in

reasons

Senate

diversity

statutory

319n, 320

significance

leaders,

355358

of, 338339

Parliament,

representation

6, 7b

party

to,

overview

importance

agencies,

of

strategic

appointments

political

in

public

4647

48

representation

Indians,

Statute

Senate

religions diversity

Status

Information,

336n

diversity,

rights,

state-centred

4748

149

semi-independent

Government

special

260b

groups,

335336,

self-government

minorities,

to

3

polyethnic

263264

259260,

self-interest

defined,

4748

Access

Orders, 330, 335, 337, 338

state and cultural

265b

261265

national

on

and Ethics, 375

committees,

state,

264265,

rights,

issues/challenges,

of financial

Reinventing

right,

indigenous,

inequality

Committee

Privacy Standing

417418

self-government

Indians,

regulation

405

self-determination

3132

income

goal,

standing

Security

30

Prairies,

Standing

and global

417423

3233

overview,

Reid,

342

32

Newfoundland,

regions,

Senate,

and provincialism

465

309 284,

284t

Partnership good

Treasury

Board, 355

Treasury

Board

Treasury

Board submission,

Treaty

Paris,

of

(TPP),

government

Secretariat,

1763,

20, 24

79, 79n and,

360361

311, 374

12

466

Index

Treaty

of

Utrecht,

Treaty

of

Washington,

Trebilcock,

Michael,

Tremblay, trial

1713,

485

Solange,

courts,

triple-E

394

384

reporting,

Triple-E

367

Senate,

183,

228,

Trudeau, Justin (Prime 176b,

V

20

404

185, 188b,

232,

343

195b,

203,

218,

247,

257b, 266, 277, 281, 299, 303, 303n, 305306, 308310,

308b,

355356,

390, 392, 402404,

Trudeau,

Pierre

334,

(Prime

65, 87, 107,

229230,

313314,

120,

338,

340, 344,

47,

180181,

2015

Vietnam

Minister),

campaign,

two-and-a-half

211b,

308b

party systems,

178

two-party

systems,

177178

two-row

wampum

belt tradition,

18, 295

and,

Elections

Betty,

Union

Nationale,

unitary

system,

268

405, 418419

United

Nations

Declaration

Peoples,

2009, 265 Convention,

Rights

of

Nations

Refugee

United

Nations

World Food Program (WFP),

United

States

60

relations,

404

322b

and,

Declaration

The

Society

Upper

Clyde

132134

2018,

7980

1011

(Cardinal),

Canada treaties,

Rights, 412

253

change

17641836,

251

Westminster

in,

128t

40

Organization

War I, 404405

World

War Il,

(WTO),

76, 362

405406

Wayne

G., 361b

Kathleen,

188b,

elections

mandatory for,

Western

267,

281

and,

228

and,

service

143b

political

culture

political

participation,

Yukon,

129130

community of, 116

132-134,

133t

532533

29, 288

and, 228

183,

205,

and, 343 105

system,

127128,

J.S., 185

Trade

Yugoslavia,

amendments

socialism

39, 128, 165

World

233

constitutional

in,

39

pre-Confederation,

federal

128

of, 31, 91

parties

of, 115

378379

for,

Wynne,

See also specific

Senate reforms

195b

39, 165, 168

Y

constitutional

political

of Human

195f,

youth

Act, 1917,

(Premier),

by, 392

193,

culture

Wouters,

212

Elections

alienation Agreement

Universal Unjust

130f, 131t

provinces

War of 1812, 24f diversity

World

Weber, Max, 348 Western Canada.

7879

US-Mexico-Canada

unity,

Christopher,

Wartime

414

Wells,

and,

legislature,

190192

and,

8789

making

World Bank, 538

War of 1812, 24f

United

CanadaU.S.

candidates,

Senate,

39

and,

as local

workers,

and, 134135

129130,

people

Waddell,

Commons,

decision

Woodsworth,

128t

W on the

of

judicial

voting

36

Nations,

trade

127129,

193

40b

106

inequality

suffrage,

federal

of, 199203

rates,

young

House

in

204206

turnout

United

free

and

peoples

180,

pre-Confederation,

132f

diversity

leaders,

systems,

of Indigenous

343

Indigenous

144t

135136

context,

party

Jody,

Nelson,

political

of, 132,

379

Wiseman,

income

143b,

282

349

General Strike,

in

Act and, 198, 201

historical

Peoples, 185 Unger,

144f,

Reay,

Woodrow,

188b,

Winnipeg

215219

elections,

265b

Cairine

253

349t, 354

(Premier),

movements,

ethnocultural

Incomes,

women

136

demographics

procedure Rights

Danny

Russell, 358b

mobs, 134

for

on the

195f

of, 343

142144,

behaviour,

406

Declaration

193195,

voting

and

1969,

Williams,

Wilson-Raybould,

9091

45, 45n

representation

on Indians,

Williams,

voting

U UN

88n,

for, 9091

Indigenous

Ukraine,

and,

Senate

Employment

Model, 349350,

Wilson,

candidates,

volunteering,

Paper

Wilson,

inequality

inequality

vote (Prime

238b

minorities

income

on

Whitehall

War, 406

visible

189,

528b

election

Elaine,

5253,

184185,

232, 236, 253, 276, 295, 304, 312,

Charles

Turkey,

White

238b

Vautour,

Paper

1945, 82

216

Anne, 238b

national,

326

Tupper,

Joe,

and,

Vautour,

as local

334

trustees,

Varnell,

403b, 418

Minister),

155,

voting

Verba, Sidney, 125

Minister), 52, 55, 163164,

190191,

White

values,

215

Z Zero

293, 297298

Tolerance

Act, 2015, 6

for

Barbaric

Cultural

Practices