Canada's first nations : a history of founding peoples from earliest times [3 ed.] 019541652X

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Canada's First Nations

A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times

Olive T h ird Edition

P o ^ f ic iO

Dickason

O XFO RD U N IV E R S IT Y P R E SS

Larry Pierre of the Okanagan on the occasion of the First Nations Constitutional Conference, 1980, demanding Amerindian participation in constitutional talks. (Canapress Photo Service)

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

70 Wynford Drive, Don Mills, Ontario M3C 1J9 www.oup.com/ca Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sâo Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in Canada by Oxford University Press Copyright © Oxford University Press Canada 2002 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data Dickason, Olive Patricia, 1920Canada's first nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times 3rd ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-541652-X 1. Native peoples—Canada—History. I. Title. E78.C2D535 2001 971'.00497 C2001-901440-6 Cover Design: Brett J. Miller Text Design: Brett Miller/Gail Nina 4 - 05 04 03 This book is printed on permanent (acid-free) paper © . Printed in Canada

Contents List of Maps, vi Acknowledgements, viii Introduction, x Part I: 1 2 3 4

Part II: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

At the Beginning And the People Came, 2 Settling In, 18 Metropolises and Intercultural Contacts, 32 Canada When Europeans Arrived, 44

The Outside World Intrudes Inuit and Beothuk, 66 On the Eastern Edge of the Mainland, 78 People of the Sunrise, 92 Hurons, Five Nations, and Europeans, 100 Huronia's Loss Is the Bay's Gain, 114 Some Amerindian-Colonial Wars, 126 Amerindians in the French New World, 140

Part III:

Spread Across the Continent

12 13 14

Amerindians in a Shifting World, 152 On the Great Plains, 168 Westward and Northward, 178

Part IV:

Towards New Horizons

15 16 17 18 19

Turntable of 1812-14, 192 Canadian Aboriginal World in the Early Nineteenth Century, 202 Pre-Confederation Administration in the Canadas, 224 The Many Fronts within Confederation, 236 First Numbered Treaties, Police, and the Indian Act, 252

Part V:

Into the Contemporary World

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

As the Old Way Fades, the New Looks Bleak, 270 Time of Troubles, Time of Repression, 284 Leading to an Administrative Shift, 298 Canadian Courts and Aboriginal Rights, 322 First Nations at Home and Abroad, 342 Development Heads North, 354 Social Fact and Developmental Theory, 374 Rocky Road to Self-Government, 392 Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission, 412

Epilogue, 429 Appendix: National Historic Sites of Canada Commemorating Aboriginal History, 432 Notes, 436 Bibliography, 507 Index, 535

List o f Maps

Possible land route for first human entry into the Americas, as well as some archaeological sites, 5 Ocean currents, 7 Aboriginal population densities, 10 Aboriginal language groups, 14 Distribution of maize and cotton in North and Central America, 23 Trans-oceanic exchanges for which there is some evidence, 35 Aboriginal culture areas, 46 Tribal distributions in and near Canada at time of contact, 47 Some prehistoric trade patterns, 59 European penetration of North America, 80 Major central and eastern trade routes, first half of 17th century, 116 Two views of one region, 119 Proclamation line of 1763, 156 Areas covered by treaties and agreements, 254 Riel Rebellion, 1885, 287 Amerindian reserves and settlements, and Canadian population distribution, 302 Plains reserves, Canada and the United States, 306 Kahnawake, Oka, Mercier Bridge, 331 Métis settlements in Alberta, 347 Historic Inuit occupations of Arctic Canada, 356 Major comprehensive claim areas, 380 The Lubicon land dispute, 382 Principal industrial development areas and effects on Aboriginal peoples, 396 Nunavut, Canada's new territory, 408 Aboriginal historic sites, 432

'I am an Indian. I am proud to know who I am and where I origi­ nated. I am proud to be a unique creation of the Great Spirit. We are part of Mother Earth. . . . 'We have survived, but survival by itself is not enough. A people must also grow and flourish.' Chief John Snow, These Mountains Are Our Sacred Places (Toronto: Samuel Stevens, 1977).

S

Acknowledgements

A A Senior Rockefeller Fellowship, which allowed me to spend a year at The Newberry Library in Chicago, made it possible to inten­ sify the research and undertake the writing of this book. For this 1 owe a very special debt to Frederick Hoxie, at that time director of the library's D'Arcy McNickle Center for the History of the American Indian. The Center's associate director, Jay Miller, was unstintingly generous in sharing his knowledge of Amer­ indians, putting me on to tracks that I would otherwise have missed and coming to my res­ cue in my frequent confrontations with the computer. The Newberry Library's staff was a joy to work with, particularly John Aubrey, who always knew the answers when it came to the library's extraordinary collections. Francis Jennings and Helen Hornbeck Tanner provid­ ed invaluable guidance through the mazeways of Amerindian history. An eye-opening experi­ ence was participating in the Transatlantic Encounters Program, organized by David Buisseret of the library's Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for the History of Cartography. Similarly, the library staff of the University

of Alberta has been unfailingly co-operative in the seemingly endless search for detail that this project entailed, as were those of the National Archives and National Library of Canada, M etropolitan Toronto Reference Library, Royal Ontario Museum, Woodland In­ dian Cultural Education Centre, Hudson's Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg, Alberta Pro­ vincial Archives, the Glenbow Museum, the Royal British Columbia Museum, and the BC Provincial Archives. Back at home base, throughout all this, my thesis director, Pro­ fessor Cornelius Jaenen of the University of Ottawa's History Department, was a wise and supportive guide through the mazeways of history. Three particularly useful conferences were the Self-Determination Symposium or­ ganized by the Assembly of First Nations and University of Toronto, 1990; the First Nations Conference on Self Government at Nakoda Lodge, Morley, Alberta, 1991; and the Native Justice Symposium, an all-Native event held in Edmonton, 1991. Many individuals have responded to my fre­ quent calls for help, opening up more avenues

Acknowledgements for exploration than I had time to take advan­ tage of. I owe special debts to Alice B. Kehoe, Catharine McClellan, Joseph L. Peyser, Frank Lestringant, Vicente Cortés Alonso, Philippe Jacquin, Charles Schweger, Milton Freeman, Gurston Dacks, Denys Delâge, Walter Moser, Ron Whistance-Smith, William Phipps, Tom Hill, Sam and Linda Bull, John David Ham­ ilton, John S. Long, Malcolm Davidson, Trudy Nicks, Margaret Carter, Nancy Gibson, Marge Friedel, Muriel Stanley-Venne, Angelina Pratt, George Lang, Desmond Brown, Rod Macleod, Bob Beal, Sheila (Hayes) Genaille, Doreen (L'Hirondelle) Richardson, Eugene Olson, Edward Trzeciak, Jack Douglas, John and Leni Honsaker, and John F. Leslie. When the size of the manuscript taxed the capacities of my computer, Fern Ness, University of Alberta Computing Systems, provided the answer; when the complexities of a new computer

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challenged too vigorously, which it did all too frequently, Robert J. Burns lent a reassuring and very helpful hand, as did Miriam Smith. Several people took the time to read all or part of the manuscript with critical eyes, add­ ing much to its breadth and scope, not to mention accuracy. These included Donald B. Smith, Jennifer S.H. Brown, Alan Bryan, Ruth Gruhn, Stuart Mackinnon, Clifford Hickey, Carl Urion, Jay Miller, Nicholas Wickenden, and Anita Harper. I owe a special thanks to Professor Smith for opening up his picture files to me. Finally, the careful editing of Richard Tallman, of both this edition and the first two editions, was particularly helpful. In acknowledging the help of all those named and unnamed who have contributed so much, I should still point out that the re­ sponsibility for the contents and orientation of this book is mine alone.

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IX

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Introduction

anada, it used to be said by non-Aboriginals with more or less conviction, is a country of much geography and little history.1The ethnocentricity of that position at first puzzled, and even confused, Amerindians, but it has lately begun to anger them. How could such a thing be said, much less believed, when their people have been living here for thousands of years? As they see it, Canada has about 58 founding nations (depending on how they are counted) rather than just the two that have been offi­ cially acknowledged. Even Amerindian studies in the Western sense are not new; an early post-contact scholar was the Amerindian Huaman Poma (Felipe de Ayala), who in 1613 wrote a history of the Inca of Pern, Nueva Cronica y Buen G obiem o. History, for its part, has been described as a document-bound discipline. If something was not written, preferably in an official document, it was not historical. Thus were pre-literate societies excluded from history and labelled prehistoric, or perhaps proto-historic. The best they could hope for was to become historic by extension, when they came into contact with

literate societies. In other words, Canada's his­ tory began with the arrival of Europeans. As if that were not restrictive enough, anoth­ er limitation was added: Canada's history has been usually presented not as beginning with the first Europeans, the Norse, who arrived here about AD 1000, but with the French, who came first as fishermen and later as explorers in the sixteenth century, and stayed to settle in the seventeenth. The arbitrariness of this is evi­ dent when it is realized that the English were hard on the heels of the French and even pre­ ceded them in exploratory voyages, at least one of which, that of Joh n Cabot (d. 1498?), or rather, to use his Italian name, Giovanni Caboto, sailing under the English flag, dated back to 1497. Pushed into the background were the Portuguese, who were also here before the French, exploiting the rich fisheries off the North Atlantic coast, as well as the Basques (usually referred to as Spanish), who may have preceded all the other Europeans of this period in their pursuit of whales. In the sixteenth cen­ tury the Basques transformed the whale runs of the Strait of Belle Isle into a highly profitable

Introduction industry, providing oil for European energy needs, and they penetrated as far north as Davis Strait. W hen Jacques Cartier visited Hochelaga in 1535, he recorded words being used by the Iroquoians that appear to be Basque in origin. The list of Europeans does not end there: the Dutch, leading entrepreneurs, were financing both trading and whaling expe­ ditions, if not always taking part in them; later, they would be associated with Champlain. By the turn of the fifteenth century into the six­ teenth, the waters off Canada's North Atlantic coast were the scene of intense international activity, and Cartier's voyages were in the nature of official confirmation of what was already well known. What was the role of Amerindians and Inuit in all this? Far from being passive partners in European enterprises, as so often portrayed, they were active participants. Indeed, that par­ ticipation was essential to European success: Basque whalers availed themselves of Inuit har­ pooning technology to improve greatly the efficiency of their own techniques; Mi'kmaq (Micmac) sea hunters put their expertise at the service of Europeans to pursue walrus for ivory, hides, and train oil, all much in demand by the latter; and later Amerindians did the same thing in the production of furs, so much sought after for the luxury trade, as status-con­ scious Europeans used furs (among other items) as symbols of rank. It has been estimat­ ed that by 1600 there may have been up to a thousand European ships a year engaged in commercial activities in Canada's northeastern coastal waters. Such activity would not have been possible without the co-operation and participation of the first nations of the land. When it came to penetrating the interior of the continent, Amerindians and Inuit guided the way for the European 'explorers', equipped them with the clothing and transportation facilities they needed, and provided them with food. Their contributions in economic terms

alone were substantial and can probably never be properly assessed. As political economist Harold Innis (1894-1952) expressed it, 'the Indian and his culture were fundamental to the growth of Canadian institutions.'2 In the most profound sense of the term, they are Canada's founding peoples. Because they were oral, rather than literate, peoples (even those who did possess a form of writing had not developed it into a widely shared form of communication), reconstruct­ ing their pre-contact history in the Western sense of the term is a daunting task. Canadian historians have, in the past, found it much eas­ ier to ignore the earlier period; hence the blinkered view of Canada as a 'young' country. Europeans found the Americas populated by a variety of peoples who, in broad terms, shared a general civilization, somewhat as the newcomers did themselves in their own home­ lands. Within that general New World frame­ work was a rich variety of cultural manifesta­ tions: the centralized empire of the Peruvian Inca; the decentralized 'empire' of the Mexica; the independent Mayan city-states of Mesoamerica; the city-state of Cahokia on the upper Mississippi, the largest centre of population north of the Rio Grande; a variety of confed­ eracies such as those of Powhatan in presentday Virginia, the Five Nations in northern New York state, and the Huron in southern Ontario; a collection of chiefdoms of various character­ istics, including those of the Timucuans of today's Florida, the Natchez, Creeks, Cherokees, and others of the southern United States, the Haida, Kwagiulth (Kwakwaka'wakw, Kwakiutl), and others of the northern Pacific coast; and the comparatively simple band com ­ munities of mobile hunters and gatherers. This dazzling variety of cultural particularities has tended to obscure the underlying unity of the Amerindian world view, which saw humans as part of a cosmological order depending on a balance of reciprocating forces to keep the uni-

X)

xii

Canada's First Nations verse functioning in harmony. This contrasts with the Judeo-Christian view of a cosmos dominated by a God in the image of man. In this perspective man is in a privileged position, as up to a certain point he can control nature for his own benefit. These ideological ap­ proaches were reflected in their respective tech­ nologies: where Europeans used metals for tools and weaponry, Amerindians used them mainly to express their sense of cosmological order. Workaday materials in the Americas were stone, bone, wood, and fibre, although copper and copper alloys were also in use in certain areas.3 All were crafted with a high degree of sophistication. In telling the story of the meeting of these disparate civilizations, this book begins with the first appearance of humans in the Americas. Since little is positively known about those dis­ tant events, various theories are described with­ out attempting to nail down the 'truth'. This applies also to the development of agriculture and the rise of city-states, the subjects of Chapters 2 and 3. As British archaeologist Ian Hodder has observed, without certainty 'we do not have the right to impose our own univer­ s a l on the data and to present them as truth.'4 A challenging aspect of our very early history is that so much remains to be found out. Chapter 4 looks at Canada’s First Nations as Europeans first found them, setting the scene (at least in part) for the story of the interac­ tions that followed, which comprises the bulk of the work. The early contact period (Chapters 5 through 11) begins with the brief presence of the Norse but is concerned mainly with inter­ actions of Amerindians and French and with how the two peoples set about developing working relationships. The initial reaction of establishing trade was soon complicated by the French drive to evangelize and to remould Amerindians into the European cultural pat­ tern, characteristics that were shared with

other colonial powers. Europeans generally did not recognize the validity of Amerindian civi­ lizations, classed them as 'savage', and denied their right to sovereignty and even to landed property rights for those peoples living in non­ state societies, which was the case in Canada. Ambiguities soon developed on the latter point, however, even as it was consistently maintained that Christians had prior rights over non-Christians, whether organized into states or not. Because of the smallness of the populations and the importance of the fur trade, land did not become an issue between French and Amerindians in the north as it did with the English and Spanish to the south. The French never recognized Aboriginal right, how­ ever, and when they sought to establish in southern latitudes they encountered the same problems in this regard as other colonizing powers. Even in the north there were violent confrontations: the French-Iroquois War was one of the most prolonged north of the Rio Grande, matched in length only by the BritishMi'kmaq-Abenaki conflict on the east coast. The British takeover in 1763 and the open­ ing of the West to the fur trade, and later to non-Aboriginal settlement (Chapters 12-14), was a difficult period for the Amerindians, as their traditional world became steadily less secure under advancing colonial pressures. Attempts to counter this movement with panAmerindian alliances (which had begun during the French regime and had been vigorously suppressed) met with failure on the battlefield. The turning point was the War of 1812, the last of the colonial wars, which ushered in a new way of life for Amerindians as British imperial power became firmly established (Chapters 15-19). The drive to assimilate Amerindians took on a new intensity; this period saw the beginning of the great land-cession treaties, by which the British sought to extinguish what limited land rights they recognized for Amer­ indians, and Indians sought to work out as

Introduction

Xiii

Canadian artist William George Richardson Hind (1833-89) entitled this painting 'Civilization and Barbarism'. (Metropolitan Toronto Reference Library,

congenial arrangements as they could for accommodating themselves to the new order of things. This was also the period that saw the rise of the Métis, the 'New Nation' born of Indians and Euro-Canadians, who in 1869-70 would make their first stand for their place in the British imperial order. The rapid disappearance of the buffalo herds of the western Plains under the onslaught of commercial hunters (the animal had long since been exterminated by European settlers east of the Mississippi) precipitated an even more des­ perate resistance on the part of the Métis, as well as Cree to a lesser extent. This led Canada to inaugurate a campaign of legislating Native cul­ tures out of existence (Chapters 20-7). The Far North, which until this point had been the purview of whalers and trappers, neither of whom directly attacked the Native way of life, suddenly attracted the attention of southerners when its placer gold was discovered. The Klon­ dike gold rush became a Canadian legend, and the isolation that had protected traditional lifestyles was severely cracked. It was not shat­ tered, however, until after World War II when new technology made exploitation of northern resources economically feasible. The Electronic Age also gave a new meaning to oral traditions, and Canada's original peoples—both Amer­

/.

Ross Robertson Collection, T -33320)

indian and Inuit, as well as Métis—began to cam­ paign for their rights. No longer was industrial development allowed to ride roughshod over Native rights, at least not without a protest. The Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry heralded a change in attitudes, and the James Bay Agreement marked a modification in procedures. But established ways of doing and thinking can die hard, as the 'Indian Summer' of 1990, the Wet'suwet'en decision of 1991, and the post­ ponement of the second phase of the James Bay project at Great Whale River so dramatically illustrate. These and other developments led Ottawa to launch its first major official inquiry in co-operation with First Nations into the situation and the concerns of its Aboriginal citizens. As the five-volume report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples makes clear, what they are asking for is full and equal partnership in the Canadian federation (Chapter 28). Natives have become politically sophisticat­ ed in their campaigns to salvage what they can of their territories and traditional values; the term 'Aboriginal right', originally applied only to land, has now come to include self-govern­ ment. Canada has been slow to acknowledge the Native right to an ongoing interest in their lands and has continued to insist on extin­ guishment of Aboriginal right in return for

xiv

Canada's First Nations specified benefits, mostly of an economic nature but also including political concessions. Both Indians and Inuit have become steadily less inclined to accept such arrangements, and in some cases (such as the Mohawk and Dene) they flatly reject them as violations of their basic rights. Unless the government negotiates self-determination, Amerindians could become a permanently disaffected group, as happened with the Irish in Great Britain. Anthropologist Michael Asch made that point when he ob­ served that denying minorities the right to negotiate their concerns with those in power virtually assures resort to violence.5 Canada once made a reputation for itself as a peace­ keeper on the international scene, a reputation it is having difficulty in maintaining, if it has not already lost it, within its own borders.

The Problem of Interpretation A word about Amerindian tribal classifications is necessary. Labels such as 'Cree', 'Huron', 'Beaver', 'Haida' were imposed by Europeans and do not represent how the people termed themselves, at least aboriginally. In some cases a single label, such as 'Cree', 'Abenaki', or 'Odawa', included a number of distinct groups, more or less closely related by language. These three all belong to the Algonkian language group. The term 'Algonkian' or 'Algonkin' as used in this work refers to language; 'Algonquin' or 'Algonquian' refers to a particu­ lar people living in the Eastern Woodlands who are Algonkian speakers and who on first con­ tact were allied to the Hurons. While many of the Europeanized labels have come to be accepted by the Aboriginal peoples, some have not; for instance, the tundra-dwellers of the Arctic objected to 'Eskimo' on the grounds that it was pejorative as it had come to be popular­ ly believed that it came from an Ojibwa term that translated as 'eaters of raw meat', despite the opinion of linguists that it actually derived

from a Montagnais term meaning 'she nets a snowshoe'.6 The tundra-dwellers won their point, and their term for themselves, Tnuit' ('the people', 'Inuk' in the singular), has been officially accepted. Similarly, the Nootka of the west coast prefer 'Nuu'chah'nulth' ('all along the mountains'), and the Kwakiutl, who had compromised with 'Kwagiulth', have now set­ tled on 'Kwakwaka'wakw' as a more accurate rendition of their tribal name. The Maliseet prefer their own term for themselves, 'Wuastukwiuk', rather than 'Maliseet', which is a Mi'kmaq term that translates as 'broken (or lazy) talkers'. Others include 'Mi'kmaq' for Micmac, 'Nisga'a' for Nishga, 'Gwich'in' for Kutchin, 'Wet'suwet' en' for Carrier, and 'Tsuu T'ina' for Sarcee. The Montagnais and Naskapi, referred to as two separate (although closely allied) people in early documentation, today consider themselves to be one, 'Innu'. How­ ever, since the terms 'M ontagnais' and 'Naskapi' are solidly entrenched in the litera­ ture, these names will be retained for the sake of clarity, particularly when citing early docu­ mentation. When the context is modern-day, 'Innu' will be used. This leads to the problem of a general name for New World peoples. Although the term 'Indian' is recognized as originating in a case of mistaken identity, it has come to be widely accepted, particularly by the Aboriginal peo­ ples themselves. The trouble with that term, of course, is that it is also used for the people of India, who with some justification claim prior right. In Canada, with its substantial popula­ tion from India, this ambiguity is particularly obvious. Francophones have solved the prob­ lem by using 'amérindien', which is specific to the Americas, or 'autochtone', which trans­ lates as Aboriginal. Anglophones have not reached such an accord; in Canada, 'Native' has come to be widely used, but it is not accepted in the United States on the grounds that anyone born in that country is a native,

Introduction regardless of racial origin; their accepted form is 'native American'. In Canada, 'Aboriginal' is becoming widely used by Indians as well as non-Indians. 'Amerindian' has not received popular acceptance in English-language Canada and has even less in the United States. However, as it avoids the ambiguities of 'Indian' and 'Native', and is more specific than 'Aboriginal', it is my term of preference. Problems of translating concepts and even words from one language to another are noto­ rious for misleading the unwary. The word 'father' is a good example of this. For sixteenthand seventeenth-century Europeans, the con­ notations of the term included authority and control of the family. In Amerindian lan­ guages, the term implied a protector and provider, who could be influential but who lacked authority in the European sense, partic­ ularly among matrilineal societies, where mothers had the say over children. The author­ ity figure in such societies was the maternal uncle; when the Iroquois, for instance, referred to the French king as 'father', they were not placing themselves under his authority. If that had been their intention, they would have used the term 'uncle', which they never did.7 Amerindian personal names can present diffi­ culties for non-Indians. Since spellings have not, for the most part, been standardized, there is a great variety to choose from. I have mentioned some of these choices, but it was not possible— or even desirable—to try and list them all. What I have done instead has been to indicate some of the variations to expect. The English versions of these names present another problem; for the most part, the best that can be hoped for is an approximation that touches on only a limited aspect of a range of possible meanings. The cir­ cumlocutions that can result are hinted at in the attempt to transliterate Nescambiouit's name (Chapter 7). In another case, that of Neolin (Chapter 12), the English version 'One That is Four' is given without explanation. The refer­

ence is to spiritual power and knowledge, as four is a sacred number for Amerindians and also refers to the four directions. A usual English ren­ dering is 'The Enlightened', a partial approxima­ tion at best. In many cases names have been so altered by transliterations that their original meanings are obscured. Place names, on the other hand, are in a sep­ arate category. In Amerindian practice, they indicate geographical or ecological characteris­ tics, or else recall a historic event that hap­ pened on the spot. Unlike Europeans, and with one major exception, Amerindians do not name places or geographical features after per­ sons or tribes. The exception concerns reserves, sometimes named after individuals, such as Ahtahkakoop, Poundmaker, and Mistawassis. Northern Quebec has switched to Inuktitut for its place names. Problems of interpretation take on a totally different aspect when considering early Euro­ pean accounts of the Americas. For one thing, as English literary scholar Ian S. MacLaren, a specialist in exploration accounts, has pointed out, there can be variation in connotations of words as used in the sixteenth or eighteenth centuries and today. For another, in the case of published accounts, what appeared in print could differ markedly from what the author had written; publishers were sometimes more concerned about saleability than about veracity. Where the original manuscript has survived, this can be checked, but that is rare with early imprints.8 Since the printed word should not be taken automatically at face value, the researcher is left with the necessity of cross-checking with whatever other sources are available. These are usually few, and sometimes non-existent. Another area that calls for caution is that of dating. Two systems are used in this work: the standard Gregorian calendar with which we are all familiar for the historic period, which uses the abbreviations BC (before Christ) and AD (anno domini, 'year of our Lord'); and the sci-

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Canada's First Nations entific calendar based on radiocarbon dating for the prehistoric period, which refers to dates in years BP (before present). Where the Gregor­ ian calendar uses the birth of Christ as a pivotal point, radiocarbon dating uses the year 1950. Radiocarbon dating is based on the physical fact that the radioactive carbon isotope 14C decays to the stable isotope 12C at a known and constant rate; therefore, measurement of the residual 14C in organic remains indicates years elapsed since the death of the organism. However, the radiocarbon year does not neces­ sarily correspond to the calendar year, due to the changing 14C content of the atmosphere. In technical publications, this statistical varia­ tion is usually included with the date.

A final reminder: the Indian Act applies only to 'status' Indians, that is, those who are regis­ tered and listed in the official band rolls. Non­ status Indians and Métis are legally classed as ordinary citizens. In the interests of simplicity and readability, the distinction is usually not referred to in the text, except in some specific instances where clarity calls for it. The term 'Métis' is used in its French sense, mixture, usu­ ally applied to the crossing of human races, without specifying which ones. On the Labrador coast, mixed-bloods are known to the Inuit as 'Kablunangajuit' and to non-Aboriginals as 'liveyeres', ‘settlers', or perhaps 'Labradorians'.

Part I

At the Beginning

Time Line 75,000-15,000 BP

Ice Ages (Wisconsin glaciation), when Bering Strait land bridge was accessible for migration from Asia.

5 0 ,0 0 0 BP

Human capability of traversing vast stretches of open ocean, evidenced by peopling of Australia.

1 1 ,0 0 0 BP

Bifacially flaked (fluted) stone points and knives dated to 11,000 years ago have been found and identified by archaeologists at both the Asian and North American sides of Beringia. Campsites of peoples of different cultural traditions scattered throughout North and South America.

9 2 0 0 - 8 5 0 0 BC

Fluted spear points, used in bison and caribou hunting, spread across Canada.

9 0 0 0 BC

Northwest Coast culture established, based on salmon fishing and sea hunting— a sedentary culture with permanent settlements due to rich land and sea resources.

8 0 0 0 - 6 0 0 0 BC

Hunting of bison by means of drives and jumps begins.

6 5 0 0 BC

Domestication of dogs as pack and sled animals and for hunting.

6 0 0 0 BC

Migration of eastern Early Archaic peoples to westerns Plains and mixing with Plano (rippled flaking of spear and knife points) peoples creates Plains culture.

Chapter 1

And the People Came

T L , people were living in the Americas dur­ ing the later Ice Ages is no longer debated; what is not agreed on is when the movement from the Old World to the New began. When modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens, 'man doubly wise') appeared on the world scene early during the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000-10,000 BP,1 their cultural development was comparatively rapid, blossoming in an ever-increasing variety through Europe and across Asia.2 Their appear­ ance in the New World is more problematic, as bones have not preserved well in its soils, and identifying early campsites and tools can be dif­ ficult. The two Americas are the world's only continents where the evidence of early human presence has been based on artifacts, not skeletal remains.3 As matters stand at present, the oldest dates for human habitation have come out of unglaciated South America, and the most recent ones for pre-contact migration have come from the ice-bound Arctic. When Europeans stumbled on the Caribbean islands in the late fifteenth century, they found Amerindians in what they considered to be their cultural infancy and assumed they were a young people who could

have been here only for a few hundred years. An observant few, among them the Dominican Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484-1566), recognized traces of early habitation that had become grown over and realized that this could only have hap­ pened over long periods of time.4 Majority first impressions, however, proved to be persistent, and only comparatively recently has a long occu­ pation time depth been accepted for the Americas. This raises the question of the place of origin for Homo sapiens sapiens. Impassioned attempts to prove an American genesis for mod­ ern Indians have not made a convincing case.5 The identification by archaeologist Louis Leakey (1903-72) of fractured pebbles found at Calico Hills, California, as 100,000- to 200,000-year-old tools would establish the presence of pre-modem humans—possibly even of Homo erectus—if he could have substantiated his argument, which neither he nor others have been able to do. Many Indians believe this is the land of their origin, and their myths, with their metaphoric descriptions of the genesis of humans and the present world, are many and varied; their dif­ ferent perceptions of time and nature place

4

Canada's First Nations these tales at another level of reality than that of this work.6 The myths emphasize and con­ firm the peoples' fundamental attachment to the land. The Gitksan of northern British Columbia maintain that the Upper Skeena River valley is their Garden of Eden; several groups, such as the Salish Thompson River people and the Ojibwa, believe that their first ancestors were born of the earth;7 the Athapaskan Beaver hold that humans crawled through a hollow log in order to reach earth, an obvious birth analogy;8 the Iroquoians (including the Huron), that the mother of mankind, Aataentsic, fell through a hole in the sky and landed on a tortoise with earth piled on its back.9 On another plane, the Tsimshian have legends in which migration is a theme.10 The most generally held anthropological the­ ory, based on observable data, that Homo sapi­ ens sapiens came from Asia via the Bering Strait, was first proposed by Jesuit José de Acosta (c. 1539-1600) in Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, published in 1590.” Today it is widely accepted by anthropologists and archaeologists that Indians made the crossing on foot during periods when intensification of the Ice Ages lowered the sea level, transforming Bering Strait into a land bridge called Beringia. Once be­ lieved to have been a grassy and often boggy steppe, it has been revealed by recent studies to have been covered with birch, heath, and shrub willow.12 Geologists inform us that there were several periods during the late Pleistocene geo­ logical age (the Wisconsin stage) when the land bridge emerged, the first identifiable one dating back to about 75,000 BP and the last one ending about 14,000 years ago.13 This expanse of open grassland and tundra at one point was more than 2,000 kilometres wide, more like a conti­ nent than a bridge. It provided forage for such animals as mammoth, mastodon, giant bison, saiga antelope, and the predators that preyed on them. That human hunters followed the herds is a reasonable assumption supported by

archaeological evidence from both sides of the Bering Strait, including 11,000-year-old bifacially flaked stone points and knives, and, on occa­ sion, microblades— small, thin, very sharp stone flakes that were being made 15,000 to 4,500 years ago. Their production required con­ siderable skill. If this was the route, then Siberia must have been inhabited first. Russian archae­ ologists have reported evidence for the peo­ pling of Yakuktia in central Siberia some 300.000 years ago, long before the appearance of Homo sapiens sapiens;'4 Chukotka, on the northeastern tip of Siberia, has yielded a date of 35.000 BP, which is within the range of modern humans.15 Since game abounded, should we then assume that the first Homo sapiens in the Americas were principally big-game hunters? Yes, as far as Canada is concerned; but for the New World as a whole, that may not have been the case. As archaeological techniques become more sophisticated and research expands, evi­ dence is turning up in South America to suggest that the first humans in those regions may have been primarily foragers (fishing being a form of gathering) and hunters of small game.16 What is more, the indications are that they were inclined to stay where their food resources were, usually by the shores of sea, lake, or river. They exploited those resources on water as well as on land, which suggests that they used watercraft.17 Archaeologist Peter Schledermann, working in the eastern Arctic, has concluded that sea mam­ mals were the principal source of food for the people of the Arctic Small Tool Tradition (3000 BC-1200 BC).18 Even the later, more mobile hunters who pursued big game inland preferred to camp by water, and probably for at least one of the same reasons—the facility of water travel.

Option of the Sea To return to the means by which people arrived in the Americas: there is no reason to conclude

And the People Came

5

1-1 Possible land route for first human entry into the Americas, as well as some archaeological sites Source: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr, The Indian Heritage of America (New York: Knopf, 1969), 36.

T if t

6

Canada's First Nations that because Beringia offered a convenient ped­ estrian route, it was therefore the only one available or used. Nor is there any reason to believe that Beringia's inhabitants were landbound, ignoring the rich marine life on and off its coasts. The sea also offered options; in the Pacific, the Japanese current sweeping from the Asiatic coast eastward to the Americas provided a natural aquatic highway that would not have presented insuperable challenges. The argu­ ment that humans at this early stage had not yet developed the skills to undertake travel by water under dangerous Arctic conditions is ten­ uous at best, particularly in view of the sea voy­ ages that occurred at other latitudes. One could even argue that deep-sea sailing in some respects is not as hazardous as coasting, and that both are easier than walking. That travel by water could have been more practical than travelling by land has long been maintained by archaeologist Knut Fladmark.19 As he has pointed out, humans have been capable of tra­ versing stretches of water at least as wide as the Bering Strait for 30,000 years or more; there is also the fact that the west coast was largely unglaciated during a temperate period about 60,000 to 25,0 0 0 years ago in the late Pleistocene. This may have been the case in southwestern Alberta as well.20 Australia was peopled about 50,000 BP, and that could only have been by boat, although admittedly not under Arctic conditions, and involving no enormous distances, as at that period sea levels would have been lower than they are today. Island hopping from the Malaysian archipela­ go to Australia would have faced reduced—but still formidable—sea barriers.21

Languages In North America, the coastal route may have been a factor in producing the abundance of languages along the Pacific coasts of the two Americas, one of the most complex linguistic

regions in the world. (In the sixteenth century, the New World had an estimated 2,200 lan­ guages.) Studies by anthropologist Richard A. Rogers have shown that in North America, unglaciated areas contained by far the greatest number of languages, 93 per cent, along with a higher degree of differentiation from those that had been glaciated. It is an accepted prin­ ciple in linguistics that language diversification proceeds very slowly and is proportional to the length of human occupation; where diversifi­ cation has reached the point of obscuring orig­ inal linguistic relationships, then substantial time depth is indicated. Archaeologist Ruth Gruhn has called attention to the fact that North America's greatest diversification of lan­ guage stocks is in California and on the Gulf coast, while in South America more than 1,500 languages were spoken, differing widely in their grammatical constructions and vocabu­ laries. In Gruhn's view all of these languages from both continents are ultimately related in three major stocks. She believes their prolifera­ tion to be too great to be explained solely by a series of migrations, but rather that the lan­ guages evolved locally over a very long span of time, perhaps close to 50,000 years.22 She is in accord with anthropologist Joseph H. Green­ berg, who sees a possibility that all Indian lan­ guages, except for Na-Dene (Athapaskan) and Eskimo-Aleut, developed from a single proto­ type called Amerind. This highly controversial theory postulates a minimum of three found­ ing migrations, the first of which brought Amerind, by far the largest, most widespread, and most diversified of the three proposed basic groups.23 Linguistic evidence suggesting that South America was settled early has been supported by recent archaeological discoveries at Monte Verde in Chile and at Tocado Boqueir'ao do Pedra Furada in Brazil, which indicate that people may have been present in the Americas as early as 32,000 years ago.24 There

Sources: Jessie D. lennings, ed., Ancient Native Americans (San Francisco: Freeman, 1978); The Rand-McNally Atias of the Oceans (New York, Chicago, San Francisco, 1979), 33.

And the People Came

1-2 Ocean currents

8

Canada's First Nations are also tantalizing suggestions of extreme antiquity for humans in North America, per­ haps as early as 2 2 ,0 0 0 BC.25 Sites in Pennsylvania, California, Texas, and Mexico have all hinted at a presence that is dated ear­ lier as one proceeds south; finds in south-cen­ tral New Mexico, announced by archaeologist Richard MacNeish (1918-2001), are of camp­ sites that have been radiocarbon-dated to 36,000 years ago.26 The one possible exception to this is the unglaciated Yukon, where human occupation dating back to 40,000 years has been argued by archaeologist W illiam N. Irving. If established, this would support the primacy of the Beringia route.27 The best evi­ dence so far for early humans in the Yukon has come from Bluefish Caves, south of Old Crow. There, debris has been found that was left behind by hunters of about 24,000 to 12,000 years ago. Most of the butchered bones are of land mammals. However, no hearths or human remains have been found on the location.28 That famous caribou-bone flesher discovered by Gwich'in Peter Lord near Old Crow in 1966, and once dated to 27,000 bp , is now believed to be only 1,000 years old.29 Even if the more secure dates of 18,000 to 15,000 years ago are preferred for the arrival of humans in North America, there was still plenty of time for the plenitude of languages to have developed on the Pacific coast. That pattern of settlement can best by explained by coastal travel.

Ice-free Corridor Such a route could also provide an explanation as to why the ice-free corridor along the eastern slopes of the Rockies, which has been hypoth­ esized as the most likely migration path, has not yielded the expected archaeological sites, or even artifacts, unlike the well-documented route between the Andes and the Pacific in South America.30 Geological data indicate the Canadian corridor was a forbidding region of

loose rock, shifting shorelines of glacial lakes, and rugged slopes: no significant faunal remains dating to the period of the late Wisconsin glaciation have been found in the central and northern portions. It is possible that the interior Plateau was used, but there is no evidence there either. As far as interior land travel is concerned, most movements seem to have been from south to north; for example, the Algonkian speakers who occupy so much of Canada's Subarctic forest, the taiga, fanned northward from the Great Lakes, and the buf­ falo hunters of the northwestern Plains came from two directions, south and east. Exceptions are the Athapaskans (Dene), who, after living in the Far North since about 9,000 years ago, began to move south following a volcanic eruption near White River,31 and the Inuit, who spread eastward across the Arctic from Siberia. For the rest, as our information stands at present, people somehow looped south of the glaciers, then headed north again as the ice retreated. The lack of visible archaeological sites on the Pacific Northwest Coast is easier to explain: they were drowned as the ocean rose with the melting of the glaciers. Whether on foot or on water, or a com bination of both, Indians reached the southern tip of South America by at least 11,000 bp . Canada's High Arctic was the last region to be populated, after 3000 BC, fol­ lowing some movement into lower Arctic regions a little earlier. Human entry into the Americas seems to have been in the form of a filtering action, perhaps in waves—three, per­ haps four, main ones are currently being hypothesized—stretching over long periods of time. While such movements are nearly always considered in connection with Beringia and the Pacific, at certain epochs they would also have been possible along the discontinuous glacial front across the Atlantic into eastern North America. Although the biological evi­ dence indicating Asiatic origins for Indians

And the People Came appears to be secure,32 there has been specula­ tion, based on fragmentary evidence, that some early humans in the Americas may have come from Europe.33

Population Densities As with languages, the greatest density of pre­ contact populations was on the Pacific coast, thought to be about 10 per cent of the total for the two continents. Estimates for the hemi­ spheric population have been going steadily upward in recent years, and have reached a very high 112.5 million for the fifteenth cen­ tury on the eve of European arrival.34 In that case, the population for the Americas would have been higher than the 70 million estimat­ ed for Europe (excluding Russia) for the begin­ ning of the sixteenth century.35 For North America north of the Rio Grande in the early sixteenth century, estimates range up to an unlikely 18 million and even higher.36 They have increased with better understanding of Native subsistence bases and with greater awareness of the effect of imported diseases in the sixteenth century; in some cases these spread far ahead of the actual presence of Europeans, decimating up to 93 per cent of Native populations. The earliest European accounts of the New World all spoke of the 'great multitudes' of people; it was later, when colonization was gaining momentum, that large stretches of territory were found unoccu­ pied and the notion of an 'empty continent' gained currency.37 Archaeological evidence is mounting to the point where it can now be argued with growing conviction, if not absolute proof, that the pre-Columbian Americas were inhabited in large part to the carrying capacities of the land for the ways of life that were being followed and the types of food preferred. This is being revealed particu­ larly in glaciated areas, where artifacts are emerging out of melting ice in regions previ­

ously not thought to have been inhabited.38 Original migrations probably involved very small groups. Recent genetic studies suggest that Indians have all descended from four pri­ mary maternal lineages, although this is vigor­ ously disputed by advocates of a multiplicity of migrations.39 Research techniques have now developed to the point where it is considered possible to reconstruct migrations by means of genetic evidence, particularly when it can be related to dental traits and linguistic affilia­ tions.40 It has been calculated that 25 individu­ als could have increased in 500 years to a pop­ ulation of 10 million, if it had doubled every generation (about 30 years). That was the rate of growth in European colonies during their early years in North America (the colonists, however, had far more children than their con­ temporary tribal peoples, and were reinforced by a steady stream of im migration from Europe). In any event, that rate would have been even faster if a generation is reckoned at 20 years, in which case the saturation point for hunting and gathering populations could have been reached in less than 1,000 years, but this did not likely actually happen.41 By 11,000 years ago, about the time of the last known mammoth and mastodon kills, campsites of peoples with different economic adaptations and cultural traditions were scat­ tered the length and breadth of the two conti­ nents. In that period, and during the next 3,000 years or so, some 200 species represent­ ing 60 or more genera of major animals disap­ peared from the Americas. We do not know what caused these extinctions any more than we know what caused that of the dinosaurs; however, there is speculation that in the for­ mer case big-game hunters could have tipped the balance as their population expanded in consequence of the plentifulness of game. Recent work by Schledermann has demonstrat­ ed the ease with which a small group of hunters could reduce musk-ox and caribou to

9

10

Canada's First Nations

1-3 Aboriginal population densities Source: Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian (New York: Facts on File, 1985).

i m

0

m m ^2)

High

Indian population densities

Low

near extinction in the Arctic.42 Paleontologist Paul S. Martin has pointed to the analogy of the Polynesian arrival in New Zealand and the consequent extinction of the moa bird.43 In North America, the great auk and the passen­ ger pigeon suffered similar fates when Europeans arrived. On the other hand, there are those who hold that mammoth kills were probably rare;44 archaeological evidence so far has revealed only about a dozen known kill sites, all west of the Mississippi. About

8,000-5,000 years ago, when climate, sea lev­ els, and land stabilized into configurations that approximate those of today, humans crossed a population and cultural threshold, if one is to judge by the increase in numbers and com­ plexity of archaeological sites. The megafaunal disappearances do not appear to have involved a radical change in hunting patterns, as such game as bison and caribou was always important. If there was a population drop, as the scarcity of sites from

And the People Came this period has led some archaeologists to believe, it did not last long. People survived for the same reason then as later: by being adapt­ able. The way of life that developed, based on the exploitation of a wide variety of food sources, called Archaic, was destined to last in some parts of Canada until long after the arrival of Europeans. Around 9200-8500 BC, the making of fluted points displaced earlier forms of manufacture and spread across Canada with extraordinary speed, a phenome­ non that remains without parallel in the coun­ try's early development. Fluted points have been found from Alaska to northern Mexico, and were once thought to have been a North American development. However, a similar point has been found in northeastern Siberia, 1,770 kilometres from the Bering Strait, which raises questions about migratory movements.45 In Canada, these points have been found at Debert, Nova Scotia, Charlie Lake Cave in British Columbia, and at the Vermilion Lakes in Alberta. The hunters who made these imple­ ments concentrated on bison or caribou, depending on the region; later, from about 8000 to 6000 BC, their descendants on the western Plains, who had abandoned the fluted point for the Plano with its distinctive rippled flaking, were hunting bison by means of drives. That practice became common in Canada around 3000 BC. Contemporary with Plano, Early Archaic developed in the Eastern Woodlands, characterized by distinctive sidenotching of points for hafting. Archaeologist James V. Wright says that about 6000 BC east­ ern Early Archaic peoples migrated to the west­ ern Plains, where they came in contact with Plano peoples. Out of this interaction the Plains culture developed.46 Still another lifestyle had already appeared on the Northwest Coast (beginning about 9000 BC), centred on salmon fishing and sea hunting, also with its distinctive lithic tradition of leaf­ shaped projectile points. Receptivity to new

ideas and willingness to experiment character­ ized these Stone Age craftsmen. W hen Europeans arrived, the whole of the New World was populated not only in all its different land­ scapes and with varying degrees of density, but also with a rich cultural kaleidoscope of some­ thing like 2,000 or more different societies.47

Physical Characteristics Even as they widely share certain physical characteristics, such as having little or no body hair (and what they have is usually black), Amerindians are biologically diverse. For exam­ ple, some groups, particularly on the Pacific coast and in the Great Basin, have facial hair, sometimes heavy. Like the Filipinos, Amer­ indians are almost universally lacking in A and B blood types, but there are some striking exceptions. A is found among the peoples of the Northwest Coast (in similar frequencies to Hawaiians), as well as among the Beaver, Slavey, and Assiniboine in the interior; most striking of all is the fact that the Blackfoot, Blood, and Peigan of the northwestern Plains have the highest known percentages of A in the world. B is found in highland Peru and in very high percentages among the Carayâ of the Brazil interior; early reports of a concentration of B among the Yahgan of Tierra del Fuego, however, have not been confirm ed.48 In Central and South America, the preponderance of Amerindians belong to the O class, with the proportion being somewhat less in North America. This concentration exceeds anything known in the Old World, including the peoples of northern Siberia who are believed to be the source for the Beringian migrations, and indeed genetic studies have indicated that Amerindians are not as closely connected to modern Mongoloids as has been generally believed.49 These biological data have led to speculation that Indians might be of ancient racial stocks predating contemporary Siberian

11

12

Canada's First Nations peoples.50 Dental studies, which indicated an original stock living 20,000 years ago, support such a hypothesis.51 On the basis of this evidence, anthropologist Christy G. Turner II theorizes that most Indians are descended from the mammoth hunters of the Clovis culture, Inuit, on the other hand, are genetically distinct from most Indians, except for the Athapaskan speakers of the Northwest.52 All of these peoples had an average life expectancy of between 20 and 25 years, a figure comparable with that for Europeans of the same period.

such technology can in a way be regarded as 'simple', it was viable only because of acute and careful observation of nature— still a basic requirement today. Stone Age technology was effective insofar as it was based on detailed and accurate observation, on the one hand, and supported by a workable social organization, on the other. Technology, Stone Age or otherwise, is the product of an accumulated fund of knowledge and is an indicator of peopies' approach to the world and to their own societies. Symbolic logic appears to have influ­ enced tool design from very early; for

Technological Developments53

instance, some speculate that the biface hand axe was based on the human hand as model.56 The intelligent manipulation of nature backed by supportive social structures made survival possible under extremely difficult conditions, The process is a dynamic one; although rates of change can and do vary, even between the different components of a given society, no living culture is static. Technologies, including that of the Stone Age, change more readily than ideologies. A successful Stone Age technician had to know his materials, where they could be found, how they could be worked, how they would behave under different conditions, and to what uses they could be put. Many of the construction and sculpture achievements of the pre-contact Americas, once thought to be impossible with a Stone Age technology and therefore attributed to vanished races and even to creatures from outer space, are now known to have been within its capabilities. For example, how could jade, the hardest of stone, be carved with Stone Age tools? The answer has been found in the use of abrasives and water. Such a process, of course, was laborious and slow; Stone Age technology was labour- and time-intensive. It could also be material-intensive: its huge structures yielded comparatively little usable space, a result, however, more attributable to ideology than technology.

Stone Age technology reached its highest point of development in the Americas, in delicately crafted projectile points and later in the massive constructions of the Maya, Mexica, and Inca; the Inca created the largest Stone Age empire in the world,54 the 'realm of the Four Quarters' that incorporated more than 200 ethnic groups. Archaeologist Alan Bryan maintains that several different early lithic traditions developed in various parts of the Americas, a range that includes 11,000-year-old 'fish-tail' points near the Straits of Magellan, 13,000-year-old willow-leaf-shaped El Jobo points in northern Venezuela, and the 11,000year-old Clovis fluted points that spread throughout unglaciated North America.55 The tools used in making these elegant points have been identified; a modern attempt to make one using such tools succeeded in about two hours, and subsequent stone-knappers have shortened that time to 40 minutes. Stone chipping, incidentally, is one of the world's most difficult crafts. The rate of spoilage was high, about 10 per cent; one of the reasons we have been able to rediscover so much about Stone Age technology is because it left so much debris. Development of stone and bone tools represented one of humanity's great strides forward into technological sophistication; and while

J

And the People Came

These finely crafted tools are from the High Plains and date to about 11,000 years ago. Shown are stone knives of various sizes and, in the left foreground, a dark projectile point made by the people of the Clovis cultural complex. Its diagnostic feature is the concave 'fluting' at the base. The dowel-like objects are casts of spear foreshafts that had been made of bone. (David L. Arnold © National Geographic Society, Washington, D C, courtesy Anzick-Hargis Collection)

13

14

Canada’s First Nations

1-4 Aboriginal language groups Source: Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian.

feî&ïiSlr

B Eskaleut

maa»g@m

l - J f '/ K -7 l^ v . N p r'é L o

|

Athapaskan

|

Wakashan

,

Q s a lis h a n

jjj

^ Penutian

'S

S^AIgonkian

ivs

\

5 j Siouan ^ Iroquoian Muskogean Hokaltecan J/ ] Azteco-Tanoan S'3 Caddoan

Archaic Efficiency In some aspects, this early technology was very efficient indeed. Cutting edges, for example, could be sharper than those achievable with metal. The war club of the Mexica, with its ser­ rated edges made with a row of obsidian blades inserted into a wooden base, was a deadly weapon capable of decapitating a man with one blow. A latter-day stone-knapper, Don E. Crabtree, when faced with the necessity for

heart surgery, insisted on making the required tools from obsidian. The result was faster heal­ ing and less scarring than would have been the case with steel instruments. Even simple stone fleshing blades were very suitable for the job. Metal's big advantage was durability; stone was easily broken, so that early tool and weapon makers were perpetually busy keeping them ­ selves equipped. One of the results of this incessant activity was the great variety of arti­ facts and styles that proliferated; in some cases,

And the People Came

15

Sketch showing how the notched spear thrower ('atlatl') was used to give extra power to hurling a spear. A weight attached to the underside of the atlatl added to its effectiveness. An unusually elaborate weight, in the form of a plumed serpent holding a human head, is shown at bottom. Carved out of yew-wood with inlaid white-shell eyes, it has been radiocarbon-dated to 1,700 years ago. It was dredged up from the Skagit River, about 50 kilometres south of the Canada-US border, in Washington state. (University of British Columbia Museum of Anthropology Collection; sketch reproduced with permission from Knut R. Fladmark, Simon Fraser University)

even the work of individuals can be ascer­ tained. 'Style', however, can simply be the result of resharpening and consequent reshap­ ing, which could and did result in such modi­ fications as shortening a blade or transforming it from one form into another, such as a spear point into a knife. Not all peoples everywhere had the same type of tool kit, even when fol­

lowing similar ways of life; for example, arti­ facts associated with seed grinding have restricted distribution in South America but are widespread in southern and western North America. Similarly, the hafting of stone points to bone or wooden bases was not universally adopted. The bow and arrow were once thought to have appeared in the Americas

Canada's First Nations about AD 25057 but are now believed to have been brought over much earlier by PaleoEskimos of the Arctic Small Tool Tradition.58 The bow and arrow were much more efficient than the atlatl (spear thrower), which they superseded, having more firepower as well as greater range and accuracy. They were also eas­ ier to manufacture.59 Ropemaking, netting, and basketmaking appeared very early, during the late Pleistocene.60 Questions are now being raised as to the uses to which early tools were put. Archaeologists have concentrated on the hunting aspect; but what about gathering and processing? Geographer Carl Sauer (1889-1975) noted that the Stone Age tool kit was as useful for cutting and preparing wood, bark, and bast, as well as for gathering and preparing foods such as roots and fmit, as it was for dressing meat and hides. If little is known about these early tools used for collecting and grinding, it is largely because their products were perishable and tended to disappear without a trace, causing them to be overlooked as attention focused on hunting, which left recognizable debris. The develop­ ment of grinding tools made a wider variety of seeds available for food, such as the small seeds of grasses and amaranths. Peoples who depend­ ed on such resources tended to remain in one place, where their supplies were readily at hand. In other words, the mobile lifestyle in pursuit of different food resources cannot be assumed to have been universal at any period; and even when it was practised, it followed a seasonal pattern within a known area. The vision of early humans as aimless wanderers in search of food does not equate with the evi­ dence at hand; in fact, the contrary is strongly indicated, that they have always lived in com­

munities that were as stable as food resources permitted.61This was strikingly reinforced dur­ ing the ‘wildfire summer' of 2000, when natu­ rally sparked forest fires ravaged the western United States, revealing scores of previously unknown archaeological sites giving witness to past human life in villages and kivas, among numerous other relics of settled life.62 In conclusion, there is now general agree­ m ent that humans were present in the Americas at least by 15,000 BC, a date that some would push back to 50,000 BC; environ­ mentally, this would have been possible at an even earlier date.63 That at least part of the ear­ lier migrations were on land via Beringia seems reasonably clear;64 more controversial is the question of migration by sea. As evidence slow­ ly accumulates about the earliest patterns of human residence on the two continents, it appears more and more likely that water was at least as important as land for getting about, and perhaps even more so. By about 11,000 BP humans were inhabiting the length and breadth of the Americas, with the greatest con­ centration of population being along the Pacific coast of the two continents. A thousand or so years later many animal species had dis­ appeared from the American scene, a phenom­ enon that has not been satisfactorily explained. If an analogy were to be drawn with the faunal exterminations that occurred in the wake o f the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, then humans were a factor. In any event, people were firmly established through­ out the hemisphere, and in some parts of Central and South America they began experi­ menting with domesticating plants perhaps as early as 9,000 years ago.

Time Line 8600-6700 BC

Domesticated plants in Central and South America: gourds, avocados, beans, squash.

5000 BC

Earliest known domestication of corn, in central Mexico.

2300 BC

Agriculture introduced in Northeast Woodlands: squash.

1000 BC

First local cultivated plant in Northeast: sunflower.

700-220 BC

Possible contact between China and Northwest Coast.

AD 500

Corn first cultivated in Canada, in present-day Ontario.

AD 1000

Tobacco cultivated in Ontario; beans soon followed. Norse landing and brief settle­ ment on northern tip of Newfoundland.

AD 1050-1250

Cahokia (in Illinois) had an estimated population of 30,000-40,000 and, covering 13 square kilometres, was larger than London, England.

1200s

Squash (and sunflowers) first grown domestically in Ontario, thus completing triad of the famous 'three sisters'— corn, beans, squash.

15th century

Population estimates of Americas as high as 112.5 mil­ lion.

16th century

Estimated 2,200 languages in New World.

Chapter 2

Settling In

^agriculture appears to have developed independently, within a span of a few thousand years at the end of the last Pleistocene glaciation, in several widely separated regions of the globe: the Near East, the monsoon lands of Southeast Asia, China, Mesoamerica, Peru, and the Ama­ zon. These regions have all been linked in other contexts by proponents of cultural diffusion; however, the once widely held belief that agri­ culture diffused around the globe from a single point of origin today has few advocates. Another once-popular hypothesis, that agriculture in the Americas developed in arid regions with the help of irrigation, has been even more firmly rejected, as it has been demonstrated that with perhaps one or two exceptions, all of the earliest known cultigens have been developed from pro­ totypes that needed seasonal rainfall. In current thinking, such a global phenomenon must have had a global cause, such as a warming of the world's climate. Botany professor Rowan Sage of the University of Toronto proposes that a sud­ den and unexplained jump in the atmosphere's carbon dioxide, which occurred about 15,000 years ago, may provide the explanation. Accord­

ing to Sage, carbon dioxide enriched plants by making photosynthesis—the process by which plants convert sunlight into energy—more effi­ cient, increasing their growth rate and size. That triggered their domestication and the emergence of man-the-farmer. Squash seeds found in a Mexican cave near Oaxaca have been dated to 10,000 years ago.1 While there are no definite answers as yet as to why humans turned from collecting to cul­ tivating plants in certain areas but not in oth­ ers that appear equally suitable, it is now accepted that the switch in lifestyle was not as sudden or as complete as once thought; the 'Neolithic Revolution' suggested by Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) appears to have been a gradual, and by no means uniform, process. There is no evidence that pressures of growing populations caused big-game hunters to turn to farming, although the hypothesis is frequently put forward as the most likely explanation. Dependence on col­ lecting rather than hunting may have encour­ aged a cultural predisposition to experiment with domesticating plants; as Carl Sauer has

20

Canada's First Nations

'A P ra irie o n F ire ', n e a r F o r t E d m o n to n , as s e e n b y P a u l K a n e ( 1 8 1 0 - 7 1 ) . F ire w a s e x t e n s iv e ly u se d b y A m e r in d ia n s to m o d ify p la n t g r o w th a n d t h e m o v e m e n t o f g a m e , a s w e ll a s t o c le a r la n d in fo r e s te d a re a s. (Royal Ontario M useum Photo

9 1 2 -1 -3 9 )

observed, digging for roots can be viewed as a sort of unplanned tillage.2 Fishing, a form of collecting, appears to have played a part in these early attempts at resource management; Classic Mayan agriculturalists, for instance, were also fish farmers, as were the Mississippian Mound Builders and Andean villagers in the Inca empire. Even non-agriculturalists such as hunters of the northwestern Plains had to observe carefully the plants they harvested, such as the prairie turnip (Psoralea esculenta, also known as 'white apple'), to determine the appropriate time to gather it for drying and pulverizing for winter use;3 there is also some evidence that they moved plant stocks from one location to another. The farmers of the pueblos in what is today the southwestern United States returned to gathering wild foods during times of natural disasters, such as floods and drought. In the lat­

ter case, this could last for years. New World farmers and hunters controlled game to a sur­ prising extent through the use of fire. Not only was fire used to control directly the movements of animals, such as those of the buffalo on the Plains, it was also used to modify vegetation, which in turn influenced the animals' feeding patterns; for instance, by the sixteenth century, the farming peoples of the Northeastern Wood­ lands of North America had transformed their habitat into an ambience particularly suitable for deer—the so-called 'deer parks'.4 Non-agricultural Californians used the same technique for the same purpose: to have deer on hand when needed for the larder.

Early Crops Bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) may have been among the first domesticated crops in the

Settling In Americas; in Mexico they were being grown by 7000 B C , and in coastal Peru by 6000 B C .5 They pose a problem, as they are believed to be native of the Old World; if there was a wild variety of gourds native to the Americas, it has been long extinct. Similarly, cotton, which was being grown in Mexico and in Peru before 2500 B C , also appears to have Old World con­ nections. The Mexican and Peruvian varieties are separate species (Gossypium hirsutum, 'American Upland', and G. barbadense, 'Sea Island', respectively), but both have genetic structures that seem to be explainable only through hybridization with Old World cotton, originally domesticated in India. While some argue that this could have occurred by natural processes, botanists see this as highly unlikely and explain the 'wild' hybrids found from the Yucatan to the Galapagos Islands as escaped domesticates.6 The most authoritative study so far on the evolution of cotton holds that peo­ ple were involved in the hybridization and that cultivation of the domesticated plant in the New World began in northwestern South America, probably Peru.7 Not surprisingly, these two cases have been eagerly picked up by proponents of ancient contact between the New and Old Worlds. Since there is consider­ able resistance to that hypothesis, mainly on the grounds of insufficient seagoing technolo­ gy at that early epoch, and since there is little accord on alternative explanations, the origin and development of gourds and cotton as crops are unsolved problems. Coconuts and some varieties of yams were also shared by both New and Old Worlds. Apart from the exceptions just noted, the New World domesticated plants that made such a contribution to world agriculture were all of undisputed American origin and were developed by Amerindian farmers. The two best-known of these are corn (maize, Zea mays) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), although such items as tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculen-

1*

21

O n e o f th e e a r lie s t k n o w n illu s tr a tio n s o f c o r n t o a p p e a r in p r in t w as i n O v ie d o 's Historia General de las Indias, S e v ille ,

1535.

turn), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), pineapples (Ananas comosus), and cacao (Theobroma cacao, from which chocolate is made) are not far behind. More than 100 species of plants rou­ tinely farmed today were originally grown by Amerindians. Maize and potatoes are two of the world’s four basic food crops; the other two are wheat (Triticum vulgare), developed in Mesopotamia, and rice (Oryza sativa), domesti­ cated in the Indus Valley.8 The most famous of all Amerindian crops, tobacco (Nicotiana), was grown for diplomatic, ritual, and some med­ ical uses. In all, it has been estimated that the Huron grew up to 17 varieties of maize and eight types of squash. As well, it is thought that they gathered 34 varieties of wild fruit and 11 kinds of nuts, besides other varieties of wild foods.9

*•

•»

ip

22

Canada's First Nations

Problematic Maize and Other Cultigens As with gourds and cotton, corn presents a problem in tracing New World man's primeval essays into agriculture; in this instance, the resistance concerns the human role in develop­ ing the crop. By the sixteenth century, at least 150 varieties of corn, adapted to a wide array of different conditions, were being grown throughout agricultural America, except in the Andes above 3,900 metres, where it was replaced by quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa).'0 The difficulty arises from the fact that if a wild corn once flourished, it has not been found; two wild grasses related to corn still grow in the highlands of Mexico— teosinte and tripsacum. Teosinte (the name is M exican, meaning 'mother of com ') is genetically closely related to the domesticated plant and can be cross­ bred with it. Teosinte is demanding in its requirements, wanting equal hours of daylight and darkness and warm temperatures, which effectively restricts its range; corn, in contrast, was being grown from Huronia in the Ontario midlands of Canada all the way through to southern Chile when Europeans arrived. The oldest site known where it may have been developed as a crop is the Tehuacan Valley of central Mexico, near the modern city of Puebla, where cobs the size of cigarette filters were found by MacNeish; they have been dated to 5000 B C . Stone tools for grinding corn (metate, a Nahuatl word for a slightly concave nether milling stone, and mano, a stone roller), per­ haps an adaptation from earlier seed-grinders, appeared about 5,000 years ago and are still used today. The mortar and pestle also served the same purpose. It has been estimated that about a thousand years of selective breeding were needed to produce corn in all the many varieties first encountered by Europeans; the principal modification since has been for the cobs to become larger. Corn cannot survive

without human intervention, lacking as it does the capacity to reproduce itself. As a crop, it is among the most efficient in the world in terms of yield.11 Its development has been ranked as one of the world's great achievements in plant science.12 To Amerindian farmers, corn is a sen­ tient being that has feelings and can cry. As we have already seen, gourds were do­ mesticated before corn, and so were squash 0Cucurbita) and avocados (Persea americana), the latter two dating to about 6700 B C . Various beans (Phaseolus), chili peppers (Capsicum frutescens),13 and amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) are at least as ancient; indeed, there is a possibility that the first two were being cultivated before 8600 B C in the Andean region. If that turns out to be the case, then the first attempts at agriculture in the Am­ ericas occurred in those mesophytic forests (Colombia and the Upper Amazon have been the locations of recent attention in this re­ gard). It is appearing more and more likely that plant domestication began in several dif­ ferent places with various plants. In the North­ eastern Woodlands of North America, where agriculture was introduced with the cultiva­ tion of squash, c. 2300 B C , probably via south­ ern trade, it was not until about 1000 B C that the first local plant, the sunflower (Helianthus annus), was domesticated. Wright points to a different pattern for southern Ontario: corn was the first cultivated food crop to reach that region, and that not until after AD 500, and remained the sole crop for five centuries. Tobacco appeared about AD 1000, with beans following somewhat later. Squash (with sun­ flowers) did not reach the area until the thir­ teenth century, finally completing the triad of the famous 'three sisters' in the northernmost limits of its range. The time this took could have been that needed for the plants to be adapted to a shorter growing season. By the sixteenth century, the triad—corn, beans, and squash—was being grown throughout agricul-

Settling In

23

2-1 Distribution of maize and cotton in North and Central America Source: Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian.

Cultural evidence of maize Only archaeological evidence of maize

□

Cultural evidence of maize and cotton

tural America. As crops, the three sisters bene­ fited the soil when sown together, which meant they had a sustainability and perma­ nence lacking in modern agriculture.14 As food they reinforced each other nutritionally when combined in diets. Both wetlands and drylands were used by early agriculturalists; this was exemplified by the Maya in the lowlands of Mexico and Guatemala, by the Wari of the highlands of

Peru, and by the Hohokam of the deserts of southwestern US. By 850 B C ditch irrigation was practised, which in the case of wetlands meant mounding soil and vegetation to above the water level and planting seeds in the top of each mound. The Wari and the later Inca had not only dry conditions to contend with but also mountainous terrains; their methods of piping and controlling water flow to different levels are still in use.

24

Canada's First Nations

Early Experimentation Plant domestication could not have occurred without an extensive botanical knowledge already in place; it was no accident that agri­ culture developed first in warm, moderately rainy latitudes, where plant diversity was great­ est and ecological conditions were such as to allow the necessary freedom for experimenta­ tion with a comparatively simple technology. Northerners were no less skilful and experi­ mental in exploiting their resources, but the restrictions of their environment in combina­ tion with their Stone Age technology, ingen­ ious as it was, meant that their options were more limited. The changeover to agriculture was not an unmitigated blessing, if we are to judge by present archaeological evidence. For one thing, its higher reliance on starchy foods meant an increase in dental problems. For another, if corn was relied on too heavily in the diet, without adequate protein supplements, it could result in a population smaller in stature than ancestral hunters/gatherers and with shorter lifespans. This happened with the Mississippian Mound Builders and may have been a factor in the decline of Cahokia. In the southeast, skeletal remains point to maize agri­ culture being physically more demanding than the hunting and gathering way of life.15 In the past, North American historians have tended to underplay and even disregard Amerindian plant expertise in their concentra­ tion on the pre-Columbian absence of farm animals and consequent dependence on hunt­ ing for meat. Farming developed in conjunc­ tion with hunting: in Canada, this was the case among the Iroquoian farmers of southern Ontario and also occurred in the boreal forest;16 in the Great Basin of the southwestern US, Numic-speakers camped where they could hunt as well as harvest; in South America, by far the greatest majority of the people com­ bined both activities, making use of a wide

variety of natural resources in their seasonal rounds so that they always had something to fall back on. Amerindian agriculture did not require that fields be entirely cleared of trees: those that yielded useful nuts and fruits were left standing.17 Neither did they develop the practice of fencing in their fields, since their lands were held in common. If one considers the two continents together, most Amerindians were farmers/hunters at the time Europeans arrived. The lands that appeared 'vacant' to the new arrivals were either hunting areas or else had been recently depopulated because of introduced epidemics. At the other end of the spectrum, the great botanical gardens of Mexico were centres of learning and experi­ mentation, and easily surpassed anything com­ parable in Europe during the fifteenth and six­ teenth centuries.

Amerindian Animal Domestication While it is undeniable that Amerindian agricul­ ture concentrated on plants rather than ani­ mals, in contrast to the European practice, the latter were not ignored. In the New World, however, there were few candidates for the farmyard. The Peruvians domesticated the llama and the guinea pig; the former was used principally as a beast of burden but also pro­ vided hides and wool, as well as meat. Dogs were widely (but not universally) present and in North America have been dated to 6500 BC. (Incidentally, it has been theorized that the absence of the dog among some Brazilian tribes indicates peopling of those regions before its dom estication.)18 Some peoples, such as Iroquoians, sacrificed dogs in rituals and ate them as ceremonial food. Others used them as work animals; in the Arctic they pulled sleds for the Inuit (at Iqaluit, however, a secondary breed of dog was raised for food),19 and on the Plains they were used as pack animals and also for hauling the products of the hunt and camp

Settling In equipment by means of the travois. On the Northwest Coast, Amerindians had a variety with a white woolly coat that provided fibres for weaving. Although dogs were not universal­ ly used for hunting, in the northern forests they were trained for the purpose, and for the Coast Salish and Tsimshian, owning hunting dogs was a jealously guarded privilege of the higher orders.Turkeys were domesticated (or, as one observer remarked, they domesticated themselves, as they appreciated the food avail­ able in settlements). So were other types of fowl and birds. On the whole, Indians depended on hunting and fishing for their protein even as they became sedentary. By the proto-contact period, plants were, in general, and in spite of regional exceptions, the most important source of nourishment. When it came to medicines, however, the botanical world always had been, and remained, the major source (according to the Cherokee, ani­ mals brought diseases and plants provided the cures). Recollect missionary Chrestien Le Clercq (c. 1641-after 1700) would report from Acadia, where he was from 1675 to 1686: 'Am­ erindians are all by nature physicians, apothe­ caries, and doctors, by virtue of the knowledge and experience they have of certain herbs, which they use successfully to cure ills that seem to us incurable.'20 That this knowledge had roots that went deep into the past is not questioned. The process by which the Amer­ indians acquired their herbal lore is not clearly understood, but there is no doubt about the results. More than 500 drugs in the medical pharmacopoeia today were originally used by Amerindians.21

Permanent Settlement Even though agriculture was closely associated with the development of permanent settle­ ment, particularly as populations grew, it was not an essential requirement for the process to

25

H u ro n w o m e n p re p a rin g c o r n . F a th e r F r a n ç o is D u C re u x ,

Historiae Canadensis, 1 6 6 4 . (National Archives o f Canada)

begin. Not only did permanent settlements in some cases long predate agriculture, in others the reverse occurred, and agricultural experi­ mentation began long before the adoption of a sedentary lifestyle. Present archaeological evi­ dence indicates that permanent villages in the Americas date back to 13,000-15,000 years ago, before the domestication of plants. Those dates have been recorded for Monte Verde, in south­ ern Chile. In Canada also, archaeology has revealed that permanent settlement was much older than previously thought; a longhouse unearthed near Mission, BC, has been dated to 9,000 years ago.22 Determining when humans began to experiment with plants is much more

26

Canada's First Nations difficult than establishing the presence of domestication. W hat is essential for a seden­ tary way of living is an assured supply of food in one place, a situation n ot necessarily dependent on agriculture, at least in the distant period we are considering, when populations were usually small. Dependence on wild foods limited the size of permanent settlement rather than preventing it. The residents of Koster, on the upper Mississippi (c. 4000 BC, although it was inhab­ ited seasonally for several thousand years before that), never did find it necessary to turn from wild to domesticated food resources, except to a limited extent; the region was so rich in plant and animal life, both on land and in water, that there was little need to undertake cultivation. Similarly, the burial mound builders of Ohio's Adena culture (c. 600 BC-100 BC) and those of the later but closely related and much more widespread Hopewell (c. 300 BC-AD 400) elaborated com plex sedentary chiefdoms in rich self-renewing flood plain environments with comparatively minor assis­ tance from agriculture. The silt deposited in the spring by the Mississippi and its tributaries ensured abundance, so it was not necessary to change village sites from time to time because of resource depletion. Both of these cultures practised elaborate funerary ceremonies. According to Wright, aspects of these cultures spread northward into Ontario and down the St Lawrence River as far as New Brunswick.23 In attenuated form, they also spread westward into Manitoba and Saskatchewan; Hopewell-influenced ceramics have been found in Alberta.24 Such cultural fac­ tors may have encouraged village life on the Plains, of which Cluny Earth Lodge at Blackfoot Crossing, 113 kilometres east of Calgary, may have been a northernmost manifestation. According to Blackfoot legend it was built by the Crow, in which case it would be proto-con­ tact.25 Plains villages were discouraged by recur­

rent drought, particularly severe between AD 500 and AD 1300, to the point where they dis­ appeared during the fifteenth century, except for those along the Missouri system (Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, etc.). Bison populations recov­ ered more rapidly than the human, and the growing presence of the herds prevented the return of farming to the High Plains. Along the Pacific coast stable communities developed in a number of locations largely because of the resources of the sea, with land providing supplementary foods. Canada's Northwest Coast villages illustrate this; and on the Ecuadorean coast of South America, rich, elegant Chan Chan, seat of the divine kings of the Chimor empire who fell to the Incas during the thirteenth century, became wealthy be­ cause of its sea resources. In their case, howev­ er, these were backed up with produce from the fertile river valleys that periodically cut through the coastal desert. Ostra, a pre-agricultural 5,000-year-old defensive site on the north central coast of Peru, indicates a role for war­ fare in these early societies; war and civilization have so far always gone hand in hand.26 Once permanence was established, the way was open for the elaboration of social complexities.

Egalitarianism and Hierarchy The shift from the egalitarian societies of mo­ bile peoples to hierarchical sedentary or semisedentary chiefdoms, and eventually to the social complexities of city-states, poses an in­ triguing problem for historians.27 Egalitarian societies did not separate authority from the group as a whole, and in some cases they went to considerable lengths to ensure that such a separation did not occur. In those societies, available resources were open to all, and per­ sonal abilities translated into influence rather than coercive authority.28 Free sharing ensured that the superior skills of, say, a hunter benefit­ ed the group rather than an individual. The

Settling In power of chiefs depended on their capacity to provide for their followers, as well as their pow­ ers of persuasion; perhaps most importantly of all, they were expected to set an example for their people. Chiefs, instead of gaining wealth through their positions, could end up the poor­ est of the group because of the continual demands made on their resources.29 As Le Clercq described the situation among the Mi'kmaq, a chief could attract followers, but they did what they pleased and were not sub­ ordinated to their leader's will,30 except perhaps to a limited extent in time of war. The general lack of quarrelling or interperson­ al conflict in Amerindian communities impressed Europeans, who wondered how peaceful relations could prevail without the threat of force in the background. Amerindians for their part were not impressed when they saw Europeans being afraid of their captains, 'while they laugh at and make sport of theirs.'31 Such observations indicate how easy it was for Europeans to miss the subtleties of Amerindian social controls; respect was exceedingly impor­ tant, and within their spheres of competence, the chiefs did have authority.32 Thomas Jefferys (d. 1771), geographer to the Prince of Wales (later George III), reported that some chiefs were skilful in eliciting obedience as they knew 'how to confine their commands within the limits of their power.'33 The situation was quite different in chiefdoms (in Canada, found on the Northwest Coast), where the chiefs did have power, up to and including that of life and death in certain cases. All of these societies placed a high value on personal liberty and freedom. Neither did all egalitarian societies organize power in the same way; those on the Plains, for example, placed more emphasis on co-ordinat­ ed strategies for the hunt and for war than did those of the Eastern Woodlands. In general, selection of the leader was on the basis of qual­ ification, although the sons of chiefs were in a favourable position to succeed their fathers.

Besides the established leader, individuals could be chosen by a process of social consensus because of their particular skills and spiritual powers to organize group activities, such as the buffalo hunt, a raid, or a seasonal transfer in the pursuit of food. The authority involved in such positions lasted only as long as the task or proj­ ect at hand. Should a rival chief appear or fac­ tionalism result in a split, the dissident group could always break away and establish itself elsewhere. The difference between egalitarian and state societies can be symbolized by the warrior and the soldier. In the Eastern Woodlands, the warrior—in Iroquoian terms, the bearer of the bones of the nation, a respon­ sibility that included the duty to fight for it— was his own man, to the point of being able to quit a war party without losing face should he feel called on to do so.34 Younger warriors, out to prove themselves, were under more pressure to stay with the group and obey the leader.35 A soldier, however, under the command of his superior officer, could be shot for such behav­ iour, or at the very least court-martialled; in any case he would be disgraced. For the European, discipline had come to mean acceptance of a superior authority and the ability to act in close co-operation with others; for the Amerindian, discipline was for the most part an individual matter, although there were exceptions to this.36 It included the ability to go for long periods with little or no food; calm endurance of incon­ veniences, hardships, and suffering; capacity to resist fatigue; and the ability to think for oneself in battle. The Amerindian code of bravery in warfare was not so likely to call for dying while trying to maintain an untenable position, as that of the Europeans so often did; what it did call for (at least in the Northeastern Woodlands) was the proper behaviour under torture, not a quality the latter expected to have to demon­ strate.37 It should be pointed out, however, that torture as a part of warfare was by no means universally practised among Amerindians.

27

28

Canada's First Nations The difference can be looked at another way: the role of authority in setting up camp or in building a movable village, as compared to the type of control needed to build the great con­ structions of the ceremonial centres and citystates of Mexico and Peru. While co-operative effort was required in both cases, the degree of centralized authority was of necessity much higher in the latter. One point about the process by which such authority was accepted seems clear: in the case of the Americas at least, authority preceded the use of force38 and was connected with the perceived need to maintain harmony with the cosmos. In other words, the temple mounds and pueblos of North America, the stepped pyramids of Mesoamerica, the megalithic constructions of the Andes, at least in their earlier manifestations, were built by peoples with either a sense of mission or a sense of obligation. By whatever means, they were persuaded to give freely a great deal of time and effort for such projects. A similar phenomenon was witnessed in Europe with the construction of its cathedrals in the Middle Ages. As societies developed, so did the use of compulsion; the Inca, for instance, devised the mit'a, a labour tax, to meet the manpower needs of their impe­ rial works projects. The process was obviously a complex one, and whatever its particularities, by the beginning of the Christian era in the Old World, cities or ceremonial centres, with their surrounding farms, dotted the American land­ scape from the Mississippi Valley to the Gulf of Mexico, across to the Pacific coast, and south to the highlands of Bolivia. In their social organi­ zation, Amerindians had achieved a blend of collective motivation, consensual command, and individual achievement that was distinc­ tively their own.

Cosmic Relationships Concern about keeping on good terms with the cosmos seems to have taken on a new edge

with the development of agriculture and the need for planting and seeding to be done at correct times for the crops to flourish. Crops needed sun and water; the farming Mississippian Mound Builders (AD 500-1500), whose domain stretched from Aztalan (Lake Mills, Wisconsin) to Ocmulgee (Georgia), placed great importance on the sun, elevating it to the level of a deity, a trait noticeably lacking in the earlier non-agricultural Hopewellians. So did the Hurons—and the Mi'kmaq on the Atlantic coast, who in the sixteenth century were hunters and gatherers on land and sea but who had a tradition of once being an agricultural people. Rain gods received much attention in Mesoamerica: for the Mexica he was the gog­ gle-eyed, long-toothed Tlaloc; for the Maya, the long-nosed Chac. The personage in Olmec art previously thought to represent only the jaguar earth god is now thought also to have the char­ acteristics of a rain god who came to be hon­ oured throughout South America and Meso­ america. According to this identification, the 'jaguar' face of the personage is formed by the convergence of two serpents, their bodies join­ ing to form the nose; while its eyes and fangs remain those of the serpent.39 This combina­ tion would have meant that the deity was supremely powerful. The variety of societies that developed reflected the complexities of relationships to the cosmos and to the land.

Patterns of Development It is apparent that not all societies everywhere go through exactly the same stages of develop­ ment. In broad terms in the Americas, howev­ er, it is generally agreed that permanent settle­ ment has been a necessary preliminary for the development of chiefdoms, which in turn, in a few cases, became states. The old idea that hunters/gatherers were kept so busy finding food that they had no leisure to devote to cul­ tural matters is demonstrably not valid.

Settling In Chiefdoms did develop in non-agricultural societies, such as those of the Northwest Coast, as well as in agricultural societies, such as the Mississippian Mound Builders, the Natchez and other agricultural peoples of the Gulf of Mexico, the southern Atlantic coast, and in some regions in between. These chiefdoms var­ ied considerably in their social complexities and centralization of authority; what they had in common was concern with rank based on lineage, through which their redistributive economies functioned. As well, they developed sophisticated artistic traditions, each in a dif­ ferent sphere (the Californians in basketry, the Northwest Coasters in woodwork, the Ohioans and Mississippians in stone sculpture and shell and copperwork, the east coasters in feather work and hide painting). As Stuart J. Fiedel has pointed out, the Adena-Hopewell-Mississippian chiefdoms were active builders of monumental earthworks, which can still be seen in Ohio, along the Mississippi, and eastward, with some modest manifestations northward into Ontario. The Adena and Hopewell mound-builders had been concerned with death, the Mississippians with maintaining the cosmic order via social rank, the Northwest Coast peoples with initiation and validation of rank. The term that Fiedel uses for non-agricultural chiefdoms is 'Devel­ oped Archaic'.40 Some of these lasted until the arrival of Europeans. Those with an agricultur­ al base could support denser populations; where they reached comparatively large pro­ portions, such as at Cahokia in Illinois, which during its peak (AD 1050-1250, although it last­ ed for about 500 years) had a population esti­ mated at 30,000 to 40,000, the distinction between chiefdom and state becomes blurred. Cahokia had the largest and densest pre-con­ tact population north of the Rio Grande and was bigger than contemporaneous London, England, covering as it did 13 square kilome­ tres of Mississippi River bottom lands. W ith the

29

T h e p e r s o n w h o fe ll t o e a r th fr o m h e a v e n is a c o m m o n th e m e in A m e r in d ia n m y th . S o m e tim e s h e a lle g e d ly le ft h is im p r e s s io n o n a r o c k , as i n th i s c a s e n e a r P r in c e R u p e rt, B C .

(National M useums o f Canada, 7 0 4 0 1 )

exception of writing, it had all the characteris­ tics of a city-state.41 For a variety of reasons, some of which are not at all clearly understood, social develop­ ment was far from being consistent through the Americas, so that some hunting and gathering societies continued in their traditional pattern while others picked up aspects of agricultural cultures. This could happen even when peoples associated with each other in trade or war; for example, the buffalo-hunters of the northern Plains traded with the farming Mandans, while

30

Canada's First Nations those of the southern Plains carried on an active commerce with the agricultural pueblos. The way of life of each was richer for their interchange, yet each retained its specific char­ acter. Similarly, there were farming peoples who retained the Archaic mode even as some of their neighbours developed into city-states and, in one or two cases, empires. An intriguing mystery is that of three ritual burial mounds dating back to 7,000 years ago that have been found on the southern coast of Labrador, a region where hunters and gatherers have lived for 9,000 years. These elaborate con­ structions are the oldest known of their scale and complexity anywhere in the world. Ritual burials are normally associated with stable agri­ cultural populations with the resources and the manpower available to invest the time and effort required. In this case it has been estimat­ ed that the most elaborate of the burials must have taken a group of 20 individuals about a

week to complete; compounding the mystery is the fact that it was the grave of an adolescent, too young for such honours in the usual prac­ tice. One can only speculate that some unusual event of extraordinary spiritual significance precipitated such an outpouring of activity.42 The presence of these mounds in such an unlikely location is a reminder of how sketchy our knowledge is of prehistoric religious prac­ tices and their effect on cultural manifestations. In sum, from the first arrival of humans, the Americas were the scene of a richly diversified budding of cultures. Very early, Indians ex­ celled in the plant sciences; a remarkable achievement was the development of corn, one of the world's most efficient and versatile crops. It has been called the 'collective invention' of innumerable people over thousands of years.43 Agriculture provided the basis for the rise of city-states and empires in a cultural flowering that was distinctively its own.

Time Line 3 6 0 0 BC

Ceramics dated to this time have been discovered in Americas.

3 3 0 0 BC-AD 5 0 0

Archaeological evidence sug­ gests Chinese contact in Americas.

3 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 BC

Possible contact between Mediterranean civilizations and those of New World.

1 5 0 0 BC-AD 3 0

Olmec, the 'mother' of American civilizations, in Gulf of Mexico region.

AD 4 5 8

Chinese monk Hwui Shan sails east to land of Fu-Sang (Americas), stays 40 years.

AD 4 9 9

Hwui Shan returns to China.

Chapter 3

Metropolises and Jntercultural Contacts

I f there is debate as to how humans arrived in the Americas, there is impassioned argument as to how they became urbanized. What were the factors that led to the rise of city-states? Were the great metropolises of Central and South America completely autonomous devel­ opments, or were they influenced along the way by other cultures? If the latter was the case, what other cultures were involved, and when were the contacts made? Thus baldly stated, the question assumes an either/or char­ acteristic that probably does not equate with reality. There is no serious argument against contacts and diffusion between various New World centres; in fact, so many of these have been traced (such as the spread of the use of tobacco, for instance, or the cultivation of corn) that the operation of these processes is accepted as indisputable. In at least one instance, in Canada from about 1000 b c to AD 500, the diffusion of ideas is seen as more important for cultural change than actual migrations. Archaeologist James V. Wright makes that comment in connection with the spread of pottery-making and the bow and

arrow.1 Even so, certain questions about intercultural contacts need to be kept in mind. W hat was their nature and how important were they? How did they interact with indige­ nous cultures already in place? The questions take on another character (and become heat­ ed) when the possibility of overseas contact between the Americas and the Old World is raised. Answers arrived at in the present state of our knowledge must be considered as tenta­ tive, a pushing back of frontiers perhaps, but not final solutions. Much of the difficulty arises from our imper­ fect understanding of how civilizations arise in the first place.2 In the Old World, the process is generally believed to have begun in the Middle East, but it was not long (in archaeological terms) before it was evident in other locations, including the Far East. That there was ex­ change, not only between related peoples but with other races and cultures, and that this stimulated widely varying developments is not only beyond question, it is not seen as detract­ ing from the originality of particular cultural achievements. That these interactions could

34

Canada's First Nations take place over long distances involving travel by both land and water is also acknowledged. No one argues that Old World civilizations were totally individual autonomous phenome­ na. In fact, the evidence at hand indicates that uninterrupted isolation is not conducive to innovation. On the contrary, it encourages conservatism; adherence to tradition provides security, whereas innovation can appear threat­ ening. It matters very little whether the new ideas were internally or externally generated— a threat is a threat from any quarter. It is by no means clear, for example, what circumstances will induce a people to allow the security of kinship to be modified by centralized control. Not taking that step, for whatever reason, can preserve the status quo of a culture in a stable adaptation, as illustrated by the Aborigines of Australia and Papua New Guinea; in the Americas, there are the examples of the peoples of Patagonia, Lower California, and the high­ lands of Brazil. All of these peoples lived in regions where communication with the outside world was so difficult as to be in effect cut off. In the well-documented case of Papua New Guinea the immediate reaction to first meet­ ings with the outside world in the 1930s was a strengthening and efflorescence of the indige­ nous culture.3 The problem with the possibilities of interac­ tion between New and Old World civilizations begins with distance and difficulties of com­ munication. While it is easy to argue that the New World was peopled on foot, as we have seen, that argument can hardly be extended to the importation of the engineering concepts used in constructing Andean roads and water­ works, or the astronomical orientations of stepped pyramids in Mesoamerica, or the align­ ments of the pueblos of Chaco with their out­ lying villages.4 If there were non-Amerindian influences at work in these developments, they most likely came by the easiest and quickest route available—the sea.

Deep-sea Sailing Deep-sea sailing developed thousands of years ago, an event that is usually assigned to Southeast Asia. Archaeologist Thor Heyerdahl adds another location and advocates the eastern Mediterranean as a candidate for such a devel­ opment. He holds that the earliest seagoing ves­ sels were rafts with sails and movable centre­ boards (a Southeast Asian development) and reed ships (eastern Mediterranean).5 Neither of these have hulls that keep the water out; a raised deck with cabin atop provided dry quar­ ters for those aboard. Their deep-sea capacities, even to the point of going against wind and cur­ rent, have been established by Heyerdahl as well as by others; in fact, in some respects they are safer than hulled vessels and are virtually unsinkable. Both of these types were still being used in historic times, the former in the Orient and off the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts, and the latter in the eastern Mediterranean, parts of Africa, in Lower California and South America, and at Easter Island. Heyerdahl goes one step further, claiming that the ribbed, planked hull evolved out of the reed ship, also in the eastern Mediterranean, and for one of the same reasons that reed ships developed there in the first place: availability of building supplies. The types of reeds needed (papyrus in Egypt, totora in America, among others) were available locally, as was cedar for splitting into planks. Despite their seaworthi­ ness and carrying capacity (proportionately better than that of hulled vessels), reed ships were not durable; it has been estimated that their life was about two years. They gave way to wooden ships for the same reason that stone gave way to metal: ability to stand up under the stress of usage. Wrecks of frame hulls in the Mediterranean have been dated to 1200 BC; the junks of southeastern China, classed by some as the most efficient ship in the history of sail,6 are even earlier examples of this type of craft.

Source: |ohn Barber, 'Oriental Enigma', Equinox 49 ()an.-Feb. 1990): 83-95.

Metropolises and Intercultural Contacts

Trans-oceanic exchanges for which there is some evidence

35

36

Canada's First Nations In Bronze Age Europe the frame hull took the form of the 'nao', the one type of ocean-going craft to be developed in the West. Heyerdahl does not see the dugout canoe, which reached its largest size on Canada's Northwest Coast, as being ancestral to frame hulls but rather as a separate development, as were the ocean-going outrigger canoes of Indonesia. The Beothuk of Newfoundland modified the design of their canoes for ocean or river travel.7 Both variants had V-shaped cross-sections, the river version having a straight keel-line while that of the ocean-going version was curved or 'rockered'; both needed rock ballast to stay upright in the water.8 According to archaeologist Ingeborg Marshall, Beothuk canoes relate more closely to those of Athapaskans in the Northwest than they do to canoes of the regions in between, and they incorporate Inuit kayak features as well.9 It has also been suggested that the design of its frame allowed for a removable skin cov­ ering to be placed over the forward part, pro­ viding shelter for those aboard. In its ocean­ going form, it was a craft well suited for travel among ice floes.10 Whatever the type of vessel, people 'could have made the trip anytime in the past 40,000 years', according to archaeolo­ gist David Kelley. 'They could have made it intentionally and got back again any time in the last 50 0 0 .'" In his opinion, the 'shipping problem is a straw man.' Long before the Christian era, the people of ancient southeastern China became known as Pai-Yueh, the Navigators. One can only specu­ late as to where these early sailors went; howev­ er, the peanut, an American plant, has been reported from two coastal Chinese sites dating to about 3300-2800 BC,12 and two varieties of chickens considered to be native to the Orient were happily at home in America when the Spanish arrived.13 Chinese records tell of a search for islands in the Eastern (Pacific) Ocean where drugs for longevity were to be found, as well as 'magical beings and strange things'; one

such expedition, in 219 BC, resulted in 3,000 young men and women being sent a few years later. Their mission was to establish a trade in the drug, but they were never heard from again. The mention of magical drugs, of course, brings South America to mind, but it is not a connec­ tion that is ever likely to be made with any cer­ tainty. In ad 458, Chinese records tell us, the monk Hwui Shan, with four companions, sailed to the east and reached the land of Fu-Sang, where he stayed for 40 years, returning to China in 499.14 He reported that the people of that dis­ tant region lived in unfortified houses, did not esteem gold or silver, and drank deer milk, a description that suggests reindeer-herding peo­ ples in Siberia, who could have been reached by sea via Kamchatka Peninsula. Oddly enough, Pietro Martire d'Anghiera (1455-1526), an Italian living at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella whose Decades is an early account of Columbus's voyages, wrote that Amerindians did not esteem gold and silver, kept herds of deer, drank their milk, and made cheese.15 (Milk is not known to be an item in the Amerindian diet, and some New World peoples lack the enzyme needed to digest it.) In AD 507, a Fukienese ship was blown out into the Pacific by a storm and found itself in the midst of strange islands. There does not seem to have been a follow-up voyage.

Transoceanic Technologies In 1956, ceramics were discovered at Valdivia in southwestern Ecuador, dated to 3200-2800 BC, at that time by far the oldest known such artifacts in the Americas. Their striking resem­ blance to pottery of the Middle Jom on period of Japan set off a wave of speculation that the Japanese had introduced pottery-making to the Americas. However, other contemporary New World pottery was soon found that did not always share Jomon's characteristics, and even­ tually the discovery of even older ceramics that

Metropolises and Intercultural Contacts had no resemblance to Valdivia ware ended that particular debate. But it did not resolve the question of the origin of New World pottery, as the oldest finds, now dated to before 3600 B C , unrelated to Valdivia as they are, still indicate a fully formed craft that appears to have been introduced from somewhere.16 If the weaving of basketry is preliminary to the making of pot­ tery, then one could expect that those areas where basketry became a high art, as in California and the Northwest Coast, would yield indications as to the development of pot­ tery. Such has not been the case; in fact, ceram­ ics were notably absent from both those areas. In northeastern North America, a fully devel­ oped type of pottery called Vinette I appeared about 1000 B C , without antecedents. The re­ semblance of these grit-tempered, cord-marked pots with convoidal bottoms to Old World ceramics has been remarked upon by anthro­ pologist Alice B. Kehoe.17 Fiedel, on the other hand, holds they could have resulted from local experimentations following exposure to the steatite-tempered pottery of the midAtlantic region. Otherwise, two sources are hy­ pothesized for the introduction of pottery into Canada: from Asia via Alaska and the Yukon, or from the south into the east, both before 3,000 years ago.18 The pottery problem has, if anything, fuelled the controversy over transoceanic con­ tacts in general, and their role in cultural dif­ fusion, in particular. The issue of the Japanese connection is far from dead, as a particular type of mace considered to be peculiar to Japan has surfaced in Ecuador, dated sometime before AD 500 (interestingly enough, in the Far North the bow and arrow appeared about this time, or shortly before, and spread rapidly southward). Japanese and Amerindians are the only peoples to sing death songs. Those who argue in favour of cultural influences from across the seas point to technologies that were found on both sides of the Pacific, such as sus­

pension bridges, hydraulic works, and blow guns, to name only a few.19 Cultural resemblances that appear to stretch the probability of coincidence too far for credi­ bility have been compiled by geographer Stephen Jett (as well as others, such as Paul Shao and R.A. Jairazbhoy). He has listed con­ cordances with China from the Shang dynasty (sixteenth century B C ) through to the Han (206 B C -A D 220). Both the Shang Chinese and the Olmec of Central America (c. 1200 B C -B C /A D ) made much of the feline motif (sometimes without the lower jaw), dragons, and serpents, and placed special emphasis on mountains. Both erected platform buildings with a north/ south orientation, placed jade pieces in the mouths of the dead, and knew about magnet­ ism. By late Shang times the toy dog was to be found in China and the Americas (Peru and Mexico), and dog flesh was eaten on ceremon­ ial occasions on both sides of the ocean. Spreading from late Shang into Chou and Ch'in (700-220 B C ), double-headed dragons and sisiutls are found on both sides of the Pacific, particularly on the Canadian North­ west Coast. During late Chou and Dong-son (early Christian era) metallurgy appeared in the central Andean region and along the Ecuador coast to Costa Rica, but principally in the Ecuadorean Bahia area, generally believed to be the scene of the oldest New World metallurgi­ cal work ( c . 500 B C -A D 500). In style, it is strik­ ingly similar to Chinese crafts of this period. If there was a connection, Amerindians were soon experimenting on their own, as they were the first masters of platinum metallurgy; Andean metal workers made skilful use of alloys. Peruvians liked to work with gold, 'the sweat of the Sun', and silver, 'tears of the Moon', in sheets, which they manipulated into desired forms, with particular attention to sur­ faces and colour. Their style of metallurgy has been described as one of surface transforma­ tion.20 Beaten metal work, however, is far older

37

38

Canada's First Nations

O n e o f t h e o ld e s t d a te d a r t o b je c t s fr o m th e N o r th w e s t C o a s t, th is c a rv e d a n tle r t o o l - h a f t is a b o u t 4 , 5 0 0 y e a rs o ld . It c o m e s fr o m t h e G le n r o s e C a n n e r y s ite o n th e F raser R iv e r a n d is 1 0 .7 c e n tim e tr e s lo n g .

(Courtesy Laboratory o f Archaeology, University o f British Columbia M useum o f Anthropology, Vancouver. Cat. no. DgRr 6 :2 6 8 7 )

S e a te d h u m a n fig u re b o w ls c a rv e d o u t o f s te a tite h a v e b e e n fo u n d th r o u g h o u t th e s o u th e r n s e c tio n o f t h e N o rth w e s t C o a s t, as w e ll a s u p t h e F ra ser a n d T h o m p s o n riv ers, a n d a re b e lie v e d t o d a te t o a b o u t 2 , 5 0 0 - 1 , 5 0 0 y e a rs a g o . T h is o n e c a m e fr o m t h e L o w e r F raser V a lle y a n d is 1 1 .5 c e n tim e tr e s h ig h . S im ila r, life -s iz e fig u re s a re fo u n d in M e s o a m e r ic a . (Courtesy

University o f British Columbia M useum o f Anthropology, Vancouver, on loan from Jack Yoshioka. Cat. no. A 6 0 0 9 )

Metropolises and Intercultural Contacts in the Americas; the Old Copper Culture, in the Lake Superior region and to the south, dates to 4000 BC. (Later cultures, such as Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian, would develop beaten copper work into a high artistic form.) In­ terestingly enough, people of the Aishihik cul­ ture (AD 750-1800) in southwestern Yukon worked copper they had obtained at the head­ waters of the White River into points, awls, and dangles (cones). Their descendants today, the southern Tutchone, have a tradition of their ancestors heat-treating the copper and dipping it in cold water before hammering it.21 Han China (206 B C -A D 220) and Mexico shared tri­ pod vessels, wheeled toys, and lacquer. Efforts to establish linguistic connections between China and America have gone nowhere, except with place names; according to Jett, 130 Peru­ vian place names, mainly from Lima north­ ward, correspond to Chinese names, and 95 Peruvian place names have meanings in Chinese but not in the New World regions where they are found. After Han, evidences of Chinese cultural influences become even more tenuous; there is no argument for post-Han contact with the New World.22

Transoceanic Exchange The scene now shifts to Southeast Asia, princi­ pally Cambodia, southern India, and the Maldive Islands.23 The argument here is for a trade contact, mainly with Cambodian Khmers, around AD 400-1000. It has been pointed out that prevailing winds and currents made such a commerce possible; but even its most enthusi­ astic proponents agree that it could not have lasted past the thirteenth century. Botanical evidence indicates an early India-America con­ nection: the hybrid New World cotton, dis­ cussed in the previous chapter, suggests as much, particularly as spinning and weaving equipment is the same on both sides of the Pacific.24 Maize has added to this botanical puz­

zle, as it seems to have appeared with extraor­ dinary rapidity in the Middle East and South­ east Asia, if indeed it was introduced after Columbus. There is abundant linguistic evi­ dence to this effect: sixteenth-century accounts refer to it by such names as Roman corn, Turkish wheat, Sicilian corn, Guinea corn, Egyptian com, and Syrian doura, among oth­ ers. This, of course, does not tell us when it was introduced into those regions; however, the Jesuit Joseph François Lafitau (1681-1746) wrote that Pliny (AD 23/24-79) had mentioned maize being introduced to Rome, but that it was not well received and so disappeared until reintroduced in the sixteenth century. A twelfth-century Indian carving at Halebid, Mysore, India, is of a figure holding a cob of corn.25 Other New World plants that have appeared in pre-Columbian transpacific con­ texts include grain amaranth, which may have made the voyage before corn (it was referred to in a tenth-century Chinese document as a crop of Szechwan),26 the sweet potato (Ipomoaea bat­ atas), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), and the coco­ nut palm (Cocos nucifera). The reverse seems to be the case with an Asiatic type of rice, Oryza latifolia, widely grown in South America. Kelley has detailed a partial correlation between the calendar of the Mexica and an ancient Hindu zodiac, as well as between the Mayan calendar and the alphabet. He considers these to be too close to be the result of chance; he also suggests that the ideas underlying the Mayan calendar originated in Taxila, in mod­ ern Pakistan, once a centre of learning that attracted scholars from great distances. The calendrical/zodiac correlations involve a sequence of four of the 20 Mexica day names, which cor­ respond to deities in the Hindu zodiac. When the two sequences are placed side by side and co-ordinated with each other, the Mexica day Death corresponds to the Hindu god of death, Yama; the Mexica day Deer to Prajapati, the Hindu god in deer shape; the Mexica day Rab­

39

40

Canada's First Nations bit (associated in Mexico with the moon and drunkenness) to Soma, the Hindu god of drunkenness who also rules the moon; and finally, the Mexica day Water to the Hindu storm god Rudra.27

North African Connections Further west, we find Egypt and Phoenicia both being advocated for the honour of having reached the New World. Thor Heyerdahl argues that both of these peoples built ocean-going reed ships; when he looked for men who could re-create this ancient craft, he found them at Lake Chad in North Africa and Lake Titicaca in the Andean highlands. It was the latter who built Ra II, in which Heyerdahl successfully crossed the Atlantic in 1970, following an unsuccessful attempt the previous year. Not only is the distance much less than across the Pacific, the westward-sweeping Canary Current is stronger than the Japanese Current. Heyerdahl argues for contact between the Mediterranean and the New World, possibly as early as 3000 B C and certainly by 1200 B C , when the Minoan civilization disappeared in what appears to have been a natural disaster and Phoenician cities were rocked by distur­ bances of an unspecified nature. His reasoning is that of a seaman; man was no less venture­ some in those ancient times than in the fif­ teenth and sixteenth centuries, and technolog­ ical limitations were not essentially that differ­ ent between the two periods. In both eras sailors, highly skilled as they were, had to oper­ ate within the framework of natural forces such as winds and currents; as Heyerdahl sees it, what was achievable by the Spaniards was also achievable by the Phoenicians.28 North African and European connections have another champion in the highly contro­ versial Barry Fell, zoologist and amateur lin­ guist, who argues from markings and inscrip­ tions on stones found in New England, Iowa,

and Oklahoma, which he claims are Iberian Punic. He carries this to the point of proposing that the Zuni are descended from Libyans (related to ancient Egyptians); that Mi'kmaq ideograms are a modified form of Egyptian hieroglyphs; and that the language of the Arizona Pima's creation chant is Semitic.29 Con­ nections have even been perceived with ancient Greece and Rome, particularly with the Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) region of Bolivia and in the Peruvian Andean highlands, with their geometrically designed cities, waterworks, and road systems. These speculations have been reinforced by the prevalence of the 'Greek key' motif in the art of those areas; in the coastal desert, stylistic resemblances have been noted between the pottery of the Peruvian Mochica and that of Greek Attica and Corinth. Perhaps most intriguing of all have been plants painted in a Pompeiian mosaic that have been identi­ fied as pineapples and soursops (guanâbana, Annona muricata); the volcanic eruption that preserved the mural occurred in AD 79.

How Is a Civilization Born? All of these are suggestive rather than proof. Behind the arguments are two principal views of the rise and development of civilizations: one that accords primacy to internal motiva­ tions, the other that sees external stimulation as being essential. Most authorities agree that it is highly unlikely 'civilization' was brought over whole to a welcoming population waiting to be enlightened. The evidence accumulated so far indicates that the civilizations of the New World basically developed in the New World. If they had the benefit of cross-fertilization, which is well within the realm of possibility and in some cases even of probability, this would have encouraged already established processes. For instance, as Kelley says, those correspondences between the Mexican calen­ dar and Hindu zodiac and between the Mayan

Metropolises and Intercuitural Contacts calendar and the Middle Eastern alphabet could have resulted from contacts after the New World systems of recording time were in use. Given the right conditions, imported ideas could well lead to a new sense of direction,30 as is also implied by the stories of Quetzalcoatl inherited by both the Mexica and the Maya from the Toltecs, and of Viracocha of the Peruvians. In both of these stories, heroes who brought civilization to the people were proph­ esied to return one day. Such a compromise position is not universal­ ly accepted, however, and there are those, such as British author Nigel Davies, who deny the likelihood of any external factors powerful enough to have had an important impact.31 Although forced to admit the profound impor­ tance of the Columbian contact, he flatly denies that possibility for earlier experiences. In too many instances, he says, chronologies are so far out of synchronization that apparent correlations between Old World and New World cultural phenomena must be accidental. He belongs to the group that argues instead for the pre-eminence of the subconscious in human development, and cites Carl Jung (1875-1961) to the effect that the near-identi­ cal forms of many religions were never 'invent­ ed' but were 'born' of a common heritage of the human mind. Davies extends this to art and other creative aspects of cultures. For example, there is the extraordinary resemblance between the complex tattooing and body-painting pat­ terns of the Maori of New Zealand and the Caduveo, tucked away in the Brazilian interior near the Paraguayan border. Anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, in pointing out this phe­ nomenon, also noted that since contact appears to be out of the question, one could only ask if 'internal connections of a psycho­ logical nature' were not operating to make pos­ sible such coincidences, well beyond the likeli­ hood of mere chance.32 It has also been argued that single instances such as this one, or that of

the Jom on pottery, by themselves have little significance one way or the other; more impor­ tant is the pattern of cultural complexes as a whole. Archaeologist Joh n Howland Rowe compiled a list of 60 specific features of limited distribution shared by the Andean region and the Mediterranean world before the Middle Ages.33 A strong opponent of diffusionism, he sought to demonstrate the extent to which independent parallel development was possi­ ble. It has been easy, of course, for his evidence to be used in support of the contrary view. There is also the answer advocated by Heyerdahl, which stretches present under­ standings of the technological capabilities of early man. He points out that Columbus reached America by taking the ocean highway that is the Canary Current, which with prevail­ ing winds swept him due west into the Caribbean. Carrying on a little further west, Spaniards subsequently reached the Gulf of Mexico, where complex civilizations were flourishing. It is in this region that the 'moth­ er' of American civilizations arose, which we call Olmec, after the natives of Olman, 'Rubber Land' (we do not know what they called them­ selves or even what language they spoke). This civilization appeared suddenly in a well-settled area about 1500 BC and, so far as is known, without a preceding period of development, during a time of natural disasters in the Old World. It lasted until about the time of Christ, although it was in decline from about 650 BC. The Olmec influenced subsequent city-states such as Teotihuacân (AD 150-700, outside of today's Mexico City), the whole complex of Mayan city-states, the Zapotec-Mixtec of Oax­ aca, whose major city was Monte Alban (400 b c -A D 900), and Tajin on the Gulf coast. One of the difficulties with this scenario is that it is not always clear in which direction the influences went; for instance, glyphic writing, once as­ sumed to have been first practised by the Olmec in the New World, has been found to

41

42

Canada's First Nations have been present centuries earlier, before 600 BC, at Monte Alban, in the land of the Zapotecs. This was one of the only two sites of the world where writing was indisputably invented (the other was Mesopotamia, before 3000 BC).34 Heyerdahl, in his comparisons with the Med­ iterranean world, includes all Amerindian civi­ lizations rather than restricting himself to the Andean, as Rowe does; his list, however, is somewhat shorter.35 He correlates the begin­ ning of the Olmec with a period of Phoenician emigration; he also relates the beginning date of the Mayan calendar, 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu (3113 BC), to a time of natural disasters and social upheavals in the Mediterranean world.

Botanical and Other Evidence As matters stand at the present, plants offer the strongest evidence of overseas connections between New and Old Worlds. The proof posi­ tive for such a connection that is demanded by the hardliners would be the discovery of Old World artifacts within a dated New World con­ text, or perhaps the reverse. So far that has not happened, despite numerous claims to the con­ trary.36 In the meantime, there is such evidence as the Chinese junk cast up on the northwest Pacific coast, reported in the eighteenth centu­ ry, not to mention the ubiquitous Japanese fish­ ing-net floats, so much sought after by souvenir hunters. There is also the resemblance between the Hindu game of pachesi and the Mexica patolli, so close as to be virtually identical. Myths add to the conundrum: according to one survey, they reveal a relationship between Mesoamerica and the Pacific islands and East and South Asia, on the one hand, and between North America and East and North Asia, on the other, 'thus showing two channels of cultural contact between Eurasia and America'.37 Heyerdahl has extended the puzzle further. He sees no reason why early travellers across the Atlantic, like the Spaniards at a later date,

did not cross the isthmus and sail down the Pacific coast on seagoing rafts, built with balsa logs from Ecuador and equipped with sails. The Spaniards found a busy coastal traffic of such rafts upon their first arrival; the directions they obtained from Peruvian sailors aided them in their rapid descent down the coast. As Heyer­ dahl demonstrated with his voyage on the raft Kon-Tiki in 1947, such vessels were fully capa­ ble of seagoing voyages, not only with prevail­ ing winds and currents but also tacking into the wind. This and other voyages confirmed Acosta's report that the people of lea and Arica, on the Peruvian coast, 'were wont to saile farre to the Islands of the West'. Heyerdahl sees the settlement of Easter Island with its mysterious giant sculptured heads (some with bodies that were carefully buried), so different from the giant heads of the Olmec, as originating in the Americas. As well, the peopling of Polynesia (including New Zealand), even if largely origi­ nating in Southeast Asia as generally accepted, would have had to come via the Americas along the only route available with their sailing technology—the Japanese Current. The sweet potato, the cultivation of which is widespread throughout the Pacific, is an American crop. Among other things, Polynesia and the Amer­ icas share bark beaters, the manufacture of bark cloth, the blowgun complex, longhouses, and head-hunting. As Heyerdahl sees it, Polynesia was the last region of the world to be populat­ ed by humans, and it was by way of the Amer­ icas. Genetic studies have revealed a close rela­ tionship between South American Amerindians and Polynesians.38 Whatever the outcome of these debates, one point is becoming increasingly clear: New World prehistory was as filled with significant developments as that of the Old World in the fascinating story of man's cultural evolution. Whatever the degree of overseas influence, the civilizations that evolved in the New World were distinctively their own; American Olmec

Metropolises and Intercultural Contacts and Chinese Shang each had their dragons, but they are not easily confused, any more than the split animal motif of the Northwest Coast could be with that of the Chou or Ch'in dynas­ ties. What is more, varied as New World cul­ tures were, they fit into a hemisphere-wide pat­ tern; like Europeans on the other side of the

Atlantic, they shared a basic civilization. Their 'formidable originality' has led Joseph Need­ ham, director of the East Asian History of Sci­ ence Library, Cambridge, and Lu Gwei-Djen, associate director, to place Amerindian civiliza­ tions on a par with those of the Old World: the Han, the Gupta, and the Hellenistic Age.39

43

Time Line 3 0 0 0 BC

Head-Smashed-In Jump in southern Alberta, used for hunting of bison until 1870s, had 3 0 different mazeways, as many as 2 0 ,0 0 0 cairns to direct stampeding herds.

2 0 0 0 BC-AD 1 0 0 0

Dorset culture thrives in Far North.

1 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 BC

Hierarchical chiefdoms among sedentary Northwest Coast groups (e.g., Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu'chah'nulth, Tsimshian) well established.

8 0 0 AD

Iroquoian (Five Nations, Odawa, Huron, etc.) farmerhunters living in palisaded vil­ lages.

1500s or earlier

Iroquoians form confederacies (Huron Confederacy, League of Five Nations) that have major impact on subsequent inter-tribal and IndianEuropean relations.

Chapter 4

Canada When Europeans Arrived

t the time of the first certainly known European contact with North America, that of the Norse in about AD 1000, by far the majori­ ty of Canada's original peoples were hunters and gatherers, as could be expected from the country's northern location.1 This way of life, based on regulated patterns that had evolved over thousands of years, grew out of an inti­ mate knowledge of resources and the best way of exploiting them . Anthropologist Robin Ridington has made the point that their tech­ nology consisted of knowledge rather than tools.2 It was by means of this knowledge of their ecosystems, and their ingenuity in using them to their own advantage, that Amer­ indians had been able to survive as well as they did with a comparatively simple tool kit. Because of Canada's extended coastline (the longest of any nation in the world), many of the Aboriginal peoples were sea-oriented; however, the great variety in the country's geo­ graphical regions (Arctic, Subarctic, North­ eastern Woodlands, Great Plains, Plateau, and Northwest Coast) ensured many variations on fundamentally similar ways of life.3 For the

most part, the population was thinly scattered, as the prevalent hunting and gathering mode of subsistence is land-intensive; the most wide­ ly accepted estimate is about 500,000, although recent demographic studies have pushed the possible figure to well over 2 million.4 The prin­ cipal population concentrations were on the Northwest Coast, where abundant and easily available resources had allowed for a sedentary life, and in what is today's southern Ontario, where various branches of Iroquoians practised farming. The Iroquoian groups may have totalled about 60,000 if not more, and the Northwest Coast could have counted as many as 200,000 souls, making it 'one of the most densely populated nonagricultural regions in the world'.5 Most of these people had been in their locations for thousands of years; as archaeologist James V. Wright has pointed out, only in the Arctic and the interior of British Columbia had there been comparatively recent migrations (A D 1000 and A D 700 respectively).6 These people spoke an estimated 50 to 70 languages classified into 12 families, of which six were exclusive to present-day British Col-

46

Canada's First Nations

4-1 Aboriginal culture areas Sources: Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian; R. Bruce Morrison and C. Roderick Wilson, ed. Native Peoples: The Canadian Experience (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986).

Arctic

Arctic

Western Subarctic

Arctic

Eastern Subarctic Plateau

Great Plains Great Basin

Northeastern Woodlands /

Southeast Southwest

o a frtrtfegn^i Mesoamerica

umbia. By far the most widespread geographi­ cally were those within the Algonkian group, spread from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic and along the coast from the Arctic to Cape Fear; Cree and Inuktitut had the widest geographical ranges. This accords with anthro­ pologist Richard A. Rogers's hypothesis, that by the proto-historic period areas that were once glaciated (most of Canada and a portion of the northern United States) had fewer languages

than areas that had been unglaciated. While Canada was com pletely covered with ice during the last glaciation, except for parts of the Yukon and some adjacent regions, the strip along the Pacific coast was freed very early. According to Rogers's calculations, onceglaciated areas averaged 18 languages per mil­ lion square miles and unglaciated regions 52.4 languages per million square miles (2,590,000 square kilometres).7 Following the rule of

Language Fam ilies I

Tutchdrie.

.Baffin Land ; Inuit

I Eskimoan

H I

Athapaskan

ÏW\

Algonquian

F^l

E3

Caribou Inuit

Kutenai Salishan

Fri

Wakashan

F I

Tsimshian

H i

Haida .'suwefen Haisla Bella Bella Bella Co Nuu'chah'rffitSKtg:

Iroquoian Siouan

m$mWm

/

Comaxi%f

Haida

] Tlingit

Beothuk

C o w ic h M w Nitinat! "

îgi

E lija h H arper, a t t h a t tim e N D P m e m b e r o f th e M a n ito b a le g is la tu re fo r R u p e rts la n d , h o ld s a n e a g le fe a th e r fo r s p iritu ­ a l s tr e n g th as h e u se s d e la y in g ta c tic s t o p r e v e n t th e M e e c h L a k e A c c o rd fr o m b e in g ra tifie d , 1 9 9 0 . (Canapress Photo

Service)

qualified.52Federally, the first Amerindian elect­ ed to Parliament since Confederation was Len Marchand, who served as the Liberal represen­ tative for Kamloops-Cariboo from 1968 to 1979; he was also Canada's first Amerindian federal cabinet minister, serving as Minister of State for Small Business, 19 7 6 -7 , and as Minister of State for the Environment, 1977-9; his last posting was in the Senate, where he served from 1984 to 1998. (James Gladstone's appointment in 1958 as Canada's first Amer­ indian senator has already been noted.) Wilton Littlechild became the first treaty Amerindian member of Parliament when he was elected as Progressive Conservative member for Wetaskiwin in 1988, the same year that Ethel BlondinAndrew became the pioneer Native woman M P (Liberal, Western Arctic). Littlechild quit poli­ tics in 1993, the year that Blondin was appoint-

404 Canada's First Nations ed Secretary of State (Training and Youth). She became Secretary of State (Children and Youth) in 1997. Ralph Goodale (Liberal, Wascana) was named Minister of Natural Resources and Minister Responsible for the Canadian Wheat Board in 1999. He also serves as Federal Inter­ locutor for Métis and Non-status Indians. That same year, Métis Robert Nault (Liberal, KenoraRainy River) was named Minister of Indian Affairs. The first Inuk member of Parliament, Peter Freuchen Ittinuar (N D P , Nunatsiaq), grandson of the explorer, won his seat in 1979; in 1982 he crossed the floor to join the Liberals, and in 1984 he was defeated in the wake of financial troubles. At the provincial level, Mike Cardinal was elected to the Alberta legislature under the Conservative banner in 1989 and served as Social Services Minister from 1992 to 1996, when he quit politics. Most recently, in 2000, British Columbia Premier Uijal Dosanjh took the highly unusual step of appointing an unelected Indian chief to the BC cabinet when he named Ed John, former Grand Chief of the First Nations Summit of British Columbia, as the province's Minister of Children and Families.53 The number of Natives appointed to public office is steadily increasing, both federally and provincially, as are those in the civil service. In 1974, an Amerindian became a lieutenant-gov­ ernor when Ralph Steinhauer (1905-87) was named for Alberta, serving until 1979. Inuk Willie Adams was named to the Senate in 1971, Inuk Charlie Watt in 1984, and Métis Thelma Chalifoux in 1997. When Mulroney packed the Senate with eight extra members in 1990 in the battle over the passage of the Goods and Services Tax, Walter Twinn, chief of the Sawridge band of Alberta (d.1997), was one of them, bringing the number of Natives who had been named to the Senate to five. Later, Twinn was reported to be considering resigning in view of Amerindian opposition to the tax,

but he did not take the step.54 In 1994, Mary Simon of Nunavik became the first Inuk to be appointed to an ambassadorial position when she was named Circumpolar Ambassador. In 1992, Dan Goodleaf of Kahnawake became the first Indian deputy minister in the federal serv­ ice when he was appointed to that post in Indian Affairs. He held it until 1995, when he was named ambassador to Costa Rica. Another ambassadorial appointment was that of Jim Bartleman to the European Union in 2000. Formerly ambassador to N A T O , Cuba, and Israel, among other postings, he is also foreign policy adviser to Jean Chrétien. Bartleman is a Chippewa from Rama First Nation of Ontario. On an organizational level, the Cree-Naskapi Act of Quebec, 1984, was a result of the Penner Report, as well as being a consequence of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (JB N Q A ) and its related accords of 1975-8. Hailed as the first self-government legislation for Natives in Canada, the Cree-Naskapi Act has replaced the Indian Act for the regions it serves and establishes the communities as cor­ porate entities, over and above their members' legal existence as individual persons.55 It applies to the first category of lands created by the JB N Q A , which were transferred by Quebec to Ottawa for the exclusive use and benefit of the James Bay Cree, and to Naskapi lands of the same designation. Its legal priority is second to that of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Native Claims Settlement Act, the federal statute that gave effect to JB N Q A . It has priority over all other legislation. However, depending on the set of figures used, there is disagreement as to the extent Ottawa has implemented the agreed-upon funding formula. The govern­ ment maintains it has effected 80 per cent of its commitments. Chief Henry Mianscum of the Mistassini band takes an opposite view: ‘proba­ bly 70 percent of that Agreement hasn't been implemented.'56 In the opinion of anthropolo­ gist Sally Weaver, the Cree-Naskapi case as 'a

Rocky Road to Self-Government 405 prototype experience with self-government. . . does not inspire confidence in the Conserva­ tive government's commitment to self-govern­ ment or in the Treasury Board’s willingness to provide the resources to a First Nation group once they are legally bound to a self-governing course.'57 Clearly, as the Report o f the CreeNaskapi Commission, 1988, recommends, those involved 'should establish a common fiscal statement stating the costs of implementation'. Other essential needs to be provided are com­ prehensive justice services and a locally admin­ istered economic development plan.58 The Western Arctic Claim Agreement (Inuvialuit Final Agreement) was also reached in 1984.59 It extinguished Inuvialuit Aboriginal title to the western Arctic in return for owner­ ship of 96,000 square kilometres stretching up to Banks Island, along with payments of $45 million in benefits and $10 million for eco­ nomic development. The administration of all this came under the umbrella Inuvialuit Regional Corporation (IR C ), organized the fol­ lowing year; its concerns include wildlife con­ servation and management, as is generally the case in these northern agreements. Nellie Cournoyea, formerly government leader for the Northwest Territories, became the IR C chairperson early in 1996. Its business arm, the Inuvialuit Development Corporation, pur­ chased a transportation firm for $27 million with a virtual monopoly on barge transporta­ tion in the Canadian Arctic; another of its proj­ ects has been the establishm ent of the Inuvialuit Renewable Resources Development Corporation, which is working on creating international and domestic markets for musk­ ox meat and wool. The Inuvialuit are exclusive owners of the government-set musk-ox quotas for their region.60 This by no means exhausts the list of their enterprises, which include the largest regional airline in the western Arctic, energy, and real estate; IR C branches maintain offices in several cities. On top of all that, the

M a tth e w C o o n C o m e , a n o r th e r n Q u e b e c C re e , is sa id t o b e o n e o f t h e 'le a s t a s s im ila te d ' o f A b o rig in a l le a d e rs. As a y o u n g m a n h e sa w h o w t h e J a m e s B a y A g r e e m e n t b o t h h u rt a n d h e lp e d h is p e o p le , a n d a s G r a n d C h ie f o f th e H u d s o n B ay C r e e h e w as in s tr u m e n ta l in s to p p in g H y d ro -Q u é b e c's G r e a t W h a le R iv e r p r o je c t. A s AFN N a tio n a l C h ie f, h e h o p e s t o g e t O tta w a t o a c t o n th e r e c o m m e n d a t io n s o f t h e R o y a l C o m m is s io n o n A b o rig in a l P e o p le s . (Canadian Press CP

Photo/Jonathan Hayward)

IRC has paid Inuvialuit elders a minimum of $1,000 each annually since 1986 (one year they got $2,500); in 1990, the IRC distributed $100 to every Inuvialuit over 18 years of age. These distributions come out of its profits. In the Yukon, after nearly two decades of nego­ tiation, an Umbrella Final Agreement was signed in 1993 whereby the territory's 14 Amerindian bands retain ownership of 44,000 square kilome­ tres and receive compensation of $260 million while avoiding complete extinguishment of Ab­ original title. Besides protection for wildlife, the

406 Canada's First Nations agreement also creates a constitutional obliga­ tion to negotiate self-government.61 That entrenchment of Aboriginal rights as a feature of land-claim settlements is still far from being conceded by the federal govern­ ment was dramatically illustrated by the can­ cellation of the Dene/Métis Western Arctic Land Claim agreement late in 1990.62 The agreement, reached after 14 years of negotia­ tion, would have given the Dene/Métis surface title to 181,230 square kilometres of land (a region for which the Dene adopted the name of 'Denendeh' in 1981) and subsurface rights to 10,000 square kilometres, as well as $500 mil­ lion in cash and special hunting and fishing rights.63 The point at issue was the Dene/Métis demand to renegotiate a clause in the prelimi­ nary agreement that required the surrender of Aboriginal and treaty rights in return for the settlement. As the Dene see it, 'Our laws from the Creator do not allow us to cede, release, sur­ render or extinguish our inherent rights.'64 Two of the claim's five regions had already split from the umbrella 12,000-m em ber Dene Nation and 3,000-member Métis Association over the issue; the federal government moved to take advantage of the situation and an­ nounced it would start talks with the break­ away councils of the Mackenzie Delta Gwich'in and the Sahtu Dene/Métis. Despite the protests of the umbrella Dene/Métis, the talks resulted six months later (in 1991) in the Gwich'in accepting 22,332 square kilometres straddling the Yukon-NWT border, plus subsurface rights to 93 square kilometres and a compensation of $75 million over 15 years.65 In return for giving up their Aboriginal claim, the Gwich'in received title to their assigned land in fee sim­ ple. The deal received royal approval in 1992, and that of the Sahtu was proclaimed in 1994. The Gwich'in Tribal Council used $1 million of its settlement to develop Tl'oondik Healing Camp on the Peel River, a short distance from Fort McPherson.66

Nunavut ('Our Land') Is Born The creation of the territory of Nunavut out of the Northwest Territories on 1 April 1999 was a dramatic moment for the country. Indeed, it aroused international attention, as illustrated by the visit of Jacques Chirac, the President of France, when the fledgling territory was five months old.67 Comprising more than 2.2 mil­ lion square kilometres, better than a fifth of Canada's entire surface, Nunavut is the largest land-claim settlement in the country's history. The agreement involved the surrender of Aboriginal title on the part of the Inuit (who comprise about 21,500 out of a total Nunavut population of 25,000), but gave them owner­ ship in fee simple of 350,000 square kilometres, an area half the size of Saskatchewan.68 In effect, this is the largest private landholding in North America. As well, the Inuit will be receiv­ ing $1.17 billion in cash over 14 years. These transformations of Aboriginal title involved the Inuit acknowledging an underlying Crown title, a step seen by some as possibly preparing the way for the eventual breakup of their tradi­ tional territories.69 Nunavut's official languages are English, French, and Inuktitut, and its flag depicts a red inukshuk with a blue North Star. A thorny problem had been the negotiation of a boundary between Nunavut to the east, with its population of Inuit, and Denendeh to the west, with its Dene/Métis, splitting the Northwest Territories into two and involving a cash settle­ ment of $701 million. After 20 years of often bit­ ter negotiations, John Parker, commissioner for the Northwest Territories, 1979- 89, was named as arbitrator in January 1991. His recommenda­ tion, accepted by Ottawa in April of that year, was for a boundary running north from the Manitoba-Saskatchewan border to the centre of the Thelon Game Sanctuary, then jogging north­ west to the Inuvialuit border near Paulatuk. This arrangement did not satisfy the Dene, who lost out in the contested area of Contwoyto Lake in

Rocky Road to Self-Government 407

P erfo rm ers a n d I n u it J u n i o r R a n g e rs c a rry in g t h e fla g s o f C a n a d a 's te n p r o v in c e s a n d th r e e te rrito rie s d u rin g t h e c e le ­ b r a tio n m a r k in g t h e fo u n d in g o f N u n a v u t as C a n a d a 's n e w e s t te rrito ry , 1 A pril 1 9 9 9 . T h e c e r e m o n y w as h e ld in Iq a lu it, c a p ita l o f t h e n e w te rrito ry . (Shaun Best, Canadian Press CP photo pool)

the central Arctic.711The boundary was settled in favour of Nunavut in 1993. The idea for the creation of a northern juris­ diction administered in co-operation with the Inuit developed after World War II and came under active consideration beginning in 1978 as a result of a proposal by Inuit Tapirisat.71 The concept received a major boost in 1985 when it was supported by the Royal Commission on the Economic Union and Development Prospects for Canada (the Macdonald Commission) on the grounds that regional governments adapted to particular circumstances, cultural and other­ wise, would better meet the needs of the Canadian North. That same year, 1985, the proj­ ect received unexpected outside support when the United States sent the Polar Sea through the

Northwest Passage without permission from Canada. This was the second such infringement on the part of the Americans (the first was the voyage of the Manhattan in 1971), who wanted those waters to be declared international. Since the Inuit have been in the region for more than a thousand years and represent about 85 per cent of its present population, the creation of a self-governing territory was seen as the best pos­ sible demonstration of effective occupation, thus enormously strengthening Canada's claim to Arctic sovereignty. The Northwest Territories endorsed the idea by a margin of 54 to 46 per cent in a plebiscite held in 1992, which led to an accord being signed that same year for the cre­ ation of the new territory.72 The project took final shape in 1993 with the

408 Canada's First Nations

27-2 Nunavut, Canada's new territory Source: Adapted from The Globe and Mail, Toronto, 4 May 1996.

Nunavut Land Claim Settlement and finally with the federal Nunavut Act. The territory was given a new style of 'public government', more or less on the elective provincial model but with greater decentralization.73 In one major aspect it differs from the party-oriented governments to the south in that in some areas it follows the Inuit practice of reaching decisions by consen­ sus. Native traditions have influenced the jus­ tice system, worked out in co-operation with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.74 Also dif­ ferent is the court system, which has been sim­ plified by combining the usual two levels (supe­ rior and territorial) into one. A consequence of all this has been a need to address the territory's acute shortage of lawyers, which led to plans to

open a school of law in the fall of 2001. Akitsiraq Law School, open only to Inuit, will initially offer a four-year program, taught through the University of Victoria. The new territory is not entirely Inuit, how­ ever. Non-Natives are participating; four of the Legislative Assembly's 19 members are not Inuit. The first Premier, 34-year-old Paul Okalik, is a southern-trained lawyer who sees the co-opera­ tion of the two peoples as essential to the new territory's success. A major challenge is training Native personnel as administrators; at present, a little more than half of the people have a grade eight education or less. It is estimated that once Nunavut is fully operational, about 20 per cent of its population will be working for its govern-

Rocky Road to Self-Government 409 ment. Another challenge is financial: as matters stood when Finance Minister Kelvin Ng pre­ sented the territory's third budget, a $12 million deficit was forecast for the upcoming fiscal year. During the territory's first two years, federal transfers averaging $581 million a year account­ ed for 90 per cent of its total budget. At first, keeping spending in line with available funds was comparatively simple. But as programs developed, costs inevitably rose. This has been particularly the case with housing, of which there is a serious shortage. In Ng's view, an active program to deal with this situation has been the direct cause for the predicted short­ fall.75 Lack of housing is an old problem that has been compounded by new difficulties such as rising costs, particularly of fuel and transporta­ tion.76 Widespread poverty and high unemploy­ ment show no signs of easing. Added to all this is growing labour unrest. Still, for Inuit elder Nancy Karetak-Lindell, the first elected MP for Nunavut, the creation of the territory has given her people the incentive to tackle such prob­ lems. As she sees it, it has given them back their lives—literally, when one considers the chal­ lenge of dealing with its current suicide rate among the young, the highest in the world.77 At the other end of the spectrum is the question of time zones. The territory straddles three: Mountain, Central, and Eastern. The initial deci­ sion to place the entire territory on Central Time proved highly unpopular, as in some areas it meant that the sun set at 1 p.m. The solution has been a compromise, that of eliminating day­ light saving time. As a result, Nunavut's first six months of the year are now on Central Time, and the second six months on Eastern Time. In the view of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, the Inuit have made the most progress towards self-government of all of Canada's Aboriginal peoples. In its words, 'Only the Inuit are well advanced in the process of political reform.' Sociologist Maybelle Mitchell attributes this to their adaptability,

which has always been a prime requirement for survival in the Arctic.78 Ottawa, meanwhile, has been extending selfgovernment at the municipal level to some Amerindian bands, in line with the long-held legal opinion that if Indians have the national vote they should be allowed to ran their own affairs at the local level. In 1986, the 650-mem­ ber Sechelt band assumed legal and political con­ trol in fee simple of a reserve of 10 square miles (26 square kilometres), 50 kilometres north of Vancouver, after a decade of effort on their part. The deal involved compensation of $54 million but no general land-claims settlement. For many Indians, this represented a compromise with their claim to an inherent right to self-govern­ ment at the national level. As of 1981, band councils were administering 60 per cent of Amerindian program funds, amounting to about $600 million; for the most part, however, this had to be done within guidelines laid down by the department. Since Sechelt, Alberta's tiny but wealthy Sawridge band has negotiated a self-gov­ ernment agreement, and others are in process. The reorganization of Canada's federalism, much discussed since the failure of Meech Lake, must make new provision for Amerindians, dele­ gates agreed at the three-day Self-Determination Symposium held by the Assembly of First Nations at the University of Toronto in October 1990. Dene Georges Erasmus, the Assembly's National Chief (1985-91), described the Amer­ indian vision of the new order of things as one of 'sharing, recognition, and affirmation'.79 He pointed to the American model: 'The United States is comfortable with recognizing that tribal peoples . . . have the right to govern themselves in many areas___ We have problems getting the government to even mouth the words "nation to nation".'80 The alternative of civil disobedience was raised by Chief Ben Michel of the Innu. He argued that 'an attack on the economic base of Canada' would not be an insurrection, since Canada uses its economic power to suppress

410

Canada's First Nations Native sovereignty. Rather, he said, it would be an exercise in sovereignty, at least for the Innu, who have never surrendered it.81

l i g h t o f 2 1 s t c e n t u r y r e a l i t y . . . . T h e 4 0 y e a r h is­ t o r y o f t h e s e I n n u p e o p le is a g la r in g re m in d e r t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n o r a s s i m i la t i o n a l o n e w ill n o t m a k e th e m a h e a lth y c o m m u n ity .

Hunters, Bombers, and a Breakaway On another front, the Innu of Labrador, after a year of campaigning, won an injunction in 1989 to prevent the military from continuing its lowflying exercises over their terrain. The injunc­ tion was later overturned. The judge who had been sympathetic to the Innu appeal was an Inuk, James Igloliorte; in his judgement he observed that the lands in question had not been covered by treaties: 'none of their people ever gave away rights to the land to Canada, and this is an honest belief each person holds.'82 His reasoning is worth considering in some detail: The

p ro v in c ia l a n d

fe d e r a l

s ta tu te s

do

not

i n c l u d e a s t h i r d p a r t i e s o r s i g n a t o r ie s a n y I n n u p e o p le . I a m s a t is f i e d t h a t t h e f o u r [ a p p e lla n t s ] b e lie v e th e ir a n c e s to r s p re d a te a n y C a n a d ia n c l a im s t o a n c e s t r y o n t h i s l a n d . S i n c e t h e c o n ­ c e p t o f l a n d a s p r o p e r t y is a c o n c e p t f o r e i g n t o o r i g i n a l p e o p le t h e C o u r t m u s t n o t a s s u m e th a t

a

'r e a s o n a b l e '

b e lie f

be

E n g lis h a n d h e n c e C a n a d ia n The

In n u

fo u n d e d

on

la w s t a n d a r d s .

m u s t b e a llo w e d t o e x p re s s th e ir

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f a f o r e i g n c o n c e p t o n t h e i r te r m s , o r s i m p l y t o e x p r e s s w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e .

The Innu, Igloliorte went on, do not believe that their rights were affected either by the Proclamation of 1763 or by 'the present occu­ pation'. A ll o f t h e le g a l r e a s o n i n g s a r e b a s e d o n t h e p r e m is e t h a t s o m e h o w

th e

C row n

a c q u ir e d

m a g i c a ll y b y its o w n d e c l a r a t i o n o f t i t l e t o t h e f e e a c o n s e q u e n t f id u c ia r y o b l i g a t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l p e o p le . I t is t i m e t h i s p r e m is e b a s e d o n 1 7 th c e n tu r y re a s o n in g b e q u e s tio n e d in th e

The judge concluded that criminalizing the Innu for their stand implies that 'the Court will have been unable to recognize the fundamen­ tal right of all persons to be treated equally before the law.' As the government dragged its feet, public support for the Innu in their campaign grew. Walks to Ottawa in 1990—one starting in Hali­ fax, the other in Windsor, Ontario—culminated in rallies on Parliament Hill and in a demonstra­ tion that ended with the arrest of 116 individu­ als. The Innu, who number about 12,000, claim that Canadian and other pilots of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization make about 7,000 flights a year over their lands, sometimes zoom­ ing within a few metres of the ground. The Innu say this frightens the game, which is diminish­ ing as a result, and consequently threatens their lifestyle. A revealing look at the attitude of the military, which regards the Labrador interior as an empty land, is presented in the National Film Board production by Hugh Brody, Hunters and Bombers. The low flights are not only still con­ tinuing; in 1995 they were extended when the Innu lost their appeal in provincial court. In 1968, Johnny Bob (Robert) Smallboy (Apitchitchiw, 1898-1984), a hereditary chief of the Ermineskin band at Hobbema, Alberta, left the reserve and with 143 followers set up camp on an old Indian hunting ground on the shores of Lake Muskiki, 65 kilometres north­ west of Nordegg. For some time the chief had been worried about overcrowding on the res­ erve; but even more, he was concerned about the loss of traditional values under the stresses of today's technology-dom inated ethos. According to the Indians, the inspiration for this gesture of reaffirmation came from Lazarus Roan (1903-78), an elder who had had a vision

Rocky Road to Self-Government

411

Prim e M in is te r J e a n C h r é t ie n a n d F r e n c h P re s id e n t Ja c q u e s C h ir a c a re g r e e te d b y P a u l O k a lik , rig h t, g o v e r n m e n t lea d er o f N u n a v u t, a n d o th e r le a d e rs u p o n a rriv a l a t Iq a lu it, c a p ita l o f N u n a v u t, 5 S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 9 . (Canadian Press CP

photo/Paul Chiasson)

of a future catastrophe awaiting humans unless they followed the spirits' instructions. To avoid disaster, Lazarus and his people should leave the reserve, camp in a place designated by the spirits, and follow the old way of life. In carrying out this directive, Smallboy not only confronted the government, as he and his followers camped on Crown lands, but he also split with many of his people who did not share Lazarus's vision. According to Randall J. Brown, a Native counselling specialist with Employment Canada who has spent some time at the camp, the initial impetus to revivify traditional customs soon modified, and in two or three years mem­ bers of the camp were living in log cabins (and later frame houses) instead of tents, had radio and television, and were no longer trying to live solely off the land. Economically, the camp sur­ vived because of oil royalties its people receive as members of the Hobbema bands. But in other

aspects tradition has remained strong, as in the celebration of the sun dance and the observance of shaking tent rituals. That there was consider­ able public sympathy for the Créés' gesture was indicated in 1979 when Smallboy was awarded the Order of Canada. His camp is still on Kootenay Flats83 and has developed a wilderness program for the rehabilitation of problem youths, 'the best of the worst from streets and reserves, society's rejects’, in the words of Wayne Roan, president of the Nihtuskinan Society, which is in charge of the project.84 A counterbalancing trend was manifested in the launching of the World Council of Indigenous Peoples, an affiliate of the United Nations, in 1975 at Port Alberni, BC. Present were representatives from both of the Americas, Eurasia, and Scandinavia. Shuswap Chief George Manuel (1921-89), head of the National Indian Brotherhood (1970-6), was a key figure.

Time Line 1967

Newfoundland moves caribou-hunting Innu to island community of Davis Inlet, after a previous move on the mainland in 1948.

1991-6

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples concludes with five-volume, 3,537-page report including 440 specific recommendations.

1995

Confrontation between RCMP and dissident Shuswap Traditionalists encamped on private land at Custafsen Lake, BC. Standoff over disputed land on shore of Lake Huron between Kettle and Stoney Point First Nation (Chippewa) and Ontario Provincial Police results in shooting death of Native activist Dudley George.

1996

Agreement reached to relocate Innu from Davis Inlet (though still not put into effect).

1997

First Nations Bank of Canada begins operations in Saskatoon; three branches now open, with more planned.

1998

Formal government regret expressed for residential school abuses and $350 million healing fund established.

2000

Matthew Coon Come, Grand Chief of the Hudson Bay Cree, is elected National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations. Deal reached to allow the Innu to have the final say concerning their children.

Chapter 28

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission

consequence of the Oka crisis was Prime Minister Mulroney's announcement of the set­ ting up in 1991 of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) to investigate and report on the situation of Aboriginal peoples across the country, which the Prime Minister characterized as being second only in national importance to the current constitutional crisis. Seven commissioners were appointed; of the four who were Aboriginal, none represented the western numbered treaties. Of the two co-chairs, Georges Erasmus was formerly president of the Dene Nation, Northwest Territories, and more recently National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, and René Dussault was a judge of the Quebec Appeals Court. The Commission's report was to be presented in 1994; instead, it did not appear until late in 1996. Not only was it the longest sitting for such a Commission in Canada's history, it was also the most expensive, even in terms of its initial budget of $42 million; that figure eventually ballooned to $58 million. The next most expensive was the Royal Commission on Reproductive Technology, which cost about $27 million.

The historical significance of the R C A P was pointed out by Peter Russell, professor of polit­ ical science at the University of Toronto: 'This is the first time in modern history that the nonAboriginal people have sat down with Aborigi­ nal people and together . . . reviewed where they've been together and tried to chart a course on where they want to go.'1 It would be the most thorough official investigation ever undertaken of Aboriginal life in Canada.2

While RCAP Listened, Problems Continued In the meantime, the ending of the Oka stand­ off did not mean the end of tensions and demonstrations, as Aboriginal leaders contin­ ued their arguments for a larger constitutional role for their people.3 That unsolved problems were continuing to fester as the RCA P set about its investigations became starkly evident in January 1993 when six children on the Innu reserve at Davis Inlet, Labrador, tried to com­ mit suicide after sniffing gas fumes. The inci­ dent quickly blew up into an international

414

Canada's First Nations scandal: 'Tragedy at Davis Inlet. The near-suicides of six teens display the hollowness of government promises to improve the commu­ nity', according to a headline in The Gazette, Montreal.4 The story of Davis Inlet, an Innu community of about 500, is one of forced relocation, an all too familiar occurrence for Native settlements in the face of advancing agricultural and indus­ trial frontiers. In the case of Davis Inlet, the process started in 1948 when the Newfound­ land government decided that the caribou­ hunting Innu, who have never been covered by the Indian Act, would be better off as fisher­ men and woodcutters at a location 240 kilome­ tres distant from their traditional territory. The deaths of 70 of the Innu over the next two years led the community's survivors to seek their own remedy—they walked back to their old homeland. Again, they were not allowed to stay; less than 20 years later, in 1967, they were moved again, this time from their mainland site to an island in Davis Inlet. Once more, it was a move that made it impossible for them to continue their traditional caribou-hunting way of life. The government's expressed reason: the new location was better suited for building housing and sewage systems. For the Innu, the sense of powerlessness at being once more involuntarily cut off from their customary pur­ suits led to a spiral of welfare dependency, alco­ holism, gasoline sniffing, and suicide. The six rescued children were not alone in their suicide attempt: in one year, 25 per cent of the Innu adults were reported to have tried the same thing. In the wake of the publicity following their rescue, the six children were brought to Saddle Lake Reserve, outside of Edmonton, where they spent six months in a drug and alcohol treatment centre ran by Poundmaker's Lodge and the Nechi Institute. At the same time, a group of Nechi counsellors went to Davis Inlet to work with the community itself.5 While there was some improvement, the diffi­

culties proved not to be quickly resolved as long as the basic problem remained, which became clearly evident when some teenagers went on a New Year's Eve rampage and severe­ ly damaged a school.6 It was not until late in 1996 that a relocation agreement was finally reached, this time to a site that the community accepted.7 As of December 2000, however, the planned relocation had exceeded its original budget by $30 million, the Innu remained excluded from the Indian Act, and conflict with the federal government continued over how to effect the needed change. As Davis Inlet Chief Simeon Tshakapesh said, ‘unless mean­ ingful changes occur, we are facing extinction. . . . They still want to control everything. That's going to be a big stumbling block in our heal­ ing plan.' And indeed, when the government moved to take over the finances of the two Labrador com m unities (Davis Inlet and Sheshatshiu) because of their operating deficits, the protests were loud.8 The gas-sniffing problem continued in other Innu communities, such as Sheshatshiu, which counts a population of 1,200, and became a major national news story in late 2000. If any­ thing, the problem got worse as children, some as young as six, openly sniffed gasoline in the streets. In Chief Paul Rich's words: 'You see kids with a green garbage bag or a plastic shopping bag. They carry them around with gas inside and they sniff all day.' Unable to cope with the situation, Chief Rich took the unprecedented step of calling upon the Newfoundland govern­ ment to send child protection officials to remove as many as 39 children and take them into care. In supporting the move, Peter Penashue, president of the Innu Nation, observed that 'this is the first time that I know of . . . that we've asked the government to take children en masse.' The government, after some hesitation because of the highly charged issue of removing Aboriginal children from their fami­ lies, sent 12 of the troubled young people to a

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission detoxification centre on a military base at Goose Bay as a 'temporary' measure. The location was chosen because of its high security; an earlier attempt to use a centre in Sheshatshiu failed because of its lack of facilities to control the comings and goings of the children. On 13 December 2000, federal Health Minister Alan Rock and Industry Minister Brian Tobin (who two months earlier had been the Newfoundland Premier) announced a deal that would allow the Innu to have the final say in the treatment of their children and families.9 In the meantime, Aboriginal communities across Canada have ral­ lied to work out a healing program within a Native context. As they have assessed the situa­ tion, many more children are involved in the gas-sniffing syndrome than has been reported. Apart from the Davis Inlet episode, the most publicized of the forced relocations were those of the Inuit, whose experiences were stepped into high gear during the 1930s and lasted until the 1970s (Chapter 26). However, other groups across the land suffered similar treat­ ment.10 The reasons for the moves were vari­ ous, such as the need to make room for one form or another of industrial or agricultural development, which inevitably diminished wildlife resources upon which the Natives depended. In the case of the Inuit, the official desire was to make it possible for them to main­ tain their traditional way of life in new areas where wildlife was comparatively abundant, when living off the land became steadily more difficult in their old locations. This policy was born of the then current belief that the Arctic's development potential would not be sufficient to support alternative lifestyles. Sometimes, as with the relocation of the Innu to Davis Inlet, the motivation was simply administrative con­ venience. Another example of this was when Indian Affairs moved to centralize Mi'kmaq set­ tlements in Nova Scotia. A combination of fac­ tors, complicated by the Depression of the 1930s, had led the department to conclude that

415

S im e o n J a c o b is h , a N a tiv e p o lic e m a n in D a v is In le t, L a b ra d o r, d e m o n s tr a te s h o w lo c a l c h ild r e n s n if f g a s o lin e fr o m p la s tic b a g s. (Canadian Press CP photo/Beth Gorman)

such a program would make administrative sense. Between 1942 and 1949, residents of 20 small reserves were pressured into relocating to Eskasoni, on Cape Breton Island, and to Shubenacadie, on the Nova Scotia mainland. The result was that by the 1980s these two reserves were seriously overcrowded and in the throes of increased, instead of diminished, wel­ fare dependence, not to mention soaring rates of substance abuse and suicide.11 Others who experienced similar relocations include various bands of Amerindians in northern Manitoba, Yukon, and British Columbia, as well as the Labrador Inuit.

Once More, Confrontation During the years immediately following Oka, protests in various forms, such as occupations of land or offices, or the erection of barricades at strategic places, erupted sporadically across the land. In 1995, two drew considerable national attention: the land occupations at Gustafsen Lake, British Columbia, and at Ipperwash, Ontario.

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Canada's First Nations

J o n e s W illia m ('W o lv e r in e ') Ig n a c e w a lk s p a s t m a s k e d g u a rd s a t t h e p r o t e s t o r s ' c a m p a t G u s ta fs e n L a k e , B C , d u rin g t h e fo u r - m o n th o c c u p a tio n , 1 9 9 5 . T h e p r o t e s t in g A m e r in d ia n s c la im e d t h e a re a a s u n c e d e d s a c re d la n d . (Canapress

Photo Service)

The Gustafsen Lake episode concerned a pri­ vately owned ranch that contained a site used by neighbouring reserve residents for sun dance ceremonies. An outside group of Natives from other parts of the country as well as from the United States continued camping on the site after the ceremonies, refusing rancher Lyle James's request to leave. They argued that this was unceded Indian land, as indeed it was, since there had been no treaties in the area, and besides, they claimed, the land was sacred as it was used for the sun dance. They called themselves Defenders of the Shuswap Nation and/or Shuswap Traditionalists. As they armed

themselves, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, who had been called in to dislodge the dissident campers, reinforced their presence until more than 200 were on the site. The occupiers' leader, Jones William ('Wolverine') Ignace of Chase, BC, announced that defend­ ing Amerindian title was worth dying for and rejected conciliatory overtures by A FN National Chief Ovide Mercredi, who had come to act as mediator. However, Ignace and his defiant defenders not only did not have the support of the regional chiefs, they were condemned by many of them. Eventually, after an occupation of about four months and a shootout with

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission police, they were persuaded by Stoney medi­ cine man John Stevens of Morley, Alberta, to give themselves up and face the inevitable police charges. Several of the group, including Ignace, already had criminal records. The episode was reported to have cost the Cana­ dian taxpayers $5.5 million. As to be expected, the Gustafsen Lake stand­ off invited comparisons with Oka. At Oka, the land in question had deep historical signifi­ cance for the Mohawks, and their grievances concerning its ownership went back two and a half centuries. Aboriginal peoples across the land rallied to their cause, doing everything they could to help. At Gustafsen Lake, regional chiefs disclaimed historical significance for the land at issue, observing that its use for sun dances was a recent development.12 At Oka, a policeman had been killed; at Gustafsen Lake, two police wearing bulletproof vests were struck. A postscript to the latter episode con­ cerned one of the protestors who had fired on the policemen. James Pitawanakwat was on day parole one year into a three-year sentence for mischief when he became involved at Gus­ tafsen Lake. After the shooting, he fled to the United States, whereupon Canada launched extradition proceedings to get him back to serve the rest of his sentence. Oregon District Court Judge Janice Stewart denied the application on the grounds that the Gustafsen Lake confronta­ tion had been an attempt 'by indigenous people to overthrow an occupying government in an effort to achieve self-rule'. As she saw it, the uprising had been part of a general Native protest against the European takeover of their lands that began in 1492. An immediate conse­ quence of the ruling is that Pitawanakwat, because of his Native heritage, is free to live in the United States as a resident alien. In the meantime, the US State Department has down­ graded the Gustafsen Lake standoff to the status of a 'land dispute’, far short of the uprising of a people seeking to regain a lost heritage.13

The standoff at Ipperwash was of a different order. The land in question was part of the Stony Point Reserve on the shore of Lake Huron and had been appropriated from the Kettle and Stony Point First Nation (Chippewa, a branch of Ojibwa) by the federal government in 1942 under the War Measures Act for use as a military training base. The Chippewa re­ ceived about $50,000 in compensation and were told the land would be returned after World War II when it was no longer needed. Despite a confirmation of this by an Order-inCouncil in 1981, the military continued to use it as a summer cadet training camp and as a recreation facility. In 1982 the federal govern­ ment agreed to pay the Chippewas $2.4 mil­ lion in compensation for the use of the land, but further delayed its return pending an envi­ ronmental assessment and cleanup necessary after 40 years of military use. Finally, in 1993, a group of Chippewa, impatient at the seem­ ingly endless delays, set up camp in the dis­ puted territory. The occupation's peaceful beginning did not last as the influence of radical activists, such as members of the American Indian Movement, took effect. Escalating violence through the summer of 1995 finally led to the withdrawal of the military from the camp.14 A Memor­ andum of Understanding quickly followed, lay­ ing out the terms of the transfer. It was agreed that the all-important cleanup of the site would be a joint operation by the federal government and the Kettle and Stony Point First Nation. A Mohawk lawyer, Ralph Brant, was named nego­ tiator; most recently before that, he had been director in Atlantic Canada for Indian Affairs. Hard upon the heels of this settlement, a group of Chippewa calling themselves Stony Pointers began an occupation of the adjoining Ipperwash Provincial Park. It also had once been part of the reserve, but more importantly, it contains an ancient burial ground the Chip­ pewa wanted returned. In this dispute, they

417

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Canada's First Nations were dealing with the province, which mobi­ lized the Ontario Provincial Police to remove the protesters. In the ensuing confrontation, Dudley George, a Chippewa, was killed, Can­ ada's first Amerindian casualty in a land-claim standoff.15 An Ontario provincial court found the police officer involved, Sergeant Kenneth Deane, guilty of criminal negligence causing death.16 However, his sentence did not include a prison term. A third occupation during 1995, this one comparatively peaceful and consequently ec­ lipsed in the news, was that of Ontario's Ser­ pent Mounds Provincial Park by the 400-member Hiawatha First Nation. The band won its claim against the federal government for improperly leasing the reserve land to Ontario for a provincial park, and received $2.8 million in compensation for loss of the use of the land. Ontario, for its part, turned the operation of the park over to the band, which is now run­ ning the show.17

BC's First Land Claims Agreement: The Nisga'a Treaty British Columbia's position in relation to its Native peoples was for a long time unique in Canada. For one thing, apart from the 14 small treaties on Vancouver Island negotiated by Governor James Douglas, 1850-4, and the overlap of Treaty Eight into its northeastern corner in 1899, the province had not negotiat­ ed treaties with its First Nations. Not recogniz­ ing Aboriginal rights, it denied having any out­ standing obligations that could be settled by way of land claims. It maintained this position until 1990, when it finally yielded to the com­ bination of court rulings, federal pressure, and a change in public attitude, and agreed to open talks. Two years later, the newly formed New Democratic government promised to resolve the claims, of which there were 47, covering most of the province. This raised the hopes of

Amerindian leaders, whose demands soared to encompass more than 110 per cent of the province's land. The government responded by announcing that only 5 per cent would be available for settling claims.18 The Nisga'a were the first of BC's claimants to have their case heard (Chapter 23). A nation of 5,500 in the Nass Valley and spreading to the northwest, they had initially filed their claim 70 years earlier.19 Originally, it involved 24,000 square kilometres of the northern part of the province; finally, after intensive negotiations (behind closed doors for the final two years), the Nisga'a agreed to accept 1,900 square kilo­ metres. Other terms included $190 million in com pensation, municipal-style self-govern­ ment, exclusive rights to their territory's pineforest mushroom harvest, shares in the Nass River's salmon run and forest industries, and the return of listed Nisga’a artifacts held by the Canadian Museum of Civilization and the Royal British Columbia Museum.20 This agreement-in-principle reflected flexibility on all sides. Even though only preliminary, it still set a precedent, as illustrated by its provisions con­ cerning taxation: the Nisga'a accepted phasing out of tax exemption for their people after a transitional period of eight years for sales taxes and 12 years for income taxes. The land being turned over to the Nisga'a, to be communally owned in fee simple, is valued at $100 million. Still, it is a fraction of what was once theirs. Chief Joe Gosnell, who led the campaign, has been elected the first president of the Nisga'a Nation's new government. Thus the persistence of the Nisga'a has paid off, and their treaty was ratified by Parliament in 2000. The Calder case of 1973 (Chapter 23) set the scene: although that decision had gone against the Nisga'a on a technicality, the judges had agreed that the First Nation did indeed have Aboriginal title to its ancestral lands. From there the Nisga'a never stopped pressing, first the federal government, then, after 1990,

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission the provincial government as well. The discus­ sions were neither simple nor easy: at one point they were broken off entirely when the two governments could not agree on either the values at stake or the sharing of responsibilities. It took a tragedy to break the deadlock: the shooting of Dudley George at Ipperwash. The prospect of spreading violence very quickly brought the negotiators back to the table, and the terms of British Columbia's first landclaims preliminary agreement were soon set­ tled.21 Not surprisingly, in view of its past poli­ cies, BC faces the largest roster of unsettled comprehensive claims of any of the provinces. As of 2000, the number had climbed to 51. Across the country, there are 1,031 claims in process in various categories.

The RCAP Report The commissioners' five-volume, 3,537-page report, when it finally appeared, was stunning in its magnitude and the scope of its proposals for Canada and Canadians, involving as it did a fundamental reorganization of the country's social and political institutions in relation to Aboriginal peoples. In the commissioners' words: W e a d v o c a te r e c o g n itio n o f A b o rig in a l n a tio n s w it h in

C anada

as p o litic a l e n tit ie s

th ro u g h

w h ic h A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e c a n e x p r e s s t h e i r d is ­ tin c tiv e

id e n tity

w ith in

C a n a d ia n c i t i z e n s h i p . . . . r e c o m m e n d a tio n s

is

th e

th e

c o n te x t

of

At th e h ea rt o f ou r re c o g n itio n

th a t

A b o r ig in a l p e o p le s a r e p e o p le s , t h a t t h e y f o r m c o lle c t iv e s o f u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h a t t h e y h a v e a r i g h t t o g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t o n o m y .22

In other words, the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people is a cen­ tral facet of Canada's heritage. With this in mind, the commissioners identified four key issues: the need for a new relationship between

Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples, selfdetermination through self-government, eco­ nomic self-sufficiency, and healing for Abori­ ginal peoples and communities. They made 440 recommendations detailing specific meas­ ures to achieve these goals. Among the more significant and far-reaching were the following: • The Queen and Parliament should issue a new royal proclamation confirming and supplementing the Proclamation of 1763, along with new legislation providing for the im plem entation of existing treaty rights and guidelines for the negotiation of new treaties. This would involve the estab­ lishment of a national Crown Treaty Office as well as provincial treaty offices. The new proclamation should also acknowledge and express regret 'for policies that de­ prived Aboriginal peoples of their lands and interfered with their customs'. With reconciliation, Aboriginal peoples could 'embrace their Aboriginal and Canadian citizenship without reservation'. • The creation of an Aboriginal parliament, to be known as the House of First Peoples, as a third order of government in addition to the federal Parliament and the provin­ cial legislatures. Its function would be to advise these houses on matters relating to Aboriginal peoples. The new house would be elected by First Nations at the same time as the federal elections. Aboriginal voters would be enumerated in the national enu­ meration. • The right to self-determination to be vest­ ed in Aboriginal nations rather than in small local communities. An Aboriginal nation is defined as a sizable body of Ab­ original people with a shared sense of nat­ ional identity occupying a certain territory or group of territories. This would mean merging 1,000 or more separate bands, Inuit villages, and Métis settlements into

419

420 Canada's First Nations 60 to 80 Aboriginal nations entitled to selfgovernment. • Negotiations to be undertaken with feder­ al, provincial, and territorial governments to provide First Nations with lands suffi­ cient to foster Aboriginal economic selfreliance, as well as cultural and political autonomy. As matters stand, reserves would not provide a sufficient base; look­ ing south of the border, the United States has reserved for Aboriginal use 30 per cent more land in proportion to its population than has Canada. H. Anthony Reynolds, R C A P executive director, observed that up to 15 per cent of Canada's lands could be set aside for its Aboriginal nations, in line with what has been suggested for Alaska. Particular attention should be paid to the needs of the Métis; at present, Alberta is the only province where they have a land base (Chapter 24). • Aboriginal nations to develop their own system of taxation, which would include personal income taxes. Federal, provincial, and Aboriginal governments to co-ordi­ nate their fiscal arrangements, which would include extending the system of equalization payments for the provinces to Aboriginal nations. • Abolition of the Department of Indian Affairs and the creation of two new depart­ ments in its stead: a Department of Abori­ ginal Relations and a Department of Indian and Inuit Services, each to be headed by its own minister. In the case of the Depart­ ment of Aboriginal Relations, this would be a senior post. • Other recommended appointments in ­ clude a permanent treaty commission and the replacement of the Indian Claims Commission with an Aboriginal Land and Treaties Tribunal, whose decisions would be final and not subject to court review. These two bodies would be independent,

to avoid the present situation in negotia­ tions whereby 'federal officials act as both judge and jury'. • The enactment of an Aboriginal Nations Recognition and Government Act to estab­ lish criteria for the recognition of Abori­ ginal nations and to complete a citizenship that is consistent with international norms of human rights and with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In their commentary, the commissioners observed that 'Aboriginal nations are not racial groups; rather they are organic political and cultural entities . . . they often have mixed genetic heritages and include indi­ viduals of varied ancestry.'23 • That every person who identifies as Métis and is accepted by the Métis nation be rec­ ognized as a member of that nation, and that this be acknowledged by the Canadian government. • Aboriginal peoples should be recognized as possessing a unique form of dual citizen­ ship, as citizens both of an Aboriginal na­ tion and of Canada. • Canada should support the 1993 Draft Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which is being considered by the United Nations. • The Crown has a special fiduciary obliga­ tion to protect the interests of the Abori­ ginal people, including Aboriginal title. • Federal and provincial governments should enter into long-term development deals with Aboriginal nations to provide funding for economic development. • A national Aboriginal bank should be estab­ lished, staffed, and controlled by Aboriginal people, to provide support for large-scale projects and to raise capital for economic development. This recommendation recalls a proposal made a century and a half ago by the Bagot Commission, to the effect that a bank be established on each reserve.

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission However, the idea at that time was to facil­ itate financial services, rather than to allow for Aboriginal control. In the meantime, the Bank of Montreal early in the 1990s established a system of branches catering specifically to First Nations' needs. Accord­ ing to Ron Jamieson, senior vice-president of Aboriginal banking for the Bank of Montreal, the aim of the program is to facil­ itate Aboriginal participation in the na­ tion's economic life. It now counts 16 branches, 11 of them on reserves.24 • Federal and provincial governments should fund a major 10-year initiative for employ­ ment development and training. • Aboriginal communities should be allowed to make innovative use of social assistance funds for employment and social develop­ ment. • All Canadian governments are called upon to support a holistic approach to social assistance, which would integrate social and economic development with Aborigin­ al traditions and values. • Canada should acknowledge a fiduciary re­ sponsibility to support Aboriginal nations and their communities in restoring Aborig­ inal families to a state of health and whole­ ness. This would include amending legisla­ tion to recognize Aboriginal family law in areas such as divorce, child custody, and adoption. • Governments and other organizations should collaborate in developing a system of healing centres and lodges under Ab­ original control but also fully supported by mainstream health and social services. This network of healing centres should be avail­ able to Amerindian, Inuit, and Métis com­ munities in both rural and urban settings on an equitable basis. • Governments must supplement resources available to Aboriginal people to meet their needs for housing, water, and sanitation

services. Acute risks to health and safety should be treated as emergencies and tar­ geted for immediate action. • Federal, provincial, and territorial govern­ ments should promptly acknowledge that education is of central importance to Aboriginal self-government, and that the Crown has an obligation to support a full range of education services, including con­ tinuance of post-secondary education assistance as provided for by the numbered treaties. The teaching of Aboriginal lan­ guages should be accorded priority, and to this end the federal government should provide an annual grant of $10 million for five years to support an Aboriginal lan­ guage foundation. The Métis language Michif was noted as needing help to be saved from extinction. • The creation of an Aboriginal Peoples' In­ ternational University is recommended to promote traditional knowledge and Aboriginal research. • Women should be assured full and equal participation in all stages of discussion leading to the development of self-govern­ ment, as well as being included in govern­ ing bodies for Aboriginal health, healing, and educational institutions. There should also be provision made for the active par­ ticipation of elders, youth, and persons with disabilities. • An Aboriginal Arts Council should be established to foster visual and performing arts as well as literature. • Aboriginal representatives should be in­ volved in all planning for future constitu­ tional conferences, and have a role in the amending process and a veto over any changes that affect Aboriginal rights. • Perhaps most controversial of all, at least in the short mn, has been the commissioners' recommendation of additional spending of $1.5 to $2 billion annually by Indian Af-

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Canada's First Nations fairs on top of its present budget for the next 15 years to jump-start welfare-depen­ dent Aboriginal communities on the road to economic self-sufficiency. The list goes on from there, dealing with such matters as co-management of wildlife re­ sources, keeping Aboriginal customary usage in mind when establishing national parks, the issue of ownership and management of cultur­ al historic sites, and even a proposal for the establishment of an electronic worldwide in ­ formation clearing office. A cautionary note was sounded in connection with the current mining development at Voisey Bay in Labrador, that it not be allowed to repeat the experiences of the past, such as those already noted for the Davis Inlet Innu. Incidentally, as matters stood at the time of writing, Labrador was the only Inuit region without a land-claim settlement. In the view of the R C A P , there are four dimensions to social change in reference to Natives: healing, improving economic oppor­ tunity, developing human resources as well as Aboriginal institutions, and adapting main­ stream institutions to Aboriginal as well as non-Aboriginal needs.25 On the subject of selfgovernment, the commissioners had some in­ teresting thoughts about urban Natives. They proposed what they called 'Community of Interest Government'. Such a government would operate on the basis of voluntary mem­ bership within municipal boundaries. Its pow­ ers would be delegated from Aboriginal national governments and/or provincial gov­ ernments.26 The Commission tossed a bouquet to Quebec for its hunter income support pro­ grams, which were developed as part of its northern land-claim agreements. These are not matched anywhere else in Canada.27 Even as the commissioners were hammering out their recommendations, some of them had already been realized, at least in part, and oth­ ers were in the process. Three examples are

the northern Quebec community of OujéBougoumou, the establishment of Canada's first Aboriginal bank, and the restructuring of the Indian Act.

Climbing Out from Under Today Oujé-Bougoumou, counting 525 souls, is one of the nine northern Quebec bands listed under the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of 1975. Their village has been rec­ ognized by the United Nations as one of 50 world-class models, integrating as it does tradi­ tional concepts with contemporary engineer­ ing techniques and architectural designs. It was not always thus: for years the group was disor­ ganized and without effective leadership, not recognized as a separate band by either federal or provincial governments, but as 'strays' from the Mistassini Cree; they were originally known as Chibougamou Cree. There was no government help forthcoming as their hunting and gathering way of life was disrupted by industrial development in one location after another. Living conditions went from bad to worse, until they matched 'the worst in the developed world'. The Oujé-Bougoumou's troubles had started in the 1920s, when their territory became the focus of mining development. There followed a period during which the Créés were displaced time and again as they got in the way of min­ ing interests. It would take years of persistent effort on the part of individuals such as former chief Jimmy Mianscum, but eventually, in the 1980s, they won recognition as a band and renamed themselves the Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation. After still more administrative battles, and now with a new chief, Abel Bosum, they selected a site at Lake Opémisca, engaged the services of one of Canada's leading archi­ tects, Douglas Cardinal, a Blackfoot from Al­ berta, and set about building yet another vil­ lage. W hen negotiations with the federal and

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission 423

A m erin d ia n s in c e r e m o n ia l d ress to o k p a rt in th e o p e n in g ritu a l t h a t la u n c h e d t h e F irst N a tio n s B a n k , 1 9 9 6 . T h e c e r e ­ m o n y w as h e ld i n T o r o n to , b u t t h e fir s t b r a n c h t o g o in t o o p e r a tio n w a s i n S a s k a to o n . T h e T o r o n to - D o m in io n B a n k is h e lp in g t h e a ll-N a tiv e fin a n c ia l in s titu tio n g e t s ta rte d . (Andy Clark; Reuters)

provincial governments collapsed, they de­ clared jurisdiction over their territory of 10,000 square kilometres. As Native leaders across the country rallied to their cause, deals were final­ ly signed with Quebec (1989) and, in 1991, with Ottawa. As the Nisga'a would also do, the OujéBougoumou had not allowed themselves to become trapped in the role of victim but kept their gaze determinedly on the future. Their hopes are high for their new village: they see it as a healing centre, a place of learning, physical sustenance, and spiritual renewal. In the words of Bosum, from 'the very beginning, our objec­ tive has been to build a place and an environ­ ment that produces healthy, secure, confident

and optim istic people.'28 Oujé-Bougoumou gives every indication that it is well on the way to realizing this vision.

First Nations Bank of Canada Within three weeks of the RCA P report, one of its recommendations was realized when Canada's first Aboriginal bank was ceremonial­ ly launched in Toronto by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and Native leaders. Using TorontoDominion Bank facilities to provide services to both Native and non-Native customers, the First Nations Bank of Canada began operations in Saskatoon in 1997. It is a co-operative enter­ prise, involving the Saskatchewan Federation

424 Canada's First Nations of Indian Nations and the Saskatchewan Indian Equity Foundation besides Toronto-Dominion. The latter provided $8 million of the start-up capital, 80 per cent of the total. Besides servic­ ing a Native clientele, the bank is seeking to attract the investment of land-claim settlement monies paid to Indian bands across the coun­ try. Off to a flying start, it already has three branches in operation, in Chisasibi (Quebec), Walpole Island (Ontario), and West Vancouver, with another planned for Winnipeg. The branch network will include Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and James Bay before es­ tablishing in other areas. Noting that the bank 'will be a piece of Canadian history' that was nearly four years in the making, Saskatchewan Federation chief Blaine Favel observed: T h e ro a d to p o litic a l s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n , th e r o a d t o s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , is d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o th e r o le o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. I f w e a re to h a v e s tro n g s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t, i f w e a re to h a v e a s tr o n g p o litic a l d ir e c tio n , w e h a v e t o h a v e a s t r o n g e c o n o m i c b a s e .29

National Chief Matthew Coon Come of the Assembly of First Nations, who is on the bank's board, saw it as part of an Aboriginal economic development that is steadily gaining momen­ tum. He remarked that the First Nations were 'already involved in aviation, co-distribution, oil and gas, they have all kinds of construction companies and I think it is just a step toward self-sufficiency.'30 He added that the benefits will include a greater degree of Native econom­ ic control and greater sensitivity to needs of First Nation communities and businesses, as well as an opportunity to share in the profits.

Amending the Indian Act, Again On the political front, an initiative of Ronald Irwin (Indian Affairs Minister, 1993-7) to

amend the Indian Act to give Aboriginal nations more control over their own affairs met with an angry reception on the part of Indian leaders, who felt that the proposed measures did not go far enough and that the Act should be abolished. Irwin defended the proposed amendments on the grounds that they would strip away some of the archaic ministerial power of Indian Affairs, removing governmen­ tal interference with daily decisions on reserves. Those bands that have agreed to the new measures would be able to manage their own lands and resources, on condition that they develop a land code and hold a referen­ dum beforehand. Environmental standards and penalties would have to be reconciled with federal and provincial laws. For the first time in federal legislation, the proposed changes include an assurance that they would not affect existing Aboriginal rights or those arising from treaties. Those bands accepting this new law, which would be entirely voluntary, would no longer be subject to the Indian Act; once the decision was put into effect, however, it would be irreversible. The vast majority of the bands contacted beforehand about these proposals did not respond; of those who did, 14 agreed to partic­ ipate. The opposition stemmed from the legis­ lation's piecemeal approach, which did not fol­ low the RCA P recommendation to abolish the Indian Act and totally restructure the adminis­ trative relationship of Natives and government. Much as the First Nations have criticized and even denounced the Act in the past, its partial dismantling is seen as avoiding getting at what they see as the root of the problem: its 'pater­ nalism'. However, as Native input was request­ ed before the revised Act was introduced to Parliament, and as participation would be vol­ untary, the argument in this case seems to have been about procedure rather than paternalism as such. The critics also held that the land pro­ posals could lead to reserve lands being open to

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission 425 seizure for debt. On top of everything, they saw Irwin's action as a way of getting around the RCAP recommendations without dealing with them directly.31 Only too keenly aware of Ottawa's record for shelving commission reports, National Chief Ovide Mercredi moved quickly to warn Ottawa that implementing the RCAP recommendations was its 'last best chance' to improve the lot of marginalized Ab­ original peoples, thus avoiding rising remedial expenditures for social and economic ills, not to mention the possibility of violence. Georges Erasmus, R C A P co-chair, expressed the Aborig­ inal position succinctly: 'if the reality is that once more people's hopes have been dashed, and that this was all for nothing, then what we say is that people will resort to other things.'32 In the meantime, the bill died unpassed on the order paper when a federal election was called for 2 June 1997. The idea behind the bill is still very much alive, however. In January 2001, Robert Nault, Irwin's successor as Minister of Indian Affairs, proposed supplementing the Indian Act with a First Nations Governance Act. Besides transfer­ ring the supervision of band votes to Elections Canada, the proposed Act would give bands increased powers to levy taxes on reserves, as well as the right to garnishee wages and seize assets. Along with this would go increased band accountability to constituents. Nault sees the proposed measure as a step towards selfgovernment. The reaction of the Indians was predictable: unless they are involved in work­ ing out the new format, it will not get the sup­ port it needs to succeed.33

Concerns, Hopes, and Fears It has surprised no one that the R C A P report was hailed by Aboriginal leaders as an 'inspiring road map to the future', all the more because it so clearly expressed the Aboriginal position. An early criticism of the R C A P was that it 'listens

only to Indians'.34 This was denied by Erasmus, who said that the Commission was neither an Aboriginal organization nor an advocacy group. He saw it as 'walking a middle line'.35 As for Irwin, even as he rejected the Commission's call for a huge leap in short-term spending as a political non-starter,36 he found that its propos­ al that Aboriginal peoples be organized into nations for the purpose of self-government was 'a good idea'. As he expressed it, with larger groupings 'you can get better services'.37 At the time of writing, Indian Affairs was involved in self-government and jurisdictional negotia­ tions at 81 tables across the country; about half of all First Nations were included. In general, Indian Affairs acknowledges that it needs to build a new partnership with Abor­ iginal peoples, as well as strengthen their com­ munities to enable them to govern themselves. It also acknowledges that 'the inherent right of self-government is an existing Aboriginal and treaty right.'38 This right to govern themselves is accepted in relation to matters internal to their communities, integral to their particular cultures, languages, and institutions, and with respect to their special relationship to their land and resources. Further, federal authorities say they are prepared to give Aboriginal peo­ ples the tools necessary to achieve this. A step towards this new approach was taken early in 1998, when Jane Stewart, Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1997-9, officially expressed the government's regret for the residential school abuses and announced a $350 million healing fund to help those who had suffered. At the same time Stew­ art announced an action plan called 'Gathering Strength' to develop a partnership with the First Nations to carry out needed reforms in general administration. This was in response to the frequent complaint that in the past policy changes involving First Nations were usually undertaken without prior consultation with the peoples involved. While the reaction of Native

426 Canada's First Nations

A b o rig in a l m o o d o f t h e n in e t ie s : a m a s k e d w a r rio r lo o k in g th r o u g h b a rb e d w ire e x e m p lifie s t h e c o n f r o n ta ti o n s th a t m a rk e d t h e d e ca d e . (Andy Clark; Reuters)

leaders was mixed, to say the least, particularly as the statement of regret had been made by the Minister of Indian Affairs rather than the Prime Minister,39 the department was still able to report a year later that an agenda to correct the situation had been developed with the Assembly of First Nations and that, in fact, it was already in operation at national, regional, and community levels. Matthew Coon Come, however, who replaced Phil Fontaine as National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations in 2000, has not accepted the apology as good enough. Chief Coon Come wants a national Truth and Reconciliation Commission to be

established by Order-in-Council to act as a national forum for venting feelings and work­ ing out problems that have resulted from the residential school experience.40 On the matter of self-government, everyone agrees that there is no question of trying to implement the ‘one size fits all' paradigm.41 Practical arrangements have to take into ac­ count the differing circumstances of each case. Fiscal restraint means that federal funding must be achieved through reallocation of exist­ ing resources, which involves taking the inter­ ests of other Canadians into account. Where their jurisdictions or interests are affected, provincial or territorial governments must be included in negotiations. In general, tripartite (federal, provincial, Aboriginal) processes have been found to be the most effective. Whatever the approach, easy answers are not to be ex­ pected, nor are there any in sight. Admittedly, the report presents some diffi­ cult challenges. On the negative side there is the argument that Canada already has a multi­ plicity of levels of government, and adding another could only complicate an already com­ plex situation. There is also the fear that such a move, in combination with the other RCAP pro­ posals, would separate Aboriginal peoples even more than they are now from the general body of Canadian citizens. Despite the commission­ ers' denial that the Aboriginal nations are racially defined, it is difficult to see how that could be avoided in view of band membership requirements. On the positive side, the country has been presented with its first thoroughly thought-out blueprint for incorporating its First Nations as full partners in the Canadian confederation. That said, it is striking how sim­ ilar many of the R C A P proposals are to those of two previous reports: Indian Self-Government in Canada (Penner Report, 1983) and A Survey of the Contemporary Indians o f Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies (Haw­ thorn Report, 1966). In neither of these cases

Coercion, Standoffs, an Agreement, and a Royal Commission was the government response more than par­ tial at best, when it responded at all. However, the need for action does not all lie on one side. Amerindian leadership must also accept its share of responsibility in mapping out the future, National Chief Coon Come said at an Aboriginal health conference held recent­ ly in Ottawa. In a speech entitled 'Our Voice, Our Decisions, Our Responsibility', he made the point that solutions to the social ills that plague the Amerindian community cannot all come from outside. 'We are the ones who have to do something. We must act.' High on his list of priorities was leadership accountability, all too frequently lacking in present band admin­ istrations. In his words, 'we need to clean up our own act.' Perry Bellegarde, an Assembly of First Nations regional chief, agreed: 'We as lead­ ers have to show the way and be good role models for our youth.'42 Reactions to these calls for action will pro­ foundly affect Canada's future as a nation.

Some Background The population of status Indians in Canada on and off reserves stood at 659,890 in 1999.43 According to present projections, that popula­ tion will reach 798,211 in 2008.44 A study con­ cluded in 1995 reported the Cree forming the largest linguistic group at 31 per cent, followed by the Ojibwa at about 22 per cent.45 The majority are members of 612 bands on 2,633 reserves. As of 1993, 70 per cent of the bands had less than 1,000 members, while 10 per cent had more than 2,000. According to the Aboriginal Peoples Survey done in conjunc­ tion with the census of 1996, Canada's total population reporting Aboriginal ancestry stood at 1,101,960, a figure that includes 720,740 Métis and 41,800 Inuit. The total Amerindian population at Confederation has been estimat­ ed at between 100,000 and 125,000, dropping to its low point in the 1920s. Since then the

population has multiplied 10 times, with the rate of growth taking a strong upward turn dur­ ing the 1960s to surpass that of the Canadian population as a whole. Where Amerindians had represented 1.1 per cent of the population in 1961, 20 years later the proportion had increased to 1.5 per cent. In 1996 the figure was 3.0 per cent; today, it is 4.1 per cent and still growing. In Manitoba, the proportion is 9.9 per cent, in Saskatchewan, 9.7 per cent. It rises sharply in the North, to 18.4 per cent in the Yukon and 63 per cent in the Northwest Territories. In Nunavut, Inuit account for 85 per cent of the population. The average age of Amerindians is younger than in the national population: according to the 1996 census, 53 per cent are under 24 years of age, compared to 33 per cent of all Canadians. By 1999, life expectancy for Amerindian women was 76 years, and for men, 69 years. For Canadians at large, the figures were 80.9 years for women and 74.6 for men. In its 1996 report, the RCA P noted information from the Native Physicians Association that there were 51 self-identified Aboriginal physicians at that tim e.46 The Amerindian birth rate (3.15 births per woman) was almost twice that of non-Amerindians (1.7 births per woman). Between 1991 and 1996, the Inuit population grew at an average annual rate of 2.3 per cent, twice the average national rate. If maintained, that means the Inuit popu­ lation will double in 35 years.47 On the other hand, the suicide rate among Natives is six times that of the nation as a whole.48 For indi­ viduals under 25, it is the highest in the world. In 1996, more than 33 per cent of Canada's once self-sustaining and independent Indians were on welfare; on reserves, the figure was 45 per cent. The unemployment rate within the Native labour force was more than double that of the population as a whole. At the same time, however, Aboriginal entrepreneurship has been exploding, from 6,000 Aboriginally owned businesses in 1989 to 20,000 in 1998. About 45

427

428 Canada's First Nations per cent of the total Aboriginal population lives in cities. The 1998-9 federal expenditure for Aborig­ inal and Northern Affairs programs for the period ending 31 March 1999 was $4.9 billion, down from the $6.2 billion reported for 1995-6. Most of this was for education, social services, and health care, which are provided for Canadians in general by provincial and municipal governments. When these factors are considered, as well as the differences in the growth rate between the Aboriginal and gener­

al populations, the rate does not vary widely from that for program spending by all Canadian governments com bined.49 As of 2000, 29 per cent of the employees of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs were Native; three years earlier, in 1997, it had been 25 per cent. By far the greatest number are in Ottawa, with the fewest in the Atlantic region. The comparable figure reported for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the United States, as of 1992, was 90 per cent.

■«

Epilogue

I f any one theme can be traced throughout the history of Canada's Amerindians, it is the persistence of their identity. The confident expectation of Europeans that Indians were a vanishing people, the remnants of whom would finally be absorbed by the dominant society, has not happened.1 If anything, Indians are more prominent in the collective conscience of the nation than they have ever been, and if anyone is doing the absorbing it is the Indians. Adaptability has always been the key to their survival; it is the strongest of Amerindian traditions. Just as the dominant society has learned from the Indians, so the Indians have absorbed much from the domi­ nant society, but they have done it in their own way. In other words, Indians have sur­ vived as Indians, and have preferred to remain as such even at the cost of social and econom­ ic inequality.2 In the Canadian multicultural mosaic, the Aboriginal peoples are reported to be the least happy with their lot.3 In part, this is a reaction to cultural loss, particularly evi­ dent in the realm of language. Of the 50 or so Aboriginal tongues spoken in Canada at the

time of contact, several are now extinct (Beothuk, Huron, Neutral) and most of the others are endangered, some seriously. Cree, Ojibwa, and Inuktitut appear to have the best chances of survival.4 On the other hand, Aboriginal spiritual beliefs have displayed a remarkable vitality and indeed have been enjoying a renaissance. An expression of this has been the introduction of Aboriginal ele­ ments into Roman Catholic ritual, a move­ ment that began in the prairie West, particular­ ly in Edmonton. Recently there has been a con­ vergence of Aboriginal and science-based knowledge that holds exciting promise for both the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal com­ munities. All this has gone hand in hand with the rise of political activism and the campaign for self-determination and self-government. This is the opposite of a separatist movement; what Indians are asking for is full and equal participation in the Canada of today and of the future; this was the clear message of the Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. This movement is not without its problems, as the old ways are widely held by Natives to be

430 Canada's First Nations

T o m s o n H ig h w ay , c e le b r a te d a u th o r , is a C r e e fr o m B r o c h e t, in n o r th e r n M a n ito b a . H e h it a h ig h p o i n t i n h is w r itin g c a re e r d u rin g t h e 1 9 8 0 s w ith h is a w a r d -w in n in g p la y s , The Rez Sisters a n d D ry Lip s Oughta Move to Kapuskasing. H e h o ld s th r e e h o n o r a r y d e g re e s a n d is a m e m b e r o f t h e O r d e r o f C a n a d a . H is m o s t r e c e n t w o rk is a ls o h is fir s t n o v e l, K iss o f

the F u r Queen. (M ichael Cooper Photographic)

the best expression of their identity, and there is resistance to the party politics of representa­ tive democracy, which is regarded by some as an imposition. 'Self-government' is interpreted by many Natives to mean participation on their own terms.5 On the other side of the coin, change is the very essence of Aboriginal tradi­ tion. It recognizes that the cycle of life is one of constant motion; while basic patterns can be detected, there is no guarantee that they will be repeated in exactly the same way. No society today is the same as it was a century ago, even though there is continuity in many of its ele­ ments. Living traditions, like living societies, also change; what worked in one set of circum­ stances may not work in another. Identity is

not an issue, but survival is, and adaptation continues to be the key. This is true not only for the First Nations, but for everyone. The reaffirmation of Aboriginal identity has not been a sudden development; Amerindians have always had a clear idea of who they are. What is new is the demand for recognition of this by the dominant society. Several factors have contributed to this development, some of them of comparatively long standing and oth­ ers very recent. First of all, there has been the growing inter­ national recognition of Native art, especially since World War II. West coast art has long been appreciated—dating back to the days of first meetings in the eighteenth century, in fact—but that of other regions has been slower in gaining acknowledgement. In the 1940s, largely through the efforts of Toronto artist James A. Houston, Inuit learned printmaking. Carving in soapstone and ivory and the cre­ ation of tapestries were also encouraged; with the support of the Canadian government, the Hudson's Bay Company, and the Canadian Handicrafts Guild and the development of co­ operatives to handle production and market­ ing, Inuit art became known worldwide. An­ other success story that developed somewhat later, that of Eastern Woodlands art, favours painting over printmaking, although both forms are practised.6 Crafts such as porcupine quill work, beading, embroidery, and leather work have also come into their own and are much in demand. This flowering of Native arts and crafts illustrates very well the Aboriginal capacity to use new techniques to bring tradi­ tional arts, whose antiquity approaches those of Europe, Africa, and Australia,7 into the con­ temporary world. In the literary, musical, and theatrical arts also, Native expression is win­ ning respectful attention. The message is clear: Canada's first peoples, far from being interest­ ing relics of the past, are a vital part of Canada's persona, both present and future.

Epilogue

431

T h e d r u m a n d t h e p ip e h a v e c e n tr a l im p o r ta n c e in t h e A m e r in d ia n w a y o f life . T h e s e d ra w in g s a re fr o m P au l K a n e ’s s k e tc h b o o k . (Royal Ontario M useum, 9 4 6 .1 5 .3 1 and 9 4 6 .1 5 .3 3 )

It was only a matter of time for this growing cultural self-confidence to express itself, and to be listened to, in other arenas as well. A key area is education, and Natives have demon­ strated their effectiveness in taking control of the schooling of their children. The justice sys­ tem has been slower to respond, but there, too, the Native input is becoming more evident as it becomes more sure of itself. If one were to pinpoint the moment of truth for this cultural momentum, it would be when Elijah Harper said 'No' to the Meech Lake Accord. The occa­ sion could not have been more appropriate: not only was the whole nation watching and listening, but a good part of the world as well. Harper rose to the occasion, withstood the pressures mounted to bring him into line, and spoke for himself and his people. He even took himself by surprise: T never realized that I would have such an impact on this country.'8 Canada's Natives had finally caught the atten­

tion not only of their fellow Canadians but of the international world as well. And they had fundamentally altered the nation's course of events. The standoff at Oka quickly followed, as Amerindians took a determined position against an ancient wrong. The point was emphasized when 300 indigenous leaders held a summit of their own concurrently with the Summit of the Americas, at Quebec City in April 2001. AFN National Chief Coon Come was invited to attend the general summit, but without provision for him to meet with the top leaders from the Americas.9 Still, this set a precedent that indicated that the message is being heard: no longer will Aboriginal people stand meekly by as others ran things to suit themselves, without taking into serious ac­ count the people who were on the scene first. As the case of Canada so well illustrates, its confederation may be young, but it has com­ ponents that are ancient.

National Historic Sites of Canada Commemorating Aboriginal History

ALBERTA 64. Blackfoot Crossing British Block, Cairn

Si

Metlakatla Pass Area Indian Site

75.

Nan Sdins (P a rk s

Site o f winter villages o f Tsimshian Peoples

Earthlodge Village Frog Lake Massacre (P ark s

78.

A d m in iste re d )

77.

Skedans

76.

Tanu

Former H a 'ida village

68. Head-Sniashed-In Buffalo Jump World Heritage Site— Aboriginal bison drive

Old Women's Buffalo Jump

Former Haida village 71.

Aboriginal bison drive in use for 1 5 0 0 years

66. Treaty N° 7 Signing Site BRITISH C O LU M B IA 72. Kiix?in Village and Fortress Archaeological sites o f First Nations village and fortress with significant architectural remains

Kitselas Canyon Area

74.

Kitwanga Fort (P ark s

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Tsimshian village 83.

Kitwanga Totem Poles

69.

Kitwankul

80.

Kiusta Village Former Ha'ida village

Yan Village Indian Site Former Ha'ida village

73.

Yuquot Spanish settlement site, 1 7 8 9 - 9 5

M A N ITO BA 48.

Battle of Seven Oaks Conflict between Métis and Red River settlers, 1 8 1 4

50.

Brockinton Indian Sites Late prehistoric site, Blackduck phase

Gitksan village 79.

Xa:ytem/Hatzic Rock Habitation site ofStôdo peoples

Totem poles record families o f Kitwanga Fort 85.

Whaler's Shrine Site Aboriginal ritual site

Remains o f 2 Aboriginal villages and petroglyphs 84.

Weir's (Taylor's) Beach Earthworks Site Pre-contact site on Vancouver Island

Treaty signed in 1 8 7 7 with Blackfoot Nation

82.

New Gold Harbour Area Site o f Ha'ida village

C anada

Site o fC re e uprising, 1 8 8 5

67.

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Remains o f Ha'ida longhouses and totem poles

Remains o f Aboriginal village 62.

81.

Suffield Tipi Rings

Aboriginal site on CFB Suffield 65.

Marpole Midden Site o f midden, excavated in 1 8 9 2

Traditional meeting place on Blackfoot reserves 63.

70.

51.

Linear Mounds (P ark s

C a n a d a A d m in iste re d )

Aboriginal burial mounds from 1 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 AD

434 Appendix 49.

Riel House (P a rk s

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Family hom e o f Métis leader Louis Riel 46.

Sea Horse Gully Remains

N O VA SC O T IA 8. Bedford Petroglyphs Spiritually significant petroglyph site

Large Dorset and Pre-Dorset site 47.

The Forks (P ark s

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Historic meeting place, junction o f the Red and Assinboine rivers 45.

York Factory (P a rk s

NEW B R U N SW ICK 11 Augustine Mound Site Pre-contact burial mound

Meductic Indian Village/Fort Meductic Principal Maliseet settlement

10.

Minister's Island Pre-contact Sites Pre-contact shell midden, 5 0 0 BC-15 0 0 a d

12.

Oxbow Sites

9.

93.

Fleur de Lys Soapstone Quarries

96.

Indian Point

5.

L'Anse Amour Burial

Well documented Beothuk site Burial site, Maritime Archaic culture

6. Okak Archaeological site, several cultures occupied 4.

Port au Choix (P a rk s

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Pre-contact burial and habitation sites

N O R TH W EST TERRITO RIES 88. Déline Fishery/Franklin's Fort

89.

90.

91. 92.

95.

Igloolik Island Archaeological Sites Archaeological sequence, 2 0 0 0 B C -1 0 0 0 AD

94.

Inuksuk In u it complex o f 100 stone landmarks

97.

Port Refuge Pre-contact occupations, trade with Norse colonies

O N TARIO Bead Hill

26.

Rem ains o f 17th-century Seneca village 23.

Carrying Place of the Bay of Quinte Site o f 1787 treaty between British and Mississauga

36.

Chiefswood Italianate style birthplace o f poet Pauline Johnson

22.

Christ Church Royal Chapel H istoric royal chapel linked w ith establishment o f M ohawk Peoples in Ontario

43.

Grizzly Bear Mountain and Scented Grass Hills

39.

Expression o f cultural values through the interrela­ tionship between landscape, oral histories, graves, and cultural resources

31.

Hay River Mission Sites

30.

Cummins Pre-contact Site Extensive late Palaeo-Indian stone quarry

Donaldson Site Aboriginal site, 5 0 0

b c -3 0 0

AD

Etharita Site M ain village o f W o lf Tribe ofPetun, 1 6 4 7 -9

Fort Sainte Marie II Jesuit m ission to Hurons, 1 6 4 9 -5 0

33.

Beluga Hunting, Kittegaryumiut and Mackenzie Delta

Nagwichoonjik (Mackenzie River) Flows through Gwichya Gwich'in traditional hom e­ land and continues to be culturally, socially, and spiritually significant

Fall Caribou Crossing Site o f critical importance to the historical survival of In u it com m unity

Mission buildings, significant to D ene community

87.

Bloody Falls Pre-contact hunting and fishing sites

W intering quarters o f Sir John Franklin and his sec­ ond expedition

86. Kittigazuit Archaeological Sites

Blacklead Island Whaling Station Aboriginal and European bowhead whaling

Resource extraction by Dorset culture

2.

Arvia'juaq and Qikiqtaarjuk In u it sum m er occupation sites with rich history and surviving in situ resources

M ajor archaeological site for Beothuk history 3.

Kejimkujik (Parks C a n a d a Adm inistered) Important M i'km aq cultural landscape

N U N AVU T

Well-preserved, 3000-year archaeological record

N EW FO U N D LA N D & LABRADO R 1. Beothuk Site

Debert Palaeo-Indian Site Archaeological remains o f Aboriginal caribou hunting

C a n a d a A d m in is te r e d )

Hudson's Bay Company's principal fur trade depot from 1 6 8 4 - 1 8 7 0 s

13.

7.

Her Majesty's/St Paul's Chapel of the Mohawks First Protestant church in Upper Canada, 1785

44.

Manitou Mounds Religious and ceremonial site for 2 ,0 0 0 years; Rainy River Mounds

Appendix 435 21.

Mazinaw Pictograph Site

16.

34.

tury

Middleport Site Archaeological site, Middle Ontario Iroquois

29.

Mnjikaning Fish Weirs (P ark s

17. 18.

Ossossane Sites

14.

Parkhill Site Palaeo-Indian habitation site, c. 8 0 0 0 BC

20.

Algonquin

Algonkian petroglyph site

Pic River Site

27.

Saint-Louis Mission (P ark s

Complex o f pre-contact Woodland culture sites C anada

SASKA TCH EW A N Batoche (P ark s C a n a d a

54.

Site o f Huron village destroyed by Iroquois in 1 6 4 9

58.

Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons Mission Headquarters o f Jesuit mission to Hurons from

40.

Serpent Mounds Complex

55.

C anada

A d m in is te re d )

Sheguiandah

Site o f battle between Métis and Canadian forces,

Southwold Earthworks (P ark s

1885 C anada

60.

Walker Site

No. 6 52.

Large Iroquoian site, historical Attiwandaronk tribe

Fort Qu'Appelle Hudson's Bay Company post, Negotiation o f Treaty

Whitefish Island Ojibwa historic site

Fort Pitt Site o f Hudson's Bay Company Post, signing o f Treaty

A d m in iste re d )

41.

Battle of Fish Creek (P ark s

Aboriginal peninsula site, 6 0 B C -300 AD

Site o f Attiwandaronk Indian village, c. 1 5 0 0 AD 35.

Battle of Duck Lake First battle o f 1 8 8 5 North West Rebellion

Site o f pre-contact stone quarry 37.

Battle of Cut Knife Hill Cree repulse Canadian attack, 1 8 8 5

53.

1639-49 25.

A d m in is te r e d )

Métis village; site o f 1 8 8 5 Battle Batoche

A d m in is te re d ) 32.

Pointe Abitibi Traditional sum m ering area and sacred place for the

Peterborough Petroglyphs

42.

Notre-Dame-de-Lorette Church Mission church to the Hurons with seventeenthcentury art objects, 1 8 6 5

Principal village o f Bear Clan ofH urons

24.

Hochelaga Iroquois village visited in 1 5 3 5 by Jacques Cartier

Aboriginal fishing site

38.

Fort St-Louis Built in 1 7 2 5 for protection o f Christian Iroquois

C anada

A d m in is te re d ) 28.

Caughnawaga Presbytery Oldest surviving building at mission, eighteenth cen­

Largest Algonkian pictograph site in Canada

No. 4 59.

Frenchman Butte (P ark s

C a n a d a A d m in iste re d )

Site o f 1 8 8 5 battle, Cree and Canadian Troops

QUEBEC 19. Battle of the Lake of Two Mountains Site o f defeat o f Iroquois by French, 1 6 8 9

15. Caughnawaga Mission/Mission of St Francis Xavier Jesuit mission to Mohawks established 1 6 4 7

57.

Gray Burial Site

61.

Steele Narrows

One o f the oldest burial sites in Plains, c. 3 0 0 0 BC Last engagement o f North West Rebellion, 1 8 8 5 56.

Wanuskewin Complex o f Plains Indian cultural sites

Mr

Notes

Introduction

K a n e 's Jo u r n a l o f h is W e s te rn T ra v e ls, 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 4 8 ',

1. O n 1 8 J u n e 1 9 3 6 , W illia m L y o n M a c k e n z ie K in g , L ib e r a l 1 9 2 6 -3 0 ,

P r im e

M in is te r

1 9 3 5 -4 8 ),

of

o b serv ed

C anada in

th e

(1 9 2 1 -6 , H o u se o f

C o m m o n s ‘t h a t i f s o m e c o u n tr ie s h a v e t o o m u c h h is to r y ,

we have

to o

m u ch

Am erican A rt Journal 2 1 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 6 - 8 8 .

g e o g r a p h y .' J o h n

R o b e rt C o lo m b o , e d ., Colombo's Canadian Quota­

tions (E d m o n to n , 1 9 7 4 ) , 3 0 6 . 2 . H a ro ld A. In n is , The F u r Trade in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 2 ), 3 9 2 . 3 . Iz u m i S h im a d a a n d J o h n F. M e rk e l, 'C o p p e r A llo y M e ta llu r g y in A n c ie n t P e ru ', Scientific American 2 6 5 , 1 (Ju ly 1 9 9 1 ) : 8 0 - 6 . 4 . Ia n H o d d er, Reading the Past (C a m b rid g e , 1 9 8 6 ) , 102, 1 4 7 -7 0 . 5 . 'P ro fe s s o r w a rn s o f n a tiv e r if t’, Edm onton Journal, 1 9 O c t. 1 9 9 0 ; 'O k a s t a n d o f f sp a rk ed fe a rs o f IRAty p e crisis, C ia c c ia sa y s', Globe and M ail, 1 5 J a n . 1 9 9 1 ; S a r a h S c h m id t, 'N ew -A g e W a rr io rs ', Saturday

Night, 1 4 O c t. 2 0 0 0 , 2 2 - 9 . 6 . S e e Iv e s G o d d a rd 's d is c u s s io n o f t h e s u b je c t in

Chapter 1 1. S e e t h e in t r o d u c tio n fo r a n e x p la n a ti o n o f 'BP'. 2 . C u ltu r e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s s y m b o lic struc­ tu re s t h a t p ro v id e t h e m e a n s fo r h u m a n satisfac­ t i o n o n c e su rv iv a l h a s b e e n a ssu re d . S ee David R in d o s , ‘T h e E v o lu tio n o f th e C a p a c ity fo r Culture: S o c io b io lo g y , S tr u c tu r a lis m , a n d C u ltu r a l Evolu­ t i o n ', Current Anthropology 2 7 , 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 3 2 6 . 3 . T o m D . D ille h a y , ‘T h e G r e a t D e b a te o n t h e First A m e r ic a n s ', Anthropology Today 7 , 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 13. The o ld e s t s k e le to n fo u n d s o fa r (in T e x a s ) h a s been d a te d t o 1 1 , 6 0 0 y e a rs a g o . 'H e m is p h e r e 's oldest r e m a in s id e n tif ie d , g e o lo g is t sa y s', Toronto Star, 1 N ov. 1 9 9 2 . 4 . B r ia n M . F a g a n , The Great Journey (L o n d o n , 1 9 8 7 ), 26. fo r e x a m p le , J e f f r e y G o o d m a n , American Genesis (N ew Y o rk , 1 9 8 1 ) . S o m e o f t h e v a rio u s ap­

5. See,

D a v id D a m a s , e d ., Handbook o f North Am erican Indians, 5 ; Arctic (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 5 - 7 .

p r o a c h e s t o th e s tu d y o f e a r ly m a n in t h e A m ericas

7 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , 'L e s Ir o q u o is c h r é tie n s d e s " r é d u c ­ t i o n s " , 1 6 6 7 - 1 7 7 0 I— M ig r a tio n e t ra p p o rts a v e c

H a rp er, ed s, The F irst Am ericans: Origins, Affinities and Adaptation (N e w Y o rk a n d S tu ttg a r t, 1 9 7 9 ) .

les F ra n ç a is ', Recherches amérindiennes au Québec

6 . K n u t R. F la d m a r k d e m o n s tr a te s t h e c o m p le m e n ­

2 0 , 1 and 2 (1 9 9 1 ): 64. 8.

a re fo u n d in W illia m S. L a u g h lin a n d A lb ert B.

ta r ity o f m y t h a n d s c ie n tif ic d is c o u r s e b y u s in g leg­

LS. M a c L a re n , 'S a m u e l H e a m e 's A c c o u n ts o f t h e

en d s

M a s s a c re a t B lo o d y F alls, 1 7 J u l y 1 7 7 1 ', A riel: A

Prehistory (O tta w a , 1 9 8 6 ) .

to

a m p lif y

h is

te x t

in

B ritish Colum bia

Review o f English Literature 2 2 , 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 5 - 5 1 ;

7 . N o rv a l M o rris s e a u , Legends o f M y People the Great

M a c L a re n , ‘" I c a m e t o rite th a r e p o r t r a its " : P a u l

Ojibw ay (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 5 ; M ir c e a E lia d e , Gods,

Notes 437 Goddesses, and M yths o f Creation (N ew Y ork, 1 9 7 4 ),

C ircu m -P a cific

1 3 5 -6 .

1 1 9 -2 8 .

Perspective

(E d m o n to n ,

1 9 7 8 ),

8. A v a r ia tio n o f th is m y th is fo u n d a m o n g t h e A th a -

2 0 . K n u t R. F la d m a rk , 'T im e s a n d P la ce s: E n v ir o n m e n ­

p a s k a n W e t's u w e t'e n o f t h e C o r d ille r a n p la te a u .

ta l C o rr e la te s o f M id -to -L a te W is c o n s in a n H u m a n

S e e A .G . M o r ic e , A u pays de l'ours noir (P aris, 1 8 9 7 ),

P o p u la tio n

7 6 -8 .

R ic h a rd S h u tle r, Jr , ed ., Early Man in the New World

E x p a n s io n

in

N o rth

A m e r ic a ',

in

9. A su rv e y o f ty p e s o f c r e a t io n m y th s a n d th e ir d is­

(B e v e rly H ills, C a lif., 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 7 . See a ls o M a rg a re t

tr ib u tio n in N o r th A m e r ic a is t h a t o f A n n a B irg itta

M u n r o , 'U n d e r w a te r w o rld o f B .C . c o u ld b e m is s ­

R o o th , 'T h e C r e a tio n M y th s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r­

in g lin k in e a r ly m a n 's tr a v e ls ', Edm onton Journal, 9

ic a n In d ia n s ', Anthropos 5 2 (1 9 5 7 ) : 4 9 7 - 5 0 8 .

A ug. 1 9 9 3 .

10. F o r o n e , 'T h e O r ig in o f G itx a w n G r o u p a t K itsu m -

2 1 . See R ich a rd S h u tle r, Jr, 'T h e A u stra lia n P a ra lle l to

k a le m ', in M a riu s B a r b e a u a n d W illia m B e y n o n ,

t h e P e o p lin g o f t h e N e w W o rld ', in S h u tle r, ed .,

c o ll., Tsim shian Narratives 2 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 - 4 .

Ea rly M an in the New World, 4 3 - 5 .

O th e rs a re i n M a riu s B a rb e a u , Tsim shian Myths

2 2 . R u th G r u h n , ‘L in g u is tic E v id e n c e in S u p p o rt o f th e C o a s ta l

(O tta w a , 1 9 6 1 ) . 11. J o s e p h d e A c o s ta , The N atural and M orall History o f

the Ea st and West Indies, tr. E .G ., 2 v o ls (L o n d o n ,

R o u te o f E a rlie s t E n tr y

in t o

th e

N ew

W o rld ', Man, n e w se rie s 2 3 , 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 7 7 - 1 0 0 . H. G r e e n b e rg , Language in the Americas

2 3 . Jo s e p h

1 8 8 0 ; r e p r in t o f 1 6 0 4 e d itio n ), I, 5 7 - 6 1 ; firs t p u b ­

(S ta n fo rd , C a lif., 1 9 8 7 ) , 3 3 1 - 7 ; G r e e n b e rg , 'L in g ­

lis h e d i n L a tin i n 1 5 9 0 . A c u r r e n t jo k e a m o n g I n ­ th e

u is tic O r ig in s o f N a tiv e A m e r ic a n s ', Scientific A m ­ erican (N ov . 1 9 9 2 ) : 9 4 - 9 . G r e e n b e r g e s p o u s e s th e

B e rin g S tra it m ig r a t io n r o u te h a s it t h a t t h e r e a s o n

c la s s ific a tio n o f a ll t h e la n g u a g e s o f t h e w o rld in t o

d ia n s illu s tr a tiv e

o f th e i r a ttitu d e

to w a rd s

A m e rica s

1 5 b a s ic sto c k s , t o w h ic h a n u m b e r o f is o la te d l a n ­

in s te a d o f s ta y in g i n A sia w as t h a t 'th e y c o u ld n 't

g u a g e s w o u ld h a v e t o b e ad d ed . H is u ltim a te g o a l

w hy

th e ir

p e o p le

w ound

up

in

th e

g e t t h e ir b e a r in g s s tr a ig h t.' 12. 'W h a t t h e S t o n e T o o ls T e ll U s', Archaeology 4 9 , 6 (1 9 9 6 ): 6 1 . 13. S te v e n B. Y o u n g , 'B e r in g ia : A n Ice -A g e V ie w ', in W illia m W . F itz h u g h a n d A ro n C r o w e ll, ed s, Cross­

roads o f Continents: Cultures o f Siberia and A laska (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 0 6 - 1 0 . 14. R o b e rt E. A c k e r m a n , 'A S ib e r ia n J o u r n e y : R e se a rc h T rav el in t h e U SSR , J u l y 2 0 -A u g u s t 2 0 , 1 9 9 0 ', a n u n p u b lis h e d r e p o r t t o t h e N a tio n a l E n d o w m e n t fo r th e H u m a n itie s a n d W a s h in g to n S ta te U n iv e r ­ sity, 2 5 S e p t. 1 9 9 0 .

is t o re la te th e m a ll in a s in g le la n g u a g e fa m ily . S o m e o f t h e p ro s a n d c o n s o f G r e e n b e rg 's th e o r ie s a re d is c u s s e d b y J a r e d M . D ia m o n d , 'T h e T a lk o f t h e A m e r ic a s ', Nature 3 4 4 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 5 8 9 - 9 0 . I t is e s ti­ m a te d t h a t i f p r e s e n t tr e n d s c o n t in u e , 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o rld 's s u r v iv in g 6 , 0 0 0 la n g u a g e s w ill d is­ a p p e a r in t h e n e x t h u n d r e d y e a rs. 2 4 . N . G u id o n

and

G . D e lib ria s,

'C a r b o n - 1 4

d a tes

p o i n t to m a n in t h e A m e ric a s 3 2 , 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o ',

Nature 3 2 1 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 7 6 9 - 7 1 . A lso , 'A m e r ic a n v is ito rs 3 2 . 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o ', The Times, L o n d o n , 8 A ug. 1 9 8 6 . 2 5 . N iè d e G u id o n , 'C lif f N o te s ', N atural History 9 6 , 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 8 . C a r b o n iz e d h e a r t h r e m a in s fr o m S a n ta

15. A n th r o p o lo g is t A la n L. B r y a n , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i­

R o sa Is la n d o f f t h e s o u th e r n C a lifo r n ia c o a s t h a v e

c a tio n . T h e v ie w t h a t S ib e r ia w as n o t p e o p le d b e ­

y ie ld e d 3 0 ,0 0 0 - y e a r - o ld d a te s, b u t th e s e a re v ig o r­

fo re 2 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o is m a in t a in e d b y N ik o la i N. D ik ov , 'O n t h e R o ad t o A m e r ic a ', Natural History

o u s ly d is p u te d . S e e L.S. C r e s s m a n , Prehistory o f the F a r West: Homes o f Vanquished Peoples (S a lt Lake

9 7 , 1 (1 9 8 8 ) : 14 .

C ity ,

16. V irg in ia M o re ll, 'C o n fu s io n i n E a rlie st A m e r ic a ',

Science 2 4 8 (1 9 9 0 ) : 4 4 1 . 17. C arl O r tw in Sau er, La n d and Life, ed . J o h n L e ig h ly (B erk eley , 1 9 6 9 ) , 3 0 0 - 1 2 . 18. P e te r S c h le d e r m a n n , Crossroads to Greenland: 3 000

1 9 7 7 ):

6 9 -7 0 ;

W illia m

J.

W a lla c e ,

'P o s t-

P le is to c e n e A rc h a e o lo g y , 9 0 0 0 t o 2 0 0 0 B .C .', in R o b e rt F. H eizer, e d ., Handbook o f North American Indians, 8: California (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 7 8 ) , 3 0 . 2 6 . 'R e lic s s u g g e st t h a t h u m a n s c a m e to N e w W o rld 3 6 . 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o ', Edm onton Journal, 2 M a y 1 9 9 1 .

Years o f Prehistory in the Eastern H igh Arctic (C alg ary ,

2 7 . W illia m N . Irv in g , 'T h e F irst A m e ric a n s : N e w D a te s

1 9 9 0 ), 3 1 4 - 1 5 . F o u r p o s s ib le w a y s b y w h ic h th e

fo r O ld B o n e s ’, Natural History 9 6 , 2 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 8 - 1 3 .

A rctic c o u ld h a v e b e e n p e o p le d a re p re s e n te d in

I r v in g

s c h e m a tiz e d fo r m b y R o b e rt M c G h e e in Canadian

c la im t h a t a c a m p s ite a t O ld C r o w R iv e r d a te s b a c k

Arctic Prehistory (S c a r b o r o u g h , O n t., 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 8 - 2 1 . 19. K n u t R. F la d m a rk , 'T h e F e a s ib ility o f t h e N o r t h ­ w e st C o a s t a s a M ig r a tio n R o u te fo r E a rly M a n ’, in A lan L y le B r y a n , e d ., E arly M an in America from a

1 5 0 .0 0 0

and

p a le o b io lo g is t

R ic h a r d

H a r r in g to n

y e a rs. S e e B a rry E s ta b ro o k , 'B o n e Age

M a n ’, Equinox 1, 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 8 4 - 9 6 . 2 8 . Ja c q u e s

C in q - M a r s ,

P o is s o n -B le u

dans

'L a la

p la c e

des

p r é h is t o ir e

g r o tte s

du

b e r in g i e n n e ',

438 Notes Revista de Arqueologîa Am ericana 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 9 - 3 2 . See a ls o C a t h a r in e M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, Part o f the Water: A H istory o f the Yukon India ns (V a n c o u ­

3 5 . B ru c e G . T rig g e r a n d W illia m R. Sw agerty, 'Enter­

ver, 1 9 8 7 ) , 5 0 - 1 . O n t h e d e b a te a b o u t p re -C lo v is

The Cam bridge H istory o f the Peoples o f the Americas

site s, se e E lio t M a rs h a ll, 'C lo v is C o u n te r r e v o lu ­ t i o n ', Science 2 4 9 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 7 3 8 - 4 1 .

t a i n i n g S tra n g e rs : N o r t h A m e r ic a in t h e Sixteenth C e n tu r y ', in T rig g e r a n d W ilc o m b W a sh b u rn , eds, (C a m b rid g e , 1 9 9 6 ) , I, p a r t 1, 3 6 2 - 3 . 3 6 . D o b y n s , Their Num ber Become Thinned, 4 2 ; Thorn­

2 9 . M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, 4 9 - 5 0 .

to n , Am erican India n Holocaust, 2 5 - 3 3 .

3 0 . K n u t R. F la d m a rk , 'T h e First A m e r ic a n s : G e t tin g

3 7 . P r e -C o lu m b ia n p o p u la tio n e s tim a te s w ere begin­

O n e 's B e rin g s ', Natural History (N ov . 1 9 8 6 ) : 8 - 1 9 .

n in g t o b e re v ise d e a r ly in th is c e n tu r y . In 1913,

F o r t h e v ie w t h a t t h e c o r r id o r c o u ld h a v e b e e n

fo r in s ta n c e , t h e U S B u re a u o f E th n o lo g y calculat­

u sed fo r m ig r a tio n s , see N .W . R u tter, 'L a te P le is­

ed t h a t t h e A m e r in d ia n p o p u la t io n o f th e United

t o c e n e H is to ry o f t h e W e s te rn C a n a d ia n Ice -F re e

S ta te s h a d d e c lin e d 6 5 p e r c e n t s in c e t h e arrival of

C o rr id o r', Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 1 , 1

E u ro p e a n s . J o s e p h K . D ix o n , The Vanishing Race:

( 1 9 8 0 ) : 1 - 8 . T h is e n tir e issu e o f C JA is d e v o te d to

The L a s t Great Indian C o un cil (G a rd e n City, NY,

stu d ie s o f t h e c o rrid o r.

1 9 1 3 ) , 6. A r e c e n t s tu d y p o in ts t o t h e d a n g e r o f assum ing

3 1 . D . W a y n e M o o d ie , K erry A b el, a n d A la n C a tc h p o le , th e

t h a t e a r ly e p id e m ic s a lo n e c a u s e d t h e catastrop h ic

W h it e R iv er V o lc a n ic E r u p tio n ', p a p e r p re s e n te d a t

p o p u la tio n d ro p s. I n n o r th e r n M a n ito b a , despite

'N o r th e r n

A th a p a s k a n

O ra l T ra d itio n s a n d

'A b o rig in a l R e so u rce U se in C a n a d a : H isto rica l a n d

h e a v y d e a th ra te s d u rin g t h e in f lu e n z a epidem ic

L eg al A sp e cts' c o n f e r e n c e , U n iv e r s ity o f M a n ito b a ,

f o llo w in g W o rld W a r I, p o p u la t io n re co v e ry could

1 9 8 8 . S e e a ls o M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, 5 4 - 5 .

b e s w ift i f o th e r fa c to r s d id n o t in te r v e n e . Ann

3 2 . Se e, fo r e x a m p le , D o u g la s C . W a lla ce , K a th e rin e G a r ris o n , a n d W illia m K n o w le s, 'D r a m a tic F o u n d ­ e r E ffe c ts in

A m e r in d ia n

M ito c h o n d r ia l DNAs',

Am erican Journal o f Physical Anthropology 6 8 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 4 9 -5 5 . 3 3 . T w o r e c e n t su rv e y s o f c u r r e n t t h i n k i n g o n th e s u b ­ je c t , b o t h w ith t h e tit le 'W h o w e re t h e F irst A m e ri­ c a n s ? ', in d ic a t e t h e h ig h le v e l o f p o p u la r in te r e s t in t h e q u e s tio n . T h e fir s t a r tic le , b y S h a r o n B e g le y a n d A n d re w M u rr, a p p e a re d in Newsweek 1 3 3 , 1 7 ( 2 6 Apr. 1 9 9 9 ) : 5 0 - 8 ; t h e o th e r , b y S a s h a N e m e c e k , a p p e a re d i n Scientific A m erican 2 8 3 , 3 (S e p t. 2 0 0 0 ) : 8 0 - 7 . N e w sp a p e r re p o rts a re so n u m e r o u s t h a t o n ly a s a m p lin g c a n b e g iv e n h e re : 'F irst s e ttle r s m a y h a v e a rriv e d fr o m E u ro p e ', N ational Post, 2 N o v . 1 9 9 9 ; F ra n k X . M u lle n , Jr , 'A fte r 1 0 , 0 0 0 Y ears, D is p u te R e m a in s : C la n o f t h e C a v e M a n M a y P re­

H e rrin g , 'T h e 1 9 1 8 F lu E p id e m ic i n M a n ito b a Ab­ o r ig in a l C o m m u n itie s : Im p lic a tio n s fo r D epopu­ l a tio n T h e o r y in t h e A m e r ic a s ', p a p e r p re sen ted to t h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie ty f o r E th n o h is to r y , Toronto, 1990. 3 8 . J a m e s B r o o k e , ‘M e ltin g ic e y ie ld s a n c i e n t artifacts’,

Globe and M ail, 5 O c t. 1 9 9 9 . 3 9 . T h e o d o r e G . S c h u r r e t a l„ 'A m e r in d ia n M ito c h o n ­ d ria l DNA H a v e R a re A sia n M u t a tio n s a t H ig h Fre­ q u e n c ie s , S u g g e s tin g T h e y D e riv e d fr o m F ou r Pri­ m a r y M a te r n a l L in e a g e s ', A m erican Journal of H um an Genetics 4 6 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 6 1 3 - 2 3 . F o r a different in te r p r e ta tio n o f t h e e v id e n c e , se e M ilfo rd H. Wolp o ff's a r tic le in E rik T rin k a u s , e d ., Emergence of Modem Hum ans: Biocidtural Adaptations in the Late Pleistocene (C a m b rid g e , 1 9 8 9 ) . 4 0 . J .H . G r e e n b e rg , C .G . T u rn e r II, a n d S .L . Zegura,

d a te In d ia n s ', USA Today, 2 A ug. 2 0 0 0 , 1 0 D ; T ra c e y

'T h e S e ttle m e n t o f t h e A m e ric a s : A C o m p a ris o n of

O b er, ‘B ra z ilia n sk u ll su g g ests e a r ly A m e r ic a n s p r e ­

th e

d a te d A sian a rriv a l', Globe and M ail, 2 1 S e p t. 1 9 9 9 ;

Current Anthropology 2 7 , 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 4 7 7 - 9 7 .

Faye

F la m ,

‘P r e h i s t o r i c

A r c h a e o lo g ic a l

M e ltin g

D is c o v e r ie s

D e n ta l,

and

G e n e t ic

Ev iden ce',

R ecen t

4 1 . O n e p o p u la tio n e s tim a te fo r t h e e n tir e n e o lith ic

S c ie n tis ts

w o rld o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o s e ts it a t 7 5 m illio n , or­

P o t:

H ave

L in g u is tic ,

S p e c u la tin g T h a t E a rly P e o p le M ig ra te d t o

th e

g a n iz e d in t o s o m e t h in g lik e

1 5 0 , 0 0 0 trib a l n a­

A m e ric a s fr o m M a n y P la c e s a n d D ir e c tio n s , N o t

tio n s . J o h n H . B o d le y , e d ., Tribal Peoples and Dev­

J u s t fr o m A sia V ia t h e B e r in g S tr a it,' The Gazette,

elopment Issues: A Global Overview ( M o u n ta in View,

M o n tr e a l, 2 8 N o v . 1 9 9 9 , C 4 . 3 4 . R u ssell T h o r n t o n , Am erican India n Holocaust and

Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ), 1 5 - 4 1 ; H e n ry F. D o b y n s , Their N um ­ ber Become Thinned: Native Am erican Population D y ­ nam ics in Eastern North Am erica (K n o x v ille , T e n n ., 1 9 8 3 ), 3 4 - 4 5 . S e e a ls o P ie rre C h a u n u , L'Am érique et les Amériques (P aris, 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 1 .

C a lif., 1 9 8 8 ) , 1. T o d ay , t h e n u m b e r o f tr ib a l peo­ p le s s till in e x is t e n c e m a y b e as m a n y a s 2 0 0 m il­ lio n (ib id ., iii). 4 2 . S c h le d e r m a n n , Crossroads to Greenland, 3 1 9 . 4 3 . P a u l S. M a r tin , 'P r e h is to r ic O v e rk ill', in M a r tin and H .E . W rig h t, Jr , ed s, Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause (N ew H a v e n , 1 9 6 7 ) , 7 5 - 1 0 5 . Also M a r tin , 'T h e P a tte r n a n d M e a n in g o f H olarctic

Notes 439 M a m m o t h E x tin c t io n s ', i n D a v id M . H o p k in s e t

p le s c a m e t o re g a rd s t o n e to o ls as th u n d e r b o lts .

a l., ed s, Paleoecology o f Beringia (N ew Y ork, 1 9 8 2 ),

S e e C .J.M .R . G u llic k , M yths o f a M inority (A ssen ,

3 9 9 -4 0 8 .

1 9 8 5 ), 2 5 .

44. W illia m H. H o d g e , The First Am ericans Then and

Now (N e w Y o rk , 1 9 8 1 ), 1 5 - 1 6 .

5 5 . A la n L. B r y a n , 'A n O v e rv ie w o f P a le o -A m e ric a n P re h is to ry fr o m a C ir c u m - P a c ific P e rs p e ctiv e ', in

45. T h e S ib e r ia n fin d , a t a s ite n e a r M a g a d a n O b la s t,

B r y a n , e d ., Ea rly Man in America, 3 0 6 - 2 7 . T h e o ld ­

h a s b e e n r a d io c a r b o n d a te d t o 8 ,3 0 0 y e a rs ag o .

e s t s to n e to o ls k n o w n so far, c ra fte d m o r e th a n 2 .5

'D is c o v e r y ra ise s q u e s tio n s o v e r s e t tlin g o f N e w W o rld ', Globe and M ail, 2 A ug. 1 9 9 6 . O n flu te d p o in ts i n C a n a d a , se e R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical

m illio n y e a rs a g o , h a v e b e e n fo u n d in E th io p ia . 'O ld e s t k n o w n

sto n e

to o ls

fo u n d ,

b u t m a k e rs

r e m a in a n o n y m o u s ', Ottawa Citizen, 2 3 J a n . 1 9 9 7 . 5 6 . J.Z . Y o u n g e t a l., The Emergence o f Man (L o n d o n ,

Atlas o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 2 .

1 9 8 1 ) , 2 0 7 - 8 . S im ila rly , re d , th e c o lo u r o f life , w as

46. Ib id ., p la te s 5 a n d 6 .

v e ry e a r ly a ttr ib u te d h ig h s y m b o lic s ig n ific a n c e .

47. F ag an , The Great Journey, 8 .

R ed o c h r e w as th u s p riz ed b y tr ib a l p e o p le s a ro u n d

48. Sau er, La n d and Life, 2 3 7 - 4 0 ; W .C . B o y d , Genetics

t h e w o rld .

and the Races o f M an: A n Introduction to Modem Physical Anthropology (B o s to n , 1 9 5 0 ) , 2 2 7 .

5 7 . A rc h e ry w a s p ra c tis e d a t le a s t 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o in

The Search for Eve (N ew Y ork,

a n d E arly H o lo c e n e T e c h n o lo g ie s ', in R ich a rd P ea r­

49. M ic h a e l B r o w n ,

J a p a n . S e e F u m ik o Ik a w a -S m ith , ‘L a te P le is to c e n e s o n , e d ., W indows on the Japanese: Studies in Archae­ ology and Prehistory (A n n A rb o r, 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 1 2 .

1 9 9 0 ), 3 1 5 . 50. Sau er, L a n d and Life , 2 3 9 . 51. C h r is ty G . T u rn e r n, 'A n c ie n t P e o p le s o f t h e N o r th

5 8 . Lo st Visions, Forgotten Dreams, e x h ib it g u id e, C a ­

P a cific R im ', in F itz h u g h a n d C r o w e ll, ed s, Cross­

n a d ia n M u s e u m o f th e A m e r ic a n I n d ia n (1 9 9 6 ) ,

roads o f Continents, 1 1 3 - 1 5 . A m e r in d ia n s s h a re w ith w h ic h

A s ia tic s t h e a re

c o n f o r m ity

sco o p ed

out

at

o f th e ir in c is o rs , th e

back,

's h o v e l ­

s h a p e d '. T u rn e r b e lie v e s t h a t th is fe a tu r e , c o m ­

n .p . 5 9 . B r ia n O .K . R eev es, 'C o m m u n a l b is o n h u n te r s o f t h e N o r th e r n P la in s ', i n L .B . D a v is a n d R eev es, ed s,

Hunters o f the Recent Past ( L o n d o n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 7 0 - 1 .

b in e d w ith g e n e tic e v id e n c e , su g g ests th r e e b a s ic

6 0 . Sau er, La n d and Life, 2 8 4 .

g ro u p s fo r o r ig in a l A m e r in d ia n s : A m e r in d , N a-

6 1 . Ib id ., 1 7 5 . T h e r e c e n t d is c o v e ry o f a 6 ,0 0 0 -y e a r -o ld

D en e, a n d A ie u t-ln u it. 52. E m ô k e J .E . S z a th m a ry ,

w o o d e n w a lk w a y b u r ie d i n a p e a t b o g in E n g la n d 'H u m a n

B io lo g y o f t h e

h a s p o in te d t o t h e e x is t e n c e o f v e ry e a r ly s ta b le

A rctic’, in D a v id D a m a s , e d ., Handbook o f North

c o m m u n itie s . S e e J o h n

American Indians, 5: Arctic (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 4 ),

O ld e s t R o a d ', Scientific Am erican 2 0 1 ,

7 0 -1 .

1 0 0 - 6 . O n t h e d if fic u ltie s o f in t e r p r e t in g a r c h a e o ­

53. T h is s e c tio n h a s b e e n d ra w n , in p a rt, fr o m m y a r ti­ cle, 'A H is to r ic a l R e c o n s tr u c t io n fo r t h e N o r th ­ w e ste rn P la in s ', Prairie Forum 5 , 1 (1 9 8 0 ) : 1 9 - 2 7 . 54. A lth o u g h t h e I n c a w e re s k ille d m e ta llu r g is ts , th e y

lo g ic a l

d a ta ,

se e

M . C o le s , ‘T h e W o rld 's 5 (1 9 8 9 ):

H o d d er, Reading the Past

Ia n

(C a m b rid g e , 1 9 8 6 ) . 6 2 . B ill S c a n lo n , 'F ire s U n c o v e r N ew A n a sa z i S ite s ', S c rip p s H o w a rd N ew s S e rv ic e , 2 5 J u l y 2 0 0 0 .

used th e ir c r a ft larg ely , a lth o u g h n o t e n tir e ly , fo r

6 3 . F la d m a rk , 'T im e s a n d P la c e s ', 4 1 .

c e r e m o n ia l p u rp o s e s . H o w ev e r, it is n o w k n o w n

6 4 . A m a p o f h is to r ic tr a d e s y s te m s b e tw e e n S ib e r ia

th a t c o p p e r a llo y m e ta llu r g y w a s m o r e im p o r ta n t

a n d N o r th A m e r ic a p r o b a b ly a ls o in d ic a te s e a r lie r

th a n p re v io u s ly t h o u g h t a n d w as u se d fo r m u n ­

ro u te s . S e e F itz h u g h a n d C r o w e ll, ed s, Crossroads o f

d a n e p u rp o s e s . S e e Iz u m i S h a m a d a a n d J o h n F.

Continents, 2 3 6 - 7 .

M erkel, 'C o p p e r A llo y M e ta llu rg y in A n c ie n t P eru ',

Scientific Am erican 2 6 5 , 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 8 0 - 6 . I n c a a r c h i­ te ctu re, ro a d s , a n d e n g in e e r in g p r o je c ts w e re b a se d

Chapter 2

te c h n o lo g y , o f

1. 'In c r e a s e in c a r b o n d io x id e sp u rre d fa r m in g , a rti­

co u rse, w as n o m o r e c o n f in e d t o s t o n e t h a n t h a t o f

c le sa y s ', Globe and M ail, 9 O c t. 1 9 9 5 ; ‘E a r lie s t A gri­

th e B r o n z e A ge w as t o b r o n z e , o r t h e Ir o n A ge to

c u ltu re

iro n . It m a y w e ll b e t h a t b o n e a n d w o o d w e re ju s t

(Ju ly -A u g .

as im p o r ta n t as s to n e , o r e v e n m o r e s o ; t h e ir p e r­

'M y t h o f t h e H u n te r - G a th e r e r ', Archaeology 5 2 , 5

o n S to n e

A ge te c h n o lo g y . T h is

ish a b ility , h o w e v e r, p a r tic u la r ly t h a t o f w o o d , h a s m ad e it h ig h ly u n lik e ly t h a t th is c a n e v e r b e d e te r­

in

th e

N ew

1 9 9 7 ):

W o rld ', Archaeology 5 0 ,

11.

A lso

K e n n e th

M.

4

A m es,

(S e p t.- O c t. 1 9 9 9 ) : 4 5 - 9 . 2 . C a rl O r tw in S a u er, La n d and Life, ed . J o h n L e ig h ly

m in e d w ith a n y p r e c is io n . A s s t o n e a n d b o n e t e c h ­

(B erk eley , 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 7 8 . A rc h a e o lo g is t N o r m a n C le r­

n o lo g y g a v e w a y t o t h a t o f m e ta ls , s o m e tr ib a l p e o ­

m o n t h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t in t h e St L a w re n c e V alley,

440 Notes

ju n c t io n w ith fis h in g s ite s . H e th e o r iz e s t h a t a

How the Indians o f the Am ericas Transformed the W orld (N e w Y o rk , 1 9 8 8 ) . M a iz e is a ls o u sed as raw

se rie s o f h a rd w in te rs a b o u t

1 0 0 0 e n c o u ra g e d

m a te r ia l fo r a w id e v a r ie ty o f in d u s tr ia l products. It

fa r m in g a s a m e a n s o f o b ta in in g e n o u g h fo o d to

h a s b e e n e s tim a te d t h a t m a iz e a s a c ro p is worth

e a r ly a g r ic u ltu r a l c o m m u n itie s d e v e lo p e d in c o n ­ ad

s to r e fo r t h e c o ld m o n t h s . S e e C le r m o n t, 'W h y D id

m o r e e a c h y e a r t h a n a ll t h e g o ld a n d silver taken

th e

o u t o f t h e A m e r ic a s b y t h e c o n q u is ta d o r s . See

St.

L a w re n c e

Ir o q u o is B e c o m e A g ricu ltu ra ­

lis ts ? ', Man in the Northeast 4 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 7 5 - 9 .

A rtu ro W a rm a n , 'C o r n as O r g a n iz in g Principle',

3 . B a rry K ay e a n d D .W . M o o d ie , 'T h e P s o ra le a F o o d

Northeast India n Quarterly 6, 1 a n d 2 (1 9 8 9 ): 22.

R e s o u rc e o f t h e N o r th e r n P la in s ', Plains Anthro­

M a iz e , in c id e n ta lly , w as t h e s ta p le fo r th e transat­ la n t ic sla v e tra d e , as i t p r e v e n te d scurvy.

pologist 2 3 , 8 2 , p t. 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 3 2 9 - 3 6 . U se o f t h e w ild tu r n ip as a fo o d re s o u rc e in te n s ifie d w ith th e g r o w th o f p o p u la tio n th a t fo llo w e d t h e a d v e n t o f th e h o r s e . P ra irie tu r n ip flo u r is a g o o d s o u r c e o f v it a m in C .

9.

P e te r M c F a rla n e a n d W a y n e H a im ila , Ancient Land, A ncient Sky: Follow ing Canada's Native Canoe Routes (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 2 0 .

1 0 . O n ly 2 0 p e r c e n t o f A n d e a n c ro p s re p ro d u ce read­

4 . H e n ry T. L ew is a n d T h e re s a A. F e rg u s o n , 'Y ard s,

ily a b o v e 2 , 7 0 0 m e tr e s . O n t h e d istrib u tio n of

C o rrid o rs , a n d M o s a ic s : H o w t o B u rn a B o r e a l F o r­

m a iz e as a c ro p , se e V ic to r A. S h n ir e lm a n , ‘Origin

e s t', H um an Ecology 1 6 , 1 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 5 7 - 7 7 . Fire, o f

a n d E arly H is to r y o f M a iz e ’, European Review of

c o u rs e , h a d m a n y m o r e u se s th a n th o s e p e r ta in in g

Native Am erican Studies 3 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 2 3 - 8 , particu­

t o a g r ic u ltu r e a n d g a m e m a n a g e m e n t. S e e 'O u r

la rly t h e m a p o n p a g e 2 5 .

G r a n d fa th e r F ire: Fire a n d t h e A m e r ic a n In d ia n ', in

1 1 . C o m re q u ire s 6 0 t o 7 0 d a y s t o p r o d u c e a crop ; rice

S t e p h e n J . P y n e , Fire in Am erica ( P r in c e to n , N J,

re q u ire s 1 2 0 - 4 0 d a y s. P ie rre C h a u n u , L'Amérique et

les Amériques (P a ris, 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 9 . In E u ro p e at the

1 9 8 2 ), 7 1 -8 3 . 5 . T h e s e c tio n o n a g r ic u ltu r e is p a r tly a d a p te d fr o m

tim e o f c o n t a c t , t h e s ta n d a rd y ie ld o f O ld World

O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , '" F o r E v e ry P la n t T h e r e Is

c e re a ls w as s ix u n its o f s e e d c o lle c t e d fo r e a c h unit

a U s e " : T h e B o ta n ic a l W o rld o f M e x ic a a n d Iro q u o ia n s ', in Aboriginal Resource Use in Canada: Legal and H istorical Aspects ( W in n ip e g , 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 1 - 3 4 . M y th a n k s t o D r W a lte r M o ser, U n iv e r s ity o f A lb erta, fo r p ro v id in g t h e L a tin n a m e s . 6 . S .G .

S te p h e n s ,

'S o m e

P ro b le m s

o f In te r p r e tin g

T r a n s o c e a n ic D is p e rs a l o f t h e N e w W o rld C o t to n s ', in C a r ro ll L. R ile y e t a l., ed s, Man Across the Sea:

Problems o f Pre-Colum bian Contacts (A u stin , T ex a s, 1 9 7 1 ), 4 0 1 - 5 . 7 . J .B . H u tc h in s o n , R.A. Silo w , a n d S .G . S te p h e n s , The

Evolution o f Gossypium and Differentiation o f the Cultivated Cottons (L o n d o n , 1 9 4 7 ) , 7 4 - 8 0 . F o r th e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e tw o N ew W o rld s p e c ie s w ere

o f s e e d p la n te d , a r a te t h a t u n d e r fa v o u ra b le cir­ c u m s ta n c e s c o u ld in c r e a s e t o 1 0 :1 . T h e standard fo r c o m w a s 1 5 0 :1 ; i n b a d y e a rs, t h e y ie ld could d r o p to 7 0 :1 . W a rm a n , 'C o r n as O r g a n iz in g Prin­ c ip le ', 2 1 . 1 2 . T h e r e h a s b e e n s p irite d d e b a te a b o u t t h e orig in of c o r n as a c u ltig e n a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , a n extensive l is t o f p u b lic a tio n s . A m o n g t h e s h o r te r a n d

p erh ap s m o re

a rtic le s (being

re a d a b le ) are: Steve

C o n n o r , 'S t o n e A ge P e o p le M o d ifie d C ro p s', The Independent, 1 8 M a r. 1 9 9 9 , 1 2 ; P a u l C . M angelsd o rf, 'M y s te r y o f C o r n ', Scientific American 1 83, 1 ( 1 9 5 0 ) : 20-^4; M a n g e ls d o r f, 'M y s te r y o f C o rn : New P e rs p e c tiv e s ', Proceedings o f the Am erican Philoso­

d e v e lo p e d i n t h e A m e r ic a s w ith p la n ts t h a t c a m e

phical Society 1 2 7 , 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 1 5 - 4 7 ; M an gelsd orf, 'T h e O r ig in o f C o r n ', Scientific Am erican 2 5 5 , 2

fr o m A frica, se e S tu a r t J . F ie d e l, Prehistory o f the Am ericas (C a m b rid g e , 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 6 1 . F o r th e c a s e th a t

( 1 9 8 6 ) : 8 0 - 6 ; G e o r g e W . B e a d le , 'T h e A n ce stry of

c o t t o n w as d o m e s tic a te d fr o m n a tu r a lly h y b r id ­

W a lto n C . G a lin a t, 'T h e O r ig in o f M a iz e ', Annual

ized p la n ts g r o w in g w ild in

t h e A m e ric a s , see

Review o f Genetics 5 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 4 4 7 - 7 8 ; J .M .J . de Wet

Jo s e p h N e e d h a m a n d Lu G w e i-D je n , Trans-Pacific

a n d J.R . H a r la n , ‘O r ig in o f M a iz e : T h e Tripartite

C o r n ', Scientific Am erican 2 4 2 , 2 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 1 1 2 -1 9 ;

Echoes and Resonances: Listening Once Again (S in g ­

H y p o th e s is ', Euphytica 2 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; J a m e s H. Kemp-

a p o re

to n , ‘M a iz e a s a M e a s u re o f I n d ia n S k ill', Sym­

and

P h i l a d e lp h i a ,

1 9 8 5 ),

62.

See

a ls o

C h a p te r 3 b e lo w . 8 . O n t h e c o n t r ib u t io n s o f A m e r in d ia n fa r m e rs t o w o r ld a g r ic u ltu r e , s e e E a rl J . H a m ilto n , 'W h a t t h e

posium on Prehistoric Agriculture, U n iv e r s ity o f New M e x ic o

( M illw o o d ,

'C a u g h t i n

N Y,

1 9 7 7 );

L o u is

W erner,

a m a iz e o f g e n e s ', Am éricas 5 2 , 3

N e w W o rld G a v e t o t h e E c o n o m y o f t h e O ld ', i n

(M a y -Ju n e

F red i C h ia p e lli, e d ., First Images o f America: The

r e p o r t o n t h e s u b je c t, se e D o u g la s S . B y ers and

2 0 0 0 ):

6 -1 7 .

For

an

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

Im pact o f the New World on the Old, 2 v o ls (B erk eley , 1 9 7 6 ), II, 8 5 3 - 8 4 ; B a rrie K a v a sh , Native Harvests (N ew Y ork, 1 9 7 9 ); J a c k W e a th e rfo r d , Indian Givers:

R ich a rd S. M a c N e is h , ed s, The Prehistory o f Teohuacan Valley, 5 v o ls (A u stin , T e x a s , 1 9 6 7 - 7 2 ) . E a rly re s e a rc h o n t h e d o m e s tic a t io n o f c o rn was

Notes d o n e b y th e S o v ie t b o ta n is t V .I. V a v ilo v , w h o s e fin d in g s w e re re p o rte d in 'M e x ic a i T s e n tr a ln a ia

Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) , x x n , 293.

A m e rik a k a k o s n o v n o i ts e n t r p r o is k o o z h d e n ia k u l-

2 1 . V irg il J . V o g el, Am erican India n Medicine (N o rm a n ,

tu r n y k h r a s te r n ii', Trudy po prikladnoi botanike, genetike i selektsii 2 6 , 3 (1 9 3 1 ) ; a n d in V av ilo v ,

O k la ., 1 9 7 0 ) , 9 ; D a n ie l E. M o e r m o n , Medicinal Plants o f Native America, 2 v o ls (A n n A rbor, 1 9 8 6 ) ;

‘V e lik iy e z e m le d e lts h e s k ie k u ltu r y d o k o lu m b o v o i

C h a r le s H . T a lb o t,

A m e rik i i ik h v z a im o o tn o s h e n iia ', Izvestiia Gosu-

D ru g T ra d e ', F irst Images 2 : 8 1 3 - 3 2 . E a rly se ttle rs

darstvmnogo Geografocheskogo Obshchestva 7 1 , 1 0

s o o n le a r n e d t o a p p r e c ia te A m e r in d ia n m e d ic a l

(1 9 3 9 ).

lo r e a n d in c o r p o r a te d it in t o t h e ir o w n p ra c tic e .

13. C h ili p e p p e rs , firs t d o m e s tic a te d o n t h e G u lf c o a s t, m a d e th e i r w a y t o In d ia , w h e r e th e y n o w fo r m p a rt o f t h e tr a d itio n a l c u is in e . In d ia is a ls o th e le a d in g g ro w e r o f p e a n u ts , a n o th e r N e w W o rld

'A m e r ic a a n d t h e E u ro p e a n

S e e A lfred G o ld s w o r th y B a iley , The C o nflict o f Euro­ pean and Eastern Algonkian Cultures 1 5 0 4-1700 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 0 - 1 . 2 2 . B r ia n S w a rb rick , 'A 9 ,0 0 0 -y e a r -o ld h o u s in g p r o j­ e c t', Alberta Report 1 8 , 3 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 5 0 - 1 .

c ro p . 14. S te p h e n L e w a n d o w sk i, 'T h r e e Siste rs— A n Iro q u o ia n C u ltu r a l C o m p le x ', Northeast Indian Quarterly 6,

2 3 . R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical A tlas o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te s 8 a n d 14.

1 a n d 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 4 5 . T h e s to r y o f O -n a -ta h , s p irit o f

2 4 . B r ia n O .K . R eev es, Culture Change in the Northern

c o r n , te lls h o w c o r n b e c a m e se p a ra te d fr o m h e r

Plains 1000 B .C .-A .D . 1000 ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 3 ) ,

siste r p la n ts

in

m odem

a g r ic u ltu r e .

('O -n a - ta h

S p ir it o f C o m ', ib id ., 4 0 .)

156, 1 9 0 -3 . 2 5 . R ic h a r d G . F o rb is, 'A lb e r ta ', i n W a rr e n W . C a ld ­

15. P a tric ia S. B rid g e s, 'C h a n g e s in A c tiv itie s w ith th e

w e ll, ed ., The Northwestern Plains: A Sym posium (B il­

S h ift t o A g r icu ltu r e i n t h e S o u th e a s te r n U n ite d

lin g s , M o n t., 1 9 6 8 ) , 4 4 . A n e a r th v illa g e d e s cr ib e d

S ta te s ', Current Anthropology 3 0 , 3 (1 9 8 9 ) : 3 8 5 - 9 4 .

b y P e te r F id le r ( 1 7 6 9 - 1 8 2 2 ) , w h o w as in S a s k a tc h ­

S k e le ta l s tu d ie s a ls o in d ic a t e c h a n g e s i n t h e d iv i­

e w a n la te i n t h e e ig h te e n th c e n t u r y h a s n o t b e e n

s io n o f la b o u r b e tw e e n m e n a n d w o m e n a s a re s u lt

lo c a te d . S e e T h o m a s F. K e h o e a n d A lice K e h o e ,

o f t h e s h ift t o m a iz e a g r ic u ltu r e . A n in c r e a s e in t h e v a r ie ty o f c h o r e s is in d ic a te d fo r w o m e n ; m e n s h o w fe w e r c h a n g e s . 16. F o r a n o v e rv ie w o f s u b s is te n c e p a tte r n s , se e H a ro ld

'S a s k a tc h e w a n ', ib id ., 3 2 . 2 6 . J o h n R. T o p ic, 'T h e O s tra S ite : T h e E a rlie s t F o rtifie d S ite in t h e N e w W o rld ', in D ia n a C la ire T k a cz u k a n d B r ia n C . V iv ia n , ed s, Cultures in Conflict: C u r­

E. D river, India ns o f North Am erica (C h ic a g o , 1 9 7 0 ),

rent Archaeological Perspectives (C a lg a ry ,

5 3 -8 3 .

2 1 5 -2 7 .

1 9 8 9 ),

17. C a rl O r tw in Sau er, Sixteenth-Century N orth Am erica:

2 7 . T h e p ro c e s s e s b y w h ic h th is c a n o c c u r a re e x a m ­

The La n d and People A s Seen by the Europeans

in e d b y K e n n e th M . A m es, 'T h e E v o lu tio n o f S o c ia l

(B erk eley , 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 8 1 .

R a n k in g o n t h e N o rth w e s t C o a s t o f N o r th A m e ri­

18. D e s p ite th e i r u s e fu ln e s s , d o g s w e re re g a rd e d b y

c a ', Am erican A ntiquity 4 6 ,

4

(1 9 8 1 ):

7 8 9 -8 0 5 .

s o m e n o r th e r n p e o p le s a s fu n d a m e n ta lly h o s tile

U s in g t h e e x a m p le o f t h e P a c ific N o rth w e s t C o a s t,

to h u m a n s

h e su g g ests t h a t th e c o n ju n c t i o n o f s u b s is te n c e

a n d w e re a s s o c ia te d w ith e v il a n d

w itc h c r a ft. S e e C a t h a r in e M c C le lla n , M y O ld People

s p e c ia liz a tio n ,

Say: A n Ethnographic Survey o f Southern Yukon Terri­ tory, 2 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ) , 1, 1 6 1 - 7 . O th e r s h a d a

p o p u la tio n g r o w th m a y h a v e le d t o t h e d e v e lo p ­

c ir c u m s c r ib e d

e n v ir o n m e n t,

and

m e n t o f r a n k in g as a s y s te m fo r m a x im iz in g u s e o f

m u c h d if fe r e n t view , n o t o n ly d e m o n s t r a tin g c o n ­

re s o u rc e s . W a rfa re m a y a ls o h a v e b e e n a fa c to r.

sid e ra b le re s p e c t, b u t in t h e ca s e o f s o m e g ro u p s,

A n o th e r th e o r y stresse s th e e c o n o m ic s o f p ro d u c ­

s u c h as t h e D o g rib , b e lie v in g th e y w e re d e s c e n d e d

ti o n : w h e r e th e r e is a s u b s ta n tia l tim e la p se b e ­

fr o m a d o g . K e rry A b el, D rum Songs (M o n tr e a l a n d

tw e e n t h e in p u t o f la b o u r a n d t h e r e a liz a tio n o f its

K in g s to n , 1 9 9 3 ), 1 3 1 .

re su lts, t h e n s o c ia l m e c h a n is m s b e c o m e n e c e s s a ry

19. Sau er, Sixteenth-Century North America, 2 3 9 , 2 9 3 . T h e u se o f d o g s a s p a c k e r s p re d a te s t h e ir u s e fo r tr a c t io n . In s o u t h e r n Y u k o n , fo r e x a m p le , d o g te a m s p u llin g to b o g g a n s d id n o t a p p e a r u n til th e

t o e n s u r e t h a t th o s e w h o d id t h e w o rk re a p a t le a st som e

of

th e

b e n e fits .

See

Ron

B m n to n ,

'T h e

C u ltu r a l I n s ta b ility o f E g a lita ria n S o c ie tie s ', Man 24 , 4 (1 9 8 9 ): 6 7 3 -4 .

n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . (M c C le lla n , M y O ld People Say,

2 8 . B r u n to n , 'C u ltu r a l In s ta b ility ', 6 7 3 .

I, 1 6 2 .)

2 9 . T h e C r e e w o rd fo r lea d er, o f w h ic h 'o k im a ' is o n e

20. C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , New Relation o f Gaspesia, ed.

fo r m , c o n t a in s t h e r o o t 't o g iv e a w a y '. S e e C o lin

W illia m F. G a n o n g (T o r o n to , 1 9 1 0 ) , 2 9 6 . S e e a lso

S c o tt, 'H u n tin g T e rrito rie s , H u n tin g B o ss es a n d

R e u b e n T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and A llie d

C o m m u n a l P r o d u c tio n a m o n g C o a s ta l J a m e s B a y

441

442 Notes C r é é ', Anthropologica 2 8 , 1 a n d 2 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 7 1 n 2 .

4 0 . F ied el, Prehistory o f the Americas, 1 3 7 .

O n w h a t w as e x p e c te d o f M o n ta g n a is c h ie f s , se e

4 1 . F o r a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e C a h o k ia site , see Melvin

T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations,

xxvI,

1 5 5 -6 3 .

Fow ler, The Cahokia Atlas (S p rin g fie ld , 111., 1989). A

3 0 . C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , Nouvelle relation de la Gaspésie, 2 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 9 1 ) , I, 3 7 9 - 8 1 .

B a rry L ew is, ed s, Cahokia an d the Hinterlands (Urb a n a , 111., 1 9 9 0 ) .

3 1 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 2 4 3 . 3 2 . O n e s tu d y g o e s so fa r a s t o s a y t h e c h ie f 's a u t h o r i­ ty w as 'a b s o lu t e ' w it h in c e r ta in s p h e r e s b u t in p r a c tic e w a s c o n s tr a in e d b y th e w e ll- b e in g o f th e c o m m u n ity . S e e A rth u r E. H ip p ie r a n d S te p h e n C o n n , Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and Their Relationship to Contemporary Problems o f 'Bush Jus­ tice' (F a irb a n k s, 1 9 7 2 ) . T h is w o u ld a c c o r d , a t le a s t in p a rt, w ith t h e o b s e r v a tio n o f HBC C a p ta in Z a c h a ria h G illa m

c o m p r e h e n s iv e s tu d y is T h o m a s E. E m e rs o n and R.

4 2 . R o b ert

M cG h ee,

'L a b r a d o r 's

M y s te r io u s Burial

Canadian Heritage (D e c . 1 9 8 1 ) : 11—13; M c G h e e , 'T h e B u ria l M o u n d B u ild e rs ', in Ancient Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 8 9 ) : 4 7 - 5 4 ; J a m e s A. Tuck and M o u n d ',

R o b ert J . M o u n d in

M cG h ee,

'A n

A r c h a ic

In d ia n

Burial

L a b r a d o r', Scientific American 2 2 5 , 5

(1 9 7 6 ): 1 2 2 -9 . 4 3 . W a r m a n , 'C o r n as O r g a n iz in g P r in c ip le ', 2 1 .

( 1 6 3 6 o . s - 1 6 8 2 ) t h a t A m e r in d ia n s

h a d 's o m e c h i e f p e r s o n s t h a t a re a b o v e th e re st, y e t w o r k in g w ith th e m '. C ite d b y T o b y M o r a n tz , 'O ld T e x ts , O ld Q u e s tio n s — A n o th e r L o o k a t t h e Issu e o f C o n tin u ity a n d t h e E a rly F u r T ra d e P e rio d ', p a p e r p r e s e n te d

to

th e

A m e r ic a n

S o c ie ty

Chapter 3 1 . R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical Atlas o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 8 .

fo r

2 . J u lia n H. S te w a rd a d v o c a te s m u ltilin e a r ev olution

3 3 . T h o m a s J e f f ery s, The Nahiral and Civil History o f the

3 . B o b C o n n o l l y a n d R o b in A n d e r s o n , New Guinea

E th n o h is to r y , C h ic a g o , 1 9 8 9 .

i n Theory o f Culture Change (U r b a n a , 111., 1 9 7 6 ).

French Dominions in North an d South America. I: A Description o f C anada and Louisiana ( L o n d o n , 1 7 6 0 ), 6 7 . 3 4 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, i x , 2 3 5 .

Highlanders Encounter the Outside World (London, 1 9 8 8 ). 4 . S t e p h e n H . L e k so n , T h o m a s C . W in d e s , J o h n R. S te in , a n d W . J a m e s Ju d g e , 'T h e C h a c o C an y o n

3 5 . Le C le r c q , Nouvelle relation, I, 3 8 1 - 6 .

C o m m u n ity ', Scientific American 2 5 9 ,

3 6 . C o n c e r n in g t h e P la in s A m e r in d ia n s in th is reg ard ,

1 0 0 -9 .

se e C h a p te r s 4 a n d 1 3 .

1 (1 9 8 8 ):

5 . T h o r H e y e rd a h l, Early M an and the Ocean: A Search

c ia l s y s te m r a th e r t h a n t h a t o f w a rfa re . A t a tim e

for the Beginnings o f Navigation and Seaborne Civi­ lizations (N e w Y ork, 1 9 8 0 ) , 3 - 2 6 .

w h e n n a tio n -s ta t e s w e re c o n s o lid a t in g th e ir p o s i­

6 . P e te r C a le y , 'C a n a d a ’s C h in e s e C o lu m b u s ', Beaver

3 7 . T o rtu re a s p ra c tis e d in E u ro p e w as p a r t o f t h e ju d i­

tio n s , it w as u sed as a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l o f c e r ta in e l e m e n ts w it h in th e ir o w n s o c ie tie s t h a t fo r v a r i­ o u s re a s o n s w e re c o n s id e re d u n d e s ira b le . T h e m a ­ jo r ity o f A m e r in d ia n s w h o fo llo w e d t h e p r a c tic e (m o s t p r e v a le n t i n t h e E a st) b e lo n g e d t o n o n - s ta te s o c ie tie s a n d u sed to r tu r e o f o u ts id e e n e m ie s to

O u tfit 3 1 3 , 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 5 . 7 . T h e m o s t t h o r o u g h s tu d y o f B e o th u k c a n o e design to

d a te

is

th a t b y

In g eb o rg

C o n s ta n z e

Luise

M a rs h a ll, Beothuk Bark Canoes: An Analysis and

Comparative Study (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) .

d e m o n s tr a te th e i r c o m m u n ity s o lid a rity a n d su p e ­

8 . I n g e b o r g M a rs h a ll m a k e s t h e p o i n t t h a t B e o th u k

rio r ity o v e r h o s tile a lie n fo r c e s . T h e y d id n o t to r ­

c a n o e s a re o n ly k n o w n to d a y th r o u g h m o d e ls . No

tu r e th o s e w it h in th e ir o w n

c o m m u n itie s . S e e

o n e h a s m a d e a fu ll-s iz e c o p y t o te s t i t fo r seaw or­

O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , The Myth o f the Savage and

th in e s s . M a rs h a ll, The Red Ochre People (V an cou v er,

the Beginnings o f French Colonialism in the Americas (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , x i; D ic k a s o n , 'L o u is b o u rg a n d th e In d ia n s : A S tu d y in Im p e ria l R a ce R e la tio n s , 1 7 1 3 - 1 7 6 0 ', History and Archaeology 6 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 9 1 - 2 . 3 8 . M a u r ic e G o d e lie r, ‘In fra s tru c tu re s , s o c ie tie s a n d h is to r y ', Current Anthropology 1 9 , 4 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 7 6 3 - 7 1 .

1 9 8 2 ), 12. 9 . M a rs h a ll, Beothuk Bark Canoes, v i, 1 2 8 - 9 . 1 0 . E.F. G r e e n m a n ,

'U p p e r P a le o lit h ic in

th e New

W o rld ', Current Anthropology 3 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 6 1 . See also E d w in T a p p e n A d n e y a n d H o w a rd I. C h a p e lle , The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats o f North America

G o d e lie r a rg u e s t h a t fo r c e c a m e i n t o p la y o n c e

( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 6 4 ) , 9 4 - 8 ; A lice B. K e h o e , 'Sm all

in e q u a litie s h a d b e e n e s ta b lis h e d .

B o a ts U p o n t h e N o r t h A t la n tic ', i n C a r ro l R iley et

Jo s e p h y , Jr , e d ., America in 1 4 9 2 : The World o f the

e d s, M an Across the Sea: Problems o f PreColumbian Contacts (A u stin , T e x a s, 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 7 5 - 9 2 .

Indian Peoples Before the Arrival o f Columbus (N ew

1 1 . J o h n B a rb er, 'O r ie n ta l E n ig m a ', Equinox 4 9 (1 9 9 0 ):

3 9 . M ig u e l L e o n -P o r tilla , " 'M e n o f M a iz e ', in A lv in M .

Y ork, 1 9 9 2 ), 1 5 9 .

a l.,

92.

Notes 443 12. K u a n g - c h ih

C hang,

‘ R a d io c a r b o n

d a tes

fr o m

C h in a : s o m e in it ia l i n t e r p r e t a tio n s ', Current A n ­

thropology 1 4 , 5 (1 9 7 3 ) : 5 2 5 - 8 .

T h is is t h e c a ta lo g u e fo r t h e e x h ib itio n o f t h e sa m e nam e. 2 1 . C a th a r in e M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, Part o f the

13. O n t h e w h ite -b o n e , w h ite -m e a t v a rie ty , se e G e o r g e

Water: A History o f the Yukon Indians (V a n co u v e r,

F. C a rte r, 'P r e -C o lu m b ia n C h ic k e n s in A m e r ic a ', in

1 9 8 7 ) , 5 5 - 6 . T h e B e o th u k o f N e w fo u n d la n d a lso

R iley e t a l., ed s, M an Across the Sea, 1 7 8 - 2 1 8 ; C a r­ ter,

'C h in e s e

C o n ta c ts

w ith

A m e r ic a :

Fu

A g a in ', Anthropological Journal o f Canada

Sang 14,

1

( 1 9 7 6 ) : 1 0 - 2 4 . O n t h e b la c k -b o n e d , d a r k -m e a te d 'm e l a n o t i c '

c h ic k e n ,

fo u n d

in

M e x ic o ,

M eso -

a m e ric a , a n d G u a te m a la , se e C a r l L. J o h a n n e s s e n , 'F o lk M e d ic in e U ses o f M e la n o tic A s ia tic C h ic k e n s as E v id e n c e o f E a rly D iffu s io n t o t h e N e w W o rld ',

Social Science and Medicine 1 5 D ( 1 9 8 1 ) : 4 2 7 - 3 4 ; Jo h a n n e s s e n , 'M e la n o tic C h ic k e n U se a n d C h in e s e T ra its i n G u a te m a la ', Revista de Historia de América 9 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 7 3 - 8 9 . M e la n o tic c h ic k e n s w e re n o t e a te n b u t u se d in m a g ic a l a n d c u r in g ritu a ls b y b o th M a y a n s a n d C h in e s e . 14. C aley ,

'C a n a d a 's

C h in e s e

C o lu m b u s ',

8 -9 .

A l­

th o u g h liv in g i n C h in a , H w u i S h a n w as a n A fg h a n

a p p e a r t o h a v e d o n e th is w ith ir o n . S e e C h a p te r 5. 2 2 . S te p h e n J e t t , 'T r a n s -o c e a n ic C o n ta c ts ', in Je s s e D . Je n n in g s ,

e d .,

A n cie n t N ative Am ericans (S a n

F r a n c is c o , [ 1 9 7 8 ] ), 6 2 3 . 2 3 . S e e G o r d o n F. E k h o lm , 'A P o s s ib le F o cu s o f A sia tic In f lu e n c e in t h e L a te C la s s ic C u ltu r e s o f M e s o a m e r ic a ', i n J e s s e D . J e n n in g s , e d ., Memoirs o f the Society for Am erican Archaeology, 9 , s u p p le m e n t to Am erican Antiquity 1 8 , 3 , p a r t 2 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : 7 2 - 9 7 . 2 4 . T h e ca s e fo r t h e In d ia n o rig in o f N e w W o rld c o t ­ to n , b o t h as a c r o p a n d its m a n u fa c tu r e in t o t e x ­ tile s , is p r e s e n te d b y J .B . H u tc h in s o n , R.A . Silow , a n d S .G . S te p h e n s , The Evolution ofG ossypium and Differentiation o f the Cultivated Cottons (L o n d o n , 1 9 4 7 ), 7 9 -8 0 , 1 3 6 -9 .

a n d a p p a r e n tly s p o k e C h in e s e im p e rfe c tly , w h ic h

2 5 . J e t t , 'T r a n s -o c e a n ic C o n ta c ts ', 6 3 6 ; B a rb er, ‘O r ie n ­

did n o t h e lp h is c r e d ib ility u p o n h is re tu r n . S till,

ta l E n ig m a ', 8 6 . S e e a ls o M .D .W . Je ffre y s , 'P re -

d e n se d fo r m . F r o m th is s k im p y e v id e n c e , i t h a s

C o lu m b ia n M a iz e in A sia ', in R ile y e t a l., ed s, Man A a o ss the Sea, 3 7 6 - 4 0 0 ; H u g h C . C u tle r a n d L e o ­

been

n a r d W . B la k e , 'T ra v e ls o f C o m a n d S q u a s h ', ib id .,

h is s to r y w as o ff ic ia lly re co r d e d , a lth o u g h in c o n ­ in fe rr e d

th a t h e

a rriv e d

at th e

A le u tia n

Isla n d s b e fo r e h e a d in g s o u th t o F u -S a n g , h e ld b y 15. J o h n

3 6 7 -7 5 . 2 6 . It is n o t k n o w n h o w lo n g a m a r a n th h a s b e e n c u l­

so m e t o b e M e x ic o . R. S w a n to n , 'T h e F irst D e s c r ip tio n

o f an

tiv a te d in s u c h C h in e s e p r o v in c e s a s Y u n a n a n d

In d ia n T rib e in t h e T e rr ito ry o f t h e P r e s e n t U n ite d

K w a ich o w . I n w e s te r n C h in a , a m a r a n th se e d s a re

S ta te s ', in N a th a n ie l M . C a ffe e a n d T h o m a s A.

p o p p e d , d ip p e d i n

Kirby, ed s,

Studies for W illiam A . Read (B a to n

R o u g e, La, 1 9 4 0 ) , 3 2 6 - 3 8 . 16. Ja p a n e s e p o t te r y d a te s fr o m

b e fo r e

1 2 ,0 0 0

BP:

sy ru p , a n d e a t e n a s ca n d y .

J o s e p h N e e d h a m a n d L u G w e i-D je n , Trans-Pacific

Echoes and Resonances: Listening Once A gain (S in g a ­ p o r e a n d P h ila d e lp h ia , 1 9 8 5 ) , 6 2 - 3 .

F u m ik o Iw a k a -S m ith , 'L a te P le is to c e n e a n d E arly

2 7 . A d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s e c o r r e la tio n s is in

H o lo c e n e T e c h n o lo g ie s ', W indows on the Japanese: Studies in Archaeology and Prehistory (A n n A rbor,

g ers, 'T h e T ra n s -P a c ific O r ig in o f M e s o -A m e ric a n

1 9 8 6 ), 1 9 9 - 2 1 6 . C h ild e c a lle d p o t te r y 't h e e a r lie s t

C iv iliz a tio n : A P re lim in a r y R e v ie w o f t h e E v id e n c e

c o n s c io u s

u tiliz a tio n

by

m an

of

a

c h e m ic a l

c h a n g e ’. V .G . C h ild e , Man Makes H im se lf (N ew

B a rb er, 'O r ie n t a l E n ig m a ', 8 2 - 9 5 . See a ls o B .J. M e g ­

a n d its T h e o r e t ic a l Im p lic a tio n s ', Am erican Anthro­

pologist 7 7 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 1 - 2 7 .

York, 1 9 5 1 ) , 7 6 . E a rlie s t p o t te r y is a s s o c ia te d w ith

2 8 . H e y e rd a h l, Ea rly M an and the Ocean, 3 7 6 - 7 .

c o o k in g .

2 9 . A re a s o n e d a s s e s s m e n t o f F e ll's s tr e n g th s a n d fa il­

17. K e h o e ,

'S m a ll

B o a t s ',

2 8 8 -9 ;

S tu a rt J .

F ie d e l,

Prehistory o f the Am ericas (C a m b rid g e , 1 9 8 7 ), 1 0 9 .

in g s is D a v id H . K e lle y 's 'P ro to - T ifin a g h a n d P ro to O g h a m i n th e A m e r ic a s ', Review o f Archaeology 11,

G r ie d e r , A rt and Archaeology in Pashash

1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 1 - 1 0 . K e lle y c o n c lu d e s : 'W e n e e d t o a sk

(A u stin , T e x a s, 1 9 7 9 ) , m a in t a in s th e r e is e v id e n c e

n o t o n ly w h a t F e ll h a s d o n e w r o n g in h is e p ig ra ­

o f th e p o tte r 's w h e e l h a v in g b e e n u se d t o p ro d u c e

p h y , b u t a ls o w h e r e w e h a v e g o n e w r o n g as a r c h a e ­

18. T erry

R ecu ay c e r a m ic s , AD 2 9 0 - 3 6 0 .

o lo g is ts .'

19. B low g u n s w e re d e v e lo p e d in a re a s w h e r e b a m b o o

3 0 . D a v id H . K elley , 'D if fu s io n : E v id e n c e a n d P ro c e ss',

was fo u n d . T h e y w e re t h e p re cu rs o r s o f t h e g u n

i n R ile y e t a l., ed s, Man A a o ss the Sea, 6 0 - 5 ; M a rc

b arrel. O n

a p o s s ib le Ja p a n e s e c o n n e c t i o n , see

N a n cy Y aw D a v is, The Z u n i Enigm a (N ew Y ork,

2000). 20. Sweat o f the Sun: G old o f Peru (E d in b u rg h , 1 9 9 0 ).

K.

S t e n g e l,

'T h e

D if f u s io n is ts

H ave

L a n d e d ',

A tlantic M onthly (Ja n . 2 0 0 0 ) : 3 5 - 4 8 . 3 1 . N ig e l D a v ie s,

Voyagers to the New World (A lb u ­

q u erq u e, N M , 1 9 7 9 ).

444 Notes Indians, 6: Subarctic ( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 1 ) , 1.

3 2 . Ib id ., 2 5 3 . 3 3 . J o h n H o w la n d R ow e, ‘D if fu s io n is m a n d A rc h a e ­

4 . R u sse ll T h o r n t o n , Am erican India n Holocaust and

o lo g y ', Am erican A ntiquity 3 1 , 3 , p a rt 1 ( 1 9 6 6 ) :

Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (Norman,

3 3 4 -7 .

O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ) , 3 2 .

3 4 . Ja r e d D ia m o n d , Guns, Germs, and Steel (N e w Y ork,

5 . R o b e r t T.

Boyd,

'D e m o g r a p h ic

H isto ry ,

1774—

1 9 9 9 ), 2 1 7 - 3 8 . D ia m o n d o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e ta s k o f

1 8 7 4 ', in W a y n e S u ttle s , e d ., Handbook o f North

d e v e lo p in g w r itin g w as so d if fic u lt t h a t it o c c u rre d

Am erican Indians, 7: Northwest Coast (W ash in gton ,

c o m p a r a tiv e ly la te i n

h u m a n c u ltu r a l d e v e lo p ­

1 9 9 0 ) , 1 3 5 . R ich a rd In g lis , c u r a to r o f ethnology,

m e n t. I t m a y a ls o h a v e b e e n in v e n te d in d e p e n d ­

R o y a l B r itis h C o lu m b ia M u s e u m , e s tim a te s the

e n tly i n E g y p t b y 3 0 0 0 BC a n d i n C h in a b y 1 3 0 0

p r e - c o n t a c t p o p u la tio n fo r t h e w e s t c o a s t from

BC, b u t th is is le ss c e r ta in . O n c e in v e n te d , it sp rea d

C a lifo r n ia t o A lask a a t 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 . (Vancouver Sun, 21

ra p id ly ,

N o v . 1 9 8 7 .)

d iv e r s ify in g

as

i t w e n t.

A c c o r d in g

to

D ia m o n d , o n e o f t h e re a s o n s th a t h u n t i n g a n d g a th e r in g s o c ie tie s n e ith e r d e v e lo p e d n o r a d o p te d w r itin g w as t h e ir la c k o f in s titu tio n a l n e e d s fo r its u se . W h e n S p a n ia rd s a rriv e d in t h e s ix te e n th c e n ­ tu ry , th e y fo u n d 1 8 d if fe r e n t w r itin g s y s te m s in

6 . H a rris, e d ., H istorical A tla s o f Canada, p la te 9. 7 . C ite d b y R u th G r u h n , 'L in g u is tic E v id e n c e in Sup­ p o r t o f t h e C o a s ta l R o u te o f E a r lie s t E n tr y in to the N e w W o r ld ’, Man, n e w se rie s 2 3 , 2 (1 9 8 8 ) : 7 7 -9 .

M e s o a m e r ic a . S e e A lice B . K e h o e , North American

A m e r in d ia n

In d ia n s, A

u s e d a w id e r v a r ie ty o f s o u n d s a n d w a y s o f m aking

Com prehensive A cco unt (E n g le w o o d

a n In d ia n t o le a rn a E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e th a n for a

h a s b e e n id e n tifie d a s O r ie n ta l i n o r ig in a n d d a te d 3 0 0 . U n fo r tu n a te ly , i t w as o u t o f c o n ­

te x t b y t h e tim e it c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f m u s e ­ um

a u t h o r itie s .

See

C a le y ,

'C a n a d a 's

C h in e s e

C o lu m b u s ', 1 0 . 3 7 . A n n a B ir g itta R o o th , 'T h e C r e a tio n M y th s o f th e N o r th A m e r ic a n I n d ia n s ', Anthropos 5 2

(1 9 5 7 ):

508. 3 8 . M ic h a e l H . B ro w n , The Search for Eve (N ew Y ork, 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 5 . P o ly n e s ia n s , in t h e ir tu rn , a re g e n e ti­ c a lly s im ila r t o C h in e s e a n d I n d o n e s ia n s . 3 9 . N e e d h a m a n d Lu, Trans-Pacific Echoes, 6 4 .

E u ro p e a n to le a rn a n In d ia n o n e . 8 . S e e H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, p la te 66, o n lin g u is tic e v id e n c e i n d ic a t in g e x tr e m e ly an­ c i e n t h a b it a tio n o f t h e N o r th w e s t C o a s t. T h e dis­ c o v e r y o f a lo n g h o u s e d a te d t o 9 , 0 0 0 years ago n e a r M is s io n , B C , a p p e a rs to b e a n a rch a eo lo g ica l b r e a k th r o u g h . S e e Alberta Report 1 8 , 3 4 (1 991): 5 0 -1 . 9 . T h is is s till a liv in g tr a d itio n to d a y . Se e, for in­ s ta n c e , t h e r e p o r t o f t h e U n io n o f B r itis h Col­ u m b ia In d ia n C h ie fs o f th e i r c o n f e r e n c e h e ld in V a n co u v e r , 2 3 - 6 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 , 'P r o te c tin g Know­ led g e: T r a d itio n a l

th e New

H o p i N a tio n a s k e d a m a n t o s to p te llin g n on -

1 . C a n a d a 's e c o lo g y , s u b s is te n c e b a s e s , a n d p o p u la ­ ti o n d is tr ib u tio n fo r 1 5 0 0 a re m a p p e d in R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, I (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 7 ), p la te s 1 7 , 17A , 1 8 . S e a s o n a l A lg o n k ia n a n d I r o q u o ia n c y c le s a re s c h e m a tiz e d in p la te 3 4 . 2 . R o b in R id in g to n , 'T e c h n o lo g y , w o r ld v iew , a n d a d a p tiv e s tra te g y in a n o r th e r n h u n t i n g s o c ie ty ',

In d ia n s

about

p e a r e d a m o n g s o m e o f t h e Ir o q u o is . S e e W illiam C.

N o b le ,

'T s o u h a r is s e n 's

s h ie ld

w ith

a s s o c ia te d

C h ie f d o m :

An

Early

H is to r ic 1 7 t h C e n tu r y N e u tra l I r o q u o ia n Ranked

C an adian Journal o f Archaeology 9 , 2

(1 9 8 2 ): 4 6 9 -8 1 .

th e

because

H o p is.

(1 9 8 5 ): 1 3 1 ^ 4 6 .

in t o

H o p i p r o p h e c ie s

1 0 . T h e r e is s o m e e v id e n c e t h a t c h ie f d o m s h a d ap­

S o c ie ty ',

3 . E th n o lo g is t J u n e H e lm , U n iv e r s ity o f Io w a , d iv id e s

s a c re d

t h e y a re s e c r e t a n d s h o u ld b e c o n t r o lle d o n ly by

Canadian Review o f Sociology and Anthropology 1 9 , 4

S u b a r c tic

R e s o u rc e R ig h ts i n

M i l le n n i u m '. R e c e n tly in t h e U n ite d S ta te s, the

Chapter 4

th e

com p lex,

d u rin g th e e a r ly d a y s o f c o n t a c t , it w as sim p ler for

3 6 . A n e a r th e n w a r e sh a rd , fo u n d o n S a tu rn a Isla n d , ad

b e s id e s b e in g

s o u n d s t h a n d id E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s . As a result,

C liffs , N J, 1 9 8 1 ), 4 1 . 3 5 . H e y e rd a h l, Early Man and the Ocean, 8 4 - 9 1 .

to a b o u t

la n g u a g e s ,

1 1 . A n o f f s h o o t o f th e s e x u a l d iv is io n o f la b o u r and r e s p o n s ib ility w as t h a t i t p r e v e n te d c e lib a cy . See

t h e c o rd ille r a , t h e A la sk a p la te a u , a n d th e re g io n

R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and A llied Documents, 7 3 v o ls . (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

s o u th o f t h e A lask a ra n g e . T h e firs t d iv is io n , th a t

XVI, 1 6 3 . A n o th e r c o n s e q u e n c e w as th e c le a r defi­

o f t h e S u b a r c tic s h ie ld a n d b o rd e rla n d s , c o v e r s a p ­

n it i o n o f ro le s , a m a jo r fa c to r in t h e h a r m o n y th a t

H u d s o n B a y lo w la n d s a n d M a c k e n z ie b o rd e rla n d s ,

p r o x im a te ly th r e e -q u a r te r s o f t h e la n d m a s s o f th e A rc tic . J u n e H e lm , e d ., Handbook o f North Am erican

p re v a ile d in t h e e n c a m p m e n t s . (Ib id ., VI, 2 3 3 - 4 .) 1 2 . Ib id ., VI, 2 4 3 ; V, 1 9 5 .

Notes 445 13. M ig u e l L e ô n -P o r tilla , Aztec Thought and Culture

'k ille r p e o p le '. A n e a r lie r e x p la n a tio n fo r t h e te rm is t h a t it is o f A lg o n k ia n

(N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 6 3 ) , 7 1 - 9 . 14. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations,

IX,

5 9 -6 1 ;

XII,

9 -1 1 ,

o r ig in

and

sig n ifie s

's n a k e '. T h e O jib w a re fe r re d t o b o t h H u ro n s a n d F iv e N a tio n s as 'N a h d o w a y s ', s n a k e s . P e te r J o n e s ,

225.

History o f the Ojebway Indians (L o n d o n , 1 8 6 1 ) , 1 1 1 .

15. A m es, 'E v o lu tio n o f S o c ia l R a n k in g ', 7 9 7 . 16. 'M o ie ty ': h a lf. T h is d iv is io n o f a c o m m u n i t y in t o tw o h a lv e s w a s fo r c e r e m o n ia l p u rp o se s. a re fo u n d

in

S tu a rt P id d o c k e ,

'T h e

P o tla tc h S y s te m o f t h e S o u th e r n K w a k iu tl: A N ew P e rs p e ctiv e ', Southwestern Journal o f Anthropology 2 1 (1 9 6 5 ) : 2 4 4 - 6 4 ; H e le n C o d e rr e , Fighting W ith

Property: A Study o f K w a k iu tl Potlatching and Warfare, 1 7 9 2 -1 9 3 0 (N e w Y ork, 1 9 5 0 ) ; F re d e rica d e L ag u n a, 'P o tla tc h C e r e m o n ia lis m o n t h e N o r t h ­ w est C o a s t', in W illia m

P e n in s u la ,

and

t h e ir

la n d

W endake.

'W e n d a t'

c o u ld a ls o re fe r t o t h e c o n fe d e ra c y . T h e n a m e

17. D e s c rip tio n s o f v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f p o t la t c h c e r e ­ m o n ia lis m

2 6 . T h e y c a lle d th e m s e lv e s W e n d a t, P e o p le o f th e

W . F itz h u g h a n d A ro n

C ro w ell, ed s, Crossroads o f Continents: Cultures o f

Siberia and A laska (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 7 1 - 8 0 . 18. E rn e st S. B u rc h , Jr , 'W a r a n d T ra d e ', in F itz h u g h a n d C r o w e ll, ed s, Crossroads o f Continents, 2 3 1 - 2 . 19. G a ry C o u p la n d , 'W a rfa re a n d S o c ia l C o m p le x ity o n t h e N o r th w e s t C o a s t', i n D ia n a C la ire T k a c z u k

'H u r o n ' w as g iv e n th e m b y t h e F r e n c h b e c a u s e o f th e

c o iffu r e s o f t h e w a rrio rs, w h ic h

re m in d e d

t h e m o f t h e b ris tle s o n t h e s p in e o f a b o a r. D ia ­ m o n d Je n n e s s , Indians o f Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 3 2 ) , 8 2 . O d a w a m e n a ff e c te d a sim ila r h a ir s ty le . A p­ p a r e n tly t h e te r m 'h u r o n ' a ls o re fe rre d t o m a n n e r o f d ress, im p ly in g ru stic ity . 2 7 . G a b rie l S a g a rd , The Lo ng Journey to the Country o f

the Hurons, tr. H .H . L a n g to n (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 9 ) , 1 0 4 . 2 8 . G a b r ie l S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, et voyages que les

frères mineurs Recollects y ont faicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 3 6 ) , III, 7 2 8 . 2 9 . T h e 3 0 , 0 0 0 e s tim a te fo r th e H u ro n s w as m a d e b y C h a m p la in , w h o s p e n t a w in te r i n H u ro n ia . G e o ­

an d B r ia n C . V iv ia n , ed s, Cultures in C o nflict (C a l­

g r a p h e r C o n ra d H e id e n r e ic h b e lie v e s i t is p ro b a b ly

gary, 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 0 5 - 1 4 . T h e Q u in a u lt h a v e a m o r e

about

o n e - t h ir d

to o

la rg e ;

he

u ses th e

fig u re

p e a c e fu l e x p la n a tio n : th e y se e so c ia l d is t in c tio n s

2 0 , 0 0 0 . H e id e n r e ic h , Huronia: A History and Geo­

a risin g fr o m t h e fa c t t h a t w e a lth te n d e d t o c o n ­

graphy o f the Huron Indians 1 6 0 0 -1 6 5 0 (T o ro n to ,

c e n tr a te w ith c e r ta in fa m ilie s o r g ro u p s o f fa m ilie s ,

1 9 7 1 ), 9 6 - 1 0 3 .

w h o w e re th u s fa v o u re d f o r p r o v id in g c h ie fs ; c o n ­

3 0 . T h e A r e n d a r h o n o n s , 't h e P e o p le o f t h e R o c k ', h a d

tin u in g th r o u g h m a n y g e n e r a tio n s , a c la ss w as

t h e s e c o n d la rg e st p o p u la tio n a m o n g t h e H u ro n

b o m . S e e P a u lin e K. C a p o e m a n , e d ., La n d o f the

c o n f e d e r a te s . T h e y m a y h a v e jo in e d a b o u t 1 5 9 0 ,

Quinault (T a h o la h , W a s h ., 1 9 9 0 ), 7 3 - 4 .

lo n g a fte r t h e tw o f o u n d in g tr ib e s c o n fe d e ra te d , A q u a t ic

p e r h a p s e a r ly in t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y . T h e ir la te

T errito ry o f t h e G r e a t Lak es F irst N a tio n s ', in G in

d a te o f jo i n i n g ra ise s th e q u e s tio n w h e th e r th e

D as W inan: Docum enting A boriginal H isto ry in Ontario (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 6 ), 1 4 . G ille s H av ard , in L a grande p a ix de Montréal de 1701 (Q u é b e c , 1 9 9 2 ),

3 1 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, X, 2 7 9 - 3 1 7 ; B ru c e G .

20. V ic to r

P.

L y tw y n ,

'W a te r w o r ld :

The

T rigger, Children ofAataentsic, 2 v o ls (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 7 6 ) , I, 8 5 - 9 0 ; J e n n e s s , Indians o f C a n ­

1 3 2 - 5 , lis ts 2 7 G r e a t L a k es n a tio n s . 21. Iro q u o ia n

A r e n d a r h o n o n s c a m e fr o m S ta d a c o n a .

la n g u a g e s a re r e la te d t o S io u a n

and

ada, 2 9 3 .

C a d d o a n . T h e C a d d o , o f t h e U S S o u th w e s t, w ere

3 2 . T rig g er, Children ofAataentsic, I, 1 9 7 .

o rg a n iz e d in t o h ie r a r c h ic a l c h ie fd o m s a t t h e tim e

3 3 . A c c o r d in g t o t h e H u ro n h is to r ia n M a rg a re t V in ­

o f E u ro p e a n c o n t a c t ; t h e S io u x h a d b e e n c o n n e c t ­

c e n t T e h a r io lin a , t h e H u ro n w e re a n o f f s h o o t o f

ed e a rlie r w ith t h e M is s is s ip p ia n M o u n d B u ild e rs . 22. H arris, e d ., H istorical A tlas o f Canada, p la te 1 2 . 23. S u c c o ta s h , a n A m e r in d ia n d is h t h a t w as a d o p te d b y e a r ly s e ttle r s , w a s m a d e w ith c o r n a n d b e a n s b o ile d w ith fis h o r m e a t. 24. A d e s c r ip tio n o f H u ro n ia as fir s t s e e n b y E u ro p e a n s is in T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XVI, 2 2 5 - 3 7 .

th e S e n e c a a n d th u s e s s e n tia lly t h e s a m e p e o p le . T e h a r io lin a , L a nation huronne, son histoire, sa cul­

ture, son esprit (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 4 ) , 9 6 - 7 . 3 4 . 'O k a a n d its In h a b ita n ts ', in The Life o f Rev. Am and

Parent, the first French-Canadian ordained by the Methodist Church (T o r o n to , 1 8 8 7 ) , 1 6 7 . 3 5 . H ia w a th a h a s b e e n id e n tif ie d as a n O n o n d a g a b y

w o rd

b ir t h a n d a M o h a w k b y a d o p tio n , a n d a ls o as a

'Iro q u o is ', s e e P e te r B ak k er, 'A B a s q u e E ty m o lo g y

H u ro n . S o m e o f t h e v e rs io n s o f t h e o rig in s o f t h e

for th e W o rd Ir o q u o is ', M an in the Northeast 4 0

le a g u e a re to ld b y C h r is to p h e r V ecsey , 'T h e S to ry

( 1 9 9 0 ): 8 9 - 9 3 . H e p o s tu la te s t h a t t h e w o rd d e riv e s

o f t h e I r o q u o i s C o n f e d e r a c y ', Journal o f the Am erican Academ y o f Religion 5 4 , 1 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 7 9 - 1 0 6 .

25. O n

th e

p o s s ib le

B asqu e

o rig in

of

th e

fro m tw o B a s q u e e le m e n ts t h a t to g e th e r m e a n

446 Notes In d ia n h is to r ia n B e rn a rd A ssin iw i g iv es h is v e rs io n

4 5 . A la n D . M c M illa n , Native Peoples and Cultures in

in Histoire des Indiens du haut et du bas Canada:

Canada: A n Anthropological Overview (Vancouver,

moeurs et coutumes des Algonkins et des Iroquois, 3 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 9 7 3 ) , I, 1 1 1 - 2 4 . 3 6 . A lic e

B eck

K ehoe,

1 9 8 8 ), 2 4 6 . 4 6 . S a m u e l H e a m e , A Journey from Prince o f Wales's Fort

The Ghost Dance (T o r o n to ,

1 9 8 9 ), 1 1 5 . H ia w a th a 's n a m e , 'O n e W h o C o m b s ', w as e a r n e d b e c a u s e h e c o m b e d t h e s n a k e s o u t o f T h a d o d a h o 's h a ir. T h e r e a re se v e ra l v e rs io n s o f t h e

in Hudson's B a y to the Northern Ocean in the years 1769 1770 ■ 1771 ■ 1772, e d . J .B . T y rre ll (Toronto, 1 9 1 1 ), 1 6 3 . 4 7 . J . G a r th T a y lo r, 'T h e C a s e o f t h e In v is ib le Inuit:

sto ry , o n e o f w h ic h is r e c o u n te d b y P a u l A .W . W a l­

R e c o n s id e r in g

la c e , The W hite Roots o f Peace (P o rt W a s h in g to n ,

T r a d itio n i n t h e G u lf o f S t. L a w re n c e ’, in Allen P.

NY, 1 9 6 8 ), 1 1 - 1 7 . 3 7 . D a n ie l K. R ic h te r, 'W ar, P e a ce , a n d P o litic s in

M c C a rn e y , e d ., Thule Eskim o Culture: A n Anthro­ pological Perspective (O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ) . F o r th e earlier

S e v e n te e n t h C e n tu r y H u r o n ia ', i n T k a c z u k a n d

v ie w t h a t t h e I n u it h a d r e a c h e d t h e G u lf o f St

V iv ia n , ed s, Culture and Conflict, 2 8 5 - 6 .

L a w re n c e , se e D ia m o n d J e n n e s s , Eskim o Admin­

3 8 . A r e p o r t in t h e Jesuit Relations sa y s t h a t t h e O n ­ o n d a g a a lte r n a te d m e n a n d w o m e n a s h e a d s a c h ­ e m s (XXI, 2 0 1 ) .

A r c h a e o lo g y ,

H is to r y

and

Oral

istration: II: Canada (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 2 ; re p rin t), 7. T h is v o lu m e is p a r t o f a f iv e -v o lu m e series o n Inuit a d m in is tr a t io n fr o m A la sk a t o G r e e n la n d , pub­ lis h e d b y t h e A rc tic I n s titu te in 1 9 6 2 - 8 .

3 9 . N a th a n ie l K n o w le s, 'T h e T o rtu re o f C a p tiv e s b y t h e In d ia n s o f E a s te rn N o r th A m e r ic a ', Proceedings

o f the Am erican Philosophical Society 8 2 , 2 (M ar. 1 9 4 0 ) , r e p rin te d in Scalping and Torture: Warfare Practices Am ong North Am erican Indians (O h s w e k e n , O n t., 1 9 8 5 ).

4 8 . T h e e x p r e s s io n

is b o rr o w e d

fr o m

t h e N avajo's

B le s s in g w a y c e r e m o n y . 4 9 . A n th r o p o lo g is ts o n c e a rg u e d t h a t t h e G re a t Plains c o u ld

n o t have been

in h a b ite d

to

a n y exten t

b e fo r e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e h o r s e a n d t h e g u n . Clark W is s le r w r o te i n 1 9 0 6 , 't h e p e o p lin g o f t h e plains

4 0 . 'A n is h in a b e ' (p lu ra l, A n is h in a b e g ) m e a n s 't h e p e o ­ p le '. 'O jib w a ' tr a n s la te s a s 't h e ta lk o f t h e r o b in '. T h e s u b s is te n c e b a s is o f t h e O d a w a w as d e a lt w ith

p ro p e r w a s a r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n d u e in p art to t h e i n t r o d u c tio n o f t h e h o r s e a n d t h e d isp lace­ m ent

o f tr ib e s

by

w h ite

s e t t l e m e n t .'

W issler,

b y W illia m N e w b ig g in g , 'T h e O tta w a S e ttle m e n t

‘D if fu s io n o f C u ltu r e in th e P la in s o f N o r th Am ­

o f D e tr o it', p a p e r p r e s e n te d t o t h e C a n a d ia n H is­

e r ic a ', International Congress o f Americanists, 15th

to r ic a l A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 9 2 . In t h e s e v e n te e n t h c e n ­

s e s s io n (Q u e b e c , 1 9 0 6 ) , 3 9 - 5 2 . A lth o u g h W issler

tu ry , t h e c lo s e ly re la te d O jib w a , O d a w a , a n d A l­

la te r m o d ifie d h is p o s itio n , A .L. K ro e b e r in 1939

g o n q u in

th e

w as s till a rg u in g t h a t t h e P la in s h a d d e v e lo p e d cul­

C o u n c il o f T h r e e F ire s. T o d a y th e y a re m o r e o r less

w e re

lo o s e ly

c o n fe d e ra te d

in to

tu r a lly 'o n l y s in c e t h e ta k in g o v e r o f th e horse

m e rg e d a s O jib w a (A n is h in a b e ) , a p ro c e s s th a t

fr o m E u ro p e a n s '. K ro eb er, C ultu ra l and Natural Areas o f Native North Am erica (B e rk e le y , 1 9 3 9 ) , 76.

to o k o f f d u rin g t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . N ip issin g s, S a u lte a u x , a n d M ississa u g a a re a m o n g o th e r s w h o a re in c lu d e d .

F o s te r a n d L u c y J a n e B o ts c h a r o w , e d s, The Life of

4 1 . A d e ta ile d s tu d y o f t h e e x p lo it a tio n o f w ild ric e a n d its c u ltu ra l r a m ific a tio n s is t h a t o f T h o m a s V e n n u m , W ild Rice and the O jibw ay People (S t P au l, M in n ., 1 9 8 8 ) . S e e a ls o K a th i A v ery a n d T h o m a s P a w lic k ,

'L a s t

5 0 . T h o m a s F. K e h o e , 'C o r r a llin g L ife ’, in M a ry LeCron

S ta n d

in

W ild

R ic e

C o u n t r y ',

Harrowsm ith 3 , 7 (M a y 1 9 7 9 ) : 3 2 - 4 7 , 1 0 7 . 4 2 . Sag ard , Histoire du Canada, IV, 8 4 6 .

Sym bols (B o u ld e r, C o lo ., 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 7 5 - 9 3 . 5 1 . H e a d -S m a s h e d -In h a s b e e n n a m e d a W o rld H eri­ ta g e S ite b y UNESCO. 5 2 . E le a n o r V e rb ic k y -T o d d , Com m unal Buffalo Hunting

Am ong the Plain s Am erindians: A n Ethnographic and H istoric Review (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 5 - 3 2 . At a later d a te a n o f f e n d e r ris k e d b e in g flo g g e d o r ev en (a m o n g t h e K io w a ) h a v in g h is h o r s e s h o t.

4 3 . C a th a r in e M c C le lla n , v e rb a l c o m m u n ic a tio n . 4 4 . A n e a rly d e s c r ip tio n o f th e m is t h a t o f J e s u it P ie rre B ia rd ( 1 5 6 7 7 - 1 6 2 2 ) in T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Rela­

tions, II, 7 3 - 8 1 . A t Q u e b e c , Je s u it P a u l L e je u n e w as

5 3 . R ic h a rd G . F o rb is , A Review o f Alberta Archaeology to

1964 (O tta w a , 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 7 . 5 4 . H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, p la te 1 5 . See

of

a ls o B r ia n O .K . R e e v e s, Culture Change in the North­

A m e r in d ia n s , as w e ll a s b y th e ir g e n e ra l a p p e a r­ p o w e rfu l', w e a rin g , a m o n g o th e r sk in s, th o s e o f

ern Plains: 1000 B .C .-A .D . 1000 ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 3 ); H .M . W o r m in g to n a n d R ich a rd G . F o rb is , A n Intro­ duction to the Archaeology o f Alberta, Canada (D e n ­

elk , b e a r, a n d b e a v e r. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations,

ver, 1 9 6 5 ) , p a r tic u la r ly th e s u m m a r y a n d c o n c lu ­

V. 2 3 : VI. 2 5 .

s io n , 1 8 3 - 2 0 1 .

v iv id ly

im p re s s e d

w ith

th e

f a c ia l

p a in tin g

a n c e w h e n h e sa w a g ro u p o f 6 0 0 w a rrio rs, 'ta ll,

Notes 447 55. J a c k B r in k a n d B o b D a w e, F in a l Report o f the 1985

and 1986 Field Season at Head-Sm ashed-In Buffalo Jum p (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 9 ), 2 9 8 - 3 0 3 . 5 6 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x , 2 2 5 .

Studies 5, 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 1 - 4 . 6 5 . E llio tt C o u e s , e d ., New Lig h t on the Early History o f

the Great Northwest 1 799-1814, 3 v o ls (N ew York, 1 8 9 7 ) , I, 3 8 3 .

5 7 . O n t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f r e c ip r o c ity , s e e C h r e s tie n Le

6 6 . The Canadian

Encyclopedia, 4 v o ls (E d m o n to n ,

C le r c q , Nouvelle Relation de la Gaspésie, 2 v o ls

1 9 8 8 ) , I, s.v. 'C h i n o o k J a r g o n '; G e o g r a p h ic B o a rd ,

(P aris, 1 6 9 1 ) , I, 3 2 4 . E u ro p e a n s , n o t a p p r e c ia tin g

C a n a d a , Handbook o f Indians in Canada (O tta w a ,

th e p r in c ip le o f 'I g iv e t o y o u t h a t y o u m ig h t giv e to m e ', q u ic k ly d e n ig r a te d it as ‘I n d ia n g iv in g ',

1 9 1 3 ) , 9 4 ; H a ro ld E. D riv er, Indians o f North Am er­ ica (C h ic a g o , 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 1 3 . A n e a r ly s tu d y o f C h i­

p a rtic u la rly w h e n

n o o k is t h a t o f a n th r o p o lo g is t F ra n z B o a s , 'C h i ­

A m e r in d ia n s , p e r c e iv in g th a t

th e E u ro p e a n s d id n o t r e c ip r o c a te , ask e d fo r th e ir

n o o k S o n g s ', Journal o f Am erican Folk-Lore 1 ( 1 8 8 8 ) :

g ifts b a c k .

2 2 0 - 6 ; s e e a ls o R o b e rt L. R eid , 'T h e C h in o o k J a r ­

58. C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , First Establishm ent o f the Faith

g o n a n d B r itis h C o lu m b ia ', British Colum bia H is ­

in New France, 2 v o ls , tr. J o h n G ilm a r y S h e a (N ew

torical Quarterly 6 , 1 ( 1 9 4 2 ) : 1 - 1 1 . G e o r g e W o o d ­

Y ork, 1 8 8 1 ) , I, 1 2 4 .

c o c k d e s crib e s t h e C h in o o k lin g u a fr a n c a as a s im ­

59. K n u t R. F la d m a rk , British Colum bia Prehistory (O tta ­ w a, 1 9 8 6 ), 5 0 . I n o th e r w o rd s, tr a d e in t h e re g io n is a t le a s t 1 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs o ld . 60. R e c e n t re s e a r c h b y h is to r ia n L a u rier T u rg e o n h a s re v e a le d t h a t c o p p e r, p a r tic u la r ly in t h e fo r m o f k e ttle s ,

w as

im p o r t a n t

in

e a r ly

In d ia n -B a s q u e

tra d e . S e e T u rg e o n , 'B a s q u e -A m e r in d ia n T rad e in th e S a in t-L a w r e n c e d u rin g t h e S ix t e e n th C e n tu r y : N ew D o c u m e n ts , N e w P e rs p e c tiv e s ', M an in the

p lif ic a tio n o f C h in o o k p ro p er, a W a k a s h a n la n ­ g u a g e, b u t w ith o th e r e le m e n ts a d d e d . W o o d c o c k ,

A Social History o f Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 0 - 2 . 6 7 . A .I. H a llo w e ll, 'S o m e P s y c h o lo g ic a l C h a r a c te r is tic s o f t h e N o r th e a s te r n I n d ia n s ', in F r e d e rick J o h n s o n , e d ., Man in Northeastern North Am erica (A n d o v er, M a s s .,

1 9 4 0 ),

25.

A m e r in d ia n s

m u ch

a d m ire d

e m o tio n a l c o n t r o l, g iv in g ris e t o t h e E u ro p e a n s te r e o ty p e o f t h e 'h a u g h ty I n d ia n ’. 6 8 . P e te r C a le y , 'C a n a d a 's C h in e s e C o lu m b u s ', The

Northeast 4 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 8 1 - 7 .

B eav er O u tfit 3 1 3 , 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 4 .

61. R ich te r, 'W ar, P e a c e , a n d P o litic s ', 2 8 6 . 62. H arris, e d ., H istorical A tlas o f Canada, p la te 14 . 63. P ierre d e L a n c re , Tableau de l'inconstance des mau­

vais anges et démons, ou il est amplement traicté des sorciers et de la sorcellerie . . . (P aris, 1 6 1 2 ) , 3 0 ; L o p e d e Isa sti, Com pendio H istorial de la M .N .Y.M .L. Provincia de la Guipûzcoa (S a n S e b a s tia n , 1 8 5 0 ),

6 9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 2 3 3 . L ater, Le J e u n e re fe rre d t o t h e M o n ta g n a is as 're a l b u f fo o n s ' (ib id ., 2 4 3 ) . 7 0 . Le C le r c q m a d e t h e re m a r k in r e fe r e n c e t o th e M i'k m a q (Nouvelle Relation, 3 8 8 ) ; h o w e v e r, h o s p i­ ta l i t y is c h a r a c te r is tic o f tr ib a l s o c ie tie s g e n e ra lly . It

1 6 4 . A n e a rly e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y o b s e r v e r r e p o r t­

w as a ls o p ra c tis e d i n p r e -R e n a is s a n c e E u ro p e . U n ­

ed t h a t I n u k titu t r e s e m b le d B a s q u e . S e e N ic o la s

fo r tu n a te ly , E u ro p e a n s fo r g o t th e ir o w n tr a d itio n s

J é r é m ie , Twenty Years at York Factory, 1 6 94-1714

a n d d id n o t g e n e r a lly r e c ip r o c a te A m e r in d ia n h o s ­

(O tta w a , 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 7 . H e h a d a p o in t: B a s q u e is a n

p ita lity . As a re su lt, A m e r in d ia n s c o n t in u e d th e

a g g lo m e r a tiv e la n g u a g e , as a re th o s e o f A m e r­

c u s to m a m o n g th e m s e lv e s , b u t w ith E u ro p e a n s

in d ia n s a n d I n u it. T h e m o s t a u th o r ita tiv e w o rk to

t h e y s o o n b e g a n to d e m a n d p a y m e n t, m u c h t o th e

d a te o n B a s q u e s in A m e r ic a is S e lm a H u x le y , ed .,

Los vascos en el marco Atlantico Norte Siglos X V I y X V I I (S a n S e b a s tia n , 1 9 8 8 ).

la tte r 's d isg u st. C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , New Relation o f Gaspesia, e d . W illia m F. G a n o n g (T o ro n to , 1 9 1 0 ) , 246.

64. P e rs o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e w o rd 'a d e s q u id e x '

7 1 . A n Account o f the Custom s and Manners o f the M ic-

is re p o rte d in T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations, ill, 8 1 . Basqu e

m akis and Maricheets, Savage Nations, Now Depen­ dent on the Government o f Cape Breton (L o n d o n ,

L o a n w o rd s in M ic m a c ', International Journal o f American Linguistics 5 5 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 2 5 8 - 6 0 . A n o th e r

7 2 . J a y M ille r, 'P e o p le , B e rd a c h e s , a n d L e ft-h a n d e d

For

o th e r

w o rd s,

see

B a k k e r 's

'T w o

1 7 5 8 ), 4.

p o s s ib le i n d ic a t io n o f B a s q u e -A m e r in d ia n a s s o c ia ­

B e a rs ', Journal o f Anthropological Research 3 8 ,

tio n is th e p r e s e n c e o f t h e 'la u b u r u ' d e s ig n m o tif

( 1 9 8 2 ) : 2 7 4 - 8 7 . S e e a lso C o lin S c o tt, 'K n o w le d g e A m ong

C re e

3

a m o n g t h e M i'k m a q a n d o th e r A m e r in d ia n p e o ­

C o n s tm c tio n

p les, a s w e ll as a m o n g t h e B a s q u e s . T h e B a s q u e s

a n d L ite ra l U n d e r s ta n d in g ', Journal de la Société des

H u n te rs : M e ta p h o r s

c o n s id e r t h e m o t i f as a s o r t o f n a tio n a l s y m b o l a n d

Am éricanistes 7 5

b e lie v e t h a t i t o r ig in a te d w ith th e m . S e e P e te r

1 9 4 - 5 . S t e p h e n A. M c N e a ry d iscu s se s th e s e b e lie fs

Bak ker, 'T h e M y s te rio u s L in k B e tw e e n B a s q u e a n d

a s e x p re s s e d

M ic m a c A rt', European Review o f Native American

Illu s io n in T s im s h ia n M y th o lo g y ', in J a y M ille r

(1 9 8 9 ):

b y th e

1 9 3 -2 0 8 ,

T s im s h ia n

in

p a r tic u la r ly 'Im a g e

and

448 Notes a n d C a r o l M . E a s tm a n , ed s, Tsim shian and Their Neighbors o f the North Pacific Coast (S e a ttle , 1 9 8 4 ) .

ions in North and South Am erica. I: A Description of Canada and Louisiana (L o n d o n , 1 7 6 0 ) , 5 3 , 6 8 . Le

S e e a ls o t h e d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e A m e r in d ia n e s tim a ­

J e u n e o b s e r v e d t h a t e v e n in w a rs ‘s o m e o rd er' was

tio n

of

th e

r e a s o n in g

c a p a c it y

o f b e a v e rs

in

m a in ta in e d , a n d t h e y w e re n o t u n d e rta k e n 'w ith­

Nouveaux Voyages de Mr. le Baron de Lahontan dans l'Amérique septentrionale, 2 v o ls (T h e H a g u e, 1 7 0 3 ) ,

o u t r e a s o n ; a n d t h e c o m m o n e s t r e a s o n fo r their

1 5 5 - 9 . T h e Je s u its o b s e r v e d t h a t A m e r in d ia n s c o n ­

s a t is f a c t io n fo r t h e d e a th o f s o m e o n e , a n d to fur­

ta k in g a rm s is w h e n s o m e N a tio n re fu se s to give

sid e re d a ll so u ls — m in d s — t o b e im m o r ta l, w h e th e r

n is h t h e p r e s e n ts r e q u ire d b y t h e a g r e e m e n ts made

Jesuit

b e tw e e n t h e m . ' (T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x,

7 3 . A. Irv in g H a llo w e d , 'O jib w a y O n to lo g y , B e h a v io r

7 9 . D a n ie l K. R ich te r, 'W a r a n d C u ltu r e : T h e Iroquois

hum an

or

o t h e r w is e .

(T h w a ite s ,

e d .,

Relations, VI, 1 7 5 - 7 . )

2 2 5 .)

a n d W o rld V ie w ', in H a llo w e ll, Contributions to Anthropology (C h ic a g o , 1 9 7 6 ) . S e e a ls o C a th a r in e M c C le lla n , M y O ld People Say: A n Ethnographic Survey o f Southern Yukon Territory, 2 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ), 8 6 - 8 ; h o u s in g

E x p e r ie n c e ',

8 0 . T h is is a ls o tr u e fo r tr ib a l s o c ie tie s a ro u n d the w o r ld . S e e B r u c e T rigger, The India n and the Heroic Age o f New France (O tta w a , 1 9 7 0 ) , 4 .

B r ia n S w a rb rick , 'A 9 ,0 0 0 -y e a r -o ld

p r o je c t', Alberta Report 1 8 ,

34

(1 9 9 1 ):

5 0 - 1 , c o n c e r n in g t h e b e d e f o f t h e S to :L o o f B r itis h

N o r d e n s k iô ld , O rigin o f the Indian C iviliza tio n s in South Am erica (G ô te n b o r g , 1931),

8 1 . E r la n d

C o lu m b ia (a s u b g ro u p o f th e C o a s t S a lis h ) t h a t c e r ­ ta in

'tr a n s fo r m e r ' r o c k s w e re a c tu a lly

'm e n

6 - 1 1 , 7 4 - 6 . A p a rtic u la rly in t e r e s tin g c a s e o f this

of

'le a p f r o g g in g ' is t h a t o f t h e d is tin c tiv e kayak-like

s t o n e '. T h e In d ia n s b e lie v e d t h a t b e in g tu r n e d in t o

K u te n a i c a n o e ; t h e o n ly o th e r p la c e w h e r e such a

s t o n e w as t h e fa te o f c h ie f s w h o d id n o t s h a re t h e ir

riv e r c r a ft is fo u n d is o n t h e A m u r R iver, o n the

w e a lth w ith th e ir p e o p le . 7 4 . C la u d e

L é v i-S tra u s s

has

C h in e s e -S ib e r ia n b o rd e r. e x p lo r e d

th e

g en eral

n a tu r e o f th e s e m y th s in The Jealous Potter, tr.

8 2 . J o h n W e b s te r G r a n t, Moon o f W intertime: Mission­

aries and the Indians o f Canada in Encounter since 1534 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 4 . G r a n t p o in ts o u t that

B é n é d ic t C h o r ie r (C h ic a g o , 1 9 8 8 ) . A s tu d y o f t h e m y th s o f a p a rtic u la r g ro u p , t h e O jib w a o f B ig

t h e u ltim a te re lig io u s s y m b o l o f t h e In d ia n s is the

T ro u t L a k e i n C a n a d a 's S u b a rc tic , s h o w in g t h e ir

c irc le , r e p r e s e n tin g th e c ir c u it o f t h e h e a v e n s , and

r e la tio n s h ip t o A m e r in d ia n m y th s as a w h o le , is

a d d s t h a t fo r t h e C h r is tia n s t h e s y m b o l m ig h t well

t h a t o f E m m a n u a l D é s v e a u x , Sous le signe de Tours

b e t h e a rr o w fly in g fr o m c r e a t io n t o t h e fin a l ap o c­

(P aris, 1 9 8 8 ) . N ic o la s D e n y s d e s c r ib e s I n d ia n lo v e

The Description and Natural History o f the Coasts o f North Am erica (Acadia), ed. fo r

s to r y te llin g

W illiam and M ary Quarterly 4 0 , 4

(1 9 8 2 ): 5 2 8 -5 9 .

in

a ly p se . 8 3 . F o r e x a m p le , in t h e Jesuit Relations th e r e is a ch a p ­ te r d e v o te d t o th e d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n Eu ropeans

W illia m F. G a n o n g (T o r o n to , 1 9 0 8 ) , 4 1 8 - 1 9 .

a n d A m e r in d ia n s (x l i v , 2 7 7 - 3 0 9 ) , b u t little , if any,

7 5 . J e n n e s s , The Indians o f Canada, 1 7 3 .

m e n t i o n is m a d e o f r e s e m b la n c e s .

7 6 . L e C le r c q , Nouvelle Relation, 8 9 .

8 4 . L e C le r c q , Nouvelle Relation, 3 7 9 - 8 1 .

7 7 . F or a g e n e ra l s tu d y o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n , se e T k a c z u k a n d V iv ia n , ed s, Cultures in Conflict.

8 5 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, ill, 9 1 . A lth o u g h B ia rd w a s s p e a k in g a b o u t t h e M i'k m a q , th is was

7 8 . By t h e e n d o f th e s e v e n te e n t h c e n tu r y , a F r e n c h

re p o rte d fo r o th e r A m e r in d ia n s o c ie tie s as w ell. For

o ff ic e r w o u ld o b s e r v e t h a t n o r th e a s te r n In d ia n s

e x a m p le , se e G e o r g e H e n ry L o sk ie l, History o f the M issions o f the United Brethren Am on g the Indians in North Am erica, tr. C .I. L a T ro b e (L o n d o n , 1 7 9 4 ), 1 3 2 ; N ic o la s P e rro t ( 1 6 4 4 - 1 7 1 8 ) , Mémoire sur les moeurs, coustum es et relligion des sauvages de l'Am érique Septentrionale (L eip z ig a n d P aris, 1 8 6 4 ;

w e re 'n e v e r ra s h i n d e c la r in g w a r; th e y h o ld fr e ­ q u e n t C o u n c d s b e fo r e th e y re s o lv e u p o n i t .' R .G . T h w a ite s , e d ., New Voyages to North Am erica by

Baron de Lahontan, 2 v o ls (C h ic a g o , 1 9 0 5 ) , II, 5 0 7 . Le

C le r c q

ag reed :

w a r,

he

w r o te ,

w as

n ever

d e c la r e d e x c e p t a s a la s t r e s o rt o n th e a d v ic e o f O ld M e n . (Le C le r c q , New Relation, 2 6 9 .) B y m id -e ig h t­

J o h n s o n R e p r in t, 1 9 6 8 ) , 7 8 . 8 6 . A v a r ia n t o f th is s to r y a p p e a re d in t h e Christian Sci­

e e n t h c e n tu r y T h o m a s Je ffe r y s e x p re s s e d a d iffe r­

ence Monitor, 1 9 O c t. 1 9 8 9 , 1 0 .

e n t v ie w : In d ia n s , h e w r o te , ra re ly 're fu s e t o e n ­ g a g e i n a w a r t o w h ic h t h e y h a v e b e e n in v ite d b y t h e ir a llie s : o n t h e c o n tra ry , t h e y s e ld o m w a it till th e y a re c a lle d t o ta k e u p a rm s, t h e le a s t m o tif

Chapter 5 1.

T h is

c h a p te r

w as

d e v e lo p e d

fro m

my

'T h re e

b e in g s u ffic ie n t t o d e te r m in e th e m t o i t .' Je ffe r y s ,

W o rld s, O n e F o cu s: E u ro p e a n s M e e t I n u it an d

The Natural and C iv il History o f the French D o m in­

A m e r in d ia n s in

th e

F ar N o r t h ',

in

R ic h a rd C.

Notes 449 D a v is, e d ., Rupert's Land: A Cultural Tapestry (C a l­

S a h a g û n (d . 1 5 9 0 ) , Florentine Codex: General History

gary,

m e a n in g

o f the Things o f New Spain, e d s A r th u r J .O .

'h u m a n b e in g s ' ('I n u k ' in t h e sin g u la r), w id e ly

A n d e rs o n a n d C h a r le s E. D ib b le , 1 2 v o ls (S a n ta Fe,

u se d a m o n g t h e p e o p le fo r th e m s e lv e s , w a s a d o p t­

N M , 1 9 7 0 - 5 ) , XII, 4 ; A lb e rt G a r c ia , La découverte et la conquête du Pérou d'après les sources originales

1 9 8 8 ),

5 1 -7 8 .

T h e te r m

'I n u i t ',

e d b y t h e I n u it C ir c u m p o la r C o n fe r e n c e in 1 9 7 7 fo r a ll t h e p e o p le fo r m e r ly re fe rre d t o as 'E s k im o '.

(P aris, 1 9 7 5 ) , 6 8 , 1 0 2 , 1 2 5 . T h e m y th o f t h e re tu r n ­

P e o p le o f t h e w e s te r n A rc tic a re c a lle d In u v ia lu it;

in g h e r o is fa r fr o m d e a d . I n P eru , fo r e x a m p le ,

o th e r re g io n a l te r m s in c lu d e 'I n u i n a i t ' a n d T n u -

m y th h a s it t h a t t h e h e a d o f In c a Ri e x is ts a n d is

m a g it'. (B is h o p J o h n R. Sp erry , Y e llo w k n ife , in a

g r o w in g a b o d y to w a rd t h e fe e t. W h e n h is b o d y is

le tte r p u b lis h e d in Arctic 4 0 , 4 [1 9 8 7 ] : 3 6 4 .) T n u it'

c o m p le te , t h e I n c a w ill re tu r n . T h e I n c a in th is

h a s b e e n o ffic ia lly a d o p te d in C a n a d a . S e e J o s é

c o n t e x t is t h e 'o r ig in a tin g p r in c ip le o f e v e ry b e in g '

M a ilh o t, 'L 'E ty m o lo g ie d e " E s q u im a u " : R ev u e e t

a n d is r e c o n s tr u c tin g its e lf in t h e A n d e a n u n d e r ­

C o rr ig é e ', Études/Inuit/Studies 2 , 2 (1 9 7 8 ) : 5 9 - 6 9 ;

w o rld .

Collections arctiques (N e u c h â te l,

1 3 . B o b C o n n o l l y a n d R o b in A n d e rs o n , First Contact:

S w itz e rla n d , 1 9 8 8 ), 1 1 , 1 8 . O n th e q u e s tio n o f firs t

New Guinea Highlanders Encounter the Outside World

Yvon

C son ka,

co n ta cts

w it h

E u ro p e a n s ,

se e

R o b ert M cG h e e ,

Canada Rediscovered (H u ll, Q u e ., 1 9 9 1 ) .

(N e w Y ork, 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 4 - 5 5 . E x p lo re rs v is itin g S o u th S ea is la n d s fo r t h e firs t tim e w e re ta k e n fo r sp irits

2. W illia m R. M o r r is o n , Under the Flag: Canadian Sov­

(o r g o d s, as it is o f t e n p u t); C a p ta in J a m e s C o o k

ereignty and the Native People in Northern Canada

( 1 7 2 8 - 7 9 ) e x p e r ie n c e d th is r e a c tio n in H a w a ii in 1778.

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) , 9 7 .

1 4 . C h a r lo tt e M . G r a d ie , 'S p a n is h Je s u its i n V irg in ia :

3. Ib id ., 1 0 0 . 4 . U rs B itte r li, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters Between

European and Non-European Cultures, 1 4 9 2-1800, tr. 5. T h is is t h e th e s is o f T ry g g v i J . O le s o n , Ea rly Voyages

and Northern Approaches (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 3 ) , 9 . 6. K aj B ir k e t-S m ith , Eskim os (C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 3 . A n a c c o u n t o f t h e firs t m e e t in g o f G r e e n la n d N o rse m e n

2 8 -9 .

L .H .

tory and Biography 9 6 , 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 1 4 4 , 1 4 8 . 1 5 . O n t h e E n g lis h a p p r e c ia tio n o f In d ia n tr a d e , see

R itc h ie R o b e r ts o n (L o n d o n , 1 9 8 9 ).

S k ra e lin g s w ith

T h e M is s io n T h a t F a ile d ', Virginia Magazine o f H is ­

is re p ro d u c e d , ib id .,

P e te r W ra x a ll, A n Abridgement o f the India n Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes transacted in the Colony o f N ew York, from the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, e d . C .H . M c llw a in (C a m b rid g e , M a ss., 1 9 1 5 ) , x x i i i - x x v ii .

and

1 6 . R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, I (T o r­

H is to ry o f th e C a n a d ia n A rc tic ', Handbook o f North

o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 1 6 ; J o e l B e rg lu n d , 'T h e D e c lin e

Am erican Indians, 5, 3 3 7 - 9 0 .

o f t h e N o rse S e ttle m e n ts i n G r e e n la n d ', Arctic A n ­

See

a ls o

N e a tb y ,

'E x p lo r a tio n

7. W e n d e ll H. O sw a lt, Eskim os and Explorers (N o v a to , C a lif., 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 1 . 8. M ille r C h ris ty , The Voyages o f Captain Luke Foxe o f

H u ll, and Captain Thom as fames o f Bristol, in search o f a North-W est Passage, in 1 631-32, 2 v o ls (L o n ­ d o n , 1 8 9 4 ), I, 1 0 4 - 5 , 'P le fk in s o n G r e e n la n d '. 9. 'A r c tic " l i t t l e p e o p le " re p o rte d s ig h te d ', Edmonton

Journal, 4 N o v . 1 9 9 0 . 10. F or e x a m p le , F r e n c h c o s m o g r a p h e r A n d ré T h e v e t (c. 1 5 1 7 - 9 2 ) r e p o rte d t h a t A m e r in d ia n s a t first h o n o u r e d S p a n ia rd s a s p r o p h e ts a n d e v e n as g o d s. T h e v e t, Les singularitez de la France Antarctique, ed . P au l G a ffa re l (P aris, 1 8 7 8 ) , 1 3 9 - 1 0 . 11. P ierre M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements dans

l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 6 1 4 -1 7 5 4 ), 6 v o ls (P aris, 1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , VI, 1 8 1 - 2 , e x tr a it d 'u n e le ttr e d u sie u r d e B ie n v ille a u m in ­ istre , 1 0 a v ril 1 7 0 6 .

thropology 2 3 , 1 4 2 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 0 9 - 3 5 . 1 7 . S e e te m p e r a tu r e g r a p h in

H arris, e d ., Historical

A tla s o f Canada, p la te 1 6 . 1 8 . T h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e N o rse c o m m u n itie s d id n o t a d a p t e it h e r c u ltu r a lly o r t e c h n o lo g ic a lly t o c h a n g ­ in g

c o n d itio n s

is

p r e s e n te d

by

Thom as

H.

M c G o v e r n , 'T h e e c o n o m ic s o f e x t i n c t i o n i n N o rse G r e e n la n d ', in T .M . W ig ley , M .J. In g ra m , a n d G . F a r m e r,

e d s,

C lim a te and H isto ry (C a m b r id g e ,

1 9 8 1 ) , 4 0 4 - 3 3 . F o r e x a m p le , th e y n e v e r a d o p te d I n u it s e a - m a m m a l h u n tin g t e c h n o lo g y (th e m o s t a d v a n c e d i n t h e w o r ld a t t h a t tim e ) o r sk in b o a ts , d e s p ite th e u n a v a ila b ility o f tim b e r . C u ltu ra lly , t h e y c o n c e n tr a te d o n b ig g e r a n d m o r e e la b o r a te c h u r c h e s a n d t h e la te s t in E u ro p e a n f a s h io n a n d d ress. 19. By

th e

e ig h te e n th

c e n tu r y

s e n tim e n ts

had

c h a n g e d , a n d w h e n t h e c e le b r a te d e x p lo r e r L o u isA n to in e d e B o u g a in v ille ( 1 7 2 9 - 1 8 1 1 ) b r o u g h t a

12. N a th a n ie l W a c h te l, The Vision o f the Vanquished:

T a h itia n t o P aris, h e w as s e v e re ly c ritic iz e d fo r

The Spanish Conquest o f Peru through Indian Eyes, 1 5 3 0 -1 5 7 0 (L o n d o n , 1 9 7 7 ), 1 3 - 2 4 ; B e r n a r d in o d e

s n a tc h in g a y o u n g m a n fr o m t h e s e c u r ity o f h is n a tiv e h o m e t o e x p o s e h im t o t h e c o r r u p tin g in -

Notes flu e n c e s o f a E u ro p e a n m e tr o p o lis . In v a in , B o u ­

3 0 . T o b y M o r a n tz , ‘O ra l a n d R e c o rd e d H isto ry in James

g a in v ille p r o te s te d t h a t t h e T a h itia n h a d c o m e v o l­

B a y ', in W illia m C o w a n , ed ., Papers o f the Fifteenth Algonquian Conference (O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 8 1 - 2 .

u n ta r ily . T h e y o u n g m a n d ie d o n th e r e tu r n v o y ­ age, 1 7 7 1 .

3 1 . C h ris ty , Voyages, I, 1 3 7 .

2 0 . W .A . K e n y o n , Tokens o f Possession (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 5 ) ,

32. Jo h n

41, 121. 2 1 . W illia m

S.

Long,

‘N a rra tiv e s

of

E arly

Encounters

b e tw e e n E u ro p e a n s a n d t h e C r e e o f W e ste rn Jam es B a y ', Ontario History 8 0 , 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 2 3 0 .

C . S tu r te v a n t a n d D a v id B e ers Q u in n ,

'T h is N e w P rey : E s k im o s i n E u ro p e in 1 5 6 7 , 1 5 7 6 , a n d 1 5 7 7 ', i n C h r is tia n E F e est, e d ., India ns and

3 3 . C liffo r d G . H ickey , 'A n E x a m in a tio n o f Processes of C u lt u r a l

Europe (A a c h e n , 1 9 8 7 ) , 8 0 .

C hange

am ong

N in e t e e n t h

Century

Études/Inuit/Studies 8 , 1 (1984):

C o p p e r I n u i t ',

2 2 . T h e te r m 'Q a llu n a a t' o r 'K a b lo o n a ' is t h o u g h t to

1 3 - 3 5 . H ic k e y a ls o h y p o th e s iz e s t h a t th e rich and

h a v e o r ig in a te d fr o m t h e In u k t it u t te r m m e a n in g

v a ried c u ltu ra l d e v e lo p m e n t a m o n g A laskan Inuit

'p e o p le w h o p a m p e r th e i r e y e b ro w s ', p e r h a p s a

te s tifie s t o th e e f fic ie n c y o f th e ir tra d itio n a l trade

v a r ia tio n o f 'q a llu n a a r a a lu it', w h ic h re fers t o m a te ­

w ith S ib e r ia . Its r o o ts g o d e e p in t o t h e preh isto ry of

ria lis m , in te r fe r e n c e w ith n a tu r e , a n d g re e d . S e e

B e rin g ia a n d its e n v ir o n s . S e e H ick ey , 'T h e Historic

M in n ie A o d la F r e e m a n , L ife Am ong the Q alunaat

B e rin g ia n T rad e N e tw o rk : Its N a tu re a n d Origins',

(E d m o n to n , 1 9 7 8 ) , a fte r t h e F o rew o rd . A n o th e r

in M c C a rtn e y , e d ., Thule Eskim o Culture, 4 1 1 - 3 4 .

tr a n s la t io n t h a t h a s b e e n p ro p o s e d is 'p e o p le w ith b u s h y e y e b ro w s '. 2 3 . C h a rle s

F r a n c is

H a ll, Arctic Researches and Life

3 4 . H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, p la te 2 3 . 3 5 . C o lo n ia l

O f f ic e

1 9 4 /2 7 ,

263,

P a llis e r to

the

S e c r e ta r y o f th e A d m ira lty , 2 5 A ug. 1 7 6 6 . C ited by

Am ong the Esquim aux (N e w Y o rk , 1 8 6 5 ) , 2 5 1 , 2 9 0 ,

W .H . W h ite le y , 'T h e E s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e Mor­

385.

a v ia n

2 4 . C h ris ty , Voyages, I, 9 0 - 1 .

M is s io n

in

L ab rad o r a n d

B r itis h

Policy,

1 7 6 3 - 8 3 ', Canadian Historical Review 4 5 , 1 (1 9 6 4 ):

2 5 . Ib id ., I, 5 0 ff .; N ic h o la s Jé r é m ie , Twenty Years at York

Factory, 16 9 4 -1 7 1 4 (O tta w a , 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 6 .

31, 3 9 -4 0 . 3 6 . J e a n A lfo n c e (Je a n F o n te n e a u ), Le s Voyages avan-

tureux du C a p ita in e Ia n A lfonce, Sainctongeois

2 6 . T h is te c h n o lo g y w as u sed b y th e T h u le o f t h e e a s t­ e rn A rc tic as w e ll as t h e P u n u k o f th e w est, a n d h a d

(P o itie rs , 1 5 5 9 ) , 2 7 v ; G io v a n n i B a ttis ta Ram usio,

b e e n a d o p te d b y th e w h a le r s o f t h e w e s t c o a s t, s u c h

Navigations et Voyages ( X V I siècle), tr. G énéral

as t h e

N u u 'c h a h 'n u lth

(N o o tk a )

Is la n d .

S e e Je a n - L o u p

R o u s s e lo t,

L a n g lo is a n d M .J. S im o n (P aris, 1 9 3 3 ) , 1 1 1 .

o f V an co u v er W illia m

W.

37. J.

C a llu m

T h om son ,

'C o r n e r e d :

C u ltu r e s

in

F itz h u g h , a n d A ro n C ro w e ll, 'M a r itim e E c o n o m ic s

C o n f l i c t in N e w fo u n d la n d a n d L a b r a d o r', in D iana

o f th e N o r th P a cific R im ', in F itz h u g h a n d C ro w e ll,

C la ire T k a c u z k a n d B r ia n C . V iv ia n , ed s, Cultures in

eds, Crossroads o f Continents: Cultures o f Siberia and

Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives (Calgary,

Alaska (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 3 - 7 2 . A to g g lin g h a r ­

1 9 8 9 ) , 1 9 9 . S e e a b o v e , C h a p te r 3 , fo r a s im ila r tra­

p o o n fo u n d a t L 'A n se A m o u r M o u n d i n L ab ra d o r,

d i t io n

d a tin g b a c k t o 7 5 0 0

Y ukon.

bp,

m a y b e t h e o ld e s t s u c h

w e a p o n in t h e w o rld . S e e J a m e s A. T u c k a n d R o b e rt M c G h e e , 'A r c h a ic C u ltu re s i n t h e S tr a it o f B e lle Isle 7 6 - 9 1 . F o r a g e n e ra l d e s c r ip tio n o f I n u it w h a lin g

2 7 . R o b ert

M cG h ee,

O u p eesh ep ew ,

o f th e

G eo rge

W.

B row n ,

D a v id

M.

H ayne,

and

F r a n c e s G . H a lp e n n y , ed s, Dictionary o f Canadian

Biography (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 6 ) , VI, s.v. 'S h a w n a d ith it'.

A n cie n t People o f the A rctic

H a ro ld H o rw o o d , 'T h e p e o p le w h o w e re m u rd ered fo r f u n ', Maclean's, 1 0 O c t. 1 9 5 9 , 2 7 - 4 3 .

2 8 . If a n 'e ' is s u b s titu te d fo r th e s e c o n d 'o ', O u p e e becom es

T u tc h o n e

1 6 2 0 ), 2 -4 . 3 9 . See

(V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 9 6 ) , 2 0 1 - 2 , 2 2 1 . sh ep ow

so u th e rn

o f New-found-land, with m any reasons to prove how worthy and beneficiall a Plantation m ay there be made, after a far better m anner than now is (L o n d o n ,

te c h n o lo g y , se e J . G a r th T aylor, T n u it W h a lin g A lle n P. M c C a rtn e y , ed ., Thule Eskim o Culture: A n Anthropological Perspective (O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ) , 2 9 2 - 3 0 0 .

th e

3 8 . S ir R ic h a rd W h it b o u r n e , A Discourse and Discovery

R e g io n , L a b ra d o r', Arctic Anthropology 1 2 , 2 ( 1 9 7 5 ) :

T e c h n o lo g y in E a s te rn C a n a d a a n d G r e e n la n d ', in

am ong

w h ic h

m eans

4 0 . R a m s a y C o o k , e d ., The Voyages o f Jacques Cartier (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 3 ) , x x x i i i - x x x i v .

‘a lw a y s b u s y ', a c c o r d in g t o R eg L o u ttit, c h i e f o f th e A tta w a p is k a t C r e e n o r t h o f M o o s e F a c to ry . (P er­ s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n .) 2 9 . G ly n d w r W illia m s , e d ., Andrew Graham's Observa­

Chapter 6 1.

H.P. B ig gar,

e d .,

The Voyages o f Jacques Cartier

tions on Hudson's Bay 1767-91 (L o n d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) ,

(O tta w a , 1 9 2 4 ) , 6 1 - 2 . F o r a n In d ia n v ie w o f 'a n

204.

a d v e n tu r e r

c a l le d J a c q u e s

C a r tie r'

on

th e

St

Notes L a w re n c e , s e e B e rn a rd A ssin iw i, Histoire des Indiens du haut et du bas Canada: moeurs et coutumes des A lgonkins et des Iroquois, 3 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 9 7 3 ) , II, 2 9 -8 1 .

C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France, 3 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 4 4 ) , I, 2 1 . 14. Jo h n

W itt h o f t,

'A r c h a e o lo g y

as a

K ey to

th e

C o lo n ia l F u r T ra d e ', in Aspects o f the F u r Trade (S t

2. T h e g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d v e r s io n o f t h e o r ig in o f t h e n a m e 'C a n a d a ' is t h a t it d e riv e d fr o m

t h e Iro -

q u o ia n 'k a - n a - ta ', m e a n in g v illa g e . A g o o d a rg u ­ m e n t c a n b e m a d e , h o w e v e r, t h a t i t c o m e s fr o m th e M o n ta g n a is 'k a -n a -d u n ', m e a n in g c le a n la n d . D u rin g t h e s i x te e n th c e n tu r y , t h e te r m 'C a n a d ia n ' re fe rre d t o t h e p e o p le o f t h e N o r th S h o r e , to d a y 's M o n ta g n a is , c lo s e ly re la te d t o C r e e a n d s p e a k in g a v a r ia tio n o f th e s a m e la n g u a g e . T h e s e p e o p le w e re a m o n g th e fir s t tr a d in g p a r tn e r s o f t h e F r e n c h ,

a t t h e T im e o f F irst C o n ta c ts ', in L .C . G r e e n a n d O liv e P. D ic k a s o n , The La w o f Nations and the New

World (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 2 3 - 4 . 4. F r a n ç o is d e B e lle fo r e s t a n d S e b a s tia n M ü n s te r, L a

Cosmographie universelle de tout le monde . . . , 2 v o ls (P aris, 1 5 7 5 ), n , 2 1 9 0 - 2 .

Voyages o f Jacques Cartier, 2 6 4 ; H.P.

Biggar, e d ., A Collection o f Documents Relating to

Jacques Cartier and the Sieur de Roberval (O tta w a ,

1 7 . B ig gar, ed ., Voyages o f Cartier, 1 7 7 - 8 . S e e a ls o T rig ­ ger, Natives and Newcomers, 1 3 7 , 1 4 7 . A lth o u g h C a r tie r's is a s e c o n d -h a n d a c c o u n t a n d sh o u ld th e r e fo r e b e tr e a te d w ith c a u tio n , th e r e is a r c h a e o ­ lo g ic a l e v id e n c e o f la rg e -s c a le w a rfa re , as T rigger p o in ts o u t. J a m ie s o n , 'T ra d e a n d W a rfa re : D is a p p e a ra n c e o f th e S t. L a w re n c e I r o q u o ia n s ', Man in the Northeast 3 9 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 7 9 - 8 6 . Ja m i e s o n a rg u e s t h a t t h e d y n a m ­ ic s o f t h e S t L a w re n c e Iro q u o is d is a p p e a ra n c e h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w ith E u ro p e a n tra d e . 1 9 . A lfred G o ld s w o r th y B a iley , The C o nflict o f European

and Eastern Algonkian Cultures 1 5 0 4 -1 7 0 0 (T o ro n ­ to , 1 9 6 9 ) , x v iii. 2 0 . B ig gar, e d ., Voyages o f Cartier, 7 6 . 2 1 . C h a r le s A. M a r t ijn , 'I n n u (M o n ta g n a is ) in N ew ­ fo u n d la n d ', in W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the

1 9 3 0 ), 4 6 3 . 6. M a rc e l T ru d el, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 1: Les

vaines tentatives, 1 5 2 4 -1 6 0 3 (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 5 1 - 7 5 ; A n to in e d e M o n tc h r e s tie n , Traicté de l'oeconomie politique . . . , S .I., s .d ., 2 1 4 . 7. B ru c e G . T rig g e r a n d Ja m e s F. P e n d e rg a s t, 'S a in t L a w re n c e I r o q u o ia n s ’, in T rigger, e d ., Handbook o f

North Am erican Indians, 15: Northeast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 7 8 ), 3 5 8 - 9 .

Twenty-first Algonquian Conference (O tta w a , 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 2 7 -6 4 . 2 2 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 2 3 3 . 2 3 . Biggar, ed ., Works o f Samuel de Cham plain, I, 9 8 - 1 0 2 . 2 4 . B r u c e G . T rigger, Indians and the Heroic Age o f New

France (O tta w a , 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 0 - 1 1 . 2 5 . E le a n o r B u rk e L e a c o c k a n d N a n c y O e s tr e ic h L u rie, ed s, North Am erican Indians in Historical Perspective

8. Biggar, e d ., Voyages o f Jacques Cartier, 1 5 8 . It sh o u ld b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t C a r tie r o n ly s p e n t a d a y a t H o c h e la g a . 9. B e lle fo r e s t

1 6 . T rigger, Natives and Newcomers, 9 6 - 1 0 0 , 1 0 5 - 8 .

1 8 . T rig g er, Natives and Newcomers, 1 0 6 - 8 . S e e a ls o J.B .

w h ic h t h e Iro q u o is w e re n o t. 3. O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , 'C o n c e p ts o f S o v e re ig n ty

5. Biggar, e d .,

P a u l, M in n ., 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 7 . 1 5 . Big gar, e d ., Works o f Sam uel de Cham plain, II, 9 6 .

(N e w Y ork, 1 9 7 1 ) , 3 5 1 . 2 6 . J a n K u p p , 'C o u ld t h e D u tc h C o m m e r c ia l E m p ire h a v e in f lu e n c e d th e C a n a d ia n E c o n o m y d u rin g

and

M u n s te r ,

La

Cosm ographie, II,

th e

F ir s t

H a lf

of

th e

E ig h te e n th

C e n t u r y ? ',

Canadian H istorical Review 5 2 , 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 3 6 7 - 8 8 .

2 1 9 0 -2 . 10. R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

2 7 . R ic h a rd G lo v e r, e d ., D a vid Thom pson’s Narrative

A llied Documents, 7 3 v o ls . (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 5 . T h o m p s o n , C a n ­

I, 1 0 5 .

a d a 's g r e a te s t g e o g ra p h e r, w as a p p r e n tic e d to th e

11. H.P. B ig gar, e d ., The Works o f Sam uel de Cham plain,

H u d s o n 's B a y C o m p a n y in 1 7 8 4 a t t h e a g e o f 1 4 , s e r v in g w ith t h a t c o m p a n y u n til 1 7 9 7 , w h e n h e

6 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 2 2 - 3 6 ) , V, 7 8 . 12. B ru ce G . T rig g er, Natives and Newcomers: Canada's

d e fe c te d t o t h e N o r th W e s t C o m p a n y .

'Heroic A ge' Reconsidered (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n ,

2 8 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 9 7 .

1 9 8 5 ), 1 4 6 . I n g e n e ra l, I a m fo llo w in g T rig g er, w h o

2 9 . Ib id ., XXVI, 1 5 5 - 6 3 ; XVIII, 2 0 5 ; P ie rre d'A vity , S e ig ­

d iscu s ses t h e q u e s tio n o f t h e L a u r e n tia n Ir o q u o ­

n e u r d e M o n tm a r t in , Description générale de l ’Am é­

ia n s in d e ta il, 1 4 4 - 8 . 13. C h r is to p h e r C a r lile 's r e p o r t in R ic h a rd H a k lu y t,

rique, troisième partie du Monde . . . (P aris, 1 6 6 0 ) , 4 2 - 3 . S e e a ls o T rigger, Natives and Newcomers,

The Principal Navigations, Voyages, T rafique s and Discoveries o f the English Nation, 1 2 v o ls (G lasg o w ,

3 0 . See, fo r e x a m p le , B r u c e G . T rigger, 'C h a m p la in

1 9 0 3 -5 ),

VIII,

1 4 5 -6 ;

P ie r r e -F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r

de

2 0 4 -5 .

Ju d g e d b y H is In d ia n P o lic y : A D if fe r e n t V iew o f

451

452 Notes E a rly C a n a d ia n H is to r y ', Anthropologica 1 3 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 9 4 - 1 0 0 . T h is w as a s p e c ia l issu e d e v o te d to essa y s in h o n o u r o f a n th r o p o lo g is t D ia m o n d J e n n e s s .

B u rra g e , e d ., E arly English and French Voyages, C h ie fly from H akluyt, 1 5 3 4 -1 6 0 8 (N ew York, 1952), 392.

P ie r r e -A n to in e -S im o n

M a illa r d

m en tion ed

3 1 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 7 - 1 9 ; M a rc e l T ru -

w h a le fa t a n d s e a l o il a s p r in c ip a l featu res o f a

d e l, Histoire de la Nouvelle France III: L a seigneurie des Cent-Associés, 16 2 7 -1 6 6 3 (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 7 9 ),

M i'k m a q fe a s t: 'L e ttre d e M l'A b b é M a illa rd sur les

128.

m is s io n s M ic m a q u e s ', Soirées canadiennes 3 (1863):

3 2 . T rigger, Indians and the Heroic Age,

15;

D en ys

D e lâ g e , Le pays renversé (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 0 8 . 3 3 . G a b rie l S ag ard , Histoire du Canada et voyages que les

frères mineurs Recollects y ont faicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 3 6 ) , n , 5 1 2 . 3 4 . G a b rie l Sa g a rd , The Long Journey to the Country o f

the Hurons, tr. H .H . L a n g to n (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 9 ) , 4 5 - 6 ,

m is s io n s d e l'A c a d ie , e t p a r tic u liè r e m e n t sur les 3 0 3 . S e a l o il w as b a s ic i n e a r ly M i'k m a q d ie t. Abbé J.A . M a u r a u lt ( 1 8 1 9 - 7 0 ) m a k e s t h e p o in t th a t all t h e N a tiv e s o f A ca d ia a n d N ew E n g la n d shared a s im ila r c u ltu r e a n d liv e d in m u c h t h e sa m e m an­ n e r. M a u r a u lt, Histoire des Abenakis depuis 1605 jusqu'à nos jours (S o re l, Q u é b e c , 1 8 6 6 ) , 9 . 4 2 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations,

x l v ii,

2 2 3 ; Denys,

in New France, 2 v o ls , tr. J o h n G ilm a r y S h e a (N ew

Description and Natural History, 1 9 6 ; D .B . Quinn, e d ., New Am erican World: A Docum entary History of North Am erica to 1612, 5 v o ls (N e w Y ork, 1 9 7 9 ), in, 3 4 8 ; L e s c a r b o t, H istory o f New France, II, 3 0 9 .

Y ork, 1 8 8 1 ), I, 1 3 6 . S e e a ls o M a rc L e s c a r b o t, The

4 3 . 'M i'k m a q ' is w id e ly a c c e p te d as m e a n in g 'allies'

268. 3 5 . C h r e s tie n L e C le rc q , F irst Establishm ent o f the Faith

History o f New France, e d . W .L . G r a n t, 3 v o ls (T o­ r o n to , 1 9 0 7 - 1 4 ) , ill, 2 5 - 6 ; N ic o la s D e n y s , The D e­ scription and Natural History o f the Coasts o f North Am erica (Acadia), ed . W illia m F. G a n o n g (T o ro n to , 1 9 0 8 ), 4 4 7 - 8 ; T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, III, 8 1 .

(J e n n e s s , Indians o f Canada, 2 6 7 ) , a lth o u g h th is is n o t e n tir e ly c e r ta in . T h e te r m t h e M i'k m a q used fo r th e m s e lv e s w a s 'E l'n u ', ‘tr u e m e n '. T h e y were p r o b a b ly t h e T o u d a m a n s o f C a r tie r a n d w ere cer­ ta in ly t h e S o u riq u o is o f L e s c a r b o t; t h e y w ere also

3 6 . C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description III, 8 7 - 8 .

c a lle d T a ra tin e s , a r e fe r e n c e t o th e i r tra d in g pro­

3 7 . J .B . T y rre ll, e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative o f his

c liv itie s . W u a s tu k w iu k (M a lis e e ts ) w e re k n o w n to

Explorations in Western America, 1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o­

C h a m p la in a n d t h e e a r ly J e s u its a s E tc h e m in or

r o n to , 1 9 1 6 ) , 2 0 6 .

E te m in q u o is . T h e la n g u a g e o f t h e M i'k m a q shares

3 8 . C la u d e C . L e R o y dit B a c q u e v ille d e la P o th e r ie ( 1 6 6 3 - 1 7 3 6 ) , Histoire de l ’Amérique septentrionale, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 2 2 ) , III, 1 7 6 - 7 ; L o u is A rm a n d d e L o m d ’A rce d e L a h o n ta n , New Voyages to North Am erica

c e r t a in c h a r a c te r is tic s w ith C re e , t h e m o s t wide­ s p re a d o f t h e A lg o n k ia n g ro u p , as w e ll as with A ra p a h o o f t h e c e n tr a l P la in s. 4 4 . L e s c a r b o t, History o f New France, III, 3 5 8 - 9 .

by Baron de Lahontan, ed . R .G . T h w a ite s , 2 v o ls

4 5 . Ib id ., 3 1 2 - 1 3 .

(C h ic a g o , 1 9 0 5 ) , I, 8 2 . T h e r e a re re p o rts o f w a s te ­

4 6 . E .B . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d J.R . B r o d h e a d , ed s, Docu­

fu l h u n t i n g fo r fo o d a s w e ll. S ee, fo r e x a m p le ,

ments Relative to the Colo nial H istory o f the State of New York, 1 5 v o ls (A lb a n y , NY, 1 8 5 3 - 8 7 ) , IX, 161.

G ly n d w r W illia m s , e d ., Andrew Graham 's Observa­

tions on Hudson's Bay 1767-91 (L o n d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) , 154, 280.

4 7 . D e n y s , Description and N atural History, 4 4 6 - 9 . 4 8 . C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description, I, 1 2 8 ; Denys,

3 9 . C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description, I, 1 2 6 .

Description and Natural History, 1 9 5 - 6 .

4 0 . J o h a n n e s d e L a e t, L'H istoire du Nouveau Monde, ou

4 9 . A rc h iv e s d e la M a r in e , S e rie s B 3 , v o l. IX, Sieu r de

Description des Indes occidentales . . . (L e y d e n , 1 6 4 0 ) ,

N a rp t o M in is te r o f t h e M a r in e , 2 3 S e p t. 1671,

36.

f .3 7 4 . C ite d b y C o r n e liu s J . J a e n e n , Friend and Foe: Aspects o f French-Am erindian Cultu ra l Contact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (T o ro n to , 19 7 6 ),

4 1 . B e rn a rd G . H o ffm a n , Cabot to Cartier (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 1 );

D a v id

A d a p ta tiv e

San ger,

P ro cess

‘C u lt u r e in

th e

C hange

as

an

M a in e - M a r i t im e s

123.

R e g io n ', Arctic Anthropology 1 2 , 2 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 6 0 - 7 5 .

5 0 . V irg in ia M ille r, 'S o c ia l a n d P o litic a l C o m p le x ity on

S a n g e r w rite s o f t h e 's ta g g e r in g ' q u a n tit y o f s w o rd ­

t h e E a st C o a s t: T h e M ic m a c C a s e ', in R o n a ld J.

fis h re m a in s fo u n d o n M o n h e g a n Is la n d , 1 2 m ile s

N a s h , e d ., The Evolution o f M aritim e Cultures on the

o ff s h o r e

N ortheast

fr o m

P e m a q u id ,

M a in e .

See

A lic e

B.

K e h o e , North Am erican Indians, A Comprehensive

a nd

N orthw est

Coasts

o f America

(B u rn a b y , B C , 1 9 8 3 ) , 5 1 . I n a n o t h e r a r tic le , Nash

Account (E n g le w o o d C liffs , N J, 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 1 2 - 1 3 . A

a rg u es t h a t t h e M i'k m a q a t t h e tim e o f co n ta ct

P e n o b s c o t w h a le h u n t is d e s cr ib e d

w e re o n t h e ir w a y t o b e c o m in g o rg a n iz e d in to

in

'A T ru e

R e la tio n o f th e V o y a g e o f C a p ta in e G e o r g e W a y -

c h ie fd o m s .

m o u t h , 1 6 0 5 , b y J a m e s R o s ie r', in H e n ry S w e e tse r

H is to ry : U n in te r r u p te d V iew s o f M ic m a c So ciety ',

R o n a ld

J.

N ash ,

'A n

A lte rn a tiv e

Notes 453 in D ia n a C la ire T k a c z u k a n d B r ia n C . V iv ia n , ed s,

6 0 . 'M e m o r ia l fo r th e M o tiv e s o f th e Sa v a g es, c a lle d

C u ltu res in C o n flict: C urre nt A rchaeological Perspectives (C alg ary , 1 9 8 9 ), 1 8 7 - 9 4 .

M ic k m a k is a n d M a r ic h e e ts fo r c o n t i n u in g t h e w ar w ith E n g la n d s in c e t h e la s t p e a c e ', i n A n Account o f

1 7 1 8 - 3 9 ) , le 1 3 s e p te m b r e 1 7 2 7 e n d é lib é r a tio n d u

the Custom s and Manners o f the M icm akis and M ari­ cheets, Savage N ations, N ow Dependent on the Government o f Cape Breton (L o n d o n , 1 7 5 8 ) , 6 2 - 7 2 .

c o n s e i l,

T h is is a tr a n s la t io n , w ith o n e s h o r t p a ra g ra p h

5 1 . NAC, AC, C n B 1 0 : 4 - 5 , le ttr e d e J o s e p h d e M o n b e to n d e B r o u illa n d it S a in t-O v id e (g o v e r n o r o f Ile R o y a le le

17

fé v r ie r

1728.

S im ila r

e p is o d e s

o c c u r r e d in th e C a r ib b e a n . S e e G u llic k , Myth o f a

Minority, 2 5 . 5 2 . E lb c e B . G o n z a le z , Changing Econom ic Role for M ic­

mac Men and Women: A n Ethnohistorical A nalysis 5 3 . T h e r e m a in in g s e c tio n o f th is c h a p te r is b a s e d o n a r tic le ,

G a s to n

'A m e r in d ia n s

B e tw e e n

F ren ch

and

E n g lish in N o v a S c o tia , 1 7 1 3 - 1 7 6 3 ', American Indian

Culture and Research Journal 2 0 , 4 (1 9 8 6 ) : 3 1 - 5 6 . 5 4 . Se e, fo r e x a m p le , t h e F r e n c h K in g 's p e r m is s io n to P ie rre -C h a rle s L e S u e u r ( 1 6 5 7 - 1 7 0 4 ) , a coureur de bois, t o e x p lo r e t h e p o s s ib ility o f d e v e lo p in g c o p ­ p e r a n d le a d d e p o s its in t h e M is s is s ip p i r e g io n . T h e d o c u m e n t c o n t a in s n o h i n t t h a t th e r e m ig h t b e A m e r in d ia n ti t le t o c o n s id e r. P ie rre M arg ry , D é ­

Du

B o scq

de

Beaum ont

(P aris,

1 8 9 9 ),

E d w a rd

C oke

2 4 8 -5 3 . 6 1 . T h is

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 1 ) , 6 3 , 8 7 - 8 . my

m is s in g , o f o n e o f t h e d o c u m e n ts re p ro d u c e d in

Les derniers jours de l'Acadie (1 7 4 8 -1 7 5 8 ), ed .

w as

th e

o p in io n

of

S ir

( 1 5 5 2 - 1 6 3 4 ) , E n g la n d 's in f lu e n tia l C h ie f J u s tic e o f t h e C o m m o n P le a s. S e e W .S . H o ld s w o rth , A History o f English La w (L o n d o n , 1 9 4 4 ) , IX , 8 3 - 4 ; a lso , R o b e rt A. W illia m s , The Am erican Indian in Western Legal Thought (N ew Y ork, 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 6 9 - 7 0 . 6 2 . 'L e s s a u v a g e s s o n t p e u d e c h o s e , é t a n t n o s a llié e s, m a is p o u r r a ie n t d e v e n ir q u e lq u e c h o s e d e c o n s id ­ é r a b le , é t a n t n o s e n n e m is .' (NAC, AC, C “ B 4 : 2 5 1 - 6 , 1 7 n o v . 1 7 1 9 .) 6 3 . NAC, AC, C n B 1 2 :3 7 v , S a in t-O v id e à M a u re p a s, 2 5

couvertes et établissements dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 614-1754), 6 v o ls

n o v . 1 7 3 1 . S e e a ls o Account o f the Custom s and Manners, 8 5 , ‘L e tte r fr o m M o n s . d e la V a r e n n e ’. A

(P aris,

m a jo r

1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , VI, 6 2 , e x t r a it d ’u n e le ttr e du

M in is tr e d e la M a r in e à C h a m p ig n y , 2 7 av ril 1 6 9 7 . 5 5 . A rticle 1 7 re a d s: 'L e s S a u v a g e s q u i s e r o n t a m e n é s à la fo i e t e n fe r o n t p r o fe s s io n s e r o n t c e n s é s e t ré p u té s n a tu r e ls fr a n ç a is , q u a n d b o n le u r se m b le r a , e t y a c q u é r ir , te s te r, s u c c é d e r e t a c c e p te r d o n a tio n s e t leg s, to u s a in s i q u e les v ra is r é g n ic o le s e t o rig i­ n a ir e s fr a n ç a is , s a n s ê tr e te n u s d e p r e n d r e a u c u n e

w o rk

on

F ren ch

m is s io n a r y

1979. 6 4 . NAC, N o v a S c o tia A 3 2 : 2 2 2 , M a illa rd to P ereg rin e H o p s o n (g o v e r n o r o f N o v a S c o tia ,

nances royaux, déclarations et arrêts du Conseil d'état du roi concernant le Canada, 3 v o ls (Q u é b e c ,

S e p t. 1 7 4 8 .

56. Collection de documents inédits sur le Canada et

l ’Amérique publiées par le Canada Français, 3 v o ls

autres documents historiques relatifs à la NouvelleFrance, 4 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 8 8 3 - 5 ) , I, 1 7 5 , In s tr u c ­ tio n s p o u r le S ie u r d e C o u r c e lle au s u je t d e s in d i­ D ic k a s o n ,

'L o u is b o u r g

6 5 . T h o m a s P ic h o n , Lettres et Mémoires pour servir à

F ran ce

(L a H a y e a n d L o n d o n ,

1 7 6 0 ; Jo h n so n

R e p r in t,

1 9 6 6 ), 1 0 1 -2 .

Documents o f the Province o f Nova Scotia (H a lifa x , 1 8 6 9 ),

1 7 8 -9 ,

C o r n w a llis

to

C a p ta in

S y lv a n u s

C o b b , 13 Ja n . 17 4 9 . 6 7 . NAC, AC, c n B, v o l. 3 1 :6 3 , R a y m o n d t o m in is te r , 19

th e

n o v . 1 7 5 1 . O n F r e n c h c o n c e r n t h a t t h e M i'k m a q

1760,

c o m p la in t a b o u t g ift d is tr ib u tio n s , se e NAC, AC, B,

and

(as w e ll a s th e i r o th e r a llie s ) h a d n o c a u se s fo r

In d ia n s ', 3 8 , 1 0 9 - 2 5 . 58. S im ila rly , w h e n

11

6 6 . T h o m a s B. A k in s, e d ., Selections from the Public

(Q u é b e c , 1 8 8 8 - 9 0 ) , I, 1 9 6 . 5 7 . Collection de manuscrits contenant lettres, mémoires et

a ls o

1 7 5 2 -5 ),

l'histoire Naturelle, C iv ile et Politique du C ap Breton

1 8 5 4 - 6 ) , 1, 1 0 .

See

in

m e n ts , Monumenta Novae Franciae I: L a première m ission d'Acadie (1 6 0 2 -1 6 1 6 ) (Q u é b e c , 1 9 6 7 ) . A s e c o n d v o lu m e , Monumenta Novae Franciae II: Etablissem ent à Québec (1 616-1634), a p p e a re d in

le ttre d e d é c la r a tio n n i d e n a tu r a lit é .’ Edits, ordon­

en s.

a c tiv it y

A ca d ia is L u c ie n C a m p e a u 's c o m p ila t io n o f d o c u ­

w as

d e fe a te d

in

s o u th e r n tr ib e s re fu se d t o r e c o g n iz e t h e B r itis h

v o l. 4 5 / 2 : 2 6 0 - 6 [ 1 2 2 - 9 ] ; ib id ., 2 6 7 - 7 3 [ 1 2 9 - 3 4 ] ,

ta k e o v e r, as t h e y h a d n e v e r g iv e n u p th e i r la n d s.

6 8 . D ic k a s o n , 'L o u is b o u r g a n d t h e In d ia n s ', 1 1 1 - 1 4 .

See J a c k M . S o s in , W hitehall and the Wilderness

6 9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, I, 1 7 7 . T h e r e w ere

(L in c o ln , N e b ., 1 9 6 1 ) , 6 6 .

a lso re p o rts o f t h e m h a v in g liv e d t o g r e a t ag es in

59. T h e D u tc h p u rc h a s e o f M a n h a t t a n Is la n d ( 8 ,0 9 4

p a s t tim e s . D e n y s to ld o f o n e M i'k m a q sa id to

h e c ta re s ; 2 0 ,0 0 0 a c re s) fr o m t h e C a n a r s e e A lg o n -

h a v e r e a c h e d t h e a g e o f 1 6 0 y e a rs. H e a ttrib u te d

q u ia n s fo r 6 0 g u ild e rs ( $ 2 4 ) i n tr a d e g o o d s h a s

s u c h lo n g life t o t h e M i'k m a q h a b it o f d r in k in g

b e c o m e le g e n d a r y i n c o lo n i a l lo r e .

'o n l y g o o d so u p , v e r y f a t '. H e a ls o re p o rte d t h a t

454 Notes s o m e M i'k m a q c o u ld r e c ite th e ir g e n e a lo g ie s b a c k fo r 2 0 g e n e r a tio n s . D e n y s , Description and Natural

History, 4 0 0 , 4 0 3 , 4 1 0 .

A g u ig u e o u p r e s u m a b ly w a s a ls o . 1 1 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, ill, 7 1 .

70. NAC, AC, C “ A, v o l. 1 2 2 :1 3 , 3 0 s e p t. 1705.

1 2 . B ig gar, e d ., Works o f Cham plain, I, 1 0 3 , 1 09; V, 3 1 3 - 1 6 ; P -A n d ré S é v ig n y , Les Abénaquis habitat et migrations (17e et 18e siècles) (M o n tr é a l, 1976),

Chapter 7 1. L ater, th e y w e re re ferred t o as 'C a n lb a s ', w o lv es. 2 . T h is c h a p te r is a r e v is io n a n d e x t e n s io n o f O liv e P. D ic k a s o n , 'T h e F r e n c h a n d t h e A b e n a k i: A S tu d y in

Vermont History 5 8 , 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) :

F r o n tie r P o litic s ',

6 4 -5 .

13. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x il, 187; XXXIV, 57; XXXVIII, 4 1 . 1 4 . G o r d o n M . D ay, 'W e s te r n A b e n a k i', in Bruce G. T rig g er, e d ., Handbook o f North American Indians,

8 2 -9 8 . 3 . M a rg a re t V in c e n t T e h a r io lin a , L a nation huronne,

son histoire, sa culture, son esprit (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 4 ) , 9 4 . 4 . D e a n R. S n o w , The Archaeology o f New England (N ew Y ork, 1 9 8 0 ) , 3 8 ; R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d .,

Jesuit Relations and A llie d Docum ents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) , ra, 1 1 1 . 5 . M a rc

1 0 . A s tic o u (fl. 1 6 0 8 - 1 6 ) w as a P e n o b s c o t sagam o, as

L e s c a r b o t,

'L a

D e ffa ite

des

Sauvages

Ar-

m o u c h iq u o is ', H isto ry o f New France, e d . W .L . G r a n t, 3 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 0 7 - 1 4 ) , III, 4 9 7 - 5 0 8 . A n E n g lis h v e r s io n o f t h e p o e m , tr a n s la te d b y T h o m a s

15: Northeast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 5 0 . See also T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x x i v , 1 8 3 - 5 ; XXXVI, 103. 1 5 . N a tiv e

s e ttle m e n t

p a t te r n s

fo r

1 6 2 5 -1 8 0 0

are

m a p p e d in R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical Atlas of

Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 4 7 . 1 6 . T h e p h r a s e is u se d b y G o r d o n D ay, 'E n g lish -In d ia n C o n ta c ts in N ew E n g la n d ', Ethnohistory 9 (1 9 6 2 ): 28. 1 7 . T h o m a s C h a r la n d , Histoire des Abénakis d ’Odanak

G o e tz , is i n W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the Sixth

(1 6 7 5 -1 9 3 7 ) ( M o n tr é a l, 1 9 6 4 ) , 4 4 ,

A lgo nq uian

1 9 7 5 ),

L u n n , 'T h e Ille g a l Fur T ra d e O u t o f N e w France,

1 5 9 - 7 7 . S e e a ls o P a u lin e M a c D o u g a ll S e e b e r, 'T h e E u ro p e a n In f lu e n c e o n A b e n a k i E c o n o m ic s B e fo re

1 7 1 3 - 6 0 ', Canadian Historical Association Annual Report 1939, 6 1 - 7 6 .

1 6 1 5 ', i n W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the F if­

1 8 . A n Account o f the Custom s and Manners o f the

Conference,

1974

( O tta w a ,

teenth A lgo nq uian

7 5 - 6 ; Jean

Conference ( O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 0 3 - 1 4 ; N e a l S a lisb u ry , M anitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the M aking o f New England, 1 5 0 0-1643 (O x fo rd , 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 8 - 7 0 .

M icm akis and Maricheets, Savage N ations, Now Dependent on the G overnm ent o f Cape Breton

6 . P ie rre -V ic to r-P a lm a C a y e t ( 1 5 2 5 - 1 6 1 0 ) , Chronolo­

1 9 . A b b é J o s e p h A. M a u r a u lt h e ld t h a t in term a rria g e

gie septénaire de l'Histoire de la Pa ix entre les Roys de France et d'Espagne, 2 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 0 5 ) , ii, 4 2 3 . T h is d e s c r ip tio n w a s re p e a te d b y L e s c a r b o t, History o f New France, II, 1 6 9 . H e a t firs t a ttr ib u te d i t to

in N ew F r a n c e w as a t its p e a k d u r in g th e first

C h a m p la in b u t la te r said t h a t C h a m p la in

had

a d m itte d t h a t it w as 'fa b u lo u s ' a n d t h a t t h e Arm o u c h iq u o is re a lly w e re 'a s g o o d lo o k in g m e n . . . as o u rse lv e s, w e ll b u ilt a n d a g ile '. (Ib id ., 1 7 2 .) I n ­ te r e s tin g ly e n o u g h , T a rta rs w e re d e s c r ib e d as s im i­ la rly d e fo rm e d . 7 . H e n ry

P. B ig gar,

ed .,

The Works o f Sam uel de

Cham plain, 6 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 2 2 - 3 6 ) , I, 3 5 6 - 7 . M a rc L e s c a r b o t e x p re s s e s t h e s a m e s e n tim e n ts in

H istory o f New France, II, 3 2 7 . T h e s u s p ic io n o f c a n ­ n ib a lis m is fo u n d in T h o m a s C o r n e ille , Diction­ naire universel, géographique et historique . . . , 3 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 0 8 ), I, s.v. ‘A r m o u c h iq u o is ’; a n d T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, II, 7 3 .

(L o n d o n ,

1 7 5 8 ),

89,

'L e tte r fr o m

M o n s . de la

V a r e n n e '.

th r e e - q u a r t e r s

of

th e

s e v e n te e n th

ce n tu ry .

M a u r a u lt, Histoire des Abénakis depuis 1606 jusqu'à

nos jours (S o re l, Q u é b e c , 1 8 6 6 ; r e p r in t 1 9 6 9 ) , 75. 2 0 . Docum entary History o f the State o f Maine, Baxter

Manuscripts (P o rtla n d , M a in e , 1 9 1 6 ) , XXIII, 56, C o n fe re n ce

w it h

fiv e

o f th e

E a s te r n

In d ia n s,

B o s to n , 1 1 J a n . 1 7 1 3 . 2 1 . E .B . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d J.R . B r o d h e a d , ed s, Docu­

ments Relative to the Colo nial H istory o f the State of New York, 1 5 v o ls (A lb a n y , NY, 1 8 5 3 - 8 7 ) , IX, 8 7 1 , M . d e V a u d re u il t o t h e D u k e o f O r le a n s , 1 7 1 6 ;

NAC, CO 2 1 7 / 1 : 3 6 4 - 6 ,

'A n s w e r

of

In d ia n s o f

P e n o b s c o t t o t h e C o m m is s io n e r s ', Apr. 1 7 1 4 ; NAC,

AC, C n B l : 3 4 0 v - 4 2 , le ttr e d e B é g o n , 2 5 s e p t. 1 7 1 5 , d a n s les d é lib é r a tio n s d e C o n s e il; 2 8 m a rs 1 7 1 6 , ib id ., le t tr e d e C o s te b e lle , 7 s e p t. P ie r r e -F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r

de

1 7 1 5 , 3 3 5 —6;

C h a r le v o ix ,

'M é m o ire

8 . Se eb er, 'E u r o p e a n I n f lu e n c e ', 2 1 0 .

su r les lim ite s d e l'A c a d ie ', Collection de manuscrits

9 . In

contenant lettres, mémoires et autres documents his­ toriques relatifs à la Nouvelle-France, 4 v o ls (Q u éb ec, 1 8 3 3 - 8 5 ) , III, 5 0 - 1 . A lso C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et

1 6 1 3 , it w as re p o rte d t h a t th e r e 'h a s a lw a y s

b e e n w ar . . . b e tw e e n t h e S o u riq u o is [M i'k m a q ] a n d I r o q u o is '. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, I, 1 0 5 .

Notes 455 description générale de la Nouvelle France, 3 v o ls (Paris, 1 7 4 4 ), II, 3 7 7 . 22. Journal o f the Honorable House o f Representatives o f

H is M ajesty’s Province o f M assachusetts-Bay in NewEngland (B o s to n , 1 7 4 4 ) , 5 7 , W illia m S h ir le y t o th e G e n e r a l C o u rt, 1 8 J u l y 1 7 4 4 . 1 9 4 7 - 8 , 2 6 9 , V a u d re u il a u m in is tr e , Q u é b e c , 1 6 sep t. 1 7 1 4 . 2 4 . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IX, 9 4 0 , 'M e m o ir o n t h e P r e s e n t C o n d itio n o f th e A b e n a q u is , 1 7 2 4 '. P a tr ic ia

In d ia n s :

1 7 6 0 ', Canadian Historical Review 1 9 , 2 ( 1 9 3 8 ) : 1 6 0 . 3 8 . M o r r is o n , Em battled Northeast, 1 8 2 - 3 . 3 9 . F o r o n e s u c h e p is o d e , se e C h a r la n d , Histoire, 8 3 . 4 0 . D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, III, s.v. 'A te c o u a n d o '. T h is c h i e f is n o t t o b e c o n fu s e d w ith th e e a r lie r o n e o f t h e s a m e n a m e , fl. 1 7 0 1 - 2 6 . C h ie fs

D ic k a s o n ,

A S tu d y

The Elusive Ideal o f A lliance in Abenaki-Euram erican Relations (B erk eley , 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 5 5 - 9 3 ; D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, II, s.v. 'R a le , S é b a s tie n '. 3 7 . R .O . M a c F a rla n e , 'B r itis h P o lic y in N o v a S c o tia to

23. Rapport de l'Archiviste de la Province de Québec,

25. O liv e

ern o r, 2 7 J u ly 1 7 2 1 . 3 6 . K e n n e th M . M o rr is o n , The Em battled Northeast:

in

'L o u is b o u r g

Im p e r ia l

R ace

and

th e

R e la tio n s ,

1 7 1 3 - 1 7 6 0 ', H istory and Archaeology 6 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 6 6 - 9 . S e e a ls o t h e w a r n in g o f Je s u i t P ie rre d e L a C h a s s e (1 6 7 0 - 1 7 4 9 ) c o n c e r n in g w h a t th e A b en ak i re a c­

w e re re fe rre d t o b y th e ir title s r a th e r t h a n th e ir p erso n a l n am es. 4 1 . D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, III, s.v. 'N o d o g a w e r r im e t'.

tio n t o s u c h a p r o p o s itio n w o u ld b e , i n Collection

4 2 . E a rly a c c o u n t s o f t h e tw o m ilit a r y e x p e d itio n s a re

de manuscrits, III, 5 1 , M é m o ir e su r le s lim it e s d e

to b e fo u n d in M a u r a u lt, Histoire des Abenakis, 1 7 8 - 8 4 , 1 8 6 - 9 3 ; h o w e v e r, t h e e p is o d e s a re re g u la r­

l'A ca d ie .

26. NAC, AC, B, v o l. 4 7 :1 2 6 3 - 1 [279], 16 ju i n 1 7 2 4 ; ib id ., C "B, v o l. 7, 1 9 1 -1 9 3 v , 10 d é c . 1 7 2 5 .

ly in c lu d e d in h is to r ie s o f N e w F r a n c e . Le F e b v re d e L a B a r re ( 1 6 2 2 - 8 8 ) w as g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l o f N ew France, 1 6 8 2 -5 .

27. Sé v ig n y , Les Abénaquis, 1 6 0 - 1 . 28. NAC, AC, c n B, v o l. 5 :1 8 7 - 1 8 7 v , S a in t-O v id e t o m i n ­ ister, 5 se p t. 1 7 2 0 . 29. O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IX, 9 0 2 , V a u d re u il t o G o v e r n o r W illia m B u m e tt , 11 Ju ly 1 7 2 1 . 30. D ic k a s o n , 'L o u is b o u rg a n d t h e I n d ia n s ', 1 1 1 - 1 4 ;

4 3 . Collection de m anuscrits, il, 5 4 , M é m o ir e su r le s l i m ­ ite s d e l'A c a d ie . 4 4 . C o lin G . C a llo w a y , Western Abenaki o f Vermont,

1 6 0 0 -1 8 0 0 (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 4 8 - 5 1 .

Chapter 8

V ic to r M o r in , Les m édailles décernées aux Indiens:

1. R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

Etude historique et num ism atique des colonisations européennes en Amérique (O tta w a , 1 9 1 6 ) .

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

31. C h a rle v o ix , Histoire et description, I, 5 4 1 ; II, 4 0 4 ;

S a m u e l d e C h a m p la in (c. 1 5 7 0 - 1 6 3 5 ) , w h o is th u s

T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, LXVII, 1 2 1 , le t te r

t h e F a th e r o f N e w F r a n c e a lth o u g h h e w a s n e v e r

fr o m

Je s u it Je a n -B a p tis te

L o y a rd

(1 6 7 8 -1 7 3 1 ),

XVI, 2 3 1 ; X X X IX , 4 9 . T h e le a d e r o f t h e F r e n c h w as

n a m e d g o v e rn o r. 2 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XVI, 2 2 9 ; X X X IX , 4 9 .

w r itte n i n 1 7 2 1 . 32. O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , e d s ., Documents, IX,

T h e r e is a p o s s ib ility t h a t H u ro n s h a d m e t F r e n c h

9 4 8 - 9 , A b s tra c t o f M . d e V a u d re u il's D e s p a tc h ;

e a rlie r, p e r h a p s i n 1 6 0 0 . S e e B r u c e G . T rigger, The

ib id ., 9 3 9 - 4 0 , M e m o ir o n t h e P re s e n t C o n d itio n o f

Children o f Aataentsic: A History o f the Huron People to 1660, 2 v o ls (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 7 6 ) , I,

th e A b e n a q u is , 1 7 2 4 . 33. A n o v e rv ie w o f A m e r in d ia n c o n t r ib u t io n s t o th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f N e w F r a n c e is t h a t o f J o h n H. D ic k in s o n , 'L e s A m é r in d ie n s e t les d é b u ts d e la

246. 3 . Ib id ., I, 3 0 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XVI, 2 2 7 -9 .

6e Convegno Intem azionale di

4 . T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, 1 ,2 2 6 - 7 . H o c h e la g a n

studi canadesi (S e lv a d i F a s a n o , 1 9 8 5 ) , S e z io n e III,

re fu g e e s m a y e v e n h a v e jo i n e d t h e A b e n a k i a n d

N o u v e lle -F r a n c e ', 8 7 -1 0 8 .

34. T h e to w n h a d d e v e lo p e d as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a

F iv e N a tio n s . (T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XXII, 2 1 5 .)

m is s io n fo u n d e d b y S é b a s tia n R a le a t N o rrid g e -

5 . T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, I, 2 4 4 ; T h w a ite s , ed .,

w o c k (to d a y 's O ld P o in t, S o u th M a d is o n , M a in e )

Jesuit Relations, XVI, 2 2 7 - 9 . H u ro n s e t tle m e n t p a t­

in 1 6 9 4 . B o t h h e a n d M o g w e re k ille d th e r e in

te r n s a n d m is s io n s a re m a p p e d in R. C o le H arris,

1724.

ed ., Historical A tlas o f Canada, I (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 7 ) ,

35. Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, 2 n d ser. 8 (1 8 2 6 ) : 2 6 0 , E a s te r n In d ia n s ' l e t te r t o t h e G o v ­

p la te 3 4 . A g o o d , s h o r t o v e rv ie w o f t h e H u ro n is C o n ra d

E.

H e id e n r e ic h ,

'H u r o n ',

in

B ru ce

G.

456 Notes T rigger, ed ., Handbook o f North Am erican Indians,

15: Northeast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 7 ) , 3 6 8 - 8 8 .

2 3 . Ib id ., 1 4 2 . S e e a ls o T rig g er, Children o f Aataentsic, I,

220 .

6 . T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, I, 3 0 . T rig g e r h a s

2 4 . A d e s c r ip tio n o f b e a v e r, its liv in g h a b its , how it

p o in te d t o th e f a c t th a t t h e A ta r o n c h r o n o n w ere

w as h u n te d , a n d h o w its p e lts w e re p rocessed for

n o t lis te d b y th e Je s u its in t h e ir d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e

t h e fu r tr a d e is in C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description,

e d ., Jesuit

III, 9 4 - 1 0 7 . S e e a ls o J .B . T y rrell, e d ., D a vid Thomp­ son's Narrative o f his Explorations in Western America

H u ro n

C o n fe d e r a c y .

See

T h w a ite s ,

Relations, x v i, 2 2 7 - 9 . 7 . T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, I, 2 2 0 - 1 . F o r s ix ­

(T o r o n to , 1 9 1 6 ) , 1 - 4 , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 9 8 - 2 0 0 ; H arold A.

te e n th - c e n tu r y p a tte r n s o f tr a d e a n d w a rfa re i n th e

I n n is , The F u r Trade in Canada (N e w H a v en , 1930).

S t L a w re n c e V alley , se e H arris, ed ., Historical Atlas

T h e H u ro n tr a d e is e x a m in e d i n d e ta il in Conrad

o f Canada, p la te 3 3 . 8 . G a b rie l S ag ard , Histoire du Canada, et voyages que les

H e id e n r e ic h , H uronia: A History and Geography of the Huron In d ia n s 1 6 0 0 -1 6 5 0 (T o r o n to , 1971),

frères m ineurs Recollects y ont faicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 3 6 ) , I, 1 7 0 .

2 5 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, IV, 2 0 7 ; VIII, 5 7 ; Trig­ g er, Children o f Aataentsic, I, 3 3 6 - 7 ; H eid en reich, Huronia, 2 5 0 .

9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XXV , 2 7 . 1 0 . Ib id ., X X, 2 2 1 . 1 1 . M o n tm a g n y 's n a m e , re fe r rin g to a m o u n ta in , su g ­ g e s te d t o t h e Ir o q u o is th e i r te r m fo r t h e F r e n c h g o v ern o r,

'O n o n t i o ',

w h ic h

m eans

2 4 2 -9 9 .

m o u n ta in .

F r o m t h e n o n , t h a t w a s th e i r n a m e /t i t l e fo r N ew F ra n c e 's to p o ffic ia l. C h a m p la in , o f t e n re fe rre d to a s N e w F ra n c e 's firs t g o v e rn o r, w a s n e v e r s o n a m e d o ffic ia lly . 1 2 . T h e r e w e re th r e e H u ro n c h ie f s o f t h a t n a m e re ­ c o rd e d d u r in g t h e s e v e n te e n t h c e n tu r y . T h e o th e r tw o w e re b o t h b a p tiz e d : J e a n B a p tis te A tir o n ta (d.

2 6 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 2 3 9 ; fo r 1 6 4 5 and 1 6 4 6 , XXVII, 8 5 , a n d XXVIII, 2 3 5 . S e e a lso Trigger,

Children o f Aataentsic, II, 4 7 9 ; H e id e n re ic h , Huron­ ia, 2 8 0 . 2 7 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x x v n , 8 9 - 9 1 ; Trigger,

Children o f Aataentsic, II, 6 0 4 - 5 . A lso , G eorg e T. H u n t, The Wars o f the Iroquois (M a d is o n , Wis., 1 9 6 0 ), 8 1 - 2 , 8 7 - 1 0 4 . 2 8 . P h ilip p e J a c q u i n , Les indiens blancs (P aris, 1989), 251 n37.

1 6 5 0 ) a n d P ie rre A tir o n ta (d . 1 6 7 2 ) . S e e D ictionary

2 9 . W .J. E c c le s , France in Am erica (N ew Y ork, 1 9 7 2 ), 57.

o f Canadian Biography, I.

3 0 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 2 6 3 - 5 .

1 3 . A llu m e tte Is la n d is to d a y 's M o r r is o n Is la n d , n e a r P e m b r o k e , O n ta r io .

3 1 . Ib id ., X , 7 7 . 3 2 . I n A ca d ia th e r e h a d b e e n c o n f r o n ta ti o n s b etw een

1 4 . O f tw o o th e r k n o w n c h ie f s w ith t h e n a m e T es-

J e s u its a n d tr a d e r s . S e e M a rc L e s c a r b o t, The History

so u a t, o n e m e t C h a m p la in in 1 6 0 3 ; h is su cce sso r,

o f New France, e d . W .L . G r a n t, 3 v o ls (T oron to,

a ls o k n o w n a s Le B o r g n e d e l'ls le , d ie d in 1 6 3 6 . S ee

Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, I.

1 9 0 7 - 1 4 ) , III, 4 8 , S 3 . 3 3 . T h e fir s t m is s io n a r y i n C a n a d a w a s t h e secular

15 . T rigger gives a d e ta iled a c c o u n t o f C h a m p la in 's d e a l­

p rie s t J e s s é F lé c h é (d . 7 1 6 1 1 ) , w h o s p e n t a few

in g s w ith T esso u a t in Children o f Aataentsic, I, 2 8 1 - 6 .

w e ek s i n A ca d ia in 1 6 1 0 , d u r in g w h ic h h e b aptized

1 6 . Ib id ., 3 1 1 . B ig g a r's i d e n t if ic a t io n o f t h e v illa g e as O n o n d a g a h a s b e e n d is c o u n te d b y T rigger. 1 7 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, X X I, 2 0 3 - 5 . 1 8 . Ib id ., XI, 2 0 7 - 9 . 1 9 . T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, II, 4 7 3 - 6 . B rû lé h a d a p p a r e n tly r e ta in e d m o r e o f h is F r e n c h c o n n e c ­ tio n s t h a n p re v io u s ly b e lie v e d . S e e L u c ie n C a m ­ p e a u , Monumenta Novae Franciae II: Etablissem ent à

Québec (1 61 6 -1 6 3 4 ) (Q u é b e c , 1 9 7 9 ) , 8 0 8 - 9 .

th e

p a r a m o u n t M i'k m a q

c h i e f M e m b e r to u , his

fa m ily , a n d m e m b e r s o f h is b a n d , fo r a to ta l o f 21 in d iv id u a ls . H e w as fo llo w e d b y t h e Je s u its , w ho a rriv e d t h e

f o llo w in g y ear, in

1611,

a n d were

in c e n s e d t o fin d a M i'k m a q w ith e ig h t w iv es w ho c o n s id e r e d

h im s e lf a C h r is tia n .

(T h w a ite s , ed.,

Jesuit Relations, I, 1 0 9 - 1 3 . ) T h e firs t tw o Je s u its to w o rk in C a n a d a w e re P ie rre B ia rd ( 1 5 6 7 - 1 6 2 2 ) and E n e m o n d M a ssé ( 1 5 7 5 - 1 6 4 6 ) . T h e la tte r, tr y in g to liv e

A m e r in d ia n - s t y le

d u r in g

th e

w in te r

of

2 0 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, I, 1 0 3 - 7 .

1 6 1 1 - 1 2 , lo s t s o m u c h w e ig h t t h a t h is h o s t, Louis

2 1 . It s h o u ld b e n o te d , h o w e v e r, t h a t C h a m p la in 's

M e m b e r to u (s o n o f t h e fa m o u s c h ie f ) , fe a red h e

w e a p o n s a n d e q u ip m e n t w e re re p u te d t o b e th e

w o u ld d ie a n d t h a t t h e F r e n c h w o u ld a c c u s e th e

la te s t a n d b e s t.

M i'k m a q o f h a v in g k ille d h im . (L e s c a rb o t, History

2 2 . C h a r le v o ix d e s crib e s t h e c la s h in Histoire et descrip­

tion générale de la Nouvelle France, 3 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 4 4 ) , I, 1 5 0 - 2 .

o f New France, III, 5 6 .) 3 4 . T h e R e c o lle c ts w e re n a tu r a lly u n h a p p y a b o u t th is. F o r t h e ir v ie w s o n t h e Je s u its , se e P ie rre M argry,

Notes 457 Découvertes et établissements dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 6 1 4 -1 7 5 4 ), 6 v o ls (P aris, 1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , I, 5 - 1 5 .

w it c h c r a f t w as b e c a u s e th e y a te s o m u c h sa lt. 4 8 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 2 3 7 ; VIII, 1 1 9 ; x m , 1 7 1 . B ia rd re p o rte d a s im ila r r e a c tio n o n t h e p a rt

35. Treizième tome du Mercure François (P aris, 1 6 2 9 ) , 3 2 ; T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 2 5 ; L e s c a r b o t, H is ­

tory o f New France, I, 1 8 4 . A lso , O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , The Myth o f the Savage and the Beginnings o f French Colonialism in the Americas (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ), 2 5 1 .

o f t h e M i'k m a q . Ib id ., Ill, 1 2 3 , c ite d b y D ic k a s o n ,

Myth o f the Savage, 2 7 6 . 4 9 . C o rn e liu s J . J a e n e n , ‘A m e r in d ia n V iew s o f F r e n c h C u ltu r e in t h e S e v e n te e n th C e n tu r y ', Canadian

Historical Review 5 5 , 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) : 2 6 1 - 9 1 . 5 0 . T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations, XV, 1 6 3 .

3 6 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 2 5 .

5 1 . Ib id ., X X V lll, 4 1 .

37. S a g ard 's d ic tio n a r y is re p ro d u c e d in S ag ard , H is ­

toire du Canada, IV. O n Le C a r o n , se e C h r e s tie n Le C le r c q , First Establishm ent o f the Faith in New France, tr. J o h n G ilm a r y S h e a , 2 v o ls (N ew Y ork,

5 2 . Ib id ., v ill, 4 3 ; XV, 1 1 3 . A t o n e p o in t, H u ro n s r e je c t­ e d F r e n c h k e ttle s as p o s s ib le so u rc e s o f c o n t a g io n . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XV, 2 1 .

1 8 8 1 ), l, 2 4 8 - 5 0 . B r é b e u f's tr a n s la t io n in t o H u ro n

5 3 . Ib id ., X in , 1 4 7 .

o f L e d e s m a 's c a te c h is m is re p ro d u c e d b y M a rg a re t

5 4 . Ib id ., X X X I, 1 2 1 ; X IX, 1 9 7 - 9 ; X X , 2 9 .

V in c e n t T e h a r io lin a , L a nation huronne, son histoire,

5 5 . B ru c e G . T rigger, 'E a rly I r o q u o ia n C o n ta c ts w ith

sa culture, son esprit (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 4 ), 4 3 6 - 5 0 . 3 8 . C o r n e liu s J . J a e n e n , Friend and Foe: Aspects o f

E u ro p e a n s ', in T rigger, e d ., Handbook o f North A m ­ erican Indians, 15 : Northeast, 3 5 2 ; K arl H. S c h le s ie r,

French-Am erindian Cultural Contact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , 7 5 .

W a rs o f th e Ir o q u o is , 1 6 0 9 - 1 6 5 3 ', Ethnohistory 2 3 ,

39. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 1 4 7 ; XXV, 1 1 3 .

41. S a g ard , Histoire du Canada, I, 1 6 5 . '. . . le s a n g m e g e lle q u a n d je r 'e n t r e e n m o y -m e s m e , Sc c o n s id é r é q u 'ils fa is o ie n t p lu s d ’e s ta t d 'u n c a s to r q u e d u s a lu t d 'u n p e u p le . . .' A n a r tic le d e n y in g t h e Je s u it in v o lv e m e n t in th e fu r tr a d e is t h a t o f P a tric k J . 'T h e

2 (1 9 7 6 ): 1 2 9 -4 5 . 5 6 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , Le pays renversé: Amérindiens et euro­

40. Ib id ., XI, 1 4 7 2 .

L o m a sn e y ,

'E p id e m ic s a n d In d ia n M id d le m e n : R e th in k in g th e

C a n a d ia n Je s u its

and

th e

péens en Amérique du nord-est 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 6 4 (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 5 ), 10 6 . 5 7 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, I, s.v. 'O u m a s a s ik w e ie '. 5 8 . H e n ry P. B ig gar, e d ., The Works o f Samuel de Cham ­

Fur

plain, 6 v o ls (T o ro n to , 1 9 2 2 - 3 6 ) , VI, 3 7 9 . C h a m ­

T ra d e ', M id-Am erica 1 5 (n e w ser., v o l. 4 ), 3 (1 9 3 3 ) :

p la in , in h is le tte r t o R ic h e lie u , 1 8 A ug. 1 6 3 4 ,

1 3 9 -5 0 .

w r o te : 'P o u r les v a in c r e e t ré d u ire e n l'o b é is s a n c e

42. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, v, 8 3 ; IX, 1 7 1 - 3 ; VI,

d e S a M a je s té , s ix -v in g t h o m m e s d e F r a n c e b ie n

8 0 - 2 . S e e a ls o Ja c q u i n , Les Indiens blancs, 7 4 - 5 .

é q u ip é s a v e c le s sa u v a g e s n o s a llié s s u f fir a ie n t p o u r

43. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, IX, 5 3 . 44. Ib id ., XVI, 5 3 - 5 ; IX, 2 3 9 . 45. T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, I, 4 2 9 - 3 3 ; G a b rie l S ag ard , The Long Journey to the Country o f the Hurons, ed . G e o r g e M . W ro n g (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 9 ), 1 1 8 , 1 8 3 . F lo p p y -e a re d d o g s w o u ld la te r fa s c in a te A m e r in d ia n s in B r itis h C o lu m b ia . O n t h e F r e n c h r e a c t io n t o t h e H u ro n s ' d o g s, se e T h w a ite s , ed .,

Jesuit Relations, VII, 4 3 - 5 . 46. T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VIII, 1 0 9 - 1 3 ; T rigger,

Children o f Aataentsic, II, 4 9 5 . T h e Je s u its d id n o t m a k e m u c h u se o f th e ir m ill, as t h e y fo u n d th a t sa g a m ité w as b e t te r w h e n m a d e fr o m c o r n p o u n d ­ ed in a w o o d e n m o rta r , a fte r th e m a n n e r o f th e H u ro n s. 47. A p p a r e n tly t h e H u ro n s h a d a m o r e r e s tra in e d re a c ­ tio n a n d re fu se d t o e a t sa lte d fo o d s b e c a u s e th e y said t h e y s m e lle d b a d . S e e Sa g a rd , Long Journey, 1 1 8 . T h e b e lie f d e v e lo p e d a m o n g t h e A m e r in d ia n s th a t t h e r e a s o n E u ro p e a n s w e re a b le t o re s is t th e ir

le s e x te r m in e r o u les fa ire v e n ir à la ra is o n .' 5 9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XXVII, 8 9 - 9 1 ; XXVIII, 47. 6 0 . S e e b e lo w , C h a p te r 1 0 . 6 1 . G u y L a f lè c h e , Les saints martyrs canadiens, 2 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 8 ) , I, 3 2 . 6 2 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations,

xxxh

, 99.

6 3 . J o s é A n to n io B r a n d à o , Your Fyre Shall B um No More ( L in c o ln , N e b ., 1 9 9 8 ) , 9 8 - 9 . S e e a lso R o la n d V ia u ,

Enfants du néant et mangeurs d'âm es: guerre, culture et sociétés en Iroquoisie ancienne (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 9 7 ) , 4 0 -4 . 64. T he

tw o

w e re

B rébeu f an d

G a b r ie l

L a le m e n t

( 1 6 1 0 - 4 9 ) . T h e y w e re c a n o n iz e d in 1 9 3 0 , a lo n g w ith s ix o th e r s , a ll J e s u its e x c e p t J e a n d e la L a n d e , a donné. S e e L a flè c h e , Les saints martyrs, I, 3 3 , 2 9 9 . 6 5 . T e h a r io lin a , La nation huronne, 4 7 . 6 6 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, III, s.v. 'O r o n t o n y '.

458 Notes 6 7 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XLIII, 2 6 5 .

M é m o ir e s u r T il e R o y a le , 1 7 5 0 . '. . . il y a lieu de

6 8 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , 'L e s Ir o q u o is c h r é tie n s d e s " r é d u c ­

c r o ir e q u 'ils [th e In d ia n s ] n 'E m b r a s s e n t la religion

t i o n s " , 1 6 6 7 - 1 7 7 0 I-M ig r a tio n e t ra p p o rts a v e c les

C a t h o liq u e q u e p a r I n te r e s t . . . ils la p ra tiq u e en

F r a n ç a is ', Recherches amérindiennes au Québec 2 0 ,

A p p a r e n ce , e n f o n t le s E x e rc is e s , v o n t m êm e à

1 -2 (1 9 9 1 ): 64.

c o n fe sse ,

m ai

ils

s 'y

p ré s e n te n t

fa u x

h onte

d 'a v o u e r le u r tu rp itu d e , d ’o u il e s t a p p a r e n t qu'ils

6 9 . Ib id ., 5 9 - 7 0 . 7 0 . T e h a r io lin a , L a nation huronne, 3 0 6 - 9 ; D ictionary o f

Canadian Biography, II. K o n d ia r o n k w a s 'A d a rio ' in

e n s o r t e n t s a n s r e p e n tir d e leu rs fa u te s .' 7 9 . J o h n S. L o n g m a k e s th is p o in t in c o n n e c tio n with t h e C r é é a n d M o n ta g n a is o f J a m e s Bay, in 'M anitu,

L a h o n ta n 's d ia lo g u e s.

Pow er, B o o k s a n d W iih tik o w : S o m e F a cto rs in the

7 1 . NAC, MG 8 : D o c u m e n ts r e la tifs à la N o u v e lle -

A d o p tio n o f C h r is t ia n ity b y N in e te e n th -C e n tu ry

F r a n c e e t a u Q u é b e c ( x v i l e - x x e s iè c le s ), E l , f 6 0 ,

W e s te r n J a m e s B a y C r e e ', Native Studies Review 3, 1

Ja m e s M u rray , Report o f the Government o f Quebec

and dependencies thereof, c. 1 7 6 2 . T h e p r o m is e c o n ­ ta in e d

in

th e

d ocu m ent

w as

d e fin e d

by

th e

S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a n a d a as a tre a ty . S e e J o h n

(1 9 8 7 ): 1 -3 0 . 8 0 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 1 5 3 - 5 . 8 1 . S u c h b e h a v io u r h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d a m o n g n o rth ­ e r n A m e r in d ia n s . S e e J e a n - G u y G o u le t, 'Religious

T h o m p s o n , 'T h e T re a tie s o f 1 7 6 0 ', The Beaver 7 6 , 2

D u a lis m A m o n g A th a p a s k a n C a t h o lic s ’, Canadian

(1 9 9 6 ) : 2 3 - 8 . 7 2 . '2 3 0 -y e a r - o ld tr e a ty g u a r a n te e in g H u r o n s ' rig h ts is v a lid : to p c o u r t', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 5 M a y 1990,

A 5.

For th e

h is t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d ,

Journal o f Anthropology 3 , 1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 1 - 1 8 . 8 2 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, X XII, 7 3 . See also ib id ., XVII, 2 1 1 .

se e

G e o r g e s S io u i, Pour une autohistoire amérindienne

8 3 . Ib id ., X XX IV , 1 2 3 .

(Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 1 1 - 3 0 . T h e F fu ro n s h a d b e e n

8 4 . Ib id ., 1 0 5 , 2 1 7 . A t tim e s Je s u its w e re allo w ed to

a rre ste d fo r c u tt in g sa p lin g s i n a p r o v in c ia l p a rk

a d d ress c o u n c ils , a s B r é b e u f d id in 1 6 3 8 a t a m eet­

n o r th o f Q u e b e c C ity t o b u ild a sw e a t lo d g e . S e e

in g t h a t h a d b e e n e s p e c ia lly c o n v o k e d to hear

a ls o C h a p te r 2 3 .

h im . (Ib id ., XV, 1 1 3 - 1 5 . )

7 3 . J o h n W e b s te r G r a n t, Moon o f W intertime: M ission­

8 5 . Ib id ., XXII, 1 7 9 , 3 0 7 , c o n c e r n in g t h e n u m b e r of

aries and the Ind ia ns o f Canada in Encounter since 1534 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 4 ) , 4 5 - 6 .

g u n s a m o n g th e H u ro n s ; E liz a b e th T o o k er, ‘The Iro q u o is D e fe a t o f t h e H u ro n : A R ev ie w o f Causes',

Pennsylvania Archaeologist 3 3 , 1 - 2 ( 1 9 6 3 ) : 1 1 5 -2 3 .

7 4 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XVIII, 1 0 3 - 7 . J e s u it

O n t h e re a s o n s w h y t h e Iro q u o is a d o p te d firearm s

h is to r ia n L u c ie n C a m p e a u c h a lle n g e s th is , o n th e

d e s p ite

g r o u n d s t h a t t h e A m e r in d ia n tr a d itio n o f t o le r ­

c o m m e r c ia l r e a s o n s fo r t h e ir a c tio n s . (T h w a ite s ,

1 7 3 - 2 8 2 . S o m e F r e n c h o ff ic ia ls w e re u n d e r the in d ia n s t o u s e g u n s . (NAC, AC, C ’A, 1 2 2 :2 0 2 - 3 .) 8 6 . C a m p e a u , L a M ission des Jésuites, 3 4 5 - 5 9 . 8 7 . S e e W .J. E c c le s , The Canadian Frontier 1534-1760 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 9 ) , c h . 6 . 8 8 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XL, 2 1 5 . 8 9 . F o r a s tu d y o f t h e fa c to r s t h a t le d t o th e 1701 p e a c e , s e e G ille s H a v a rd , L a grande p a ix de Montréal de 1701 (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 9 2 ) .

7 7 . G r a n t, Moon o f Wintertime, 4 2 ; T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit 1640,

r e p o r te d ly b y t h e

S e n e c a . B r u c e T rigger,

h o w e v e r, m a in t a in s t h a t it w as t h e d e e d o f h is fe l­ lo w v illa g e rs , w h o b e lie v e d h e w a s a so rc e r e r a n d h a d tu r n e d a g a in s t th e m . S e e T rigger, Natives and

Newcomers, 2 4 9 . S e e a ls o T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x i x , 1 5 1 - 7 ; X XIII, 1 9 5 . 7 8 . NAC, MG 1, AC, C “ C, v o l. 1 6 :4 (s e c o n d e p iè c e ,

p e r io d , see

im p r e s s io n t h a t t h e Iro q u o is w e re t h e firs t Am er­

e d ., Jesuit Relations, X X , 2 8 8 .)

Relations, XVII, 4 7 - 9 . C h ih w a te n h a w a s k ille d in

th a t

rent Archaeological Perspectives (C a lg a ry , 1 9 8 9 ),

n e r B o w d e n , Am erican Indians and Christian M is­

ed ., Jesuit Relations, XVI, 3 3 ; T rigger, Children o f Aataentsic, il, 5 4 7 , 7 0 0 ; T rig g er, Natives and Newcomers, 2 5 4 - 5 ; B o w d e n , Am erican Indians and Christian M issions, 8 7 - 8 . C o n v e r ts d e n ie d

at

a n d B r ia n C . V iv ia n , ed s, Cultures in Conflict: Cur­

7 5 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, LI1, 1 7 9 ; H e n ry W a r­

7 6 . T h w a ite s ,

in e ffic ie n c y

A rt o f W a r in Ir o q u o ia ', i n D ia n a C la ire Tkaczuk

i n p e a c e . C a m p e a u , L a M ission des Jésuites chez les Hurons 1 6 3 4 -1 6 5 0 (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 7 6 - 8 .

sions (C h ic a g o , 1 9 8 1 ) , 8 8 ; T rig g er, Natives and New­ comers, 2 5 5 .

th e ir

T h o m a s B. A bler, ‘E u ro p e a n T e c h n o lo g y a n d the

a n c e a llo w e d C h r is tia n s a n d n o n - C h r is tia n s t o liv e

Chapter 9 1.

M u c h o f t h e m a te r ia l fo r th i s c h a p te r h a s been d raw n

fro m

O liv e

P a tr ic ia

D ic k a s o n ,

'T h re e

W o rld s, O n e F o c u s : E u ro p e a n s M e e t In u it and A m e r in d ia n s in D a v is ,

e d .,

th e

F a r N o r t h ',

Rupert's La n d : A

(C a lg a ry , 1 9 8 8 ) , S l - 7 8 .

in

R ich a rd C.

C u ltu ra l Tapestry

Notes 459 p a ssé d e p lu s re m a r q u a b le d a n s le v o y a g e d e M M

2 . O n th e p r e h is to r ic tr a d e o f t h e H u ro n , se e B r u c e G . T rigger, The Children o f Aataentsic: A H istory o f the

Huron People to 1660, 2 v o ls (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g ­

D o llie r e t G a lin é e , 1 6 6 9 - 7 0 . 1 2 . Ib id ., I, 1 1 8 . S e e a ls o H e n r y S w e e tse r B u rra g e, ed .,

s to n , 1 9 7 6 ), I, 1 7 6 - 8 6 ; o n its d e v e lo p m e n t a fte r

Early English and French Voyages, Chiefly from H a k­ lu yt (N ew Y ork, 1 9 5 2 ) , 3 6 8 .

t h e a rriv a l o f t h e F r e n c h , ib id ., II, 6 0 8 - 1 2 . 3 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

1 3 . H u d s o n 's

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) , I, 101.

Book

Bay

O ff ic ia l L o n d o n

O u tw a rd s,

1 6 7 9 -1 7 4 1 ,

C o rresp o n d e n ce

A .6 /l:8 6 -8 6 v ,

HBC

A rc h iv e s . S e e a ls o A rth u r J . R ay, Indians in the Fur

c o m m e n t t h a t t h e y w e re 'm o r e d iffic u lt t o tr a v e l

Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters, and M iddle­ men in the Lands Southwest o f H udson B ay 1 6 6 0 1870 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 4 ) , 7 5 - 9 . S o m e h is to r ia n s m a i n ­

th a n t h e h ig h ro a d fr o m P aris t o O r le a n s '. T h e fifth

ta in t h a t t h e g u n w as in it ia lly o f v e ry lim it e d u s e ­

ro u te w as fo r p e o p le s n o r t h a n d w e s t o f L ak e

fu ln e s s . S e e M o r a n tz , 'T h e F u r T ra d e a n d t h e C re e

Jesuit Relations, XLIV,

o f J a m e s B a y ', 4 1 ; A rth u r J . Ray, 'In d ia n s a s C o n ­

4. F iv e n o r th e r n ro u te s , s o m e o f t h e m sa id t o b e a n c ie n t , w e re d e s cr ib e d b y t h e Je s u its , w ith t h e

S u p e rio r .

T h w a ite s ,

e d .,

2 3 9 - 4 5 ; LVI, 2 0 3 . S e e a ls o T o b y M o r a n tz , 'T h e Fur

s u m e rs ', i n Ju d d a n d Ray, ed s, O ld Trails and New

T rad e a n d t h e C r e e o f J a m e s B a y ', i n C a r o l M . Ju d d

Directions, 2 6 1 .

a n d A .J. Ray, ed s, O ld Trails and New Directions: Papers o f the T h ird N orth Am erican F u r Trade Conference (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 0 ), 2 3 - 4 . 5. A lice

B eck

K ehoe,

W.

in Hudson's B ay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769 ■ 1770 ■ 1771 ■ 1772, e d . J .B . T y re ll (T o ro n to ,

The Ghost Dance (T o r o n to ,

1 9 8 9 ), 1 1 5 . 6. J a m e s

1 4 . S a m u e l H e a rn e , A Journey from Prince o f W ales’s Fort

1 9 1 1 ), 3 1 0 . 1 5 . R o lf K n ig h t, Ecological Factors in Changing Econom y

V a n S to n e ,

'N o r t h e r n

A th a p a s k a n s :

and Social Organization Am ong the Rupert House Cree

P e o p le o f t h e D e e r ', i n W illia m H . F itz h u g h a n d A ro n C r o w e ll, ed s, Crossroads o f Continents: C u l­

tures o f Siberia and Alaska (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 6 8 .

(O tta w a , 1 9 6 8 ) , 2 0 . 1 6 . D a n ie l F r a n c is a n d T o b y M o r a n tz , Partners in Furs:

A History o f the F u r Trade in Eastern James Bay 1 6 0 0 -1 8 7 0 (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 8 3 ) , 6 1 - 3 ,

T h e in c r e a s e in fa m in e m a n ife s te d its e lf v e ry early . In

1635,

s t a r v in g

A m e r in d ia n s

o f th e

G asp é

8 6 , 1 7 0 . J o h n M . C o o p e r d e s c r ib e s e a r ly tr a p p in g

a lle g e d ly k ille d a n d a te a y o u n g b o y w h o m t h e

te c h n iq u e s in Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps o f

B a s q u e s h a d le f t w ith t h e m t o le a r n th e ir la n g u a g e . (T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VIII, 2 9 .)

the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans

P ie rre -

(W a s h in g to n , 1 9 3 8 ) .

F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r C h a r le v o ix w o u ld la te r o b s e r v e th a t a lth o u g h A m e r in d ia n s k n e w h o w t o e n d u re

1 7 . T o b y M o r a n tz ,

'O ld T e x ts , O ld Q u e s tio n s — A n ­

it. S e e C h a r le v o ix ,

o th e r L o o k a t t h e Issu e o f C o n tin u ity a n d th e E arly

Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France, 3

F u r T ra d e P e rio d ’, p a p e r p r e s e n te d t o t h e A m e r ic a n

h u n g e r, t h e y s till d ie d fr o m

S o c ie ty fo r E th n o h is to r y , C h ic a g o , 1 9 8 9 .

v o ls (P aris, 1 7 4 4 ) , III, 3 3 8 . 7. N ic h o la s D e n y s , The Description and N atural History

1 8 . A rth u r D o b b s , A n Account o f the Countries adjoining

o f the Coasts o f North America (Acadia), e d . W illia m

to Hudson's B ay (L o n d o n , 1 7 4 4 ; r e p rin t N ew York, 1 9 6 7 ), 5 9 .

F. G a n o n g (T o r o n to , 1 9 0 8 ) , 4 4 0 - 1 . 8. M is s io n a r ie s a n d tra d e rs s o o n n o te d h o w m u c h th e

n o r th e r n e r s

Jesuit Relations,

p riz e d

l v i,

t o b a c c o . T h w a ite s ,

1 9 . J .B . T y rre ll, e d ., D a vid Thompson's Narrative o f his

Explorations in Western America, 17 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o ­

ed .,

r o n to , 1 9 1 6 ) , 1 6 4 . A s u m m a r y o f e a r ly a c c o u n t s o f

189.

th i s e v e n t is i n Ray, Indians in the Fur Trade, 4 - 1 1 .

9. C h r is to p h e r L. M ille r a n d G e o r g e R. H a m e ll, 'A N ew

P e r s p e c t iv e

on

In d ia n -W h ite

C o n ta c t:

2 0 . P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d N eil H. M ic k e n b e r g , eds,

Native Rights in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 4 2 .

C u ltu ra l S y m b o ls a n d C o lo n ia l T ra d e ', Journal o f

American History 7 3 , 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 3 1 1 - 2 8 .

21.

h bc

O ff ic ia l L o n d o n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e B o o k O u t­

10. P ierre M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements dans

w a rd s 1 6 7 9 - 1 7 4 1 , A .6 /1 .6 , HBC A rc h iv e s; E.E. R ich ,

l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 614-1754), 6 v o ls (P aris, 1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , I, 1 1 9 . O n th e

C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights in

d an g e rs o f t h e riv ers, ib id ., 1 6 4 - 5 . 11. Ib id ., VI, 4 8 2 , e x t r a it d es le ttr e s d e S ie u r d e F a b r y à

ed ., Letters Outward 1679-1694 (T o r o n to , 1 9 4 8 ) , 9 ;

Canada, 1 4 2 n 3 6 ; F ra n c is a n d M o r a n tz , Partners in Furs, 2 3 . T h e s e in s tr u c t io n s w e re re p e a te d t o N ix ­

l'o c c a s io n d u v o y a g e à S a n ta Fé. E x p e r ie n c e d tr a v ­

o n 's

ellers to o k ro lls o f b ir c h b a r k w ith th e m , n o t o n ly

A .6 / l :3 0 v , HBC A rch iv e s.

su ccesso r,

H en ry

S e r g e a n t,

in

1683.

See

fo r t h e r e p a ir o f c a n o e s b u t a ls o fo r t h e c o n s t r u c ­

2 2 . J o h n O ld m ix o n , The History o f H udson’s-Bay, Co n­

tio n o f s h e lte rs . Ib id ., I, 1 2 0 , R é c it d e c e q u i c 'e s t

taining an A ccount o f its Discovery and Settlement, the

460 Notes Progress o f It, and the Present State; o f the Indians, Trade and Everything Else Relating to It, i n J .B . T y rre ll, e d ., Documents Relating to the Ea rly History o f Hudson Bay (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 1 ) , 4 0 0 - 1 . S e e a ls o A rth u r J . R a y a n d D o n a ld F r e e m a n , 'Give Us Good Measure’: A n Econom ic A nalysis o f Relations Between the Indians and the Hudson's B ay Com pany before 1763 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 8 ) , 6 0 - 1 ; E .E . R ic h ,' 'T ra d e H a b its

and

E c o n o m ic

M o tiv a tio n

am ong

th e

In d ia n s o f N o r th A m e r ic a ', Canadian Journal o f Eco­

3 1 . D o b b s , A n Account, 4 2 . 3 2 . H e a rn e , Journey to the Northern Ocean, 8 5 - 6 n . 3 3 . S y lv ia V a n K irk, 'T h a n a d e lth u r ', The Beaver Outfit 3 0 4 , 4 ( 1 9 7 4 ) : 4 0 - 5 ; K e ith C ro w e , A History of the

O riginal Peoples o f Northern Canada (M o n tre a l and K in g s to n , 1 9 9 1 ) , 7 6 - 8 . J a m e s H o u s to n , Running West (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , is a h is to r ic a l n o v e l detailing T h a n a d e lth u r 's life . 3 4 . T h e F r e n c h h a d lo n g s in c e le a rn e d th e tru th of

3 5 -5 3

th is . G a b rie l S a g a rd sa id th e F r e n c h sh o u ld never

(r e p rin te d , w ith illu s tr a tio n s ad d ed , u n d e r t h e title

g o in t o t h e w o o d s w it h o u t a n e x p e r ie n c e d guide,

The Beaver O u tf it 3 0 1

a s e v e n s u c h tr a v e l a id s a s a c o m p a s s c o u ld fail. He

nom ics and P o litica l Science 2 6 'T h e I n d ia n T ra d e rs' i n

(1 9 6 0 ):

[1 9 7 0 ] : 5 - 2 0 ) ; A. R o ts te in , 'T ra d e a n d P o litic s : A n

to ld o f E t ie n n e B rû lé , a n e x p e r ie n c e d coureur de

In s titu tio n a l A p p r o a c h ', Western Canadian Journal

bois, w h o h a d o n c e lo s t h is w a y a n d m istakenly

o f Anthropology 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 1 - 2 8 .

w a n d e re d

2 3 . F r a n c is a n d M o r a n tz , Partners in Furs, 2 1 3 - 2 4 ; E d w in T h o m p s o n D e n ig , Five Indian Tribes o f the

Upper Missouri, e d . J o h n C . E w ers (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 6 1 ), 1 12. 2 4 . M a ry

'V a r ie t ie s

of

"S ta r v in g " :

S e m a n tic s a n d S u rv iv a l i n t h e S u b a rc tic F u r T rad e, 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 5 0 ', Ethnohistory 3 3 , 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 3 6 8 ; B ru c e M . W h ite , '" G i v e U s a L ittle M ilk " : T h e S o c ia l a n d C u ltu r a l S ig n ific a n c e o f G ift G iv in g in t h e L a k e S u p e rio r F u r T ra d e ', in T .C . B u ck ley , ed ., Rendez­

vous: Selected Papers o f the F u r Trade Conference 1981 (S t P au l, M in n ., 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 8 7 .

an

I r o q u o is

v illa g e ,

w h ere he

p e n s ta n c e . S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, et voyages que les frères m ineurs Recollects y ont faicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 3 6 ), I, 4 6 6 -7 ;

B la c k -R o g e r s ,

in t o

e s c a p e d to r tu r e a n d d e a th o n ly b y a lu ck y hap­

II, 4 2 9 - 3 0 .

C h a m p la in

had

g o t lo s t in

H u ro n ia . S e e M a r c e l T ru d e l, Histoire de la Nouvelle

France II: Le comptoir: 1 6 0 4 -1 6 2 7 (M o n tr é a l, 1966), 2 2 1 . A y o u n g A m e r in d ia n la d , ra ise d b y th e French a n d c h r is te n e d B o n a v e n tu r e , d ie d a s a resu lt of b e in g lo s t in t h e w o o d s fo llo w in g a n accid en t. (T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, IX , 2 2 1 .) T h e re has n ever b een

a s tu d y o f t h e e c o n o m i c v a lu e of

A m e r in d ia n c o n t r ib u t io n s to E u ro p e a n voy ag es of

2 5 . T h e F r e n c h h a d e a r lie r e x p e r ie n c e d d if fic u lty in

d is c o v e r y i n t h e i n t e r io r o f t h e A m e ric a s, i f such

th is reg ard . G a lin é e re p o rte d t h a t e v e n in h is d a y

w o u ld b e p o s s ib le . It m u s t h a v e b e e n co n sid era b le.

(th e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e v e n te e n t h c e n tu r y ) th e y

3 5 . R ich a rd G lo v e r, e d ., D avid Thom pson’s Narrative

h a d n o t y e t m a s te re d t h e te c h n iq u e s o f fis h in g in t h e n o r th e r n riv ers. M a rg ry , Découvertes et établisse­

1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 2 ) , 9 0 . 3 6 . A ctu a lly , t h e F r e n c h

ments, I, 1 6 3 - 4 . 2 6 . C a r o l M . Ju d d , 'S a k ie , E s q u a w e n o e , a n d t h e F o u n ­ d a t io n o f a D u a l-N a tiv e T ra d itio n a t M o o s e F a c ­ to r y ', in S h e p a rd K re ch ill, e d ., The Subarctic Fur

Trade (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 4 ) , 8 7 .

h a d e n c o u n te r e d b is o n in

'F lo r id a ' m u c h ea rlie r, as a tte s te d b y a n en gravin g b is o n -h u n tin g in A n d ré T h e v e t 's La Cosmographie Universelle, 2 v o ls (P a ris, 1 5 7 5 ), il,

of

1007v. 3 7 . W h e n H e a r n e r e tu r n e d fr o m h is v o y a g e , h is guides

2 7 . F o r d e ta ils , se e C h a p te r 1 6 , p . 2 1 8 .

M a to n a b b e e a n d Id o tly a z e e p ro v id e d a m a p o f th e

2 8 . H e a m e , Journey to the Northern Ocean, 1 8 5 n . F o r a

la n d s th e y h a d v is ite d . J u n e H e lm 's s tu d y o f th e

s im ila r r e a c tio n o n t h e p a rt o f t h e I n u it a t a la te r

c h a r t re v e a le d h o w it c o -o r d in a te s w ith m o d e m

p e rio d , se e C h a r le s F r a n c is H a ll, Arctic Researches and Life Am ong the Esquim aux (N ew Y ork, 1 8 6 5 ) , in d ia n s k ille d a n im a ls , 't h e y e a t t h e m e a t o f th e s e

m a p s . S e e H e lm , ‘M a t o n a b b e e 's M a p ', Arctic Anthropology 2 6 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 2 8 - 4 7 . F o r o th e r A m er­ in d ia n m a p s , se e R. C o le H arris, e d ., Historical Atlas o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 5 9 . A rctic ex ­

w ith o u t b re a d , w it h o u t sa lt, a n d w it h o u t o th e r

p lo r e r S ir J o h n F r a n k lin ( 1 7 8 6 - 1 8 4 7 ) a v a ile d h im ­

2 9 7 . Je s u its re p o r te d in 1 6 4 6 t h a t w h e n A m e r­

sa u c e th a n

th e

a p p e tite .' (T h w a ite s ,

e d ., Jesuit

Relations, XXIX, 7 5 .) ‘A p p e tite s u p p lie s th e p la c e o f a ll s a u c e s . . . th e y d in e d w it h o u t b re a d a n d w it h ­ o u t w in e .' (Ib id ., X X X II, 2 6 5 .) 2 9 . HBC A rch iv e s,

1742,

s e lf o f A m e r in d ia n a n d

I n u it s k e tc h m a p s . See

C h a r le s M a ir, Through Mackenzie's B asin (T o ro n to , 1 9 0 8 ), 9 6 - 7 .

A bout

1 0 0 I n u it m a p s d ra w n on

p a p e r fo r e x p lo r e rs h a v e su rv iv e d . A m o n g th e m ­

B . 1 3 5 / a / l l : 6 7 , M o o s e F o rt

selv es, I n u it e it h e r g a v e v e r b a l i n s tr u c t io n s o r drew

Jo u r n a l, 1 7 4 2 , c ite d b y F r a n c is a n d M o ra n tz , Part­

m a p s o n s a n d o r sn o w . S e e D a v id F. P elly , 'H o w th e

ners in Furs, 5 8 - 9 .

In u it

3 0 . H e a rn e , Journey to the Northern Ocean, 3 0 6 .

f in d

th e i r

w ay

in

th e

tr a c k le s s

Canadian Geographic 3 , 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 5 8 - 6 4 .

A rc tic ',

Notes 38. B ob

B e a l,

‘F r e n c h

R eap

R ew ard

fr o m

W e s te rn

P o s ts ', Edm onton Journal, 2 4 S e p t. 1 9 8 6 , E l .

w as t h e sp r e a d in g o f t h e fa ith . 5 3 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, LXVIII, 2 8 3 .

3 9 . B ru c e G . T rig g er, Natives and Newcomers: Canada's

5 4 . D o n a ld

B.

S m ith ,

'W h o

a re t h e

M ississa u g a ?',

'Heroic A ge' Reconsidered (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n ,

Ontario History 6 7 , 4 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 2 1 1 - 2 3 ; L e ro y V. Eid,

1 9 8 5 ), 1 8 4 - 9 4 . F o r t h e v a r y in g e ffe c ts o f t h e tra d e

'T h e

o n n o r th e r n N a tiv e s o c ie tie s a n d e c o n o m ie s , see

N a tio n s d id n o t W in ', Ethnohistory 1 7 , 4 ( 1 9 7 9 ) :

K re c h III, e d ., Subarctic F u r Trade. a c te r is tic , se e A rth u r J . Ray, The Canadian F u r Trade

and the Industrial Age (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 0 ), 9 1 . It is still e v id e n t to d a y .

Five

5 5 . Ja m e s

G .E .

S m ith ,

A n th r o p o lo g ic a l

'T h e

M y th

W e s te rn and

W oods

H is to r ic a l

C re e :

R e a lity ',

Am erican Ethnologist 1 4 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 4 3 4 - 4 8 . 5 6 . L .J. B u rp e e , e d ., Journals and Letters by Pierre Gaul-

4 1 . HBC A rc h iv e s , B . 1 3 5 / a / l l : 6 9 , c ite d b y F ra n c is a n d M o r a n tz , Partners in Furs, 5 9 .

thier de Varennes ebde L a Vérendrye (T o ro n to , 1 9 2 7 ), 25.

B .1 3 5 / a / 3 1 :2 7 v - 2 9 v ,

M o o se

F o rt

A .6 /4 :8 6 v ,

F r a n c is

and

Jo u rn a l 1 7 5 8 -9 . 4 3 . HBC A rc h iv e s,

W ar th e

2 9 7 -3 2 4 .

4 0 . F o r a n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o b s e r v a tio n o f th is c h a r ­

4 2 . HBC A rc h iv e s ,

O jib w a y -Ir o q u o is W a r: T h e

5 7 . J o h n S . M illo y , The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplom acy

and War, 1 7 9 0 -1 8 7 0 (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 8 ) , 4 1 - 6 6 , c ite d

by

1 1 9 -2 0 .

M o r a n tz , Partners in Furs, 9 1 . 4 4 . J o h n S. L o n g , 'M a n itu , P ow er, B o o k s a n d W iih tik o w : S o m e F a c to r s in t h e A d o p tio n o f C h r is t­ ia n it y b y N in e te e n t h - C e n tu r y W e s te rn Ja m e s B ay C r e e ', Native Studies Review 3 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 8 - 9 . 4 5 . E ric R o ss, Beyond the River and the Bay (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 0 ), 2 9 - 3 1 . 46. Ib id ., 3 1 . 4 7 . D a n ie l W ill H a r m o n , Sixteen Years in the Indian

Country, e d . W . K ay e L a m b (T o r o n to , 1 9 5 7 ) , 5 5 . 48. C h a rle s B is h o p , 'T h e H e n le y H o u se M a s s a c re s ', The

Beaver O u tfit 3 0 7 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 3 6 - 4 1 ; S y lv ia V a n Kirk, M any Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society 1 6 7 0 -1 8 7 0 (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 3 ), 4 3 - 4 . M a rc e l G ira u d w r o te t h a t t h e coureurs de bois in s tig a te d th e m a s s a c re : The Métis in the Canadian West, tr.

Chapter 10 1. T h e r e is a n e n o r m o u s b o d y o f lite r a tu r e o n t h e Iro q u o is w a rs. B e sid es G e o r g e T. H u n t's The Wars o f the Iroquois (M a d is o n , W is ., 1 9 6 7 ) , se e W .J. E ccles, Canada Under Lo uis X I V 16 6 3 -1 7 0 1 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 4 ) , e s p e c ia lly c h s 7 - 1 0 ; E c c le s , Frontenac the Courtier Governor (T o r o n to , 1 9 5 9 ) , e s p e c ia lly c h s 8 - 1 0 ; F r a n c is J e n n in g s , The Ambiguous Iroquois Em pire (N e w Y ork, 1 9 8 4 ) . A d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e w a r t o 1 6 4 6 is L e o -P a u l D e s ro s ie r 's Iroquoisie (M o n tr é a l,

1 9 4 7 ).

B ru c e

G . T rig g e r d e a ls w ith

i n Natives and Newcomers (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 8 5 ) . A m o n g a s p e c ts

o f I r o q u o ia n

c o n f li c t s

a r tic le s n o t c ite d i n t h e b ib lio g r a p h y a re K e ith F. O tte r b e in , 'W h y t h e Iro q u o is W o n : A n A n a ly sis o f

G e o rg e W o o d c o c k , 2 v o ls (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 6 ) , I,

Iro q u o is M ilita r y T a c tic s ', Ethnohistory 1 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) :

141.

5 6 - 6 3 ; a n d O tte r b e in , 'H u r o n v s. Ir o q u o is : A C a s e

P e rro t (c. 1 6 4 4 - 1 7 1 7 ) , Mémoire sur les moeurs, coustum es et relligion des sauvages de l'Amérique septentrionale, ed . J . T a ilh a n (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 7 3 ), 1 2 6 - 8 , 2 9 2 - 4 ; T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, lv , 1 0 5 - 1 5 ; M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements, I,

49. N ic o la s

9 6 -9 . 50. W illia m W . W a rre n , History o f the Ojibw ay People (St P aul, M in n ., 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 3 1 .

S tu d y o f In te r tr ib a l W a rfa re ', Ethnohistory 2 6 , 2 (1 9 7 9 ): 1 4 1 -5 2 . 2 . D ictio nary o f Canadian Biography, I, s.v. 'P ie s k a re t'; C la u d e C . Le R o y d it B a c q u e v ille d e la P o th e rie , Histoire de l'Am érique septentrionale, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 2 2 ) , I, 2 9 7 - 3 0 3 . S e e a ls o G u y L a flè c h e , Les saints m artyrs canadiens, 2 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 8 ) , II, 1 5 9 -6 0 , 1 6 2 -3 .

51. Ib id ., 1 3 1 - 2 .

3 . D e sro sie rs, Iroquoisie, 3 0 4 .

52. 'A in sy c e tt e n a t i o n p e u t c o n n o is tr e q u 'o n p ré te n d

4 . P ie rre -F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r d e C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et

d 'e n d e m e u re r le m a is tr e .' (M arg ry , Découvertes et

établissements, I, 8 9 , s e c o n d e x t r a it d e 'l ’a d d itio n au m é m o ir e d e J e a n T a lo n a u R o y ', 1 0 n o v . 1 6 7 0 .)

description générale de la Nouvelle France, 3 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 4 4 ) , II, 1 6 0 - 1 . 5 . F r a n ç o is D o llie r d e C a s s o n , A History o f Montreal

V o y ag e s o f e x p lo r a tio n w e re u s u a lly u n d e r ta k e n

1 6 4 0 -1 6 7 2 , tr. a n d ed . R a lp h F le n le y (L o n d o n ,

fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f te r r ito r ia l e x p a n s io n ; fo r e x a m ­

1 9 2 8 ),

p le, La V é r e n d ry e o n h is w e s te r n v o y a g e l e ft a tr a il

1 8 6 8 , fr o m a c o p y o f a P aris m a n u s c r ip t b r o u g h t to

o f le a d p la q u e s i n d ic a t in g t h a t t h e r e g io n w as

C a n a d a b y L o u is -Jo s e p h P a p in e a u , le a d e r o f th e

131;

o r ig in a lly

p u b lis h e d

in

M o n tr e a l,

c la im e d b y F r a n c e (ib id ., VI, 6 0 9 ) , as d id G a lin é e

1 8 3 7 - 8 r e b e llio n s in L o w er C a n a d a . T h e m a n u ­

an d D o llie r d e C a s s o n , w h o s e o s te n s ib le m is s io n

s c rip t d o e s n o t b e a r D o llie r d e C a s s o n 's n a m e b u t

461

462 Notes h a s b e e n a ttr ib u te d t o h im

o n t h e s tr e n g th o f

6 . Ib id ., 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 3 9 . 7. NAC,

MG

7,

la ,

F ren ch

o ffic e r

w ho

sa w

a d v a n ta g e s

in

the

A m e r in d ia n s ty le o f w a rfa re : L a h o n ta n , Nouveaux

in t e r n a l e v id e n c e .

10,

C o lle c tio n

M o re a u ,

v o l.

8 4 1 :2 5 1 v , d 'E n d e m a r e à F r a n ç o is d e la V ie , F o rt

voyages de Mr. le Baron de Lahontan dans l'Amérique septentrionale, 2 v o ls (T h e H a g u e, 1 7 0 3 ) , 1, 2 3 8 -9 . 2 0 . B a c q u e v ille d e la P o th e r ie sa y s t h a t 4 0 Iroquois w e re ta k e n . Histoire de l'Am érique septentrionale, I,

R ic h e lie u , 2 se p t. 1 6 4 4 . 8 . B ib lio th è q u e N a tio n a le , P aris, F o n d s F r a n ç a is , v o l.

3 3 2 -3 . 2 1 . D a n ie l K. R ich te r, ‘W a r a n d C u ltu r e : T h e Iroquois

1 0 2 0 4 , ff. 2 0 3 - 4 . 9 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

(1 9 8 2 ): 5 4 8 -5 3 . 2 2 . Y v es

XXVIII, 5 7 . 10 . C ite d b y W illia m K ip, The Ea rly Jesuit M issions in

North America (N ew Y ork, 1 8 4 6 ) , 5 4 . T h e s e o b s e r ­

W illiam and M ary Quarterly 40, 4

E x p e r ie n c e ',

F. Z o ltv a n y ,

'N e w

France

and

th e West,

Ca n a d ia n H isto rica l Review 4 6 , 4

1 7 0 1 - 1 7 1 3 ', (1 9 6 5 ): 3 0 4 .

v a tio n s w o u ld b e re p e a te d a lm o s t e x a c tly b y th e

2 3 . R ich te r, 'W a r a n d C u ltu r e ', 5 4 9 .

B r itis h in A u stra lia d u rin g t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y

2 4 . A n th o n y F.C . W a lla c e , D eath and Rebirth o f the

as th e y s e ttle d in la n d s t h e A b o rig in e s c o n s id e re d

Seneca (N ew Y o rk , 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 1 1 - 1 4 ; W a lla ce , 'Origins

th e ir s . S e e , fo r e x a m p le , H e n ry R e y n o ld s , Frontier

o f Ir o q u o is N e u tra lity : T h e G r a n d S e ttle m e n t of 1 7 0 1 ', Pennsylvania H istory 2 4 ( 1 9 5 7 ) : 2 2 3 - 3 5 . See

(S y d n e y a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 8 7 ) , 3 - 5 7 .

11. T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations, XXXIII, 2 2 9 ^ 9 ; T rig ­ ger, Natives and Newcomers, 2 6 5 . 1 2 . D o llie r d e C a s s o n , History o f Montreal, 1 2 7 , 1 4 3 ,

a ls o G ille s H a v a rd , L a Grande pa ix de Montréal de

1701 (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 9 2 ) . 2 5 . Z o ltv a n y , 'N e w F r a n c e a n d t h e W e s t', 3 0 2 - 5 . 2 6 . T h e Ir o q u o is c la im e d th e y h a d c o n q u e r e d lands

155. 1 3 . J o h n A. D ic k in s o n , 'L a g u e rre ir o q u o is e e t la m o r ­

fr o m t h e A p p a la c h ia n s t o th e K e n tu c k y River and

ta lité e n N o u v e lle -F ra n c e , 1 6 0 8 - 1 6 6 6 ', Revue d'his­

t h e n b y t h e O h io R iv e r a n d M ississip p i to the

toire de l'Am érique française 3 6 , 1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 3 1 - 4 7 ;

G r e a t L a k es a n d t h e O tta w a R iver. T h is included

B ru c e G . T rigger, 'E a rly I r o q u o ia n C o n ta c ts w ith

lo n g -p a s t c o n q u e s ts b e in g d is p u te d ra th e r th an

E u ro p e a n s ', in T rigger, e d ., Handbook o f North A m ­

o n ly te r r ito r y a c tu a lly o c c u p ie d . J a c k M . Sosin,

erican Indians, 15: Northeast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 7 8 ) ,

W hitehall and the W ilderness: The M iddle West ill B ritish C o lo nial Policy, 17 6 0 -1 7 7 5 (L in c o ln , Neb.,

352. 14 . NAC, AC, C " G , v o l. 6 :6 9 - 7 0 v , M é m o ir e su r les c o m ­ p a g n ie s sa u v a g e s p ro p o s é e s p a r le S ie u r d e

La

1 9 6 1 ), 7 4 n 5 8 . 2 7 . Ib id ., 5 5 1 .

M o tte e n v o y é à M o n s e ig n e u r e n 1 7 0 8 ; ib id ., CUA,

2 8 . L a h o n ta n , Nouveaux voyages, II, 8 4 - 9 .

v o l. 1 2 2 :1 0 - 4 2 , u n s ig n e d le tte r fr o m Q u e b e c , 3 0

2 9 . A d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n is b y T h o m a s Je ffe ry s , The

s e p t. 1 7 0 5 . O n c h ie f s r e c e iv in g c o m m is s io n s , see re p as, 1 9 o c t. 1 7 4 1 ; ib id ., v o l. 2 9 :6 3 v , D es H erb iers

Natural and C iv il H istory o f the French Dom inions in North and South Am erica I: A Description o f Canada and Louisiana (L o n d o n , 1 7 6 0 ) , I, 6 2 - 3 . T h e practice

t o R o u illé , 2 7 n o v . 1 7 5 0 ; ib id ., 6 8 , D es H e rb ie rs to

o f a d o p tin g w a r c a p tiv e s w a s n o t u n iq u e to the

NAC, AC, C “ B, v o l. 2 3 :2 8 v , D u Q u e s n e l t o M a u -

R o u illé , 6 d é c. 1 7 5 0 .

Iro q u o is .

1 5 . E .B . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d J.R . B r o d h e a d , ed s, D ocu­

3 0 . B a c q u e v ille d e la P o th e r ie , Histoire de l'Amérique

ments Relative to the Colonial History o f the State o f New York, 1 5 v o ls (A lb a n y , NY, 1 8 5 3 - 8 7 ) , IX, 3 6 3 .

septentrionale, I, 3 4 6 - 6 4 . H e w r o te t h a t th e ir C a th o ­

16 . P ie rre M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements dans

l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 6 1 4 -1 7 5 4 ), 6 v o ls (P aris, 1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , I, 1 4 1 , R é c it d e c e q u i c 'e s t p a ssé d e p lu s re m a r q u a b le d a n s le v o y a g e d e M M . D o llie r e t G a lin é e , 1 6 6 9 - 7 0 .

lic f a it h w as t h e o n ly c o m m o n g r o u n d betw een th e n ew co m ers an d th e F ren ch . 3 1 . H e n ri B é c h a rd , The O riginal Caughnawaga Indians (M o n tr e a l,

1 9 7 6 ),

5 7 -6 5 ;

D enys

D e lâ g e ,

Ir o q u o is c h r é tie n s d e s " r é d u c t i o n s " , I— M ig r a t io n

et

r a p p o r ts

avec

'Les

1 6 6 7 -1 7 7 0 .

le s

F ra n ç a is ',

J o u r n a l o f C o u n t d e F r o n te n a c 's V o y a g e t o L a k e

Recherches amérindiennes au Québec 2 1 , 1 - 2 (1 9 9 1 ): 6 2 . H a v a rd , L a grande p aix de Montréal de 1701, 79,

O n ta r io in 1 6 7 3 .

8 5 . A te ria ta la te r fe ll o u t o f fa v o u r w ith t h e French

17. O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IX, 9 5,

18 . F o r a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th is e x p e d itio n a n d t h e fa c to r s le a d in g u p t o it, se e E c c le s , Frontenac the

Courtier, 1 6 1 - 7 2 . 1 9 . L o u is A rm a n d d e L orn d 'A rce d e L a h o n ta n w a s o n e

fo r u n k n o w n re a s o n s , b u t h e s till re m a in e d loyal t o th e m . 3 2 . D a n ie l K. R ic h te r, 'Ir o q u o is v e rsu s Iro q u o is : Jesu it M is s io n s

and

C h r i s t ia n i t y

in

V illa g e

P o litics,

Notes 463 1 6 4 2 - 1 6 8 6 ', Ethnohistory 3 2 , 1 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 - 1 6 ; D ic ­ tionary o f Can adian Biography, I, s.v. 'G a r a k o n tié '.

Canada français, 3 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 8 8 8 - 9 0 ) , I, 1 7 - 1 9 . 4 4 . A k in s, ed ., Pu blic Documents o f Nova Scotia, 5 8 1 ,

3 3 . M ilo M ilto n Q u a ife , e d ., The Western Country in the

C o u n c il a b o a rd t h e Beaufort, 1 O c t. 1 7 4 9 ; ib id .,

17th Century: The Memoirs o f Antoine Lam othe C a d illa c and Pierre Liette (N e w Y ork, 1 9 6 2 ) , 6 7 - 8 .

5 8 1 - 2 , P r o c la m a tio n o f G o v e r n o r C o rn w a llis , O c t.

3 4 . O n C h a b e r t d e J o n c a ir e in a n o th e r c o n t e x t , see

1749. 4 5 . NAC, N o v a S c o tia A 1 7 : 1 2 9 - 3 2 ; N o v a

S c o tia

B

1 :5 3 -5 .

b e lo w , C h a p te r 1 1 . 3 5 . E ld e s t s o n o f N ic o la s -A n to in e d e V illie r s , w h o le d

4 6 . D ic k a s o n , 'L o u is b o u rg a n d th e In d ia n s ', 9 9 - 1 0 0 .

t h e w in te r ra id a t G r a n d P ré a g a in s t t h e E n g lis h i n

'H u m a n ity c rie s o u t a g a in s t s u c h th in g s ', a c o n ­

1749.

te m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r w ro te , 'w h ic h s h o u ld c a u s e a ju s t h o rro r .' NAC, AC, Cn C, v o l. 8 :8 8 v , C o u a g n e to

36. A n a c c o u n t o f t h e la s t p h a s e o f t h e F o x W a r is b y

A ca ro n , d ir e c te u r d e B u rea u d es C o lo n ie s , 4 n o v .

Jo s e p h L. P eyser, T h e F a te o f t h e F o x S u rv iv o rs: A

1 7 6 0 . T h e p r o c la m a tio n a u th o r iz in g t h e b o u n ty

D ark C h a p te r in t h e H is to r y o f t h e F r e n c h in t h e

s till re m a in s o n N o v a S c o tia 's b o o k s , a lth o u g h su c h

U p p e r C o u n try , 1 7 2 6 - 1 7 3 7 ', W isconsin M agazine o f

b o u n tie s a re p r o h ib ite d b y th e C r im in a l C o d e .

H istory 7 3 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 ) : 9 3 .

A c c o rd in g to n e w sp a p e r a c c o u n ts , t h e g o v e r n m e n t

37. L o u ise P h e lp s K e llo g g , The Fox Indians D u rin g the

fe a rs t h a t re v o k in g t h e la w a n d a p o lo g iz in g fo r it

French Regime, re p r in te d fr o m Proceedings o f the State H istorical Society o f W isconsin 1907 (M a d is o n ,

w o u ld p r e c ip ita te a ra sh o f la w su its. R ich a rd F o o t,

W is ., 1 9 0 8 ) , 1 7 8 .

b o o k s ', National Post, 5 J a n . 2 0 0 0 , A l , A 2.

38. T h o m a s B . A k in s, e d ., Selections from the Pu blic D o c­

uments o f the Province o f Nova Scotia (H a lifa x , 1 8 6 9 ), 486,

G en eral

E d w ard

W h it m o r e

to

'C o lo n ia l b o u n ty o n M i’k m a q sca lp s s till o n th e 4 7 . J .B . B re b n e r, 'S u b s id iz e d in te r m a r r ia g e w ith th e In d ia n s ', Canadian Historical Review 6 , 1 ( 1 9 2 5 ) :

L a w re n c e ,

L o u is b o u rg , 2 0 J u n e 1 7 6 0 . S e e a ls o J o h n S te w a rt M c L e lla n , Louisbourg from its Foundation to its Fall,

3 3 -6 . 4 8 . NAC, AC, Cn B, v o l. 3 1 : 6 2 - 3 .

1 7 1 3 -1 7 5 8 (L o n d o n , 1 9 1 8 ) ; O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a -

4 9 . NAC, AC, C UB, v o l. 3 2 : 1 6 3 - 6 , P ré v o st à A n to in e

s o n , 'L o u is b o u r g a n d t h e In d ia n s : A S tu d y in I m ­

L o u is R o u illé , C o m te d e J o ü y ( m in is te r o f t h e

p e r ia l

R ace

R e la tio n s ,

1 7 1 3 - 1 7 6 0 ',

m a rin e ,

H istory and

1 7 4 9 -5 4 ),

10

s e p t.

1752;

i b i d .,

v o l.

3 3 :1 5 9 v , P ré v o s t à R o u illé , 1 2 m a i 1 7 5 3 ; A k in s, ed .,

Archaeology 6 (1 9 7 6 ) : 7 2 - 9 .

Pu blic Documents o f Nova Scotia, 6 7 2 - 4 , C o u n c ü

39. T h e te x ts o f th e s e tr e a tie s a re i n C u m m in g a n d M ick e n b e rg , eds, Native Rights in Canada, 3 0 0 - 6 ;

m in u te s , H a lifa x , 1 6 S e p t. 1 7 5 2 .

W illia m D a u g h erty , Maritime Indian Treaties in Per­ spective (O tta w a , 1 9 8 3 ), 7 5 - 8 ; C a n a d a , Indian Trea­ ties and Surrenders, 3 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , II,

5 0 . NAC, CO 2 1 7 / 1 8 : 2 7 7 - 4 , C e r e m o n ia ls a t C o n c lu d ­

1 9 9 - 2 0 4 . O n T re a ty N o . 2 3 9 , se e C h a p te r 1 2 , p . 1 5 4 .

d 'in s tr u c tio n a u Sr. D a n g e a c n o m m é a u g o u v e r n e ­

in g a P e a c e . . . ,2 5 J u n e 1 7 6 1 . 5 1 . NAC, AC, C 12, v o l. l :3 v , M é m o ir e d u R o y p o u r serv ir m e n t d e s Iles S t. P ie rre e t d e M iq u e lo n , 2 3 fév.

40. NAC, AC, B 4 9 / 2 :7 0 5 - 7 , d e M a u r e p a s , 2 8 m a i 1 7 2 6 ,

1763.

a n d B 8 :3 4 - 8 v , 1 8 s e p t. 1 7 2 6 . T h e c h a r g e w a s i n a le tte r fr o m

L o n g u e u il a n d B é g o n , 3 1 o c t. 1 7 2 5

5 2 . D e n is A. B a r te ls a n d O la f U w e J a n z e n , 'M ic m a c M ig r a tio n t o W e s te rn N e w fo u n d la n d ', p a p e r p re ­

(Collection de m anuscrits, in , 1 2 6 ). 41. NAC,

AC,

Cn B

3 5 :1 2 5 ,

C h e v a li e r

s e n te d

A u g u s tin

B o s c h e n r y d e D r u c o u r (g o v e r n o r o f Ile R o y a le , 1 7 5 4 - 8 ) , au m in is tr e , 1 8 n o v . 1 7 5 5 .

G . T h o m a s (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 9 2 - 1 0 3 . R ev ersa l in K e e w a tin ’, in K e n n e th S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R. M o rr is o n , ed s, For Purposes o f Dom inion

H erb iers t o R o u illé , 9 a u g . 1 7 4 9 .

(T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 5 9 .

43. T h e re are tw o v e rsio n s o f th is d e c la r a tio n . T h e e a rli­

'A cad ian G e n e a o lo g y a n d N o te s ' b y P la cid e G a u d et,

H is to r ica l A s s o c ia tio n ,

5 4 . C .S . M a c k in n o n , 'T h e 1 9 5 8 G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y

M i'k m a q ra id s, see NAC, AC, C n B, v o l. 2 8 : 7 5 - 8 , D es

er o n e is re p ro d u ce d in Report Concerning Canadian Archives, 1905, 3 v o ls, 1 9 0 6 , 2 : A pp. A, p t. Ill, in

C a n a d ia n

Bay 1686 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) ; A rth u r S. M o r to n , A H istory o f the Canadian West to 1 870-71, ed . Lew is

sau v ag e s d u C a n a d a p a r M . d e S a in t-O v id e , g o u ­ sau v ag es o n fa ite s . O n F r e n c h a tte m p ts t o c u rb

th e

5 3 . W .A . K e n y o n a n d J.R . T u rn b u ll, The Battle for the

42. NAC, MG 1 8 , E 2 9 , v o l. 2 , s e c tio n 4 , D is c o u rs fa it a u x v e rn e u r d e l'A c a d ie a v e c les R e s p o n s e s q u e les

to

V ic to r ia , 1 9 9 0 .

Chapter 11 1.

T h is

s e c tio n

fo llo w s

O liv e

P a tr ic ia

D ic k a s o n ,

2 3 9 . T h e la te r o n e is in Collection de documents

‘L o u is b o u rg a n d t h e In d ia n s : A S tu d y in Im p e ria l

inédits sur le Canada et l'Amérique publiées par le

R a c e R e la tio n s ,

1 7 1 3 - 1 7 6 0 ', History and Archae-

464 Notes ology 6 (1 9 7 6 ) : 3 9 - 4 1 , w ith a d d itio n s a n d s o m e ch an g es.

1 6 . D ic k a s o n , Myth o f the Savage, 2 1 9 - 2 0 . O n th e sub­ je c t o f t h e p ro g ra m 's fa ilu r e , p a rtic u la rly w ith the

2 . A t h o r o u g h s tu d y o n F r e n c h d e a lin g s w ith A m e r­ in d ia n s in C a n a d a is b y C o r n e liu s J . J a e n e n , The

French Relationship with the Native People o f New France and Acadia (O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) .

M o n ta g n a is P ie rre P a s te d e c h o u a n

(f l . 1 6 2 0 -3 6 ),

se e T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, VI, 8 5 - 9 . 17. T h ese

e f fo r ts

a re

s u m m a r iz e d

by

C o rn e liu s J.

J a e n e n , The Role o f the Church in New France (To­

3 . E .B . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d J.R . B r o d h e a d , ed s, D ocu­

r o n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , c h . 2 ; J a e n e n , 'E d u c a tio n fo r Franci-

ments Relative to the Colonial History o f the State o f New York, 15 v o ls (A lb a n y , NY, 1 8 5 3 - 8 7 ) , IV,

z a tio n : T h e C a s e o f N ew F r a n c e in t h e S ev en teen th C e n tu r y ', in J e a n B a r m a n , Y v o n n e H éb ert, and

N e ls o n 's

D o n M c C a s k ill, ed s, India n Education in Canada, 2

M e m o r ia l a b o u t t h e s ta te o f t h e N o r th e r n C o lo n ie s

v o ls (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 6 ) , I, 4 5 - 6 3 ; B ru c e G . Trigger,

2 0 6 -1 1 ,

London

D o c u m e n ts

10,

‘M r.

in A m e r ic a ', 2 4 S e p t. 1 6 9 6 . 4 . Ib id . T h e E n g lis h q u ic k ly fo llo w e d su it. O n e o f th e m o s t fa m o u s o f th e s e e p is o d e s o c c u rre d in 1 7 1 0 , w hen

fo u r Iro q u o is

s a c h e m s w e re

b r o u g h t to

L o n d o n a n d p re s e n te d t o Q u e e n A n n e a s k in g s o f th e L e a g u e o f F iv e N a tio n s . S e e J o h n G . G a r ra tt,

The Four Indian K ings (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) . 5 . NAC, AC, B, v o l .

5 7 / 1 :6 3 9

[1 3 9 ],

The Children o f Aataentsic: A History o f the Huron People to 1660, 2 v o ls ( M o n tr e a l a n d Kingston, 1 9 7 6 ). 1 8 . D ic k a s o n , M yth o f the Savage, 2 5 8 - 6 2 . 1 9 . T h e fo llo w in g a c c o u n t fo llo w s t h a t in D ickason, 'L o u is b o u rg a n d t h e I n d ia n s ', 2 6 - 7 . 2 0 . H e n ry P. B ig g ar, e d ., The Works o f Samuel de Cham­

M au rep as

à

B e a u h a rn o is , 8 avr. 1 7 3 2 . 6 . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IV, 2 0 6 -1 1 . 7 . T h o m a s P ic h o n , Lettres et mémoires pour servir à

l'histoire naturelle, civile et politique du Cap Breton (La H ay e a n d L o n d o n , 1 7 6 0 ; r e p r in t, 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 4 0 . 8 . i n h is w o rd s, 'h e u r e u x c e lu i q u i e n s ç a it m o n t e r les re sso rts p o u r les fa ire jo u e r à Sa V o lo n té , d e p u is t o u t c e te m s je n 'a i e n c o r e p u p a r v e n ir à c e p o i n t d e S c ie n c e .' NAC, CO, N o v a S c o tia A, v o l. 3 2 :2 3 2 , M a illa r d t o H o p s o n , 1 1 S e p t. 1 7 4 8 .

plain, 6 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 2 2 - 3 6 ) , V, 6 6 - 8 , 76, 1 0 3 - 7 ; Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, I, s.v. 'C h e r o u o u n y '; M a rc e l T ru d e l, Histoire de la Nouvelle France II: Le comptoir 1 6 0 4 -1 6 2 7 (M o n tr é a l, 1966), 3 5 9 -6 0 . 2 1 . Jugements et délibérations du Conseil Souverain de la

N ouvelle France, 7 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 8 8 5 - 9 1 ) , I, 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 7 4 - 5 . S e e a ls o W .J. E c c le s , The Canadian Frontier 1 5 3 4 -1 7 6 0 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 9 ) , 7 7 - 9 . 2 2 . NAC, AC, F3, a r tic le 9 5 , 3 5 , R e g le m e n ts fa its par les c h e fs sa u v a g e s d e P ile R o y a le , d e N a rtig o n n eich e, e t d e C h ik p e n a k a d y e t d e M o n s ie u r d e Bienville d a n s le c o n s e il te n u a u P o r t T o u lo u s e p o u r la dis­

9 . N ic h o la s P e rro t, Mémoire sur les moeurs, coustumes

t r ib u tio n d e s p re s e n ts , 9 ju il. 1 7 3 9 . T h e te x t is writ­

et relligion des sauvages de l'Am érique septentrionale,

t e n i n F r e n c h a n d tw ic e i n M i'k m a q , i n scrip t and

e d . J . T a ilh a n (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 7 3 ) , 7 8 .

id e o g ra m s . S e e a ls o NAC, AC, C n B, v o l. 2 2 :1 1 8 -2 4 ,

1 0 . T h o m a s C . H a lib u rto n , A n Historical and Statistical

Account o f Nova Scotia, 2 v o ls (H a lifa x , 1 8 2 9 ) , 1, 101 . 1 1 . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, X, 1 4 , P aris D o c u m e n ts 9 , B e a u h a r n o is a n d H o c q u a r t to M a u re p a s , 1 2 S e p t. 1 7 4 5 . 1 2 . F r a n c is P a rk m a n , The Jesuits in North America in the

Seventeenth Century (T o r o n to , 1 9 0 7 ) , 4 4 . 1 3 . Collection de m anuscrits contenant lettres, mémoires et

autres documents historiques relatifs à la Nouvelle France, 4 v o ls (Q u é b e c , 1 8 3 3 - 3 5 ) , I, 1 7 5 , 'I n s tr u c ­

B o u rv ille à M a u re p a s , 2 6 o c t. 1 7 4 0 . 2 3 . A n to n io d e U llo a ( 1 7 1 6 - 9 5 ) , A

Voyage to South 2 v o ls , tr. J o h n A d a m s (London,

Am erica . . . , 1 8 0 6 ) , II, 3 7 6 - 7 .

2 4 . E c c le s , Canadian Frontier, 7 8 . 2 5 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , 'L e s Ir o q u o is c h r é tie n s d es "réduc­ t i o n s " , 1 6 6 7 - 1 7 7 0 . I— M ig r a tio n e t ra p p o rts avec le s F r a n ç a is ', Recherches amérindiennes au Québec

21, 1 - 2 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 6 5 . 2 6 . Je a n

L u n n , 'T h e Ille g a l F u r T ra d e o u t o f New

F r a n c e , 1 7 1 3 - 6 0 ', Canadian Historical Association

tio n s p o u r le S ie u r d e C o u r c e lle a u s u je t d es in d i­

H istorical Papers ( 1 9 3 9 ) : 6 1 - 7 6 . D e lâ g e sa y s h e has

e n s ', 1 6 6 5 .

fo u n d

1 4 . O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , The Myth o f the Savage and

the Beginnings o f French Colonialism in the Am ericas (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 1 7 - 2 0 . 1 5 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) , V, 1 4 5 ; VI, 8 5 ; VII, 2 2 7 ; IX, 1 0 5 ; XI, 5 3 .

o n ly

one

in s ta n c e

o f an

In d ia n being

c h a r g e d w ith sm u g g lin g . 2 7 . A n Account o f the Custom s and Manners o f the Mic-

m akis and Maricheets, Savage Nations, Now Depen­ dent on the Government o f Cape Breton (L ond on, 1 7 5 8 ), 8 8 -9 . 2 8 . T h is r e a c h e d s u c h p r o p o r tio n s t h a t t h e M aliseet

Notes 465 w e re re p u te d t o b e d e s c e n d a n ts o f M a lo u in s : P h il­ ip p e J a c q u in , Les Indiens blancs (P aris, 1 9 8 9 ) , 3 2 . T h is c o m e s fr o m Jo s e p h A. M a u r a u lt, Histoire des

Abenakis depuis

1 6 0 6 jusqu'à nos jours (S o r e l,

Q u é b e c , 1 8 6 6 ) , 6 n 3 . M a u r a u lt c la im e d t h e A b e n ­ aki

c a lle d

th e

m ix e d -b lo o d s

M a lis e e ts b e c a u s e

m o s t o f t h e fa th e r s c a m e fr o m S t M a lo .

3 8 . P ie rre C h a u n u , L'Am érique et les Amériques (P aris, 1 9 6 4 ), 10 9 . 3 9 . T rigger, Children ofAataentsic, I, 3 2 5 . 4 0 . D ic k a s o n , Myth o f the Savage, 1 4 4 - 7 ; Biggar, ed .,

Works o f Cham plain, n , 4 8 . L e J e u n e sh a re d th is b e lie f: 'T h e ir n a tu r a l c o lo r is lik e t h a t o f th o s e F re n ch b eg g ars w h o a re h a lf-ro a s te d in th e S u n , a n d

2 9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, v , 2 1 1 ; X , 2 6 .

1 h a v e n o d o u b t th e Sav ag es w o u ld b e v e ry w h ite if

3 0 . C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , First Establishment o f the Faith

t h e y w e re w e ll c o v e r e d .' (T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, V, 2 3 .) S o m e e v e n e x te n d e d th is b e lie f to

in New France, tr. J o h n G ilm a r y S h e a , 2 v o ls (N ew Y ork, 1 8 8 1 ) , I, 7 4 - 7 , 'B r ie f o f P o p e P a u l V fo r th e

A frica n s: 'T h e c h ild r e n o f th is c o u n tr y a re b o m

C a n a d a m is s io n , 1 6 1 8 ’ .

w h ite , a n d c h a n g e th e ir c o lo u r in tw o d ay s t o a p er­

3 1 . D ic k a s o n , Myth o f the Savage, 2 4 1 . 3 2 . See, fo r e x a m p le , B ia rd 's r u m in a tio n s o n t h e s u b ­ je c t . H e c o n c lu d e d th a t t h e r e a s o n s fo r C a n a d a 's sev ere c lim a t e w e re t h e p r e s e n c e o f so m u c h w a te r

f e c t b l a c k .' E .G . R a v e n s te in , e d ., The Strange Adventures o f Andrew Battell o f Leigh in Angola and the Adjoining Regions (L o n d o n , 1 9 0 1 ; re p rin t, 1 9 6 7 ), 4 9 .

4 1 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, IX, 2 1 9 .

a n d t h e fa c t t h a t t h e la n d h a d n o t b e e n c le a re d

4 2 . Ib id ., VIII, 4 9 ; X, 2 7 ; XIV, 1 9 . T h e J e s u its w e re v e ry

a n d c u ltiv a te d . (T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations, III,

c o n s c io u s o f t h e n e e d t o e s ta b lis h s c h o o ls fo r t h e

5 5 - 6 1 .)

F r e n c h , o th e r w is e th e y 'w o u ld b e c o m e Sav ages,

33. A m e r in d ia n s w h o d e p e n d e d o n h u n t i n g a n d g a t h ­ e r in g

d id

not

g e n e r a lly

u se

s a lt,

w h ic h

th e y

c la im e d s h o r te n e d life , a n d s o m e e v e n re g a rd e d it as p o is o n o u s (a g ricu ltu r a l p e o p le s , h o w e v e r, v a l­ ued it, a n d u se d i t as a n i t e m o f tr a d e ). S e e D ic k a ­ s o n , Myth o f the Savage, 3 2 5 n 5 0 ; T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations, v , 1 0 3 . 'F r e n c h s n o w '— su g ar— w as a lso s e e n i n t h e s a m e l i g h t (ib id ., XIV, 5 1 ) . D ie ts ,

a n d h a v e less i n s tr u c t io n t h a n t h e S a v a g es t h e m ­ s e lv e s .’ Ib id ., x x x v i , 1 7 5 . 4 3 . C h r e s tie n L e C le r c q , Nouvelle relation de la Gaspésie, 2 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 9 1 ) , 2 8 5 - 6 ; G a b rie l S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, et voyages que les frères mineurs Recollects y ont faicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 6 3 6 ) , I, 1 6 6 - 7 ; T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Rela­ tions, VIII, 5 - 5 9 .

im p o s e d b y d if fe r e n t w a y s o f life , in f lu e n c e d s a lt

4 4 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XXVIII, 4 9 - 6 5 .

p re fe r e n ce s .

4 5 . Ib id .

34. D o m G u y O u ry , Marie de l’Incarnation (1 5 9 9 - 1 6 7 2 )

4 6 . Ib id ., XXI, 4 5 .

Correspondance (S o le sm e s, 1 9 7 1 ), 1 1 2 , le ttre d u 4

4 7 . S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, I, 1 6 6 . S e e a ls o D a n ie l

sep t. 1 6 4 0 . N e a rly th re e -q u a r te r s o f a c e n tu r y later,

A. S c a lb e rg , 'S e v e n te e n th a n d E a rly E ig h te e n th -

sim ila r s e n tim e n ts w e re e x p re s s e d b y F a th e r P ie rre -

C e n tu r y P e r c e p tio n s o f C o u re u rs -d e -B o is R e lig io u s

G a b rie l M a re s t ( 1 6 6 2 - 1 7 1 4 ) : '. . . th e h o r r o r o f o u r

L ife ', Proceedings o f the A n n u a l Meeting o f the

fo rests, th o s e v a s t u n in h a b ite d R e g io n s in w h ic h 1 w o u ld c e r ta in ly p e r is h i f

I

w e re a b a n d o n e d , p re ­

s e n te d th e m s e lv e s t o m y m in d a n d to o k aw a y n e a r ­ ly all m y c o u r a g e .' T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations,

Western Society for French History 1 7 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 8 2 - 9 5 . 4 8 . S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, n , 4 5 7 . 4 9 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, x r v , 1 9 - 2 1 .

LXVI, 2 6 9 . S e e a lso T ru d el, Histoire de la Nouvelle

5 0 . Ib id ., Ill, 1 0 5 .

France II: Le comptoir, 3 8 4 - 6 . M y th a n k s t o C la ire

5 1 . Ib id .,

G o u rd e a u , L a v a l U n iv e rsity , fo r th e s e r e fe r e n c e s . 35. See J e n n i f e r S.H . B r o w n , Strangers in Blood: Fur

Trade Company Families in Indian Country (V a n ­ co u v er, 1 9 8 0 ) ; S y lv ia V a n K irk, M any Tender Ties:

Women in Fu r Trade Society 1 6 7 0 - 1 8 7 0 (N o rm a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 3 ). 36. C la u d e C . Le R o y dit B a c q u e v ille d e la P o th e rie ,

Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale, 4 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 2 2 ), IV, 1 8 0 - 1 . 37. P eter N . M o o g k , 'L e s P e tits S a u v a g e s: T h e C h ild r e n o f E ig h t e e n th -C e n t u r y N e w F r a n c e ', i n J o y P a n ,

x l v ii ,

2 0 3 . F o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e p r o b ­

le m s , s e e O liv e P a tr ic ia D ic k a s o n , 'F r o m

"O n e

N a tio n " i n th e N o r th e a s t t o "N e w N a tio n " in t h e N o r th w e s t: A L o o k a t t h e E m e r g e n c e o f t h e M e tis ',

Am erican Indian Culture and Research Journal 6, 2 (1 9 8 2 ): 1 -2 1 . 5 2 . A b b é H .R . C a s g ra in , 'C o u p d 'o e il su r l'A c a d ie ', Le

Canada Français 1 ( 1 8 8 8 ) : 1 1 6 - 1 7 . 5 3 . Account o f the Custom s and Manners, 8 9 - 9 0 . T h e le t­ te r h a s b e e n a ttr ib u te d t o A b b é P ie rre M a illa rd . 5 4 . Ib id ., 1 0 1 - 2 . 5 5 . G a s to n d u B o s c q d e B e a u m o n t, c o m p , a n d e d ., Les

ed ., Childhood and Family in Canadian History (T o­

derniers jours de l'Acadie (1 74 8 -1 7 5 8 ) (P aris, 1 8 9 9 ),

r o n to , 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 7 .

85.

466 Notes 5 6 . U s a P o irier, 'J 'é t i o n s u n M é tis ', L'Actualité ( ju ille t

P h e lp s K e llo g g , The French Régime in Wisconsin and

the Northwest (N ew Y ork, 1 9 6 8 ) , 3 8 6 - 4 0 5 ; Natalie

2 0 0 0 ): 3 9 -1 0 . 5 7 . P ie rre M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements clans

M a re e B e ltin g , Kaskaskia under the French Regime

l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am érique septentrionale (1 6 1 4 -1 7 5 4 ), 6 v o ls (P a ris, 1 9 7 6 - 8 6 ) , V, 1 4 6 , L a­

6 7 . F o r s o m e F r e n c h o b je c t io n s t o in term a rria g e, see

m o th e C a d illa c , m é m o ir e a d re ssé e a u M a u re p a s .

(N ew O r le a n s , 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 3 - 1 6 . M a rg ry , Découvertes et établissements, v , 158-9,

5 8 . S ie u r d e D ié re v ille , Relation o f the Voyage to Port

L a m o th e C a d illa c , ra p p o rts d es d é b a ts q u i on t eu

Royal in Acadia or New France, ed . J o h n C . W e b s te r

lie u à p ro p o s d e s o n p r o je t d a n s l ’a sse m b lé e ordon­

(T o r o n to , 1 9 3 3 ) , 1 8 7 .

n é e p a r le ro i e t d a n s sa c o n f é r e n c e a v e c M. de

5 9 . S ta n d a rd w o rk s in th is reg ard a re B r o w n 's Strangers

C a lliè re s . 6 8 . NAC, AC, C13A 3 : 8 1 9 - 2 4 , D u c lo s a u m in is tre , 25 déc.

in Blood a n d V a n K irk 's M any Tender Ties. 6 0 . M arg ry , Découvertes et établissements, V, 1 2 0 , N a ­ tio n s h a b ita n s d a n s le g o u v e r n e m e n t d e L a m o th e C a d illa c ; ib id ., 1 0 7 , U sa g es d e s sa u v a g e s. S e e a lso

1715. 6 9 . A n in t e r e s tin g e x a m p le o f s u c h a n e n v o y was 'C o lo n e l L o u is C o o k ' (A tia to h a ro n g w e n , c. 1 7 4 0 -

L a h o n ta n ,

1 8 1 4 ) o f t h e A m e r ic a n a rm y , a h a lf-A b e n a k i from

Nouveaux voyages de Mr. le Baron de Lahontan dans l'Am érique septentrionale, 2 v o ls (T h e H a g u e, 1 7 0 3 ) ,

C a u g h n a w a g a , w h o serv ed as g o -b e tw e e n to the

L o u is

A rm an d

de

Lom

d 'A rc e

de

n, 1 4 3 , in w h ic h A m e r in d ia n w o m e n a re d e s crib e d as b e in g m is tre s s e s o f t h e ir o w n b o d ie s . 6 1 . R o b e r t-L io n e l S é g u in , L a vie libertine en Nouvelle-

France au X V LIe siècle, 2 v o ls (M o n tr é a l, 1 9 7 2 ) , I, 4 7 . S e v era l m e m b e r s o f th e C h a b e r t d e J o n c a ir e a n d Le M o y n e fa m ilie s fo llo w e d th is p a th . See NAC, AC, C n A 1 8 :8 2 , 1 4 7 - 8 ; M a rc e l G ira u d , The

O n e id a d u r in g t h e

A m e r ic a n W a r o f Indepen­

S e e Dictionary of Canadian Biography, V, s.v. 'A tia to h a r o n g w e n '; F.B. H o u g h , A History o f St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties, New York, from their Earliest Period to the Present Tim e (A lb a n y , N Y, 1 8 5 3 ) , 1 8 2 . dence.

H is fa th e r w a s b la c k .

7 0 . NAC, AC, C n C, v o l. 1 6 , p iè c e 2 8 , u n s ig n e d letter, 6 Ju ly 1 7 4 6 .

D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, II, Hi, IV; fo r Le

K askaskia, 7 4 - 5 ; C o r n e liu s J . Jaenen , Friend and Foe: Aspects o f French-Am erindian Cul­ tural C o ntact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 6 4 - 5 .

M o y n e d e M a r ic o u r t a n d h is b r o t h e r C h a r le s Le

7 2 . P e te r B a k k er, 'C a n a d ia n F u r T ra d e a n d th e Absence

Métis in the Canadian West, tr. G e o r g e W o o d c o c k , 2 v o ls (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 6 ) , I, 2 3 2 ^ . B io g ra p h ie s o f m e m b e r s o f t h e C h a b e r t d e J o n c a ir e f a m ily a re in

M o y n e d e L o n g u e u il, II. S e e a ls o , O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IX, 5 8 0 . T h e Documents in d e x lists P h ilip p e - T h o m a s C h a b e r t d e J o n c a ir e ( 1 7 0 7 - c . 1 7 6 6 ) as a F r e n c h In d ia n .

7 1 . B e ltin g ,

o f C r e o le s ', The Carrier Pidgin 1 6 , 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 1 -3 . 7 3 . S e e a b o v e , C h a p te r 4 a n d n o t e 6 6 . 7 4 . G e o r g e L a n g , 'V o y a g e u r D is c o u rs e a n d th e Ab­ s e n c e o f Fu r T ra d e P id g in ', p a p e r p re s e n te d to the

6 2 . P ie rre -F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r d e C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et

description générale de la Nouvelle France, 3 v o ls (P aris, 1 7 4 4 ), III, 8 9 .

A m e r ic a n S o c ie ty fo r E th n o h is to r y , T o ro n to , 1990; i n Canadian Literature 1 3 3 (W in te r , 1 9 9 2 ) : 5 1 -6 3 . 7 5 . P e te r B a k k er, 'T h e G e n e s is o f M ic h if : A First Hy­

6 3 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XIV, 2 6 1 - 3 ; XVI, 2 6 3 ; XXI, 1 3 7 -9 . 6 4 . NAC, AC, F*A, F o n d s d e s C o lo n ie s , I-X; O 'C a lla g h a n a n d B r o d h e a d , ed s, Documents, IX, 2 0 7 , La B a rre to

C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the Twenty-first Algonquian Conference (O tta w a , 1990),

p o th e s is ', i n W illia m

1 2 - 3 5 ; B a k k er, 'R e le x if ic a tio n : T h e C a s e o f the M é t if (F r e n c h C r e e )', i n N . B a retz y , W . Enninger,

c o lo n y , a n im p o r t fr o m F r a n c e . T h e c o n t r a c tin g

a n d T. S to lz , ed s, Sprachkontakt. Beitrdge zum s. Essener Kolloquium Tiber Gram m atikalisierung: Naturlichkeit un System Okonomie, 2 v o ls (B o c h u m , 1989).

c o u p le , w is h in g t o a v o id t h e re q u ire d fo r m a litie s ,

S e e a ls o S a r a h G r e y T h o m a s o n a n d T e rr e n ce Kauf­

w o u ld a tte n d m a s s a n d ra is e th e ir h a n d s to g e th e r

m a n , Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic

S e ig n e la y , 4 n o v . 1 6 8 3 ; ib id ., 2 6 9 - 7 1 . 6 5 . M a rria g e

'à

la g a u m in e '

a lso

a p p e a re d

in

th e

as t h e o ff ic ia tin g p rie s t b le sse d t h e w o rs h ip p e rs , th u s in a d v e r te n tly s a n c tify in g t h e u n io n . 6 6 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, t h e M ic h ilim a c k in a c ta b le

lxv,

6 9 , 2 6 3 . S e e a lso

o f m a rria g e s ,

1698-

Linguistics (B erk eley , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 2 8 - 3 3 . P a tlin e Laverd u re a n d Id a R o se A lla rd h a v e c o m p ile d The Michif Dictionary: Turtle M ountain Chippewa Cree, ed. Jo h n C . C ra w fo rd (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 3 ) .

1 7 6 5 , in J a c q u e lin e P e te r s o n , 'A S o c ia l P o r tr a it o f

7 6 . T h o m a s o n a n d K a u fm a n , Language Contact, 2 3 2 -3 .

t h e G r e a t L ak es M é tis ', Ethnohistory 2 5 , 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) :

7 7 . R o b e rt A. P a p e n , ‘L e M é tif : Le n e p lu s u ltra des

5 0 ; M a rc e l G ira u d , Histoire de la Louisianne fran­

g r a m m a ire s e n c o n t a c t ', Revue québécoise de linguis­

çaise, 2 v o ls (P aris, 1 9 5 3 - 8 ) , I, 3 1 5 - 1 6 ; L o u is e

tique théorique et appliquée 6 , 2 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 5 7 - 7 0 .

Notes 467 7 8 . A s tu d y b y P e te r B a k k e r o f A a rh u s U n iv e rsity , D e n m a r k , h a s b e e n a c c la im e d as 'a n a n a ly tic a l b r e a k th r o u g h '. (N e w Y ork,

Bak ker, A Language o f O ur Own

tio n : D ip lo m a c y o n t h e M a in e F ro n tie r, 1 7 2 5 to 1 7 5 5 ', American Indian Culture and Research Journal 8 , 4 (1 9 8 4 ): 3 - 2 6 .

1 9 9 7 ) . S e e a ls o 'A d y in g la n g u a g e :

1 1 . G a b rie l S a g a rd , Histoire du Canada, et voyages que les

F r e n c h d o m in a te s to n g u e s p o k e n b y M a n ito b a

frères m ineurs Recollects y ontfaicts pour la conversion des infidelles, 4 v o ls (P a ris, 1 6 3 6 ) , II, 4 4 4 : '. . .

M e tis ', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 1 5 M ar. 1 9 9 1 . 7 9 . C h a r le v o ix , Histoire et description, III, 3 2 2 .

T m c h e m e n s , q u i s o u v e n t n e r a p p o r te n t p a s fid e lle P aris,

m e n t les c h o s e s q u 'o n le u r d it, o u p a r ig n o r a n c e

1 6 1 2 ', in L u c ie n C a m p e a u , e d ., Monumenta Novae

o u p a r m e sp ris , q u i est u n e c h o s e fo r t d a n g e re u se ,

8 0 . ‘La r e la tio n

d e rn iè re

d e M a r c L e s c a r b o t,

Franciae I: L a première m ission d ‘Acadie (1 6 0 2 -1 6 1 6 )

& d e la q u e lle o n a s o u v e n t v u e a rriv e r d e g ra n d s

(Q u é b e c , 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 8 4 : 'O n n e p e u t a r r a c h e r to u t

a c c id e n ts .'

d 'u n

coup

le s

c o u tu m e s

et

fa ç o n s

de

fa ir e

in v é té r é e s d 'u n p e u p le q u e l q u e s o it.'

1 2 . P ie r r e - A n t o i n e - S i m o n

M a illa r d ,

'L e t t r e

de

M.

l'A b b é M a illa r d su r les m is s io n s d e l'A c a d ie e t p a r­ tic u liè r e m e n t su r le s m is s io n s M ic m a q u e s ', Soirées

Chapter 12

canadiennes 3 ( 1 8 6 3 ) : 3 5 8 - 9 . As h e re p o rte d o n o n e o c c a s io n , c ir c u m lo c u tio n w as t h e o n ly a n sw e r: 'Je

1. O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , 'C o n c e p ts o f S o v e re ig n ty

le u r fis v o ir q u 'i l é t a it im p o s s ib le d e c o n s e r v e r e n

a t t h e T im e o f F irs t C o n ta c t', in L .C . G r e e n a n d

fr a n ç a is le s e n s d e c e q u 'ils v o u la ie n t d ire, e n le

O liv e P. D ic k a s o n , The La w o f N ations and the New

W orld (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 2 1 .

r e n d a n t d e m o t à m o t; q u e le to u r q u e j'a v a is p ris, é t a it le v é r ita b le ; q u 'il é t a it a u -d essu s d 'e u x d 'e x ­

2 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

p r im e r a u ss i fid è le m e n t e n fr a n ç a is d e p a re ille s

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

p h ra s e s m ik m a q u e s .' S im ila rly , e x p la in in g sc rip ­

XXXV I, 2 5 0 - 1 .

tu r e w a s n o t a lw a y s e a sy (ib id ., 4 0 9 - 1 0 ) .

3 . A n to in e d e M o n tc h r e s tie n , Traicté de l'oeconomie

politique . . . , s .l., n .d ., 2 1 8 . 4 . [C la u d e

R a z illy ],

'M é m o i r e

du

C h e v a li e r

de

R a z illy ', Revue de Géographie 1 9 ( 1 8 8 6 ) : 3 7 4 - 8 3 ,

D a u g h e rty , M aritime India n Treaties in Perspective (O tta w a , 1 9 8 3 ) , 6 9 , 7 7 , 8 3 . T h is r a tific a ­

1 3 . W illia m tio n

fo llo w e d t h e

W i l li a m

S h ir le y

1744

d e c la r a tio n

(g o v e rn o r

of

o f w ar b y

M a s s a c h u s e t ts ,

4 5 3 - 6 4 . S im ila r s e n tim e n ts w e re la te r e x p re s s e d b y

1 7 4 1 - 9 a n d 1 7 5 3 - 6 ) a g a in s t t h e W u a s tu k w iu k o f

A n to in e B ie t, Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en File

St Jo h n

de Cayenne, entrepris p ar les Français en l ’année 1652

C h a rle s H e n ry L in c o ln , ed ., The Correspondence o f

R iv er a n d t h e M i'k m a q o f C a p e S a b le .

W illiam Shirley, 2 v o ls (N ew Y ork, 1 9 1 2 ) , I, 1 5 0 - 1 ,

(P aris, 1 6 6 4 ) , p re fa c e . 5 . D o r o th y V. J o n e s , 'B r itis h C o lo n ia l I n d ia n T re a ­ in W ilc o m b W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f North Am erican Indians, 4: H istory o f Indian-W hite Relations (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 8 5 . tie s ',

6. M a u r ic e T o rre lli, 'L e s I n d ie n s d u C a n a d a e t le d r o it d es tr a ité s d a n s la ju r is p r u d e n c e c a n a d ie n n e ', A n ­ nuaire Français de D ro it International 2 0 (1 9 7 4 ) :

S h ir le y t o t h e L o rd s o f T ra d e , 1 6 O c t. 1 7 4 4 . 1 4 . T h o m a s B. A k in s, ed ., Selections from the Public D o c­

uments o f the Province o f Nova Scotia (H a lifa x , 1 8 6 9 ) , 6 8 2 - 5 ; D a u g h e rty , M aritime Indian Treaties, 5 0 - 1 , 8 4 - 5 ; C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , e d s, Native Rights in Canada, 3 0 7 - 9 . 1 5 . A k in s, e d ., Pu blic Documents o f Nova Scotia, 6 7 1 , C o u n c il m in u te s , H a lifa x , 1 4 S e p t. 1 7 5 2 . A m e r­

2 2 7 -4 9 . 7. T h e te x t o f t h e tr e a ty is in P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d

in d ia n re s is ta n c e t o la n d su rv e y s h a d lo n g b e e n

N e il H . M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights in Canada

tr o u b l i n g

(T o r o n to , 1 9 7 2 ) , 2 9 6 - 8 . I n t h e A m e r in d ia n view ,

H a lifa x , 4 S e p t. 1 7 3 2 .

th is

g u a r a n te e

w as fo r p r e -e x is t in g rig h ts .

See

Indian Treaty Rights, F e d e r a tio n o f S a s k a tc h e w a n In d ia n s , n .d .

th e

B r itis h .

Ib id .,

C o u n c il

m in u te s ,

1 6 . M a x S a v e lle , The Diplom atic History o f the Canadian

Boundary 1 7 49-1763 (N ew H a v en , 1 9 4 0 ) , 1 4 7 . 1 7 . A rticle 4 0 re a d s: 'T h e sav a g es o r In d ia n A llies o f

8 . S e e a b o v e , C h a p te r 1 0 , p . 1 3 5 . F o r a W u a s tu k w iu k

H is M o s t C h r is t ia n M a je s ty s h a ll b e m a in t a in e d in

v ie w o f t h e tw o 1 7 2 5 tr e a tie s , se e A n d re a B ear

t h e la n d s t h e y in h a b it, i f th e y c h o o s e t o re sid e

N ic h o la s ,

and

th e r e ; t h e y s h a ll n o t b e m o le s te d o n a n y p r e te n s e

in

w h a ts o e v e r, fo r h a v in g c a rrie d a rm s a n d se rv e d H is

W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Actes du dix-septième Congrès

M o s t C h r is t ia n M a je s ty ; th e y sh a ll h a v e , as w e ll as

des Algonquinistes (O tta w a , 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 1 5 - 2 9 .

t h e F r e n c h , lib e r ty o f r e lig io n , a n d sh a ll k e ep t h e ir

M a s c a r e n e 's

'M a l i s e e t T re a ty ,

A b o r ig in a l not

D u m m e r 's

R ig h ts T r e a ty ',

9. T h e te x t is in C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , eds,

Native Rights in Canada, 3 0 2 - 6 . 10.

D a v id L. G h e r e , 'M is tr a n s la t io n s a n d M is in fo r m a ­

m is s io n a r ie s .' S e e a ls o T o rre lli, 'L e s In d ie n s d u C a n a d a ', 2 3 6 . 1 8 . J a m e s S u lliv a n , A le x a n d e r C . Flick , a n d M ilto n W .

468 Notes H a m ilto n , ed s, The Papers o f Sir W illiam Johnson, 1 4

3 0 . Ib id ., 2 9 .

v o ls (A lb an y , NY, 1 9 2 1 - 6 5 ) , VII, 7 8 5 .

3 1 . R o b e r t R o g e rs, Concise Account o f North Am erica. . .

1 9 . E n g lis h w a tc h d o g slo o p s re p o rte d t h a t 't h e F r e n c h . . .

a re v e r y b u s y c a rry in g o n a tr a d e w ith th e

I n d ia n s .' MG 1 2 : G r e a t B r ita in , A d m ira lty 1 0 6 , v o l. 1 1 2 3 :3 6 9 , le tte r h o r n J a c o b H u rd . A n th o n y F.C . W a lla c e , Death and Rebirth o f the

Seneca (N e w Y ork, 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 1 4 - 1 5 . 2 1 . J o h n s o n 's Jo u r n a l o f In d ia n A ffa irs, 9 - 1 2

D ec.

1 7 5 8 , i n Papers o f S ir W illiam Johnson, x , 6 9 , 7 3 . A m e r in d ia n c o m p la in ts in th is re g a rd w e re lo n g ­ and

th e y

had

f r e q u e n tly

3 2 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, III, s.v., 'P ontiac'. T h e o th e r 'D e la w a r e P r o p h e t' h a d a re lig io u s mes­

2 0 . Se e, fo r in s ta n c e , th e c o m p la in ts o f t h e S e n e c a :

s t a n d in g ,

(L o n d o n , 1 7 6 5 ) , 2 4 0 , 2 4 3 . A n e x t r a c t is reprinted i n P e c k h a m , Pontiac, 5 9 - 6 2 n 8 .

sage. 3 3 . C a r l F. K lin c k , e d ., Tecumseh, Fact and Fiction in

E arly Records (E n g le w o o d C liffs , N J, 1 9 6 1 ) , 1 8 4 -5 . S e e a ls o C o l i n C a llo w a y , Crown and Calumet: B ritish -In d ia n Relations, 1 7 8 3 -1 8 1 5 (N orm an , O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 1 7 .

r e q u e s te d

3 4 . H e le n H o m b e c k T a n n e r , e d ., A tla s o f Great Lakes

a u th o r itie s t o b a n t h e sa le o f liq u o r. Se e, fo r e x a m ­

Indian History (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ) , 4 8 . For a

p le , t h e p le a in 1 7 2 2 o f t h e M a h ic a n t o W illia m

d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f t h e u p ris in g , se e 4 8 - 5 3 . See

B u r n e tt, g o v e m o r - in - c h ie f o f N e w Y o rk a n d N e w Je rs e y , 1 7 2 0 - 8 . E .B . O 'C a lla g h a n a n d J.R . B ro d h e a d , ed s, Documents Relative to the Colo nial H istory

o f the State o f New York, 1 5 v o ls (A lb a n y , NY, 1 8 5 3 - 8 7 ) , V, 6 6 3 ^ 1 . 2 2 . T h e g o v e r n o r o f V ir g in ia re p o rte d th is t o t h e B o a rd

a ls o P e c k h a m , Pontiac, 9 9 - 1 0 0 . 3 5 . F o r a c o n t r a r y v iew , see W ilb u r R. Ja c o b s , 'The In d ia n F r o n tie r o f 1 7 6 3 ', Western Pennsylvania Historical M agazine 3 4 , 3 ( 1 9 5 1 ) : 1 8 5 - 9 8 . 3 6 . P e c k h a m , Pontiac, 3 1 6 .

o f T rad e i n 1 7 5 6 . S e e J a c k M . S o s in , W hitehall and

3 7 . A t t h e tim e t h e f o r t w a s b u ilt, t h e D a k o ta -0 jib w a

the Wilderness: The M iddle West in British Colonial Policy, 17 6 0 -1 7 7 5 (L in c o ln , N e b ., 1 9 6 1 ) , 3 0 .

W a r h a d b e e n g o in g o n fo r s o m e t h in g lik e a cen ­

2 3 . P e te r W ra x a ll, A n Abridgement o f Indian A ffairs . . .

Transacted in the Colony o f New York for the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, ed . C h a rle s H . M c llw a in (C a m b rid g e , M a ss., 1 9 1 5 ) , ix , 1 5 3 n 2 . 2 4 . D a v id A. A rm o u r, ed ., Attack at M ichilim ackinac

1763 (M a c k in a c Is la n d , M ic h ., 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 5 . T h is is a r e p r o d u c tio n o f A le x a n d e r H e n ry 's Travels and A d ­

ventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the years 1760 and 1764 (N ew Y ork, 1 8 0 9 ) . 2 5 . S o s in , W hitehall and the Wilderness, 3 1 . 2 6 . G o r d o n M . D a y a n d B ru c e G . T rig g er, 'A lg o n q u in ',

tu ry. D u rin g a te m p o r a r y p e a c e in 1 7 8 7 th e com ­ b a ta n ts

agreed

to

r e c o g n iz e

th e

B r itis h

King.

C la y to n W . M c C a ll, 'T h e P e a c e o f M ich ilim a c k in a c k ', Michigan History M agazine 2 8 , 3 (1 9 4 4 ): 3 6 7 -8 3 . 3 8 . M a r y 'M o lly ' B r a n t, c o n s o r t o f S ir W illia m Jo h n ­ s o n , s u p e r in te n d e n t o f N o r th e r n I n d ia n Affairs w h o h a d d ie d i n 1 7 7 4 , w a s a m o r e p o w e rfu l figure a m o n g t h e m a tr ilin e a l M o h a w k t h a n h e r fam ous y o u n g e r b r o th e r . O n h e r i m p o r ta n c e a m o n g her p e o p le , i t w as re p o r te d t h a t 'o n e w o rd fr o m her g o e s f a r th e r w ith t h e m t h a n a th o u s a n d fr o m any w h ite M a n

w ith o u t E x c e p tio n

w h o in

general

in T rigger, e d ., Handbook o f North Am erican Indians,

m u s t p u rc h a s e t h e ir I n t e r e s t a t a h ig h r a te .' The

15: Northeast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 7 8 ) , 7 9 5 ; R o b e rt J .

Ir o q u o is d id n o t re g a rd Jo s e p h as th e ir le a d in g war

S u rte e s, ‘T h e Iro q u o is in C a n a d a ', in F r a n c is J e n ­

c h ie f;

n in g s ,

e d .,

The H istory and Culture o f Iroquois

D iplom acy (S y ra cu se , NY, 1 9 8 5 ) , 7 0 . 2 7 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , 'L e s Iro q u o is c h r é tie n s d e s " r é d u c ­ t i o n s " , 1 6 6 7 - 1 7 7 0 . I— M ig r a tio n e t ra p p o rts a v e c le s F r a n ç a is ', Recherches amérindiennes au Québec 2 1 , 3 (1 9 9 1 ) .

th a t

honour

w as

accord ed

th e

S e n eca

K a ie n ? k w a a h to 'n (S a y e n q u e r a g h ta , d. 1 7 8 6 ) , w ho a ls o fo u g h t fo r t h e B r itis h . S e e B a rb a ra G ra y m o n t,

The Iroquois in the Am erican Revolution (Syracuse, NY, 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 5 9 . 3 9 . R ed J a c k e t t o o k p a rt i n a c o u n c i l t h a t rem o v ed B r a n t fr o m o f f ic e in 1 8 0 5 , b u t B r a n t m a n a g e d to

2 8 . Papers o f S ir W illiam Johnson, III, 9 6 5 . T h e s p e llin g

s ta y o n a n o th e r tw o y e a rs. R ed J a c k e t, e m p lo y e d as

o f th is c ita tio n h a s b e e n c o r r e c te d ; C r o g h a n 's is so

a r u n n e r fo r t h e B r itis h d u r in g t h e A m e r ic a n W ar

b a d i t in te r fe r e s w it h re a d in g .

o f In d e p e n d e n c e , h a d b e e n re w a rd e d fo r h is serv­

2 9 . T h e q u e s tio n o f P o n tia c 's o rig in s is u n re s o lv e d .

ic e s w ith a r ic h ly e m b r o id e r e d re d ja c k e t. H e later

H o w ard H. P e c k h a m d iscu s se s t h e e v id e n c e in Pon­ tiac and the Indian Uprising (C h ic a g o , 1 9 4 7 ) , 1 5 - 1 6

th r e w i n h is l o t w ith t h e A m e r ic a n s , a lth o u g h h e

n 2 . C o n te m p o r a r y re p o rts in f o r m u s t h a t h e w as o f b e t te r t h a n m e d iu m h e i g h t a n d n o t h a n d s o m e . Ib id ., 2 8 - 9 .

w o u ld

have

p re fe rre d

n e u tra lity .

See

M a ry

H.

E a s tm a n , The Am erican Aboriginal Portfolio (P h ila ­ d e lp h ia , 1 8 5 3 ) , 9 - 1 3 . 4 0 . O n t h e p a r t ic ip a t io n o f t h e S ix N a tio n s i n th e

Notes 469 A m e r ic a n W a r o f In d e p e n d e n c e , se e G e o r g e F.G . S t a n le y ,

'T h e

S ix

N a ti o n s

and

th e

5 6 . T h e te x t o f th e

g r a n t is re p ro d u c e d

in

Isa b e l

T h o m p s o n K elsay, Joseph Brant, 1743-1807: Man o f

A m e r ic a n

Two Worlds (S y ra c u se , NY, 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 6 3 . S e e a lso

R e v o lu tio n ', Ontario H istory 5 6 , 4 ( 1 9 6 4 ) : 2 1 7 - 3 2 .

G a te s , La n d Policies, 1 4 - 1 5 .

4 1 . G e o r g e F.G . S ta n le y , The War o f 1812: L a n d Opera­

5 7 . C h a rle s M . J o h n s t o n , e d ., The Valley o f the Six N a­

tions (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 3 - 1 4 .

tions: A Collection o f Documents on the India n Lands o f the G rand River (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 4 ) , 5 2 . See a lso K elsay, Joseph Brant, 3 7 0 .

4 2 . A .L. B u rt, 'A N e w A p p r o a c h t o t h e P r o b le m o f t h e W e s te r n P o s ts ', Canadian H istorical Association Re­

port ( 1 9 3 1 ) : 6 1 - 9 5 . 4 3 . J o h n L e slie d is c u s s e s t h e tr e a ty a n d its b a c k g r o u n d

5 8 . G a tes, Land Policies, 49. O n B ra n t's stru g g le w ith th e

i n The Treaty o f Am ity, Commerce and Navigation,

a d m in is tr a tio n , se e C h a rle s M . J o h n s t o n , 'Jo s e p h

1 7 9 4 -1 7 9 6 : The Jay Treaty (O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ).

B ra n t, t h e G ra n d R iv er L a n d s a n d th e N o rth w e s t C risis', Ontario History 5 5 (1 9 6 3 ) : 2 6 7 - 8 2 .

4 4 . T h e te x ts o f t h e p r o c la m a tio n s o f 1 7 6 1 a n d 1 7 6 2 a n d e x c e r p ts fr o m t h a t o f 1 7 6 3 a re re p ro d u c e d in

5 9 . A la te r c o u r t c a s e th a t in v o lv e d B r a n t's le a s in g a c tiv itie s w as Sheldon v. Ramsay, 1 8 5 2 . T h e issu e

C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights in

w a s w h e th e r o r n o t la n d s b e lie v e d t o b e lo n g t o a

Canada, 2 8 5 - 9 2 . S e e a ls o B ra d fo rd W . M o rs e , ed ., Aboriginal Peoples and the Law : Indian, Metis, and In u it Rights in Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ), 5 2 - 4 , 1 9 1 - 6 .

c e r ta in M a llo r y ( n o t a N a tiv e ) w o u ld b e fo r fe ite d fo r tr e a s o n . It d e v e lo p e d th a t t h e la n d s in q u e s tio n h a d b e e n le a s e d b y B r a n t; th e c o u r t ru le d t h a t t h e

4 5 . F o r a d e ta ile d s tu d y o f t h e P r o c la m a tio n , se e J a c k

M o h a w k c h i e f h a d h a d n o a u th o r ity fo r s u c h a n

S ta g g , 'A n g lo -In d ia n R e la tio n s i n N o r th A m e r ic a to

a c tio n , a s n e i t h e r h e n o r th e S ix N a tio n s h a d p o s ­

1 7 6 3 a n d a n A n a ly s is o f t h e R o y a l P r o c la m a tio n o f

sess ed ti t le in fe e s im p le . S e e B ru c e A. C la rk , Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n ,

7 O c to b e r 1 7 6 3 ', O tta w a , 1 9 8 1 . 4 6 . J o n e s , 'B r itis h C o lo n ia l In d ia n T re a tie s ', 1 8 9 - 9 0 .

1 9 9 0 ), 19 a n d n l 5 .

4 7 . R o b e rt J . S u rte e s, 'C a n a d ia n In d ia n T re a tie s ', in

6 0 . S u rte e s, 'T h e Ir o q u o is i n C a n a d a ', 7 6 . A n o u t lin e o f

W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f North Am erican In ­ dians, 4: H istory o f India n-W hite Relations, 2 0 2 .

B r a n t’s re a l e s ta te d e a lin g s is i n J o h n s t o n , ed .,

Valley o f S ix Nations, x lii- liv . F o r a s tu d y o f th e le g a l d is s e n s io n s t h a t e n s u e d , se e S id n e y L. H a rrin g ,

4 8 . S ta g g , 'A n g lo -In d ia n R e la tio n s ', 3 8 6 .

W hite M an's L a w (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 8 ) , c h . 2 .

4 9 . T o rre lli, 'L e s In d ie n s d u C a n a d a ', 2 3 7 - 9 .

6 1 . Kelsay, Joseph Brant, 5 5 5 - 6 . In te re s tin g ly e n o u g h ,

5 0 . S u rte e s, 'C a n a d ia n I n d ia n T re a tie s ', 2 0 2 .

B r a n t h a d in itia lly m a in ta in e d th a t th e p u rch a se

5 1 . L isa P a tte rs o n , 'E r r a n t P e a ce T re a ty ', The A rchivist

fr o m th e M ississau g a h a d n o t b e e n n ecessary , as

16, 6 (1 9 8 9 ): 15.

th e s e h a d b e e n Iro q u o is la n d s fr o m tim e im m e m o r i­

5 2 . D o n a ld B. S m ith , 'T h e D is p o s s e s s io n o f t h e M issis­

al. L a ter h e b e c a m e la n d a g e n t fo r t h e M ississau g a,

sa u g a I n d ia n s : A M is s in g C h a p te r in t h e E arly H is­ to r y

of

U pper

C a n a d a ',

Ontario H istory 7 3 , 2

( 1 9 8 1 ) : 7 2 . W a b a k in in e w a s a s ig n a to r y t o se v e ra l

in d ic a tin g a d e fa c to a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f th e ir title . 6 2 . S te w a r t B e ll, 'O n e - m e m b e r B .C . b a n d ju m p s o n th e

la n d -c e s s io n tr e a tie s . S e e Dictionary o f Canadian

Biography, IV.

6 3 . S u rte e s, 'C a n a d ia n

r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , I, 4 2 ff .

The

Gazette,

I n d ia n T re a tie s ', 2 0 3 ;

B oy ce

R ic h a r d s o n , 'K in d H e a rts o r F o rk e d T o n g u e s ? ', The

5 4 . L illia n F. G a te s , L a n d Policies o f Upper Canada (T o­ r o n to , 1 9 6 8 ) , 4 9 , 5 1 . A c c o r d in g t o h is to r ia n R o b e rt

Beaver O u tfit 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 1 6 . 6 4 . C a n a d a , India n Treaties and Surrenders, I, 4 7 . M u s-

J . S u rte e s, t h e a v e ra g e p r ic e w as fo u r p e n c e a n a cre .

q u a k ie ’s b a n d e v e n tu a lly s e ttle d i n R a m a T o w n ­

S u rte e s, 'C a n a d ia n In d ia n T re a tie s ', 2 0 4 .

s h ip in 1 8 3 9 , a fte r se v e ra l m o v e s . M u s k o k a , a re ­

5 5 . T h e im p o r ta n c e o f A m e r in d ia n s i n c o lo n i a l p o lic y

g io n n o r t h o f T o r o n to , m a y h a v e h a d its n a m e

w as in d ic a te d b y t h e w is h o f J o h n G ra v e s S im c o e , lie u te n a n t-g o v e rn o r

b a n d w a g o n ',

la n d ’, Globe and M ail, 1 4 O c t. 1 9 9 5 .

5 3 . C a n a d a , India n Treaties and Surrenders, 3 v o ls (T o­

fir s t

la n d - c l a i m s

M o n tr e a l, 5 O c t. 1 9 9 5 ; 'T h e little s t b a n d in t h e

of

U pper

C anada,

1 7 9 1 - 6 , t o e s ta b lis h t h e c a p ita l o n t h e

d e riv e d f r o m t h a t o f t h e c h ie f . 6 5 . R.A. H u m p h re y s , 'G o v e r n o r M u rra y 's V iew s . . .',

s ite o f

Canadian Historical Review 1 6 ( 1 9 3 5 ) : 1 6 6 - 9 .

L o n d o n , t o b e n e a r t h e A m e r in d ia n a llie s . S e e R .J. S u rte e s, 'T h e C h a n g in g Im a g e o f t h e C a n a d ia n In d ia n : A n H is to r ic a l A p p r o a c h ', i n D .A . M u ise , ed ., Approaches to Native H isto ry in Canada: Papers

Chapter 13 1.

T h is c h a p te r is a n a d a p ta tio n o f m y p a p e r, 'A H is­

o f a conference held at the N ational Museum o f Man

to r ic a l

(O tta w a , 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 2 1 .

P la in s ', Prairie Forum 5 , 1 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 1 9 - 3 7 .

R e c o n s tr u c tio n

fo r

th e

N o rth w e ste rn

470 Notes 2 . Jo s e p h Ja b lo w , The Cheyenne in Plain s India n Trade

r o n to , 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 6 7 - 8 . F o r o th e r s u c h raid s, see A.S.

Relations 1 795-1840, M o n o g r a p h s o f th e A m e r ic a n

M o r to n , e d ., The Journal o f Duncan M 'Gillivray of

E t h n o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty , 1 9 (S e a ttle , 1 9 5 0 ) , 1 4 ; R o b e rt

the Northwest Com pany at Fort George on the Sas­ katchewan, 17 9 4 -1 7 9 5 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 9 ) , 2 7 .

H . L o w ie , Indians o f the P lain s (N ew Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ) , 45. 3 . W illia m D u n c a n S tro n g , 'T h e P la in s C u ltu r e A rea

1 6 . J o h n M c D o u g a ll, Wa-pee Moostooch or White Buf­

falo (C a lg a ry , 1 9 0 8 ) , 1 3 2 - 5 0 .

i n th e L ig h t o f A rc h a e o lo g y ', Am erican Anthropolo­

1 7 . G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thom pson’s Narrative, 2 4 1 -2 ;

gist 2 3 , 2 ( 1 9 3 3 ) : 2 7 1 - 8 7 , h e ld t h a t h o r s e n o m a d ­

F ra n k R a y m o n d S e co y , Changing M ilitary Patterns on the Great Plains, M o n o g r a p h s o f th e Am erican

ism re p re s e n te d n o m o r e th a n a 't h i n a n d s trik ­ in g ly u n ifo r m v e n e e r ' o n e a r lie r c u ltu r a l m a n if e s ­

E th n o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty , 2 1 (S e a ttle , 1 9 5 3 ) , 3 3 ; Lewis,

ta t io n s . O n t h e la c k o f s p e c ific rite s a m o n g t h e

Effects o f W hite Contact, 1 1 ; G e o r g e E. Hyde, Indians o f the H igh Plain s (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1959), 1 2 1 , 1 3 3 - 4 . S e e a ls o R . C o le H arris, e d ., Historical A tla s o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 5 7 , fo r a

P la in s C r e e fo r th e in c r e a s e o f h o r s e s e v e n th o u g h th e y w e re t h e s y m b o l o f w e a lth , see D a v id G . M a n d e lb a u m , The Plains Cree (R e g in a , 1 9 7 9 ) , 6 3 . 4 . E G . R o e, The Indian and the Horse (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 5 1 ), 54 . 5 . J o h n C . Ew ers, The Horse in Blackfoot India n Culture (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 5 5 ) , 2 - 3 . 6 . R o e , Indian and Horse, 7 4 - 5 . 7 . J o h n P rice , Indians o f Canada: C u ltural D ynam ics (S c a r b o r o u g h , O n t., 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 7 6 . 8 . D o lo r e s A. G u n n e r s o n , ‘M a n a n d B is o n o n th e

s c h e m a t ic d ia g ra m o f t h e d if fu s io n o f h o rses. 1 8 . J a m e s T e it, 'T h e S a lis h a n T rib e s o f th e W estern P la t e a u ',

4 5 th

A nnual

R e p o r t,

US

B u re a u of

E t h n o lo g y ( 1 9 2 7 - 8 ) ( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 3 0 ) , 1 0 9 -1 0 ; M is h k in , Rank and Warfare, 9. 1 9 . S e co y , M ilitary Patterns, 3 6 - 8 . 2 0 . G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thom pson’s Narrative, 2 4 0 - 4 . 2 1 . J o h n C . E w ers, 'W a s T h e r e a N o rth w e s te rn Plains

P la in s i n t h e P r o to h is to r ic P e rio d ', Plains Anthro­

S u b c u lt u r e ?

pologist 1 7 , 5 5 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 2 . It h a s b e e n th e o r iz e d th a t

W a rr e n W . C a ld w e ll, e d ., The Northwestern Plains: A

t h e c u s to m o f b u r n in g a lte re d t h e e c o lo g y o f riv e r

Sym posium (B illin g s , M o n t., 1 9 6 8 ) , 7 1 . See also H u g h A. D e m p s e y , Indian Tribes o f Alberta (Calgary,

v a lle y s s o t h a t t h e s u b s is te n c e b a s e o f t h e c o m m u ­ n itie s w a s u n d e r m in e d . T h e a v e ra g e life o f a P la in s fa r m in g v illa g e h a s b e e n e s tim a te d a t a b o u t 3 0 y e a rs.

An

E t h n o g r a p h ic

A p p r a is a l',

in

1 9 8 6 ). 22. Jo h n

C.

Ew ers,

The Blackfeet (N o r m a n , Okla.,

1 9 5 8 ) , 6 - 7 ; L ew is, Effects o f W hite Contact, 7-9.

9 . T.H . L ew is, e d ., 'T h e N a rra tiv e o f t h e E x p e d itio n o f

2 3 . 'G r o s V e n tr e ' tr a n s la te s as 'B ig B e llie s ', a n appella­

H e r n a n d o d e S o to b y t h e G e n t le m a n o f E lv a s ', in

t i o n sa id t o h a v e b e e n e a r n e d b e c a u s e o f th e ir big

F re d e rick W . H o d g e, e d ., Spanish Explorers in the

a p p e tite s . T h e y c a lle d th e m s e lv e s W illo w People.

Southern United States 1 5 2 8 -1 5 4 3 (N e w Y ork, 1 9 0 7 ) ,

F .W .

213.

(O tta w a , 1 9 1 3 ) , 5 1 - 2 .

1 0 . H e n ry K elsey, The Kelsey Papers (O tta w a , 1 9 2 9 ) , 1 3 ,

H od ge,

H a ndbook o f In d ia n s o f Canada

2 4 . E w ers, 'E t h n o g r a p h ic A p p ra isa l', 7 3 . 'A ts in a ' was

c ite d b y E le a n o r V e rb ic k y -T o d d , Com m unal Buffalo

t h e B la c k f o o t te r m

H unting Am ong the Plains Indians: A n Ethnographic and H istoric Review (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 3 4 .

V e n tr e ' t h e F r e n c h . A n o th e r n a m e fo r th e m was

1 1 . G e o r g e W . A rth u r, A n Introduction to the Ecology o f

E a rly H istoric Com m unal Bison H unting among the Northern P lain s Indians (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ) , 7 2 . 1 2 . O s c a r L ew is, The Effects o f W hite Contact Upon

Blackfoot Culture W ith Special References to the F u r Trade, M o n o g r a p h s o f t h e A m e r ic a n E th n o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty , 6 (N ew Y o rk , 1 9 4 2 ) , 3 8 - 4 0 . 1 3 . E llio tt C o u e s , e d ., New L ig h t on the Ea rly H isto ry o f

'H a a n in in ',

fo r th e s e p e o p le a n d 'G ros

'c h a lk m e n ' o r 'm e n

o f s o ft w h ite

s t o n e '. 2 5 . E w ers, Blackfeet, 2 4 - 5 . 2 6 . G ra d e d s o c ie tie s h a d d if fe r e n t le v e ls o f m e m b e r­ s h ip , e a c h w ith its p a r tic u la r f u n c tio n s a n d h o n ­ o u rs. 2 7 . R e g in a F la n n e ry , The Gros Ventres o f Montana, Part

I: Social Life, A n th r o p o lo g ic a l S e rie s # 1 5 (W ash ­ in g to n , 1 9 5 3 ) , 5 ; A lfred L. K ro eb er, Ethnology o f the

the Great Northwest 1 799-1814, 3 v o ls (N ew Y ork,

Gros Ventre (N e w Y o rk , 1 9 0 8 ) , 1 4 5 . A n o th e r fur

1 8 9 7 ), n, 5 2 6 .

tra d e r, h o w e v e r, fo u n d t h e m t o b e la z y a n d 'good

1 4 . Ib id ., 1, 3 5 2 ; II, 5 2 6 .

o n ly

1 5 . B e rn a rd M is h k in , Rank and Warfare Am ong Plains

M 'G illivray, 2 6 - 7 , 7 3 - 4 .

Indians, M o n o g r a p h s o f t h e A m e r ic a n E t h n o l o ­

at

s te a lin g

h o r s e s '.

M o rto n ,

e d .,

Duncan

g ic a l S o c ie ty , 3 (S e a ttle , 1 9 4 0 ) , 1 0 ; R ic h a rd G lo v e r,

H e n ri H o w a rd , The Plains-Ojibw a or Bungi, Hunters and Warriors o f the Northern Prairie

e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative 1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o ­

(V e r m illio n , S D , 1 9 6 5 ) . E d w in T h o m p s o n D en ig

2 8 . C f. J a m e s

Notes sa y s t h a t t h e O jib w a a n d C r e e w e re s o i n t e r m i n ­

4 1 . L ew is, Effects o f W hite Contact, 1 7 - 1 8 .

g le d as t o b e d if fic u lt t o d is tin g u is h . S e e J o h n C .

4 2 . M o r to n , e d ., D uncan M 'G illivray, 3 1 . T h a t th e r e

E w ers, e d ., Five Indian Tribes o f the Upper Missouri

m ig h t h a v e b e e n s o m e g r o u n d s fo r t h e B la c k f o o t

(N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 6 1 ) , 1 0 0 .

s u s p ic io n s is in d ic a t e d b y F r e n c h p r a c tic e s i n t h e H u ro n tra d e , in w h i c h p r e fe r e n tia l tr e a tm e n t w as

2 9 . C o u e s , e d ., New Light, II, 7 1 3 - 1 4 . F o r a S p a n is h

a c c o r d e d t o c o n v e r ts . S e e C h a p te r 8 a b o v e .

g o v e rn o r's in g e n io u s a r g u m e n t in fa v o u r o f p r o ­ v id in g g u n s t o indios barbaros i n o r d e r t o m a k e

43.

E.E.

R ich , The F u r Trade in the Northwest to 1857

t h e m less fo r m id a b le , se e M a x L. M o o r h e a d , The

(T o ro n to ,

Apache Frontier (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 2 7 - 8 .

A m e r in d ia n s re g u la r ly u se d fire t o c o n t r o l v e g e ta ­

30. A C r e e tr a d itio n fr o m t h e C h u r c h ill R iv e r a re a h a s

ti o n , w h ic h in tu r n in f lu e n c e d t h e m o v e m e n ts o f

it t h a t t h e fir s t tim e th e y m e t n o n -A b o r ig in a ls th e y w e re p r e s e n te d w ith a g u n , b u t w it h o u t liv e a m ­ m u n itio n . O n c e t h e y o b ta in e d a m m u n it io n , th e C r e e fo u n d t h e g u n t o b e 'a g o o d h u n t i n g w e a ­ p o n '. J o h n S. L o n g , 'N a rr a tiv e s o f E a rly E n c o u n te r s b e tw e e n E u ro p e a n s a n d t h e C re e o f W e s te rn Ja m e s B a y ', Ontario History 8 0 , 2 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 2 3 0 , 2 3 1 . 3 1 . S e co y , Military Patterns, 5 2 .

1 5 8 . I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t

th e h erd s. 4 4 . H ow ay, 'D a v id T h o m p s o n 's A c c o u n t', 3 3 5 ; G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative, 2 7 2 - 9 , 3 8 9 . 4 5 . L ew is, Effects o f W hite Contact, 2 3 . 4 6 . J.B . T y rrell, e d ., D a vid Thompson's Narrative o f his

Explorations in Western America, 1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o­ r o n to , 1 9 1 6 ) , x c . F o r a d if fe r e n t v e rs io n , see J.E .A . M a c le o d , 'P e ig a n P o s t a n d th e B la c k f o o t T ra d e ',

3 2 . B r ia n J . S m ith , 'H o w G r e a t a n I n f lu e n c e w as t h e G u n in H is to r ic N o r th e r n

1 9 6 7 ),

P la in s E t h n ic M o v e ­

m e n ts ? ' in D ia n a C la ir e T k a c z u k a n d B r ia n C . V iv i­ a n , ed s, Cultures in Conflict: Current Archaeological

Perspectives (C alg ary , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 5 3 - 6 1 . D ia m o n d J e n n ess, fo r h is p a rt, h a d n o d o u b ts th a t t h e g u n d is­ tu rb e d t h e e q u ilib r iu m n o t o n ly b e tw e e n h u m a n s

Canadian Historical Review 2 4 , 3 ( 1 9 4 3 ) : 2 7 3 - 9 . 4 7 . L ew is, Effects o f W hite Contact, 2 4 . 4 8 . G lo v e r,

e d .,

D a v id Thom pson's Narrative, 2 2 9 .

T h o m p s o n , o f co u rs e , w as r e p e a tin g h ea rsa y . 4 9 . Ib id ., 3 9 2 - 4 . H e c a lle d th e in tru d e r s ‘F r e n c h C a ­ n a d ia n s '.

a n d th e a n im a ls th e y h u n te d , b u t a ls o b e tw e e n

5 0 . P e m m ic a n w as m a d e h o r n d ried , p o u n d e d b u ffa lo

h u m a n g ro u p s . J e n n e s s , Eskimo Administration: II: Canada (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 2 ) , 7.

m e a t m ix e d w ith b u f fa lo fa t, a b o u t fiv e p a rts m e a t

33. D e le g a te s t o a P e ig a n -S a lis h (F la th e a d ) p e a c e c o u n ­

a d d e d . O n e k ilo g r a m o f p e m m ic a n h a d t h e fo o d

c il v iv id ly d e s c r ib e d t h e e ffe c t t h a t g u n s c o u ld

v a lu e o f fo u r to e ig h t k ilo g r a m s o f fr e s h m e a t o r

t o fo u r p a rts fa t, t o w h ic h b e r rie s w ere s o m e tim e s

h a v e . S e e G lo v e r, e d ., David Thompson's Narrative,

fis h . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f its m a n u fa c tu r e , b e lie v e d

3 9 0 -1 .

t o h a v e o c c u r r e d a b o u t 3 0 0 0 BC, w a s a m a jo r fa c ­

34. Ib id ., 3 9 3 . 35. Ib id ., 2 0 7 , 2 4 0 . T h e S h o s h o n i w e re d o u b ly u n fo r ­

to r in t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e c la s s ic p e rio d o f th e N o r th e r n P la in s B is o n H u n tin g C u ltu r e . B r ia n O .K . R eev es, 'C o m m u n a l b is o n h u n te r s o f t h e N o r th e r n

tu n a te , a s th e y w e re a ls o c o n f r o n te d b y S io u x

P la in s ', i n L .B . D a v is a n d R eev es, ed s, Hunters o f the

a rm e d w it h g u n s w h o p u s h e d t h e m w e stw a rd i n t o

Recent Past ( L o n d o n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 6 9 - 7 0 .

t h e m o u n ta in s a n d s a g e b ru s h d e sert. 36. H y d e, High Plains, 1 6 4 - 5 . 37. C o u e s , e d ., New Light, II, 7 2 6 .

38. P eter F id le r's J o u r n a l, h b c A rc h iv e s, E 3 /2 :1 9 , 31 D e c . 1 7 9 2 . S e e a ls o F.W . H ow ay, 'D a v id T h o m p ­ s o n ’s A c c o u n t o f h is F irst A tte m p t t o C ro s s th e R o c k ie s ', Queen's Quarterly 4 0 (1 9 3 3 ): 3 3 7 . A t o u c h ­ in g a c c o u n t o f t h e B la c k fo o t's firs t e n c o u n te r w ith n o n -A b o r ig in a ls is to ld b y G e o r g e B ird G r in n e ll,

The Story o f the Indians (N ew Y ork, 1 9 1 1 ), 2 2 4 - 4 0 . 39. V a rio u s v o y a g e s i n t o t h e in t e r io r are d e s cr ib e d b y A rth u r S. M o r t o n , A History o f the Canadian West to

1 8 7 0 - 7 1 , e d . L e w is G . T h o m a s (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ), 2 6 3 -9 0 . 40. G ly n d w r W illia m s , 'T h e P u z z le o f A n th o n y H e n d ay 's Jo u r n a l, 1 7 5 4 - 5 5 ', The Beaver O u tfit 3 0 9 , 3 (1 9 7 8 ): 5 3 .

5 1 . L ew is, Effects o f W hite Contact, 3 5 - 6 . 5 2 . D a v id G . M a n d e lb a u m , The Plains Cree (N ew Y ork, 1 9 4 0 ) , 2 4 6 . Lew is sa y s t h a t a m o n g th e B la c k fo o t, th e th ir d o r fo u r th w ife h a d s u c h a n in f e r io r sta tu s t h a t s h e w as re fe rre d t o as a 's la v e '. L ew is, Effects o f

W hite Contact, 3 8 - 4 0 . 5 3 . M a n d e lb a u m , P lain s Cree, 5 7 . 5 4 . D a n ie l W illia m s H a r m o n , Sixteen Years in the Indian

Country: The Journals o f W illiam s Harm on, ed . W . K ay e L a m b (T o ro n to , 1 9 5 7 ) , 6 9 . 5 5 . G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative, 1 7 7 - 8 . 5 6 . D a v id G . M a n d e lb a u m , Anthropology and People:

The World o f the Plain s Cree (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 6 7 ) , 6. 5 7 . Ib id . 5 8 . C o u e s , e d ., New Light, I, 2 9 2 - 3 ; II, 4 9 8 - 9 ; M o r to n ,

History o f the Canadian West to 1870-71, 2 5 3 ;

471

472 Notes A le x a n d e r M a c k e n z ie , Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence Through the Continent o f America (L o n d o n ,

1 8 0 1 ),

x iii-x iv .

M a c k e n z ie 's

w o rk

is

re p o r te d t o h a v e b e e n g h o s t- w r itte n . S e e F ra n z M o n tg o m e r y ,

'A le x a n d e r

M a c k e n z ie 's

1 0 . M e th y e P o rta g e w a s a ls o k n o w n as Portage La L o c h e . 'M e t h y e ' is t h e C r e e w o r d fo r a freshwater fis h , t h e b u r b o t. 1 1 . E .E . R ic h ,

'T ra d e h a b its , e c o n o m i c m otivation,

L ite r a r y

a m o n g t h e I n d ia n s o f N o r th A m e ric a ', Canadian

A s s is ta n t”, Canadian Historical Review 1 8 , 3 ( 1 9 3 7 ) :

Journal o f Econom ics and Political Science 26, 1

301^1.

(1 9 6 0 ):

3 5 - 5 3 . T h is a r tic le w a s re p rin te d , with

illu s tr a tio n s a d d e d , u n d e r t h e tit le 'T h e Indian

Chapter 14

T ra d e rs', The Beaver O u tf it 3 0 1 (1 9 7 0 ) : 5 - 2 0 .

1. S te p h e n H u m e , 'W a s B .C . d is c o v e re d b y F ra n c is D ra k e ? ', Ottawa Citizen, 6 A ug. 2 0 0 0 , A 5. A c c o r d ­ in g t o t h e re s e a rc h o f B C g e o g ra p h e r S a m u e l B a w lf,

1 2 . R ic h a rd G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative

1 7 8 4 -1 8 1 2 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 7 3 - 4 . 1 3 . W .A . S lo a n ,

'T h e

C o lu m b ia lin k — n a tiv e trade,

g lo b e ,

w a rfa re , a n d E u ro p e a n p e n e t r a t io n o f th e Koo-

1 5 7 8 - 8 0 , r e a c h e d t h e m o u t h o f t h e S tik in e R iv er

te n a y s ', p a p e r p r e s e n te d to t h e O rkney-Rupert's

D rak e ,

w h ile

c irc u m n a v ig a tin g

th e

w h e r e it c u ts th r o u g h th e A laska p a n h a n d le . T h e

L a n d C o llo q u iu m , O r k n e y Isla n d s, 1 9 9 0 .

v is it w as k e p t s e c r e t t o h id e i t fr o m t h e S p a n ia rd s,

1 4 . A rth u r S. M o r t o n , e d ., The Journal o f Duncan M'Gil-

w h o w e re c la im in g th e e n tir e N o r th A m e r ic a n

livray o f the Northwest Com pany at Fort George on the Saskatchewan (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 9 ) , 5 6 .

w e s t c o a s t. 2 . W .J. E ccle s, 'T h e F u r T ra d e in t h e C o lo n ia l N o r th ­

1 5 . G lo v e r, e d ., D a v id Thompson's Narrative, 3 0 5 - 6 ; El­

W a s h b u rn , e d ., Handbook o f

l i o t t C o u e s , e d ., New Lig h t on the E arly History o f the

North American Indians, 4 : History o f Indian-W hite Relations (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 3 2 .

Great Northwest 1799-1 8 1 4 , 3 v o ls (N ew York,

e a s t', i n W ilc o m b

3. Jo h n

W i tt h o f t,

'A r c h a e o lo g y

as a

K ey to

th e

C o lo n ia l Fu r T ra d e ', Aspects o f the Fu r Trade (S t P au l, M in n ., 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 6 - 7 .

the Years 1 7 6 9 • 1 7 7 0 ■ 1 7 7 1 ■ 1 7 7 2 , ed . J .B . T y rrell 1 9 1 1 ),

330n.

A r c h a e o lo g is t

C liffo r d

H ic k e y s p e c u la te s t h a t th e s e b e a d s c o u ld h a v e been

of

R u s s ia n

o r ig in ;

H earne

t h o u g h t th e y

m ig h t b e D a n is h fr o m D a v is S tra it.

K ehoe,

The Ghost Dance (Toronto,

, 100.

and

P a c ific C o a s ts o f C a n a d a ', B .C . Studies 45

( 1 9 8 0 ) : 1 0 3 - 1 5 . S e e a ls o R. C o le H arris, ed., His­

torical A tlas o f Canada, I (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , p la te 66. 1 8 . R o b e r t T.

Boyd,

'D e m o g r a p h ic

H isto ry ,

1774-

1 7 8 4 ', in W a y n e S u ttle s , e d ., Handbook o f North

Am erican Indians, 7: Northwest Coast (W ash in g to n ,

5 . F o r a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e s e h o s tilitie s , se e K erry A b el, D rum Songs (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 3 ) , ch . 5.

1990)

, 135.

1 9 . F.W . H ow ay, 'A n O u tlin e S k e tc h o f th e M aritim e F u r T ra d e ', Canadian Historical Association Report,

6 . T ru d y N ick s, 'T h e Iro q u o is a n d t h e F u r T ra d e in W e s te rn C a n a d a ', i n C a r o l M . J u d d a n d A .J. Ray, ed s, Old Trails and New Directions: Papers o f the

Third North American Fu r Trade Conference (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 0 ) , 8 6 . S e e a ls o N ic k s, 'O r ig in s o f t h e A lb e rta M é tis : L a n d C la im s R e s e a r c h P r o je c t 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 7 9 ', w o rk p a p e r fo r t h e M é tis A s s o c ia tio n o f A lb erta . 7. HBC A rch iv e s, B 6 0 / e / 3 , E d m o n to n D is tric t R e p o rt f o r 1 8 1 9 ; c ite d b y N ick s, 'O r ig in s o f A lb e rta M é tis ',

1932, 5 -1 4 . 2 0 . R o b in

F ish er,

Contact and C o n flict (V ancouver,

1 9 7 7 ) , 3 ; F.W . H o w ay , 'E a r ly D a y s o f t h e M aritim e T ra d e o n t h e N o r th w e s t C o a s t', Can adian Historical

Review 4 ( 1 9 2 3 ) : 2 6 - ^ 4 . 2 1 . U p to n , 'C o n t a c t a n d C o n f l i c t o n t h e A tla n tic and P a c ific C o a s ts o f C a n a d a ', 1 0 3 - 1 5 . 2 2 . M a d e B e a v e r w as a b e a v e r p e lt c le a n e d , stretch ed , a n d d r ie d fo r t h e tra d e .

20 . 8 . T ru d y

B eck

1989)

1 7 . L.F.S. U p to n , 'C o n t a c t a n d C o n f lic t o n th e Atlantic

4 . S a m u e l H ea rn e , A Journey to the Northern Ocean in (T o r o n to ,

1 8 9 7 ) , II, 7 1 3 . 1 6 . A lic e

N ic k s ,

'M a r y

A n n e 's

D ile m m a :

The

2 3 . 'M u q u in n a ' w a s a c h ie f ly ti t le o f t h e M o c h a t band

E th n o h is to r y o f a n A m b iv a le n t I d e n tity ', Canadian

a n d w a s h e ld b y se v e ra l c h ie f s . T h e h o ld e r o f the

Ethnic Studies 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 0 6 .

ti t le re fe rre d t o h e r e n o t o n ly c o n t r o lle d t h e trade

9 . T ru d y N ic k s a n d K e n n e t h M o rg a n , 'G r a n d C a c h e : t h e h is to r ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n in d ig e n o u s A lb e rta m é tis

p o p u la t io n ',

in Ja c q u e lin e

P e te r s o n

and

J e n n i f e r S.H . B r o w n , ed s, The New Peoples: Being

and Becom ing Métis in North America (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 5 ), 1 6 3 -8 1 .

o f h is o w n p e o p le , b u t a ls o t h a t o f t h e Kwak w a k a 'w a k w o f t h e N im k is h River. 2 4 . A rrell M o r g a n G ib s o n , The Am erican Indian: Pre­

history to the Present ( L e x in g to n , M a ss., 1 9 8 0 ) , 177. 2 5 . F ish er,

Contact and Conflict, 1 6 . S e e a lso F.W.

H o w a y , 'I n d ia n A tta c k s u p o n M a r itim e Traders of

Notes 473 th e

N o rth w e st

C o a st,

1 7 8 5 - 1 8 0 5 ',

C anadian

fo r a c o n f r o n ta ti o n w ith D o u g la s, in w h ic h h e

Historical Review 6 , 4 ( 1 9 2 5 ) : 2 8 7 - 3 0 9 . 2 6 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, IV, s.v. 'K o y a h '. 2 7 . F ish e r, Contact and Conflict, 1 5 . V a rio u s v e r s io n s o f t h e in c id e n t a re g iv e n b y F.W. H ow ay, 'T h e B alla d o f th e B o ld N o r th w e s tm a n : A n I n c i d e n t i n t h e L ife o f C a p ta in J o h n K e n d ric k ', Washington Historical

Quarterly 2 0 ( 1 9 2 9 ) : 1 1 4 - 2 3 .

sp a red t h e la tte r's life . 41.

S e e R o lf K n ig h t, Indians at Work: A n Informal History o f Native Indian Labour in British Columbia 1 8 5 8 - 1 9 3 0 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 8 ) .

Chapter 15 1. F o r p u rp o se s o f a d m in is tr a tio n , t h e E n g lis h c o lo n ­

2 8 . O n e o f t h e s u rv iv o rs w a s J o h n Je w itt, w h o p u b ­ lis h e d h is e x p e r ie n c e s in A Journal Kept at Nootka

Sound . . . (B o s to n , 1 8 0 7 ).

ie s w e re d iv id e d in t o tw o d e p a r tm e n ts , t h e n o r t h ­ e r n a n d t h e s o u th e r n . 2 . R e g in a ld H o rs m a n , Expansion and American Indian

2 9 . P o s s ib le m o tiv a t io n s a re d is c u s s e d in F ish e r, Con­

tact and Conflict, 1 6 .

Policy, 1 7 8 3 - 1 8 1 2 (E a st L a n s in g . M ic h ., 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 7 1 . 3 . O n t h e i n t o le r a n c e o f A m e r ic a n f r o n tie r s m e n to

3 0 . G a b r ie l F r a n c h è r e , Journal o f a Voyage to the North­

A m e r in d ia n rig h ts , se e R o b e rt L. F ish er, 'T h e W e s t­

west Coast o f North America during the Years 1 8 1 1 , 1 8 1 2 , 1 8 1 3 and 1 8 1 4 , ed . W . K ay e L a m b (T o ro n to ,

e r n P ro lo g u e t o t h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 ', Missouri Histor­

1 9 6 9 ), 1 2 4 -7 .

ical Review 3 0 , 3 ( 1 9 3 6 ) : 2 7 2 . 4 . NAC, RG 8 , series C, v o l. 2 5 7 : 3 1 , M c G ill t o P ré v o st,

3 1 . F ish er, Contact and Conflict, 3 0 .

M o n tr e a l, 1 9 D e c . 1 8 1 2 ; G e o r g e F.G . S ta n le y , 'T h e

3 2 . Ib id ., 3 5 .

I n d ia n s i n t h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 ', Canadian Historical

3 3 . D o u g la s h a d b e e n b o r n i n B r itis h G u ia n a , t h e s o n

Review 3 1 , 2 ( 1 9 5 0 ) : 1 5 2 - 3 .

3 4 . PABC, C o rre s p o n d e n c e In w ard , D o u g las t o M cL o u g h -

F .G . S ta n le y , The War o f 1 8 1 2 : Land Operations (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 3 ) , 6 4 - 5 .

lin , F o r t V a n c o u v e r , 1 0 O c t. 1 8 4 0 ; c ite d b y F ish er,

6 . B r ita in , in its p u rs u it o f t h e N a p o le o n ic W a rs, h a d

o f a S c o ts tr a d e r a n d 'a fre e c o lo r e d w o m a n '.

5. G eo rg e

in s is te d o n its r ig h t t o s to p n e u tr a l v e s s e ls o n t h e

Contact an d Conflict, 3 2 .

h ig h

3 5 . F ish e r, Contact and Conflict, 3 1 . 3 6 . B o th 'L e g a ic ' a n d 'W iis e a k s ' w e re c h ie f ly title s b y w h ic h t h e i n c u m b e n t s w e re k n o w n . F o r e x a m p le , th e r e w e re fiv e re c o r d e d L e g a ic s, a ti t le h e ld b y th e E ag le c la n . T h e fir s t k n o w n h o ld e r o f t h e ti t le b u ilt a tr a d e e m p ir e d u r in g t h e s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e e ig h t­ e e n t h c e n tu r y , w h ic h t h e s e c o n d L e g a ic e x p a n d e d b y e s t a b lis h in g a tr a d in g r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e HBC, w h ic h w as c e m e n te d in 1 8 3 2 b y t h e m a rria g e o f h is d a u g h te r t o D r J o h n F r e d e rick K e n n e d y , a n o ff ic ia l w ith t h e C o m p a n y . S e e M ic h a e l P. R o b ­ i n s o n , Sea Otter Chiefs (V a n c o u v e r, [ 1 9 7 8 ] ), 6 1 - 8 7 ;

sea s i n

search o f c o n tra b a n d a n d

B r itis h

d e se rte rs . I n 1 8 0 7 , w h e n t h e A m e r ic a n Chesapeake re fu se d t o a llo w t h e B r itis h t o ta k e o f f su s p e c te d ru n a w a y s, t h e B r itis h HMS Leopard fire d o n h er, k illin g th r e e o f h e r m e n . T h e A m e r ic a n s re ta lia te d w ith e c o n o m i c s a n c t io n s a g a in s t B r ita in , th o u g h th e s e w e re in e ffe c tiv e . S e e J o h n S u g d e n , Tecumseh's

Last Stand (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 0 . 7 . S ta n ley , 'In d ia n s in t h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 '; S ta n ley , 'T h e S ig n ific a n c e o f t h e S ix N a tio n s ' P a rtic ip a tio n in th e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 ’, Ontario History 5 5 , 4 (1 9 6 3 ) : 2 1 5 - 3 1 . 8 . H a ld im a n d P a p ers 2 1 7 8 3 : 2 7 6 - 7 , S e n e c a c h i e f to

Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, XII, s.v. 'L e g a ic ,

c o u n c il, D e tr o it, 1 D e c . 1 7 8 2 ; c ite d b y C o lin C a llo ­

P a u l'. T s im s h ia n s to r ie s o f L e g a ic a n d W iis e a k s are

w ay , Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations,

in

M a riu s B a r b e a u a n d

W illia m

B e y n o n , c o ll.,

Tsimshian Narratives 2 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 7 ). 3 7 . F ish er, Contact and Conflict, 3 2 . 3 8 . E .E . R ic h , e d ., The Letters o f John McLaughlin from

Fort Vancouver to the Governor and Committee, First series, 1 8 2 5 - 3 8 (L o n d o n , 1 9 4 1 ) , IV, a p p . A, D u n ­ c a n F in la y s o n t o J o h n M c L a u g h lin , 3 3 4 - 5 . 3 9 . S o m e e s tim a te s p la c e th e p r e -c o n t a c t p o p u la tio n m u c h lo w er, a n d t h e n a d ir a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 . S e e T h o m a s B erg er, Fragile Freedoms: H um an Rights and Dissent

in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 2 9 .

1 7 8 3 - 1 8 1 5 (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ) , 6 1 . 9. Jo h n

1 0 :9 . S e e R. D a v id E d m u n d s , The Shawnee

Prophet ( L in c o ln , N e b ., 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 8 - 4 1 . 1 0 . F o r a r e a c t io n

to

th is

p o licy ,

se e 'T e c u m s e h 's

C la im s : A n A m e r ic a n V ie w ', in C a r l F. K lin c k , ed .,

Tecumseh (E n g le w o o d C liffs , N J, 1 9 6 1 ) , 7 5 . 1 1 . A p p a r e n tly t h e a d m ir a tio n w a s m u tu a l. S e e 'B r o c k a n d T e c u m s e h ', ib id ., 1 3 8 . 1 2 . R. D a v id E d m u n d s , Tecumseh and the Quest for

Indian Leadership (B o s to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 4 8 - 5 3 . 1 3 . C a llo w a y , Crown and Calumet, 11.

4 0 . O n K w ah , se e C h a r le s A. B is h o p , 'K w a h : A C a rrie r

1 4 . H a ld im a n d P a p ers 2 1 7 6 3 : 2 2 5 - 6 , B rig a d ier G e n e r a l

C h ie f', i n Ju d d a n d Ray, ed s, Old Trails and New

A lle n M a c le a n t o H a ld im a n d , 8 A ug. 1 7 8 3 ; c ite d

Directions, 1 9 1 - 2 0 4 . K w a h is r e m e m b e r e d m a in ly

ib id ., 6 2 .

474 Notes 1 5 . Ib id ., 6 9 .

3 1 . K e rry A. T rask , 'S e ttle m e n t i n a H alf-Sav ag e Land:

1 6 . D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, VI. T h e D a k o ta c a ll t h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 P a h in s h a s h a w a c ik iy a , 'w h e n t h e R e d h e a d b e g g e d fo r o u r h e lp '. P e te r D o u g la s

L ife a n d L o ss i n t h e M é tis C o m m u n ity o f La Baye',

Michigan Historical Review 1 5 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 1 - 2 7 . 3 2 . R o b e r t S. A lle n , H er Majesty's Indian A llies (Toronto,

E lias, The Dakota o f the Canadian Northwest: Lessons

1 9 9 3 ) , 1 9 7 - 8 ; E d w ard S. R o g ers a n d D onald B.

for Survival (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 8 ) , 8 .

S m ith ,

1 7 . W a lte r L o w rie a n d M a tth e w S t C la ir C la rk e , ed s,

ed s, Aboriginal Ontario (T o ro n to ,

1994),

1 2 3 -4 .

Am erican State Papers. Class H. Indian Affairs, 1 7 8 9 1827, 2 v o ls (W a s h in g to n , 1 8 3 2 - 4 ) , I, 3 2 2 ; C a llo ­ w ay, Crown and Calum et, 1 1 6 - 2 0 .

3 3 . J o h n F. L e slie , ‘B u rie d H a tc h e t', H orizon Canada 4,

1 8 . R o b e rt S. A lle n , H is Majesty's Indian A llie s: British

W ilc o m b E. W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f North Am­

India n Policy in the Defence o f Canada, 1 7 7 4 -1 8 1 S

erican In d ia m , 4: H istory o f Indian-W hite Relations

(T o r o n to , 1 9 9 2 ), 1 2 0 . S e e a ls o G e o r g e F.G . S ta n le y ,

4 0 (1 9 8 5 ): 9 4 4 -9 . 3 4 . R o b e rt J . S u rte e s, 'C a n a d ia n I n d ia n T reaties', in

( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 0 4 .

'T h e In d ia n s in t h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 ', i n M o rr is Z aslow ,

3 5 . D e n y s D e lâ g e , Le pays renversé: Amérindiens et euro­

e d ., The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War o f 1812 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 7 4 - 8 8 .

péens en Am érique du nord-est, 16 0 0 -1 6 6 4 (M ont­ ré a l, 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 3 9 - 4 7 .

1 9 . S ta n le y , War o f 1812, 9 5 - 6 . 2 0 . A d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e b a tt le is i n E d m u n d s , Tecum-

seh and the Quest for India n Leadership, 1 8 0 .

Chapter 16 1 . L ater, r a n c h in g w o u ld b e a d v o c a te d , as th e 'work

2 1 . 'T e k a r ih o g e n ' w as t h e n a m e o f a c h ie f ta in s h ip o f

s u its t h e I n d ia n s b e t te r '. N o t o n ly th a t, b u t ran ch ­

t h e S ix N a tio n s (a lle g e d b y t h e M o h a w k s t o b e t h e

in g c o u ld b e c o -o r d in a te d w ith h u n tin g . In the

p r im a r y o n e ), h e r e d ita r y in B r a n t's m o th e r 's c la n .

v ie w o f t h e NWMP, 'F a r m in g is to o stea d y and

D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, VI, s.v. ‘T ek a ri­

m o n o t o n o u s w o rk fo r th e m , a lth o u g h so m e have

h o g e n '.

f i n e fie ld s .' (C a n a d a , N.W.M.P. Report, 1895, 5.)

2 2 . S ta n le y , War o f 1812, 6 5 - 6 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 8 - 3 1 .

2 . As A le x a n d r e T a c h é (b is h o p o f S t B o n ifa c e , M an.,

Tecum seh and the Q uest for In d ia n Leadership, 1 9 2 - 3 .

2 3 . E d m u n d s,

2 4 . R e g in a ld H o rs m a n , The Frontier in the Formative

Years, 17 8 3 -1 8 1 5 (N ew Y ork, 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 7 9 - 8 3 . 2 5 . C allo w a y , Crown and Calum et, 2 0 2 - 3 ; S ta n le y , War

o f 1812, 1 9 6 - 9 . C allo w a y , Crown and Calum et, 2 3 6 - 7 ; a n o t h e r v e r­ s io n is i n S ta n le y , War o f 1812, 2 1 1 - 1 2 . O n t h e re p o rte d d e s e c r a tio n o f T e c u m s e h 's b o d y , se e S u g d e n , Tecumseh’s L a st Stand, 1 3 6 - 8 1 . 2 7 . E d w in S e a b o r n , The March o f Medicine in Western

Ontario (T o ro n to , 1 9 4 4 ) , 9 - 1 0 . F o r o th e r v e rs io n s , se e K lin c k , e d ., Tecumseh, 2 0 0 - 1 9 . 2 8 . S u g d e n is p a r tic u la r ly e m p h a tic o n th i s p o in t:

Tecumseh's L a s t Stand, 1 9 3 - 5 . S e e a ls o t h e lis t o f b a ttle s in w h ic h A m e r in d ia n s to o k p a rt, a n d th e p e r c e n ta g e o f th e ir p a r tic ip a tio n , in H e le n H o rn b e c k T a n n e r, e d ., A tlas o f Great Lakes India n History (N o r m a n , O k la ., 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 0 8 - 1 5 . M o r e t h a n a th ir d o f th e s e b a ttle s w e re fo u g h t a fte r M o r a v ia n to w n . 2 9 . M a n y m o r e In d ia n s t h a n w h ite s f o u g h t i n t h e w ar, a

n u m b er o f th e

c o n d i ti o n

in t h e s ta te o f c iv iliz a t io n '. Canada,

Sessional Papers 1885, N o . 1 1 6 , 'P a p e rs . . . i n co n ­ n e c t i o n w ith t h e e x t in g u is h m e n t o f t h e Indian ti t le p re fe r re d b y H a lf-b re e d s r e s id e n t in th e N orthW e s t T e rr ito rie s ', 8 5 , T a c h é t o C o l. J .S . D ennis,

2 6 . M a tth e w E llio tt's d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e b a tt le is in

w ith

1 8 5 3 - 7 1 , a r c h b is h o p , 1 8 7 1 - 9 4 ) a c id ly observed, fa r m in g , 'a lth o u g h so d e s ira b le , is n o t th e sole

in v o lv in g

In d ia n P o lic y ', journal o f Canadian Studies 10, 4 (1 9 7 3 ): 59 . 4 . D o n a ld B . S m ith , Sacred Feathers (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 7 ). T h is is a b io g r a p h y o f Rev. P e te r J o n e s (KahKewa q u o n a b y ), w h o d e v o te d h is life t o le a d in g his p e o p le in t o t h e n e w w o rld . 5 . J . G a r th T a y lo r, Labrador Eskim o Settlements o f the

Early Contact Period (O tta w a , 1 9 7 4 ) ; W . G illie s Ross, W haling and Eskim o s: H udson B a y 1860-1915 (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ) . 6 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, tv, s.v. 'H av en , J e n s '. S e e a ls o D ia m o n d J e n n e s s , Eskim o Adm in­

istration: II: Canada (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 2 ) , 9 - 1 0 . T he M o r a v ia n B r e th r e n , a ls o k n o w n as Unitas Fratrum,

o n ly

w a s a p ie tis t P r o te s ta n t m is s io n a r y g ro u p fo u n d ed

In d ia n s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , a p a rt fr o m a fe w s p e ­

i n 1 7 2 7 b y C o u n t N ik o la u s L u d w ig v o n Z in zen -

c ific b a ttle s , th e r e a re n o s ta tis tic s a v a ila b le fo r

d orf (1 7 0 0 -6 0 ). T h e y

In d ia n c a s u a ltie s .

G r e e n la n d w h e n t h e y w e re in v ite d b y t h e British

3 0 . S ta n le y , War o f 1812, 3 9 4 .

b a ttle s

d e p u ty m in is t e r o f th e in te r io r , 2 9 J a n . 1 8 7 9 . 3 . C ite d b y L.F.S. U p to n , 'T h e O r ig in s o f C an ad ian

t o e s ta b lis h i n L ab ra d o r.

a lre a d y

h a d m is s io n s in

Notes 475 7. Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, rv, s.v . 'M ik a k '.

t o b a n t h e s h o o tin g o f p o rp o is e s i n t h e b a y h a d

8 . B a r n e tt R ic h lin g , 'W i t h o u t C o m p r o m is e : H u d s o n 's

p a s s e d tw o re a d in g s w h e n M e u se m a d e h is p lea

Bay

C om pany

and

M o r a v ia n T ra d e R iv a lry in

t h a t re s u lte d in t h e b ill's d e fe a t.

N in e te e n t h C e n tu r y L a b r a d o r’, in B r u c e G . T rigger,

2 5 . U p to n , Micm acs and Colonists, 9 6 .

T o b y M o r a n tz , a n d L o u ise D e c h ê n e , ed s, Le Castor

2 6 . Ib id ., 9 9 ; P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d N e il H. M ic k e n -

Fait Tout (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 8 7 ) , 4 5 6 - 8 4 .

b e rg , ed s, Native Rights in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 2 ) ,

9 . A n a d u lt w h a le w o u ld h a v e a s m u c h as 2 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s o f b a le e n

in

its ja w s; in

1 8 8 3 , b a le e n

b r o u g h t $ 4 .7 5 a p o u n d . 1 0 . R o ss, W haling and Eskimos, 1 3 8 . 11. O n a d a p ta tio n t o E u r o -C a n a d ia n fo o d s , s e e M o rris Z aslow , The Northward Expansion o f Canada 1 9 1 4 -

1 9 6 7 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 5 3 . 1 2 . J o h n R . B o c k s to c e , Whales, Ice, and M en: The His­

tory o f W haling in the Western Arctic (S e a ttle , 1 9 8 6 ), 130, 136. 13. Ib id ., 1 3 5 - 4 2 . 14. M o rr is Z aslo w , The Opening o f the Canadian North

1 8 7 0 - 1 9 1 4 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 5 8 .

3 0 8 -9 . 2 7 . U p to n , Micm acs and Colonists, 9 9 - 1 0 0 . 2 8 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights, 1 0 2 . 2 9 . U p to n , Micm acs and Colonists, 1 1 2 . 3 0 . J o u r n a ls o f t h e L e g is la tiv e A ss e m b ly o f P rin c e E d ­ w a rd Is la n d , 7 J a n . 1 8 1 2 , 1 1 - 1 2 ; c ite d b y U p to n ,

Micm acs and Colonists, 1 1 5 . 3 1 . Ib id ., 1 1 8 . 3 2 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., lesuit Relations and

A llie d Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) , VI, 1 5 1 ; L u c ie n C a m p e a u , 'R o m a n C a t h o lic M is ­ s io n s ', in W a s h b u rn , e d ., Handbook o f North Am eri­

can Indians, 4: History o f Indian-W hite Relations,

15. O n t h e e ffe c ts o f t h e c h a n g e o f d ie t, se e W illia m

4 6 5 - 8 . S e e a ls o J a m e s P. R o n d a , 'T h e S ille ry E x p e ri­

M o rr is o n , Under the Flag: Canadian Sovereignty and

m e n t : A Je s u it- In d ia n V illa g e in N ew F ra n c e , 1 6 3 7 -

the Native People in Northern Canada (O tta w a ,

1 6 6 3 ', Am erican India n Culture and Research Journal

1 9 8 4 ), 7 4 -6 .

3 , 1 (1 9 7 9 ): 1 -1 8 .

16. T h e n a m e 'Y u k o n ' (Y o u c o n , O u -k u n -a h ) d e riv e s fr o m a n I n d ia n w o rd , p r o b a b ly G w ic h ’i n , m e a n in g

3 3 . W illia m H e n d e rs o n , Canada's India n Reserves: Pre-

Confederation (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 2 - 5 .

g r e a t riv e r o r w h ite w a te r riv er. I f t h e B e r in g S tra it

3 4 . G e o r g e S ta n le y , 'T h e F irst In d ia n "R e s e r v e s " in

m ig r a t io n h y p o th e s is is c o r r e c t, t h e n t h e Y u k o n ,

C a n a d a ', Revue d ’histoire de l'Am érique française 4

w ith A lask a, is N o r th A m e ric a 's o ld e s t in h a b ite d r e g io n . K e n n e th S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R. M o r r i­ s o n , Land o f the Midnight Sun: A History o f the Yukon (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 , 5 . 17. Ib id ., 1 3 , 2 5 , 5 0 . 18. C a t h a r in e M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, Part o f the

Water: A History o f the Yukon (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 7 ), 6 7 - 7 0 , 7 5 - 8 4 ; C o a te s a n d M o r r is o n , Land o f the

M idnight Sun, 2 3 - 3 0 . 19. R o b M c K in le y , 'H u m a n r ig h ts c o m m is s io n d e fe n d s s ta tu s c la im ', a n d P au l B a rn s le y , 'F e d s c ritic iz e d ', b o th i n Windspeaker (N o v . 1 9 9 7 ) : 5 . 2 0 . L.F.S. U p to n , Micmacs and Colonists: Indian-W hite

Relations in the Maritimes, 1 7 1 3 - 1 8 6 7 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 9 ), 8 2 - 7 . 2 1 . Ib id ., 9 1 . 2 2 . D o u g la s S a n d e rs , 'G o v e r n m e n t In d ia n A g e n c ie s i n C a n a d a ’, in W ilc o m b E. W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook

o f North American Indians, 4 : History o f Indian-W hite Relations (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 7 9 .

(1 9 5 0 ): 178; T h w a ite s , ed ., Jesuit Relations,

l x v i,

4 3.

3 5 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XXIII, 3 0 3 ; LX, 1 3 1 . 3 6 . S ta n le y , 'F ir s t In d ia n “R e s e r v e s '", 1 8 5 . 3 7 . L é o n G é r in , 'L a S e ig n e u rie d e S ille ry e t les H u ro n s ',

Mémoires de la Société Royale du Canada, ser. 2 , v o l. 6 ( 1 9 0 0 ) : s e c . 1, 7 5 - 1 1 5 . S e e a ls o G e o r g e s E. S io u i,

Pour une autohistoire amérindienne: Essai sur les fond­ ements d'une morale sociale (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 2 4 - 5 . 3 8 . T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations, XLVII, 2 6 3 , 2 9 9 ; LXVI, 4 3 - 7 ; H e n d e rs o n , Canada's Indian Reserves, 3 . O n S ille ry 's re lig io u s a n d s o c ia l fa ilu r e as fa r as t h e M o n ta g n a is w e re c o n c e r n e d , se e K e n n e t h M . M o r ­ r is o n , 'B a p tis m a n d A llia n c e : T h e S y m b o lic M e d ia ­ tio n s o f R e lig io u s S y n c r e tis m ', Ethnohistory 3 7 , 4 (1 9 9 0 ): 4 1 6 -3 7 . 3 9 . S ta n le y , 'F ir s t I n d ia n R e se rv e s', 1 8 6 - 7 ; R ich a rd H. B a r tle t t,

In d ia n Reserves in Quebec (S a s k a to o n ,

1 9 8 4 ), 2 n 6 . 4 0 . M o re p re cise ly , a re se rv e is 'a tr a c t o f la n d in w h ic h t h e a b o r ig in a l in te r e s t is p e r m a n e n t ly p re se rv e d

2 3 . U p to n , Micmacs and Colonists, 9 5 .

fo r a p a r tic u la r g ro u p o f n a tiv e p e o p le '. J a c k W o o d ­

2 4 . D u rin g t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y t h e p o r p o is e w as

w a rd , Native La w (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 2 2 . See a lso

p a r tic u la r ly v a lu e d fo r its o il, w h ic h w a s u se d i n

B ria n S la tte ry , 'U n d e r s ta n d in g A b o rig in a l R ig h ts ',

t h e m a n u fa c tu r e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f fin e w a tc h ­

Canadian Bar Review 6 6 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 7 4 3 - 4 , 7 6 9 - 7 1 . A

es. A b i l l b e fo r e t h e N o v a S c o tia H o u s e o f A ss e m b ly

C r e e te r m a p p lie d t o re serv es is 'is k o n ik u n ', w h a t

476

Notes is le ft o v e r, s cra p s. T h is re fe rs t o t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y re se rv e s are ill-s u ite d fo r a g r ic u ltu r e a n d h a v e lo n g s in c e b e c o m e u s e le ss fo r h u n tin g a n d tr a p p in g . See B rass, 1 W alk in

E le a n o r

Two Worlds (C alg ary ,

1 9 8 7 ), 71 .

4 2 . T h e S a rn ia , K e ttle P o in t, a n d S to n y P o in t re serv es a n d M o o r e T o w n s h ip . H e n d e rs o n , Canada's India n

a n d t h e S ix N a tio n s In d ia n s ', Ontario History 6 3 ,1

1 9 8 0 ), 1 2 2 -3 0 . 5 4 . S id n e y L. H a rrin g , W hite M an's Law : Native People

in Nineteenth-Century Canadian jurisprudence (To­

Reserves, 1 0 a n d n 5 6 . R ic h a r d s o n ,

the Saugeen Indians, 5 6 - 1 4 8 . 5 3 . B .E . H ill, 'T h e G r a n d R iv er N a v ig a tio n C om p an y ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 3 1 - 4 0 ; R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, A History o f Na­ tive C la im s Processes in Canada 1 8 6 7 -1 9 7 9 (Ottawa,

4 1 . H e n d e rs o n , Canada's India n Reserves, 4 - 5 .

4 3 . B o y ce

5 2 . S m ith , Sacred Feathers, 1 6 3 - 4 ; S c h m a lz , History of

'K in d

H e a r ts

or

Forked

T o n g u e s ? ', The Beaver O u tfit 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 1 8 .

r o n to , 1 9 9 8 ) , 5 8 , 1 4 8 . 5 5 . A c c o r d in g

to

D a n ie l,

C h is h o lm

w a s th e m ost

4 4 . S m ith , Sacred Feathers, c h s 6 , 7 . O t h e r A m e r in d ia n

a c tiv e o f t h e la w y e rs w h o w o r k e d o n A m erin d ian

c le ric s , all M e th o d is ts , in c lu d e d G e o r g e C o p w a y

c a se s. O th e r s in c lu d e d R.V . S in c la ir o f O tta w a and

(K a h g e g a g a h b o w h , 1 8 1 8 -6 9 );

'H e

P e te r J a c o b s

W ho

S ta n d s

F o r e v e r ',

(P a h ta h s a g a , 'O n e W h o

W a lte r

O 'M e a r a

in

B r itis h

C o lu m b ia .

D aniel,

History o f Native Claim s, 1 9 8 .

M a k e s th e W o rld B r ig h te r ', c. 1 8 0 7 - 9 4 ) ; a n d W a r o f

5 6 . M a u r ic e F.V. D o ll, R o b e rt S. K id d, a n d J o h n P. Day,

1 8 1 2 v e te r a n J o h n S u n d a y (S h a h -w u n -d a is , 'S u ltr y

The Buffalo Lake Métis Site: A Late Nineteenth Cen­ tury Settlement in the Parkland o f Central Alberta

H e a t', c. 1 7 9 5 - 1 8 7 5 ) . T w o o f th e s e , C o p w a y a n d Ja c o b s , r a n in t o fu n d in g d iffic u ltie s t h a t re s u lte d in t h e ir e x p u ls io n fr o m th e i r m in is tr ie s . 4 5 . J o h n F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , The Historical De­

velopment o f the India n A ct (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 8 - 1 9 . 4 6 . P e te r S. S c h m a ltz , The History o f the Saugeen Indians (O tta w a ,

1 9 7 7 ),

8 2 -4 .

'S a u g e e n ' is

O jib w a

( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 3 - 1 4 . 5 7 . P aul K ane,

fo r

'm o u t h o f t h e riv e r'.

Wanderings o f an A rtist (E d m o n to n ,

1 9 6 8 ; fir s t p u b lis h e d 1 8 5 9 ) , 8 9 . 5 8 . Ir e n e M . Spry, The Palliser Expedition: A n Account of

John Palliser's British North Am erican Expedition 1 8 5 7 -1 8 6 0 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 3 ) , 6 0 . 5 9 . F.G . R o e, 'E a rly A g r icu ltu r e i n W e s te r n C a n a d a in

4 7 . D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, IX, s.v. 'M u s q u a -

R e la tio n t o C lim a tic S t a b ility ', Agricultural History

k ie '; v m , s.v. 'A is a n c e '. F o r m o r e o n A is a n ce , se e

2 6 , 3 ( 1 9 5 2 ) : 1 0 9 . O n p r e - c o n t a c t a g r ic u ltu r e in the

S m ith , Sacred Feathers, 2 1 2 - 1 3 .

R ed R iv er are a , se e Prehistory o f the Lockport Site

4 8 . S m ith , Sacred Feathers, 3 4 9 . 4 9 . O n s u c h m o v e m e n ts in g e n e ra l, see A n th o n y F.C. W a lla ce , ‘R e v ita liz a tio n M o v e m e n ts : S o m e T h e o ­ re tic a l C o n s id e r a tio n s fo r T h e ir C o m p a ra tiv e S tu d y ',

American Anthropologist 5 8 , 2 ( 1 9 5 6 ) : 2 6 4 - 8 1 . S e e also S e lw y n D ew d n ey , The Sacred Scrolls o f the Southern O jibw ay (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 5 ) ; R u th L a n d e s , Ojibwa Religion and Midéwiwin (M a d is o n , W is., 1 9 6 8 ). 5 0 . F r a n c is B o n d H ea d , A Narrative, 2 n d e d n (L o n d o n , 1 8 3 9 ), a p p . A, 'M e m o r a n d u m o n th e A b o rig in e s o f N o r th A m e r ic a '. T h is m e m o r a n d u m is re p ro d u c e d in p a r t in A d a m S h o r t t a n d A rth u r G . D o u g h ty , ed s, Canada and Its Provinces, 2 3 v o ls (T o ro n to , 1 9 1 4 - 1 7 ) , v, 3 3 7 - 9 . S ir F r a n c is h a d b e e n k n ig h te d i n 1 8 3 1 , re p o rte d ly b e c a u s e o f h is d e m o n s tr a tio n o f t h e m ilit a r y u s e fu ln e s s o f t h e la sso . 5 1 . P e g g y J . B lair, 'T h e S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a n a d a 's "H is to ric "

D e c is io n

in

N ik a l a n d Lew is: W h y

C r o w n F is h in g P o lic y in U p p e r C a n a d a M a k e s B a d L aw ', M a s te r's th e s is (U n iv e r s ity o f O tta w a , 1 9 9 8 ) ,

(W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1 . W illin g n e s s t o ta k e u p agri­ c u ltu r e w a s a ls o n o te d b y J o h n L e o n a r d Taylor, 'D e v e lo p m e n t C a n a d ia n

of

an

In d ia n

N o r t h - W e s t,

P o lic y

1 8 6 9 - 7 9 ',

fo r

P h .D .

th e

th esis

(Q u e e n ’s U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 8 8 , 2 4 2 - 3 . 6 0 . T h e N o r'W e s te r s a lo n e re g u la r ly p re p a re d 3 0 to 5 0 to n s o f p e m m ic a n e a c h s e a s o n fo r t h e co m p a n y 's fu r b rig a d e s . A .S. M o r to n , History o f Prairie Settle­

m ent and D om inio n Lands Po licy (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 8 ), 208. 6 1 . Lau ra L. P eers, 'R ic h M a n , P o o r M a n , B e g g a rm a n , C h ie f:

S a u lte a u x

in

th e

R ed

R iv e r

S e ttle m e n t,

1 8 1 2 - 1 8 3 3 ', in W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the

Eighteenth Algonquian Conference (O tta w a , 1 9 8 7 ), 2 6 5 -9 . 6 2 . B o t h t h e J u r is d ic tio n A c t o f 1 8 0 3 a n d t h e Fur Trade A c t o f 1 8 2 1 w e re c o n c e r n e d w ith e x t e n d in g th e C a n a d ia n c o u r t s y s te m i n t o t h e N o rth w e s t. T h e 1803

A ct h a d

been

in s p ir e d b y

th e

L o u isia n a

P u rc h a s e o f t h e s a m e y ear.

5 2 - 9 . S e e a ls o V ic to r P. L y tw y n , 'W a te rw o r ld : T h e

6 3 . A rth u r S . M o r to n , A H istory o f the Canadian West to

A q u a tic T e rr ito ry o f t h e G r e a t L a k es F irs t N a tio n s ',

18 7 0 -7 1 , ed . L e w is G . T h o m a s (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ),

in D a le S ta n d e n a n d D a v id M c N a b , ed s, G in D as

W inan: Docum enting Aboriginal History in Ontario (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 6 ) , 1 4 - 2 8 .

628. 6 4 . H a m a r F o ster, 'L o n g - D is ta n c e J u s tic e : T h e C rim ­ in a l Ju r is d ic tio n o f C a n a d ia n C o u r ts W e st o f th e

Notes C an ad as,

1 7 6 3 - 1 8 5 9 ', Am erican Journal o f Legal

H isto ry 3 4 , 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 6 .

7 5 . T e n n a n t, Aboriginal Peoples and Politics, 2 1 - 3 8 . 7 6 . F o r e x a m p le , a c c o r d in g t o R o b e rt C a il, 'S o lo n g as

6 5 . J.A .H . B e n n e t t a n d J.W . B e rry , 'T h e F u tu re o f C ré é

D o u g la s w as g o v e rn o r, th e In d ia n s h a d o n ly t o ask

S y lla b ic L ite ra c y i n N o r th e r n C a n a d a ', p a p e r p re ­

t o re c e iv e a d d itio n a l la n d .' C a il, Land, Man, and the

s e n te d a t t h e F ift e e n th A lg o n q u ia n C o n fe r e n c e ,

Law : The D isposal o f Crown Lands in British Colum ­ bia, 1 8 71-1913 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 7 9 .

W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 6 . 66. A

page

of

th e

le tte r

is

re p ro d u ced

in

R ené

F u m o le a u , A s Long A s T h is L a n d Sh a ll L a s t (T o­ ro n to , 1 9 7 3 ), 3 3 . 6 7 . D u n c a n C a m p b e ll S c o tt, 'T h e L a s t o f t h e In d ia n T re a tie s ', Scribner's M agazine 4 0 , 5 ( 1 9 0 6 ) : 5 8 1 - 2 . A m o n g th o s e w h o a p p la u d e d E v a n s's a c h ie v e m e n t

7 7 . T e n n a n t, Aboriginal Peoples and Politics, 3 0 - 8 . 7 8 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e rg , ed s, Native Rights in

Canada, 1 7 6 - 8 0 ; F is h e r , Contact and Conflict, 1 5 3 - 6 ; W ils o n D u ff, The Indian History o f British Colum bia, v o l. 1, The Im pact o f the W hite M an (V ic ­ to r ia , 1 9 6 4 ) , 6 1 .

d u r in g h is l ife t im e w as W illia m C a se , w h o e s ta b ­

7 9 . F ish er, Contact and Conflict, 1 5 6 .

lis h e d th e m o d e l v illa g e a t G r a p e Is la n d . S e e Fred

8 0 . D e n n is M a d ill, British Colum bia Treaties in H istor­

L a n d o n , Selections from the Papers o f James Evans,

M issionary to the In d ia ns (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 0 ) , 6 - 7 . 6 8 . J e n n i f e r S.H . B ro w n , 'T h e T ra c k t o H e a v e n : T h e H u d s o n B ay C re e R e lig io u s M o v e m e n t o f 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 3 ', in W illia m C o w a n , e d ., Papers o f the T h ir­

teenth Algonquian Conference (O tta w a , 1 9 8 2 ), 5 9 . S e e a ls o Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, I, s.v. 'A b is h a b is '; J o h n S. L o n g , 'T h e C r e e P ro p h e ts : o ra l a n d d o c u m e n ta r y a c c o u n t s ', Journal o f the Can a­

dian Church H istorical Society 3 1 , 1 (1 9 8 9 ) : 3 - 1 3 . 6 9 . Se e, fo r e x a m p le , P a t M o o r e a n d A n g e la W h e e lo c k ,

ical Perspective (O tta w a , 1 9 8 1 ) , 3 1 . 8 1 . B a rry M . G o u g h , Gunboat Frontier: British M aritime

Authority and Northwest Coast Indians, 18 4 6 -1 8 9 0 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 4 ) . 8 2 . J.E . M ic h a e l Kew, 'H is to r y o f C o a s ta l B r itis h C o l­ u m b ia S in c e 1 8 4 6 ', in W a y n e S u ttle s , e d ., H and­

book o f North Am erican Indians, 7: Northwest Coast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 5 9 . 8 3 . F ish e r, Contact and Conflict, 2 0 8 . 8 4 . G o u g h , Gunboat Frontier, 2 0 5 - 8 .

ed s, Wolverine M yths and Visions: Dene Traditions

8 5 . B e a v er's c r itic is m s c o n t in u e d e v e n a fte r h is d e p a r­

from Northern Alberta (E d m o n to n , 1 9 9 0 ) . C o m p ile d

tu re . A le tte r h e w r o te in 1 8 9 2 o n t h e s u b je c t is

b y t h e D e n e W o d ih S o c ie ty , th i s w o r k d e a ls w ith

re p ro d u c e d in N e llie B. P ip es, 'I n d ia n C o n d itio n s

D e n e p r o p h e ts , p a r tic u la r ly N ô g h a ('W o lv e r in e ', fl.

in

1 9 2 0 s ) o f t h e D e n e D h â a , a n d r e c o u n ts w o lv e rin e

(1 9 3 1 ): 3 3 2 - 4 2 .

1 8 3 6 - 3 8 ',

Oregon H istorical Quarterly 3 2 , 4

s to r ie s as t o l d b y t h e p e o p le . O n n o r th e r n s h a m a n ­

8 6 . F o r t S im p s o n h a s b e e n la b e lle d th e 'L o n d o n o f th e

is m , see C a t h a r in e M c C le lla n , M y O ld People Say:

N o r th w e s t C o a s t ' b e c a u s e i t w as th e la rg e s t s e ttle ­

A n Ethnographic Survey o f Southern Yukon Territory, 2

m e n t in t h e r e g io n a n d w a s t h e h u b fo r tr a d in g

v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ) , II, 5 2 9 - 7 5 .

a c tiv ity .

70. D a n ie l F ra n c is a n d T o b y M o ra n tz , Partners in Furs: A

8 7 . T h e m o s t c o m p le te w o rk o n D u n c a n is J e a n U sh er's

H isto ry o f the F u r Trade in Eastern James Bay 1 6 0 0 -1 8 7 0 (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 8 3 ), 1 5 8 - 6 0 .

U sh er, ‘D u n c a n o f M e tla k a tla : t h e V ic to r ia n o rig in s

71. J o h n S. L o n g , " 'N o B a s is fo r A r g u m e n t" ? : T h e S ig n ­

o f a m o d e l In d ia n c o m m u n ity ', in W .L . M o r to n ,

W illiam Duncan o f Metlakatla (O tta w a , 1 9 7 4 ) . See

1905-

e d ., The Shield o f Achilles: Aspects o f Canada in the

1 9 0 6 ', Native Studies Review 5 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 3 8 . A less

Victorian Age (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 8 ) , 2 8 6 - 3 1 0 ; Fish er, Contact and Conflict, 1 2 5 - 3 6 ; J o h n W e b s te r G r a n t, Moon o f W intertime: M issionaries and the Indians o f Canada in Encounter since 1534 (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 2 9 - 3 2 . O n L eg aic, se e Dictionary o f Canadian Bio­ graphy, XII, s.v. 'L e g a ic, P a u l'; M ic h a e l P. R o b in s o n , Sea Otter Chiefs (V a n co u v e r, c. 1 9 7 8 ) .

in g o f T r e a ty N in e in N o r th e r n O n ta r io ,

v i o l e n t e x a m p le o f A m e r in d ia n r e a c t io n t o a n o n N a tiv e tr a n s g r e s s io n o f N a tiv e tr a d in g p r o t o c o l is to ld b y M c C le lla n , M y O ld People Say, II, 5 0 7 - 8 . In th is ca s e t h e C h ilk a ts f e lt t h a t t h e ir tr a d in g p riv i­ leg e s h a d b e e n v io la te d . 72. P au l T e n n a n t, Aboriginal Peoples and Politics (V a n ­ c o u v e r, 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 0 . 73. R o lf K n ig h t, Indians at Work: A n Inform al History o f

Native India n Labour in British Colum bia 1 8 5 8 -1 9 3 0 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 8 ) , 2 3 6 . 74. R o b in F ish er, Contact and Conflict: lndian-European

Relations in British Colum bia 1 7 7 4 -1 8 9 0 (V a n c o u ­ ver, 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 5 4 - 6 .

8 8 . U sh e r, W illiam Duncan o f Metlakatla, 1 3 5 . J e a n F r ie s e n w a s fo r m e r ly J e a n U sh er. 8 9 . F r e d e rick

T e m p le

B la c k w o o d ,

1 s t M a rq u e s s

of

D u ffe rin a n d Ava, g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l o f C a n a d a , 1 8 7 2 -8 . 9 0 . T h o m a s C ro s b y , Up and Dow n the Pacific Coast by

Canoe and M ission Ship (T o ro n to , 1 9 1 4 ) , 6 5 - 6 .

477

478 Notes

Chapter 17

1 3 . Journals o f the Legislative Assem bly o f the Province of

Canada, 1 8 4 7 , a p p . T.

1. J o h n H . B o d ley , e d ., Tribal Peoples and Development

Issues: A G lobal Overview ( M o u n ta in V iew , C a lif., 1 9 8 8 ), 6 3 -9 .

e x a m p le , t h e c o m m u n ity o f S h a n n o n v ille , O n ta r ­ io , o c c u p ie s la n d s t h a t w e re le a s e d b y th e Iro q u o is o f T y e n d in a g a e a r ly in th e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y t o a c e r t a in T u r to n P e n n fo r 9 9 9 y e a rs. W illia m H e n ­ d e rs o n , Canada's Indian Reserves: Pre-Confederation (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ), 3 8 n 4 8 . L e s lie a n d R o n M a g u ir e , Th e H isto rica l Development o f the Indian A ct (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 1 .

3. Jo h n

4 . A c le a r e x p o s itio n o f th is p o s itio n is th a t o f H e rm a n M eriv ale, 'P o lic y o f C o lo n ia l G o v e rn m e n ts T ow ard s N a tiv e T rib es, as R egards T h e ir P r o te c tio n a n d T h e ir C iv iliz a tio n ', in Bod ley, ed ., Tribal Peoples, 9 5 - 1 0 4 . 5 . T h e p h ra s e 'w h ite m a n 's b u r d e n ' o w e s its o r ig in t o R u d y a rd K ip lin g , w h o u se d it in r e fe r e n c e t o A m e r­ in d ia n s in t h e U S. 6 . L e s lie a n d M a g u ire , Historical Development, 1 2 . See a ls o R o b e rt S. A lle n , 'T h e B r itis h D e p a r tm e n t a n d F r o n tie r

in

N o rth

A m e r ic a ,

1 7 5 S - 1 8 3 0 ',

Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History, N o . 1 4 (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ). 7 . J o h n B r a n t w as e le c te d t o U p p e r C a n a d a 's H o u se o f A ss e m b ly b y t h e r id in g o f H a ld im a n d in 1 8 3 0 . H is v ic to r y

1 5 . D o n a ld B. S m ith , Sacred Feathers (T o ro n to , 1987), 184.

2 . S o m e o f th e s e p r o b le m s a re s till c o n t in u in g . F o r

th e

1 4 . L e slie a n d M a g u ire , Historical Development, 21.

w as

c h a lle n g e d ,

h o w e v e r,

on

th e

g r o u n d s o f v o t in g irre g u la ritie s , a n d h e lo s t h is s e a t t h e fo llo w in g y ear. I t is w id e ly b e lie v e d in th e S ix N a tio n s t h a t t h e re a l r e a s o n B r a n t lo s t o u t w as b e c a u s e h e w as a n In d ia n . 8 . D e n n is M a d ill, 'B a n d C o u n c il P o w e rs', in Indian

1 6 . R o b in F ish er, Contact and Conflict: Indian-European

Relations in B ritish Colum bia 1 7 7 4 -1 8 9 0 (Vancou­ ver, 1 9 7 7 ) , 8 6 . 1 7 . T o b y M o r a n tz , 'A b o r ig in a l L a n d C la im s in Que­ b e c ', in K e n C o a te s , e d ., Aboriginal La n d Claims in

Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 0 7 . 1 8 . Schedule o f India n Bands, Reserves and Settlements (O tta w a , 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 1 - 1 7 . A m e r in d ia n settle m e n ts, of w h ic h th e r e a re a b o u t a d o z e n , a re n o t includ ed , as t h e y d o n o t h a v e la n d s s p e c ific a lly s e t aside for th e m . 1 9 . S o m e re s e rv e t h e te r m 'I n d i a n ' fo r th o s e w h o are re g iste re d . Se e, fo r e x a m p le , J . R ick P o n tin g and R o g e r G ib b in s , O ut o f Irrelevance (T o ro n to , 1980), xv. 2 0 . F o r la te r d e v e lo p m e n ts o n th is , se e C h a p te r 18. 2 1 . J o h n L. T o b ia s , 'P r o te c t io n , C iv iliz a tio n , Assimila­ tio n :

An

O u tlin e

H is to r y

of

C a n a d a 's

Indian

P o lic y ', Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 6, 2 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 1 6 . T h is a r tic le w as re p r in te d in A.L. G e t ty a n d A n to in e S. L u ssier, ed s, A s Long As the Sun Shines and Water Flows (V a n c o u v e r, 1983), 3 9 -S 5 . 2 2 . J o h n S. M illo y , 'T h e E a rly I n d ia n A c ts: D evelop­ m e n t a l S tra te g y a n d C o n s tit u tio n a l C h a n g e ', in G e tty a n d L u ssier, ed s, A s Long A s the Sun Shines

and Water Flows, 5 9 . 2 3 . S m ith , Sacred Feathers, 2 3 8 - 9 .

Government Under Indian A ct Legislation 1868-1951

2 4 . H e n d e r s o n , Canada's Indian Reserves, 1 5 .

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ).

2 5 . D ictionary o f Canadian Biography, IX, s.v. 'Assikin-

9 . J o h n E. H o d g e tts, Pioneer Public Service: A n A dm in­

istrative History o f the United Canadas, 1 8 4 1 -1 8 6 7 (T o ro n to , 1 9 5 5 ), 2 2 3 . 1 0 . D a v id

M cN ab,

'T h e

C o l o n ia l

O f f ic e

and

th e

P rairies in t h e M id -N in e te e n th C e n tu r y ', Prairie

Forum 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 2 1 - 3 8 .

a c k , F r a n c is '. 2 6 . F o r a s tu d y o f t h e lo n g O jib w a stru g g le w ith th e m i n i n g c o m p a n ie s , s e e J a n e t E. C h u te , The Legacy o f Shingwaukonse: A Century o f Native Leadership (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 8 ) . 2 7 . D o u g la s L e ig h to n , 'T h e H is to r ic a l S ig n ific a n c e of

1 1 . I t w as p u b lis h e d i n tw o p a rts, i n Journals o f the

t h e R o b in s o n T re a tie s o f 1 8 5 0 ', p a p e r p re s e n te d to

Legislative A ssem bly o f the Province o f Canada,

th e

1 8 4 4 - 5 , a p p . EEE; a n d ib id ., 1 8 4 7 , a p p . T.

1982;

1 2 . C ite d b y B o y c e R ic h a rd s o n , 'K in d H e a rts o r Fo rk ed T o n g u e s ? ', The Beaver O u tfit 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 2 3 . T h e c o m m is s io n e r s a p p e a r t o

h a v e c o n s id e r e d

th a t

C a n a d ia n

H i s to r ic a l

R ic h a r d s o n ,

A s s o c ia tio n ,

'K in d

H e a r ts

or

O tta w a , Forked

T o n g u e s ? ', 2 4 - 7 ; G e o r g e B ro w n a n d R o n M aguire, ed s, India n Treaties in H istorical Perspective (O ttaw a, 1 9 7 9 ), 26 .

A m e r in d ia n lo ss o f la n d s w a s in la rg e p a rt d u e to

2 8 . R o b e r t J . S u rte e s, 'C a n a d a 's I n d ia n T re a tie s ', in W il-

a lie n a tio n b y t h e A m e r in d ia n s th e m s e lv e s . S u c h a

c o m b E. W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f North Ameri­ can Indians, 4: H istory o f India n -W h ite Relations

v ie w w o u ld h a v e b e e n re in fo r c e d b y t h e la c k o f A m e r in d ia n a c tio n in la u n c h i n g s u its a g a in s t tr e s ­ p a ss o r fo r t h e r e c o v e r y o f lo s t la n d s .

( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 0 3 , 2 0 6 . 2 9 . T h is v ie w is e x p re s s e d in a p a m p h le t issu e d b y th e

Notes 479 F e d e r a tio n o f S a s k a tc h e w a n In d ia n s , Indian Treaty

West Magazine 6 , 4 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 1 3 - 2 3 . A n o th e r v e rs io n

Rights, n .d ., n .p .

o f K la tsa ssin 's b e h a v io u r h a s it t h a t h is p e o p le h a d

3 0 . J a c k W o o d w a rd , Native Law (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 3 6 .

b e e n d e c im a te d b y s m a llp o x i n 1 8 6 2 , a n d w h e n a

S e e a ls o R ic h a rd B a r tle tt, 'T h e E s ta b lis h m e n t o f I n ­

E u r o -C a n a d ia n th r e a te n e d h im w ith a re tu r n o f

d ia n R e se rv e s o n t h e P ra irie s', Canadian Native Law

t h e d ise a se h e w e n t o n h is ra m p a g e . S e e Dictionary

o f Canadian Biography, IX, s.v. 'K la ts a s s in '.

Reporter 3 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 3 - 5 6 . 3 1 . A lle n G . H arp er, 'C a n a d a 's I n d ia n A d m in is tr a tio n : B a s ic C o n c e p ts a n d O b je c t iv e s ', America Indigena 5 , 2 ( 1 9 4 5 ) : 1 3 2 . S e e a ls o R o g e r G ib b in s a n d J . R ick P o n tin g , 'H is to r ic a l O v e rv ie w a n d B a c k g r o u n d ', in P o n tin g , e d ., Arduous Journey: Canadian Indians and

1 6 . R o b in

F ish er,

'Jo s e p h T r u tc h

and

In d ia n

Land

P o lic y ', B .C . Studies 1 2 ( 1 9 7 1 - 2 ) : 1 7 . 1 7 . 'O r d in a n c e fu r th e r t o d e fin e t h e la w re g u la tin g a c q u is itio n o f L a n d i n B r itis h C o lu m b ia '. 1 8 . CP C a n a d a S ta tu te s 3 9 v ie . c a p . 1 8 , c la u s e s 7 4 - 8 .

Decolonization (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 5 .

T h e s e p r o v is io n s w e re la te r d r o p p e d fr o m th e I n ­

3 2 . H o d g e tts , Pioneer Public Service, 2 0 9 - 1 0 .

d ia n A c t w h e n t h e r ig h t t o te s tify b y a ff ir m a tio n

3 3 . A ru le o f th u m b fo r d e te r m in in g t h e ir size w as to a llo w 8 0 a c re s (3 2 h e c ta r e s ) p e r fa m ily ; h o w e v e r,

b e c a m e g e n e ra l. 1 9 . J .E .

M ic h a e l

C o lu m b ia

th e r e w as c o n s id e r a b le v a r ia tio n in p r a c tic e .

Kew ,

S in c e

'H is t o r y

1 8 4 9 ',

of

in

C o a sta l

W ayne

B r itis h

S u ttle s ,

ed .,

Handbook o f North American Indians, 7: Northwest Coast (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 5 9 .

Chapter 18 1. D o u g la s S a n d e rs , 'G o v e r n m e n t I n d ia n A g e n c ie s ', in W ilc o m b E. W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f North American Indians, 4 : History o f Indian-W hite Rela­ tions (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 7 9 . 2 . M a lc o lm M o n tg o m e r y , 'T h e S ix N a tio n s In d ia n s a n d t h e M a c d o n a ld F r a n c h is e ', Ontario History 5 6 (1 9 6 4 ): 13.

2 0 . NAC,

MG

26A ,

M a c d o n a ld

P a p e rs ,

v o l.

278,

1 2 7 6 5 0 - 1 , T r u tc h t o M a c d o n a ld , 1 4 O c t. 1 8 7 2 ; c ite d b y J o h n F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , ed s, The Historical Development o f the Indian A ct (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ), 5 8 . 2 1 . B erg er, Fragile Freedoms, 2 2 8 . 2 2 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , n , p a rt 2 , 7 8 4 .

3 . T h e p r ic e w as $ 1 .5 m illio n , o r a b o u t o n e p e n n y fo r e v e ry th r e e h e c ta r e s .

2 3 . C ite d b y A .S. M o r t o n , A History o f Prairie Settlement

and Dominion Lands Policy (T o ro n to , 1 9 3 8 ) , 2 1 4 .

4 . Census o f Canada, 1 8 7 1 , I, 3 3 2 - 3 ; 1 8 8 1 , I, 3 0 0 - 1 ; 1941, 6 8 4 -9 1 .

E a rlier, S im p s o n w as g o v e r n o r o f t h e HBC's N o r th ­ e r n D e p a r tm e n t, 1 8 2 1 - 6 .

5 . W a y n e D a u g h e rty , 'T h e E le c tiv e S y s te m ', in Indian

2 4 . N a th a lie J . K e rm o a l, 'L e "T e m p s d e C a y o g e ": La v ie

Government Under Indian A ct Legislation, 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 1

q u o t id ie n n e d es fe m m e s m é tis s e s a u M a n ito b a d e

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 4 .

1 8 5 0 à 1 9 0 0 ', P h .D . th e s is (U n iv e rs ity o f O tta w a ,

6. C ite d b y B o y c e R ic h a r d s o n , 'K in d H e a rts o r F o rk ed T o n g u e s ? ', The Beaver O u tfit 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 3 1 . 7. O n c u r r e n t le g a l m e a n in g s o f 'I n d ia n ', se e J a c k W o o d w a rd , Native Law (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 5 - 1 2 . 8 . D a u g h e rty , 'T h e E le c tiv e S y s te m ', 3 .

1 9 9 6 ), x liii n 2 3 , 4 0 . 2 5 . F o r t h e s to r y o f G r a n t, se e M a rg a re t M a c L e o d a n d W .L . M o r t o n , Cuthbert Grant ofGrantown (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 4 ). 2 6 . M . E liz a b e th A rth u r, ‘G e n e r a l D ic k s o n a n d th e

c y ', Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 6 , 2

In d ia n L ib e r a tin g A rm y in th e N o r t h ', Ontario History 6 2 , 3 ( 1 9 7 0 ) : 1 5 1 - 6 2 ; Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, v il, s.v. 'D ic k s o n , J a m e s '. T h e r e is s o m e

(1 9 7 6 ): 1 7 -1 8 .

s p e c u la tio n t h a t D ic k s o n m ig h t h a v e b e e n c o n ­

9 . J o h n L. T o b ia s , 'P r o te c t io n , C iv iliz a tio n , A s s im ila ­ tio n : A n O u tlin e H is to r y o f C a n a d a 's I n d ia n P o li­

n e c te d w ith R o b e rt D ic k s o n a n d h is S io u x w ife.

10. Ib id ., 2 2 - 3 . 11. K a th le e n J a m ie s o n , Indian Women and the Law in

Canada: Citizens Minus (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ), 6 9 - 7 3 . 12. D e n n is M a d ill, 'B a n d C o u n c il P o w e rs', i n Indian

Government Under Indian Act Legislation,

1868-

1 9 5 1 , 2. 13. D a u g h e rty , 'T h e E le c tiv e S y s te m ', 2 . 14. T h o m a s B e rg e r, Fragile Freedoms: H um an Rights and

Dissent in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 2 2 . 15. N .L . B a rle e , 'T h e C h i lc o t in W a r o f 1 8 6 4 ', Canada

2 7 . B a rry

C o o p e r,

'A le x a n d e r

K enn ed y

Is b is te r :

A

R e s p e c ta b le V ic t o r ia n ', Canadian Ethnic Studies 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 4 4 - 6 3 ; Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, XI, s.v. 'Is b is te r, A le x a n d e r K e n n e d y '. H e h a d g o n e t o E n g la n d a t t h e a g e o f 2 0 . H is p o r tr a it h a n g s in t h e N a tio n a l P o r tr a it G a llery , L o n d o n . 2 8 . M o s t o f t h e M é tis o f R ed R iv e r w e re o f C re e d e ­ s c e n t a n d s o h a d i n h e r ite d t h e a n im o s ity th a t e x is te d b e t w e e e n C r e e a n d S io u x . 2 9 . F o r s o m e o f t h e c o lo n ia l se c re ta ry 's v iew s, se e

480 Notes H erm an

o f C o lo n ia l G o v e r n ­

3 8 . O n th e S t P au l tr a d e , s e e R h o d a R. G ilm a n , Caro­

m e n ts T o w ard s N a tiv e T rib es, as R eg ard s T h e ir P ro ­

M e r iv a le ,

'P o lic y

ly n G ilm a n , a n d D e b o r a h M . S tu ltz , The Red River

te c t i o n a n d T h e ir C iv iliz a tio n ', in J o h n H . B o d ley , e d ., Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global

Trails: Oxcart Routes Between St. Paul and the Selkirk Settlement 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 7 0 (S t P a u l, 1 9 7 9 ) .

Overview (M o u n t a in V iew , C a lif., 1 9 8 8 ) , 9 5 - 2 0 4 ;

3 9 . NAC, M a c d o n a ld P a p ers, v o l. 5 1 6 , M a c d o n a ld to

D a v id T. M c N a b , 'H e r m a n M e r iv a le a n d C o lo n ia l

M c D o u g a ll, 2 7 N o v . 1 8 6 9 ; c ite d b y D o n a ld Creigh­

O ffic e

to n , John A. Macdonald, 2 v o ls (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 6 ; first

In d ia n

P o lic y

in

th e

M id - N in e t e e n t h

C e n tu r y ', in Ia n A .L. G e tty a n d A n to in e S . Lu ssier, ed s, A s Long A s the Sun Shines and Water Flows (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 3 ) , 8 5 - 1 0 3 .

p u b lis h e d 1 9 5 5 ) , II, 5 1 . 4 0 . O n ta r io w as p a r tic u la r ly e n ra g e d b e c a u s e th e court m a r tia l t h a t h a d c o n d e m n e d S c o t t h a d b e e n m ade

3 0 . A le x a n d e r M o rris , The Treaties o f Canada with the

Indians (T o r o n to , 1 8 8 0 ; re p r in t, 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 6 9 .

u p o f M é tis a n d A m e r in d ia n s . S e e A rth u r Silver, 'F r e n c h

3 1 . NAC, RG 6 , C—1, v o l. 3 1 6 , file 9 9 5 , W illia m M c D o u ­ g a ll t o S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te fo r th e P ro v in c e s , 5 N o v .

Q u ebec

and

th e

M é t is

Q u e stio n ,

1 8 6 9 - 1 8 8 5 ', i n C a rl B e rg e r a n d R a m s a y C o o k , eds,

The West and the Nation (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , 9 1 - 1 1 3 .

1 8 6 9 ; 'C o p y o f t h e I n d ia n A g r e e m e n t', The Globe,

4 1 . G e o r g e F.G . S ta n le y , The Birth o f Western Canada: A

T o r o n to , 4 S e p t. 1 8 6 9 , 3 . B o t h r e fe r e n c e s c ite d b y

History o f the Riel Rebellion (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 0 ; first

R ich a rd C . D a n ie l, History o f Native Land Claims

Processes in Canada 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 7 9 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 3 .

p u b lis h e d 1 9 3 6 ) , 1 2 9 , 1 3 5 - 6 . 4 2 . In 1 8 7 2 M a c d o n a ld s e n t $ 1 ,0 0 0 , v ia A rch b ish o p

3 2 . F o r d e ta ils o f th e s e tr o u b le s , se e F rits P a n n e k o e k , A

T a c h é , fo r b o t h R ie l a n d A m b ro is e -D y d im e Lépine

Snug Little Flock: The Social Origins o f the Riel Resistance o f 1 8 6 9 - 7 0 (W in n ip e g , 1 9 9 1 ) .

a d v a n ta g e o f t h e o ffe r, b u t L é p in e , w h o h a d head­

3 3 . A lth o u g h

th e

F ren ch

la n g u a g e

p r e d o m in a t e d

a m o n g R ed R iv e r M é tis , in b io lo g ic a l f a c t th e y w e re m o r e m ix e d t h a n t h a t w o u ld in d ic a te . H is­

( 1 8 3 4 - 1 9 2 3 ) t o s ta y o u t o f t h e c o u n try . R iel took e d t h e c o u r t m a r tia l t h a t h a d c o n d e m n e d Scott, cam e back. 4 3 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

t o r ia n D ia n e P a y m e n t h a s illu s tr a te d th i s w ith

5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , rv, c h . 5 , 'M é tis Perspec­

n am es:

tiv e s ', 1 9 9 - 3 8 4 .

M a c G illis

(M a g illic e ),

B ru ce

(B ro u s s e ),

S a y e r (S erre), M c K a y (M a c a ille ), a n d M c D o u g a ll (M c D o u b ).

P a y m e n t,

Batoche ( 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 7 0 ) (S t

B o n ifa c e , M a n ., 1 9 8 3 ) , 1. 3 4 . T h e ir s to r y is to ld b y P e te r D o u g la s E lia s, The D a­

kota o f the Canadian Northwest: Lessons for Survival (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 8 ) . S e e a ls o J a m e s H . H o w a rd , The Canadian Sioux (L in c o ln , N e b ., 1 9 8 4 ) ; R o y W . M ey er, 'T h e C a n a d ia n S io u x R efu g ee s fr o m M in ­ n e s o ta ', Minnesota History 4 1 ,

1

(1 9 6 8 ) :

1 3 -2 8 ;

G e o rg e F.G . S ta n le y , 'D is p la c e d R ed M e n : T h e S io u x in C a n a d a ', in Ia n A.L. G e tty a n d D o n a ld B. S m ith , ed s, One Century Later (V a n co u v e r, 1 9 7 8 ) , 5 5 - 8 1 . 3 5 . A c c o r d in g t o E lias, t h e p a ir w e re ta k e n b y A m e ri­ c a n s i n a ra id : The Dakota o f the Canadian North­

west, 2 3 . S e e a ls o H o w a rd , The Canadian Sioux, 2 8 . 3 6 . D a n ie l, History o f Native Land Claims, 4 , c itin g J o h n L e o n a r d T ay lo r, 'T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f a n In d ia n P o lic y fo r t h e C a n a d ia n N o r th -W e s t, 1 8 6 9 - 7 0 ', P h .D . th e s is (Q u e e n 's U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 7 5 ) , 2 8 .

and

M a rie A n n e

G ab o u ry

1. As n o te d in C h a p te r 1 2 , th e r e a re 4 8 3 a g reem en ts lis te d in C a n a d a , Indian Treaties and Surrenders from

1 6 8 0 to 1 9 0 2 , 3 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 1 2 ; fa csim i­ le, 1 9 7 1 ) . S in c e t h e n a fe w h a v e b e e n ad d ed . 2 . R e g a rd in g le g is la tio n r e s tr ic tin g u s e o f b a n d funds fo r la n d c la im s , s e e C h a p te r 2 2 , p . 3 1 1 . B r o w n a n d R o n M a g u ir e , e d s, Indian Treaties in Historical Perspective (O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ) , 32.

3 . G eorge

4 . R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, 'I n d ia n R ig h ts a n d H in te rla n d P ro v in c e s : T h e C a s e o f N o r th e r n A lb e rta ',

ma

th e ­

sis (U n iv e r s ity o f A lb e rta , 1 9 7 7 ) , c h . 2 . 5. Jo h n

L e o n a r d T a y lo r, 'T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f an

In d ia n

P o lic y

fo r

th e

C a n a d ia n

N o r th -W e s t,

1 8 6 9 - 7 0 ', P h .D . th e s is (Q u e e n 's U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 7 5 ), 4 5 -6 . 6 . T h e Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal

3 7 . H e w as t h e g r a n d s o n o f Je a n - B a p tis t e L a g im o d iè re (1 7 7 8 -1 8 5 5 )

Chapter 19

(1 7 8 0 -

Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , w h ile a c k n o w le d g ­ in g

th a t

A b o r ig in a l

tr e a tie s

w e re

kept

'a liv e '

1 8 7 5 ) , fir s t n o n -A b o r ig in a l w o m a n i n t h e W e st.

th r o u g h p e r io d ic r e n e g o tia tio n s t o a d a p t th e m to

D u r in g t h e w in te r o f 1 8 1 6 - 1 7 , Je a n - B a p tis t e a n d a

c h a n g in g c ir c u m s ta n c e s (II, p a r t 1, 1 1 ), la te r o b ­

c o m p a n io n h a d tr a v e lle d b y f o o t fr o m R ed R iv e r to

se rv e d t h a t 't h e i r c e n tr a l fe a tu r e m a k e s th e m irrev­

M o n tr e a l (1 7 O c t. 1 8 1 6 - 1 0 M a r. 1 8 1 7 ) t o in f o r m

o c a b le ' (1 9 ) .

L o rd S e lk irk a b o u t t h e B a ttle o f S e v e n O a k s . R iel's

7 . T h e U n ite d S ta te s s to p p e d m a k in g tr e a tie s w ith

p a r e n ts w e re fa r m e rs a n d d id n o t p a r tic ip a te in

A m e r in d ia n s in 1 8 7 1 , t h e y e a r t h a t C a n a d a sig n ed

e it h e r t h e fu r tr a d e o r t h e b u f fa lo h u n t.

th e firs t o f its 11 n u m b e r e d tr e a tie s .

Notes 8. Jo h n

S. L o n g , '" N o

S ig n in g

o f T r e a ty

B a s is fo r A r g u m e n t? " : T h e N in e

in

N o rth e rn

O n ta r io ,

1 9 0 5 - 1 9 0 6 ', Native Studies Review 5 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 3 6 . 9 . C a n a d a , P a r lia m e n t, Sessional Papers, 1 8 6 7 - 8 , n o .

D a v id

T.

M cN ab,

'H e a r ty

C o - o p e r a t io n

and

E f fic ie n t A id, th e M e tis a n d T re a ty # 3 ', Canadian

Journal o f Native Stiidies 3 , 1 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 1 3 1 -4 9 . 2 1 . D ia n e P a y m e n t, Batoche (1 8 7 0 - 1 9 7 0 ) (S t B o n ifa c e , M a n ., 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 - 3 ; M a rc e l G ira u d , The Métis in the

81, 18; 1869, no. 42, 2 0 -1 . 1 0 . F o r a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f th e n e g o t ia t io n s fo r T re a ty

Canadian West, tr. G e o r g e W o o d c o c k , 2 v o ls (E d ­

O n e , se e D a v id J . H all, '" A S e r e n e A tm o s p h e r e " ?

m o n t o n , 1 9 8 6 ) , II, 2 5 3 - 7 8 . G ira u d 's w o rk is p e r­

T re a ty 1 R e v is ite d ', Canadian Journal o f Native Studies 4 , 2 ( 1 9 8 4 ) : 3 2 1 - 5 8 .

m e a te d w ith a p e jo r a tiv e v ie w o f M é tis a n d c o n ­

1 1 . H a ro ld C a r d in a l, The Unjust Society: The Tragedy o f

c lu d e s t h a t o n ly a b s o r p tio n b y E u ro -C a n a d ia n s w ill sa v e th e m . 22. B oy ce

Canada's Indians (E d m o n to n , 1 9 6 9 ) , 3 6 . 1 2 . R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, A History o f Native Claims Pro­

cesses in Canada 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 7 9 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 2 .

R ic h a r d s o n ,

'K in d

H e a r ts

or

Fo rked

T o n g u e s ? ', The Beaver O u tfit 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 2 8 . 2 3 . T a y lo r, 'D e v e lo p m e n t o f a n I n d ia n P o lic y ', 1 9 1 .

C a n a d a h a d a g re e d , in 1 8 9 4 , t h a t a n y fu tu r e tr e a ­

2 4 . Ib id ., 2 9 .

tie s w it h in O n ta r io w o u ld re q u ire t h e p r o v in c e 's

2 5 . I n 1 9 0 4 t h e f o r c e w a s r e n a m e d t h e R o y a l N o rth -

c o n c u r r e n c e . S im ila rly , la te r a d h e s io n s p re s e n te d

W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e ; in 1 9 2 0 , i t b e c a m e th e R o y a l

little , i f a n y , o p p o r tu n ity fo r n e g o t ia t io n s . T h e te r ­

C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e , w h ic h is s till its d e sig ­

rito r ie s in v o lv e d c o u ld b e c o n s id e r a b le — in T re a ty

n a t i o n to d a y . O n t h e NWMP, se e R .C . M a c le o d , The

N in e , fo r i n s ta n c e , m o s t o f n o r t h e r n O n ta r io w as

NW M P and Law Enforcement 1 8 7 3 - 1 9 0 5 (T o ro n to ,

in v o lv e d in t h e a d h e s io n o f 1 9 2 9 .

1 9 7 6 ).

1 3 . H all, '" A S e r e n e A tm o s p h e r e " ? T re a ty 1 R e v is ite d ', 325.

2 6 . P h ilip G o ld r in g , Whiskey, Horses and Death: The

Cypress Hills Massacre and its Sequel, O c c a s io n a l

1 4 . A le x a n d e r M o rr is ,

Treaties o f Canada with the

Indians (T o r o n to , 1 8 8 0 ; r e p r in t, 1 9 7 1 ) , 6 2 .

P a p ers i n A rc h a e o lo g y a n d H is to r y N o . 2 1 (O tta w a , 1 9 7 3 ). 2 7 . P a u l F. S h a rp , 'M a s s a c re a t C y p re ss H ills ', Saskatche­

1 5 . Ib id . 1 6 . T h e id e a o f tr a in p asse s w as n o t o u t o f lin e , o f c o u rs e . T h e ra ilw a y s h a n d e d t h e m o u t t o p r iv i­ le g e d c u s to m e r s , s u c h as p e r s o n s in c e r t a in p ro fe s ­ s io n s . In t h e U n ite d S ta te s , A m e r in d ia n s w e re a l­ lo w e d fr e e rid e s o n w e s te r n ra ilro a d s b u t w e re n o t e n tit le d t o fr e e se a ts ; th e y c o u ld rid e in b o x c a r s .

wan History 7 ( 1 9 5 4 ) : 8 1 - 9 9 ; M o rr is Z aslow , The Opening o f the Canadian North (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , 1 5 -1 7 . 2 8 . B .D . Fardy, Jerry Potts, Paladin o f the Plains (L an g ley , B C , 1 9 8 4 ). 2 9 . A b io g r a p h y is b y H u g h A. D e m p s e y , Crowfoot:

1 7 . M o rr is , Treaties, 6 9 .

C h ief o f the Blackfeet ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 7 2 ) . D e m p se y

18. J o h n S. L o n g , 'T re a ty N o . 9 a n d fu r tr a d e c o m p a n y

p o in ts o u t (p p . 9 3 - 1 0 7 ) t h a t C r o w fo o t w a s n o t th e

fa m ilie s : N o r th e a s te r n

O n ta r io 's

h a lfb re e d s ,

In ­

h e a d c h i e f o f t h e B la c k f o o t C o n fe d e ra c y , as g e n e r ­

d ia n s , p e titio n e r s a n d m é tis ', in J a c q u e lin e P e te r­

a lly b e lie v e d b y n o n -N a tiv e s , b u t o n e o f t h e c h ie fs

s o n a n d J e n n i f e r S.H . B r o w n , ed s, The New Peoples:

o f t h e B la c k f o o t p ro p er. T h e o th e r m e m b e r s o f th e

Being and Becoming Métis in North America (W in ­ n ip e g , 1 9 8 5 ), 1 4 5 ; Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, IV, 2 6 1 .

e a c h h a d t h e ir o w n c h ie fs , a n d th e y a ll p a r tic ip a t­

1 9 . M o rris ,

Treaties, 2 9 3 - 5 . G e o r g e F.G . S ta n le y re ­

fe rre d t o 't h e in v a lu a b le a s s is ta n c e o f t h e h a lfb r e e d s ' in m a i n t a in i n g c o m p a r a tiv e p e a c e o n C a n ­ a d a 's fr o n tie r . S ta n le y , The Birth o f Western C anada: A History o f the Riel Rebellion (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 0 ) , 2 1 4 . S e e a ls o G r a n t M a c E w a n , Métis Makers o f History 2 0 . J e a n F rie se n , 'M a g n ific e n t G ifts : T h e T re a tie s o f w it h

th e

ed in th e tr e a ty n e g o tia tio n s . C r o w fo o t, h o w e v e r, w as p a r tic u la r ly h ig h ly

re g a rd ed

by

th e

E u ro -

C a n a d ia n s , a n d th is in c r e a s e d h is in f lu e n c e a m o n g h is fe llo w c h ie f s in tr e a ty m a tte rs . 3 0 . J o h n F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , ed s, The Historical

Development o f the Indian Act (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 5 9 . S e e a ls o P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d N e il H. M ic k e n b e rg , ed s, Native Rights in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 2 ) ,

(S a s k a to o n , 1 9 8 1 ). C anada

C o n fe d e ra c y , t h e B lo o d , T su u T 'in a , a n d P e ig a n ,

I n d ia n s

of

th e

N o rth w est

125. 3 1 . D e m p se y , Crowfoot, 1 0 2 .

1 8 6 9 - 7 0 ', Transactions o f the Royal Society o f Canada:

3 2 . R o y W . M ey er, 'T h e C a n a d ia n S io u x R efu g ee s F ro m

ser. 5 , 1 (1 9 8 6 ) : 4 7 - 8 . S e e a ls o S ta n le y , Birth o f

M in n e s o t a ', Minnesota History 4 1 , 1 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 1 3 - 2 8 ;

Western Canada, 2 1 4 - 1 5 . A c o n tr a r y view , c la im in g

A lice B. K e h o e , 'T h e D a k o ta s i n S a s k a tc h e w a n ', in

t h a t t h e M é tis w e re n o m o r e t h a n fa c ilita to r s , i n t e r ­

E th e l N u rg e, ed ., The M odem Sioux (L in c o ln , N e b .,

p re te rs, re p o rte rs, a n d w itn e s s e s , is p re s e n te d b y

1 9 7 0 ), 1 4 8 -8 2 .

481

482 Notes 3 3 . P e te r D o u g la s E lias, The Dakota o f the Canadian

Northwest: Lessons for Survival (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 7 2 . A c lo s e r lo o k a t W h it e C a p 's tr ia l is i n B o b B e a l a n d R o d M a c le o d , Prairie Fire: The 1 8 8 5 North-

West Rebellion (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 2 7 - 3 0 .

tio n :

An

O u tlin e

H is to r y

of

C a n a d a 's

Indian

P o lic y ', Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 6, 2 (1 9 7 6 ): 1 9 -2 0 . 5 1 . L e slie a n d M a g u ire , ed s, Historical Development, 77, 8 5 -6 .

3 4 . L e s lie a n d M a g u ire , ed s, Historical Development, 6 0 .

5 2 . Ib id ., 8 1 .

3 5 . Ib id ., 1 0 0 .

5 3 . Ib id ., 8 7 .

3 6 . T h e 'I n d ia n R e g is te r' is a l is t m a in t a in e d b y th e

5 4 . T h is c r y w a s ra ise d b y D a v id M ills , w h o under

g o v e r n m e n t; it c o n s is ts o f B a n d L ists a n d G e n e r a l

P rim e M in is t e r A le x a n d e r M a c k e n z ie h a d been

L ists. T h o s e w h o a re re g is te re d a n d s u b je c t t o th e

M in is t e r o f t h e In te rio r , 1 8 7 6 - 8 . House o f Commons

In d ia n A c t a re 's t a tu s ' A m e r in d ia n s .

3 8 . R e u b e n G o ld T h w a ite s , e d ., Jesuit Relations and

Debates, 1 8 8 5 , v o l. 2 , 1 5 8 0 : T h e F r a n c h is e Bill, 4 M a y 1 8 8 5 ; c ite d b y L e slie a n d M a g u ire , eds, His­ torical Development, 8 6 .

Allied Documents, 7 3 v o ls (C le v e la n d , 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 0 1 ) ,

5 5 . M a lc o lm M o n tg o m e r y , 'T h e S ix N a tio n s Indians

3 7 . L e s lie a n d M a g u ire , ed s, Historical Development, 6 5 .

xvni, 101-6.

a n d t h e M a c d o n a ld F r a n c h is e ', Ontario History 56 (1 9 6 4 ): 20.

3 9 . Ib id ., X X, 1 4 3 - 5 3 . 4 0 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, II, p a r t 2 , 8 0 9 .

Chapter 20

4 1 . L e slie a n d M a g u ire , ed s, Historical Development, 6 7 .

1. A t th e s a m e tim e a s im ila r s itu a tio n w as being

4 2 . O n t h e r o le o f t h e In d ia n A ct, see J o h n F. L e slie , A

e x p e r ie n c e d i n t h e w e s te r n A rc tic w ith t h e whale

Historical Survey o f lndian-Govem m ent Relations, 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 7 0 (O tta w a , 1 9 9 3 ) , e sp . 1 2 - 1 9 .

a n d w a lru s p o p u la tio n s , a n d fo r s im ila r ec o n o m ic

43. The

te r m

'p o t la t c h '

in c lu d e d

s e v e ra l d if fe r e n t

r e a s o n s . S e e J o h n R. B o c k s to c e , Whales, Ice, and M en: The History o f W haling in the Western Arctic

ty p e s o f fe a sts, o f w h ic h t h e 'g iv e a w a y ' w a s o n e .

(S e a ttle , 1 9 8 6 ) , c h s 7 , 8 . T h e r e t h e s im ila r ity ends,

Ja y

h o ld i n g

as t h e d e c im a tio n o f t h e sea m a m m a ls did n o t

to g e th e r t h e . . . s o c ia l fa b r ic ’. M ille r, 'F e a s tin g w ith

h a v e sid e b e n e fits , s u c h as t h e f r e e in g o f la n d for

M i lle r

d e s c r ib e d

f e a s ts

as

'k n o t s

t h e S o u th e r n T s im s h ia n ', i n M a rg a re t S e g u in , ed .,

The Tsimshian. Images o f the Past: Views for the Present (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 7 - 3 9 . 4 4 . F o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y v ie w o f t h e m a tte r, se e A .G . M o r ic e , A u pays de Tours noir (P aris, 1 8 9 7 ) , 1 4 6 - 6 1 . 4 5 . E d w a rd

Voices o f the Plains

A henakew ,

Cree

(T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ), 1 8 2 . 4 6 . G e o r g e M a n u e l a n d M ic h a e l P o s lu n s , The Fourth

World: A n Indian Reality (D o n M ills , O n t., 1 9 7 4 ) , 7 8 -9 . 4 7 . C ite d b y C o d y P o u lto n , 'S o n g s fr o m t h e G o d s: " H e a r in g t h e V o ic e " in th e A s c e tic R itu a ls o f W e s t C o a s t In d ia n s a n d J a p a n e s e L itu rg ie D ra m a ', p a p e r p r e s e n te d t o t h e T h ir ty - th ir d I n t e r n a t io n a l C o n ­ g ress o f A sia n a n d N o r th A fr ic a n S tu d ie s, U n iv e r ­

1 9 8 9 ),

B eck

K ehoe,

1 2 9 -3 4 ;

F.L.

The Ghost D ance (T o r o n to , B arro n ,

'T h e

I n d ia n

P ass

S y s te m i n t h e C a n a d ia n W e st, 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 3 5 ', Prairie

Forum 1 3 , 1 (1 9 8 8 ) : 3 1 .

tory in Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 7 7 ) , 8 9 - 1 0 3 . 3 . H e n ry Y o u le H in d , Narrative o f the Canadian Red

River Exploring Expedition o f 1 8 5 7 and o f the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition of 1 8 5 8 , 2 v o ls (E d m o n to n , 1 9 7 1 ) , I, 3 6 0 - 1 ; J o h n S. M illo y , The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy and War, 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 7 0 (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 0 7 - 8 . 4 . H in d , Narrative, II, 1 1 0 . 5 . H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , Sessional Papers, 1 0 , 7 (1 8 7 7 ), S p e c ia l a p p . A (N o . 1 1 ): x x x v - x x x v i . 6 . S a r a h C a rte r, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve

C h ie f P e te r J o n e s ,

s to n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 6 . 7 . A rth u r S . M o r to n , History o f Prairie Settlement and

Dominion Lands Policy (T o r o n to , 1 9 3 8 ) , 2 3 6 - 8 . 8 . B o b B e a l a n d R o d M a c le o d , Prairie Fire: The 1885

4 9 . NAC, RG 1 0 , v o l. 2 1 1 6 , f ile 2 2 : 1 5 5 , le t te r t o S ir J o h n A. M a c d o n a ld fr o m

a d a : In d ia n H o m e la n d s o r D e v ic e s fo r A ssim ila­ t i o n ', in D .A . M u is e , e d ., Approaches to Native His­

Farmers and Government Policy ( M o n tr e a l a n d King­

s ity o f T o r o n to , 1 9 9 1 . 4 8 . A lic e

a g r ic u ltu r a l s e ttle m e n t. 2 . J o h n L. T o b ia s , 'I n d ia n R eserv e s in W e s te rn C an ­

11

F e b.

1 8 8 4 ; c ite d b y W a y n e D a u g h e rty , 'T h e E le c tiv e

Indian Governm ent Under Indian A ct Legislation, 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 1 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 4 . S y s te m ',

5 0 . J o h n L. T o b ia s , ‘P r o te c tio n , C iv iliz a tio n , A s s im ila ­

N orth-W est

Rebellion

(E d m o n to n ,

1 9 8 4 ),

41.

D u m o n t h a d b e c o m e b u f f a lo - h u n t c a p ta in a t th e age o f 25. 9 . T h o m a s F la n a g a n h a s a n a ly s e d t h e s itu a tio n in d e ta il i n Riel and the Rebellion: 1 8 8 5 Reconsidered (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 8 3 ) .

Notes 483 10. S o m e h o ld t h a t C la rk e w a s a n agent provocateur fo r

fo o t c a m p a lo n e , k ille d a w a rrio r, a n d c a p tu re d 4 0

M a c d o n a ld , a c tiv e ly fo m e n tin g tr o u b le as a w a y

h o rs e s . B y 1 8 7 0 h e h a d b e c o m e p rin c ip a l c h i e f o f

o u t o f s o lv in g fin a n c ia l d iffic u ltie s t h a t w e re p la g u ­

th e R iv er C r e e ; in t h e m e a n tim e , in 1 8 6 5 , h e h a d

in g th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h e C a n a d ia n P a c ific R ail­

a d o p te d t h e n a m e A b ra h a m w h e n h e h a d b e e n

w ay. S e e D o n M c L e a n , Hom e from the Hill: A History

c o n v e r te d b y F a th e r A lb e rt L a c o m b e . T h e HBC

o f the Metis in Western Canada (R eg in a , 1 9 8 7 ).

d u b b e d h im 'C h i e f o f t h e C o u n t r y '. S e e Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, X, s.v. 'W ik a s k o k is e y in '.

11. G e o r g e W o o d c o c k , Gabriel D um ont (E d m o n to n ,

2 5 . A rth u r J . Ray, Indians and the Fur Trade: Their Role

1 9 7 5 ), 8 1 -4 . 12. I n t h e s o u th , w h e r e t r a n s p o r ta t io n fa c ilitie s w e re b e tte r , t h e b u ffa lo r o b e tr a d e h a d b e e n a c tiv e s in c e

1 9 7 4 ), 2 2 8 .

t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . 13. F r a n k G ilb e r t R o e ,

as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest o f Hudson Bay 1 6 6 0 - 1 8 7 0 (T o ro n to ,

The North American Buffalo

2 6 . H u g h A . D e m p se y , Big Bear: Tire End o f Freedom (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 4 ) , 7 7 - 8 .

(T o r o n to , 1 9 7 0 ) , 4 6 7 f f . 14. C u r r e n tly t h e M a n it o b a M é tis h a v e in it ia te d c o u r t

2 7 . Ib id .; R .S . A lle n , 'B ig B e a r', Saskatchewan History 2 5 ,

a c t i o n a g a in s t O tta w a o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t th e y

1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 1 - 1 7 ; W illia m B. Fraser, 'B ig Bear, In d ia n

w e re d e fra u d e d o u t o f m o s t o f th e i r g r a n t. A m e r­

P a tr io t', Alberta Historical Review 1 4 , 2 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 1 —1 3 ;

in d ia n s o f T re a tie s O n e a n d T h r e e , fo r th e ir p art,

Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, X I, s.v. 'M is ta h i-

h a v e file d a g a in s t t h e M é tis c la im , o n t h e g ro u n d s t h a t th e ir ti t le w as n o t e x tin g u is h e d a t th e tim e t h e M a n it o b a A ct w a s p asse d .

m a s k w a '. 2 8 . D e m p s e y , Big Bear, 7 4 , 8 0 . S e e a lso A le x a n d e r M o rris , The Treaties o f Canada with the Indians (T o ­

15. Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , IV, 3 5 2 .

r o n to , 1 8 8 0 ; re p rin t, 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 4 0 ; J o h n L. T o b ia s, 'C a n a d a 's S u b ju g a tio n o f t h e P la in s C re e , 1 8 7 9 1 8 8 5 ', Canadian Historical Review 6 4 , 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 5 2 4 .

16. D o n a ld P u ric h , The Metis (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 8 ), 7 4 . 17. Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

2 9 . B e fo r e c o n t a c t , th e r e w e re n o t t h e c le a r d is tin c ­

IV, 3 3 9 , fig u re . E a rlie r (p . 3 3 4 ) t h e r e p o r t g iv es

tio n s b e tw e e n ‘tr ib e s ' th a t w e re la te r im p o s e d b y

1 9 0 0 as t h e c o m p le tio n d a te fo r t h e c h ild r e n 's

E u ro p e a n s . T h u s , e v e n th o u g h th e B la c k f o o t a n d

g ra n ts .

C r e e c o n s id e re d e a c h o th e r e n e m ie s , C r o w fo o t saw

18. N o lin 's s u p p o rt o f t h e M é tis c a u s e a p p e a rs t o h a v e b e e n d u b io u s , t o s a y t h e le a s t. H a v in g fa lle n o u t w ith h is M é tis c o lle a g u e s , h e a p p e a re d as a C r o w n

n o th in g

a n o m a lo u s

in

a d o p tin g

P ou n dm aker

b e c a u s e o f h is s tr ik in g r e s e m b la n c e t o a s o n h e h a d lo s t.

w itn e s s a t t h e tr ia ls t h a t fo llo w e d t h e u p ris in g .

3 0 . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, X I, s.v. 'M im iy '.

L ater, h e w as a p p o in te d a m a g is tr a te . P u ric h , Tire

3 1 . A B lo o d ,

Metis, 1 0 2 - 3 .

K u k a to s i-p o k a

(S ta rc h ild ,

K u ck a -to o s i-

n a h , c. 1 8 6 0 - 8 9 ) , w a s trie d fo r th e m u r d e r b u t a c ­

19. P.R. M a ilh o t a n d D .M . Sp ra g u e , 'P e r s is te n t S e ttle rs : T h e D is p e rs a l a n d R e s e ttle m e n t o f th e R ed R iv er M e tis , 1 8 7 0 - 1 8 8 5 ', Canadian Journal o f Ethnic Studies 1 7 (1 9 8 5 ) : 1 - 3 0 .

q u itte d fo r la c k o f e v id e n c e . Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, X I, s.v. K u k a to s i-p o k a . 3 2 . T .J. Brasser, Blackfoot (O tta w a , n .d .) , 3 . 3 3 . C a rter, Lost Harvests, 3 0 . T h is c a r e fu lly d o c u m e n t­

2 0 . D .W . M o o d ie a n d A rth u r J . R a y m a k e t h e p o in t

ed s tu d y im p u te s t h e fa ilu re o f t h e a g r ic u ltu ra l

t h a t h u n te r s u n d e r s to o d t h e fa c to r s t h a t in f lu ­

p ro g ra m s t o g o v e r n m e n t p o lic y r a th e r t h a n t o t h e

e n c e d b is o n b e h a v io u r , s o t h e y k n e w w h e r e t o

su p p osed

lo o k fo r t h e h e rd s. S e e M o o d ie a n d Ray, 'B u ffa lo

fa rm e rs.

M ig r a tio n s i n t h e C a n a d ia n P la in s ', Plains Anthro­

pologist 2 1 , 7 1 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 4 5 - 5 1 . 21. E le a n o r V e rb ic k y -T o d d , Com m unal Buffalo Hunting

Am ong the Plains Indians: A n Ethnographic and Historic Review (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 4 3 - 5 . 22. H in d , Narrative, I, 3 1 1 .

in a b ility

o f A m e r in d ia n s

to

becom e

3 4 . B o c k s to c e , Whales, Ice, and M en, 1 3 9 . 3 5 . D .W . M o o d ie a n d B a rry K a y e, 'I n d ia n A g ricu ltu re in t h e F u r T ra d e N o rth w e s t', Prairie Forum 1 1 , 2 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 7 1 - 8 4 ; M o o d ie a n d K aye, 'T h e N o rth e rn L im it o f I n d ia n A g ricu ltu re in N o rth A m e ric a ',

Geographical Review 5 9 , 4 ( 1 9 6 9 ) : 5 1 3 - 2 9 . A rc h a e o ­

The Battle at Belly River: Stories o f the Last Great Indian Battle (L e th ­

lo g ic a l e v id e n c e t h a t fa r m in g w a s p ra c tis e d in

b r id g e ,

P e rio d (AD 8 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 ) h a s b e e n fo u n d a t th e L o ck -

23. A le x a n d e r J o h n s t o n , c o m p ., A lta ,

1 9 6 6 ).

B e lly

R iv e r

becam e

th e

O ld m a n in 1 8 9 0 . 24. S w eetg rass h a d b e c o m e a c h i e f b y a c h ie v in g w h a t M a s k e p e to o n h a d fa ile d t o d o : h e e n te r e d a B la c k -

s o u th e r n

M a n it o b a

d u r in g t h e

L a te W o o d la n d

p o r t site . I t a p p e a rs t o h a v e b e e n d is c o u ra g e d b y c lim a t ic c h a n g e s a r o u n d 1 5 0 0 . Prehistory o f the LockportSite (W in n ip e g , 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 6 .

484 Notes 3 6 . C a rter, Lost Harvests, 1 1 2 . 3 7 . S a s k a tc h e w a n

A rch iv e s

B o a rd ,

C a m p b e ll

tim e a re d e s c r ib e d b y S a r a h C a rter, Aboriginal People and Colonizers o f Western Canada to 1900

In n é s

(T o r o n to , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 5 9 ff .

P ap ers, 5 , Rev. J.A . M a c k a y P a p ers, b o x 5 , In d ia n S c h o o ls , 1 9 0 7 - 8 ; c ite d b y C a rte r, Lost Harvests, 246.

D ia n e P a y m e n t, Batoche (1 8 7 0 - 1 9 7 0 ) (S t Boniface, M a n ., 1 9 8 3 ) , 6 1 - 2 . D e s p ite t h e d e fe a t a n d subse­ q u e n t d iffic u ltie s , B a t o c h e e x p a n d e d an d pros­

3 8 . C ite d b y B e a l a n d M a c le o d , Prairie Fire, 7 4 . 3 9 . Report o f the C om m issioner o f the North-W est

M ounted Police Force, 1 8 8 4 : C o m m is s io n e r A .G .

p e r e d in la te r y e a rs. Ib id ., 1 3 6 . 1 0 . A. B la ir S t o n e c h ild , 'T h e I n d ia n V ie w o f th e 1885 U p r is in g ', i n J.R . M ille r, e d ., Sweet Promises (To­

Ir v in e , 8 . 4 0 . R .C . M a c le o d , The North-West M ounted Police and

Law Enforcement 1 8 7 3 - 1 9 0 5 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , 2 9 .

r o n to , 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 5 9 - 7 6 . . G a b r ie l D u m o n t's account o f th e

r e b e llio n w a s tr a n s la te d b y G eorg e F.G.

S ta n le y a n d p u b lis h e d i n t h e Canadian Historical

Review 3 0 , 3 (S e p t. 1 9 4 9 ) : 2 4 9 - 6 9 .

Chapter 21 1. J o h n

9.

1 1 . Manitoba Free Press, 7 Apr. 1 8 8 5 , f r o n t page.

L. T o b ia s , 'T h e S u b ju g a tio n o f t h e P la in s

1 2 . W ill J a c k s o n ( 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 5 2 ) , o n e - t im e secreta ry to

C re e , 1 8 7 9 - 1 8 8 5 ', Canadian Historical Review 6 4 , 4

R iel, w a s a c q u itte d as in s a n e . T h e tw o h a d parted

(1 9 8 3 ) : 5 3 9 ; Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, XI,

w a y s o v e r t h e q u e s tio n o f A b o rig in a l rig h ts. The

s.v. 'K a p a p a m a h c h a k w e w '.

o t h e r w a s T o m S c o tt, t h e n o n - N a tiv e le a d e r o f the

2. Jo h n

F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , ed s, Historical

Development o f the Indian Act (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 8 1 . 3 . B o b B e a l a n d R o d M a c le o d , Prairie Fire: The 1 8 8 5

E n g lis h -la n g u a g e M é tis . 1 3 . T h is w a s t h e s a m e s ta tu te u n d e r w h ic h e ig h t m en h a d b e e n h a n g e d in B u r lin g to n H e ig h ts , O ntario,

North-West Rebellion ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 6 3 , 1 1 5 —

in 1 8 1 4 fo r h ig h tr e a s o n d u rin g th e W a r o f 1812.

1 6 , 1 2 0 ; Is a b e l A n d rew s, 'I n d ia n P ro te s t A g a in s t

Saskatchewan History 2 8 , 2 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 4 1 - 5 1 . M is ta w a -

S e e W illia m R. R id d e ll, The Ancaster 'Bloody Assize' o f 1 8 1 4 (T o r o n to , 1 9 2 3 ; r e p r in te d fr o m Ontario His­ torical Society Papers and Records 2 0 [ 1 9 2 2 ] : 1 0 7 -2 5 ).

sis w as P o u n d m a k e r 's u n c le a n d w a s r e n o w n e d as

W a n d e r in g S p ir it w a s o n e o f th o s e h a n g e d at

S ta r v a tio n : T h e Y ello w

C a lf I n c id e n t o f

1 8 8 4 ',

a h u n te r .

N o r th B a ttle fo rd .

4 . O n e o f th e e x c e p t io n s w as R o b e rt Je f f e r s o n , a fa rm a g e n t in t h e B a ttle fo r d s d u r in g t h e 1 8 8 0 s w h o w as s y m p a th e tic t o P o u n d m a k e r 's

t h e A m e r in d ia n s . H e w a s w ith band

d u r in g

th e

tr o u b l e s

and

a s s e m b le d h is o b s e r v a tio n s i n t o a s lim v o lu m e :

Fifty Years on the Saskatchewan: Being a history o f the Cree in Canadian domestic life and the difficulties which led to the serious agitation and conflict o f 1 8 8 5 in the Battleford locality (B a ttle fo rd , S a sk ., 1 9 2 9 ) . 5 . T h e M é tis D e c la r a tio n o f R ig h ts is re p ro d u c e d in fu ll in B e a l a n d M a c le o d , Prairie Fire, 1 3 6 .

1 4 . D .H . B r o w n , 'T h e M e a n in g o f T re a s o n in 1885',

Saskatchewan History 2 8 , 2 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 6 5 - 7 3 . 1 5 . T h e o th e r o c c a s io n h a s b e e n m e n tio n e d in note 1 3 , a b o v e . I n n e i th e r c a s e d o t h e co n se q u e n ce s co m p a re

se rie s o f d e v o tio n s m a d e o n n in e s u c c e s s iv e d ay s fo r s o m e s p e cia l p u rp o se .

th o se

of

th e

S io u x

u p risin g of

w e re c o n d e m n e d t o d e a th , 3 8 w e re e x e cu te d at F o r t S n e llin g , M in n e s o t a , t h e la rg e st m a ss h an g in g in A m e r ic a n h is to ry . 1 6 . N o rm a S lu m a n , Poundmaker (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 7 ) , 2 70. See

6 . I n t h e R o m a n C a t h o lic C h u r c h , a n o v e n a is a

w ith

1 8 6 2 - 3 in t h e U n ite d S ta te s . O f 3 0 3 S io u x who

a ls o

D o n a ld

C.

B a r n e tt, Poundmaker (D on

M ills , O n t., 1 9 7 6 ) . 1 7 . A le x a n d e r M o rris , The Treaties o f Canada with the

Indians (T o r o n to , 1 8 8 0 ; re p r in t, 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 9 4 .

7 . P ih e w -k a m ih k o s it ('R e d P h e a s a n t'), w h o s e re serv e

1 8 . T h o m a s F la n a g a n , Riel and the Rebellion: 1 8 8 5 Re­

w as a ls o i n t h e r e g io n , h a d d ie d ju s t b e fo r e t h e s o r­

considered (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 8 3 ) , v iii. S e e a ls o Flan a­ g a n 's s tu d y o f R ie l's m ille n n ia lis m , Louis 'David' Riel, Prophet o f the New World (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 9 ).

tie b e g a n . 8 . A C r e e A n g lic a n c le r g y m a n 's v ie w o f t h e e v e n t is t h a t o f D r E d w ard A h e n a k e w , 'A n O p in io n o f T h e F ro g L a k e M a s s a c re ', Alberta Historical Review 8 , 3 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 9 - 1 5 . A n o th e r C r e e v iew , th is t i m e b y a d e s c e n d a n t o f B ig Bear, is J o s e p h F. D io n , M y Tribe

the Créés (C alg ary , 1 9 7 9 ) . C o n te m p o r a r y a c c o u n ts w e re c o m p ile d a n d e d ite d b y R u d y W ie b e a n d B o b B e a l i n War in the West: Voices o f the 1 8 8 5 Rebellion (T o r o n to ,

1 9 8 5 ).

The

s e n s a tio n a liz e d

p re ss

ac­

c o u n ts t h a t c o n tr ib u te d t o p u b lic h y s te r ia a t t h e

1 9 . D .N . S p ra g u e , Canada and the Metis, 1 8 6 9 -1 8 8 5 (W a te rlo o , O n t., 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 8 4 . 2 0 . J o h n E. F o ster, 'T h e P la in s M e tis ', i n R. B ru c e M or­ r is o n a n d C . R o d e r ic k W ils o n , ed s, Native Peoples:

The Canadian Experience, 2 n d e d n (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 5 ), 435. 2 1 . S t o n e c h ild , 'I n d ia n V ie w ’, 2 7 5 . 2 2 . T o b ia s , ‘S u b ju g a tio n o f t h e P la in s C r e e ', 5 4 7 - 8 .

Notes 485 2 3 . F.L. B a r ro n , 'T h e I n d ia n P ass S y s te m in t h e C a ­ n a d ia n

W e st,

1 8 8 2 - 1 9 3 5 ',

Prairie Forum

13,

3 9 . M o rr is Z aslow , The Opening o f the Canadian North (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 2 5 - 6 .

1

( 1 9 8 8 ) : 2 8 ; S a r a h A. C a rte r, 'C o n t r o ll i n g In d ia n

4 0 . D a n ie l, Native Claims, 2 5 .

M o v e m e n t: T h e P ass S y s te m ', NeW est Review (M a y 1 9 8 5 ) : 8 - 9 . T h e s y s te m la s te d u n t i l 1 9 4 1 , b u t s o m e n o r th e r n re se rv e s re p o r te d t h a t i t w as s till b e in g

Chapter 22

28

1 . G o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e s a le o f A m e r in d ia n

re s e rv e s w e re o ff ic ia lly d e s ig n a te d a s d is lo y a l d u r­

c ro p s w a s o ff ic ia lly d e s c r ib e d as a 'k in d ly su p e rv i­

in g t h e d is tu r b a n c e s , t h e s y s te m w a s g e n e ra lly

s io n ' t o e n s u r e t h a t A m e r in d ia n s w e re 'g e ttin g a

a p p lie d i n t h e p ra ir ie W e s t.

fa ir d e a l’. S e e E d w a rd A h e n a k e w , Voices o f the Plains Cree (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 4 7 . T h is b o o k is a n

e n fo r c e d

d u r in g t h e

1960s.

A lth o u g h

o n ly

2 4 . A nnual Report o f the North-West M ounted Police,

e lo q u e n t d e p ic tio n o f P la in s C r e e life b e fo r e a n d

1 8 9 5 , ap p . B , S u p e r in te n d e n t W .B . S te e le , 4 5 .

a fte r c o n t a c t .

2 5 . K e n n e th S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R. M o r r is o n , Land

o f the M idnight Sun: A History o f the Yukon

2.

E le a n o r Brass, 'T h e F ile H ills E x -P u p il C o lo n y ',

Saskatchewan History 6 , 2 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : 6 6 . M rs B ra ss is

(E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 8 ), 2 0 6 - 7 .

t h e d a u g h te r o f Fred D ie te r, o n e o f t h e c o lo n y ’s

2 6 . H u g h A. D e m p se y , Charcoal’s World (S a s k a to o n ,

o u ts ta n d in g fa r m e rs w h o w a s aw a rd ed a silv er

1 9 7 8 ) ; F ra n k W . A n d e r s o n , Almighty Voice (A ld er-

s h ie ld . B o m a n d ra ise d in t h e c o lo n y , s h e r e m i­

g ro v e , B C , 1 9 7 1 ) . O n A lm ig h ty V o ice , se e a ls o C a r­

n is c e s a b o u t h e r life in h e r a u to b io g ra p h y , I Walk

ter, Aboriginal People and Colonizers, 1 7 4 - 5 .

in Two Worlds (C a lg a ry , 1 9 8 7 ) . S e e a ls o E. B r ia n T itle y , A Narrow Vision (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 8 —1 9 ;

2 7 . B a r ro n , 'I n d ia n P ass S y s te m ’, 3 9 . I n 1 9 0 2 , a d e le ­ g a t io n

fr o m

S o u th

A fr ica

cam e

to

s tu d y

T itle y , 'W .M . G r a h a m : I n d ia n A g e n t E x tr a o r d in ­

th e

C a n a d ia n p a ss s y s te m as a m e th o d o f s o c ia l c o n ­

a ir e ', Prairie Forum 1 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 5 - 4 1 ; 'I n d ia n s tu ­

tr o l.

d e n ts fo r c e d in t o m a rria g e , fa r m life ', Globe and

Mail, 1 0 D e c . 1 9 9 0 .

2 8 . M o s t o f t h e n a m e s lis te d w e re p ro v id e d b y D r D o n a ld B . S m ith , U n iv e r s ity o f C alg ary .

3.

E arl G re y 's sister, L a d y M in t o , c la im e d t h a t sh e

2 9 . S e e Sp ra g u e , Canada and the Metis, 1 0 4 - 5 , 1 2 4 . T h e

a n d h e r b r o t h e r w e re d e s c e n d e d fr o m P o c a h o n ta s .

q u e s tio n o f t h e d is tr ib u tio n o f la n d s s e t a s id e fo r

S e e D o n a ld B. S m ith , From the Land o f Shadows: The Making o f Grey Owl (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 2 7 n l 5 .

t h e M é tis w h e n M a n ito b a w as c re a te d a p ro v in c e is c u r r e n tly b e fo r e t h e c o u r ts . T h o m a s B e rg e r is a c t­

4.

m is s io n - r u n s c h o o ls h a d b e e n v o ic e d a t le a s t s in c e

3 0 . P a y m e n t, Batoche, 7 3 - 4 . 3 1 . J o a n n e O v e rv o ld see s t h e r o le o f w o m e n as b e in g c e n tr a l t o t h e stru g g le o f t h e M é tis t o m a i n t a in a

th e 1 9 4 0 s. 5 . W a y n e D a u g h e rty , 'T h e E le c tiv e S y s te m ', in Indian

Government Under Indian A ct Legislation, 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 1

s e p a ra te id e n tity . S h e d e p ic ts t h e M é tis o f t h e N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s i n Our Metis Heritage . . . a portrayal (n .p ., 1 9 7 6 ) . H er c o m m e n t o n t h e r o le o f

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 6 . 6. T he been

w o m e n is o n p . 1 0 3 .

3 3 . R e n é F u m o le a u , As Long As This Land Shall Last (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 2 0 7 - 8 ; R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, A His­

tory o f Native Claims Processes in Canada 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 7 9 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 2 4 . 3 4 . F u m o le a u , As Long As This Land Shall Last, 7 6 . 3 5 . M a rc e l G ira u d , 'T h e W e s te rn M e tis a fte r t h e In s u r­ r e c t i o n ', Saskatchewan History 9 , 1 (1 9 5 6 ) : 5 . 3 6 . A d e ta ile d s tu d y o f t h e s itu a tio n is t h a t o f P au l C h a rtra n d ,

C o w e s s e s s b a n d 's d e a lt w ith

in

e l e c ti o n

d e ta il b y

p r o b le m s

have

D a u g h e rty ,

'T h e

E le c tiv e S y s te m ', 2 8 - 3 5 .

3 2 . S e e C h a p te r 2 5 .

L .A .H .

'A ssa u lt, d e a th c o m m o n a t s c h o o ls , n a tiv e s sa y ',

Globe and Mail, 11 D e c . 1 9 9 0 . C o m p la in ts a b o u t

in g o n b e h a l f o f t h e M é tis .

M anitoba's Métis Settlem ent

Schem e o f 1 8 7 0 (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 9 1 ) . 3 7 . A re a d a b le c o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t o f t h e tw o c o m ­ m is s io n s is C h a r le s M a ir, Through the Mackenzie

Basin (T o r o n to , 1 9 0 8 ). 3 8 . O n T re a ty E ig h t, se e C h a p te r 2 5 .

7.

Ib id ., 3 9 - 4 5 .

8. T hom as

S to n e ,

'L e g a l M o b iliz a t io n

and

Legal

P e n e tr a tio n : T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f In d ia n A ffa irs a n d t h e C a n a d a P a rty a t S t. R eg is, 1 8 7 6 - 1 9 1 8 ', Ethno-

history 2 2 , 4 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 3 8 1 . 9 . J o h n L. T o b ia s , 'P r o te c tio n , C iv iliz a tio n , A ssim ila ­ tio n :

An

O u tlin e

H is to r y

of

C a n a d a 's

In d ia n

P o lic y ', Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 6, 2 (1 9 7 6 ): 2 1 , 2 4 . 1 0 . Ib id ., 2 1 . 1 1 . R o b e rt J . S u rte e s, 'I n d ia n L a n d S e s s io n s i n U p p e r C anada,

1 8 1 5 - 1 8 3 0 ',

in

Ia n

A .L .

G e tty

and

A n to in e S . Lu ssier, ed s, A s Long as the Sun Shines

and Water Flows (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 3 ) , 6 6 ; P eggy M a r tin -M c G u ir e , 'F irs t N a tio n L a n d S u rre n d e rs o n

486 Notes t h e P ra iries, 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 1 1 ' (O tta w a , 1 9 9 8 ) , x iii. T h is

I n d ia n C la im s fo r C a n a d a ’, a d d re s s g iv e n at the

is a d e ta ile d s tu d y o f 2 5 su rre n d e rs, p re p a re d fo r

B a n f f S c h o o l o f A d v a n ce d M a n a g e m e n t, Banff,

t h e In d ia n C la im s C o m m is s io n .

A lb e rta , 9 M ar. 1 9 7 8 .

1 2 . R ich a rd H . B a r tle tt, Indian Reserves and Aboriginal

Lands in Canada: A Homeland (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 9 0 ) ,

21.

R e u b e n W a re , T h e Lands We Lost: A History o f Cut-

2 6 . S e e a ls o S te w a r t R aby, 'I n d ia n L a n d S u rre n d e rs

O ff Lands and Land Losses from Indian Reserves in British Columbia (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 ; J.E . M ichael

in S o u th e r n S a s k a tc h e w a n ', Canadian Geographer

Kew, 'H is to r y o f C o a s ta l B r itis h C o lu m b ia Since

1 7 , 1 (S p rin g 1 9 7 3 ) , 3 6 - 5 2 ; S a r a h C a rte r, 'T h e P u sh

1 8 4 9 ’, i n W a y n e S u ttle s , e d ., Handbook o f North American Indians, 7 : Northwest Coast (W ash in g to n ,

fo r

Land

S u r r e n d e r ’, i n

C a r te r ,

Lost Harvests

(M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 2 4 4 - 9 .

1 9 9 0 ), 16 0 .

1 3 . C a n a d a , I n d ia n A ffa irs, Report, 1 9 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 9 6 ; c ite d

2 2 . T h e t e x t o f th e C o m m is s io n 's r e p o r t is reproduced

b y M o rr is Z aslow , The Opening o f the Canadian

in W a re , Lands We Lost, 1 7 9 - 9 8 , a lo n g w ith the

North (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , 2 3 2 - 3 . F r o m 1 9 0 9 t o 1 9 1 4 ,

te x ts o f t h e C o m m is s io n 's 9 8 i n t e r im re p o rts pro­

L aird w as a d v ise r t o I n d ia n A ffa irs in O tta w a .

p o s in g la n d a lie n a tio n s f o r a v a r ie ty o f re a so n s, pp.

1 4 . M a r tin -M c G u ir e , 'F ir s t N a tio n L a n d S u rre n d e rs o n

1 1 4 - 7 7 . A s tu d y t h a t ta k e s a s y m p a t h e tic view of

t h e P ra irie s', 4 6 1 - 2 . S e e a ls o D .J. H a ll, 'C liffo r d

B r itis h C o lu m b ia 's p o s itio n o n t h e la n d qu estion

S ifto n a n d C a n a d ia n I n d ia n A d m in is tr a tio n 1 8 9 6 -

is R o b e rt E. C a il, Land, M an, and the Law: The Dis­ posal o f Crown Lands in British Columbia, 18711 9 1 3 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 4 ) , c h s 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 .

1 9 0 5 ', in G e tty a n d L u ssier, ed s, A s Long as the Sun

Shines an d Water Flows, 1 2 0 - 4 4 . 1 5 . H e a d in g t h e C o m m is s io n w e re G ilb e r t M a lc o lm

2 3 . T h e s to r y o f t h e p o litic a l a d a p ta tio n o f British

S p r o a t ( 1 8 7 6 - 9 , fo r t h e firs t tw o y e a rs i n o ff ic e , as

C o lu m b ia I n d ia n s t o n o n - N a tiv e p re ssu res a n d th e

c o -c o m m is s io n e r w ith A le x a n d e r C . A n d e r s o n a n d

d e v e lo p m e n t

A rc h ib a ld

(1 8 8 0 -9 8 ),

p r o v in c e is to l d b y P au l T e n n a n t, 'N a tiv e P olitical

a n d A .W . V o w e ll ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 1 0 ) . B y 1 8 9 2 , t h e C o m ­

O r g a n iz a tio n i n B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 6 0 : A

m is s io n w a s g r a n tin g re se rv e s t h a t ra n g e d in size

R e s p o n s e t o In te r n a l C o lo n ia lis m ', B.C. Studies 55

M c K in le y ),

P e te r

O 'R e illy

of

N a tiv e

o r g a n i z a t io n s

in

th e

fr o m s e v e n t o 2 3 0 a c re s (th r e e t o 9 3 h e c ta re s ) p e r

( 1 9 8 2 ) : 3 - 4 9 . T h e A llie d T rib e s la s te d u n til 1 9 27;

c a p ita , d e p e n d in g o n t h e r e g io n . C o m p la in ts fr o m

its b a tt le s w o u ld b e p ic k e d u p b y t h e N a tiv e Ind ian

n o n -N a tiv e s e ttle r s c o n c e r n in g th e s e a m o u n ts le d t h e p r o v in c e t o re fu s e t o s a n c t io n a n y m o r e , le a d ­ in g t o t h e d is s o lu tio n o f t h e C o m m is s io n in 1 9 1 0 . 1 6 . T h e d e le g a tio n

o f 1 9 0 6 w a s led b y

C h ie f J o e

C a p ila n o o f t h e N o r t h V a n c o u v e r S q u a m is h a n d o th e r c h ie fs . T h e y w e re lis te n e d t o p o lite ly b u t d id n o t g e t a n y a c tio n . S e e P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d N eil H.

M ic k e n b e r g ,

e d s,

Native Rights in Canada

(T o r o n to , 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 8 8 ; G .E . S h a n k e l, 'T h e D e v e lo p ­ m e n t o f I n d ia n P o lic y i n B r itis h C o lu m b ia ', P h .D . th e s is (U n iv e rs ity o f W a s h in g to n , 1 9 4 5 ) , 1 9 3 - 4 . 1 7 . C u m m in g

and

M ic k e n b e r g ,

ed s,

Native Rights,

1 8 8 -9 . 1 8 . U s u a lly c a lle d t h e M c K e n n a -M c B rid e C o m m is s io n , a fte r J.A .J. M c K e n n a , a s s is ta n t A m e r in d ia n c o m ­

B r o th e r h o o d in 1 9 3 1 . C . D a n ie l, A History o f Native Claims Processes in Canada, 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 7 9 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ), 5 0 - 2 . S e e a ls o W ils o n D u ff, The Indian History of British Columbia, v o l. 1, The Impact o f the White Man (V ic to ria , 1 9 6 4 ) , 6 9 - 7 0 ; C a il, Land, Man, and the Law, 2 4 3 .

2 4 . R ic h a rd

2 5 . J a m e s S. F rid eres, Native Peoples in Canada: Contem­

porary Conflicts (S c a r b o r o u g h , O n t., 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 3 3 - 6 6 ; L e slie a n d M a g u ir e , ed s, Historical Development of the Indian Act, 1 2 0 . A n th r o p o lo g is t P e te r K u lch ysk i th in k s t h a t t h e m e a s u re m a y h a v e c o n tr ib u te d to t h e b re a k u p o f t h e A llie d T rib e s o f B C i n 1 9 2 7 . K u lch y s k i, 'H e a d w a te rs : A n e w h is to r y ', The Press

Independent 2 1 , 2 7 ( 1 2 J u l y 1 9 9 1 ) : 5 .

m is s io n e r fo r t h e N o rth w e s t, 1 9 0 1 - 9 , a n d R ich a rd

2 6 . T h e la n d issu e b e c a m e a fa c to r in t h e sa g a o f B rit­

M c B rid e , P re m ie r o f B C , 1 9 0 3 - 1 5 . M c B rid e d id n o t

i s h C o lu m b ia 's m o s t fa m o u s o u tla w , P e te r S im o n

a c tu a lly se rv e o n t h e C o m m is s io n .

G u n a n o o t (c. 1 8 7 4 - 1 9 3 3 ) , w h o e lu d e d p o lic e for

1 9 . T h o m a s B erg er, Fragile Freedoms: H um an Rights and

1 3 y e a rs, f r o m

1 9 0 6 t o 1 9 1 9 . G u n a n o o t ('L ittle

Dissent in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 3 1 . D u rin g

B e a r t h a t W a lk s u p a T re e '), a p ro s p e ro u s G itk sa n

th is tim e a ls o , c o m m e r c ia l f is h in g lic e n c e s w e re

tr a p p e r a n d s to r e k e e p e r o f H a z e lto n (G ite n m a k s ),

n o t b e in g issu e d t o w e s t c o a s t I n d ia n s ; in 1 9 2 3

B C , u p o n b e in g w a n te d f o r m u rd e r, to o k to th e

t h e y w e re a llo w e d t o a p p ly fo r t h e m . S e e E.E.

w o o d s w it h h is fa m ily . T h e ir s u c c e s s i n ev a d in g

L a v io le tte , The Struggle for Survival (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ) ,

c a p tu r e w a s a t le a s t p a r tly d u e t o t h e c o m p lic ity o f

138.

t h e A m e r in d ia n s o f t h e r e g io n , w h o w e re a g ita tin g

2 0 . T h e s e w e re d e s c r ib e d b y L lo y d B a r b e r as 'p r im e

fo r a n e x t e n s i o n o f th e i r re s e rv e a n d f o r p a y m e n t

d e v e lo p m e n t la n d '. B a rb er, 'T h e Im p lic a tio n s o f

fo r la n d s o c c u p ie d b y n o n - A b o r ig in a ls . G u n a n o o t

Notes 487 e v e n tu a lly v o lu n t a r ily s u rre n d e re d , w a s tr ie d , a n d

3 9 . M o rris Z aslow , The Northward Expansion o f Canada

1 9 1 4 - 1 9 6 7 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 2 .

a c q u itte d . S e e D a v id R. W illia m s , Simon Peter Gun-

anoot: Trapper Outlaw (V ic to ria , 1 9 8 2 ) ; T h o m a s P. K elley, Run Indian Run (M a r k h a m , O n t., 1 9 7 2 ).

4 0 . E. B ria n T itley , A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell

2 7 . T h e re la tiv e ly s m a ll size o f C a n a d ia n re se rv e s c o m ­

Scott and the Administration o f Indian Affairs in Canada (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 6 ) , SO.

p a re d w it h th o s e o f th e U n ite d S ta te s is a n a ly s e d

4 1 . A lla n G . H arp er, 'C a n a d a 's I n d ia n A d m in is tr a tio n :

by

R o b e r t W h ite -H a r v e y

in

‘R e s e r v a tio n

G eo­

B a s ic C o n c e p ts a n d O b je c tiv e s ', America Indigena

g r a p h y a n d t h e R e s to r a tio n o f N a tiv e S e lf-G o v ­ e r n m e n t', Dalhousie Law Journal 1 7 , 2 (F a ll 1 9 9 4 ): 527.

5 , 2 (1 9 4 5 ): 1 27. 4 2 . J o h n F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , ed s, The Historical

Development o f the Indian Act (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 9 1 .

2 8 . F o r e x a m p le , t h e W a lp o le Is la n d d is p u te . In th a t c a s e , a fr a m e w o rk a g r e e m e n t w as fin a lly re a c h e d

43.

c o m p r e h e n s io n a n d fr u s tr a tio n o f E u ro -C a n a d ia n s

in 1 9 8 9 . D a v id T. M c N a b , 'E x c h a n g in g T im e a n d

w h o v e ry m u c h w a n t t o h e lp A m e r in d ia n s , b u t

t h e O jib w a : A n E x p lo r a tio n o f th e N o tio n s o f T im e

w h o t h i n k th e y c a n d o i t b y te llin g th e m w h a t t o

a n d T e r r ito r ia lity ', p a p e r p r e s e n te d t o th e A m e r i­

d o , is b y A la n Fry, How A People D ie (T o ro n to ,

c a n E t h n o h is to r y S o c ie ty , T o r o n to , 1 9 9 0 .

1 9 7 0 ) . T h e v ie w t h a t th e a d m in is tr a tio n w a s re a lly

2 9 . 'S o u th E d m o n to n c la im e d b y P a h p a h s ta y o First

co n cern ed

N a tio n ', Windspeaker 1 4 , 4 ( 1 9 9 6 ) : 8 ; 'P a p a s c h a s e w a n ts

to

re -e s ta b lis h

la n d

b a s e ',

ib id .

A d o c u m e n ta r y n o v e l v iv id ly p o r tr a y in g t h e in ­

12,

w ith

14

b e ll

Edmonton Journal, 2 Apr. 1 9 8 3 . S e e a ls o K e n n e t h

1 9 1 3 - 1 9 3 1 ',

J a m e s T y ler, 'A T a x -e a tin g P r o p o s itio n : t h e H is to r y (U n iv e rs ity o f A lb e rta , 1 9 7 9 ). 3 0 . K e n n e t h S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R . M o r r is o n , Land

not

S c o tt :

The

P la in s

C ree

o f S a s k a tc h e w a n ,

Journal o f Canadian Studies 1 8 , 3

(1 9 8 3 ): 2 1 -3 9 . 4 4 . T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 9 6 . 4 5 . C a n a d a , A nnual Report o f Indian Affairs Branch,

1937.

o f the Midnight Sun: A History o f the Yukon (E d m o n ­ 46.

to n , 1 9 8 8 ), 2 8 9 .

g o a ls a n d

D . G r a n t in 'I n d ia n A ffa irs u n d e r D u n c a n C a m p ­

( 1 9 9 4 ) : 5 ; 'I n d ia n s lu re d i n t o g iv in g u p r ic h la n d s ',

o f t h e P a s s p a s s c h a s e In d ia n R e s e rv e ', MA th e s is

n o n - A b o r ig in a l

w ith th o s e o f A m e r in d ia n s is e x p re s s e d b y S h e la g h

F o r a n e x a m p le o f th is p o lic y , se e K e n n e t h S. C o a te s , 'B e s t L e ft a s In d ia n s : T h e F e d e ra l G o v e r n ­

3 1 . H u g h A. D e m p s e y , The Gentle Persuader (S a sk a ­

m e n t a n d t h e In d ia n s o f t h e Y u k o n , 1 8 9 4 - 1 9 5 0 ',

to o n , 1 9 8 6 ), 5 0 -2 .

Canadian Journal o f Native Studies 4 , 2 ( 1 9 8 4 ) :

3 2 . J a m e s D e m p s e y , 'P r o b le m s o f W e s te rn C a n a d ia n I n d ia n W a r V e te ra n s A fte r W o rld W a r O n e ', Native

Studies Review 5 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 1. 3 3 . J a m e s S t G . W alk er, 'R a c e a n d R e c r u itm e n t in W o rld W a r I: E n lis tm e n t o f V is ib le M in o r itie s in t h e C a n a d ia n E x p e d itio n a r y F o r c e ', Canadian His­

torical Review 7 0 , 1 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 5 .

1 7 9 -2 0 4 . 47.

P e te r K u lch y s k i, " 'A C o n s id e r a b le U n r e s t" : F.O. L o ft a n d t h e L e a g u e o f I n d ia n s ', Native Studies Review 4, 1 - 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 9 5 - 1 1 3 ; S ta n C u th a n d , 'T h e N a tiv e P e o p le s o f t h e P ra irie P r o v in c e s in

th e

1 9 2 0 's a n d 1 9 3 0 's ', in Ia n A .L. G e tty a n d D o n a ld B.

3 5 . D e m p se y , The Gentle Persuader, 4 9 . S im ila rly , t h e

S m ith , ed s, One Century Later: Western Canadian Reserve Indians Since Treaty 7 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 8 ) , 3 1 - 5 ; T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 1 0 2 - 9 ; Z aslow , North­ ward Expansion, 1 6 5 - 6 .

I n u it, e v e n th o s e in r e m o t e c o m m u n itie s , raise d

4 8 . J o h n F. L e slie , A Historical Survey o f Indian-Govern-

3 4 . Native Soldiers, Foreign Battlefields (O tta w a : M in is ­ te r o f S u p p ly a n d S e rv ic e s , 1 9 9 3 ) , 9 - 1 1 .

m o n e y fo r fa m in e r e lie f fo r E th io p ia in 1 9 8 4 . See 'N o r t h e r n G e n e r o s ity S n o w b a lls ', Globe and Mail, 2 9 N o v . 1 9 8 4 . S e e a ls o F red G a ffe n , Forgotten Sol­

diers (P e n tic to n , B C , 1 9 8 5 ) ; T erry L u sty , Metis, Social-Political M ovement (C a lg a ry , 1 9 7 3 ) . 3 6 . C ite d b y D e m p s e y , 'P r o b le m s o f W e s te r n C a n a d ia n I n d ia n W a r V e te ra n s ', 5 , 6. 3 7 . P e te r S. S c h m a lz , The Ojibwa o f Southern Ontario (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 3 3 - 4 ; G a ffe n , Forgotten Soldiers, 7 0 -2 . 3 8 . M ic h a e l A sch , Kinship and the D rum D ance in a

Northern D ene C om m unity ( E d m o n t o n , 8 9 -9 7 .

1 9 8 8 ),

m ent Relations, 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 7 0 (O tta w a , 1 9 9 3 ) , 3 - 4 . 4 9 . A d e ta ile d h is to r y o f t h e N a tio n a l In d ia n B r o th e r ­ h o o d a n d a n a ly s is o f its o p e r a tio n s is in P o n tin g a n d G ib b in s , Out o f Irrelevance, 1 9 5 - 2 7 9 . A d a te d b u t s till u se fu l c o m p ila t io n o f I n d ia n o rg a n iz a ­ t i o n s is t h a t o f D o n W h ite s id e , Historical Devel­

opm ent o f A boriginal Political Associations in Canada: Documentation (O tta w a , 1 9 7 3 ) ; se e a lso W h ite s id e , Aboriginal People: A Selected Bibliography Concerning Canada's First People (O tta w a , 1 9 7 3 ). 5 0 . Y ears la te r t h e lo t o f A m e r in d ia n w a r v e te r a n s w as still g iv in g rise t o c o m p la in ts a n d in v e s tig a tio n s . See, fo r e x a m p le , 'I n d ia n w a r v e te r a n s m is tre a te d :

Notes re p o rt', Globe and Mail, 7 J u n e 1 9 8 4 . T h e jo i n t c o m ­

61.

122

w itn e s s e s

and

stu d ie d

411

w r itte n

b rie fs .

Z aslow , Northward Expansion, 2 9 8 . P a rtic u la rly irri­

1 9 9 7 ): 4. 6 2 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

ta t in g w as t h e p r a c tic e o f a w a rd in g t h e tr a p lin e s o f re g iste re d In d ia n s t o n o n -A b o r ig in a l v e te r a n s .

B ill T re m b la y , 'S ta tu s o r n o n - s ta tu s — th a t is the c u ltu r a l q u e s tio n ', Wawatay News 2 4 , 2 2 (6 Nov.

m itte e , d u rin g its th r e e y e a rs o f e x is te n c e , h e a rd

IV, 4 6 - 7 .

6 3 . Indian Conditions, 8 5 .

5 1 . T h e r e w ere e x c e p tio n s . F o r o n e , in 1 9 2 0 , I n d ia n s p o k e s p e r s o n s h a d b e e n in v ite d t o a tte n d H o u se o f

64. Indian Treaty Rights, F e d e ra tio n o f Saskatchew an In d ia n s, u n d a te d p a m p h le t S e e a lso S u z a n n e Fou­

C o m m o n s h e a r in g s o n a m e n d m e n ts to t h e I n d ia n

rn ie r a n d E rn ie C rey, Stolen From Our Embrace: The Abduction o f First Nations Children and the Restoration o f Aboriginal Communities (V a n co u v e r, 1 9 9 7 ), 54.

A c t th a t p ro p o s e d c o m p u ls o r y e n f r a n c h is e m e n t. I n s p ite o f t h e ir o p p o s itio n , h o w e v e r, t h e b ill w as p asse d .

65.

5 2 . Indian Conditions: A Survey (O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ) , 8 4 .

Ib id ., 5 6 .

6 6 . B ra ss, I Walk in Two Worlds, 4 5 .

5 3 . Se e, fo r e x a m p le , A lic e B. K e h o e , 'T h e G iv e a w a y C e r e m o n y o f B la c k f o o t a n d P la in s C r e e ', Plains

67.

F o u rn ie r a n d C rey , Stolen From Our Embrace, 5 0 ,6 1 . A c c o r d in g t o Windspeaker (M a y 1 9 9 8 ) in a special

Anthropologist 2 5 , 8 7 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 1 7 - 2 6 .

s e c tio n e n tit le d ‘C la s s r o o m E d itio n ', 4 , th e num ­

5 4 . E. P a lm e r P a tte rs o n II, The Canadian Indian: A

b e r o f re s id e n tia l s c h o o ls p e a k e d a t 8 8 . G eoffrey

History Since 1 5 0 0 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 7 1 - 2 .

Y o rk w rite s a b o u t s o m e o f th e s e s c h o o ls in The

5 5 . J a n e t S ilm a n , Enough is Enough: Aboriginal Women

Dispossessed: Life and Death in Native Canada (Lon­

Speak Out (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 4 ; firs t p u b lis h e d 1 9 8 7 ) ,

d o n , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e m o s t r e c e n t s tu d ie s a re J.R . M il­

1 4 9 -7 2 .

le r's Shingwauk's Vision : A History o f Native Residen­

5 6 . T h e b e s t k n o w n o f th e ca s e s c o n t e s t in g A m e r­

tial Schools (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 6 ) , a n d J o h n Sherid an

in d ia n w o m e n 's lo s s o f sta tu s w h e n t h e y m a rrie d

M illo y , A National Crim e: The Canadian Government

n o n -A m e r in d ia n s w as t h a t o f Attorney General o f

and the Residential School System (W in n ip e g , 19 9 9 ).

Canada v. Lavell ( 1 9 7 4 ) . J e a n n e t t e L a v e ll, a n O jib -

6 8 . A nnual Report, Department o f Indian Affairs, 1900,

w a, fo u g h t th e is s u e a ll t h e w a y t o th e S u p re m e

2 6 - 4 5 ; Census o f Canada, 1 9 4 1 , I, 6 8 4 - 9 1 ; c ited by

C o u r t o f C a n a d a , w h e r e t h e d e c is io n fin a lly w e n t

J e a n B a r m a n , Y v o n n e H é b e rt, a n d D o n M cC askill,

a g a in s t h e r, as w e ll as a g a in s t Y v o n n e B e d a rd in a

'T h e L e g a c y o f th e P a st: A n O v e rv ie w ', in Barm an

c o m p a n i o n c a s e t h a t w as h e a r d a t t h e s a m e tim e .

e t a l., ed s, Indian Education in Canada, 2 v o ls (Van­ c o u v e r, 1 9 8 6 ) , I, 7.

S e e K a th le e n J a m ie s o n , Indian Women and the Law

in Canada: Citizens Minus (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 7 9 - 8 8 ; S ilm a n , Enough is Enough, 1 3 - 1 4 ; P a u lin e C o m e a u a n d A ld o S a n tin , The First Canadians (T o ro n to , 1 9 9 0 ), 3 2 - 3 . S e e a ls o Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , IV, 3 2 . 57.

69.

is tr a tio n ’, 1 2 6 . 7 0 . T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 7 8 - 8 0 . 71.

B rass, I Walk in Two Worlds, 4 5 . A m u c h m o re crit­ ic a l lo o k a t t h e e f fe c ts o f re s id e n tia l s c h o o lin g is

F o r t h e c r itic is m t h a t B ill C -3 1 h a s s u b s titu te d o n e

t h a t o f L in d a R. B u ll, 'I n d ia n R e s id e n tia l S c h o o l­

fo r m o f in e q u a lity fo r a n o th e r , se e t h e r e p o rt p re ­

in g : T h e N a tiv e P e r s p e c tiv e ', M .E d . th e s is (U n iver­

p a re d fo r t h e A s s e m b ly o f F irs t N a tio n s b y S te w a rt C la tw o r th y a n d A n th o n y H . S m ith , 'P o p u la tio n Im p lic a tio n s

o f th e

1985

A m en d m en t to

th e

s ity o f A lb e rta , 1 9 9 1 ) . 72.

In d ia n A ct', 1 9 9 2 .

a d a a t 5 0 , 0 0 0 . S e e t h e le t te r o f Rev. K e v in D. A n n e tt, G a n g e s , B C , in t h e Guardian Weekly, 6 - 1 2

IV, 3 5 . 5 9 . T h o m a s Is a a c , Aboriginal Law Cases, Materials, and

Commentary (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 9 5 ) , 4 2 9 - 3 0 ; 'S u p re m e C o u r t d is m is s e s d e la y i n o ff-re s e rv e v o t in g ', Otta­ wa Citizen, 4 N o v . 2 0 0 0 ; ‘F irs t " o f f R e s e r v e " V o te s

O n e e s tim a te p la c e s t h e to t a l n u m b e r o f death s a m o n g s tu d e n ts in a ll re s id e n tia l s c h o o ls in C an ­

5 8 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

Ju ly 2 0 0 0 , 13. 7 3 . T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 8 2 - 7 . 74.

The fifth estate,

c b c -t v ,

8 Ja n . 1 9 9 1 .

7 5 . C ite d b y B a r m a n , H é b e rt, a n d M c C a s k ill, ‘Legacy o f t h e P a s t', 9 .

in M a n it o b a B a n d E le c t io n ', CBC N ew s W o rld O n ­ lin e , 2 4 N o v . 2 0 0 0 . T h e A ss e m b ly o f F irs t N a tio n s

7 6 . T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 9 1 , 9 3 .

v o ic e d its o b je c t io n s in a fly e r e n tit le d 'T h e C o r ­

7 7 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, I, 3 8 8 - 9 n l 5 .

b iè re D e c is io n '. 60.

H a ll, 'C liffo r d S if t o n a n d C a n a d ia n In d ia n A dm in­

'F e w r e in s ta te d s ta tu s I n d ia n s re tu r n t o re se rv e s in p r o v in c e ’, Edmonton Journal, 1 5 Apr. 1 9 9 1 .

78.

B a r m a n , H é b e rt, a n d M c C a s k ill, 'L e g a c y o f th e P a st', 7.

Notes 489 79. A. Ir v in g H a llo w e ll, Culture and Experience (P h ila ­

9 0 . T h e s to r y o f t h e A m e r in d ia n ta k e o v e r o f th e

1 9 5 5 ), 3 0 8 . T h e F ren ch in th e sev en ­

s c h o o l is to ld b y D ia n e P e rsso n , 'T h e C h a n g in g

te e n th c e n tu r y h a d m a d e d e te r m in e d e ffo r ts a t

E x p e rie n c e o f In d ia n R e s id e n tia l S c h o o lin g : B lu e

tr a n s fo r m in g A m e r in d ia n s in t o F r e n c h m e n a n d

Q u ills , 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 7 0 ', in B a r m a n e t a l., ed s, Indian

d e lp h ia ,

Education in Canada, I, 1 5 0 - 6 7 .

h a d e x p e r ie n c e d e q u a lly d is c o u r a g in g re s u lts . See O liv e P a tr ic ia D ic k a s o n , The Myth o f the Savage and

9 1 . H o w a rd A d a m s, Prison o f Grass: Canada from the

the Beginnings o f French Colonialism in the Americas ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 1 7 - 2 1 , 2 5 1 - 7 0 .

Native Point o f View (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 5 ) , 2 1 3 - 1 4 . 9 2 . 'A le s s o n in m is e ry : C a n a d ia n In d ia n s lo o k b a c k

81. N o rm a S lu m a n a n d J e a n G o o d w ill, John Tootoosis

in a n g e r a t re s id e n tia l s c h o o l d a y s ', Globe and Mail, 2 D e c . 1 9 8 9 . T h is is a n e x c e r p t fr o m Y ork's The Dispossessed.

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 2 ), 1 0 9 ; c ite d b y B a r m a n , H é b e rt, an d

9 3 . Recent Development in Native Education (T o ro n to ,

80. H a ll,

'C l i f f o r d

S ifto n

and

C a n a d ia n

In d ia n

A d m in is tr a tio n ’, 1 2 6 .

M c C a s k ill, 'L e g a c y o f t h e P a s t', 1 1 . O n r e s id e n tia l

1 9 8 4 ),

s c h o o ls i n B r itis h C o lu m b ia , se e C e lia H a ig -B ro w n ,

M c C a s k ill, 'T h e L e g a c y o f th e P a st', 1 6 .

Resistance an d Renewal: Surviving Residential School (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 8 ).

the

Indian

Edm onton Journal,

c ite d

by

B arm an ,

H é b e r t,

and

9 4 . C a n a d a , D e p a r tm e n t o f I n d ia n A ffairs a n d N o r­ D e v e lo p m e n t , Basic Departmental Data 1 9 9 9 , 3 6 . A n e a r ly e x a m p le o f in d ig e n o u s c u r­

th e r n

82. (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 8 ) . A lso , ‘I n d ia n S c h o o l " w a s n 't all b a d " — e x - s t u d e n t ',

14;

11

ric u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t w a s t h e C r e e W a y P r o je c t

Ju n e

o f R u p e rt H o u se d u r in g t h e 1 9 7 0 s . S ee R ich a rd

1991. 8 3 . C o a te s a n d M o r r is o n , Land o f the M idnight Sun,

P re s to n , 'T h e C re e W a y P r o je c t: a n e x p e r im e n t in

1 4 1 - 2 ; S h e la g h D . G r a n t, Sovereignty or Security?

g r a s s -ro o ts c u r r ic u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t', in W illia m C ow an,

Government Policy in the Canadian North, 1 9 3 6 1 9 5 0 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 3 - 4 n 3 7 . 84. B a r m a n , H é b e rt, a n d M c C a s k ill, 'L e g a c y o f th e

9 5 . See,

S c h o o l" : T h e E d u c a tio n o f I n d ia n s i n N in e te e n t h C e n tu r y O n ta r io ', i n B a r m a n e t a l., ed s, Indian

'S w e e t

su ccess

fo r

1 O c t.

1990;

9 7 . R o b in A rm s tro n g , J e f f K e n n e d y , a n d

n a tiv e ‘B ia s

P e te r R.

O b e r le , University Education and Economic Well-

Being: Indian Achievement and Prospects (O tta w a , 1 9 9 0 ) , v ii.

P r o b le m a n d t h e O tta w a -Q u é b e c S tru g g le ', Anthro­

9 8 . G e r a ld R. A lfred , Heeding the Voices o f Our A n­

cestors: Kahnawake Mohawk Politics and the Rise o f Native Nationalism (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 5 ) , 2 .

87. C a t h e r in e F o rd , 'A p o lo g y d o e s n o t m e a n i n s ta n t fo r g iv e n e s s ', Calgary Herald, 9 S e p t. 2 0 0 0 , 0 7 .

9 9 . 'R a c is m fo r c in g n a tiv e s fr o m c iv il se rv ic e : re p o rt',

Ottawa Citizen, 1 2 F e b. 1 9 9 1 . E arlier, th e A sse m b ly

c a n s i n C a n a d a s la s h b u d g e ts ', New York Times, 2 3

o f M a n ito b a C h ie fs file d c o m p la in ts a g a in s t 2 8

Aug. 2 0 0 0 ; R ick M o fin a , 'C h u r c h e s h a v e n o e a sy

fe d e ra l d e p a rtm e n ts a n d a g e n c ie s , c h a r g in g d is­

e x it fr o m n a tiv e la w s u its ', National Post, 1 8 S e p t.

c r im in a t io n o n t h e jo b a g a in s t A m e r in d ia n s . 'N a ­

2 0 0 0 ; B e n M c In ty r e , 'C a n a d ia n c h u r c h fa c e s ru in

tiv e s file jo b b ia s c o m p la in ts a g a in s t fe d e ra l g o v ­

o v e r s e x c a s e s ', The Times, L o n d o n , 2 4 A ug. 2 0 0 0 ;

e r n m e n t', Edmonton Journal, 4 D ec. 1 9 9 0 .

'C a t h o l i c o rd e r say s la w su its c o u ld b a n k r u p t it',

National Post, 2 2 M a y 2 0 0 0 .

e x a m p le ,

Edmonton Journal,

9 6 . T e rry Lu sty , in Alberta Sweetgrass (Ja n . 2 0 0 1 ) : 1 2 .

8 6 . Ja c q u e s R o u sse a u , 'T h e N o r th e r n Q u é b e c E s k im o

88. J a m e s B r o o k e , ‘F a c in g ru in fr o m la w su its, A n g li­

Papers o f the Tenth A lgonquian

a b s e n t in a ll-n a tiv e s c h o o l ’, ib id ., 2 5 N o v . 1 9 8 9 .

Education in Canada, I, 8 2 .

pological Journal o f Canada 7 , 2 (1 9 6 8 ) : 2 - 2 1 .

fo r

s c h o o l',

P a s t', 1 3 . 85. J . D o n a ld W ils o n , " 'N o B la n k e t t o b e W o r n in

e d .,

Conference (O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ) , 9 2 - 1 0 1 .

100.

F o u rn ie r a n d C rey, Stolen From Our Embrace, 8 1 1 1 4 ; Ja so n

8 9 . J a m e s M ille r a n d E d m u n d D a n z ig e r, Jr , '" I n th e

C la y w o rth ,

'" S t o l e n "

n a tiv e

w a n ts

fa m ily , c u ltu r e b a c k ', Ottawa Citizen, 1 0 O c t. 2 0 0 0

C a re o f S tr a n g e r s " : W a lp o le Is la n d First N a tio n 's

(r e p rin t fr o m Des Moines Register); B ra d E v e n s o n ,

E x p e r ie n c e s w ith R e s id e n tia l S c h o o ls a fte r th e F irst

'N a tiv e

W o rld W a r', Ontario History 9 2 , 1 (S p rin g 2 0 0 0 ) :

a d o p tio n

Edmonton Journal,

7 1 - 8 8 . S e e a ls o J a n e t S te ffe n h a g e n , 'M in is te r tr a c e s

p o lic y — a C a n a d ia n tra g e d y ', 19

Apr.

1999;

'In d ia n

boy

r e tu r n e d t o a d o p tiv e k in in U .S .', The Gazette,

a c tiv is m t o r e s id e n tia l s c h o o l ', Vancouver Sun, 3

M o n tr e a l, 2 1 M a r. 1 9 9 9 .

N ov. 2 0 0 0 , A 1 2 . A n o th e r s u c h g r a d u a te , a lth o u g h fr o m a d iffe r e n t s c h o o l, is M a tt h e w C o o n C o m e , N a tio n a l C h ie f o f t h e A s s e m b ly o f F irs t N a tio n s . F o r a p r o file o n C o o n C o m e , see G r a h a m Fraser, 'C h i e f h u n te r ', Toronto Star, 1 6 D e c . 2 0 0 0 , J l , J 4 .

Chapter 23 1.

D o n a ld B. S m ith , 'A b o rig in a l R ig h ts a C e n tu ry A g o ', The Beaver 6 7 , 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 7 . A lso A n th o n y J .

490 Notes H all,

'T h e S t. C a th e r in e 's M illin g a n d L u m b e r

1 5 . G e o rg e F.G. Stan ley , 'T h e First In d ia n "Reserves" in

C o m p a n y v s. T h e Q u e e n : A S tu d y in t h e R e la tio n ­

C a n a d a ', Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française 4

s h ip o f I n d ia n L a n d R ig h ts to F e d e r a l-P r o v in c ia l

(1 9 5 0 ) : 2 0 6 - 7 . T h e 1 7 1 8 d eed , in E n g lish translation,

R e la tio n s i n N i n e te e n t h - C e n tu r y C a n a d a ', u n p u b ­

as w e ll as o th e r d o c u m e n ts p e r ta in in g to th e case are

lis h e d m a n u s c r ip t, 1 0 . S e e a ls o B ra d fo rd W . M o rse , e d ., Aboriginal Peoples and the Law: Indian, Metis,

and Inuit Rights in Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) , 5 7 - 9 ; M o rris Z aslo w , The Opening o f the Canadian North (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ), 1 5 0 - 1 . 2 . F or B o y d 's

b ack g ro u n d ,

re p ro d u ced in B eta (pseud .), Contribution, 7 7 -9 2 . 1 6 . I n t h e w o rd s o f P h ilip p e d e V a u d re u il, governorg e n e r a l o f N e w F r a n c e , 1 7 0 3 - 2 5 , t h e Am erindians 'n e s o n t p o i n t c a p a b le d e c o n s e r v e r les ch o se s qui le u r s o n t les p lu s n é c e s s a ir e s .' S ta n le y , 'F irst Indian

se e

S m ith ,

'A b o rig in a l

R ig h ts ', 7 - 1 0 . O n e o f B o y d 's p ro fe s s o r s a t t h e U n i­ v e rs ity o f T o r o n to h a d b e e n S ir D a n ie l W ils o n ( 1 8 1 6 - 8 5 ) , a w e ll-k n o w n e t h n o lo g is t w h o w as th e a u t h o r o f Prehistoric M an: Researches into the Origin

o f Civilisation in the Old and the New World (C a m ­ 1 8 6 2 ) . S e e Dictionary o f Canadian Biography, x n , s.v. 'W ils o n , S ir D a n ie l'.

b rid g e a n d E d in b u rg h ,

3 . T h e le g a l a r g u m e n t fo llo w s H a ll, 'S t. C a th e r in e 's M illin g ’, 1 0 - 1 5 . 4 . Reports o f the Supreme Court o f Canada, v o l. 1 3 , 1887, 5 9 6 -7 . 5 . S m ith , 'A b o rig in a l R ig h ts ’, 1 2 . 6 . Ontario Reports, 1 8 8 5 , 2 3 1 . 7 . S m ith , 'A b o rig in a l R ig h ts ', 1 5 . 8 . B r u c e A. C la rk , Indian Title in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ), 1 1 3 . T h e C a n a d ia n ju d g e s a re B o y d , H e n riE lzéar T a s ch e re a u , a n d D o n a ld S te e le . 9 . A le x a n d e r M o rris , The Treaties o f Canada with the

Indians (T o ro n to , 1 8 8 0 ) , 5 9 . O n T re a ty T h r e e , 'T h e N o r th -W e s t A n g le T re a ty ', se e 4 4 - 7 6 . 1 0 . P e te r J o n e s , History o f the Ojebway Indians (L o n d o n , 1 8 6 1 ), 7 1 . 1 1 . G e o r g e C o p w a y , Life, History and Travels ofKah-ge-

ga-gah-bowh (P h ila d e lp h ia , 1 8 4 7 ) , 2 0 .

" R e s e r v e s '" , 2 0 6 . 1 7 . J e a n L a c a n , An Historical Notice on the Difficulties

Arisen Between the Seminary o f St. Sulpice o f Montreal and Certain Indians, at Oka, Lake o f Two Mountains: A Mere Case o f Right o f Property (M o n tr e a l, 1876), 1 4 - 1 7 . O n F r a n ç o is V a c h o n d e B e lm o n t, see Dic­ tionary o f Canadian Biography n , s.v. 'V a c h o n '. 1 8 . NAC, C UA,

1 0 6 :4 2 2 -4 ,

A rrêt d u

C o n s e il sur le

c h a n g e m e n t p ro p o s é p o u r la M is s io n d u Sault-auxR é c o lle ts , 3 1 m a rs 1 7 1 6 . O k a A m e r in d ia n s fought w it h

C a n a d ia n s a t th e

B a ttle

o f C hateauguay,

1 8 1 2 . (‘O k a a n d Its I n h a b ita n ts ', 1 8 8 - 9 0 . ) 1 9 . J a n G ra b o w s k i, 'M o h a w k C risis a t K a n esa ta k e and K a h n a w a k e ', European Review o f Native American Studies 5 , 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 1 2 . 2 0 . O n K a h n a w a k e , s e e C h a p te r 1 6 ; o n L o re tte , Chap­ te r 8 . 2 1 . 'O k a

and

(p s e u d .),

Its

I n h a b i t a n t s ',

Contribution,

1 9 0 -1 ,

1 4 -1 5 .

In

193;

1870,

Beta

Parent

re p o r te d 1 1 0 A m e r in d ia n M e th o d is ts a t O ka. 2 2 . C ite d b y Rev. W illia m S c o tt, Report Relating to the

Affairs o f the Oka Indians, m ade to the Superintendent General o f Indian Affairs (O tta w a , [ 1 8 8 3 ] ) , 5 3 . 2 3 . Ib id ., 2 9 ; 'O k a a n d Its I n h a b i ta n ts ', 1 9 1 , 2 0 2 , 235. 2 4 . In

1874,

C h ie f J o s e p h

becam e

an

a ssista n t to

1 2 . R ic h a rd H . B a r tle tt, Indian Reserves and Aboriginal

A m a n d P a r e n t. H e tr a n s la te d t h e fo u r g o sp els into

Lands in Canada: A H om eland (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 9 0 ) , c h . 6 . S e e a ls o Metisism, A Canadian Identity (E d ­

Iro q u o is . F o r m o r e o n t h e c h ie f , se e Dictionary of Canadian Biography, XI; J o h n M a c L e a n , Vanguards o f Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 1 8 ) , 1 6 7 - 7 9 .

m o n to n , 1 9 8 2 ), 5 8 -6 0 . 1 3 . T h is a c c o u n t fo llo w s R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, A History

2 5 . A lb e rt R. H a ssa rd , 'W h e n t h e O k a S e m in a r y W ent

o f Native Claims Processes in Canada 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 7 9

U p in F la m e s ’, Famous Canadian Trials (T oronto,

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 0 ), 7 7 - 8 3 . D o n a ld S m ith c o m p ile d th e m o s t c o m p le te b ib lio g r a p h y o n p r e - 1 9 9 0 O k a i n Le Sauvage. The Native People in Quebec: Historical

Writing on the Heroic Period (1 5 3 4 - 1 6 6 3 ) o f New France (O tta w a , 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 9 - 3 1 . F o r a p o s t - 1 9 9 0 b ib lio g ra p h y , see G e o ffr e y Y o rk a n d L o r e e n P in d e ra , People o f the Pines (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 1 ) .

1 9 2 4 ), 1 0 6 -2 3 . 2 6 . 'O k a a n d Its I n h a b ita n ts ', 2 0 5 - 1 8 ; B e ta (pseud.),

Contribution, 1 5 . 2 7 . S c o tt, Report Relating to the Affairs o f the Oka Indi­

ans, 5 3 - 4 . 2 8 . Ib id ., 5 9 .

1 4 . 'O k a a n d Its I n h a b ita n ts ', in The Life o f Rev. Am and

2 9 . M ic h e l F. G ira rd , ‘L a c ris e d 'O k a à la lu m iè re de l'e-

Parent, the first French Canadian ordained by the Methodist Church (T o r o n to , 1 8 8 7 ) , 1 8 6 . S e e a lso B e ta (p s e u d .), A Contribution to a Proper Understand­ ing o f the Oka Question; and a Help to its Equitable and Speedy Settlement (M o n tr e a l, 1 8 7 9 ) , 8 .

c o lo g ie h is to r iq u e ', NHSG Newsletter (O c t. 1 9 90): 4 - 8 . T h e N a tiv e H is to r y S tu d y G r o u p is p a rt o f the C a n a d ia n H is to r ic a l A s s o c ia tio n . 3 0 . Privy Council, Angus Corinthe and Others . . . Plain­

tiffs, and Ecclesiastics o f the Seminary o f St. Sulpice of

Notes Montreal, Defendants, i n C a n a d ia n I n d ia n R ig h ts C o m m is s io n

L ib rary , b o x

85

(1 ). A lso , D a n ie l,

History o f Native Claims, 7 9 - 8 2 . 31. R e g is tr a tio n o ffic e , d is tr ic t o f T w o M o u n ta in s , A c te d e v e n t e e n tr e La C o m p a g n ie d e S a in t-S u lp ic e e t la C o m p a g n ie im m o b iliè r e B e lg o , 2 1 o c t. 1 9 3 6 ; c ite d b y M ic h e l F. G ira rd , Étude historique sur la forêt du

village d'Oka (Q u é b e c , 1 9 9 0 ).

4 0 . P e te r A. C u m m in g a n d N e il H . M ic k e n b e rg , eds,

Native Rights in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 2 ) , 9 8 . T h e ca s e w as Rex v. Syliboy, [1 9 2 9 ] 1 d . l . r . 3 0 7 , ( 1 9 2 8 ) , 5 0 C.C.C. 3 8 9 (N S C t y C t). 4 1 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights in

Canada, 99 . 4 2 . The Mi'kmaq Treaty Handbook (S y d n e y a n d T ruro, N S, 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 3 . A lso D o n a ld M a rs h a ll, Sr, A le x a n d e r

32. D e p a r tm e n t o f I n d ia n a n d N o r th e r n A ffa irs, M is ­

D e n n y , a n d P u tu s S im o n M a rs h a ll, 'T h e C o v e n a n t

c e lla n e o u s C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , O k a , 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 5 3 , v o l.

C h a in ', i n B o y c e R ic h a rd s o n , e d ., Drum B ea t Anger

1, file 0 / 1 2 1 - 1 - 5 , O r d e r -in -C o u n c il o f 2 Apr. 1 9 4 5 .

and Renewal in Indian Country (O tta w a ,

3 3 . T h e e v e n ts le a d in g u p t o t h e ra id , a n d t h e ra id it­

1 9 8 9 ),

7 1 -1 0 4 .

se lf, a re d e s c r ib e d b y L o r e e n P in d e ra , 'T h e M a k in g

4 3 . Simon v. The Queen, [1 9 8 5 ] 2 S.C.R. 3 8 7 a t 4 0 4 .

o f a W a r r io r ', Saturday Night 1 0 6 , 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; 3 0 - 9 .

4 4 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights in

34. 'T h e h ig h c o s t o f O k a ', Edmonton Journal, 6 M a y

Canada, 2 1 0 .

O ka

4 5 . S e e N a tio n a l In d ia n B r o th e r h o o d , Inquiry into the

e n q u ir y ', Globe and Mail, 2 9 N o v . 1 9 9 0 ; 'Q u e b e c

Invasion ofRestigouche, P re lim in a r y R e p o rt, 1 5 J u l y

1991;

'T o r ie s

re v e r s e

p o s itio n ,

a g ree

to

d e e p e r in r e d ', Calgary Herald, 2 9 N o v . 1 9 9 0 . 35. R e n e L a u re n t, 'T w o M o h a w k s g e t p r is o n te rm s fo r O k a v io le n c e ', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 0 F e b . 1 9 9 2 ,

1981. 4 6 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e rg , ed s, Native Rights in

Canada, 2 1 6 - 2 0 .

p ro c e s s

4 7 . C a ld e r g r a d u a te d fr o m t h e A n g lic a n T h e o lo g ic a l

e n d s in tr ia l o f M o h a w k s ', ib id ., 3 0 Apr. 1 9 9 2 ; R e n e

C o lle g e o f t h e U n iv e r s ity o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia a n d

L a u re n t, '5 M o h a w k s fr e e d fo r la c k o f e v id e n c e ',

in 1 9 4 9 w a s e le c te d t o t h e B C le g is la tu re , w h e r e h e

ib id ., 11 J u n e 1 9 9 2 , A 4; R e n e L a u re n t, 'Ju r y a c q u its

se rv e d fo r 2 6 y e a rs , fir s t fo r t h e N ew D e m o c r a tic

a ll d e fe n d a n ts i n O k a tr ia l’, ib id ., 4 J u l y 1 9 9 2 , A l ,

P arty , t h e n fo r S o c ia l C r e d it. H e w as M in is te r w ith ­

A l-2 ;

C a t h e r in e

B u c k ie ,

'Ju r y -s e le c tio n

A 5; 'Q u e b e c sa y s i t w o n 't a p p e a l ju r y 's a c q u itta l o f

o u t P o r tf o lio , 1 9 7 2 - 3 . I n 1 9 9 6 , h e re ce iv e d t h e

M o h a w k s ', ib id ., 2 5 J u ly 1 9 9 2 .

N a tio n a l A b o rig in a l A c h ie v e m e n t A w ard.

36. Windspeaker 1 8 , 3 (Ju ly 2 0 0 0 ) : 2 - 3 ; Calgary Herald,

4 8 . T h e o r ig in a l s t a te m e n t h a d b e e n m a d e b y D a v id

11 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , A 3; Ottawa Sun, 15 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , 8 ; Le

M cK a y , a G r e e n v ille c h ie f , t o th e J o i n t R eserv e s

Droit, 1 2 ju il. 2 0 0 0 , 2 8 .

A llo tm e n t C o m m is s io n t h a t h a d b e e n e s ta b lis h e d

37. 'O k a s till c o n f o u n d s u s', Edmonton Journal, 9 M a y 1 9 9 1 . Q u e b e c 's P a rti Q u é b é c o is , a t its 1 9 9 1 c o n ­ v e n t io n , re s o lv e d t h a t a s o v e re ig n Q u e b e c s ta te w o u ld r e c o g n iz e a u t o n o m o u s N a tiv e n a t i o n s w it h ­ in its b o rd e rs . A c c o r d in g t o t h e re s o lu tio n , d ra fte d w ith t h e h e lp o f A b o rig in a ls , N a tiv e la w s w o u ld ta k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r Q u e b e c la w s in s p e c ific are as w h e r e a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n r e a c h e d b y b o t h p a r­

in 1 8 7 6 . S e e D a v id R a u n e t, Without Surrender, With­

out Consent: A History o f the Nishga Land Claims (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 4 ) , 9 0 . 4 9 . T h e c a s e h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o t h e S u p re m e C o u rt w it h o u t p r o v in c ia l a u t h o r iz a tio n . 5 0 . D a v id W . E llio tt, 'A b o rig in a l T it le ', i n M o rs e , ed .,

Aboriginal Peoples and the Law, 7 4 . 5 1 . S e e C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e r g , ed s, Native Rights

tie s . 'D e le g a te s a g re e d o n a llo w in g n a tiv e a u t o n o ­

in Canada, 3 3 1 - 2 ; T h o m a s

m y ', Globe and Mail, 2 8 J a n . 1 9 9 1 . T h e p r o je c t h a s

H isto ry , N a tiv e C la im s a n d S e lf -D e te r m in a tio n ',

R.

B e rg e r,

'N a tiv e

B.C. Studies 5 7 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; 1 6 .

b e e n o n ly p a r tia lly re a liz e d . 38. B r itis h C o lu m b ia 's H a r tle y B a y b a n d (n e a r P rin c e

5 2 . 'T h e B e a r Is la n d D e c is io n ’, Ontario Reports (2 n d

R u p e rt), fr u s tra te d w ith t h e s lo w p ro g re s s o f s e ttle ­

ser.), 4 9 , p a rt 7, 1 7 M a y 1 9 8 5 : 3 5 3 - 4 9 0 . A re v ie w o f

m e n ts , h a s s ta rte d

d e a ls w ith

t h e issu e s a t sta k e , p a r tic u la r ly th o s e o f fo r e s tr y

in d u stry , e n v ir o n m e n ta l g ro u p s , a n d o th e r First

m a n a g e m e n t, is b y B r u c e W . H o d g in s a n d J a m ie

N a tio n s . ‘F ed u p , B .C . In d ia n b a n d g o e s i t a lo n e in

B e n id ic k s o n , The Temagami Experience (T o ro n to ,

s ig n in g its o w n

s ig n in g d e a ls ', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 2 J u l y 2 0 0 0 ,

1 9 8 9 ) . T h e In d ia n v ie w is p re s e n te d b y G a r y P o tts,

A 15.

'L a s t-D itc h D e fe n c e o f a P rice le ss H o m e la n d ', in

39. 'M o h a w k s s ig n h is to r ic la n d d e a l', Ottawa Citizen,

R ic h a rd s o n , e d ., Drum Beat, 2 0 3 - 2 8 .

2 2 J u n e 2 0 0 0 ; 'M o h a w k s t o g e t la n d n e a r O k a ',

5 3 . A n th o n y J . H a ll, 'T h e O n ta r io S u p re m e C o u r t o n

Globe and Mail, 2 1 J u n e 2 0 0 0 ; M ik e B la n c h fie ld , 'O k a M o h a w k s s ig n " m i l e s t o n e " la n d d e a l', Nation­

T ria l: J u s tic e D o n a ld S te e le a n d A b o rig in a l R ig h t',

al Post, 2 2 D e c . 2 0 0 0 , A 7.

u n p u b lis h e d m a n u s c r ip t, 2 . 5 4 . H.F. V o n H a a st, ed ., New Zealand Privy Council Cases

491

492 Notes 1 8 4 0 - 1 9 3 2 (W e llin g to n , 1 9 3 8 ) , 3 9 0 , The Queen (or the Prosecution o fC .H . McIntosh) v. Symonds.

ru le d t h a t A b o rig in a l r ig h t c a n b e s u b je c te d to reg­

5 5 . Se e, fo r in s ta n c e , H a ro ld C a r d in a l's v ie w s o n t h e

7 1 . F o r d e ta ils o f t h e Sioui c a s e , s e e C h a p te r 8; also

u la tio n .

s u b je c t i n The Rebirth o f Canada's Indians (E d m o n ­

'C o n f r o n t a t i o n

to n , 1 9 7 7 ), 1 5 9 -6 2 .

Edmonton Journal, 2 0 A ug. 1 9 9 0 .

g e ts

n a tiv e s

in to

la n d

talks',

5 6 . Ib id ., 1 6 4 - 5 .

7 2 . C la rk , Native Liberty, 3 1 .

5 7 . D a n ie l, History o f Native Claims, 2 3 7 - 8 .

7 3 . 'L a n d c la im d is m is s e d ', Edmonton Journal, 8 Mar.

5 8 . C o n r a d H e id e n r e ic h , Huronia: A History and Geo­

1 9 9 1 ; 'Ju d g e h e a rd 1 0 0 w itn e s s e s , re a d 1 0 ,0 0 0 doc­

graphy o f the Huron Indians 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 5 0 (T o ro n to ,

u m e n ts ', ib id .; ‘N a tiv e s h it a n o th e r dead end',

1 9 7 1 ), 1 6 8 - 7 1 .

ib id ., 1 7 M a r. 1 9 9 1 ; 'A s t u n n i n g b lo w to native

5 9 . F o r th e e x a m p le o f t h e O jib w a ’s m is u n d e r s ta n d in g i n th is reg ard , see D o n a ld B. S m ith , Sacred Feathers:

The Reverend Peter Jones and the Mississauga Indians (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 4 - 5 .

S u th e r la n d ,

" 'T h e

(A rd y th e W ils o n ) ,

Colonialism on Trial

(P h ila d e lp h ia a n d G a b r io la Is la n d , B C , 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 5 .

w h ite

m a n 's

la w " wins

a g a in ’, Globe and Mail, 2 A u g. 1 9 9 2 . S o m e saw the v e r d ic t as a p a r tia l v ic to r y fo r t h e h e r e d ita r y chiefs. See G reg Jo y c e ,

6 0 . 'G itk s a n -C a r r ie r D e c la r a tio n ’, in D o n M o n e t a n d S k a n u 'u

rig h ts ', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 1 3 M ar. 1 9 9 1 ; Ron­ a ld

'C o u r t b a c k s I n d ia n s ' rig h t to

m a jo r la n d c la im in B C ', The Gazette, M o n tre a l, 26 Ju n e 1993. 7 4 . T h e In d ia n p o s itio n is p r e s e n te d b y N eil J . Sterritt,

6 1 . C u m m in g a n d M ic k e n b e rg , ed s, Native Rights in

'U n f l i n c h i n g R e s is ta n c e t o a n Im p la c a b le Invader',

Canada, 1 7 - 1 9 ; B ru c e A. C la rk , Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 3 - 1 9 .

i n R ic h a r d s o n , e d ., Drum Beat, 2 6 5 - 9 4 . S territt was

6 2 . D o n a ld P u n c h , Our Land: Native Rights in Canada

C o u n c il, 1 9 8 1 - 7 . F o r a n I n d ia n v ie w o f th e pro­

(T o r o n to , 1 9 8 6 ), 5 7 .

p re s id e n t

of

th e

G i t k s a n - W e t 's u w e t 'e n

Tribal

c e e d in g s , se e M o n e t a n d S k a n u ’u , Colonialism on

Trial. O n t h e d e c is io n o f th e h e r e d ita r y c h ie fs not

6 3 . C la rk , Native Liberty, 3 1 . 6 4 . T h e q u e s tio n o f t h e C r o w n 's r e s p o n s ib ility t o a c t in t h e b e s t in te r e s ts o f t h e In d ia n s is d e a lt w ith e x te n s iv e ly b y L e o n a rd Ia n R o tm a n i n Parallel Paths: Fiduciary Doctrine and the Crown-Native Rela­ tionship in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 9 6 ) . S e e a ls o P u ric h , Our Land, 5 8 - 9 ; J.R . M ille r, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 6 3 . 6 5 . K irk M a k in a n d R o b e r t M a ta s , 'R e s e rv e la n d w o r th

t o a p p e a l t o t h e S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a n a d a , see Jef­ fr e y

S im p s o n ,

'A b o r ig in a l

r ig h ts

a re

d ifferen t

th in g s t o ju d g e s a n d p o litic ia n s ', Globe and Mail, 4 S e p t. 1 9 9 6 ; B a r b a ra M c L in to c k , 'B .C . tr e a ty talk b rin g s o n rig h ts ru lin g ', Edmonton Journal, 3 Feb. 1996, 135. 7 5 . 'S u p r e m e C o u rt: A c c e p t o r a l h is to r y a s ev id en ce',

Globe and Mail, 1 5 D e c . 1 9 9 7 , A 2 5 .

h a l f o f m a rk e t v a lu e : c o u r t', Globe and Mail, 1 0

7 6 . 'N is g a 'a c e r e m o n y seals h is to r ic d e a l', Globe and

N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A 5; 'N a tiv e re a l e s ta te w o r th less, S u ­

Mail, 5 A u g. 1 9 9 8 . T o m M o llo y , c h i e f n eg o tiato r,

p r e m e C o u r t ru le s ', Ottawa Citizen, 1 0 N o v . 2 0 0 0 ,

a n d D o n a ld W a rd te ll t h e s to r y o f t h e m a k in g of

A 1 0 ; 'L e a s e h o ld e r s o n n a tiv e la n d w in b a ttle o v e r

t h e tr e a ty i n The World is Our Witness: The Historic Journey o f the Nisga'a into Canada (C a lg a ry , 2 0 0 0 ).

r e n ts ', National Post, 1 0 N ov. 2 0 0 0 , A 3. 6 6 . B a rb a ra Y affe, 'M u s q u e a m fa c tio n s e n g a g e i n b a ttle o f p e t itio n s ', Vancouver Sun, 2 7 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , A 1 3 . 6 7 . S c o tt S im p s o n , 'L e a s e h o ld e r s o n In d ia n L a n d s a t P itt L a k e U p s e t o v e r O u s te r ', ib id ., 2 M ar. 2 0 0 0 , A l ; 'A b o r ig in a l L a n d lo r d s A c t a t C ro s s -P u rp o s e s ', ib id ., 3 M ar. 2 0 0 0 , A 1 4 ; B y ro n C h u r c h ill, 'K a tz ie In d ia n s " W i t h i n R ig h ts " t o V o te A g a in s t L e a se R e n e w a ls: A b o u t 5 6 N o n -N a tiv e s H a v e C a b in s o n R e n te d L a n d ', ib id ., 8 M ar. 2 0 0 0 , B l .

7 7 . C o n c e r n in g A b o rig in a l c h a lle n g e s fr o m w ith o u t t h e N is g a 'a N a tio n , se e N e il S te rr itt, 'T h e N isga'a T re a ty : C o m p e t in g C la im s Ig n o re d !', B.C. Studies 1 2 0 ( W in te r 1 9 9 8 - 9 ) : 7 3 - 9 7 ; R ic k M o fin a , 'B.C. B a n d c h a lle n g e s N is g a 'a d e a l', Ottawa Citizen, 8 N o v . 1 9 9 9 ; 'N isg a 'a T re a ty L ea v es Issu e s U n resolv ed fo r G ita n y o w ', Vancouver Sun, 2 2 M a y 2 0 0 0 , A9. C o n c e r n in g c h a lle n g e s fr o m

w it h in t h e N isga’a

N a tio n , se e N e il S e e m a n , 'N is g a 'a la n d c la im ch a l­ le n g e d b y b a n d d is s id e n ts ', National Post, 2 3 Mar.

6 8 . O n t h e c o n s t itu t io n 's a d o p tio n , se e C h a p te r 2 7 . 6 9 . J a c k W o o d w a rd , Native Law (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 6 6 - 7 . 7 0 . 'R . v. G e o r g e W e ld o n A d a m s (A p p e lla n t) v. H er M a ­

2000. 7 8 . M a rk H u m e , ‘N is g a 'a tr e a ty su rv iv e s B .C . Liberals' c h a lle n g e ', National Post, 2 5 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , A 2; Rod

je s ty t h e Q u e e n (R e s p o n d e n t) a n d th e A tto rn e y

M ic k le b u r g h ,

G e n e r a l o f C a n a d a (In te r v e n o r ) ', Canadian Native

N is g a 'a T re a ty ', Globe and Mail, 2 5 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , A5.

Law Reporter 4 ( 1 9 9 6 ) : 1 - 2 6 . O n th e q u e s tio n o f c o m m e r c ia l

fis h in g ,

h o w e v e r,

th e

c o u r ts

have

'C o u r t

r e je c ts

le g a l

c h a lle n g e to

7 9 . K irk M a k in , 'C h ip p e w a lo s e b id fo r O n ta r io land ',

Globe and Mail, 2 2 D e c . 2 0 0 0 .

8 0 . G l e n n B o h n , 'S q u a m is h le a d e rs a g re e t o fo r fe it c la im s t o fo r m e r re s e rv e s ', National Post, 9 J u n e 2 0 0 0 . T h e a g r e e m e n t w a s a c c e p te d b y t h e m e m ­

'T h e L a s t I n d ia n W a r',

The Idler 2 9

Q u ly -A u g .

1 9 9 0 ): 1 4 -2 2 . 2 . H a n d s o m e L a k e's s to r y is to ld b y A lice B. K e h o e ,

b e r s h ip i n a v o te a l ittle o v e r a m o n t h la te r. (R o b e r t

The Ghost D ance (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 1 6 - 2 3 . T h e

M a ta s , 'S q u a m is h s u p p o r t la n d -c la im s s e ttle m e n t',

s ta n d a rd w o rk o n t h e p r o p h e t is A n th o n y F.C.

Globe and Mail, 2 5 J u l y 2 0 0 0 , A l , A 5 .) A lso , 'S q u a ­

W a lla c e , Death and Rebirth o f the Seneca (N ew York,

m is h A p p ro v e $ 9 2 .5 M illio n D e a l t o S e ttle C la im s ',

Vancouver Sun, 2 5 Ju ly 2 0 0 0 , B 5 .

1 9 6 9 ). 3 . C.P. S ta ce y , 'C a n a d a a n d t h e N ile E x p e d itio n o f

8 1 . P e g g y B la ir, 'T a k e n fo r " G r a n t e d " : A b o r ig in a l T itle

1 8 8 4 - 1 8 8 5 ', Canadian Historical Review 3 3 ( 1 9 5 2 ) :

a n d P u b lic F is h in g R ig h ts in U p p e r C a n a d a ', On­

3 1 9 - 4 0 ; L o u is J a c k s o n , Our Caughnawagas in Egypt

tario History 9 2 , 1 (S p rin g 2 0 0 0 ) : 3 1 - 5 5 .

(M o n tr e a l, 1 8 8 5 ) . J a c k s o n , le a d e r o f t h e C a u g h n a -

8 2 . K e v in C o x , 'N a tiv e lo b s te r fis h e r y e n d s b u t d is p u te

w a g a (K a h n a w a k e ) c a n o e m e n , re c o u n ts t h e a d v e n ­

d o e s n 't ', Globe and Mail, 7 O c t. 2 0 0 0 , A 7; G r a e m e

tu re s o f t h e Iro q u o is as n o n - c o m b a ta n ts in th e

H a m ilto n , 'B u r n t C h u r c h v o te s t o e n d fa ll fis h e r y

e x p e d itio n a r y fo rce . A b r ie f e x c e r p t is re p ro d u c e d

e a r ly ', National Post, 2 0 S e p t. 2 0 0 0 ; 'N o v a S c o tia

in P e n n y P e tr o n e , e d ., First People, First Voices (T o­

tr ib e t o fis h fo r lo b s te r d e s p ite la c k o f a g r e e m e n t

r o n to , 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 3 6 - 8 .

w ith O tta w a ', A s s o c ia te d P ress s ta te a n d l o c a l w ire,

4 . T ra d itio n a lly , h o r n s (d e e r a n tle r s , b u f fa lo h o r n s )

2 0 N o v . 2 0 0 0 . F o r t h e M i'k m a q v ie w o f t h e d is­

w e re c o n s id e r e d t o b e in s tr u m e n ts o f p o w e r a n d

Wind-

w e re w o r n b y s h a m a n s a n d le a d e rs. T h e 'D e h o r n -

speaker O c t. 2 0 0 0 , 1, 1 1 ; f o r t h e lo b s te r s itu a tio n , se e K e v in C o x , 'T h e re a l lo b s te r p r o b le m ', Globe and Mail, 2 S e p t. 2 0 0 0 ; 'O tta w a , n a tiv e s r e a c h c o m ­ p r o m is e o n fis h in g ', Globe and Mail, 2 3 Apr. 2 0 0 1 ,

5 . M a rg a re t V i n c e n t T e h a r io lin a , La nation huronne,

p u te , se e P au l B a rn s le y , 'A n g e r m o u n ts ',

A 4.

e r s ' o p p o s e d t h e tr a d itio n a l p o w e r stru c tu re .

son histoire, sa culture, son esprit (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 1 7 -1 8 . 6 . T itle y , A Narrow Vision, 1 3 3 .

8 3 . S c o tt S im p s o n , 'C o h o d is p u te p its a n g le rs a g a in s t In d ia n s ', Vancouver Sun, 3 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A 6. 8 4 . T h is w a s a s itu a tio n t h a t A b o rig in a l p e o p le a c ro s s th e b o a r d w e re k e e n ly a w a re o f. R ic k M o fin a , 'G o v ­ ern m en t

ig n o r e s

r ig h t s

r u lin g s ,

n a tiv e s

s a y ',

Ottawa Citizen, 2 8 F e b . 2 0 0 1 , A 3. 8 5 . M a rk H o lm e s , ‘S o ju s t w h o is a M é tis ? ' Globe and

Mail, 1 M a r c h 2 0 0 1 , A 1 3 . 8 6 . K irk M a k in , 'C o u r t r e c o g n iz e s M é tis as a d is t in c t p e o p le ', Globe and Mail, 2 4 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 1 , A l , A 1 5 ; J e n n i f e r P rittie , 'C o u r t o rd e rs O n ta r io t o r e c ­ o g n iz e M é tis a n d t h e ir r ig h t t o h u n t ', National

Post, 2 4 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 1 , A 4. 8 7 . M a rk M a c K in n o n , 'E x p e n s e o f In d ia n c la im s so a r­ in g ', Globe and Mail, 2 8 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 1 , A 4.

7 . Ib id . 8 . T h e o r ig in a l g r a n t t o t h e s e ig n e u ry o f S a u lt St L o u is w as fo r 4 4 , 0 0 0 a c re s ( 1 7 , 8 0 6 h e c ta r e s ); K a h ­ naw ake

to d a y

c o m p r is e s

1 3 ,0 0 0

acres

(5 ,2 6 1

h e c ta r e s ). 9 . T o b y M o r a n tz , 'A b o rig in a l L a n d C la im s in Q u e ­ b e c ', i n K e n C o a te s , e d ., Aboriginal Land Claims in

Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 0 5 . 1 0 . C h a rn e y , 'T h e L ast In d ia n W a r', 1 4 , 1 7 . 1 1 . Ib id ., 1 6 . 1 2 . T h e Ir o q u o ia n te r m t h a t tr a n s la te s i n t o E n g lis h as 'w a r rio r' is m o r e n e a rly e q u iv a le n t t o ‘y o u n g m a n '. T h e m e a n in g o f t h e te r m W a r r io r s

in

I r o q u o is

a n d t h e ro le o f t h e

s o c ie ty

a re

d is c u s s e d

in

8 8 . R ic k M o fin a , 'M o r e n a tiv e c o n f lic ts fe a re d : m e m o ',

Akwesasne Notes 22 , 4 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 6 . T h e M o h a w k Akwesasne Notes, w h ic h b e g a n p u b lic a tio n in 1 9 6 9 , is

Ottawa Citizen, 1 7 J a n . 2 0 0 1 , A 5 ; T h e r e s e T e d e s c o

p u b lis h e d in t h e N e w Y o rk s e c tio n o f S t R egis

and

C a r o l H o w se, 'N a tiv e s m a k e re fin e r y b id ',

R eserv e . T h e 'id e o lo g ic a l fa t h e r ’ o f t h e c u r r e n t

National Post, 2 3 J a n . 2 0 0 1 ; 'E v e n c o m p e tito r s

W a rr io r m o v e m e n t w as L o u is H a ll o f K a h n a w a k e

m u m o n ta x -fr e e z o n e fo r th e B lo o d T rib e ', ib id .

Chapter 24 1.

(1 9 1 6 -1 9 9 3 ). 1 3 . B e c a u s e o f a n In d ia n A ct p r o v is io n t h a t n o ta x e s b e p a id o n g o o d s o w n e d o r u se d b y A m e r in d ia n s

T h is s e c tio n o w e s a s p e c ia l d e b t t o E. B r ia n T itle y ,

o n A m e r in d ia n la n d , c ig a re tte s c a n b e so ld m o r e

A Narrow Vision: D uncan Campbell Scott and the Administration o f Indian A ffairs in C anada

c h e a p ly o n re s e rv e s th a n e ls e w h e re . T h e c ig a r e tte

(V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 1 0 - 3 4 ; Jo ë ll e R o stk o w sk i, 'T h e

fo r s o m e re serv es, p a r tic u la r ly th o s e n e a r t h e in te r ­

R e d m a n ’s A p p e al fo r J u s tic e : D e s k a h e h a n d th e

n a tio n a l b o rd e r. S e e C h a rn e y , 'T h e L ast In d ia n

L e ag u e o f N a tio n s ', in C h r is tia n F e est, ed ., Indians

and Europe (A a c h e n , 1 9 8 7 ) , 4 3 5 - 5 3 ; A n n C h a rn e y ,

tr a d e h a s b e c o m e a n im p o r ta n t so u r c e o f re v e n u e

W a r', 1 7 - 1 8 . 14 . Ib id ., 1 4 .

494 Notes 1 5 . '"A r m e d , v i o l e n t " p o s te r s tu n s fu g itiv e M o h a w k s ',

Edmonton Journal, 2 0 O c t. 1 9 8 8 .

3 1 . F o r in s ta n c e , i n 1 9 4 9 i n t h e N o r th w e s t Territories, O b la te m is s io n a r ie s n o te d t h a t In d ia n s d id not

1 6 . 'P o lic e c a ll M o h a w k s " t e r r o r is ts " in n a t i o n a l a d ',

w a n t re g is te re d tr a p lin e s b u t a sk e d in s te a d th at

Edmonton Journal, 1 9 S e p t. 1 9 9 0 . T h e a d v e rtis e ­

th e y b e a llo c a te d a la rg e te r r ito r y t h e y c o u ld use in

m e n t, h e a d e d 'W e O p p o s e T e rr o ris m ', r a n th a t

c o m m o n . O b la te A rc h iv e s, S t A lb e rt, A lberta, Fort

s a m e d a y in n e w sp a p e rs a c ro s s C a n a d a . T h e ro le o f t h e W a rrio rs i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s t a n d o f f is d isc u s se d in

Akwesasne Notes 2 2 , 4 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 8 .

G o o d H o p e file # 1 , v o l. 5 : 2 8 . 3 2 . A p e r s o n a l s t a te m e n t o n b e in g M é tis is b y D oroth y D a n ie ls , 'M e tis Id e n tity : A P e rs o n a l P erspective',

1 7 . 'L a n g u a g e issu e ra ise d a n e w a t M o h a w k s ' tr ia l',

The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 3 Apr. 1 9 9 1 ; 'Q u e b e c M o ­ h a w k s h a v e r ig h t t o E n g lis h a t tr ia l, c o u r t ru les',

Edmonton Journal, 3 M a y 1 9 9 1 ; 'R ig h t t o E n g lis h

Native Studies Review 3 , 2 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 7 - 1 5 . S ee also D u k e R e d b ird , We are Metis: A Metis View o f the De­ velopment o f a Native Canadian People (W illow d ale, O n t., 1 9 8 0 ) .

tr ia l g r a n te d : Ju d g e c o n tr a d ic ts e a r lie r r u lin g in

3 3 . S e e t h e c r itiq u e b y T ru d y N ick s, 'M e tis : A G len bow

p a ra lle l M o h a w k c a s e ', Globe and Mail, 2 M a y

M u s e u m E x h i b i t i o n ’, Muse 3 , 4 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 5 2 - 8 . The

1991.

c a ta lo g u e fo r t h e e x h i b i t i o n , J u l ia H a rriso n , Metis

1 8 . S o u rc e s fo r th is s e c tio n a re J u d i th H ill, 'T h e E w in g C o m m is s io n , 1 9 3 5 : A C a s e S tu d y o f M e tis G o v e r n ­

(V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 5 ) , g iv e s a g o o d s h o r t h is to ry of w e s te r n M é tis .

m e n t R e la tio n s ', MA th e s is (U n iv e rs ity o f A lb erta ,

3 4 . J a m e s M c C a r te n , 'A n y h u n t i n g rig h ts m u s t await

1 9 7 7 ) ; T h e M e tis A s s o c ia tio n o f A lb e rta e t a l., Metis

M é tis d e f in it io n , O n ta r io sa y s', Globe and Mail, 1

Land Rights in Alberta: A Political History (E d m o n ­

N o v . 2 0 0 0 . O n t h e A c a d ia n s c u r r e n tly red iscover­ i n g t h e ir A b o rig in a l h e rita g e , se e C h a p te r 1 1 .

to n , 1 9 8 1 ).

19. Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ), IV, 2 0 3 .

3 5 . J a m e s S. F rid eres b r ie f ly su rv e y s t h e M é tis situ a tio n in Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts (S c a r b o r o u g h , O n t., 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 6 7 - 9 2 .

2 0 . Ib id ., 2 0 9 , 2 5 8 . 2 1 . S e e M a ria C a m p b e ll's c la s s ic Halfbreed (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 3 ). 2 2 . T h e ir s to r y is to ld b y M u rra y D o b b in , The One-and-

a-H alf M en (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 1 ) . B o th N o rris a n d

36. Jo n

M . G e rra rd , S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te fo r Scien ce,

R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e lo p m e n t, a n d W e s te rn E co n o ­ m ic D iv e r s if ic a tio n , a d d re s s in g t h e a n n u a l m eet­ in g o f t h e M é tis N a tio n a l C o u n c il, O tta w a , 1 4 Feb. 1996.

B ra d y w e re v e te r a n s o f W o rld W a r II, N o rris h a v in g se rv e d i n t h e RCAF a n d B ra d y w ith t h e R o y a l C a ­ n a d ia n A rtille ry . D r A d a m C u th a n d , w h o h a d s e e n s e r v ic e w ith

th e

C a n a d ia n

a rm y ,

becam e

Chapter 25

th e

1. W illia m R. M o r r is o n , Under the Flag: Canadian Sov­

fo u n d in g p r e s id e n t o f t h e M a n it o b a M e tis F e d e r­

ereignty and the Native People in Northern Canada

a tio n in 1 9 6 8 .

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 2 - 4 ; K e n n e t h S. C o a te s a n d W il­

2 3 . D o n a ld P u ric h , The Metis (T o ro n to , 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 4 4 . 2 4 . T ru d y

N ic k s ,

'M a r y

A n n e 's

D ile m m a :

The

E t h n o h is to r y o f a n A m b iv a le n t I d e n t it y ', Canadian

Ethnic Studies 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 1 0 .

tory o f the Yukon ( E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 4 3 - 7 ; A rth u r S. M o r t o n , A History o f the Canadian West to 1870-71, e d . L ew is G . T h o m a s (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 7 0 8 - 9 . C o n ­ c e r n in g w h a le r s as tra d e rs, se e J o h n R. B o ck sto ce,

2 5 . P u ric h , The Metis, 1 4 8 - 9 . 2 6 . F o r a d is c u s s io n o f t h e M é tis a n d A b o rig in a l rig h t, s e e M etisism: A

lia m R. M o r r is o n , Land o f the M idnight Sun: A His­

Canadian Identity ( E d m o n to n ,

1 9 8 2 ).

Whales, Ice, and M en: The History o f W haling in the Western Arctic (S e a ttle , 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 9 2 - 4 . 2 . M o r r is o n , Under the Flag, 3 1 - 4 1 . O n t h e p ro c e s s b y w h ic h C a n a d a a c q u ir e d t h e A rc tic a r c h ip e la g o , see

2 7 . 'P a c t m a k e s h is to r y : " I t's o u r la n d ," M e tis s a y as

M o rr is Z aslo w , The Opening o f the Canadian North

G e t ty s ig n s ', Edmonton Journal, 2 J u l y 1 9 8 9 , 1; a lso ,

(T o r o n to , 1 9 7 1 ) , 8 8 - 1 0 0 ; W . G illie s R oss, 'W h a l­

'H is to r ic v o te o n M e tis d e a l k n o w n to d a y ', ib id .,

in g , In u it, a n d t h e A rc tic Is la n d s ', in M o rris Zas­

21 Ju n e 1989.

lo w ,

28. D an

S m ith ,

The Seventh Fire (T o r o n to ,

1 9 9 3 ),

1 8 7 -8 . 2 9 . M a rie B u rk e , 'M é tis s ig n p r o v in c ia l a g r e e m e n t',

Alberta Sweetgrass 6, 4 (M a y 1 9 9 9 ) : 3 . 3 0 . 'D e a l a llo w s A lb e rta M e tis to c r e a te ju s tic e p r o ­ g r a m s ', Edmonton Journal, 9 N o v . 1 9 9 9 .

e d ., A Century o f Canada's Arctic Islands 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 8 0 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 1 ) , 3 3 - 5 0 .

3 . Z aslo w , Opening o f the Canadian North, 9 3 - 4 . 4 . R e n é F u m o le a u , As Long A s This L and Shall Last (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 2 7 - 3 0 ; Z aslow , Opening o f the Ca­

nadian North, 8 8 - 1 0 0 . 5 . In te r v ie w w ith F e lix G ib o t r e c o r d e d b y R ich a rd

Notes 495 L ig h tn in g , T re a ty a n d A b o rig in a l R ig h ts R e se a rc h

h ig h ly stru c tu re d liv e s a b o a rd s h ip , d id n o t d e v e l­

o f t h e I n d ia n A s s o c ia tio n o f A lb e rta , 5 F e b. 1 9 7 4 ,

o p p u b lic m e c h a n is m s fo r d e a lin g w ith c o n f li c t

in R ic h a rd P rice , e d ., The Spirit o f the Alberta Indian

w it h in th e b ro a d e r c o m m u n ity as d id t h e m in e rs

Treaties (E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 5 7 .

in t h e Y u k o n . S to n e , 'A to m is tic O rd e r a n d F r o n tie r

6 . Report o f the North-West Mounted Police 1 8 9 8 , P art n,

V io le n c e : M in e rs a n d W h a le m e n

in

t h e N in e ­

P a tro l R e p o rt, F o rt S a s k a tc h e w a n t o F o r t S im p s o n ,

te e n th - C e n tu r y Y u k o n ', Ethnology 2 2 , 4

in s p e c to r W .H . R o u tle d g e , 9 6 .

3 2 7 - 3 9 . S e e a ls o S to n e , 'F lu x a n d A u th o rity in a

7. A f i n e s tu d y o f t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n t h e n o r t h ­ e r n C r e e a n d t h e a n im a ls u p o n w h ic h t h e y d e p e n d is b y R o b e rt B r ig h tm a n , Gratefid Prey (B erk eley , 1 9 9 3 ). 8. K erry A b el, '" M a t te r s a re g r o w in g w o r s e " : G o v e r n ­ m en t and

M a c k e n z ie M is s io n s ,

1 8 7 0 - 1 9 2 1 ',

in

K e n n e th S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R. M o rr is o n , ed s,

For Purposes o f Dominion (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 7 5 . T h e Y u k o n 's fir s t I n d ia n re s id e n tia l s c h o o l w a s e s ta b ­ lis h e d a t C a r cr o s s in 1 9 0 1 b y A n g lic a n b is h o p W .C .

S u b a rc tic S o c ie ty : T h e Y u k o n M in e rs i n th e N in e ­ te e n t h C e n tu r y ', Ethnohistory 3 0 , 4 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 0 3 - 1 6 . B y th e tim e t h e p o lic e a rriv e d , m o s t w h a le rs w e re w in te r in g a t B a illie Is la n d , 4 8 3 k ilo m e tr e s t o th e ea st. 1 5 . E rn e s t B e a g le h o le , Social Change in the South Pacific:

Rarotonga and Aitutaki (A b e rd e e n , S c o tla n d , 1 9 5 7 ) , 7 0 ; c ite d b y W . G illie s R oss, Whaling and Eskimos : Hudson Bay 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 5 (O tta w a , 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 3 8 . See a ls o B o c k s to c e , Whales, Ice, and Men. 1 6 . C o a te s a n d M o r r is o n , Land o f the M idnight Sun,

B o m p as. 9 . D e p a r tm e n t o f In d ia n A ffairs, v o l. 1 1 1 5 , D e p u ty S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 's C h a r le s

(1 9 8 3 ) :

L e tte r b o o k ,

C o n s ta n tin e ,

H a y te r

com m ander

R eed

o f th e

to firs t

1 1 2 -1 3 . 1 7 . R ic h a rd D iu b a ld o , The Government o f Canada and

the Inuit, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 6 7 ( O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 3 - 1 4 .

Y u k o n p o lic e c o n t i n g e n t , 2 9 M a y 1 8 9 4 ; c ite d b y

1 8 . M o r r is o n , Under the Flag, 8 7 .

K e n n e t h S. C o a te s , 'B e s t L e ft As I n d ia n s : T h e F e d ­

1 9 . A film , B a rry G r e e n w a ld 's Between Two Worlds, te lls

e ra l G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e I n d ia n s o f t h e Y u k o n ,

th e

1 8 8 4 - 1 9 5 0 ', Canadian Journal o f Native Studies 4, 2

R e s o lu te Bay, a le a d in g h u n te r w h o e m b ra c e d th e

( 1 9 8 4 ) : 1 8 1 . T h is a r tic le is d ra w n fr o m

C o a te s ,

'B e s t L e ft as In d ia n s : N a tiv e -W h ite R e la tio n s in Y u k o n T e rrito ry ,

1 8 4 0 - 1 9 5 0 ',

P h .D

th e s is

(U n i­

v e rs ity o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 1 9 8 4 ).

s to r y o f J o s e p h

E u r o -C a n a d ia n

Id lo u t o f P o n d

I n le t a n d

w ay. H e w as s u c c e s s fu l e n o u g h

t h a t h e a n d h is fa m ily w e re t h e s u b je c t o f a N a t­ io n a l F ilm B o a rd c la s s ic , Land o f the Long Day, d ir e c te d b y D o u g W ilk in s o n in 1 9 5 1 ; t h e fa m ily

10. F o r e x a m p le , J o h n T e tso , Trapping is My Life (T o ­

a ls o a d o r n e d t h e b a c k o f t h e C a n a d ia n $ 2 b ill.

r o n to , 1 9 7 0 ) ; M a x w e ll P a u p a n e k is , 'T h e T ra p p e r',

Id lo u t e n d e d u p as a b a rfly , s u rv iv in g o n h a n d o u t

in M a lv in a B o lu s , e d ., People and Pelts (W in n ip e g ,

jo b s . O n 2 J u n e 1 9 6 8 h e d ie d in a n a c c id e n t. Be­

1 9 7 2 ), 1 3 7 -4 3 .

tween Two Worlds is re v ie w e d in t h e Edmonton Journal, 1 1 S e p t. 1 9 9 0 . T h e h a p p ie r s to r y o f a n o t h ­ e r h u n te r w h o m a d e th e s a m e tr a n s it io n is I, Nuligak, e d . a n d tr. M a u r ic e M e ta y e r (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 6 ) .

11. H u g h B ro d y , The People's Land: Eskimos and Whites

in the Eastern Arctic (H a r m o n d s w o rth , E n g la n d , 1 9 7 5 ), 2 9 . 12. B o m p a s h a d b e e n b is h o p o f A th a b a s c a , 1 8 7 4 - 8 4

2 0 . G u r s to n D a ck s , A Choice o f Futures: Politics in the

tu r y m is s io n a r ie s . A n a s s o c ia te o f h is w h o w o u ld

Canadian North (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 1 ) , 9 0 ; D a v id R. The Politics o f the Yukon Territory, 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 0 9 (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 8 ) , c h . 3 .

b e c o m e a le a d in g v o ic e o n b e h a l f o f t h e A m e r­

2 1 . Low , w h o h a d d o n e m u c h t o e x p lo r e L ab ra d o r, in

a n d b is h o p o f M a c k e n z ie 1 8 8 4 - 9 1 . H e h a d b e e n in t h e N o r th s in c e 1 8 6 5 , a re co r d fo r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n ­

M o r r is o n ,

in d ia n s w as I.O . S trin g e r, w h o arriv e d in t h e N o rth

1 9 0 3 h a d c o m m a n d e d t h e G o v e r n m e n t E x p e d i­

in 1 8 9 4 a n d su c c e e d e d B o m p a s as b is h o p o f Se lk irk

t i o n t o H u d s o n B a y a n d N o rth w a rd . F.J. A lco ck ,

(Y u k o n ).

'A lb e r t P e te r L o w ', in W illia m C . W o n d e rs , ed .,

13. 'W ife - le n d in g ' w o u ld b e m o r e a p p r o p ria te ly c a lle d

Canada's Changing North (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 6 ) , 7 6 - 8 1 .

's p o u s e -s h a r in g '. W h e n w h a lin g c a p ta in s s h a re d

2 2 . W . G illie s R oss, 'C a n a d ia n S o v e re ig n ty in t h e A rc­

I n u it p a r tn e r s ' w iv es, t h e la tte r t h o u g h t o f t h e m ­

tic : T h e Neptune E x p e d itio n o f 1 9 0 3 - 0 4 ', Arctic 2 9 ,

selv e s a s s h a r in g t h e c a p ta in s w ith t h e ir fa ra w a y w iv es.

2 (1 9 7 6 ): 8 7 -1 0 4 . 2 3 . C a th a r in e M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, Part o f the

14. M o r r is o n , Under the Flag, 4 5 - 6 ; D ia m o n d Je n n e s s ,

Water: A History o f Yukon Indians (V a n co u v e r, 1 9 8 7 ),

Eskimo Administration: II: Canada (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 2 ),

4 3 . J e n n e s s sa y s th a t b y 1 9 3 0 n o t m o r e t h a n a

1 4 ; A b e l, " 'M a t te r s a re g r o w in g w o r s e " ', 7 6 ; B o c k -

d o z e n — i f t h a t — c o u ld

s to c e , W hales, Ice, and M en, 2 7 6 - 9 . As T h o m a s

w e s te r n

S t o n e p o in ts o u t, t h e w h a le r s , c o n s t r a in e d b y th e ir

Administration: II, 1 4 .)

A r c tic 's

c la im

o r ig in a l

d e s c e n t fr o m

in h a b ita n ts .

th e

(Eskimo

496 Notes 2 4 . A la n D . M c M illa n , Native Peoples and Cultures o f

Canada (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 4 6 . 2 5 . Je n n e s s ,

Eskimo Administration: II,

g o fr o m D a w s o n t o F o r t M c P h e r s o n ; Fitzgerald not o n ly d id n o t ta k e a lo n g a N a tiv e gu id e, h e had

11

and

n i.

A c c o r d in g t o o n e re p o rt, fo u r c h ild r e n su rv iv e d . 2 6 . C h a r le s M a ir, Through the Mackenzie Basin (T o r­

re fu se d h e lp w h e n i t h a d b e e n o ffe re d . T h e story h a s b e e n t h e s u b je c t o f a CBC te le v is io n dram a. See D ic k N o r th , The Lost Patrol (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 9 5 ).

o n to , 1 9 0 8 ), 6 0 . T h e s p e e c h h a s a ls o b e e n a tt r ib ­

3 7 . J o h n L. T o b ia s, 'P r o te c t io n , C iv iliz a tio n , Assimila­

u te d t o W a h p e e h a y o (‘W h it e P a rtr id g e '), w h o w a s

t i o n : A n O u tlin e H is to r y o f C a n a d a 's In d ia n Pol­

a lso in a tt e n d a n c e .

ic y ', Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 6, 2

2 7 . J o h n S. L o n g , Treaty No. 9 : The Indian Petition,

1 8 8 9 - 1 9 2 7 (C o b a lt, O n t., 1 9 7 8 ) ; J a m e s M o rr is o n , Treaty Nine ( 1 9 0 5 - 0 6 ) : The Jam es Bay Treaty

t i o n . M a ir, Through the Mackenzie Basin, 9 2 . 3 8 . T h e p r o b le m a s i t a p p lie d in t h e N o r th in general

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 6 ). 2 8 . Je n n e s s w as s tr o n g o n th is p o in t, a n d h ig h ly c r i ti ­ c a l o f C a n a d a 's p e r fo r m a n c e . Eskimo Administra­

tion: II, 1 7 . 2 9 . R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', in P rice , e d ., Spirit o f the Alberta Indian

Treaties, 5 8 . 3 0 . R .B . M c C o n n e ll, Report on a Portion o f the District o f

Athabasca Comprising the Country between the Peace River and the Athabasca River North o f Lesser Slave Lake (O tta w a , 1 8 9 3 ) ; c ite d b y R e n é F u m o le a u , As Long A s This L and Shall Last (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 3 ) , 3 9 ; D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', 5 8 - 9 . 3 1 . Ju l ie C r u ik s h a n k a n d J i m R o b b , Their Own Yukon (W h ite h o r s e , 1 9 7 5 ) , 2 .

is to u c h e d u p o n b y A rth u r J . Ray, The Canadian Fur

Trade and the Industrial A ge (T o r o n to ,

1990),

1 9 7 -2 2 1 . 3 9 . F u m o le a u , A s Long As This Land Shall Last, 4 7 . See a ls o J .G . M a c G re g o r, The Klondike Rush Through Ed­

monton 1 8 9 7 - 1 8 9 8 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 0 ) . 4 0 . M a ir, Through the Mackenzie Basin, 2 3 - 4 . 4 1 . D e n n is M a d ill, B.C. Indian Treaties in Historical Per­

spective (O tta w a , 1 9 8 1 ) , 6 3 . 4 2 . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t’, 5 8 . 4 3 . F u m o le a u , As Long As This Land Shall Last, 5 9 . 4 4 . Ib id ., 5 1 . 4 5 . Ib id ., 6 0 . 4 6 . M o rr is o n , Under the Flag, 5 2 .

3 2 . T h e ir s u d d e n w e a lth d id n o t m a k e life b e t te r fo r Sk o ok u m Jim

( 1 9 7 6 ) : 2 1 ; Z aslo w , Opening o f the Canadian North, 9 6 - 7 . T h e M é tis a ls o w e re u p s e t a b o u t th e regula­

M a s o n o r D a w s o n C h a r lie , K a te's

b r o th e r s . T h e la tte r fe ll o f f a b rid g e in 1 9 0 8 a n d w a s d r o w n e d ; S k o o k u m J i m re tire d t o h is h o m e g r o u n d s a t C a rcro s s , w h e r e h e d ie d in 1 9 1 6 . K ate C a r m a c k w as a b a n d o n e d b y h e r h u s b a n d , w h o w e n t t o C a lifo r n ia a n d re m a rrie d ; K a te sta y e d a t

4 7 . C o a te s , 'B e s t L e ft As I n d ia n s ', 1 8 4 . C o a te s m ain ­ ta in s t h a t O tta w a 's r e lu c ta n c e t o a ssig n reserves w as d u e t o t h e w o r ry t h a t g o ld m ig h t la te r be dis­ c o v e r e d o n th e m . 4 8 . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t’, 6 5 . 4 9 . O ff ic ia l r e p o r t o f T re a ty E ig h t C o m m is s io n , 1899,

C a rcro s s , w h e r e s h e b e c a m e s o m e t h in g o f a to u r is t

in F u m o le a u , A s Long A s This L and Shall Last, 84.

a tt r a c tio n . S e e Z aslo w , Opening o f the Canadian

T h e a c c o u n t t h a t fo llo w s is d r a w n fr o m th is report. 5 0 . Ib id ., 7 4 , c itin g a s w o rn a ffid a v it b y J a m e s K. C orn ­

North, 1 4 5 . 3 3 . H .A . I n n is , 'S e ttle m e n t a n d t h e M in in g F r o n tie r ',

w a ll ('P e a c e R iv e r J i m ') , 1 9 3 7 , o n h is re co lle ctio n s

i n W .A . M a c k in to s h a n d W .L .G . J o e r g , ed s, Cana­

o f t h e tr e a ty n e g o t ia t io n s . C o r n w a ll w a s inv o lv ed

dian Frontiers o f Settlement, IX , P a rt II (T o ro n to ,

in tr a n s p o r ta t io n p r o je c ts . 5 1 . F u m o le a u , A s Long As This Land Shall Last, 8 6 .

1 9 3 6 ), 1 8 3 .

C om m issioner o f the N orth-W est Mounted Police, N o r th e r n P a tr o l 1 8 9 7 , 1 7 0 . T h e

5 2 . Ib id .

o b s e r v a tio n w a s m a d e in c o n n e c t i o n w ith t h e c u s ­

5 4 . P rice , e d ., Spirit o f Alberta Indian Treaties, 1 0 6 .

3 4 . Report o f the

to m o f n o n -N a tiv e tr a p p e r s t o u s e p o is o n b a it. 3 5 . F o r s o m e I n d ia n m e m o r ie s a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d o n t h e K lo n d ik e R iver, se e C r u ik s h a n k a n d R o b b ,

Their Own Yukon, 1 3 - 1 5 . 3 6 . F u m o le a u , A s Long A s This Land Shall Last, 5 8 ; D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', 6 3 . T h e s to r y o f t h e

'lo s t p a tr o l',

1 9 1 0 -1 1 , w h en

fo u r

p o lic e m e n d ie d , is o n e o f th e m a n y re m in d e r s o f

5 3 . M a ir, Through the Mackenzie Basin, 6 3 .

5 5 . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', 8 2 . 5 6 . In te r v ie w w ith F e lix G ib o t i n P rice , e d ., Spirit of

Alberta Indian Treaties, 1 5 9 . 5 7 . C ite d ib id ., 9 5 . T h e c a s e i n w h ic h t h e c o m m e n t w as m a d e w a s Paulette et al., S u p re m e C o u rt o f N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s , 1 9 7 3 - 7 . 5 8 . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', 9 5 - 6 .

t h e d a n g e rs o f o v e r c o n f id e n c e in t h e N o r th . T h e

5 9 . F u m o le a u , A s Long As This Land Shall Last, 1 9 2 - 6 .

p a tro l, h e a d e d b y In s p e c to r F.J. F itz g era ld , w a s to

6 0 . D a n ie l, 'S p ir it a n d T e rm s o f T re a ty E ig h t', 9 6 - 7 .

Notes 497 18. V o l. 1 2 : The Life o f the Copper Eskimos (O tta w a ,

6 1 . J o h n S. L o n g , '" N o B a s is f o r A g r e e m e n t" ? T h e S ig n ­ in g o f T re a ty N in e i n N o r th e r n O n ta r io , 1 9 0 5 -

1 9 2 2 ), 9 4 - 6 .

1 9 0 6 ', Native Studies Review 5 , 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 2 6 .

m in in g c o m m u n itie s in t h e Y u k o n d e v e lo p e d a s y s te m o f ju s tic e t h a t h a d c e r ta in re s e m b la n c e s to

6 2 . F u m o le a u , A s Long A s This Land Shall Last, 1 4 2 .

t h a t o f th e I n u it. N o t o n ly w a s t h e o ff e n c e its e lf

6 3 . Z aslo w , Opening o f the Canadian North, 9 0 - 1 .

ju d g e d , b u t a ls o th e c h a r a c te r o f t h e a c c u s e d a n d

6 4 . J e n n e s s , Eskimo Administration: II, 2 3 . S e e a ls o Ray,

w h a t h e w as lik e ly t o d o i n t h e fu tu r e . T h is w as

Canadian Fur Trade in the Industrial Age; M o rris

c a lle d 'fo r w a r d -lo o k in g ju s ti c e ’. S e e C o a te s a n d

Z aslow , The Northward Expansion o f Canada 1 9 1 4 -

1 9 6 7 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 8 ). 6 5 . S h e la g h D . G r a n t, Sovereigtity or Security? Govern­

m ent Policy in the Canadian North, 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 5 0 (V a n ­

M o r r is o n , Land o f the Midnight Sun, 6 0 - 1 . 7 6 . Je n n e s s , Life o f the Copper Eskimos, 2 3 2 . 7 7 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 3 6 . T h e c o m m e n t w as a s re v e a lin g a b o u t t h e o ffic e r 's

c o u v e r, 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 4 - 1 9 . 6 6 . K erry A b el, D rum Songs (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 3 ) , 2 0 5 - 6 ; Z aslo w , The Northward Expansion o f

O d d ly e n o u g h , t h e p re -g o ld ru sh

a ttitu d e a s a b o u t t h e In u it's . 7 8 . M o r r is o n , Under the Flag, 1 2 7 - 3 0 . 7 9 . Ib id ., 9 4 .

Canada, 1 7 7 - 8 1 . 6 7 . A b el, " 'M a t te r s a re g r o w in g w o r s e '" , 8 2 . A ty p e ­

8 0 . J o h n F. L e slie a n d R o n M a g u ire , ed s, The Historical

Development o f the Indian Act (O tta w a , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 1 9 .

s c rip t co p y , d a te d 5 J u n e 1 9 3 8 , o f B r e y n a t's m e m ­ o r a n d u m d e n o u n c in g g o v e r n m e n t tr e a tm e n t o f

8 1 . Je n n e s s , Eskimo Adminstration: II, c h . 2 .

I n d ia n s

8 2 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 3 2 .

is

in

th e

A lb e r ta

P r o v in c ia l

A rch iv e s,

1 7 . 2 2 0 , i te m 9 9 4 , b o x 2 5 . A m a r g in a l n o te say s th e m e m o r a n d u m w as p u b lis h e d in t h e Toronto Star

8 3 . C .S . M a c k in n o n , 'T h e 1 9 5 8 G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y R e v e rsa l i n K e e w a tin ', in C o a te s a n d M o rr is o n ,

to w a rd s t h e e n d o f J u n e a n d i n Le Soleil (Q u e b e c ), 3 Ju ly 1 9 3 8 . 6 8 . M c C le lla n , Part o f the Land, 9 0 .

ed s, For Purposes o f Dominion, 1 6 0 . 8 4 . O n t h e d is t in c tio n , se e M ic h a e l H . B r o w n , The

6 9 . O n s o m e o f t h e p r o b le m s o f t h e tr a p p in g life t o ­

Search for Eve: Have Scientists Found the Mother o f Us A ll? (N ew Y ork, 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 5 . O n t h e g e n e tic lin k s

day , se e J a m e s W . V a n S to n e , 'C h a n g in g P a tte r n s o f

w ith A th a p a s k a n -s p e a k e rs , se e E m ô k e J .E . S z a th -

I n d ia n T ra p p in g i n th e C a n a d ia n S u b a r c tic ', in

m a ry , 'H u m a n B io lo g y in t h e A rc tic ', in D a v id

W o n d e r s , e d ., Canada's Changing North, 1 7 0 - 8 6 .

D a m a s , e d ., Handbook o f North American Indians, 5 : Arctic ( W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 7 0 - 1 ; R ic h a rd J . D iu ­

70. K e ith J . C ro w e , A History o f the Original Peoples o f

Northern Canada (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 7 4 ),

b a ld o , 'T h e A b su rd L ittle M o u s e : W h e n E s k im o s

163.

b e c a m e I n d ia n s ', Journal o f Canadian Studies 1 6 , 2

71. D iu b a ld o ,

(1 9 8 1 ) : 3 4 - 4 0 .

Government o f Canada and the Inuit,

1 7 -1 8 .

8 5 . T h e le tte r s a re re p ro d u c e d in D iu b a ld o , Govern­

72. M ilto n F r e e m a n h a s lin k e d t h e p r a c tic e a m o n g th e

m ent o f Canada and the Inuit, 4 6 - 7 . T h e p r a c tic e o f

N e ts ilik I n u i t t o t h e n e e d t o m a i n t a in e x is t in g c u l­

c la s s ify in g 'E s q u im a u x ' as A m e r in d ia n e n d u re d

tu r a l b a la n c e s i n s e x ro le s . F r e e m a n , 'E th o s , E c o ­

u n til w e ll in t o

n o m ic s a n d P re stig e , a R e -E x a m in a tio n o f N e ts ilik

e x a m p le , th e 1 9 3 4 e d itio n o f Webster's Internation­

E s k im o I n f a n t ic id e ', Vernhandlungen des XXXVIII. Internationalen Amerikanistenkongresses II (S tu ttg a r t-

al Dictionary (c ite d ib id ., 4 5 ) . H a m e lin , Canadian Nordicity: It's Your North Too, tr. W . B a rr (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 9 ) , c h . 6 .

8 6 . L o u is -E d m o n d

M ü n ch e n , 1 9 6 8 ). 73. R .G . M o y le s , British Law and Arctic M en (S a s k a to o n ,

t h e t w e n tie t h c e n tu r y . S e e , fo r

8 7 . T h e fu ss o v e r t h e le g a l s ta tu s o f I n u it is e x a m in e d

1 9 7 9 ); G a s to n C a rriè re , Dictionnaire biographique

by

(O tta w a , 1 9 7 9 ) , V in, 1 4 1 .

Tammarniit (Mistakes) (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 3 - 4 2 .

74. F o r d e ta ils o f th is a n d o th e r ca se s a b o u t t h e s a m e tim e , se e D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the

Inuit, 1 5 - 1 7 . A d e ta ile d s tu d y o f th e firs t m u rd e r

8 9 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 5 7 . S e e a ls o C o n s ta n c e H u n t, 'T h e D e v e lo p m e n t a n d D e c li n e

c h a r g e d w e re fo u n d g u ilty b u t g r a n te d c le m e n c y ,

th e C o p p e r In u it, is d e s c r ib e d b y D ia m o n d J e n ­ n e s s , Report o f the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1 9 1 3 -

of

N o rth e rn

C o n s e r v a tio n

R e s e r v e s ',

Contact 8 , 4 ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

is M o y le s , British Law and Arctic Men. [ 1 9 9 0 ] ), 6 . A less id e a liz e d v e r s io n , a s p ra c tis e d b y

P e te r K u lch y s k i in

8 8 . M a c k in n o n , 'G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y R e v e rsa l', 1 6 1 .

tria l in t h e A rc tic , in 1 9 1 7 , in w h ic h t h e tw o In u it

75. The Inuit Way: A Guide to Inuit Culture (O tta w a ,

F ra n k J a m e s T e s te r a n d

Chapter 26 1.

L ittle o f th is is r e fle c te d in t h e p a m p h le t, Indians o f Canada Pavilion, g iv e n t o v isito rs, a lth o u g h i t p re-

498 Notes s e n te d a s p e c tru m o f A m e r in d ia n v ie w s. Its g e n e r ­

486 - 512 , 550 - 5 .

a l a p p r o a c h is e x p re sse d i n t h e s t a te m e n t: 'I se e a n

1 3 . 'S t a te m e n t o f N a tio n a l In d ia n B r o th e r h o o d ', in Re­

In d ia n , ta ll a n d s tr o n g in th e p rid e o f h is h e r ita g e .

cent Statements by the Indians o f Canada, Anglican

H e s ta n d s w ith y o u r s o n s , a m a n a m o n g m e n .'

C h u r c h o f C a n a d a G e n e r a l S y n o d A c tio n 1969,

S u c h r o m a n tic is m w as m o r e e f fe c tiv e in lite r a tu r e

B u lle tin 2 0 1 , 1 9 7 0 , 2 8 .

t h a n in p o litic s .

1 4 . C ite d b y W ea v er, M aking Canadian Indian Policy,

2 . L lo y d B arb er, 'T h e I m p lic a tio n o f In d ia n C la im s fo r C a n a d a ', a d d res s g iv e n a t t h e B a n f f S c h o o l o f A d v a n ce d M a n a g e m e n t,

B a n ff, A lb e rta , 9

174.

See

a ls o

M a r ie

S m a llfa c e

M a ru le ,

'The

C a n a d ia n G o v e r n m e n t's T e r m in a tio n P o licy : From

M ar.

1 9 6 9 t o th e P re s e n t D a y ', in I a n A .L. G e tty and

1 9 7 8 . O fficia lly , th e r e h a d b e e n a r e lu c ta n c e to

D o n a ld B. S m ith , ed s, One Century Later: Western

a llo w A m e r in d ia n s t o a rg u e t h e ir ca se .

Canadian Reserve Indians Since Treaty 7 (Vancouver,

3 . House o f Commons Debates, 8 D e c . 1 9 S 3 , 6 9 8 . T h e e x p r e s s io n h a d firs t b e e n u se d b y S ir J o h n R o b e rt Seeley , p ro fe s s o r o f m o d e r n h is to r y a t C a m b rid g e , r e fe r rin g t o t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e B r itis h E m p ire d u rin g th e p e r io d 1 6 8 8 - 1 8 1 5 . S eeley , The Expan­

sion o f England (L o n d o n , 1 8 8 3 ) .

1 6 . 'W u ttu n e e T e rm e d " T r a ito r o u s " , B a rred fro m his H o m e R e se rv e ', Globe and Mail, 4 M a y 1 9 7 0 . 1 7 . W illia m I.C . W u ttu n e e , Ruffled Feathers (Calgary, 1 9 7 1 ), 1 3 6 -4 1 .

4 . M o rr is Z aslow , The Opening o f the Canadian North (T o ro n to , 1 9 7 1 ), 2 7 8 .

1 8 . H u g h D e m p se y , The Gentle Persuader: A Biography

o f Jam es Gladstone, Indian Senator (S ask ato o n ,

5 . H u g h B ro d y , The People's Land: Eskimos and Whites

in the Eastern Arctic (H a r m o n d s w o rth , E n g la n d , 1 9 7 5 ), 2 2 0 .

1 9 8 6 ), 2 0 4 - 6 . 1 9 . A t a n A m e r in d ia n c o n f e r e n c e a t K a m lo o p s in Nov. 1 9 6 9 , s o m e e x p re s s e d re g re t a t t h e c o m p le te rejec­

A Survey o f the Contemporary Indians o f Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies, 2 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 6 6 - 7 ) , I, 6 .

6 . H .B .

1 9 7 8 ), 1 0 3 -1 6 . 1 5 . P o n t in g a n d G ib b in s , Out o f Irrelevance, 1 9 7 .

H a w th o rn ,

7 . A s e m in a l a r tic le o n h is to r ia n s ' a p p r o a c h t o A m e r­

ti o n o f t h e W h it e Paper. S e e P au l T e n n a n t, Aborig­

inal Peoples and Politics: The Indian Land Question in British Columbia, 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 8 9 (V a n c o u v e r, 1990), 153.

in d ia n s is Ja m e s W . S t G . W a lk er, 'T h e C a n a d ia n

2 0 . T h e te x t o f Citizens Plus w as re p ro d u c e d in The

In d ia n in H is to r ic a l W r itin g ', C a n a d ia n H is to r ica l

First Citizen 7 (J u n e 1 9 7 0 ) . O th e r A m e r in d ia n res­

A s s o c ia tio n , Historical Papers, 1 9 7 1 , 2 1 - 5 1 . A fo l­ lo w -u p r e p o rt, a ls o b y W a lk er, 'T h e In d ia n in C a ­ n a d ia n H is to r ic a l W r itin g , 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 8 1 ’, a p p e a re d i n Ia n A .L. G e t ty a n d A n to in e S. Lu ssier, ed s, As

Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 3 ), 3 4 0 - 5 7 .

th e s e s h ifts i n v a lu e s a n d c ir c u m s ta n c e s w e re th e s u b je c t o f a s p e c ia l r e p o rt, 'A C a n a d ia n T ra g e d y ',

Maclean's 9 9 , 2 8 ( 1 4 J u ly 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 2 - 2 5 .

a u t o n o m y ',

the Law and Practice o f Nations ( W a s h in g to n , 19 1 9 ),

'I n d ia n

P o lic y — a

C anadian Forum

49

p ro p o sal (D e c .

2 3 . A c ir c u la r p u b lis h e d b y t h e S o c ie ty fo r C o n v e rtin g a n d C iv iliz in g t h e In d ia n s o f U p p e r C a n a d a , 20 O c t. 1 8 3 0 , re a d , in p a rt: ' . . . it m u s t b e a m a tte r of d e e p c o n c e r n to r e fle c t t h a t th e r e e x is t in this

9 . H a w th o rn , A Survey o f Contemporary Indians, I, 1 3 . D u n n in g ,

46, 66. 2 2 . A lp h e u s H e n ry Sn o w , The Question o f Aborigines in 7.

8 . T h e s o c ia l d is lo c a tio n s t h a t h a v e re s u lte d fr o m

1 0 . R .W .

p o n s e s a p p e a r ib id . 8 (Ju ly 1 9 7 0 ) . 2 1 . M e n n o B o ld t, Surviving as Indians (T o r o n to , 1 9 93),

P ro v in c e a v e ry g r e a t n u m b e r o f A b o rig in e s in this

fo r

C o u n try , t h e o r ig in a l p o sse sso rs o f t h e so il on

1 9 6 9 ):

w h ic h w e a re n o w liv in g , a n d e n jo y in g t h e bless­

2 0 6 - 7 . A d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f t h e b ir t h o f t h e W h it e

in g s o f c iv iliz e d life , t o w h o m t h e g la d tid in g s of

P a p er is S a lly W ea v er, M aking Canadian Indian Pol­

S a lv a tio n ,

icy: The Hidden Agenda 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 7 0 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 1 ) . S e e a ls o J . R ic k P o n t in g a n d R o g er G ib b in s , Out o f Irrelevance (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 0 ) , 2 5 - 9 .

C h ris t, a re s till a lto g e th e r u n k n o w n .' (M e tro p o l­

as p u b lis h e d

in

th e g o s p e l

o f Jesus

ita n T o r o n to R e fe r e n c e L ib ra ry , H isto ry , H -1 8 3 0 .) 24. Som e

cases

in v o lv in g

A b o r ig in a l

r ig h t in

th e

1 1 . Statement o f the Government o f Canada on Indian

E n g lis h -s p e a k in g w o r ld a re su rv e y e d in B r ia n Slat­

Policy, 1 9 6 9 , 3 . S e e a ls o B ra d fo rd W . M o rs e , 'T h e R e s o lu tio n o f L a n d C la im s ', in M o rs e , e d ., Aborig­ inal Peoples and the Law: Indian, Metis and Inuit Rights in Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) , 6 1 8 - 2 1 .

te ry , Ancestral Lands, Alien Laws: Judicial Perspec­

1 2 . A rrel M o rg a n G ib s o n , The American Indian: Pre­

history to the Present ( L e x in g to n , M a ss.,

1 9 8 0 ),

tives on Aboriginal Title (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 8 3 ) . 2 5 . W .R . M o rr is o n , A Survey o f the History and Claims of

the Native Peoples o f Northern Canada (O ttaw a, 1 9 8 3 ) , 4 4 - 5 3 ; 'S id d o n sa y s Y u k o n la n d c la im deal w o n 't m e a n

In d ia n s e lf- g o v e r n m e n t', Edmonton

Notes 499 Journal, 2 2 O c t. 1 9 9 0 . T h e te n t a tiv e a g r e e m e n t p ro v id e s fo r 4 4 ,4 4 0 sq u a r e k ilo m e tr e s ( 8 .6 p e r c e n t o f Y u k o n 's la n d m a s s ) t o b e r e ta in e d b y th e N a ­ tiv e s , w h o w ill a ls o re c e iv e $ 2 5 7 m ill i o n i n c o m ­ p e n s a t io n .

H . P e c k h a m , Pontiac a n d the Indian Uprising (C h ic a g o , 1 9 4 7 ) , 6 6 .

4 0 . H o w a rd

4 1 . P o n tin g a n d G ib b in s , Out o f Irrelevance, 8 1 . 4 2 . T h e fin d in g s o f t h e R o y a l C o m m is s io n in t o t h e D o n a ld M a rs h a ll, Jr , p r o s e c u tio n w e re re p o rte d in

2 6 . D o u g la s S a n d e rs , ‘G o v e r n m e n t A g e n c ie s in C a n ­ a d a ', in W ilc o m b E. W a s h b u r n , e d ., Handbook o f

North American Indians, 4 : History o f Indian-W hite Relations (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 8 2 . 2 7 . S e e , f o r e x a m p le , H e a th e r R o b e r ts o n , Reservations

are for Indians (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 0 ) . 1867-1979

H I , H 3. 4 4 . 'Ju s tic e s y s te m fa lls s h o r t, S id d o n sa y s', Edmonton

Journal, 2 7 M ar. 1 9 9 1 . 4 5 . S is s o n s p u b lis h e d h is m e m o ir s u n d e r t h e ti t le Judge

2 8 . R ic h a rd C . D a n ie l, A History o f Native Claims Pro­

cesses in C anada,

Globe and Mail, 2 7 J a n . 1 9 9 0 , A 9. 4 3 . 'Ju s tic e o n tr ia l', Edmonton Journal, 3 0 M ar. 1 9 9 1 ,

(O tta w a ,

1 9 8 0 ),

1 1 8 -2 1 .

o f the Far North (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 8 ) . 4 6 . S h e lle y K n a p p , 'C o u n tr y 's F irst A b o rig in a l C o u rt O p e n s T o d a y ', Calgary Herald, 6 O c t. 2 0 0 0 , B 7 .

2 9 . M o rr is Z aslo w , The Northward Expansion o f Canada

1 9 1 4 - 1 9 6 7 (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 8 ), 1 5 1 .

4 7 . 'A

b r e a k th r o u g h

in

K a n e s a ta k e ',

The Gazette,

M o n tr e a l, 2 7 D e c . 1 9 9 6 .

3 0 . DINA file 1 / 3 - 1 1 , v o l. 1 , E. F a irc lo u g h t o E .D . F u l­ to n , 9 N o v . 1 9 6 1 ; c ite d b y D a n ie l, History o f Native

Claims, 2 1 7 .

D iu b a ld o , Stefansson and the Canadian Arctic (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 4 5 - 6 0 .

4 8 . R ic h a rd

4 9 . R ic h a rd D iu b a ld o , The Government o f Canada and

3 1 . T h is a c c o u n t is b a s e d o n D a r le n e A b re u F e rreira,

the Inuit, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 6 7 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) , 7 4 . S e e a lso

'N e e d N o t G re e d ; T h e L u b ic o n L a k e C r e e B a n d

R .M . H ill, 'R e in d e e r R e s o u rc e i n t h e M a c k e n z ie

C la im

in

H i s to r i c a l

P e r s p e c t iv e ',

MA

th e s i s

(U n iv e r s ity o f A lb e rta , 1 9 9 0 ). S e e a ls o N a ila C le r ic i, 'T h e S p ir it S till S in g s a t L u b ic o n

L ak e: In d ia n

R ig h ts in C a n a d a , a C a s e S tu d y ', Proceedings o f the

7th International Convention o f Canadian Studies, C a ta n ia , Italy , 1 9 8 8 ; B o y c e R ic h a rd s o n , 'W re s tlin g w ith th e C a n a d ia n S y s te m : A D e c a d e o f L u b ic o n F r u s tr a tio n ', in R ic h a rd s o n , e d ., D rum Beat: Anger and Renewal in Indian Country (O tta w a , 1 9 8 9 ), 2 3 1 -6 4 .

port o f the Department for the Fiscal Year Ended March 3 1 , 1 9 4 4 (O tta w a , 1 9 4 4 ) , 7 0 . S e e a ls o J .K . Stager, 'R e in d e e r h e r d in g as p riv a te e n te rp ris e in C a n a d a ',

Polar Record 2 2 , 1 3 7 ( 1 9 8 4 ) : 1 2 7 - 3 6 . A fic tio n a liz e d r e -c r e a tio n o f th e d riv e is b y A lle n R o y E v an s,

Reindeer Trek (T o r o n to , 1 9 4 6 ) .

C ree

D e fy J a p a n e s e

5 2 . D iu b a ld o , L o g g in g

P la n s ',

Akwesasne Notes 2 2 , 6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 1 0 - 1 9 . 34 . Ja c k

5 0 . C a n a d a , D e p a r tm e n t o f M in e s a n d R eso u rces, Re­

5 1 . Z aslow , Northward Expansion, 1 4 5 .

3 2 . F e rre ira , 'N e e d N o t G r e e d ', 9 3 . 3 3 . 'L u b i c o n

D e lta — 1 9 6 8 ', in W o n d e r s , e d ., Canada's Changing

North, 2 2 5 - 9 .

D a n y lc h u k , '" F r e s h

Government o f Canada and the Inuit,

1 3 0 -1 . 5 3 . Z aslow , Northward Expansion, 1 4 5 - 6 .

s t a r t" s o u g h t o n

la n d

c la im ta lk s ', Edmonton Journal, 2 3 M a y 1 9 9 5 , A 7.

5 4 . C .S . M a c k in n o n , 'T h e 1 9 5 8 G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y R ev ersa l in K e e w a tin ', in K e n n e t h S. C o a te s a n d

Edm onton

W illia m R . M o r r is o n , ed s, For Purposes o f Dominion

3 6 . A n a s ta s ia M . S h k iln y k , A Poison Stronger Than Love:

5 5 . D ia m o n d J e n n e s s , Eskimo Administration: II. Can­

3 5 . 'C r e e

s ig n

la n d -c la im

a g r e e m e n t ',

Journal, 2 0 D e c . 1 9 9 0 , 1. The Destruction o f an Ojibwa Community (N ew H aven, 1 9 8 5 ), 1 2 3 -3 2 .

(T o r o n to , 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 6 2 .

ada (M o n tr e a l, 1 9 7 2 ) , 9 . 5 6 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 1 1 8 .

3 7 . 'L a n d c la im s o ff ic e g e ttin g n o re s u lts ', Edmonton

5 7 . J e n n e s s , Eskimo Administration: II, 5 9 - 6 4 ; Z aslow ,

Journal, 2 6 M a y 1 9 9 6 , A 3. A m o r e p o s itiv e p ic tu r e is p r e s e n te d b y t h e Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , II, p a rt

Northward Expansion, 1 6 8 - 7 3 . S e e a ls o 'D is p la c e d I n u it w a it s ix y e a rs fo r a n e w v illa g e ', Globe and Mail, 1 4 A u g. 1 9 8 4 ; E. L y all, An Arctic Man (E d­

2, 547. 3 8 . O n t h e d iffic u ltie s , s e e J . R ic k P o n tin g , e d .. Arduous

m o n to n , 1 9 7 9 ). 5 8 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 1 1 8 -

Journey: Canadian Indians and Decolonization (T o­

30;

r o n to , 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 9 9 . F o r T h o m a s R. B e rg e r's im p re s ­

1 6 6 - 7 . O n e o b s e r v e r lik e n e d th e n o r th e r n s e rv ic e

s io n , se e Village Journey (N ew Y ork, 1 9 8 5 ) .

o ffic e r s w h o w e re p la c e d i n c h a r g e o f th e s e v illa g e s

3 9 . 'T h e y 'r e a c tu a lly g iv in g m o n e y a w ay in A lask a',

Ottawa Citizen, 1 2 O c t. 1 9 9 6 .

M a c k in n o n ,

'G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y

R e v e rsa l',

t o t h e a g e n ts o n A m e r in d ia n re serv es. 5 9 . R o b e rt G . W illia m s o n , Eskimo Underground: Socio-

500 Notes Cultural Change in the Canadian Central Arctic (U p ­ p s a la , 1 9 7 4 ), 8 2 . S e e a ls o D a v id E. Y o u n g , ed .,

Health Care Issues in the Canadian North (E d m o n ­ to n ,

1 9 8 8 );

P .G .

D e v e lo p m e n ts

in

N ix o n ,

'E a r ly

A d m in is tr a tiv e

F ig h tin g T u b e r c u lo s is

am ong

C a n a d ia n In u it: B r in g in g S ta te In s titu tio n s B a c k In ', Northern Review 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) : 6 7 . W id e s p re a d a d o p ­ t i o n o f th e fo o d s , c lo t h in g , a n d h o u s in g o f n o n N a tiv e s h a s

been

seen

as in ju r io u s

to

N a tiv e

tu r y ', North 1 3 , 4 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 4 8 - 5 0 . 6 8 . G o r d o n R o b e r ts o n , Memoirs o f a Very Civil Servant (T o ro n to , 2 0 0 0 ) ; c ite d b y A n d re w D u ffy a n d Paul G e s s e ll, ‘R e tire d T ru d e a u " c h o s e t o d e s tr o y '" , Otta­

wa Citizen, 8 O c t. 2 0 0 0 , A 2 . 6 9 . Z aslow , Northward Expansion, 3 0 1 . 7 0 . S te fa n s s o n h a d led th e s c ie n c e -o r ie n te d C an ad ian A rc tic E x p e d itio n , 1 9 1 3 - 1 8 , w h ic h a m o n g o th er

h e a lth . Z aslow , Northward Expansion, 1 5 3 . 6 0 . 'D e c a d e s later, I n u it fa r h o r n h o m e ', Toronto Star, 2 7 D e c . 1 9 8 8 ; 'L o s t In u k 's fa m ily fo u n d , N .W .T . b rin g s h im h o m e ', Edmonton Journal, 5 J a n . 1 9 8 9 ; 'F a m ilie s s till s e a r c h fo r I n u it s e n t s o u th in '4 0 s a n d '5 0 s ', ib id ., 2 3 J a n . 1 9 8 9 ; 'I n u i t u n lo c k m y s ­ te r y o f 1 9 5 0 s e p id e m ic ', ib id ., 2 3 J a n . 1 9 8 9 ; T n u it T e e n fin d s h is fa m ily — a t la s t', ib id ., 6 J u l y 1 9 8 9 ; 'B u ria l lo c a t io n s b r in g p e a c e o f m in d ', ib id ., 2 4 Ju n e 1990. 6 1 . M ilto n M .R . F r e e m a n , 'T r a d itio n a n d c h a n g e : p ro ­ b le m s a n d p e r s is te n c e i n t h e I n u it d ie t', in I. d e G a r in e a n d G .A . H a rris o n , ed s, Coping with Un­ certainty in Food Supply (O x fo rd , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 6 . 6 2 . ‘O tta w a m u s t p a y I n u it fo r r e lo c a t io n : r e p o rt', The

Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 0 J u n e 1 9 9 0 , B 4 . F o r b a c k ­ g r o u n d i n f o r m a tio n , se e M i l to n M .R . F r e e m a n , ‘T h e G r is e F io rd P r o je c t', i n D a v id D a m a s , e d .,

Handbook o f North American Indians, 5 : Arctic (W a s h in g to n , 1 9 8 4 ) , 6 7 6 - 8 2 .

th in g s m a p p e d a n d c a rrie d o u t g e o lo g ic a l studies. B u t se e J e n n i f e r N iv e n , The Ice Master: The Doomed

1 9 1 3 Voyage o f the Karluk (N e w Y o rk , 2 0 0 0 ) , a his­ to r ic a l a c c o u n t o f t h e s ta r t o f t h e w h ic h

S t e fa n s s o n

a p p a r e n tly

ex p ed itio n ,

aban don ed

w hen

t h e ir s h ip , t h e Karluk, b e c a m e tr a p p e d in th e ice n o r t h o f A lask a. F o r a rev iew , se e R ic h a rd M artyn , 'V o y a g e o f t h e d a m n e d ', Toronto Star, 1 7 D e c . 2 0 0 0 , D 12, D 13. 7 1 . V ilh ja lm u r S te fa n s s o n , The Friendly Arctic: The Story

o f Five Years in Polar Regions (N e w Y ork, 1 9 4 3 ). See a ls o W illia m R. M o r r is o n , Under the Flag: Canadian Sovereignty and the Native People in Northern Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 8 4 ) , 7 4 - 7 . 7 2 . M a c k in n o n , 'G o v e r n m e n t P o lic y R e v e rsa l', 1 6 6 -7 . 7 3 . Z aslo w ,

Northward Expansion, 2 7 7 - 9 . M a ry b elle

M itc h e ll, From Talking C h ief to a Native Corporate

Elite (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 6 ) , 1 6 0 ff . 7 4 . 'P r e s c r ip tio n fo r N o r t h b e g in s w ith b e t te r h o u s­

6 3 . 'N o a p o lo g y fr o m th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t o u p ­ r o o te d

6 7 . A b e O k p ik , 'B e w ild e r e d H u n te rs i n th e 2 0 th C en ­

I n u it', Edmonton Journal, 2 0

N ov.

1990;

i n g ',

Edm onton Journal,

19

M ay

1991.

N ellie

C o u m o y e a , t h e d a u g h te r o f a N o rw e g ia n trapper

'O tta w a u p r o o te d I n u it fo r A rc tic " s o v e r e ig n t y " ',

a n d a n In u v ia lu it m o th e r , g rew u p o n a tr a p lin e in

ib id ., 2 6 J u n e 1 9 9 1 ; 'S tu d y d is p u te s I n u it re lo c a ­

t h e M a c k e n z ie D e lta .

t i o n ', ib id .

7 5 . D iu b a ld o , Government o f Canada and the Inuit, 1 -7 .

6 4 . T h e I n u i t r e lo c a tio n s o f 1 9 3 9 - 6 3 a re stu d ie d b y

S e e a ls o D iu b a ld o , ‘Y o u C a n 't K eep t h e N ativ e

F ra n k Ja m e s T e ste r a n d P e te r K u lch y s k i, Tammar-

N a tiv e ', i n C o a te s a n d M o r r is o n , ed s, For Purposes

niit (Mistakes) (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 9 4 ) . S e e a ls o Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, I, 4 1 I f f .,

o f Dom inion, 1 7 1 - 8 5 .

a n d t h e th r e e -v o lu m e i n t e r im

r e p o r t issu e d in

1994

The High Arctic

u n d e r th e

g e n e r a l tit le ,

Relocation.

7 6 . A la n n a

M i t c h e l l,

'R u m b le s

fr o m

th e

A rc tic ',

Ottawa Citizen, 1 5 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A l , A 4 ; K a te Ja im e t, 'I n u i t w o m a n tr a v e ls t o T h e H a g u e t o w a r n w orld o f c lim a t e c r is is ’, ib id .

6 5 . F re e m a n , 'T h e G r is e F io rd P r o je c t', 6 8 2 . A lso F re e ­ m a n , 'P a tro n s , L e a d ers a n d V a lu es in a n E s k im o S e ttle m e n t ', p a p e r p r e s e n te d a t t h e s y m p o s iu m , T h e C o n te m p o r a r y C u ltu r a l S itu a tio n o f t h e N o r ­ th e r n F o re s t In d ia n s o f N o r th A m e r ic a a n d th e

Chapter 27 1. A lla n G . H arper, 'C a n a d a 's I n d ia n A d m in is tra tio n : T h e In d ia n A c t', América Indigena 5 , 3 ( 1 9 4 6 ) : 3 1 3 .

E s k im o o f N o r th A m e ric a a n d G r e e n la n d , in Ver-

2 . J . R ick P o n t in g a n d R o g e r G ib b in s , Out o f Irrele­

handlungen des XXXVIII. Intemationalen Amerikanistenkongresses (S tu ttg a r t-M ü n c h e n , 1 9 6 8 ) .

vance: A Socio-Political Introduction to Indian Affairs in Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 0 0 ; G u r s to n D a ck s, A Choice o f Futures: Politics in the Canadian North (To­

6 6 . T ra d itio n a lly , I n u it d id n o t h a v e fa m ily n a m e s . T h is , o f co u rs e , w a s c h a r a c te r is tic o f tr ib a l p e o p le s e v e ry w h e re . T h e d is c s y s te m w a s in tr o d u c e d in 1 9 4 1 a n d w as d is c o n tin u e d in 1 9 7 1 w h e n I n u it w e re p ersu a d e d t o a d o p t s u r n a m e s .

r o n to , 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 9 9 . 3 . H a ro ld C a r d in a l, The Unjust Society: The Tragedy of

Canada's Indians (E d m o n to n , 1 9 6 9 ) , 4 4 . 4 . ‘I n d ia n A ffa irs' $ 2 .5 - b i ll i o n b u y s a lo t o f re d ta p e ',

Notes Edmonton Journal, 2 4 N o v . 1 9 8 0 . S e e a ls o 'S c ra p

1 9 6 9 b y A g n es S e m m le r, a G w ic h 'in M é tis w h o b e ­

In d ia n A ffairs, r e p o rt u rg e s ', ib id ., 2 2 N o v . 1 9 9 0 ;

c a m e its firs t p re s id e n t, a n d N e llie C o u m o y e a .

‘S c ra p t h e I n d ia n A c t’, ib id ., 2 3 N o v . 1 9 9 0 .

W ith h e a d q u a rte rs in O tta w a , i t b e c a m e t h e v o ic e

5 . K e n n e t h S. C o a te s a n d W illia m R. M o r r is o n , Land

o f the M idnight Sun: A History o f the Yukon

tw e e n t h e J a m e s B a y C r e e a n d t h e W h it e m a n

(E d m o n to n , 1 9 8 8 ), 2 8 1 - 2 . 6 . J.F . M a r c h a n d , 'T rib a l E p id e m ic s in Y u k o n ’, Journal

o f the American Medical Association 1 2 3 (1 9 4 3 ) : 1 0 1 9 -2 0 .

D e 'A th

and

G r e g o ry

M ic h a le n k o ,

'H ig h

T e c h n o lo g y a n d O r ig in a l P e o p le s: T h e C a s e o f D e fo r e s ta tio n in P a p u a N e w G u in e a a n d C a n a d a ', i n J o h n H . B o d ley , e d ., Tribal Peoples and Develop­

mental Issues: A Global Overview (M o u n ta in V iew , C a lif., 1 9 8 8 ), 1 7 7 - 8 ; A .M .A . S h k iln y k , A Poison Stronger Than Love: The Destruction o f an Ojibway Com munity (N e w H a v e n , 1 9 8 5 ) ; G e o r g e H u tc h is o n a n d D ic k W a lla c e , Grassy Narrows (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 7 ) ; S h e r ri A ik e n h e a d , 'T o u g h S tru g g le B a c k ', Maclean's 9 9 , 2 8 ( 1 4 J u ly 1 9 8 6 ) : 19 . 9 . D a ck s, A Choice o f Futures, 1 4 8 . O n e -th ir d o f th e w o r ld 's fr e s h w a te r is fo u n d in C a n a d a , h a lf o f w h ic h is in Q u e b e c . P a u l C h a r e s t, 'L e s b a rra g e s h y d r o -é le c tr iq u e s e n te r r ito ir e s m o n t a g n a is e t leu rs e ffe ts su r les c o m ­ m u n a u tés

Q u e b e c , th r e e Q u e b e c C r o w n c o r p o r a tio n s , th e

a m é r i n d i e n n e s ',

Recherches am érindi­

ennes au Québec 9 , 4 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 3 2 3 - 3 7 ; 'S o u th e r n I n d ia n L a k e a n d H y d ro D e v e lo p m e n t', e d ite d p r o ­ o f M a n it o b a

th e r n Q u e b e c I n u it A s s o c ia tio n , a n d t h e g o v e r n ­ m e n t o f C a n a d a . It in v o lv e d 6 , 6 5 0 C r e e liv in g in e ig h t c o m m u n itie s a n d 4 , 3 8 6 I n u it i n 1 5 c o m m u ­ n itie s . 1 9 . H a rv e y F e it, ‘L e g itim a tio n a n d A u to n o m y in J a m e s Bay C ree R esp o n ses to

H y r d o -E le c tric D e v e lo p ­

m e n t ', i n N o e l D y ck , e d ., Indigenous Peoples and the

Nation-State: 'Fourth World' Politics in Canada, Australia and Norway (S t J o h n 's , 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 8 - 9 . F o r a n o v e rv ie w o f t h e tr e a ty 's im p a c t, see J a m e s F. H orn ig , e d ., Social and Environmental Impacts o f the Jam es Bay Hydroelectric Project ( M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 9 ) . 2 0 . James Bay an d Northern Quebec Agreem ent Im ­

plementation Review February 1 9 8 2 (O tta w a , 1 9 8 2 ) .

10. H o w ev e r, th e r e w as c o n c e r n in s o m e q u a r te r s . S e e

E n v ir o n m e n ta l

C o u n c il,

W in n ip e g , 1 9 J a n . 1 9 7 3 . 11. C h a r le s E. H en d ry , Beyond Traplines: Assessment o f

the Work o f the Anglican Church o f Canada with Canada's Native Peoples (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 9 ) . S e e a lso H u g h a n d K a rm e l M c C u llu m , This Land Is Not for Sale (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 5 ) . A n e a r lie r e x a m in a tio n o f th e issu e w as J o h n M e llin g 's Right to a Future: The Native Peoples o f Canada (T o r o n to , 1 9 6 7 ). 12. T h e

(N ew B ru n s w ic k , N J, 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 0 3 .

G r a n d C o u n c il o f t h e C ré é s ( o f Q u e b e c ), th e N o r­

5 N o v . 1 9 9 0 , A 4.

c e e d in g s

S ta te ', in P e te r S k a ln ik , ed ., Outwitting the State 1 8 . T h e a g r e e m e n t w as s ig n e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f

7. 'I n d ia n s e a t in g c o n t a m in a te d fis h ', Globe and Mail, 8 . C o lin

o f t h e In u v ia lu it. 1 7 . C ite d b y C o lin S c o tt, 'Id e o lo g y o f R e c ip ro c ity b e ­

C a t h o l i c s t a te m e n t,

by th e

a d m in is tr a tiv e

b o a r d o f t h e C a n a d ia n C o n fe r e n c e o f C a t h o lic B is h o p s , fir s t a p p e a re d in The Catholic Register, 11 O c t. 1 9 7 5 , a n d h a s s in c e b e e n p u b lis h e d as a p a m ­ p h le t. 13. 'N e w r o le i n c h u r c h c o u ld a id s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t, n a ­ tiv e s s a y ', Edmonton Journal, 1 8 A ug. 1 9 8 8 ; 'A n g li­ c a n s c h o o s e firs t n a tiv e b is h o p ', ib id ., 5 N o v . 1 9 8 8 . 14. 'I n v e s tig a tin g a d iffe r e n t fa i t h ', Globe and Mail, 1 8 M ay 1991.

2 1 . S ta n le y W a rn e r a n d R a y m o n d C o p p in g er, 'H y d ro ­ e le c tr ic P ow er D e v e lo p m e n t a t Ja m e s Bay : E sta b ­ lis h in g a F ra m e o f R e fe re n c e ', in H o m ig , ed ., Social

and Environmental Impacts, 1 9 - 3 8 ; P h ilip A u th ie r a n d G r a e m e H a m ilto n , 'Q u e b e c sh elv e s G re a t W h a le ',

The Gazette, M o n tre a l, 1 9 N ov. 1 9 9 4 , A l , A 8. 2 2 . R h é a l S é g u in , T n n u , Q u e b e c , O tta w a s e t k e y n e g o ­ ti a t io n

te r m s ',

Globe and Mail, 2 7

M ar.

2000;

A llis o n L a m p e rt, 'A v a la n c h e w a r n in g u n h e e d e d : C o ro n e r . Q u e b e c m u s t d e v e lo p p r e v e n tio n p la n s, r e p o rt sa y s', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 1 9 Apr. 2 0 0 0 ; ‘Q u e b e c C r e e E x p a n d A n ti-L o g g in g C a m p a ig n ',

CBC Newsworld Online, 1 9 M a y 2 0 0 0 ; J i m B ro n s k ill, 'Q u e b e c n a tiv e s

s h o u ld

h a v e sa y i n

s e c e s s io n :

p a p e r', National Post, 1 9 J u n e 2 0 0 0 . 2 3 . B e rg e r

C o m m u n ity

H e a r in g s ,

R a in e r

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'D ia v ik

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N a tiv e S o c ia l M o v e m e n t in C a n a d a ', i n L o n g a n d

p a re d b y t h e In s titu te fo r R e s e a r c h a n d P u b lic Pol­

O liv e P a tric ia D ic k a s o n , ed s, Visions o f the Heart

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m ent and the Canadian Confederation (S a s k a to o n , 1 9 8 0 ). 3 9 . P o n tin g , e d ., Arduous Journey, 3 1 8 . A s tu d y o f t h e le g a l a s p e c ts in v o lv e d is B r ia n S c h w a rtz , First Principles: Constitutional Reform with Respect to the Aboriginal Peoples o f Canada, 1 9 8 2 - 1 9 8 4 (K in g s to n , O n t., 1 9 8 5 ).

1 9 8 9 ) , 1 1 0 - 2 1 . F o r t h e e a r ly stru g g le s fo r resp o n si­ b le g o v e r n m e n t, se e L e w is H . T h o m a s , The Struggle

fo r Responsible G overnm ent in the North-West Territories 1 8 7 0 - 9 7 (T o r o n to , 1 9 7 8 ) , 2 3 4 - 6 3 . 4 9 . D a ck s, A Choice o f Futures, 9 2 - 3 ; K e n n e t h Coates a n d J u d i th P o w ell, The M odem North: People, Poli­

tics, and the Rejection o f Colonialism (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 9 ). 5 0 . K e rry A b el, D rum Songs (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g sto n , 1 9 9 3 ), 2 5 8 - 6 1 . 5 1 . M a rg a re t V in c e n t T e h a r io lin a , La nation huronne,

son histoire, sa culture, son esprit (Q u é b e c , 1 9 8 4 ), 3 1 7 -1 8 . 5 2 . S e e C h a p te r 1 7 , n 7 . 5 3 . K im

Lunm an,

'N a tiv e

c h ie f

nam ed

to

B .C .

C a b in e t', Globe and Mail, 2 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A 4 . Besides r e s ig n in g as h e a d o f t h e F irs t N a tio n s S u m m it,

Notes 503 C h i e f J o h n a ls o s te p p e d d o w n a s c h i e f n e g o t ia t o r

c e p t o f " t e r r it o r y " ', Ottawa Citizen, 2 1 Apr. 1 9 9 9 ;

fo r h is o w n b a n d , t h e T l'a z t 'e n n a t i o n i n n o r t h ­

J u le s R ich e r, 'C h ir a c v is ite le N u n a v u t e n c o m p a g ­

w e s te r n B C , in o rd e r t o a c c e p t t h e c a b in e t p o s t.

54. 'A lb e rta n a tiv e s e n a to r c o n s id e r e d q u i t t i n g o v e r GST', Edmonton Journal, 5 J a n . 1 9 9 1 . 5 5 . Report o f the Cree-Naskapi Commission, 1 9 8 8 , 1 0 .

Report on Business Magazine (S e p t. 1 9 9 0 ) : 4 6 - 7 ; 'In u it, g o v 't strik e la n d d e a l' a n d 'I n u it d r e a m c a r­ rie s h ig h

5 6 . Ib id ., 4 5 . 5 7 . S a lly W e a v e r, 'I n d ia n P o lic y in t h e N e w C o n s e r ­ v a tiv e G o v e r n m e n t, P a rt

11: T h e

N ie ls e n T ask F o r ce

i n t h e C o n t e x t o f R e c e n t P o lic y I n itia tiv e s ', Native

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n ie d e C h r é t ie n ', Le Droit, 6 S e p t. 1 9 9 9 . 6 8 . K e ith W a tt, 'U n e a s y P a rtn e r s ', The Globe and Mail

fr o m

N ew

Y o rk t o

Tokyo

fe a s t o n

N o r th 's G u e r in w o o lly m u s k -o x ', Edmonton Jour­

nal, 2 1 M a y 1 9 9 1 . M u s k -o x m e a t w as r e c e n tly a w a rd ed a g o ld m e d a l b y t h e C h e fs o f A m e ric a ; t h e w o o l, e ig h t tim e s w a r m e r b y w e ig h t t h a n s h e e p 's w o o l, c o m p e te s w ith c a s h m e r e .

61. Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls ( O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ), IV, 4 2 0 . 6 2 . In th i s m a tte r , t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t fo llo w e d t h e r e p o r t o f its T ask F o r c e t o R ev ie w C o m p r e ­ h e n s iv e C la im s P o lic y (C o o lic a n R e p o r t), w h ic h

p ric e ta g ', Edmonton Journal, 1 7 D ec.

1991. 6 9 . W a lte r

R u d n ic k i,

'T h e

P o lit ic s

o f A g g re s s io n :

I n d ia n T e r m in a tio n in t h e 1 9 8 0 s ', Native Studies

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Edmonton Journal, 2 0 J u n e 1 9 9 1 . 7 1 . T h e p ro s a n d c o n s o f t h e N u n a v u t p ro p o s a l a re d isc u s se d i n J o h n M e r rit e t a l., Nunavut Political

Choices and Manifest Destiny (O tta w a , 1 9 8 9 ) . S e e a ls o Ja c q u e s M . S h o re , 'A to a s t t o N u n a v u t's b ir t h ',

Globe and Mail, 1 Apr. 1 9 9 9 , A 2. 7 2 . 'N .W .T . re s id e n ts n a rro w ly a p p r o v e N u n a v u t’, Tire

Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 5 M a y 1 9 9 2 ; 'A c c o rd s ig n e d to c r e a te N u n a v u t b y '9 9 ', Edmonton Journal, 3 1 O c t. 1 9 9 2 . S e e a ls o E. Q u in n D u ffy , The Road to Nuna­ vut: The Progress o f the Eastern Arctic Inuit since the Second World War (K in g s to n a n d M o n tr e a l, 1 9 8 8 ) . 7 3 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, II, p a r t 1, 149.

u rg e d t h a t e x t in g u is h m e n t o f a ll A b o rig in a l rig h ts

74. R e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e I n u it a n d t h e RCMP h a d

b e a b a n d o n e d as a r e q u ir e m e n t fo r a c la im s e ttle ­

b e e n s tra in e d e v e r s in c e t h e la tte r's c a m p a ig n in

Living Treaties: Lasting Agreem ents

t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s t o k ill I n u it sle d d o g s o n th e

m e n t.

See

g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y s p re a d d ise a se s a n d w e re a d a n ­

(O tta w a , 1 9 8 5 ) , 4 3 . 6 3 . 'D e n e -M e tis la n d d e a l d e a d , S id d o n sa y s ', Edm on­

g e r t o t h e c o m m u n itie s . T h e I n u it c o n s id e r e d t h e

ton Journal 8 N o v . 1 9 9 0 ; 'L a n d c la im s b a c k to

d o g s a n im p o r ta n t p a rt o f t h e ir life s ty le . T h e RCMP

sq u a r e o n e ', ib id ., 2 4 N o v . 1 9 9 0 .

la te r c h a n g e d its ta c tic s a n d a p o lo g iz e d t o t h e N a ­

6 4 . D e h C h o F irs t N a tio n , Declaration o f Rights, 1 9 9 3 , 1.

S e e a ls o Report o f the Royal Commission on Aborig­

inal Peoples, IV, 4 2 7 . 1 9 9 1 ; 'G w i c h 'i n I n d ia n s b a c k $ 7 5 M

la n d -

c la im s d e a l', ib id ., 2 2 S e p t. 1 9 9 1 . A lso , Report o f the

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, IV, 4 2 6 . 6 6 . Ib id ., Ill, 2 4 5 . 67. J ill

M ahoney,

d o g s k ille d a s ix -y e a r-o ld g irl in Iq a lu it. T h is tim e a c o m p r o m is e w a s w o rk e d o u t, w ith t h e d o g s b e in g b a n n e d fr o m c e r t a in a re a s. J a n i c e T ib b e tts , 'W h e n

6 5 . 'I n d ia n s r e a c h r e g io n a l d e a l', Edmonton Journal, 1 4 Ju ly

tiv e s. I n 1 9 9 8 t h e d is p u te b o ile d o v e r a g a in w h e n

M o u n tie s s h o t d o w n sled d o g s ’, Ottawa Citizen, 3 0 M ar. 1 9 9 9 ; A d ria n H u m p h rie s , 'N e w c o m p r o m is e m a y sa v e Iq a lu it's d o g sle d tr a d itio n ', National Post, 2 5 J a n . 2 0 0 1 , A 2. 7 5 . A n d re w

'O n

a

fr o s t y

n o rth e r n

n ig h t ,

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Monitor, 5 Apr. 1 9 9 9 ; R ic h a rd W a g a m e s e , 'L in e s o n t h e la n d : N u n a v u t ig n o r e s t h e a n c i e n t n a tiv e c o n ­

D u ffy ,

'N u n a v u t F in a n c e s

in

a m e s s ',

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S e p t. 2 0 0 0 ; R o b W eb er,

'N e w g o v e r n m e n t, o ld p r o b le m : S h iv e r in g in N u n ­ a v u t', Toronto Star, 8 Apr. 2 0 0 0 , K 4.

7 7 . J e n n i f e r P r itc h e tt, ‘N u n a v u t MP fa c e s t h e fu tu r e ', a n d N ic k F o rster, 'I t w ill g iv e u s b a c k o u r liv e s ', b o th in Ottawa Citizen, 1 Apr. 1 9 9 9 . 7 8 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

504 Notes v , 2 ; M a r y b e lle M itc h e ll, From Talking C h ief to Na­

3 . People to People, Nation to Nation: Highlights from the

tive Corporate Elite (M o n tr e a l a n d K in g s to n , 1 9 9 6 ) ,

Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

esp . c h . 6.

(O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , ix . A lso issu e d in F r e n c h , C ree, and

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In u k titu t. 4 . The

Gazette, M o n tr e a l,

4

Feb.

1993.

A lso see

'M o v e d fa r fr o m th e i r h o m e s , n a tiv e s s e e k a dead­

N a tio n , N o r th w e s t T e rrito rie s , 1 9 7 6 - 8 3 . 8 0 . Christian Science Monitor, 1 8 O c t. 1 9 9 0 , 1 1 .

ly e s c a p e ', Globe and Mail, 6 F e b . 1 9 9 6 .

8 1 . 'I n n u c h i e f w a r n s g o v e r n m e n t', Globe and Mail, 2

5 . 'A s a lu te t o S a d d le L ak e, P o u n d m a k e r 's a n d N echi',

O c t. 1 9 9 0 . A su rv e y o f v a r io u s A m e r in d ia n p rio r i­

Edmonton Journal, 7 S e p t. 1 9 9 3 , A 8; 'T h e m en d in g

tie s is in B o y c e R ic h a rd s o n , e d ., D rum Beat: Anger

o f y o u n g liv e s ', ib id ., 2 8 J u n e 1 9 9 3 .

and Renewal in Indian Country (O tta w a , 1 9 8 9 ) . S e e a ls o J . A n th o n y L o n g a n d M e n n o B o ld t, ed s, Gov­ ernments in Conflict? Provinces and Indian Nations in Canada (T o ro n to , 1 9 8 8 ) ; L e ro y L ittle Bear, M e n n o B o ld t, a n d J. A n th o n y L o n g , ed s, Pathways to SelfDetermination: Canadian Indians and the Canadian State (T o r o n to , 1 9 8 4 ) .

6 . 'D e s tr u c tio n o f s c h o o l a t D a v is I n l e t i s n 't a n iso­

8 2 . Ju d g e m e n t o f Ig lo lio rte , P .C .J., in Regina v. Daniel

8 . T o n d a M a c C h a r le s , ‘O tta w a m o v e s t o h e lp add ict­

la te d in c id e n t : e x - c h ie f ', The Gazette, M o n tre a l, 4 J a n . 1 9 9 7 ; S te p h e n T h o r n e , 'Y o u n g D a v is In le t na­ tiv e s c h a r g e d in s c h o o l v a n d a lis m ', Globe and Mail, 4 J a n . 1 9 9 7 , A 4. 7 . '$ 8 5 M d e a l s e n d s I n n u to n e w h o m e ', Edmonton

Journal, 1 0 J u l y 1 9 9 6 .

Ashini et a l , P ro v in c ia l C o u r t o f N e w fo u n d la n d ,

ed I n n u c h ild r e n ', Toronto Star, 1 4 D e c . 2 0 0 0 , A2;

D is tric t o f H a p p y V a lle y /G o o s e Bay , L a b ra d o r, 1 8

'I n n u N a tio n p r e s id e n t c o n d e m n s O tta w a fo r tak­

Apr. 1 9 8 9 . S e e a ls o D a n ie l A s h in i, ‘D a v id C o n ­ fr o n ts G o lia th : T h e In n u o f U n g a v a v e rsu s th e NATO A llia n c e ', in

R ic h a rd s o n , e d ., Drum Beat,

4 5 -7 0 .

i n g o v e r ', National Post, 2 5 J a n . 2 0 0 1 , A 1 0 . 9 . A d ria n H u m p h re y s , 'T a k e o u r k id s, d e s p e ra te Inn u p le a d ', National Post, 1 7 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A 3 ; 'I n n u ask o ff ic ia ls

8 3 . R a n d a ll J . B ro w n , 'S m a llb o y 's C a m p : A C o n te m ­

to

rem o v e

g a s - s n if fin g

c h ild r e n

from

to w n ', Ottawa Citizen, 1 7 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A 3; Kevin

p o ra r y E x a m p le o f a R e v ita liz a tio n M o v e m e n t ',

C o x , 'G a s - s n if fin g I n n u y o u th s ta k e n t o d e to x bar­

u n p u b lis h e d m a n u s c r ip t. T h e e v e n t re c e iv e d w id e

r a c k s ',

p re ss c o v e r a g e ; fo r e x a m p le , 'H e re w e are , h e r e w e

M a c C h a r le s , 'O tta w a m o v e s t o h e lp a d d ic te d Inn u

stay, c h i e f say s: S m a llb o y 's s q u a tte r s l o o k t o o ld

Globe

an d

M ail,

22

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s o n , 'N a tiv e s s e e k c o m p e n s a tio n fo r la n d : Lheit-

'C r e e le a d e r: " I ’ll h a n g b e fo r e m o v i n g " ', Akwesasne

L it 'e n c la im

Notes 3 , 4 (1 9 7 1 ) : 1.

seiz ed 8 0 y e a rs a g o ’, Globe and Mail, 1 M a y 1 9 92,

8 4 . 'S m a llb o y 's

C am p

seek s

s u p p o r t',

Edm onton

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P r in c e G e o r g e s ite w a s w ro n g fu lly

A 7. 1 1 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , I, 4 1 7 - 2 2 . C h a p te r 1 1 deals

Chapter 28

w ith r e lo c a t io n s in g e n e ra l.

1. Q u o te d b y R u d y P la tie l, 'V a s t c h a n g e s s o u g h t t o a id n a tiv e s ', Globe and Mail, 2 2 N o v . 1 9 9 6 , 1. 2 . G ille s G a u th ie r, ‘L e d é p a r t d ' " u n lo n g d é b a t '" , La

Presse, 2 2 n o v . 1 9 9 6 , B l ; D a n S m ith , 'N e w d e a l u r g e d fo r F irs t N a tio n s ', Toronto Star, 2 2 N o v . 1 9 9 6 ; J e a n D io n , 'A u d a c e su r le f r o n t d e l'a u t o n o m i e ', Le Devoir, 2 2 n o v . 1 9 9 6 , A 2; 'O n p ro p o s e la c r é a tio n d 'u n p a r le m e n t a u t o c h t o n e ', Le Journal de Mon­ tréal, 2 2 n o v . 1 9 9 6 ; J a c k A u bry, 'A b o rig in a ls o ffe r " la s t c h a n c e '" , The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 2 2 N ov. 1 9 9 6 , A l ; 'P a y in g t h e p ric e : H o w a r e p o r t p la y s o n tw o re se rv e s', Maclean's 1 0 9 , 4 9

1 2 . R u d y P la tie l, 'S ig n if ic a n t d if fe r e n c e s s e e n b etw ee n n a tiv e s ta n d o ffs ', Globe an d Mail, 2 9 A u g. 1 9 9 6 , A4. 1 3 . K irk M a k in , 'U .S . ju d g e w o n ’t e x tr a d ite C a n a d ia n n a tiv e a c tiv is t', Globe and Mail, 2 3 N o v . 2 0 0 0 , A l, A 5. 1 4 . P e te r M o o n , 'A lo n g s to r y o f o c c u p a tio n ', Globe

and Mail, 8 S e p t. 1 9 9 5 . 1 5 . A d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f t h e in c id e n t , b a s e d o n o ffi­ c ia l d o c u m e n ts , is b y P e te r E d w ard s, 'D e a th in th e D a rk : W h a t h a p p e n e d a t Ip p e r w a s h ', Toronto Star, 2 4 N ov. 1 9 9 6 , F l, F6.

(2 D e c . 1 9 9 6 ) :

1 6 . M ic h a e l G r a n g e , 'O f fic e r g u ilty i n Ip p e r w a s h Kill­

1 6 - 1 9 ; S c o tt F e sch u k , 'C o s t o f r e fo rm s $ 3 0 - b illio n ,

in g ', Globe and Mail, 2 9 Apr. 1 9 9 7 ; 'Ip p e r w a s h : un

r e p o r t o n A b o rig in a ls sa y s ', Globe and Mail, 2 2 N ov.

a g e n t r e c o n n u c o u p a b le ', Le Droit, O tta w a , 2 9 avril

1 9 9 6 ; M a r ty L o g a n , ‘L a s t c h a n c e fo r C a n a d a —

1 9 9 7 ; P e te r E d w ard s, 'OPP o ff ic e r g u ilty i n In d ia n 's

r e p o r t', Windspeaker 1 4 , 9 (Ja n . 1 9 9 7 ) : 1.

d e a th ', Toronto Star, 2 9 Apr. 1 9 9 7 .

Notes 505 1 7 . R u d y P la tie l, 'B a n d 's c la im fo r p a rk la n d s e ttle d ',

3 2 . S c o tt F e s c h u k a n d

Rudy

P la tie l,

'N a tiv e s w a rn

O tta w a n o t t o ig n o r e r e p o r t', Globe and Mail, 2 2

Globe and Mail, 2 2 J a n . 1 9 9 7 . 1 8 . R o ss H o w ard , 'A te r r ib le te r r ito r ia l ta n g le ', Globe

and Mail, 2 9 M a y 1 9 9 5 . T h e fig u re o f 1 1 0 p e r c e n t

N ov.

1996,

A 8. S e e

a ls o M a u r ic e

C h am pagn e,

'A u to c h to n e s : " n o t r e " d e rn iè re c h a n c e : L e ra p p o rt

w as t h e a p p a r e n t re s u lt o f d iffe r e n t b a n d s la y in g

E r a sm u s-D u s sa u lt n o u s a rriv e c o m m e u n b a u m e

o v e r la p p in g c la im s .

c iv ilis a te u r ', La Presse, 5 d é c . 1 9 9 6 , B 3 .

1 9 . F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e e a r ly p h a s e o f t h e N is g a ’a

3 3 . B r ia n L a g h i, 'N e w la w t o r e fo r m n a tiv e v o tin g ',

c la im , se e K r is tin Ja c k s o n , 'D r a w in g t h e L in e : B .C .

Globe and Mail, 1 6 J a n . 2 0 0 1 , A l ; B r ia n L ag h i,

I n d ia n s c la im a r ic h c h u n k o f t h e p r o v in c e ', Pacific

'N a tiv e s se e k ro le in N a u lt in itia tiv e ', ib id ., 1 7 J a n .

(Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer), 2 O c t. 1 9 8 8 .

2 0 0 1 , A 4.

2 0 . Nisga’a Treaty Negotiations Agreement-in-Principle,

3 4 . M ic h e lle L a lo n d e , 'A b o rig in a ls p a n e l lis te n s o n ly

issu e d jo i n t l y b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a , t h e

t o I n d ia n s ' s u p p o rte rs: MP', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l,

P r o v in c e o f B r itis h

C o lu m b ia , a n d t h e N is g a 'a

T rib a l C o u n c il, 1 5 F e b. 1 9 9 6 . T h e a g r e e m e n t i n ­ v o lv e d t h e r e tu r n o f a lm o s t 2 0 0 a r tifa c ts h e ld b y

8 M a y 1 9 9 3 , A 4. 3 5 . 'C o m m is s io n s ta ff d iv id e d o n a d v o c a c y fo r n a ­ tiv e s ', Edmonton Journal, 9 M ar. 1 9 9 5 .

t h e C a n a d ia n M u s e u m o f C iv iliz a tio n . B u zz B o u r­

3 6 . R e in fo r c in g th is r e a c tio n w as t h e r e p o rt o f th e fa il­

h o m e ’, Ottawa

u r e o f a fiv e -y e a r $ 1 b illio n fe d e r a l e c o n o m i c d e ­

don,

'N is g a 'a

a r t ifa c ts

h e a d in g

Citizen, 1 9 N o v . 1 9 9 9 .

v e lo p m e n t p ro g ra m t o m a k e a n a p p r e c ia b le d e n t

2 1 . R o ss H o w ard , 'N a tiv e s ta n d o ffs h e a t u p B C ta lk s ’,

in

A b o r ig in a l

p o v e r ty .

See

M u r ra y

B re w s te r,

Globe and Mail, 1 3 S e p t. 1 9 9 5 ; A rt W ils o n , 'N is g a 'a

'B illio n - d o lla r fu n d s p e n t o n I n d ia n p o v e r ty h a d

s ig n

little e f fe c t: s tu d y ', The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 1 6 D ec.

h is to r ic

tr e a ty

w ith

B .C .,

fe d e ra l

go v ern ­

m e n ts ', Native Network News (F eb . 1 9 9 6 ) : 1. F o r a

1 9 9 6 . A n tic ip a tin g a n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e , t h e c o m ­

n e g a tiv e v ie w o f t h e a g r e e m e n t, see F o s te r J.K .

m is s io n e r s in c lu d e d a d e ta ile d c o s t a n a ly s is in

G r ie z ic, ‘T h e N isg a ’a a g r e e m e n t: a g r e a t d e a l o r a

th e i r r e p o r t t o s u p p o rt th e ir c a s e . (Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, V, 2 3 - 5 4 . )

g r e a t s te a l? ’, Globe and Mail, 5 M ar. 1 9 9 6 .

2 2 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

3 7 . D a n S m ith , 'C o n c e p t o f A b o rig in a l " n a t i o n s " is o n e t h a t O tta w a c a n e m b r a c e ', Toronto Star, 2 3

v, 1.

N ov. 1 9 9 6 , A 12.

2 3 . Ib id ., V, 1 5 4 - 5 . 2 4 . J a m i e M o n a s ty r s k i, 'N e w b a n k in g b r a n c h ta ilo r-

3 8 . T h e g o v e r n m e n t's p o s itio n w as p re s e n te d b y A lla n

m a d e fo r A b o rig in a l n e e d s ', Wawatay News, A n is h -

M a c D o n a ld , s e n io r p o lic y a d v iser, In d ia n a n d N o r­

i n i n i e d itio n , 6 N o v . 1 9 9 7 , 2 .

th e r n A ffa irs C a n a d a , a t a c o n f e r e n c e o n a r c h a e ­

2 5 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, V, 12. 2 6 . Ib id ., II, p a r t 1, 1 5 4 -6 ; People to People, Nation to Nation, 2 9 . 2 7. Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, IV, 4 7 8 .

c o n t e x t h e ld b y P arks C a n a d a , O tta w a , 2 0 - 2 J a n . 1997. 3 9 . T h e m ix e d r e a c tio n w as re fle c te d i n n e w sp a p e r re­ p o rts. S o m e e x a m p le s : E rin A n d erssen a n d Ed w ard G r e e n s p o n , 'F e d e ra l a p o lo g y fa ils to m o llif y n a tiv e lea d ers', Globe and Mail, 8 J a n . 1 9 9 8 , A 4 ; J a c k A ubry,

2 8 . Q u o te d b y J o h n G o d d a rd , 'I n fr o m t h e c o ld ', Ca­

nadian Geographic 1 1 4 , 4 ( 1 9 9 4 ) : 3 6 - 4 7 . T h is a c ­ c o u n t is b a s e d o n h is a r tic le . S e e a ls o Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, ill, 3 9 6 , 419. 2 9 . J o h n Ib b its o n , 'F ir s t n a tiv e b a n k a C a n a d ia n firs t', 3 0 . R u d y P la tie l, 'F ir s t n a tiv e b a n k t o o p e n n e x t y e a r’,

se

d is a p p o in te d ,

b u t so m e

se e r e a s o n

fo r h o p e ',

Edmonton Journal, 8 J a n . 1 9 9 8 , A 3; L au ra E g g ertso n , 'A n A p ology , a t lo n g la s t', Toronto Star, 1 3 F e b. 1 9 9 8 , A 2 0 ; T o d M o h a m e d , 'T h e p o litic s o f s a y in g so rry ', w ere n o t in v o lv e d , h a d a c o m m e n t, i n th e p e rso n o f Z eb ed ee N u n g a k , 'A p o lo g y to In d ia n s s o o th e s a n d

Globe and Mail, 1 0 D e c . 1 9 9 6 . 'Ir w in

d iv id e s n a tiv e g r o u p s ', Ottawa Citizen, 8 J a n . 1 9 9 8 , A 3 ; J a c k A ubry, 'N a tiv e lea d ers

'R e c o n c i l i a t i o n

Ottawa Citizen, 1 M ar. 1 9 9 8 . E v en t h e In u it, w h o

The Gazette, M o n tr e a l, 1 0 D e c . 1 9 9 6 .

3 1 . H u g u e tte Y o u n g ,

o lo g ic a l re s o u rc e m a n a g e m e n t i n a la n d c la im s

c o n te n te

de

d e m i-

ja rs', The Gazette, M o n tre a l, 2 8 J a n . 1 9 9 8 .

m e s u r e s ', Le Droit, O tta w a , 1 3 d é c . 1 9 9 6 ; R u d y P la ­

4 0 . L o rn a D u e c k , 'S o r ry i s n 't g o o d e n o u g h ', Globe and

tie l, ‘B a ttle e s c a la te s o v e r I n d ia n A c t', Globe and Mail, 1 3 D e c . 1 9 9 6 ; ib id ., 'C h a n g in g t h e In d ia n

4 1 . S o m e th in g

Mail, 3 1 O c t. 2 0 0 0 . o f th e

c o m p le x i t y

of

th e

cu rren t

A c t', 1 6 D e c . 1 9 9 6 ; 'B lo c k c h a n g e s t o In d ia n A ct,

A b o rig in a l s c e n e is c a u g h t in R o n F. L a lib e r te e t a l.,

n a tio n a l c h i e f te lls C h r é t i e n ’, The Gazette, M o n t­

ed s,

re a l, 8 D e c . 1 9 9 6 .

(S a s k a to o n , 2 0 0 0 ) .

Expressions

in

C anadian

Native

Studies

506 Notes 4 2 . 'C o o n C o m e te lls n a tiv e lea d ers t o s o b e r u p ', Nation­

al Post, 2 8 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 1 , A 7; 'C o o n C o m e 's C a ll', Ottawa Citizen, 1 M ar. 2 0 0 1 , A 1 4 ; 'M r C o o n C o m e step s in t o lin e o f fire ’, Globe and Mail, 2 M ar. 2 0 0 1 , A 1 2 ; R ick M o fin a ,

'C h ie fs a r e n ’t a ll d ru n k a rd s,

Epilogue 1. E v en D ia m o n d J e n n e s s su b s crib e d to th e idea of t h e 'v a n is h in g I n d ia n '. I n h is w o rd s: 'D o u b tless all t h e tr ib e s w ill d isa p p ea r. S o m e w ill e n d u re on ly a

n a tiv e s in s is t', Ottawa Citizen, 1 M ar. 2 0 0 1 , A 4.

fe w y e a rs lo n g e r, o th e r s , lik e t h e E s k im o , m ay last

4 3 . In d ia n A ffairs a n d N o r th e r n D e v e lo p m e n t, Regis­

se v e ra l c e n tu r ie s . S o m e w ill m e rg e ste a d ily w ith the

tered Indian Population by Sex and Residence 1 9 9 9

w h ite ra ce , o th e r s w ill b e q u e a th t o fu tu re genera­

(O tta w a , 2 0 0 0 ) , x x .

tio n s o n ly a n in f in ite s im a l fr a c t io n o f th e ir blood.'

4 4 . In d ia n A ffairs a n d N o r th e r n D e v e lo p m e n t, Basic

I n a n y e v e n t, h e a d d ed , I n d ia n s h a d alread y con ­

Departmental Data 1 9 9 9 (O tta w a , F e b. 2 0 0 0 ) , 5.

tr ib u te d e v e r y th in g th e y h a d th a t w as culturally

4 5 . A su rv e y o f I n d ia n s ' leg a l p o s itio n in C a n a d a is b y P au l W illia m s , 'C a n a d a 's L aw s a b o u t A b o rig in a l P e o p le s : A B r ie f O v e rv ie w ', Law and Anthropology 1,

v a lu a b le to th e d o m in a n t c iv iliz a tio n . Je n n e s s , The

Indians o f Canada (O tta w a , 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 6 4 . 2 . M e n n o B o ld t, 'S o c ia l C o rr e la te s o f N a tio n a lis m : A

( 1 9 8 6 ) : 9 3 - 1 2 0 . T h is is a n in t e r n a t io n a l y e a r b o o k

S tu d y o f N a tiv e In d ia n L ea d ers in a C a n a d ia n In ­

p u b lis h e d b y t h e U n iv e r s ity o f V ie n n a .

te r n a l C o lo n y ', Comparative Political Studies 14, 2

4 6 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples,

(1 9 8 1 ): 2 0 5 - 3 1 . 3 . D a v e B r o w n , "M e a s u r in g t h e h a p p in e s s o f C an ­

m, 263. 4 7 . I n th e U n ite d S ta te s, t h e p r e d ic tio n is t h a t b y 2 0 5 0 t h e N a tiv e p o p u la tio n w ill r e a c h 4 . 4 m illio n , n e a r ­ ly d o u b le w h a t it is n o w . A c c o r d in g t o t h e C e n s u s B u re a u , th is is fa s te r t h a n w h ite s o r A fr ic a n -A m e r i­ c a n s , b u t slo w e r th a n H is p a n ic s , A sia n s, o r P a c ific Is la n d e rs . M a rk F o g a rty , 'C e n s u s B u re a u p re d ic ts N a tiv e A m e r ic a n p o p u la tio n s w ill d o u b le i n 5 0 y e a rs ', Indian Country Today, 1 7 N o v . 2 0 0 0 .

a d a 's e t h n i c g ro u p s: A b o rig in a ls r e p o r t lea st satis­ f a c tio n w ith life , s tu d y fin d s ', Ottawa Citizen, 18 N ov. 2 0 0 0 , C l . 4 . A la n D . M c M illa n , Native Peoples and Cultures of

Canada (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 8 8 ) , 6 . 5 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 5 v o ls (O tta w a , 1 9 9 6 ) , V, 5 . 6 . S e lw y n D ew d n e y , 'B ir th o f a C r e e -O jib w a y Style of

4 8 . T h e RCAP issu e d a s p e c ia l r e p o r t o n N a tiv e s u icid e s,

C o n te m p o r a r y A rt', in Ia n A .L. G e t ty a n d D onald

Choosing Life (O tta w a , 1 9 9 5 ) . S o m e sa w t h e r e ­

B. S m ith , ed s, One Century Later: Western Canadian Reserve Indians Since Treaty 7 (V a n c o u v e r, 1 9 7 8 ),

s p o n s ib ility o f th e h ig h s u ic id e ra te a s r e s tin g w ith th e

A m e r in d ia n

c o m m u n itie s

th e m s e lv e s .

See

S te w a r t B e ll, 'A c c e p t b la m e fo r s u ic id e s, B .C . b a n d to ld ', Edmonton Journal, 2 9 F e b . 1 9 9 6 . 4 9 . Report o f the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, V, 3 4 .

1 1 7 -2 5 . 7 . N iè d e G u id o n , 'C lif f N o te s ', Natural History 9 6 , 8 (1 9 8 7 ): 10. 8 . 'H a rp e r sp e a k s o n N a tiv e A w a re n e ss', Native Sports,

News, and Culture 2 , 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 6 . S e e a ls o P auline C o m e a u , Elijah: No Ordinary Hero (V an co u v er, 1 9 9 3 ). 9 . R ick M o fin a , 'C o o n C o m e in v ite d to Q u e b e c su m ­ m it', Ottawa Citizen, 3 1 M ar. 2 0 0 1 , A 6.

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to

th e

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c o u v e r: U n iv e r s ity o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia P ress, 1 9 9 0 . T ester, F ra n k Ja m e s , a n d P e te r K u lch y s k i. Tammamiit

D if fe r e n t V ie w o f E a rly C a n a d ia n H is to r y ', Anthro-

pologica 1 3 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 8 5 - 1 1 4 . ----------- . The Children o f Aataentsic: A History o f the Huron

B r itis h

People to 1 6 6 0 , 2 v o ls . M o n tr e a l a n d K in g sto n :

T e sts o , J o h n . Trapping is M y Life. T o r o n to : P e te r M a rtin

----------- . Natives and Newcomers: Canada's "Heroic Age"

(Mistakes).

V an cou ver:

U n iv e r s ity

of

M c G ill- Q u e e n 's U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1 9 7 6 .

C o lu m b ia P ress, 1 9 9 4 .

Reconsidered. M o n t r e a l a n d

A sso cia te s , 1 9 7 0 . T h e v e t,

A n d ré. La Cosmographie Universelle, 2

v o ls.

----------- . 'E a r ly N a tiv e N o r th

P aris: C h a u d iè re , 1 5 7 5 . ----------- . Les singularitez de la France Antarctique, e d . P au l G a ffa re l. P aris: M a is o n n e u v e ,

1878.

(R e p r in t o f

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Lower Saskatchewan River Region to 18 4 0 . W in n ip e g : U n iv e r s ity o f M a n ito b a P ress, 1 9 8 6 . T h o m a s , Lew is H. The Stmggle for Responsible Government

in the North-West Territories 1 8 7 0 -9 7 . T o ro n to : U n i­ v e rsity o f T o ro n to Press, 1 9 7 8 . (First p u b lish e d 1 9 5 6 .) T h o m a s o n , S a r a h G rey, a n d T e rr e n c e K a u fm a n . Lan­

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K in g s t o n :

M c G ill-

Q u e e n 's U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1 9 8 5 . A m e r ic a n

R e s p o n s e to

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N e w D o c u m e n ts , N e w P e rs p e c tiv e s ', M an in the

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Canadian Historical Review 4 6 , 4 (1 9 6 5 ):

Index

A a ro n (In u k a r tis t), 5 7

ag e d , c a re o f th e , 3 6 5 , 3 6 7 . See also o ld a g e p e n s io n s

A a ta e n ts ic, 4

a g e n ts , In d ia n . See In d ia n a g e n ts

a b a lo n e , 1 8 5

A g g a th a s, 2 4 3

A b b a d ie d e S a in t-C a s tin , B e rn a rd -A n s e lm e , 9 7

a g ric u ltu re , 5 0 - 2 , 5 4 - 5 , 7 0 , 8 1 - 2 , 8 4 , 8 9 , 9 3 - 4 , 1 1 2 ,

A b b a d ie d e S a in t-C a s tin , Je a n - V i n c e n t d ', 9 5 , 9 7

128, 142, 164, 196, 2 0 0 , 2 0 7 -1 1 , 234, 24 2 , 246,

A b e n a k i (W a b a n a k i), 9 1 , 9 3 - 9 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 7 - 8 ,

2 8 0 , 3 2 8 , 3 3 5 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 4 , 3 6 6 - 9 , 3 8 7 , 4 1 5 ; d e v e lo p ­

1 3 4 -7 , 1 4 3 -4 , 154, 160, 172, 190, 193, 2 0 8 , 210,

m e n t o f, 1 9 - 2 6 , 2 8 - 3 0 ; a n d h u n tin g , 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 4 ,

2 6 4 , 3 3 5 ; E a s te rn , 9 3 , 9 5 - 9 ; W e s te rn , 9 5 , 9 9

51, 5 4 -5 , 63, 81, 146, 169, 21 0 , 213, 21 5 , 233,

A b ish a b is, 2 1 8

2 6 3 , 2 7 2 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 6 , 3 4 9 ; as a m e a n s o f 'c iv iliz in g '

A b itib i R iver, 1 1 5

A m e rin d ia n s , 2 0 3 , 2 0 9 ; a n d t h e M é tis , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 - 5 ,

A b o rig in a l, u se o f te r m , x v

2 9 5 , 3 4 8 - 5 1 ; p o s s ib le e f fe c t o f b is o n h e rd s o n ,

A b o rig in a l B u s in e s s C a n a d a , 3 9 9

1 7 0 ; o n re serv es, 2 1 0 - 1 2 , 2 2 7 , 2 4 1 , 2 5 8 - 6 0 , 2 7 7 ,

A b o rig in a l c o u r t (T su u T 'in a ) , 3 8 6

2 8 0 - 1 , 2 8 6 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 - 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 8 1 ; in s c h o o l

A b o rig in a l n a tio n , RCAP r e p o r t d e fin it io n o f, 4 1 9 - 2 0

cu rricu la , 3 1 5 - 1 7 ; s la s h a n d b u r n (sw id d e n ), 5 1 ,

A b o rig in a l P e o p le s S u rv e y ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 5 3 A b o rig in a l rig h ts , x i i i - x i v , 1 5 3 , 2 6 0 , 3 2 3 ^ 4 1 , 3 5 0 , 3 7 5 , 3 7 7 -8 , 3 9 3 , 3 9 7 -8 , 4 0 0 -2 , 4 0 6 , 4 1 8 , 4 2 1 , 4 2 4 -5 ;

5 5 ; tid e la n d , 8 8 . See also p la n ts , d o m e s tic a tio n o f A g u ig u e o u , 9 4 A h c h a c o o s a c o o ta c o o p its , 2 7 7

u se o f te r m , 3 7 9 - 8 0 . See also c iv il a n d p o litic a l

a ir tr a v e l, N o r th e r n , 3 7 0 , 4 0 5

rig h ts ; e n fr a n c h is e m e n t; fis h in g , rig h ts ; h u n tin g ,

A is a n c e , J o h n , 2 1 2

r ig h ts ; la n d , rig h ts a n d o w n e r s h ip ; s e lf-g o v e r n ­

A is h ih ik c u ltu re , 3 9

m e n t; s o v e re ig n ty ; tr a p p in g , rig h ts A b o rig in a l tit le (In d ia n title ), 8 8 - 9 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 3 , 2 0 6 , 210, 2 1 8 -1 9 , 228, 2 4 0 -1 , 2 4 4 -6 , 250, 253, 255, 275, 295, 304, 3 2 3 -8 , 3 3 2 -4 , 336, 338, 363, 366, 379, 385, 4 0 5 -6 , 416, 418, 4 20

A k its ira q L a w S c h o o l, 4 0 8 A k w e sa sn e (S t R e g is), 1 6 5 , 1 8 0 , 2 0 9 , 3 0 0 - 1 A lask a , 1 1 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 3 , 2 4 8 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 3 , 3 7 3 , 3 8 4 - 6 , 3 9 4 , 420 A la sk a H ig h w a y , 3 7 0 , 3 9 4

A b o rig in a l W o m e n 's W a lk (1 9 7 9 ) , 3 1 3

A la sk a N a tiv e C la im s S e ttle m e n t A c t ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 3 8 4 - 5

A b o rig in e s (A u stra lia ), 3 2 0

A lb an y , 1 0 8 , 1 3 2 , 1 6 0

A b o rig in e s' P r o te c tio n S o c ie ty , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 - 1 4

A lb a n y F o rt, 1 2 2

A cad ia a n d A c a d ia n s , 2 5 , 6 4 , 8 8 - 9 0 , 9 5 , 1 0 5 , 1 3 5 ,

A lb e rta , 1 1 , 2 6 , 5 7 - 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 9 , 2 6 2 ,

137, 142, 1 4 6 -7 , 1 5 3 -5 , 162, 183 A co sta, J o s é d e, 4 , 4 2 A ct o f U n io n (1 8 4 0 ) , 2 0 9 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 6 - 7 , 3 4 4 A d am s, G e o r g e W e ld o n , 3 3 7

280, 286, 292, 294, 3 0 3 -6 , 314, 3 4 6 -5 2 , 367, 370, 3 8 2 -3 , 38 6 , 3 9 8 -4 0 0 , 4 0 4 , 4 0 9 -1 0 , 4 2 0 A lb e rta F e d e r a tio n o f M é tis S e ttle m e n t A s s o c ia tio n s , 3 5 1 -2

A d am s, W illie , 4 0 4

A lb e rta In d ia n A s s o c ia tio n , 3 7 9

A d ena c u ltu re , 2 6 , 2 9 , 3 9 , 5 5

a lc o h o l, 1 5 7 , 1 8 1 , 2 1 0 , 2 4 8 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 9 ; i n b a n d c o u n c il

a d o p tio n s , 6 3 , 1 4 5 , 3 2 0 , 3 8 8

e le c tio n s , 3 0 0 ; b ra n d y , 1 4 4 ; a t D a v is In le t, 4 1 4 ;

AFN. See A s s e m b ly o f F irs t N a tio n s

a n d t h e I n u it, 3 6 0 , 3 7 3 ; p u b lic d r in k in g o f, 3 1 2 ;

536 Index r e s tr ic tio n s o n s a le t o A m e r in d ia n s , 2 2 9 , 2 3 9 ,

a rro w s a n d a rr o w h e a d s . See b o w s a n d arro w s

2 5 8 - 9 ; ru m , 1 5 8 , 1 9 6 ; tra d e , 2 6 0 - 1 ; i n tr e a ty n e g o t ia t io n s , 2 3 4 ; a n d v io le n c e , 2 6 1

A rth u rs o n , C h a rle s , 3 9 5

A ld e rv ille , 2 1 2 A le u t, 4 8 , 6 1 , 1 8 6 , 3 8 4

a rro w s a sh , 1 4 6 a rts a n d c ra fts , 2 9 , 3 8 , 4 0 - 1 , 6 3 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 2 3 7 , 3 9 0 , 4 0 2 , 4 2 1 , 4 3 0 . See also specific arts and crafts

A le x is (c h ie f), 2 4 0

A sc h , M ic h a e l, x iv , 3 0 8 , 4 0 0

A lg o n k ia n s a n d A lg o n k ia n la n g u a g e g ro u p , 8 , 4 6 , 4 8 ,

A s s e m b ly o f F irst N a tio n s (AFN), 3 1 0 , 3 1 3 , 4 0 5 , 4 0 9 ,

51, 5 5 -6 , 8 1 -2 , 93 , 133, 149, 171, 2 1 7 A lg o n q u in , 5 5 , 8 2 - 3 , 8 5 , 9 4 - 5 , 1 0 1 - 3 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 1 2 7 ,

413, 416, 424, 4 2 6 -7 , 431 A s s e m b ly o f M a n it o b a C h ie fs , 3 1 9 , 4 0 2

1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 4 3 , 1 7 5 , 3 2 7 ; o f A llu m e tte Is la n d

A s s ig in a c k , Je a n - B a p tis t e , 2 3 1 - 2 , 2 3 4

(K ic h e s ip irin i), 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 - 8

A s s ik in a c k , F ra n c is , 2 3 1

A llied T rib e s o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 3 0 4 , 3 1 2 All N a tiv e C ir c le C o n f e r e n c e (U n ite d C h u r c h ), 3 9 5 A llu m e tte Is la n d , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 - 8

a s s im ila tio n o f A m e r in d ia n s , as o f f ic ia l p o licy , 2 0 3 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 3 7 -8 , 2 6 3 ^ 1 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 8 -1 0 , 313, 315, 319, 393, 395

A lm ig h ty V o ic e (a C re e ), 2 9 3

A s s in ib o ia C o u n c il, 2 4 3 , 2 7 4

a m a r a n th , 2 2 , 3 9

A s s in ib o ia , D is tr ic t o f, 2 1 7 , 2 4 2 - 3 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 8 - 9 , 2 9 2

A m a z o n R iver, 2 2

A s s in ib o in e (S to n e y s ), 1 1 , 5 5 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 5 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 0 - 3 ,

A m e r ic a n I n d ia n M o v e m e n t, 3 7 7 , 3 8 4 , 4 1 7 A m e r ic a n W a r o f In d e p e n d e n c e , 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 6 4 , 1 9 3 -4 , 1 9 6 -7 , 1 9 9 -2 0 0 , 3 4 3 A m e r ic a s : a n c i e n t c o n t a c t s w ith O ld W o rld , 2 1 ,

1 7 5 -6 , 179, 2 5 0 , 2 6 0 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 0 , 4 1 7 A s s in ib o in e R iver, 2 4 4 A s s o c ia tio n d es M é tis d 'A lb e r ta e t d e s T e rrito ire s du N o rd O u e s t, L', 3 4 9

3 3 - 4 3 ; fir s t c o n t a c t s w ith E u ro p e a n s , 6 4 , 6 7 - 7 7 ,

A ssu, D a n , 3 1 0

7 9 ; h e m is p h e r ic c iv iliz a tio n o f, 6 3 - 4 ; p e o p lin g o f,

A s tic o u , 9 4

x ii, 3 - 9 , 1 6 , 3 4 , 4 8

A ta h o c a n , 1 1 1

A m e r in d ia n , u se o f te r m , x v

A ta ra o n ch ro n o n , 1 0 2

A m e r in d ia n s : p h y s ic a l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f, 1 1 - 1 2 ; s o c ia l

A te c o u a n d o , 9 6 , 9 8

o r g a n iz a tio n o f, 4 8

A th a b a s c a P ass, 1 8 2

A m h e rs tb u rg (F o rt M a ld e n ), 1 9 6 , 1 9 8

A th a b a s c a r e g io n , 1 7 5 - 6 , 1 8 0

A m h e rs t, Je ffre y , 1 5 6 - 9

A th a b a s c a R iver, 3 5 8 , 3 6 3

A m s te rd a m , 8 5

A th a p a s k a n s a n d A th a p a s k a n la n g u a g e g ro u p , 6 , 8,

A n a d a b ijo u , 8 3

12, 36 , 48 , 67, 138, 169, 171, 180, 183, 189, 218,

A n d a ste s. See S u s q u e h a n n o c k

3 5 5 , 3 5 7 , 3 7 3 . See also D e n e

A n d e r s o n , T h o m a s G ., 2 1 2 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2

A tir o n ta , 1 0 2 - 3

A n d es , 2 2 , 3 4 , 3 7 , 4 0 - 2

A to ta r h o , 5 3

A n d ré, A le x is, 2 7 2 - 3 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 8 - 9

A ttig n a w a n ta n , 1 0 1 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 1

A n g lic a n is m a n d A n g lic a n s , 2 0 6 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 0 ,

A t tig n e e n o n g n a h a c , 1 0 1

318, 360, 395, 4 0 1 -2 a n im a ls : d o m e s tic a t io n o f, 2 4 - 5 ; e x t i n c t i o n s o f, 9 - 1 0 , 16

A ttik a m è g u e s , 1 1 5 A ttik a ris h , 1 7 2

A p ache, 1 6 9 -7 1

A ttiw o n d a r o n (A ttiw a n d a ro n k ). See N e u tra ls Attorney General o f Ontario v. Bear Island Foundation (Bear Island c a s e ), 3 3 3 - 4 Attorney General o f Quebec v. Attorney General o f Canada (Star Chrom e M ining ca s e ), 3 2 6

A rad gi, 1 3 3

A u stra lia a n d A u s tra lia n s , 6 , 3 4 , 6 8 - 9 , 3 2 0

A ra p a h o , 1 7 1

avocad os, 2 2

A rc h a ic c u ltu re , 1 1 , 3 0 , 5 6 , 7 5 , 8 3

aw ls, 3 9 , 8 5

a rch e ry , 7 0

Aw rey, H e rb e rt N ., 3 6 9

A n is h in a b e (A n is h in a b e g ). See O jib w a A n is h in a b e P ark , 3 8 4 A n n e tte Is la n d (A lask a), 2 2 1

A rc h ib a ld , A .G ., 2 5 0 , 2 5 5 - 7 , 2 7 2

axes, 8 2 , 1 1 7 , 3 5 5

A rctic, 8 , 4 5 , 5 5 , 6 0 , 6 7 - 8 , 7 0 - 5 , 7 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 6 3 , 1 8 0 ,

A y a la , F e lip e d e, x

2 0 4 -6 , 23 4 , 2 3 8 , 28 0 , 35 2 , 3 5 5 -7 , 3 5 9 -6 2 , 3 7 0 -1 ,

A y im a sis, 2 8 5 , 2 9 4

37 3 , 3 8 6 -9 0 , 3 9 4 -5 , 39 9 , 4 0 5 -7 , 40 9 , 415

A z ta la n , 2 8

A rc tic Is la n d s G a m e P rese rv e , 3 7 3 A rctic O c e a n , 1 2 2

B a f fin Is la n d , 6 8 , 3 8 9

A rctic S m a ll T o o l T ra d itio n , 4 , 1 6

B a g o t C o m m is s io n , 2 2 7 - 3 1 , 4 2 0

A re n d arh o n o n , 5 2 , 1 0 1 -2 , 10 5 , 10 9

B a g o t, S ir C h a rle s , 2 2 7

a r g illite c a rv in g , 1 7 7 , 1 8 9

B a h r, A n d rew , 3 8 6

A rk a n s a s, 1 7 0

Baker Lake v. Minister o f Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 3 3 6

a rm o u r, 1 0 4 , 1 7 1 - 2

Index B a k k er, P eter, 6 0 - 1 , 1 4 9

B e ts a b e s (B a s h a b e s ), 9 3 - 4

b a le e n , 2 0 5

B e tte r P r o te c tio n o f th e L a n d s a n d P ro p e r ty o f th e

b a ll g a m e s , 5 6 - 7 b a n d , s ta tu to r y d e fin it io n o f, 2 6 4 b a n d c o u n c ils , 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 6 4 - 8 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 1 , 3 1 3 , 3 1 5 , 3 7 6 , 409, 427 b a n k s , 2 2 7 , 4 2 0 - 2 ; B a n k o f M o n tr e a l, 2 9 4 , 3 9 9 , 4 2 1 ; F irst N a tio n s B a n k o f C a n a d a , 4 2 3 ^ 1 ; T o r o n to D o m in io n B a n k , 4 2 3 - 4 B a rb er, L lo y d , 3 3 4 - 5 , 3 7 5 , 3 7 8

In d ia n s o f L o w e r C a n a d a , A n A ct fo r th e ( 1 8 5 1 ) , 2 2 8 -9 , 239, 263

Beyond Traplines (p a m p h le t), 3 9 5 B ia rd , P ie rre , 6 4 , 9 3 B ig B e a r (M is ta h im a s k w a ), 2 7 7 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 5 - 6 , 2 8 8 -9 4 , 325, 334, 349 B ig L ak e (S t A lb e rt), 2 4 6 B ig Q u a lic u m R iver, 3 4 0

b a r k b e a te rs , 4 2

B ill 1 0 1 (Q u e b e c ), 3 4 6

B a r ro n , F. L a u rie, 2 9 3

B ill C -3 1 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 1 3

B a r tle m a n , J i m , 4 0 4

B in e te a u , J u l ie n , 1 4 8

B a s h a b e s (B e ts a b e s ), 9 3 - 4

b ir t h ra te , 4 2 7

b a s k e tm a k in g , 1 6 , 2 9 , 3 7

b is o n : d e c lin e o f, 2 1 5 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 9 ; fire u se d t o c o n ­

Basqu es, x - x i, 6 0 - 1 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 1 4 9

tr o l m o v e m e n ts o f, 2 7 9 ; g ia n t, 5 7 ; h e rd s , 2 6 , 5 7 ,

b a ss, 8 7

1 2 2 , 1 7 0 , 2 0 5 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 6 ; h id e s , 5 8 , 2 7 1 ; h u n tin g

B a s tie n , L u d g er, 3 4 5 , 4 0 3

o f, 1 0 - 1 1 , 5 7 - 8 , 1 1 8 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 6 , 2 0 5 , 2 7 1 ,

B a to c h e , 2 7 2 , 2 8 8 ; B a ttle o f, 2 8 9 , 2 9 1 - 2

2 7 7 , 2 7 9 , 3 6 4 ; m e a t, 2 7 1 ; i n P la in s A m e r in d ia n

B a to c h e , F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r L e te n d r e dit, 2 7 2 B a ttle fo rd , 2 8 8 , 2 9 0 , 3 1 6

c e r e m o n ia l life , 2 7 6 ; w o o d , 3 6 4 . See also b u ffa lo B itte r li, U rs, 6 7

B a ttle H a r b o u r (L a b ra d o r), 3 6 1

B ia c k f o o t C r o s s in g , 2 6 1

b a ttle s ; B a to c h e , 2 8 9 , 2 9 1 - 2 ; B e a v e r D a m s, 1 9 8 ; B e lly

B la c k f o o t (S ik sik a ) a n d B ia c k f o o t C o n fe d e ra c y , 1 1 , 2 6 ,

(O ld m a n ) R iver, 2 5 0 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 6 ; C h ip p e w a , 1 9 9 ;

125, 1 6 9 -7 7 , 1 8 1 -2 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 1 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 6 -7 ,

C u tk n ife H ill, 2 8 9 ; D u c k L ak e, 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 ; F a lle n

2 7 9 - 8 0 , 3 0 3 - 4 , 3 4 8 , 3 6 6 , 4 2 2 ; P a in te d F e a th e r's

T im b e r s , 1 9 4 ; F r e n c h m a n 's B u tte , 2 8 9 ; G r a n d

band, 170

C o te a u , 2 4 4 ; L ittle B ig h o r n , 1 9 6 , 2 6 1 - 2 ; L u n d y 's

B ia c k f o o t T re a ty ( 1 8 7 7 ) , 2 7 5

L a n e , 1 9 9 ; M o r a v ia n to w n , 1 9 9 ; P la in s o f

B la c k , J o h n , 2 1 5

A b ra h a m , 1 3 5 ; Q u e e n s to n H e ig h ts , 1 9 8 ; S e v e n

B la c k w o o d , F re d e rick T e m p le , M a rq u e s s o f D u ffe rin

O a k s , 2 4 2 , 2 4 4 ; T ip p e c a n o e , 1 9 7 B a y o f Q u in te , 1 6 5

a n d A va (g o v e r n o r -g e n e r a l o f C a n a d a , 1 8 7 2 - 8 ) , 221, 259, 292

b a y o n e ts , 1 5 9

b la d e s . See p o in ts a n d b la d e s

b e a d s a n d b e a d w o rk , 1 1 7 , 1 8 0 , 3 5 7 , 4 3 0

B la k e , E d w ard , 2 7 4

b ean s, 2 2 - 3 , 5 1 , 8 1 , 2 8 0

B la n c h e t, F ra n ç o is -N o r b e rt, 2 2 0

B eard y , S a m s o n , 3 6 9

b la n k e ts , 1 8 5 , 2 1 8 ; b u t to n , 1 7 7 , 1 8 5

Bear Island c a s e , 3 3 3 - 4

B lin d P e rs o n s A ct, 3 1 1

B e a u fo r t Se a, 2 0 6

B lo n d in -A n d r e w , E th e l, 4 0 3 - 4

B e a u h a r n o is d e la B o is c h e , C h a r le s d e, 1 3 4 - 5 , 1 4 2

B lo o d (K a in a h ), 1 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 4 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 4 , 3 0 6 - 7 , 3 1 0 , 4 0 0

B e a v e r (p e o p le ), 4 , 1 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 3 , 2 1 8 , 2 9 6

B lo o d N a tio n (S ta n d o ff, A lb e rta ), 4 0 0

Beaver (s h ip ), 1 7 9 , 1 8 6 B e a v e r D a m s , B a ttle o f, 1 9 8

b lo o d ty p e s , 1 1 b lo w g u n s , 4 2

B e a v er, H e rb e rt, 2 2 0

B lu e Q u ills s c h o o l, 3 1 8 - 1 9

b e a v e rs , 8 5 - 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 3 , 175, 183, 185, 387

B lu e fis h C a v e s, 8 BNA A ct. See B r itis h N o r t h A m e r ic a A ct

B é c a n c o u r, 2 0 9

b o a ts . See s h ip s a n d b o a ts

B e g b ie , M a tth e w B a illie , 2 4 0

B o liv ia , 4 0 B o m p a s , W illia m C a r p e n te r , 3 6 0 - 1

B e lc h e r, J o n a t h a n , 1 6 2 B e lla C o o la (p e o p le ), 4 9

B o n d H ea d , S ir F ra n c is , 2 1 3 - 1 4 , 2 3 2

B e lle fo re s t, F r a n ç o is d e, 8 1

Boston (s h ip ), 1 8 7

B e lle g a rd e , P erry, 4 2 7 B e lly (O ld m a n ) R iver, B a ttle o f, 2 5 0 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 6

b o t t l e g o u rd s , 2 0 - 1

r le o th a K 7 3 5 7 ? 5 = 6 T 68, 7 5 -7 , 79, 82 , 2 0 6

B o s u m , A b el, 4 2 2 - 3 B o u q u e t, H en ry , 1 5 9

B e rg e n , 7 0

B o u ra ssa , R o b e rt, 3 9 5 , 4 0 2

B e rg e r, T h o m a s , 3 3 2 , 3 9 8 - 9

B o u rg e t, Ig n a c e , 2 8 5

B e rin g S tr a it a n d B e rin g ia , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 1 , 1 6

B o w d e n o il re fin e ry , 4 0 0

B e rin g , V itu s , 1 7 9

b o w h e a d w h a le s , 2 0 5

b e rrie s, 1 1 7 , 3 5 7

b o w s a n d a rro w s, 1 5 - 1 6 , 3 3 , 3 7 , 5 6 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 9 4 , 1 1 8 ,

B e th u n e , N o r m a n , 2 9 4

1 7 1 -2 , 176

537

538 Index B o y d , J o h n A le x a n d e r, 3 2 4 - 5 , 3 3 3

b y la w s , 2 3 8 , 2 6 6 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 5 , 3 7 6

B ra d d o ck , E d w ard , 1 3 5 , 1 9 6 Brady, Ja m e s , 3 4 9

C a b o to , G io v a n n i ( J o h n C a b o t) , x , 7 0 , 7 4

B r a n d o n H o u se , 2 4 2

C a b ra l, P e d ro , 71

b ra n d y , 1 4 4

cacao , 21

B r a n t, H u ro n E ld o n , 3 1 2

C a d illa c . See L a u m e t

B r a n t, J o h n , 1 9 8 , 2 2 5 , 4 0 3

C ad uveo, 41

B r a n t, J o s e p h , 1 6 1 - 2 , 1 6 4 - 5 , 1 9 3 - 4 , 1 9 8 , 2 2 5 B r a n t, M ary , 161

C a h ia g u é , 5 2 , 1 0 2 C a h o k ia , 2 4 , 2 9 , 5 8

B r a n t, R a lp h , 4 1 7

C a in , W a lte r C ., 3 6 9

B ras d 'O r L ak e, 9 7

C a ld e r, F ra n k , 3 3 2 , 4 0 3

B rass, E le a n o r, 3 1 6

Calder v. Attorney General (N isg a 'a d e c is io n , 1 9 7 3 ),

B rasser, T ed , 2 8 0 B ra z il, 6 , 1 1 , 2 4 , 3 4 , 4 1 , 6 3 , 6 7 , 7 1 - 2 , 8 3 , 9 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 4 1 , 145, 1 5 3 -4 , 2 0 9

332, 334, 381, 418 c a le n d a rs , 3 9 - 4 0 C a lg a ry , 2 9 3 , 3 0 4 - 5 , 3 5 8

B ré b e u f, J e a n d e, 1 0 2 , 1 0 5

C a lic o H ills, 3

B r é h a n t d e G a lin é e , R e n é d e, 1 1 8 , 1 3 0 B re la n d , P ascal, 2 7 4 , 2 8 6

C a lifo r n ia a n d C a lifo r n ia n s , 6 , 2 0 , 2 9 , 3 7 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 5 -6 , 239

B r e y n a t, G a b rie l, 3 6 9 - 7 0

C a lv in 's C a s e ( 1 6 0 8 ) , 3 2 4 - 5

B risa y d e D e n o n v ille , Ja c q u e s -R e n é d e, 9 9 , 1 3 0 - 1

C a m b o d ia , 3 9

B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 1 1 , 4 5 - 6 , 5 9 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 1 ,

C a m e r o n , L o u is, 3 8 4

1 8 6 -7 , 2 1 9 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 7 -8 , 2 4 0 -1 , 2 4 4 , 2 6 2 -3 , 2 65,

C a m p b e ll, E rn ie , 3 3 7

2 6 7 -8 , 2 9 4 , 30 1 , 3 0 3 -5 , 31 0 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 9 , 33 0 , 33 2 ,

C a m p e a u , L u c ie n , 1 1 1

3 3 6 -7 , 3 4 0 , 35 2 , 3 6 3 -5 , 36 7 , 3 7 8 , 3 8 5 , 3 9 4 -5 ,

C a n a d a E ast, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 2 2 9 . See also L o w e r C a n a d a ;

3 9 8 -9 , 4 0 3 -4 , 4 1 5 -1 6 , 4 1 8 -1 9

P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a ; Q u e b e c (p r o v in c e )

B r itis h C o lu m b ia C o u r t o f A p p e a l, 3 3 7

C a n a d a F irst, 2 4 3 , 2 4 6 - 9

B r itis h C o lu m b ia S u p re m e C o u rt, 3 3 2 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 - 4 0

C a n a d a Ju r is d ic tio n A ct ( 1 8 0 3 ) , 2 1 6

B r itis h N o r th A m e ric a (BNA) A ct, 2 1 5 , 2 3 7 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 0 ,

C a n a d a W e s t, 2 1 0 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 3 , 2 4 4 . See also O n ta r io ;

315, 324, 330, 333, 344, 347, 377, 385, 400 B ro ck , Isa a c, 1 9 5 , 1 9 7 - 8

C a n a d ia n A rc tic E x p e d itio n ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 8 ) , 6 7

B ro d y , H u g h , 3 5 9 , 4 1 0

P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a ; U p p e r C a n a d a

B r o k e n A rm (M a s k e p e to o n ), 2 7 6 - 7 , 2 8 1

C a n a d ia n C h a r te r o f R ig h ts a n d F re e d o m s , 3 9 3 , 4 0 0 , 420

B r o w n , J e n n i f e r S .H ., 2 1 8

C a n a d ia n C o u n c il o f C h u r c h e s , 3 9 5

B r o w n , R a n d a ll J . , 4 1 1

C a n a d ia n E x p e d itio n a r y F o rce , 3 0 7

B ru c e , Ja m e s , E arl o f E lg in , 2 2 8

C a n a d ia n H a n d ic ra fts G u ild , 4 3 0

B r u c e P e n in s u la , 2 1 3 - 1 4

C a n a d ia n H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m is s io n , 3 9 3

B rû lé , É tie n n e , 1 0 3 , 1 4 6

C a n a d ia n In d ia n H a ll o f F a m e, 3 0 7

B r y a n , A la n , 1 2

C a n a d ia n In d ia n R ig h ts C o m m is s io n , 3 3 5

B u a d e , L o u is d e , C o m te d e P a llu a u e t d e F r o n te n a c ,

Canadian Indian, The (jo u r n a l) , 4 0 1

1 3 0 -1 , 133

C a n a d ia n M e th o d is t E p is c o p a l C h u r c h , 2 1 1

b u c k s k in , 1 8 5

C a n a d ia n M u s e u m o f C iv iliz a tio n , 4 1 8

b u ffa lo : d e c lin e o f, x iii, 1 7 6 , 1 8 2 , 2 1 5 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 6 , 2 6 1 ,

C a n a d ia n P a c ific R ailw ay , 2 5 9 , 2 8 5 , 2 8 8 , 3 4 8 - 9

2 6 3 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 3 - 4 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 8 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 5 ; fire u se d to

C a n a d ia n P o lic e A s s o c ia tio n , 3 4 6

c o n t r o l m o v e m e n ts o f, 2 0 ; h e rd s, 1 7 0 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 2 ,

C a n a d ia n R e s e a r c h a n d A id S o c ie ty , 4 0 1

2 1 5 , 2 4 2 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 0 ; h id e s, 1 7 0 , 1 7 5 ;

C a n a tiv e H o u s in g C o r p o r a tio n , 3 1 9

h u n tin g o f, 5 7 - 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 6 9 - 7 1 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 5 - 7 , 1 8 2 ,

c a n n ib a lis m , 5 4 , 7 2 , 9 4 , 1 2 1

215, 242, 244, 246, 2 6 2 -3 , 266, 2 7 2 -4 , 276, 364,

c a n o e s , 1 8 , 3 6 , 5 0 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 1 8 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 1 ; b ir c h b a r k ,

3 6 6 ; m e a t, 1 7 0 ; ro b e s , 1 7 0 , 1 7 5 , 2 7 4 ; w o o d , 3 6 4 , 3 6 6 . See also b is o n

C an so , 91

1 1 8 ; d u g o u t, 5 0 ; s e a g o in g , 3 6 , 8 7

B u ll, S a m , 3 9 5

C a p e B r e to n (Ile R o y a le ), 9 7 , 1 3 6

B u re a u o f In d ia n A ffairs (U n ite d S ta te s ), 3 7 8 , 4 2 8

C a p e S a b le , 1 5 4

b u r ia ls a n d d e a th ritu a ls , 2 6 , 3 0 , 3 7 , 4 9 , 5 2 , 7 5 , 1 0 2 ,

C a p it u la tio n o f M o n tr e a l ( 1 7 6 0 ) , 1 5 6 , 2 0 9

1 1 1 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 0 , 4 1 7 . See also F e a st o f t h e D ea d B u r n t C h u r c h R eserv e , 3 4 0

C a p u c h in s , 1 0 5 C a ra y â , 1 1

b u s in e s s e s , A b o rig in a l, 3 4 1 , 3 9 9 , 4 2 4 , 4 2 7

C a r d in a l, D o u g la s , 4 2 2

b u t t o n b la n k e ts , 1 7 7 , 1 8 5

C a r d in a l, H a ro ld , 3 3 4 , 3 9 3

b u t to n s , 1 8 5

C a r d in a l, M ik e , 4 0 4

Index C arh ag o u h a, 105

C h ile , 6 , 2 2 , 2 5

C a r ib b e a n , 6 8 , 7 0 , 7 2 , 7 7

c h i l i p e p p e rs, 2 2

C a r ib o o g o ld strik e , 2 3 9 - 4 0

C h im o r e m p ire , 2 6

c a rib o u , 9 - 1 1 , 5 6 , 8 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 3 8 , 2 7 6 , 3 6 7 , 3 9 7 - 8 , 4 1 4

C h in a a n d C h in e s e , 3 4 , 3 6 - 7 , 3 9 , 4 2 - 3 , 6 1 , 1 8 3

C a r ig n a n -S a liè r e s r e g im e n t, 1 2 9

C h in o o k ja r g o n , 6 0 - 1 , 1 4 9

C a r ls o n , N e llie , 3 1 3

C h ip e w y a n , 5 6 , 1 2 1 - 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 8 , 1 8 0 , 2 1 8 , 2 9 6

C a r lt o n T ra il, 2 7 2

C h ip p e w a , 4 0 4 ; K e ttle a n d S to n y P o in t F irs t N a tio n ,

C a r m a c k , G e o r g e , 3 6 4 ; w ife (K a te ), 3 6 4 C a r o lin a s , 1 3 3 , 1 6 2 . See also N o r th C a r o lin a ; S o u th C a r o lin a

4 1 7 - 1 8 ; o f S a r n ia , 3 3 9 C h ip p e w a , B a ttle o f, 1 9 9 C h ir a c , Ja c q u e s , 4 0 6 , 4 1 1

C a rrier. See W e t's u w e t'e n

C h is h o lm , A n d rew G ., 2 1 5

C a rtie r, Ja c q u e s , x i, 5 9 , 6 3 , 7 4 - 5 , 7 7 , 7 9 - 8 3 , 1 4 5 , 1 8 1 ,

c h o le r a , 1 3 0

187

C h o u a co et, 9 4

c a rv in g , 1 2 , 1 8 9 ; a rg illite , 1 7 7 , 1 8 9 ; iv o ry , 4 3 0 ; s o a p ­

C h o u a r t d es G r o s e illie rs , M é d a rd , 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 0

s to n e , 4 3 0 C a s e , W illia m , 2 1 2

C h r é t ie n , J e a n , 4 0 4 , 4 1 1 , 4 2 3

C a t h o lic is m . See R o m a n C a t h o lic is m a n d R o m a n

C h r is t ia n ity a n d C h r is tia n s , 8 9 , 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 ,

C a t h o lic s c a ts , 1 0 6 c a ttle , 2 8 1 - 2 , 2 9 3 . See also liv e s to c k C a u g h n a w a g a . See K a h n a w a k e

C h r is t ia n Is la n d , 1 0 9 , 2 1 2 142, 144, 146, 148, 154, 183, 2 1 0 -1 1 , 21 8 , 221, 2 6 6 , 3 1 7 , 3 2 4 - 5 , 3 4 3 ^ 1 . See also e v a n g e liz a tio n ; m is s io n a r ie s ; specific denominations C h r is tie , A le x a n d e r, 2 4 3

C a v e lie r d e La S a lle , R e n é R o b e rt, 9 9 , 1 3 0

C h u k o tk a , 4

C a w sey , A lla n , 3 8 6

C h u r c h ill R iver, 1 2 2 , 3 9 5

Cayuga, 52 , 161

C h u r c h M is s io n a r y S o c ie ty , 2 2 0 - 1

C e n tr a l A m e r ic a , 1 1 , 1 6 , 3 3

Citizens Plus (A lb e rta In d ia n A s s o c ia tio n ), 3 7 9

C h a b e r t d e J o n c a ir e , L o u is -T h o m a s , 1 3 4 , 1 4 8

'c itiz e n s p lu s ' c o n c e p t , 3 7 7

C h ac, 28

c ity -s ta te s , 2 6 , 2 8 - 3 0 , 3 3 , 4 1

C h aco, 34

c iv il a n d p o litic a l rig h ts , 2 2 5 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 1 , 2 6 5 ,

C h a lif o u x , T h e lm a , 4 0 4 C h a m p la in , S a m u e l d e, 8 1 - 3 , 8 5 , 9 4 , 1 0 1 - 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 9 , 143, 145 C han C han, 26 C h a r c o a l (a B lo o d ), 2 9 3

2 8 2 , 2 8 6 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 2 -4 , 2 9 9 -3 0 1 , 3 0 4 , 3 0 7 -8 , 3 1 0 -1 5 , 37 3 , 3 7 7 -9 , 38 1 , 3 8 3 -4 , 38 9 , 3 9 3 -5 , 3 9 7 - 4 0 2 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 9 - 2 1 , 4 2 4 - 5 , 4 2 9 - 3 0 . See also A b o rig in a l r ig h ts ; e n f r a n c h is e m e n t; s e lf-g o v e rn ­ m e n t; s o v e re ig n ty

C h a rle s b o u rg -R o y a l, 1 5 3

c iv il d is o b e d ie n c e , 4 0 9 - 1 0

C h a r le v o ix , P ie rre -F r a n ç o is d e , 8 6 - 7 , 1 0 3 , 1 4 9

C iv iliz in g a n d E n fr a n c h is in g In d ia n s , A n A c t fo r

C h a r lie L ak e C a v e , 11

(1 8 5 9 ), 2 2 9

C h a r lo tt e to w n A c c o r d ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 3 5 1 , 3 5 3

C la rk , B r u c e A ., 3 2 6

C h a r te r o f R ig h ts a n d F r e e d o m s . See C a n a d ia n C h a r te r

C la rk e , L a w re n c e , 2 7 4

o f R ig h ts a n d F r e e d o m s

C la rk , J o e , 4 0 0

C h a u d iè r e R iv er, 2 1 0

c lo c k s , 1 0 6

ch eese, 3 6

c lo t h , 1 7 0 , 1 8 5 - 6 c lo t h in g , 7 3 - 4 , 8 5 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 5 - 6 , 1 9 5 , 2 0 7 , 2 5 9 , 3 0 8 ,

C h ero k ee, 2 5 , 1 6 1 , 2 0 0 C h ero u o u n y , 1 4 3

3 1 3 , 3 6 3 . See also specific types o f clothing

Chesapeake a ffa ir ( 1 8 0 7 ) , 1 9 4

C lo u s to n , S ir E d w ard , 2 9 4

C h e s te r fie ld I n le t, 3 6 3

C lo v is c u ltu re , 1 2 - 1 3

C heyenne, 169

C lu n y E a r th L o d g e, 2 6

C h ick a s a w , 1 3 4

c o a l, 1 8 8 , 3 9 9

c h ic k e n s , 3 6 c h ie f s : p o w e r a n d a u t h o r ity o f, 2 7 , 4 8 - 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 4 4 ,

C o a te s , K e n n e t h , 3 6 5 C o c k in g , M a tth e w , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3

155, 186, 189, 196, 207, 231, 238, 2 6 4 -5 , 2 6 7 -8 ,

C o c k r a n , W illia m , 2 4 5

2 9 3 , 3 4 4 ; s e le c t io n o f, 2 7 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 9 , 2 3 8 , 2 6 4 - 5 ,

c o c o n u t p a lm s , 3 9

2 6 7 -8 , 3 0 0 -1 , 3 4 4 -5

co co n u ts, 21

C h i h w a t e n h a ,J o s e p h , 1 1 1

cod, 74, 87

C h ilc o t in , 1 8 7 , 2 4 0

c o d e ta lk e rs, 3 1 0

C h i lc o t in W ar, 2 4 0

C o e u r d 'A le n e (p e o p le ), 1 7 0

C h ild e , V. G o r d o n , 1 9

C o lb o m e , S ir J o h n , 1 6 5 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 8

c h ild r e n , 1 4 2 - 3 , 1 4 5 - 7 , 2 3 9 , 2 5 8 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 5 , 2 7 9 , 2 9 6 ,

C o ld w a te r (O n ta r io ), 2 1 2

3 1 0 , 3 1 3 -2 0 , 37 1 , 3 8 7 -8 , 4 1 3 -1 5 , 431

c o lla r s , c e r e m o n ia l, 1 8 4 - 5

539

C o llin g w o o d T re a ty ( 1 8 1 8 ) , 1 6 5

C r e d it R iv er, 2 0 9 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 , 2 3 2

C o lo m b ia , 2 2

C re e , 5 5 , 7 3 - 4 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 - 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 7 0 - 3 , 1 7 5 - 7 ,

C o lo n ia l O ffic e , 2 1 9 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 5 - 6

1 7 9 -8 1 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 -1 8 , 2 4 3 -4 , 25 0 , 257,

Columbia (s h ip ), 1 8 4

2 6 0 - 1 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 3 ^ 1 , 2 7 6 - 8 2 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 2 -4 ,

C o lu m b ia R iver, 1 7 3 - 5 , 1 8 6

2 9 6 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 6 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 3 , 3 7 8 , 3 9 5 , 3 9 7 - 8 , 4 0 1 -2 ,

C o lu m b u s , C h r is to p h e r , 4 1 , 6 4

4 0 5 , 4 1 1 , 4 2 7 , 4 3 0 ; C h ib o u g a m o u , 4 2 2 ; Fo rt

C o m a n c h e , 1 7 0 ; la n g u a g e , 3 1 0

C h ip e w y a n , 3 6 7 ; F o r t P itt, 2 7 6 , 2 7 8 ; H u d so n Bay,

C o m ité N a tio n a l d es M é tis , 2 4 7 - 8

4 0 5 ; J a m e s Bay, 3 1 9 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 4 - 5 ; la n g u a g e , 4 6 ,

C o m m is s io n e r s fo r T rad e a n d P la n ta tio n s (L o n d o n ), 1 6 2

1 4 9 , 2 1 7 , 3 1 0 , 3 8 3 , 3 9 7 , 4 2 9 ; L u b ic o n b a n d ,

C o m p a g n ie d e s C e n ts A sso cié s, La (C o m p a n y o f O n e

3 8 2 - 3 ; M is ta s s in i, 4 2 2 ; M u s k e g L a k e b a n d , 3 1 2 ;

H u n d re d A sso c ia te s , C o m p a n y o f N ew F r a n c e ), 88, 149, 153 C o n a s to g a . See S u s q u e h a n n o c k

O u jé - B o u g o u m o u , 4 2 2 - 3 ; O u p e e sh e p o w , 7 3 ; S w a m p y , 2 5 7 ; W illo w , 2 8 8 ; W o o d la n d , 3 8 3 C re e k , 1 6 4 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 8

c o n fe d e r a c ie s , I r o q u o ia n , 5 1 - 3

C re e -N a s k a p i A ct (Q u e b e c , 1 9 8 4 ) , 4 0 4 - 5

C o n fe d e r a tio n (1 8 6 7 ) , 2 3 4 , 3 2 5 C o n n e c t ic u t, 9 5

C r ig n o n , P ie rre , 7 5 C r im e a n W ar, 2 2 0

C o n n e R iver, 2 0 6

C r im in a l C o d e , 2 9 3 , 3 0 8 , 3 7 0 , 3 7 2

c o n s ta b le s , N a tiv e , 2 2 1

C ro g h a n , G eo rge, 1 5 7 -8

C o n s ta n tin e , C h a rle s , 3 6 1

C ro s b y , T h o m a s , 2 2 2

c o n s t itu t io n : C a n a d ia n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 6 0 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 ,

C ro ss, R o n a ld , 3 2 9

3 4 1 , 3 5 2 , 4 0 2 , 4 1 3 , 4 2 1 ; d e fin e d , 4 0 0 . See also

C row , 2 6 , 2 8 0

B r itis h N o r th A m e r ic a ( b n a ) A ct; C a n a d ia n

C r o w fo o t, 2 6 1 - 2 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 2 , 2 9 1

C h a r te r o f R ig h ts a n d F re e d o m s ; C o n s tit u tio n A ct

C r o w n L a n d s A ct (B ritis h C o lu m b ia ), 2 4 1

( 1 9 8 2 ) ; C o n s tit u tio n a l A c t ( 1 7 9 1 )

C r o w n L a n d s P r o te c tio n A ct ( 1 8 3 9 ) , 2 2 5

C o n s tit u tio n A ct (1 9 8 2 ) , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 , 3 5 2 . See also C a n a d ia n C h a r te r o f R ig h ts a n d F re e d o m s

C ro z ie r, L e if, 2 7 4 , 2 8 8 c ry s ta ls , 1 1 7

C o n s tit u tio n a l A ct (1 7 9 1 ) , 2 0 9 , 3 4 4

CTV, 3 9 9

C o o k , Ja m e s , 1 7 9 , 1 8 3

C u ba, 3 4 6

C o o n C o m e , M a tth e w , 4 0 5 , 4 2 4 , 4 2 6 - 7 , 4 3 1

cu cu m b ers, 81

c o -o p e r a tiv e s , 3 9 0 , 4 3 0

c u ltu r e a re a s, A b o rig in a l, 4 6

C o p e , Je a n -B a p tis te , 1 5 5

C u m b e r la n d H o u se , 1 7 3

c o p p e r a n d c o p p e r w o rk , 2 9 , 3 9 , 5 9 , 8 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 8 6

C u m b e r la n d S o u n d , 2 0 5

C o p p e r m in e R iver, 5 9

C u rley , T a g a k , 3 9 5

C opw ay, G eo rge, 3 2 6

C u tk n ife H ill, B a ttle o f, 2 8 9

Corbière v. Canada, 3 1 3

c u tla s s e s , 9 4

c o m (m a iz e ), 2 1 - 5 , 3 0 , 3 9 , 5 1 - 2 , 5 8 , 8 1 , 8 5 , 1 0 7 , 1 7 0 , 280

C y p re ss H ills, 2 6 0 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 9 C y p re ss H ills M a s s a c re , 2 6 0 , 2 7 7

C o m p la n te r , 3 4 3 C o rn w a llis , E d w ard , 1 3 6

Daily Colonist (V ic to r ia ) , 2 2 0 , 2 6 6

C o r o n a d o , F r a n c is c o V a sq u e z , 1 7 0

D a k o ta , 2 4 5 , 2 6 3 ; Y a n k to n a i, 1 2 0 , 1 9 6

C o s k a , S ta n is la s , 2 2 6

D a k o ta M e d ic in e F e a st, 2 6 6

c o s m o s , x i - x i i , 2 8 , 6 2 —1, 1 1 1 , 1 1 7

d a m s, 3 9 4 - 5 , 3 9 8

C o s ta R ica, 3 7

d an ces, 5 0 , 6 2 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 0 , 3 0 8 , 311,

c o tto n , 2 1 - 3 , 3 9

3 7 1 -2 , 411, 4 1 6 -1 7

C o u lo n d e V illie rs, N ic o la s - A n to in e ( 1 6 8 3 - 1 7 3 3 ) , 1 3 4

D an es, 7 2

C o u lo n d e V illie rs, N ic o la s - A n to in e ( 1 7 0 8 - 5 0 ) , 1 3 1 C o u n c il fo r Y u k o n In d ia n s , 3 8 1

Daniels v. The Queen, 3 3 2

C o u n c il o f T h r e e Fires, 1 0 7 , 1 1 2

d a tin g s y s te m s , x v - x v i

c o u n tin g c o u p s , 1 7 5 C o u p la n d , G ary , 5 0

D a v id s o n , R o b e rt, 1 8 9

D a rlin g , H .C ., 2 0 9

D a v ie s, N ig el, 4 1

C o u r c h e n e , D a v e, 3 7 8

D a v is I n le t, 4 1 3 - 1 5 , 4 2 2

coureurs de bois, 7 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 5 . See also

D a v is, J o h n , 7 3 - 4

v o y a g e u rs

D a v is S tra it, 7 2 , 2 0 5

C o u r n o y e a , N e llie , 3 9 0 , 4 0 5

D a w s o n (Y u k o n ), 2 9 3

C o w e sse ss b a n d , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0

D aw son R oad, 2 4 6 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 9

C o w ic h a n , 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 6 7

D a w s o n , S .J., 2 4 4 , 2 4 6 , 2 5 7

C r a b tre e , D o n E ., 1 4

D a w s o n (T a g ish ) C h a r lie , 3 6 4

C ra ig , Sir Ja m e s , 1 9 4

D ea n e, K e n n eth , 4 1 8

Index D e a s e , W illia m , 2 4 7

D is ta n t E a rly W a r n in g ra d a r lin e , 3 8 7

D e b e rt, 11

D iu b a ld o , R ich a rd , 3 8 7

d e b t, 4 9 , 2 2 8 - 9 , 2 6 5 , 4 2 5

D o g rib s , 1 8 0 , 3 6 7

D e c la r a tio n o f F irs t N a tio n s ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 3 8 5

d o g s, 2 4 - 5 , 3 7 , 5 6 , 1 0 6 , 1 8 1 - 2 , 3 5 7 , 3 6 4 , 3 6 8 , 3 8 7

d eer, 2 0 , 3 6 , 1 1 8 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 7 ; sk in s , 1 3 0

D o llie r d e C a s s o n , F r a n ç o is , 1 1 8 , 1 2 8 - 3 0

D e fe n d e rs o f t h e S h u s w a p N a tio n , 4 1 6

D om agaya, 7 9 -8 1

D eh o m e rs, 3 4 4 D e k a n a w id a h , 5 3

d o m e s tic a tio n : o f a n im a ls , 2 4 - 5 ; o f p la n ts , 1 6 , - 1 9 - 2 6

D e lâ g e , D e n y s , 1 4 4 , 1 5 8 , 2 0 0

D o n c a s te r (O n ta r io ), 3 2 7

D o m in io n L a n d s A ct ( 1 8 7 2 ) , 2 7 5 , 3 6 3

. '

I

D e la w a re (p e o p le ), 6 0 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 9 6 , 2 1 1

D o n n aco n a, 79, 81

Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, 3 3 7

D o r s e t c u ltu re , 5 5 - 6 , 6 8 , 3 6 3

D e m e rs , M o d e s te , 2 2 0

D o s a n jh , U ija l, 4 0 4

D em p sey, H u gh , 2 7 7 , 3 0 7

D o u g la s, Ja m e s , 1 8 7 , 1 9 0 , 2 1 8 - 2 0 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 3 3 2 ,

D e m p se y , P a u lin e , 3 1 4

418

D e m p s te r H ig h w ay , 3 9 4

D o u g la s, T h o m a s . See S e lk irk

D en e, 8, 77, 3 0 8 , 3 1 2 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 5 , 3 7 0 , 4 0 0 , 4 0 2 , 4 0 6 ,

D ra ft D e c la r a tio n o f t h e R ig h ts o f In d ig e n o u s P e o p le s

4 0 9 . See also A th a p a s k a n s a n d A th a p a s k a n l a n ­ g u a g e g ro u p D e n e /M é tis W e s te rn A rc tic L a n d C la im a g r e e m e n t, c a n c e l l a ti o n o f, 4 0 6

(1 9 9 3 ), 4 2 0 D ra k e , S ir F ra n c is, 1 7 9 d ress. See c l o t h in g D ru ille tte s , G a b rie l, 9 5

D e n e N a tio n , 4 0 6 , 4 1 3

d ru m s, 4 3 1

D enendeh, 406

D ry b o n e s , J o e , 3 1 2

D en m ark , 3 5 5 , 3 7 0

D u c k L a k e, 2 7 2 , 2 7 8 ; B a ttle o f, 2 8 8 , 2 9 4

D e n n is , J o h n S., 2 4 8 D e n o n v ille . See B risa y d e D e n o n v ille

d u G u a d e M o n ts , P ie rre , 8 7

D e n y s , N ic o la s , 8 7

D u m o n t, G a b rie l, 2 7 2 - 5 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 8 - 9

D e p a r tm e n t o f F is h e rie s a n d O c e a n s , 3 3 9 - 4 0

D u m o n t, Y v o n , 3 5 3

D e p a r tm e n t o f In d ia n A ffairs. See In d ia n A ffairs,

D u n c a n , W illia m , 2 2 0 - 2

D e p a r tm e n t o f

D u ffe rin . See B la c k w o o d

D u n d a s H a rb o u r (N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 3 8 7

D e p a r tm e n t o f M in e s a n d R e so u rc e s, 3 0 9

D unvegan, 181

D e p a r tm e n t o f N o r th e r n A ffairs a n d N a tu ra l

D u p le ssis, M a u r ic e , 2 9 4

R e so u rce s, 3 7 0 , 3 7 5

D u s s a u lt, R e n é , 4 1 3

D e p a r tm e n t o f S o c ia l S e rv ic e s (A lb e rta ), 3 5 1

D u tc h , 8 5 , 8 9 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 8 - 9 , 2 0 5

D e p a r tm e n t o f th e In te rio r , 2 6 5 , 3 6 9 , 4 0 2

d y e w o o d tr a d e , 7 2 , 8 3 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 3

541

D e s e r o n ty o n , J o h n , 1 6 5 D e s k a h e h (L ev i G e n e r a l), 3 4 4 - 5

E arley, M a ry T w o -A x e, 3 1 3

d e S o to , H e r n a n d o , 1 7 0

E a s te r Is la n d , 4 2

D e tr o it, 1 0 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 4 . See also F o rt D e tr o it

E a s te r n A rc tic P a tro l, 3 7 0

d e v e lo p m e n t, N o r th e r n , 3 5 7 , 3 6 3 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 5 , 3 9 3 - 9 ,

E b b a n d F lo w (O jib w a re serv e), 3 1 3

405, 415, 422 D cw d n cy , Ed gar, 2 8 2 , 2 8 6 , 2 9 0

E c c le s , W .J., 1 4 4 E cu a d o r, 2 6 , 3 6 - 7 , 4 2

D ia m o n d , B illy , 3 9 7

E d e n sh a w , C h a rle s , 1 8 9

d ia m o n d s , 3 9 9

E d m o n to n , 3 0 5 , 3 5 8 , 4 2 9

D ia v ik (d ia m o n d m in e ), 3 9 9

Edmonton Journal, 3 7 0

D ic k e n s , F r a n c is Je ffr e y , 2 8 8

e d u c a tio n , 2 3 1 , 2 9 9 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 5 - 2 0 , 3 5 3 , 3 5 9 , 3 7 7 , 3 7 9 ,

D ic k s o n , B r ia n , 3 3 8

4 2 8 ; a n d A b o rig in a l s e lf- g o v e r n m e n t, 4 2 1 ; c o m ­

D ic k s o n , Ja m e s , 2 4 2 - 3

p u lso ry , 3 1 6 - 1 8 ; a n d e n f r a n c h is e m e n t, 2 2 9 , 2 3 9 ,

D ic k s o n , R o b e rt, 1 9 6 - 7 , 1 9 9

2 6 8 ; F r e n c h e ffo rts , 1 4 2 - 3 , 1 4 6 ; H a w th o rn R e p o rt

D ie fe n b a k e r, J o h n , 3 9 0 , 3 9 3 - 4

o n , 3 7 5 - 6 ; HBC e ffo rts , 1 2 2 - 3 , 2 4 3 ; in d ig e n o u s

D ieter, W a lte r, 3 1 0

c u ltu ra l a n d la n g u a g e c o n t e n t in , 3 1 4 , 3 1 7 - 1 9 ,

D io n , J o s e p h , 3 4 9

3 7 6 , 3 9 5 , 4 2 1 ; in M a n ito b a , 2 5 0 , 2 7 4 ; as a m e a n s

D ir e c tio n g é n é r a le d u N o u v e a u Q u é b e c , 3 7 3

o f 'c iv iliz in g ' A m e r in d ia n s , 2 0 3 , 3 1 7 ; a n d th e

d ise a ses, 9 , 2 4 , 5 0 , 6 3 , 6 7 - 8 , 7 7 , 8 2 , 9 1 , 9 3 , 1 0 6 - 7 ,

M é tis , 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 , 3 5 3 ; N a tiv e c o n t r o l o f, 3 1 8 - 1 9 ,

109, 1 1 1 -1 2 , 1 2 8 -3 0 , 1 3 2 -4 , 138, 158, 172,

4 3 1 ; i n t h e N o r th , 3 5 9 , 3 6 5 - 6 , 3 7 3 , 3 8 7 ; p o s t-s e c ­

1 7 5 -6 , 189, 20 5 , 2 1 0 , 2 7 6 , 35 5 , 3 6 2 -3 , 3 8 7 , 39 4 ,

o n d a ry , 3 1 9 , 3 5 3 , 4 0 8 , 4 2 1 ; p r o v in c ia l r o le in ,

4 0 2 ; in flu e n z a , 3 6 9 ; M in a m a ta d ise a se , 3 9 4 ;

3 1 5 , 3 1 8 ; o n re serv es, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 2 7 - 8 , 2 5 8 - 9 ,

scu rv y , 1 4 5 ; s m a llp o x , 1 0 6 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 8 - 9 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 6 ,

2 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 5 , 3 1 9 , 3 4 6 , 3 4 8 ; re s­

2 2 1 , 2 4 0 ; tu b e r c u lo s is , 7 7 , 3 1 6 , 3 8 8

id e n tia l s c h o o ls , 3 1 5 - 1 8 , 3 2 0 , 3 9 5 , 4 2 5 - 6

J

542 Index E d w ard V II, 3 0 4

F ie d e l, S tu a rt J . , 2 9 , 3 7

Ed ziza, 5 9

F ile s H ill C o lo n y , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 1 6

E e g ee sia k , O k a lik , 3 9 5

F in n ie , O .S ., 3 6 9 , 3 7 3

e e ls, 3 3 9

fire , 2 0 , 2 7 9

e g a lita ria n s o c ie tie s , 2 6 - 8 , 4 8 , 6 3

fire a rm s . See g u n s a n d a m m u n it io n

E g y p t, 4 0 E le c tio n s C a n a d a , 4 2 5

F irst M in is te r s ' C o n fe r e n c e s o n A b o rig in a l affairs (1 9 8 3 -7 ), 4 0 0 -1

E lg in . See B ru ce

F irst N a tio n s B a n k o f C a n a d a , 4 2 3 - 4

E liz a b e th II, 3 8 5 , 4 0 0 , 4 0 2

F irst N a tio n s C o n s tit u tio n a l C o n f e r e n c e ( 1 9 8 0 ) , ii

E lle s m e re Is la n d , 3 8 9

F irs t N a tio n s G o v e r n a n c e A ct, 4 2 5

E llio tt, M a tth e w , 1 9 6 - 7

F irs t N a tio n s S u m m it o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 4 0 4

e m b ro id e ry , 4 3 0

F is h C re e k , B a ttle o f, 2 8 9

E n d e c o tt, J o h n , 8 9

fis h e r ie s , x , 7 4 - 5 , 8 7 - 8 , 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 5 3 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 0 , 2 1 4 ,

E n d e m a re , G e o r g e s d ', 1 2 8

2 4 6 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 -4 0 , 3 9 4 , 4 0 1 ; cod, 74 F is h e r ie s A ct, 3 3 0 , 3 3 9

e n fr a n c h is e m e n t, 2 2 9 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 1 , 2 6 3 - 5 , 2 6 8 , 3 0 4 , 3 0 8 , 310, 313, 317, 325, 373, 393

F ish er, R o b in , 1 8 6 , 2 1 9

E n fr a n c h is e m e n t A c t ( 1 8 6 9 ) , 2 3 1 , 2 3 8 - 9

fis h h o o k s , h a lib u t, 1 8 9

E n g lis h -In d ia n W a r ( 1 7 2 2 - 4 ) , 9 5 , 9 7 - 8 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 5 - 6 E noch band, 305

fis h in g , 2 0 , 2 5 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 7 4 - 6 , 8 1 - 4 , 8 7 - 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 2 ,

E rasm u s, G e o rg e , 4 0 9 , 4 1 3 , 4 2 5 E rie (p e o p le ), 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 2 8 - 9 E r m in e s ld n b a n d , 4 1 0 - 1 1

145, 2 0 4 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 6 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 9 -1 0 , 3 1 8 , 340, 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 - 5 0 , 3 6 4 , 3 8 7 - 8 , 3 9 4 , 4 1 4 ; rig h ts, 1 3 6 , 1 5 4 -5 , 2 0 6 , 2 3 2 -4 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 8 -6 0 , 2 9 9 , 3 30, 332,

E s k a so n i re se rv e , 4 1 5

3 3 5 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 , 3 5 0 , 3 6 3 , 3 6 6 - 7 , 3 7 0 , 3 7 9 , 3 9 7 , 406 F itz g ib b o n , Ja m e s , 1 9 8

E s k im o , u se o f te r m , x iv . See also I n u it

F iv e N a tio n s . See Iro q u o is

E s k im o -A le u t, 6

F la d m a rk , K n u t, 6

E s q u a w in o , 1 2 1 - 2

F la n a g a n , T h o m a s , 2 9 2

E ta k i (d ia m o n d m in e ) , 3 9 9

F la th e a d , 1 7 0 , 1 8 3

E to u a t, G e o rg e s , 8 5

F lo rid a , 1 5 4

e v a n g e liz a tio n , 6 7 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 1 3 3 , 2 2 8 . See also

F o n ta in e , P h il, 4 0 2 , 4 2 6

m is s io n a r ie s

F o n te n e a u dit A lfo n c e , J e a n , 7 5

E v a n s, Ja m e s , 2 1 7 - 1 8

F o rt A u g u stu s, 1 7 3 - 4

E w in g , A lb e rt F r e e m a n , 3 4 9

F o r t C a r lto n , 2 6 1 , 2 7 4 , 2 8 8 - 9

E x c h e q u e r C o u rt, 2 1 5 , 3 0 1

F o r t C a ta r a c o u i, 1 3 0

e x p lo r a tio n , E u ro p e a n , x - x i i , 6 7 - 7 7 , 7 9 - 8 0 , 9 9 , 1 1 7 -1 8 , 1 22, 125, 187

F o rt C h a rle s , 1 1 7 F o r t C h ip e w y a n , 1 8 1 , 2 9 6 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 6 - 7

Expo, 67, 3 4 6 , 3 7 5

F o rt D e a r b o r n (C h ic a g o ), 1 9 8

e x p r o p r ia tio n , 3 0 3 , 3 3 9 , 3 4 6

F o r t d e s T re m b le s , 1 7 6

e x t in c tio n s , a n im a l, 9 - 1 0 , 1 6

F o rt D e tr o it, 1 5 9 , 1 9 7 - 8 . See also D e tr o it

F a irc lo u g h , E lle n , 3 8 1

F o rt E d m o n to n , 17 3

F o rt d u M ilie u , 1 7 6 F a irfie ld (O n ta r io ), 2 1 1

F o r t G arry , 2 4 8

F a lc o n , P ie rre , 2 4 2

F o r t G e o rg e , 1 8 2

F a lle n T im b e r s , B a ttle o f, 1 9 4

F o r t L a n g ley , 1 8 7

fa m ily a llo w a n c e s , 3 7 , 3 8 7

F o r t M a c k in a c , 1 6 1

fa m in e /s ta r v a tio n , 6 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 8 , 2 4 2 ,

Fo rt M cL eo d , 18 7

245, 261, 2 7 8 -8 2 , 286, 290, 359, 363, 365, 373, 375, 387

Fo rt M cP h erso n , 2 0 6 , 3 5 9 , 3 7 0 , 3 7 2 F o r t M a ld e n (A m h e rs tb u r g ), 1 9 6 , 1 9 8

fa r m in g . See a g r ic u ltu r e

F o r t M eig s, 1 9 8

F a v el, B la in e , 4 2 4

F o r t M ia m i, 1 9 4

F e a st o f t h e D e a d , 5 2 , 5 5 , 1 0 2

F o r t M ic h ilim a c k in a c , 1 5 9

fe a th e r w o rk , 2 9

F o r t M o n ta g n e d 'A ig le (E a g le H ills F o rt), 1 7 6

F e d e r a tio n o f N e w fo u n d la n d In d ia n s , 2 0 6

F o r t N e ls o n , 3 6 7

F e d e r a tio n o f S a s k a tc h e w a n In d ia n s , 3 1 0

F o r t N ia g a ra , 1 5 9 - 6 0

F e d e r a tio n o f S e v e n Fires, 1 5 8 F e ll, Barry, 4 0

F o r t O n ta r io , 1 6 0

F e n ia n s , 2 5 0

F o r t O r a n g e (A lb a n y ), 1 0 8

Fo rt N o rm an , 3 7 0

F e rg u so n , R h o n d a , 1 6 5

F o r t P e m b in a , 1 7 6

Fid ler, P eter, 1 7 2 , 1 8 2

F o r t P itt, 1 5 9 , 2 6 1 , 2 7 6 - 8 , 2 8 8 , 3 5 8

Index 543 F o r t P r in c e o f W a le s , 1 3 8

G a m e A ct (B ritis h C o lu m b ia , 1 9 6 0 ) , 3 3 2

F o r t Q u 'A p p e lle , 2 7 4 , 2 8 5 , 3 0 0

G a m e a n d F is h A c t (O n ta r io ), 3 4 0

F o rt R ae, 3 6 7 F o r t R e s o lu tio n , 3 5 8 , 3 6 7

g a m e s , b a ll, 5 6 - 7 G a n io d a io (H a n d s o m e L a k e), 3 4 3

F o r t R u p e rt, 1 8 7 - 8

G a r a k o n tié , 1 3 3

F o rt S t J o h n , 1 8 1 , 3 6 4

G a r d e n R iver, 2 3 1

F o r t S e lk irk , 2 0 6

g a s o lin e s n iffin g , 4 1 3 - 1 5

F o r t S im p s o n , 1 8 7 , 2 2 1 - 2 , 3 6 8

G asp é, 7 9 - 8 0 , 8 2 g a th e r in g o f fo o d , 1 6 , 1 9 - 2 1 , 5 0 , 2 7 6 , 3 3 7 . See also

Fo rt V an co u ver, 2 2 0 F o r t V e r m ilio n , 2 9 6 F o r t V ic to r ia , 1 8 7 , 2 1 9 F o r t W a ls h , 2 7 7

h u n t i n g a n d g a th e r in g G a u lin , A n to in e , 9 0 , 9 7 , 1 3 6 G a u ltie r d e V a re n n e s e t d e La V é r e n d ry e , P ie rre , 1 2 5

F o r t W h o o p -U p , 2 6 1

Gazette, The (M o n tr e a l), 4 1 4

F o r t W illia m , 1 8 1 , 3 5 7

G e n e r a l A llo tm e n t A ct (D a w e s A ct) (U n ite d S ta te s,

F o r t W illia m H e n ry , 1 3 6 F o ste r, J o h n E., 2 9 2

1 8 8 7 ), 3 7 8 G e n e r a l C o u n c il o f O n ta r io a n d Q u e b e c In d ia n s , 2 3 9

F o x (p e o p le ), 9 9 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 3 - 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 3 , 3 2 7

G e n e r a l C o u n c il o f t h e U n ite d C h u r c h o f C a n a d a ,

F o x W ar, 1 2 7 , 1 3 3 - 5 f o x , w h ite , 3 6 3 , 3 8 7

395 G e n e r a l, L ev i (D e s k a h e h ), 3 4 4 - 5

F r a n c h is e B ill ( 1 8 8 5 ) , 2 6 8

G e o r g e , I, 9 0

F r a n c is c a n s , 1 0 5

G e o r g e V, 3 4 5

Francis v. The Queen, 3 3 0

G e o r g e , D u d le y , 4 1 8 - 1 9

F r a n k lin , Sir J o h n , 2 0 , 2 4 4

G e o rg ia , 1 6 2

Frank Miller v. The King, 2 1 5

G e o r g ia n Bay, 5 1 - 2 , 1 0 9

F ra se r R iv er, 5 0 , 1 6 5 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 0 , 2 2 0 , 2 3 9 - 4 0

G e tty , D o n , 3 5 1

F r e e m a n , M ilto n , 3 8 9 F r e n c h a n d In d ia n W ar ( 1 7 5 4 - 6 3 ) , 1 5 5 - 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 7 2 , 1 9 4

G h o st D ance, 2 6 6 , 2 7 6

F r e n c h -Ir o q u o is W a r ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 7 0 1 ) , x ii, 9 5 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 -3 3

G ib s o n , T o w n s h ip o f (O n ta r io ), 3 2 8 g ift d is tr ib u tio n a n d e x c h a n g e , 5 4 , 5 8 - 6 1 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 8 5 -7 , 9 0 -1 , 9 7 -8 , 1 0 5 -6 , 1 1 0 -1 1 , 1 2 0 -1 , 1 3 6 -7 ,

F r e n c h m a n 's B u tte , B a ttle o f, 2 8 9

141, 147, 1 5 5 -8 , 165, 194, 196, 1 9 8 -9 , 2 08,

F r ie s e n , J e a n , 2 2 1 F ro b is h e r, S ir M a r tin , 7 0 - 2

2 1 0 -1 1 , 21 3 , 2 2 7 -8 , 2 3 2 , 2 5 8 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 5 -6 , 308, 3 1 1 - 1 2 . See also p o tla c h e s

F ro g L a k e , 2 8 8

G illa m , Z a c h a ria h , 1 2 0

F r o n te n a c . See B u a d e

G irty , S im o n , 1 9 7

fr u it, w ild , 2 1

G ita n y o w , 3 3 8 G itk s a n , 4 , 1 8 7 - 8 , 2 2 0 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 - 9

F u lto n , D a v ie , 3 8 3 F u m o le a u , R e n é , 3 6 5 , 3 7 0 fu n e r a r y ritu a ls . See b u r ia ls a n d d e a th ritu a ls ; F e a st o f

G la d s to n e , J a m e s , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 , 3 7 8 , 4 0 3

th e D ead fu r tr a d e , x i - x i i , 4 8 , 1 2 7 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 2 , 2 4 6 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 9 ,

G le n b o w M u s e u m , 3 5 2 , 3 8 3

G la d s to n e , J a n i e , 3 1 4 G le n e lg . See G r a n t, C h a rle s G le n r o s e C a n n e r y site , 3 8

3 5 7 , 3 7 7 , 3 8 3 ; A m e r ic a n , 1 8 4 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 8 , 3 5 5 ; B r itis h , 7 3 - 4 , 8 5 , 9 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 2 1 - 5 ,

g lo b a l w a r m in g , 3 9 0

128, 130, 148, 158, 16 1 , 1 69, 1 7 1 -7 , 1 7 9 -8 4 ,

g o ld , x iii, 3 7 , 5 9 , 1 9 0 , 2 2 0 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 2 , 2 9 5 ,

1 8 6 -8 , 194, 1 9 6 -7 , 20 0 , 2 1 6 -1 7 , 22 1 , 24 4 ; C a n a d ia n , 3 5 5 , 3 5 8 - 9 , 3 6 1 - 3 , 3 6 9 , 3 7 5 , 3 8 7 ;

358, 3 6 3 -5 G o o d a le , R a lp h , 4 0 4

D u tc h , 8 5 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 8 ; F r e n c h , 8 3 - 7 , 9 4 , 9 6 ,

G o o d le a f, D a n , 4 0 4

1 0 1 -1 2 , 115, 117, 1 2 2 -4 , 128, 130, 142, 144,

G o o d s a n d S e rv ic e s T a x , 4 0 4

1 4 7 - 9 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 6 ; im p a c t o n N a tiv e s , 7 4 - 5 ,

G o o s e Bay , 4 1 5

8 4 -8 , 9 1 , 1 0 1 -1 2 , 1 1 5 -1 8 , 1 2 0 -S , 128, 142, 144,

G o s n e ll, J o e , 4 1 8

1 4 7 -9 , 169, 173, 1 7 5 -7 , 1 7 9 -8 3 , 1 8 5 -9 0 , 194,

g o u rd s , 2 0 - 2 G ra d u a l C iv iliz a tio n o f t h e In d ia n T rib es o f th e

196, 20 0 , 2 1 5 -1 8 , 22 1 , 2 7 1 -2 , 27 6 , 355, 3 5 8 -9 , 3 6 1 - 3 , 3 6 9 , 3 7 5 , 3 8 7 ; la n g u a g e s in , 1 4 9 ; a n d th e M é tis , 1 4 8 - 9 , 2 4 2 - 3 , 2 7 1 - 2 , 3 5 2 ; d u r in g th e

C a n a d a s , A n A ct t o e n c o u r a g e th e ( 1 8 5 7 ) , 2 2 9 -3 1 , 238, 263

N a p o le o n ic W ars, 1 9 4 , 1 9 6 ; o rig in s o f, 7 3 , 8 3 ,

G r a h a m , A n d rew , 7 3

1 1 8 ; R u s s ia n , 8 3 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 6

G r a h a m , W .M ., 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 0 6 G ran d C a ch e, 1 8 0

G age, T h o m a s, 1 6 1 , 2 1 0 , 3 2 7

G r a n d C o te a u , B a ttle o f, 2 4 4

G a lin é e . See B r é h a n t d e G a lin é e

G r a n d C o u n c il o f t h e C r é é s, 3 9 5 , 3 9 7

544 Index G r a n d In d ia n C o u n c il o f O n ta r io a n d Q u e b e c , 3 0 9

H a r m o n , D a n ie l, 1 2 3

G r a n d P ré, 1 3 1

H a rp er, E lija h , 4 0 2 - 3 , 4 3 1

G r a n d R iver, 1 6 1 , 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 1 4 - 1 5

h a rp o o n s, 8 5 , 3 6 1

G r a n d R iv er N a v ig a tio n C o m p a n y , 2 1 4 - 1 5

H a r ris o n , W illia m H e n ry , 1 9 5 , 1 9 7

G r a n t, C h a rle s , B a r o n G le n e lg , 2 0 3

H arris, W a lte r E ., 3 0 8

G r a n t, C u th b e r t, 2 4 2

H a rtt, P a tric k , 3 9 9

G r a n t, J o h n W e b ste r, 1 1 1

H av en , Je n s , 2 0 4

G r a n t, S h e la g h , 3 8 9

H a w a ii, 1 8 9

G r a p e Isla n d , 2 1 1 - 1 2

H a w th o rn , H e n ry B ., 3 7 5 - 7

G ra ssy N a rro w s R eserv e , 3 9 4

H a w th o r n R e p o rt (A Survey o f the Contemporary Indians

g rav es, lo o tin g o f, 2 4 0 G r e a t D e p re s s io n , 3 0 9 , 3 4 9 , 3 7 5 , 3 8 2 , 4 1 5

o f Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies), 3 7 6 - 7 , 4 2 6 - 7

G r e a t L ak es, 5 0 , 8 4 , 9 9 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 2 , 1 3 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 0 , 1 8 0 , 196, 200

H a y R iv er, 3 6 7

G r e a t S la v e L ak e, 3 6 5 G r e a t W h a le R iv e r p r o je c t, 4 0 5

h e a d d re s s e s , 6 0

G r e e c e , a n c ie n t , 4 0

H ea d , S ir E d m u n d , 2 0 8

G r e e n b e rg , Jo s e p h H ., 6

H e a d -S m a s h e d -In B u ffa lo Ju m p , 5 7 - 8

G r e e n la n d a n d G r e e n la n d e rs , 4 8 , 7 0 , 7 2 - 3 , 1 4 5 , 3 7 0 , 390

h e a lth a n d h e a lth c a re , 2 5 , 5 5 , 6 2 - 3 , 7 7 , 2 3 8 , 2 5 8 ,

G r e n fe ll, S ir W ilfre d , 2 0 6 , 3 6 1 G re y e y e s , D av id , 3 1 2

HBC. See H u d s o n 's B a y C o m p a n y h e a d - h u n t in g , 4 2

2 6 0 -1 , 26 4 , 26 6 , 2 7 9 , 31 6 , 34 6 , 3 4 9 , 35 9 , 361, 3 6 7 , 3 7 3 , 3 7 7 , 3 8 8 , 4 2 1 , 4 2 7 - 8 . See also diseases; m e d ic in e s

G rey , H e n ry G e o rg e , E arl G rey, 2 2 8 , 3 0 0

H e a rn e , S a m u e l, 5 6 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 - 2 , 1 3 8 , 1 8 0

G rey N u n s, 2 1 5 , 3 4 8

H e id e n r e ic h , C o n r a d , 3 3 5

G rise F io rd , 3 8 9

H e lm , J u n e , 3 6 7

G r o s e illie rs . See C h o u a r t

H en d a y , A n th o n y , 1 7 1 - 3

G ro s V e n tre s , 1 7 0 - 1 , 1 7 3 - 6 , 2 8 0 G r u h n , R u th , 6

H e n le y H o u se , 1 2 3

G u a te m a la , 2 3

H e r s c h e l Is la n d , 3 6 0 - 2 , 3 7 0 - 1

Guerin v. The Queen, 3 3 6

H e y e rd a h l, T h o r, 3 4 , 3 6 , 4 0 - 4

H en ry , A le x a n d e r, t h e Y o u n g er, 1 7 0 , 1 7 2

g u in e a p ig s, 2 4

H ia w a th a (Iro q u o is le a d e r), 5 3

g u n b o a t d ip lo m a c y , 2 1 9 - 2 1

H ia w a th a F irs t N a tio n , 4 1 8

g u n s a n d a m m u n it io n , 8 5 , 9 8 , 1 0 2 - 3 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 8 ,

H ic k e y C liffo r d G ., 7 4

1 2 4 -5 , 129, 13 1 , 136, 1 5 7 -9 , 1 7 0 -3 , 1 76, 180,

H id a tsa , 1 7 1

1 8 2 -3 , 186, 194, 196, 2 0 5 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 8 , 2 76,

h id e s: b is o n , 5 8 , 2 7 1 ; b u ffa lo , 1 7 0 , 1 7 5 ; p a in tin g of, 2 9

2 8 6 , 2 9 3 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 1 - 2 , 3 6 6 ; m u s k e ts , 9 4 , 1 0 2 , 1 4 4 , 172, 186

h ie ra rc h y , 2 6 - 8 , 4 9 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 5 H ig h C o u r t o f O n ta r io , 3 2 3

G u s ta fs e n L a k e la n d o c c u p a tio n ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 4 1 5 - 1 7 G u y, J o h n , 7 5 - 6

H ig h w a y , T h o m s o n , 4 3 0

G w ic h 'in (K u tc h in , L o u c h e u x ), x iv , 5 5 , 3 1 8 , 3 5 7 ;

H in d u in f lu e n c e s , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 2

H in d , H e n ry Y o u le, 2 4 4 , 2 4 6

M a c k e n z ie D e lta , 4 0 6

H in d , W illia m G e o r g e R ic h a r d s o n , x iii, 8 4 , 1 2 3

G w ic h 'in T rib a l C o u n c il, 4 0 6

Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (A c o sta ), 4 H o b b e m a (A lb e rta ) b a n d s , 4 1 0 - 1 1

H a c h e , R o b e rt, 1 4 3

H o c h e la g a , x i, 8 1 - 2

H aid a, 4 8 - 5 0 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 9 , 2 3 9 , 3 0 4

H o c q u a rt, G ille s , 1 4 2

H a ld im a n d , F re d e rick , 1 6 4

H o d d er, Ia n , x ii

H a ld im a n d G r a n t, 1 6 4 - 5 , 3 4 3 , 3 4 5

H ohokam , 23

H a lib u rto n , T h o m a s C ., 1 4 2 H a lifa x , 1 3 5 - 6

H o p e w e ll c u ltu re , 2 6 , 2 8 - 9 , 3 9 , 5 5

H all, A n th o n y J ., 3 3 3

h o rs e s , 1 6 9 - 7 3 , 1 7 6 - 7 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 1 , 2 9 3 , 3 6 4 ;

H o rse C h ild , 2 8 9

H all, D a v id J ., 2 5 7

s te a lin g o f, 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 3 , 2 8 0

H all, E m m e tt, 3 3 3

h o u s in g , 4 2 1 ; N o r th e r n , 3 9 0 , 4 0 9 , 4 1 4

H all, Ja m e s , 7 2

H o u s to n , J a m e s A ., 4 3 0

H an, 55

H o w e, J o s e p h , 2 0 7 , 2 3 8

H a n d s o m e L a k e (G a n io d a io ), 3 4 3 H a n n a h Bay, 1 2 1

H o w se P ass, 1 8 2

H a n n a h B a y m a s s a c re ( 1 8 3 2 ) , 2 1 8

H u d s o n Bay, 5 6 , 7 3 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 2 ,

H a n n a , Ja m e s , 1 8 4

H u a u lt d e M o n t m a g n y C h a rle s , 1 0 2 1 3 7 -8 , 1 7 2 -3 , 1 8 0 -1 , 2 0 5

Index 545 H u d s o n , H en ry , 7 3 - 4 , 1 1 5

Ile d 'O rlé a n s , 1 4 3

H u d s o n H o u se , 1 7 3 , 1 7 6

Ile R o y a le (C a p e B r e to n ), 9 7 , 1 3 6

H u d s o n R iver, 1 0 8

Illin o is , 2 9 , 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 4 8

H u d s o n 's B a y C o m p a n y (HBC), 7 3 , 1 1 2 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 6 , 2 0 3 ,

illite ra c y , 3 4 9

2 2 7 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 5 , 3 5 8 , 4 0 2 ; a d m in is tr a t io n o f

In c a , 1 2 , 2 0 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 6 8

R u p e rt's L a n d a n d R ed R iver, 1 6 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 1 7 ,

i n c o m e s u p p o rt, h u n te r , 3 9 7 , 4 2 2

2 4 2 - 9 , 2 7 5 , 2 8 5 ; B r itis h C o lu m b ia s e p a ra te d fr o m a d m in is tr a t io n o f, 2 4 4 ; c h a r te r , 1 1 7 , 2 1 6 , 2 4 3 - 4 ,

I n d ia , 2 1 , 3 9 , 2 6 0 In d ia n , u se o f te r m , x iv - x v , 6 4 , 2 2 8 - 9 , 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 6 4

3 9 7 ; c o m p e titio n w ith M o r a v ia n m is s io n a r ie s ,

I n d ia n a (te r r ito r y /s ta te ), 1 9 5 , 2 0 0

2 0 5 ; a n d I n u it a rt, 4 3 0 ; o r ig in s o f, 1 1 7 ; p o s ta l

I n d ia n A ct, x v i, 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 4 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 3 - 5 , 2 6 8 , 2 8 2 ,

s e r v ic e , 2 4 5 ; p o s ts , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 - 3 , 1 7 3 - 4 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 0 ,

2 8 5 -6 , 2 9 4 -5 , 30 1 , 3 0 3 -4 , 3 0 6 -8 , 3 1 0 -1 6 , 318,

1 8 7 - 8 , 2 0 6 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 2 7 4 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 3 , 3 6 9 ; r e la ­

3 3 8 , 3 4 4 -5 , 34 7 , 36 4 , 37 3 , 3 7 6 -8 , 38 1 , 3 9 3 , 401,

t i o n s w ith A b o rig in a ls , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 - 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 7 3 - 4 ,

4 0 4 , 4 1 4 , 42 2 , 4 2 4 -5

176, 1 8 0 -1 , 1 8 7 -8 , 2 0 6 , 2 1 6 -1 7 , 2 2 0 -2 , 2 4 2 -5 ,

I n d ia n A d v a n c e m e n t A ct ( 1 8 8 4 ) , 2 6 6 - 8 , 3 0 1

2 5 8 , 2 6 1 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 8 , 3 5 9 , 3 8 7 ; re la ­

In d ia n A ffa irs, D e p a r tm e n t o f (u n d e r v a r io u s n a m e s ),

t i o n s w it h N o r th W e s t C o m p a n y , 1 7 3 , 1 7 9 - 8 1 ,

1 9 6 -7 , 2 0 9 , 21 2 , 2 2 5 -8 , 2 3 1 -2 , 2 3 7 -8 , 2 6 3 -5 ,

2 1 6 -1 7

280, 2 9 2 -3 , 2 9 9 -3 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 7 -9 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 5 -1 6 ,

H u ll, W illia m , 1 9 7 - 8

3 1 8 -1 9 , 3 2 7 -8 , 3 3 4 -6 , 341, 344, 368, 373, 375,

h u m a n rig h ts . See c iv il a n d p o litic a l rig h ts

3 7 7 , 37 9 , 3 8 3 -4 , 39 3 , 39 9 , 4 0 1 -2 , 40 4 , 40 9 , 415,

h u m ou r, 6 1 , 3 1 8

Hunters and Bombers (film ), 4 1 0 h u n tin g , 1 6 , 6 9 - 7 0 , 7 3 - 5 , 8 1 , 8 7 - 9 , 9 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 - 2 ,

417, 4 2 0 -2 , 4 2 4 -6 , 428 I n d ia n a g e n ts , 1 9 6 - 7 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 4 , 2 6 7 , 2 8 0 - 1 , 2 8 6 , 288, 293, 2 9 9 -3 0 0 , 3 0 7 -8 , 3 1 6 -1 7 , 368, 376, 379

13 0 , 132, 137, 157, 160, 180, 1 8 6 -7 , 2 0 6 , 23 3 ,

I n d ia n C la im s C o m m is s io n , 3 3 4 - 5 , 3 7 7 , 4 2 0

2 6 0 -1 , 279, 318, 346, 355, 362, 365, 367, 383,

I n d ia n L a n d s i n t h e P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a , A n A ct to

3 8 6 , 3 8 9 , 3 9 4 , 3 9 7 , 4 2 2 ; a d a p ta b ility t o n e e d s o f fu r tra d e , 1 1 8 ; a n d a g r ic u ltu r e , 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 4 , 5 1 , 5 4 -5 , 63, 81, 146, 169, 210, 213, 215, 233, 263,

C o n fir m tit le t o ( 1 8 6 6 ) , 2 3 4 I n d ia n R e serv e s, A n A c t C o n c e r n in g (N o v a S c o tia , 1 8 5 9 ), 2 0 7

2 7 2 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 6 , 3 4 9 ; o f b is o n /b u f fa lo , 1 0 - 1 1 , 5 7 - 8 ,

I n d ia n R ig h ts fo r I n d ia n W o m e n (o r g a n iz a tio n ), 3 1 4

118, 125, 1 6 9 -7 1 , 173, 1 7 5 -7 , 182, 2 1 5 , 2 4 2 , 24 4 ,

Indian School Days ( J o h n s to n ) , 3 1 8 Indian Self-Government in Canada (P e n n e r R e p o rt),

2 4 6 , 2 6 2 -3 , 266, 2 7 2 -4 , 277, 279, 364, 366; of c a r ib o u , 9 - 1 1 , 5 6 , 8 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 3 8 , 3 6 7 ; c o m m u n a l,

4 0 1 -2 , 404, 4 2 6 -7

1 8 3 ; d e c lin e o f, 1 6 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 3 ; o f d eer, 3 6 7 ;

In d ia n S p e c ific C la im s C o m m is s io n , 3 8 4

f a m ily te rrito rie s , 2 3 1 , 3 2 6 ; a n d g lo b a l w a r m in g ,

I n d ia n title . See A b o rig in a l title

3 9 0 ; a n d g u n s , 8 5 , 2 0 5 ; a n d i n c o m e s u p p o rt, 3 9 7 ,

In d o n e s ia , 3 6

4 2 2 ; a n d Ja m e s B a y a n d N o r th e r n Q u e b e c

In d u s tr y C a n a d a , 3 9 9

A g r e e m e n t (1 9 7 5 ) , 3 9 7 ; b y M é tis , 3 4 9 - 5 0 , 3 5 2 ; o f

In d u s V alley , 2 1

m o o s e , 8 3 , 3 6 7 ; o f m u s k -o x , 9 ; o r g a n iz a tio n o f,

in f a n t ic id e , 3 7 1

2 7 , 5 0 , 1 7 5 ; o f p o rp o is e s , 2 0 7 ; a n d p r o te in , 2 5 ;

In n is , H a ro ld , x i

a n d r a c ia l m ix in g , 1 4 5 ; o n re serv es, 3 0 0 ; rig h ts,

I n n u . See M o n ta g n a is -N a s k a p i

136, 1 5 4 -5 , 20 6 , 2 3 2 -3 , 25 3 , 2 5 8 -6 0 , 2 9 9 , 330,

I n n u N a tio n , 4 1 4 I n s tr u c t io n a n d P e r m a n e n t S e ttle m e n t o f t h e In d ia n s ,

3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 33 7 , 3 4 0 -1 , 35 0 , 3 5 2 , 36 3 , 3 6 6 -7 , 370, 3 7 9 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 6 ; o f se a ls, 8 7 , 1 8 4 , 3 6 1 ; o f se a o tte rs ,

A n A c t t o P ro v id e fo r (N o v a S c o tia , 1 8 4 2 ) , 2 0 7

1 8 3 - 4 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 9 ; u se o f fire in , 2 0 ; o f w a lru s, 7 4 ,

in te r m a r r ia g e . See m a rria g e

8 7 , 2 0 5 , 2 8 0 ; a n d w a rfa re , 1 2 9 , 1 3 4 . See also h u n t ­

in te r p r e te r s a n d in t e r p r e t a tio n , x iv - x v i, 7 0 - 2 , 8 0 , 1 2 1 ,

in g a n d g a th e r in g ; w h a le s a n d w h a lin g h u n tin g a n d g a th e r in g , 9 , 2 4 , 2 8 - 9 , 4 5 , 5 0 , 5 4 - 5 , 2 4 0 , 276, 301, 422 H u ro n a n d H u ro n ia , 4 , 2 1 - 2 , 2 5 , 2 8 , 5 0 - 2 , 5 5 , 6 3 , 8 1 -2 , 8 6 , 9 4 , 1 0 1 -1 2 , 115, 1 25, 1 2 8 -3 0 , 1 3 2 -3 ,

148, 155, 197, 206, 209, 2 3 1 -2 , 25 7 , 29 1 , 367, 372 In u it, x i i i - x i v , 8 , 1 2 , 2 4 , 3 6 , 4 8 , 5 5 - 6 , 6 0 - 2 , 6 7 , 6 9 - 7 5 , 77, 83, 8 6 , 121, 138, 1 8 0 -1 , 2 0 4 -7 , 2 1 8 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 8 , 263, 280, 318, 3 5 5 -7 , 3 6 0 -3 , 3 6 9 -7 3 , 379,

135, 142, 1 4 5 -6 , 164, 2 1 0 , 2 2 6 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 5 , 3 4 5 -6 ,

3 8 5 -9 0 , 393, 395, 3 9 7 -8 , 4 0 0 -4 , 4 0 6 -1 0 , 415,

4 0 3 . See also W y a n d o t

4 1 9 , 4 2 1 , 4 2 7 , 4 3 0 ; A la sk a n , 2 0 5 , 3 8 4 ; A m a ssa lik ,

H w ui S h a n , 3 6 , 6 1

4 8 ; C a r ib o u , 1 3 8 ; C o p p e r, 6 7 ; K e e w a tin , 3 8 8 ;

H y d ro -Q u é b e c , 3 9 7 - 8 , 4 0 5

N e ts ilik , 6 7 ; u s e o f te r m , x iv I n u it T a p trisa t o f C a n a d a , 3 9 5 , 4 0 7

Id lo u k , 3 6 2

In u k ju a k (P o rt H a rriso n ), 3 8 9

Ig lo lio rte , J a m e s , 4 1 0

I n u k titu t, 4 6 , 2 1 8 , 3 9 5 , 4 0 6 , 4 2 9

Ig n a c e , J o n e s W illia m ('W o lv e r in e '), 4 1 6

I n u p ia t E s k im o s , 3 8 4

Ile à la C ro s s e , 3 1 9 , 3 6 5

In u v ia lu it, 2 0 5 , 3 6 0 - 3 , 3 9 9 , 4 0 5

546 Index In u v ia lu it D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p o r a tio n , 4 0 5 In u v ia lu it F in a l A g r e e m e n t (W e s te r n A rc tic C la im A g r e e m e n t) (1 9 8 4 ) , 2 0 6 , 4 0 5

R eserv e s in t h e P r o v in c e o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 3 0 3 -4 J o i n t C o u n c il o f C h ie fs a n d E ld ers, 3 8 5

In u v ia lu it R e g io n a l C o r p o r a tio n , 4 0 5

J o i n t N a tio n a l In d ia n B r o th e r h o o d / C a b in e t

In u v ia lu it R e n e w a b le R e so u rce s D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p o r a tio n , 4 0 5

J o i n t S e n a te a n d H o u se o f C o m m o n s C o m m itte e o n

Investigator (s h ip ), 7 4 Ip p e rw a sh P ro v in c ia l P ark la n d o c c u p a tio n ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 415, 4 1 7 -1 9

C o m m it te e , 3 3 5 t h e In d ia n A ct ( 1 9 4 6 - 8 ) , 3 1 0 J o n e s , P e te r (S a cre d F e a th e rs ), 2 1 1 - 1 3 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 0 , 3 2 6 J o n e s , P e te r E d m u n d , 2 6 6 - 7

Iq a lu it, 2 4 , 4 0 7 , 4 1 1

J u d ic ia l C o m m it te e o f t h e P riv y C o u n c il. See P rivy

ir o n , 7 2 , 7 4 - 5 , 8 2 , 9 3 - 4 , 1 8 4 - 5 i r o n p y rite s, 8 1

Ju d s o n , J . , 3 3 2

Iro q u e t, 1 0 1

J u lia n , J o h n , 2 0 8

Ir o q u o ia n s a n d I r o q u o ia n la n g u a g e g ro u p , 4 , 2 4 , 2 7 ,

J u n g , C a r l, 4 1

45 , 48 , 5 0 -2 , 5 4 -5 , 63, 7 9 -8 2 , 93 , 101, 109, 125,

C o u n c il

ju s tic e s o f t h e p e a c e . See m a g is tr a te s

1 31, 1 4 6 -7 , 198, 3 00, 3 4 3 Ir o q u o is (F iv e N a tio n s , S ix N a tio n s ), 5 0 - 4 , 6 0 , 6 3 , 8 1 -3 , 9 4 -6 , 9 9 , 1 0 2 -5 , 1 0 7 -1 2 , 1 1 5 -1 6 , 1 2 4 -5 , 1 2 7 -3 5 , 1 4 3 -6 , 149, 161, 1 6 4 -5 , 172, 1 75, 177,

K a b lo o n a , 71 K a h n a w a k e (C a u g h n a w a g a , S a u lt S t L o u is), 1 5 8 , 1 61, 180, 198, 2 0 9 -1 0 , 31 9 , 32 7 , 3 2 9 , 33 1 , 386

180, 187, 189, 194, 1 9 8 -2 0 0 , 21 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 -1 5 ,

K a h n a w a k e S u rv iv a l S c h o o l, 3 4 6

2 3 8 -9 , 264, 3 0 8 -9 , 315, 3 2 7 -9 , 3 4 3 -6 , 376

K ah u rang i M ao ri D a n ce C o m p an y , 3 3 0

Iro q u o is W ar ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 7 0 1 ) . See F r e n c h -Ir o q u o is W a r

K a in a h . See B lo o d

Irv in g , W illia m N ., 8

K ak fw i, S te p h e n , 3 9 9

Irw in , R o n a ld , 4 2 4 - 5

K a m iy is to w e s it (B e a rd y ), 2 7 8

Isb ister, A le x a n d e r K e n n e d y , 2 4 3

K a n e , P a u l, 2 0 , 5 1 , 2 1 7 , 4 3 1

Ittin u a r , P e te r F r e u c h e n , 4 0 4

K a n e s a ta k e . See O k a

iv o r y c a rv in g , 4 3 0

K ap apam ahchakw ew , 2 8 5

Ja c k s o n , A n d rew , 1 9 8

K a r e ta k -L in d e ll, N a n cy , 4 0 9

J a c o b is h , S im e o n , 4 1 5

K a tz ie (P itt L a k e), 3 3 7

Ja ira z b h o y , R.A ., 3 7

k a y a k s, 3 6 , 5 6

Ja m e s Bay, 7 3 , 8 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 5

K ay e, Barry , 2 8 0

Ja m e s B ay (m u n ic ip a lity ), 3 9 7

K e e h e w in I n d ia n R eserv e, 3 4 9

K a p e y a k w a s k o n a m (O n e A rro w ), 2 8 8 , 2 9 0 - 1

Ja m e s B a y a n d N o r th e r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , x iii, 2 5 3 , 3 8 4 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 4 - 5 , 4 2 2 Ja m e s B a y a n d N o r th e r n Q u e b e c N a tiv e C la im s S e ttle m e n t A ct, 4 0 4 Ja m e s B a y h y d r o e le c tr ic p r o je c t, 3 9 4 - 5 , 3 9 7 - 8

K e e w a tin D is tric t, 1 3 8 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 8 K e h o e , A lice B ., 3 7 , 1 1 6 K ehoe, T h om as E , 57 K elley , D a v id , 3 6 , 3 9 ^ 1 0 K e llo g g , L o u is e P h e lp s , 1 3 4

Ja m e s , L y le, 4 1 6

K elly, Peter, 3 0 4

Ja m ie s o n , R o n , 3 9 9 , 4 2 1

K elsey, H en ry , 1 2 2 , 1 7 0

Ja p a n , 3 6 - 7

K e m p t, S ir Ja m e s , 2 1 0 , 2 2 8

J a y T re a ty (1 7 9 4 ) , 1 6 1 - 2

K e n d ric k , J o h n , 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

Je ffe r y s , T h o m a s , 2 7

K e n n e d y , A le x a n d e r, 2 4 3

Je n n e s s , D ia m o n d , 6 3 , 8 7 , 3 1 6 - 1 7 , 3 7 0 , 3 7 2

K e n n e d y , W illia m , 2 4 3 - 4

Jé r é m ie , N ic o la s , 7 2

K enora, 3 8 3

Jesuit Relations, 1 7 9

K esk a y iw ew , 2 8 1 - 2

Je s u its , 4 8 , 6 4 , 6 9 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 5 - 6 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 1 0 1 - 3 , 1 0 5 - 7 ,

K e ttle a n d S t o n y P o in t F irs t N a tio n , 4 1 7 - 1 8

1 0 9 -1 2 , 124, 128, 131, 133, 142, 146, 148, 153, 170, 2 0 9 -1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 4 J e t t , S te p h e n , 3 7 , 3 9 Jo g u e s , Isa a c, 1 0 9 J o h n , Ed , 4 0 4

k e ttle s , 8 5 , 1 1 7 , 3 5 5 K iala, 1 3 4 - 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 3 K ic h e s ip ir in i (A lg o n q u in s o f A llu m e tte Is la n d ), 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 -8 K ic k a p o o , 1 9 6

J o h n s o n , P a u lin e , 3 1 3

K in c o lit h , 2 6 7

J o h n s o n , Sir J o h n , 1 9 3 , 2 0 9

K in g G e o r g e 's W ar, 9 5

J o h n s o n , Sir W illia m , 1 5 7 - 6 0 , 1 9 3

K in g P h ilip 's W ar, 9 5

Johnson v. McIntosh, 3 3 6

k in s h ip , 1 4 4 - 7

J o h n s t o n , B asil, 3 1 8

K io ts e a e to n , 1 2 8

J o i n t C o m m is s io n fo r t h e S e ttle m e n t o f In d ia n

K irk la n d , S a m u e l, 1 6 1

Index 547 K itk a tla , 2 2 0

o f, 1 6 4 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 5 , 3 0 0 - 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 6 , 3 3 6 - 7 , 3 5 0 ,

K itse la s C a n y o n , 5 0

3 7 6 , 4 1 8 ; rig h ts a n d o w n e r s h ip , 4 8 , 6 4 , 8 1 , 8 3 ,

K its ila n o P o in t, 3 3 9

8 8 -9 0 , 9 8 -9 , 120, 155, 1 6 3 -5 , 190, 1 9 3 -5 , 2 0 6 -7 ,

K ittig a z u it, 3 8 6

2 1 0 -1 4 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 -1 9 , 22 1 , 2 2 5 -3 4 , 23 7 , 2 4 0 -1 ,

K itw a n c o o l J i m , 2 2 0

2 4 3 -7 , 25 0 , 253, 2 5 5 , 2 6 3 -6 , 268, 27 2 , 2 7 4 -6 ,

K iw is a n c e , 3 0 0

28 6 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 4 -5 , 3 0 3 -6 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 0 -1 1 , 3 2 3 -3 0 ,

K la llu m , 2 1 9

3 3 2 -9 , 3 4 1 , 3 4 5 -7 , 3 5 0 -1 , 3 6 5 -8 , 3 7 0 , 3 7 7 -9 ,

K la m a th s , 3 7 8

38 1 , 3 8 5 , 395, 3 9 7 -8 , 4 0 1 , 4 0 4 -6 , 4 0 9 -1 0 ,

K la ts a s s in , 2 4 0

4 1 5 - 1 8 , 4 2 0 , 4 2 3 - 5 ; sa les, 1 6 4 - 5 , 1 9 3 - 4 , 2 0 3 ,

K le in , R a lp h , 3 5 2 K lo n d ik e g o ld ru s h , x iii, 2 6 2 , 2 9 5 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 4

2 9 5 , 3 0 1 , 3 2 4 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 6 , 3 3 9 ; su rv e y s, 9 8 , 1 6 5 ,

k n iv e s , 4 , 1 3 , 5 9 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 1 1 5 , 3 5 5

20 8 , 2 1 0 , 215, 2 1 9 , 22 7 , 2 3 3 -4 , 2 4 0 -1 , 24 6 , 275, 197, 2 0 6 -7 , 219, 221, 227, 272, 275, 277, 279,

K on eak, G eo rge, 3 9 0

367 L a n g e v in , H e c to r-L o u is , 2 8 5

Kon-Tiki, 4 2

L a n g , G e o rg e , 1 4 9

K o re a , 3 8 7

L a n g ley , 2 1 9

K o ster, 2 6

la n g u a g e (s ), 6 , 8 , 4 5 - 6 , 4 8 , 5 1 - 2 , 1 7 2 , 3 6 7 , 4 0 2 , 4 2 5 ;

K o n d a ir o n k , 1 1 0

K oyah, 1 8 6 -7

A m e r in d p r o to ty p e , 6 ; c o d e ta lk e rs, 3 1 0 ; c o u rs e s,

K u p ik , 3 8 4

3 1 4 ; g ro u p s, 1 4 , 4 2 7 ; in M a n ito b a , 2 7 4 ; N u n a v u t

K u tc h in . See G w ic h 'in

o ff ic ia l, 4 0 6 ; in Q u e b e c , 3 4 6 , 3 9 5 ; i n s c h o o ls , 3 1 4 ,

K u te n a i, 1 7 1 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 2 - 3

3 1 7 , 3 4 6 , 3 7 6 , 3 9 5 , 4 2 1 ; su rv iv a l o f, 4 2 9 ; in tra d e

K w a g iu lth . See K w ak w a k a’w ak w K w a g iu lth M u s e u m a n d C u ltu r a l C e n tr e , 3 0 8

a n d d ip lo m a c y , 5 2 , 6 0 - 1 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 5 ; in T su u T 'in a

'K w a h , 1 8 9 K w a k iu tl. See K w a k w a k a 'w a k w K w a k w a k a 'w a k w (K w a g iu lth , K w a k iu tl), x iv , 4 8 , 1 8 7 - 8 , 2 4 1 ; N e w itty , 2 1 9 - 2 0

re s e rv e A b o rig in a l c o u rt, 3 8 6 . See also in te r p re te rs a n d in t e r p r e t a tio n ; re a d in g a n d w r itin g L 'A n se a u x M e a d o w s , 7 0 La P o r te d e L o u v ig n y , L o u is d e , 1 3 4 La R o c h e D a illo n , J o s e p h d e, 1 0 3 La S a lle . See C a v e lie r d e L a S a lle

L a b ra d o r, 3 0 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 8 3 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6 , 2 3 4 , 3 6 1 , 3 9 5 , 410, 4 1 3 -1 5 , 4 2 2

Las C a sa s, B a r to lo m é d e, 3 la u b u m m o tif , 8 7

L a b r a d o r P e n in s u la e x p e d itio n (1 8 6 1 ) , 1 2 3

L a u m e t dit L a m o th e C a d illa c , A n to in e , 1 3 3

L a c h in e , 1 3 1 , 1 8 1

L au rier, S ir W ilfrid , 3 0 4 , 3 4 8

L a c L a B ic h e , 3 5 8

La V é r e n d ry e . See G a u ltie r d e V a re n n e s e t d e La

L a c o m b e , A lb e rt, 2 4 6 , 3 4 8 , 3 6 6 L a c S te A n n e , 1 8 0

V é r e n d ry e law s a n d le g a l sy s te m s : A b o rig in a l, 2 1 6 , 2 4 3 , 2 7 3 - 4 ,

Lady Washington (s h ip ), 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

288, 326, 3 4 4 -5 , 352, 3 7 1 -2 , 386, 4 0 1 -2 , 405,

L a fita u , J o s e p h F r a n ç o is , 3 9

4 0 8 , 4 2 1 ; A m e r ic a n , 3 3 6 ; B r itis h , 8 9 , 2 1 6 , 2 2 0 ,

L a f lè c h e , L o u is -F r a n ç o is , 2 9 4

2 4 0 , 2 4 6 , 3 2 4 - 5 , 3 3 4 , 3 4 5 , 4 1 0 ; C a n a d ia n , 2 0 8 ,

L a h o n ta n . See L o m d 'A rce d e L a h o n ta n

216, 231, 2 3 7 -9 , 241, 2 6 5 -6 , 274, 277, 282,

L aird , D a v id , 2 3 8 , 2 5 7 , 2 6 3 , 3 0 3 , 3 6 5

2 9 0 -1 , 2 9 3 ^ , 2 9 9 -3 0 1 , 304, 3 0 7 -8 , 31 1 , 318,

L a k e C o u c h ic h in g , 1 2 4

3 2 3 -1 1 , 3 5 9 -6 0 , 36 4 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 0 -2 , 3 7 7 , 379,

L a k e E rie, 1 9 8

3 8 1 -3 , 3 8 5 -6 , 39 3 , 3 9 7 -8 , 402, 4 0 4 , 40 8 , 410,

L a k e H u ro n , 1 0 7 , 1 9 9 , 2 3 3

4 2 0 , 4 3 1 ; E u ro p e a n , 1 5 3 ; in t e r n a t io n a l, 3 3 0 , 3 7 9 ,

L a k e M is ta s s in i, 1 1 5

3 9 7 ; N ew F r a n c e , 1 4 3 - 4 . See also b y la w s ; c iv il a n d

L a k e M u s k ik i, 4 1 0

p o litic a l rig h ts ; la n d rig h ts a n d o w n e r s h ip ; s o v e r­

L a k e N ip ig o n , 1 1 7

e ig n ty

L a k e o f T w o M o u n ta in s , 3 2 7

L a z o re , G o r d o n , 3 2 9

L a k e S t F ra n c is , 3 3 7

L a z o re , R o g er, 3 2 9

L a k e S im c o e , 5 2 , 2 1 2

L e a g u e o f In d ia n s , 3 1 0

L a k e S u p e rio r, 5 9 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 5 , 2 3 3

L e a g u e o f N a tio n s , 3 4 4 - 5

L a k e S u p e rio r a n d P a c ific R ailw ay , 2 4 5 L a k e T e m a g a m i, 3 3 3

L eak ey , L o u is, 3 le a t h e r a n d le a th e r w o r k , 8 5 , 4 3 0

la n d : c la im s , 1 6 2 , 1 6 5 , 2 4 4 , 2 5 3 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 5 , 2 9 4 - 5 ,

Le C a ro n , Jo se p h , 1 0 5

3 0 4 -5 , 3 1 0 -1 1 , 31 5 , 33 0 , 3 3 3 -5 , 338, 341, 349,

Le C le r c q , C h r e s tie n , 2 5 , 2 7 , 6 3 - 4

378, 3 8 0 -5 , 395, 397, 399, 404, 406, 409,

L e F e b v re d e La B arre, J o s e p h - A n to in e , 9 9 , 1 3 0

4 1 8 - 9 4 2 2 ; c o n f is c a t io n s , 1 9 3 , 2 0 0 , 3 4 6 ; e x p r o p r i­

L e g a ic (c h ie f), 1 8 7 - 9

a tio n s , 3 0 3 , 3 3 9 , 3 4 6 ; g r a n ts , 8 8 , 1 6 1 - 2 , 1 6 4 - 5 ,

L e g a ic, P a u l, 2 2 1 - 2

2 0 4 - 8 , 2 1 5 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 4 - 5 , 2 8 6 , 2 9 5 - 6 , 3 2 7 ; le a s in g

L e je u n e , P au l, 5 8 , 6 1 , 8 3 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 , 1 4 6

548 Index Le L o u tre , Je a n -L o u is , 9 0

M c D o u g a ll, W illia m , 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 4 6 - 5 0

L e M o y n e d e M a ric o u r t, P au l, 1 4 8

M c E a c h e r n , A lla n , 3 2 6 , 3 3 7

L e M o y n e , S im o n , 1 7 0

M a c E w a n , G r a n t, 5 1

L e n n o x Is la n d , 2 0 8 - 9

M 'G illiv ra y , D u n c a n , 1 8 2

L e ô n -P o rtilla , M ig u e l, 4 8

M c G ill, Ja m e s , 1 9 4

L é p in e , A m b ro is e D y d im e , 2 4 9

M cK a y , Ja m e s , 2 9 4

L e s ca rb o t, M a rc , 9 4 , 1 4 9

M c K e e , A le x a n d e r, 1 9 6 - 7

L e sser S la v e L ak e, 1 8 0 - 1 , 2 9 6 , 3 6 6

M a c k e n z ie , A le x a n d e r, 1 7 9 , 2 4 1 , 3 6 3

L év i-Strau ss, C la u d e , 4 1

M a c k e n z ie D is tr ic t, 3 6 7 , 3 7 0

Lew is a n d C la rk e x p e d itio n , 1 7 3 , 1 8 2

M a c k e n z ie R iver, 3 5 8 , 3 6 9

L ib e ra l P arty , 2 6 8 , 3 3 9 , 4 0 3 - 4

M a c k e n z ie V a lle y P ip e lin e , 3 9 4 , 3 9 8 - 9

life e x p e c ta n c y , 4 2 7 liq u o r. See a lc o h o l

M a c k e n z ie V a lle y P ip e lin e In q u ir y ( 1 9 7 4 - 7 ) , x iii, 3 3 2 , 3 9 8 -9

L ittle B ig h o r n , B a ttle o f, 1 9 6 , 2 6 1 - 2

M a c k in a c Is la n d , 1 6 1

L ittle c h ild , W ilto n , 4 0 3

M a c L a r e n , I a n S ., x v

L ittle C u rre n t, 2 1 2

M a c L e a n , L a u rie, 7 5

L ittle P in e (M in a h ik o s is ), 2 7 7 - 8 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 3

M a c le o d , J a m e s F., 2 6 1

L ittle S a lm o n , 3 6 5

M a c le o d , R .C ., 2 8 2

liv e sto ck , 2 1 9 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 4 8 , 3 5 1 . See also c a ttle

M a c N e is h , R ic h a rd , 8 , 2 2

lla m a s , 2 4

M a d e B e a v e r (ty p e o f b e a v e r p e lt), 1 8 5

lo b s te r s , 3 3 9 - 4 1

M a d je c k e w is s , 1 5 9

Locke, Jo h n , 3 3 4

M adockaw and o, 95

L o ft, F r e d e rick O g ilv ie , 3 0 9 - 1 0

M a g d e le in e Is la n d s , 7 4

Lorn d 'A rce d e L a h o n ta n , L o u is-A rm a n d , 1 3 1 - 2 L o n d o n (E n g la n d ), 1 8 1

m a g is tr a te s (ju s tic e s o f t h e p e a c e ): A b o rig in a l, 2 4 0 ;

L o n g C r e e k (S a s k a tc h e w a n ), 5 7

M a g n u s , O la u s ( O la f M a n s s o n ) , 6 8 - 9

In d ia n a g e n ts a s, 2 9 9 , 3 0 7 - 8

L o n g h o u s e r e lig io n , 3 4 3 - 4

M a h ic a n , 9 5 , 1 0 8

lo n g h o u s e s , 4 2 , 5 1 , 8 1 , 1 3 2 L o n g , J o h n S., 7 4 , 2 5 5

M a illa r d , P ie r r e -A n to in e -S im o n , 9 0 - 1 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 5 , 217

L o o n R iv er p e o p le , 3 8 3

M a in e W ar, 9 5 , 9 8

L o rd , P eter, 8

M a in P o c , 1 9 5 , 1 9 8

L o r e tte (L o re tte v ille ), 1 0 9 , 1 3 5 , 2 0 9 , 3 2 7 , 3 4 5 - 6 , 3 7 6

M a ir, C h a rle s , 2 4 6

L o m e , J o h n D o u g la s S u th e r la n d C a m p b e ll, M a rq u e ss o f, 2 6 7 , 2 7 5

m a iz e . See c o r n

L o u c h e u x . See G w ic h 'in

M a k e n u n a ta n e , 1 8 3

L o u g h e e d , P eter, 2 9 4 , 3 5 1

M a id iv e Isla n d s, 3 9

L o u is, X III, 1 0 8 ; X IV , 9 9 ; X V , 3 2 6

M a lis e e t. See W u a s tu k w iu k

M akah, 48, 59

L o u is b o u rg , 1 3 5 - 7 , 1 4 4

M a lle t, P ie rre , 1 1 8

L o u is ia n a , 1 3 1 , 1 3 4 , 1 7 2

M a lo u f, A lb e rt, 3 9 7

L o v e la c e , S a n d ra , 3 1 3

M a n a g e m e n t a n d D is p o s a l o f t h e In d ia n R eserv e s in

Low , A lb e rt P., 3 6 2 L o w e r C a lifo r n ia , 3 4 L o w e r C a n a d a , 2 0 9 , 2 2 7 - 8 . See also C a n a d a East; P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a ; Q u e b e c (p r o v in c e ) L o w e r F o r t G arry , 2 4 8

t h e P ro v in c e , A n A c t fo r t h e (N ew B ru n sw ick , 1 8 4 4 ), 2 0 8 M a n a g e m e n t o f In d ia n L a n d s a n d P ro p e rtie s A ct (1 8 6 0 ), 2 3 1 M a n c h e s t e r H o u se , 1 7 6

L o y a lis ts , 2 0 8

M an d an , 2 9 , 171

L u b ic o n b a n d , 3 8 2 - 3

M anhattan (s h ip ), 4 0 7

L u b ic o n L ak e, 3 8 2

M a n h a t ta n Is la n d , 8 9

L u G w e i-D je n , 4 3

M a n ic o u a g a n , 3 9 4

lu m b e r c a m p s , 1 9 0

M a n ito b a , 2 6 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 9 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 5 5 - 6 0 , 2 6 3 ,

L u n d y 's L a n e , B a ttle o f, 1 9 9

2 6 5 -6 , 26 8 , 27 2 , 2 7 4 -5 , 2 8 6 , 29 0 , 29 2 , 294, 296,

L y syk, K e n n e th , 3 9 9

2 9 9 , 30 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 9 -2 0 , 32 3 , 3 5 2 -3 , 3 6 4 , 395, 402, 415, 427

M c C a rth y , D ’A lto n , 3 2 4 M a c d o n a ld , J o h n A ., 2 2 9 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 8 - 5 0 , 2 6 8 , 2 8 1 -2 , 29 3 , 323

M a n it o b a A ct ( 1 8 7 0 ) , 2 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 7 4 - 5 , 2 8 5 , 4 0 0 M a n it o b a In d ia n B r o th e r h o o d , 3 7 8 M a n it o b a M é tis F e d e r a tio n , 1 4 9

M a c d o n a ld , W .A ., 2 9 6

M a n it o u lin Is la n d , 1 0 7 , 2 1 2 - 1 4 , 2 3 3 - 4

M a c d o n e ll, M ile s , 2 4 2

M a n it o u lin Is la n d tr e a ty ( 1 8 3 6 ) , 2 1 3 , 2 3 4

Index M a n it o u lin Is la n d tr e a ty (1 8 6 2 ) , 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 8 , 305 M a n ito w a n in g , 2 1 2 M a n iw a k i, 3 2 7 M a n u e l, G e o r g e , 4 1 1 M a o ri, 4 1

M é tis N a tio n o f A lb e rta (MNA), 3 5 1 - 2 M é tis P o p u la tio n B e tte r m e n t A ct (A lb e rta , 1 9 3 8 ) , 3 4 7 , 3 5 0 -1 M é tis R e h a b ilita tio n B r a n c h (A lb e rta D e p a r tm e n t o f W e lfa r e ), 3 5 0 M e tla k a tla , 2 2 0 - 2 , 2 6 7 , 3 1 6

M a ra c le , D o u g , 3 1 9

M e u s e , A n drew , 2 0 7

M a rch a n d , L en, 4 0 3

M e x ic a , 1 2 , 1 4 , 2 8 , 3 9 - 4 2 , 4 8

M a rg e tts , Je n n y , 3 1 4

M e x ic o a n d M e x ic a n s , 1 1 , 1 9 , 2 1 - 4 , 2 8 , 3 7 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 6 8 ,

M a r in d e la M a lg u e , P au l, 1 3 4 - 5 m a rria g e , 9 6 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 4 - 9 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 6 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 9 , 3 0 0 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 3 . See also p o ly g y n y

77, 169 M ia m i (p e o p le ), 1 3 1 , 1 9 6 M ia m i R iver, 1 9 6

M a rs h a ll, D o n a ld , Jr , 3 3 9 , 3 8 5 - 6

M ia n s c u m , H en ry , 4 0 4

M a r s h a ll, In g e b o rg , 3 6

M ia n s c u m , Jim m y , 4 2 2

M a rs h a ll, J o h n , 3 3 6

M ic h a e l, S im o n ie , 4 0 3

M a r tin , P au l S., 1 0

M ic h e l, B e n , 4 0 9 - 1 0

M a r th e d 'A n g h ie r a , P ie tro , 3 6

M ic h if, 6 1 , 1 4 9 , 4 2 1

M a s c a r e n e 's T re a ty (T re a ty N o . 2 3 9 ) (1 7 2 5 ) , 1 3 5 - 6 ,

M ic h ig a n , 1 2 9

1 5 4 -5 M a s k e p e to o n (B r o k e n A rm ), 2 7 6 - 7 , 2 8 1 M a s s a c h u s e tts , 9 5 , 9 8 , 1 6 0 M a to n a b b e e , 1 2 2 M a tta g a m i R iver, 1 1 5

M ic h ik in a k o u a , 1 9 6 M ic h ilim a c k in a c , 1 1 0 , 1 9 7 .S e e also F o rt M ic h ilim a c k in a c M ic h ip ic o te n W ar, 2 3 2 /M ic m a c . SëeM P k m aq

M a u r e p a s . See P h é ly p e a u x

m icrô b lâ H e s, 4

M a w e d o p e n a is , C h ie f, 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 3 2 6

M id d le to n , F re d e rick D o b s o n , 2 8 8 - 9

M aw o o sh en , 93

M id e w iw in (G ra n d M e d ic in e S o c ie ty ), 2 1 3

M aya, 12, 2 0 , 2 3 , 28 , 3 9 -4 2

M ig ra to ry B ird s C o n v e n t io n A ct ( 1 9 1 8 ) , 3 6 7

m e d a ls a n d h o n o u r s , 9 1 , 9 8 , 1 3 3 , 1 4 2 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 9

M ig r a to r y B ird s C o n v e n t io n A c t ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 3 3 2

m e d ic in e s , 2 1 , 2 5 , 3 6 , 5 5 , 1 1 7 , 3 5 7

M ik a k , 2 0 4 - 5

M e d ite r r a n e a n Sea, 3 4 , 4 0 - 2

M i'k m a q (M ic m a c ), x i, xiv , 2 7 - 8 , 4 0 , 5 5 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 7 7 ,

M e e c h L ak e A c c o rd , 4 0 1 - 3 , 4 0 9 , 4 3 1 M egum aage, 55, 9 0 , 135 M e ig h e n , A rth u r, 3 7 3 , 3 8 1 M e m b e r to u , 8 7 , 9 1

Memoirs o f a Very Civil Servant (R o b e r ts o n ), 3 8 9 M e n d o z a , A n to n io d e, 1 6 9

\ 8 2 -3 , 8 6 -9 1 , 9 3 -8 , 103, 106, 125, 127, 1 3 5 -7 , 147, 1 5 4 -5 , 1 6 0 -3 , 165, 185, 193, 2 0 6 -8 , 21 7 , \267, 3 3 0 , 3 3 9 , 3 8 5 , 4 1 5 ; B u rn t C h u rch b an d , 3 3 9 - 4 0 ; C o n n e R iv er b a n d , 2 0 6 ; o f R e s tig o u c h e , _____(210; S h u b e n a c a d ie b a n d , 1 3 6 , 1 5 5 , 3 4 0 , 4 1 5

{ M i'k m a q W ar, 9 0 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 5 - 7 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 3 , 2 0 6

M e n o m in e e , 1 9 6 , 3 7 8

m ilk , 3 6

M e r c ie r B rid g e , 3 2 9 , 3 3 1 , 3 4 6

m ille n a r ia n is m , 2 6 6

M e r c r e d i, O v id e , 4 1 6 , 4 2 5

M ille r, Ja y , 6 1

m e r c u r y p o llu t io n , 3 9 4

M ille r, V irg in ia , 8 8

M e riv a le , H e r m a n , 2 2 7 , 2 4 3 - 4

M illo y , J o h n , 2 2 9

M e s o a m e r ic a , 2 8 , 3 4 , 3 8 , 4 2

M ills , D a v id , 2 7 5

M e s o p o ta m ia , 2 1 , 4 2

M im iy , 2 7 9

M e s q u a b (J o n a t h a n Y o rk e ), 1 2 4

M in a h ik o s is . See L ittle P in e

m e ta ls a n d m e ta llu r g y , 3 7 , 3 9 , 6 4 , 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 7 1 ,

M in a m a ta d ise a se, 3 9 4

175, 180, 205, 355 M e th o d is m a n d M e th o d is ts , 2 1 1 - 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 2 , 276, 318, 3 2 7 -8 M e th y e P o rta g e , 1 8 0 , 3 5 7 - 8 M é tis , u se o f t h e te r m , 3 4 7 , 3 5 0 , 3 5 2 M é tis a n d m ix e d -b lo o d s , x iii-x v i, 1 4 5 - 9 , 1 8 0 , 2 0 0 , 2 1 1 ,

m in e r a l rig h ts , 2 3 3 , 3 2 4 , 3 3 3 , 3 5 1 - 2 , 3 6 7 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 1 m in in g , 2 3 1 - 3 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 3 6 2 , 3 6 4 , 3 6 6 , 3 6 8 , 3 8 2 , 3 9 9 , 422 M in is te r ia l T a sk F o r ce o n P ro g ra m R ev ie w (N ie lse n R e p o rt) ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 3 7 9 M in n e s o ta , 2 4 5 - 6 , 3 7 7

2 1 6 -1 8 , 2 4 1 -5 1 , 2 5 9 -6 1 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 1 -7 , 28 0 , 2 8 5 -6 ,

M in w e w e h , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9

2 8 8 -9 0 , 2 9 2 -6 , 3 04, 3 08, 31 9 , 3 4 0 -1 , 3 4 6 -5 3 , 365,

M ir a m ic h i Bay, 3 3 9

3 6 7 -8 , 3 79, 4 0 0 , 4 0 3 -4 , 4 06, 4 1 9 -2 1 , 4 2 7

M ir a m ic h i R iver, 2 0 8

M é tis A s s o c ia tio n o f A lb e rta , 3 4 7 , 3 4 9 - 5 1

M ir is to u , 8 3

M é tis A s s o c ia tio n o f t h e N o r th w e s t T e rrito rie s , 4 0 6

M ir lig u è c h e , 9 7

M é tis C h ild a n d F a m ily S e rv ic e s (A lb e rta ), 3 5 1

m irro r s , 1 1 7

M é tis N a tio n a l C o u n c il, 3 5 1 , 3 5 3

m is s io n a r ie s , 7 5 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 1 1 8 ,

550 Index 128, 131, 1 33, 1 3 5 -6 , 144, 1 4 6 -8 , 158, 181, 20 3 ,

m u s k ra ts , 3 8 7

2 1 0 , 2 1 2 -1 3 , 2 1 5 -1 6 , 2 2 0 -1 , 25 7 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 9 , 308,

M u s q u a k ie , 1 6 5 , 2 1 2 , 2 3 2

3 1 5 -1 8 , 3 2 6 -7 , 355, 3 5 9 -6 3 , 365, 3 6 8 -9 , 371,

M u sq u eam b a n d , 3 3 6 - 7

3 8 7 ; A n g lic a n , 2 0 6 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 0 , 3 6 0 , 4 0 1 - 2 ;

m y th s , 3 —4, 2 9 , 4 2 , 6 1 - 2

G r e n fe ll, 2 0 6 , 3 6 1 ; M e th o d is t, 2 1 2 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 2 ;

My Tribe the Créés (D io n ) , 3 4 9

M o ra v ia n , 2 0 4 - 6 ; P re s b y te ria n , 2 1 5 ; R o m a n C a th o lic , 2 0 6 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 2 0 , 4 0 2 . See also e v a n g e ­

N a 'a s b a n d , 2 6 6

liz a tio n ; specific Roman Catholic orders

N a -D e n e , 6

M is s io n s É tra n g è re s , 9 0

N a h u a tl, 2 2

M is s is s a u g a (p e o p le ), 1 6 1 , 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 0 3 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 3 0 ,

N a in , 2 0 4

3 0 5 , 3 2 6 ; C r e d it R iver, 2 0 9 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 , 2 3 2

N a ltig o n is h , 1 3 6

M is s is s ip p i R iver, 9 9

N a n a im o (p e o p le ), 2 2 0

M is s is s ip p ia n c u ltu re , 2 0 , 2 4 , 2 8 - 9 , 3 9 , 5 5

N a p o le o n ic W a rs, 1 2 2 , 1 3 7 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 , 2 2 5

M is ta h im a s k w a . See B ig B e a r

N a rro w s, t h e (O n ta r io ), 2 1 2 N a rv a , 8 3

M is ta w a s is (B ig C h ild ), 2 7 7 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 6 m it’a, 2 8

N a s k a p i. See M o n ta g n a is -N a s k a p i

M itc h e ll, M a y b e lle , 4 0 9

N a ss R iver, 1 8 7 - 8 , 2 6 7 , 4 1 8

MNA (M é tis N a tio n o f A lb e rta ), 3 5 1 - 2

N a tc h e z , 2 9

m o c c a s in s , 8 5 , 1 1 8

n a tio n , A b o rig in a l, r c a p R e p o r t d e f in it io n o f, 4 1 9 -2 0

M o c h ic a , 4 0

N a tio n a l F ilm B o a rd , 4 1 0

m o d e l c o m m u n itie s , 2 0 3 , 2 0 9 - 1 3 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0

N a tio n a l In d ia n B r o th e r h o o d ( n ib ), 3 1 0 , 3 7 8 , 411

M og, 96

N a tio n a l In d ia n C o u n c il o f C a n a d a , 3 3 4 , 3 7 8

M ohaw k, 52, 8 1 -2 , 97, 1 0 8 -1 0 , 124, 1 2 7 -3 1 , 133, 1 6 1 -2 , 1 6 4 -5 , 1 9 3 -4 , 198, 3 0 9 , 3 1 2 -1 3 , 31 9 ,

N a tio n s O ff ic e (S ix N a tio n s R eserv e ), 3 4 5 N a tiv e , u se o f te r m , x i v - x v

3 2 8 - 3 0 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 6 , 4 1 7 ; B a y o f Q u in te , 2 3 9

N a tiv e B r o th e r h o o d o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 3 1 0

m o ie tie s , 4 9

N a tiv e E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t P ro g ra m (A lb erta), 3 5 2

M o n ta g n a is -N a s k a p i (In n u ), x iv , 5 5 , 6 0 - 1 , 8 1 - 6 , 9 1 ,

N a tiv e P h y s ic ia n s A s s o c ia tio n , 4 2 7

94, 1 0 1 -4 , 106, 111, 115, 1 4 3 -4 , 2 0 9 , 3 9 5 , 3 98,

n a tiv is t ic m o v e m e n t s , 1 5 8 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 3 , 3 4 3

4 0 4 - 5 , 4 0 9 - 1 0 ; o f D a v is In le t, 4 1 3 - 1 5 , 4 2 2 ; o f

N a tk u s ia k , B illy , 3 5 8

L ab rad o r, 4 1 0 ; la n g u a g e , 2 1 7 ; o f S c h e ffe rv ille , 3 9 7

n a tu r a l g a s, 3 5 2 , 3 6 3 , 3 7 6 , 3 8 4 , 3 9 8 - 9

M o n ta n a , 2 7 5 , 2 7 9 , 2 9 3 - 4

N a u lt, R o b e rt, 4 0 4 , 4 2 5

M o n tb e t o n d e B r o u illa n dit S a in t-O v id e , J o s e p h de,

N a v a jo , 3 1 0

90,

136

M o n te A lb â n , 4 1 - 2

N e c h i I n s titu te , 4 1 4 N eed h am , Jo se p h , 4 3

M o n te V erd e, 6 , 2 5

n e e d le s , 8 5

M o n to u r , A b ra h a m , 2 7 5

N e g a b a m a t, N o ë l, 1 4 3

M o n tr e a l, 8 6 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 - 2 , 1 3 4 - 5 ,

N e ls o n C o m m is s io n ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 3 6 7

160, 181, 194 M o o d ie , D . W a y n e , 2 8 0

N e ls o n , T h o m a s , 1 4 1 - 2 N e o lin , x v , 1 5 8 - 9 , 2 1 8

m o o se, 83 , 2 7 6 , 3 4 0 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 6 -7

Neptune (s h ip ), 3 6 2

M o o s to o s , 3 6 3 , 3 6 5

N erysoo, Jo h n , 3 1 8

M o r a n tz , T o b y , 1 2 0

N e s c a m b io u it, xv , 9 9 , 1 3 4 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 3

M o ra v ia n s , 2 0 4 - 6 , 2 1 1

N e th e r la n d s , 3 4 4 - 5

M o r a v ia n to w n , 2 1 1 ; B a ttle o f, 1 9 9

n e ts , 1 6 , 1 2 0 , 2 5 9 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 7 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 6 , 3 8 7

M o re ll R iver, 2 0 8

N e u tra ls (A ttiw a n d a ro n , A ttiw a n d a r o n k ), 5 1 - 2 , 1 0 3 ,

M o rris , A le x a n d e r, 2 5 6 - 7 , 2 5 9 , 2 7 4 , 3 2 4 , 3 2 6

109, 1 1 1 -1 2 , 125, 128, 132

M o r r is o n , W illia m R ., 3 6 5

N e w B r u n s w ic k , 2 6 , 2 0 8 , 2 3 4 , 3 0 0 , 3 3 9 - 4 0

M o rro w , W illia m , 3 1 2 , 3 9 8

N e w C a le d o n ia , 1 8 7 , 1 8 9

m o r ta r a n d p e s tle , 2 2

N e w C r e d it ( O n ta r io ), 2 1 2

M o w a t, O liv e r, 3 2 4 - 5

N e w D e m o c r a tic P arty , 3 9 8 , 4 0 2 - 4 , 4 1 8

M u lr o n e y , B ria n , 4 0 1 - 2 , 4 0 4 , 4 1 3

N e w E n g la n d , 9 5 , 9 7

m u n ic ip a l in c o r p o r a tio n , 3 1 1

N ew F a irfie ld (O n ta r io ), 2 1 1

M u q u in n a , 1 8 6 - 7 , 1 8 9

N e w fo u n d la n d , 3 6 , 5 5 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 7 5 - 7 , 8 3 , 8 7 , 1 3 7 , 2 0 6 ,

M u rray , Ja m e s , 2 1 0 , 2 2 8 m u seu m s, 2 3 7 , 3 0 8 , 3 5 2 , 3 8 3 , 4 1 8

234, 395, 4 1 4 -1 5 N ew F ran ce, 8 8 - 9 , 9 1 , 9 6 - 8 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 112,

m u sh ro o m s, 4 1 8

1 2 4 -5 , 127, 1 3 0 -2 , 134, 1 4 1 -4 , 1 4 6 -9 , 153,

m u s ic , 2 6 6 . See also so n g s

2 0 9 - 1 0 , 3 1 7 , 3 2 7 ; e f fe c ts o f F r e n c h d e fe a t (1 7 6 3 )

m u s k -o x , 9 , 3 6 1 , 4 0 5

o n A m e r in d ia n s , 1 5 5 - 7

Index 3 6 7 -9 , 37 3 , 3 8 5 , 3 8 9 -9 0 , 3 9 8 -9 , 4 0 2 -3 , 4 0 6 -7 ,

N e w H a m p s h ire , 1 6 2

427

N e w M e x ic o , 8

N o r th w e s t T e rrito rie s C o u n c il (u n d e r v a r io u s n a m e s ),

N e w W e s tm in s te r b a n d , 1 6 5

24 7 , 2 7 3 -1 , 28 6 , 35 9 , 369, 3 8 9 -9 0 , 403

N ew Y o rk (c o lo n y /s t a te ), 5 2 , 1 3 2 , 1 6 2 , 2 0 0 , 3 4 3

N o r to n , J o h n , 1 9 8 - 9

N e w Z e a la n d , 1 0 , 4 1 - 2 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 4 N g , K e lv in , 4 0 9

N o rw ay , 7 0 , 3 5 5

N ia g a ra F a lls, 1 6 4

N o rw a y H o u se , 2 1 7

N ia g a ra P e n in s u la , 1 6 4

N o sk e y , K e n , 3 5 2

N ia g a ra R iver, 1 6 4

N o tta w a y R iver, 1 1 5 , 1 1 8

N ic h o la s R iver, 9 7

N o v a S c o tia , 1 1 , 5 5 , 9 6 - 8 , 1 5 4 - 5 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 6 - 8 , 234, 260, 300, 305, 330, 385, 415

N ic k s, T ru d y , 3 5 2 N ih tu s k in a n S o c ie ty , 4 1 1

Nueva Crônica y Buen Gobiemo (P o m a ), x

N ile e x p e d itio n ( 1 8 8 4 - 5 ) , 3 4 3

N u m ic , 2 4

N ip is s in g , 5 5 , 1 7 5 , 3 2 7

N u n a v ik , 3 9 8

N is g a 'a (N is h g a ), x iv , 1 8 7 , 3 0 4 , 3 1 9 , 3 3 2 - 4 , 3 3 8 - 9 ,

N u n a v u t, 4 0 6 - 9 , 4 2 7 N u n a v u t A ct ( 1 9 9 3 ) , 4 0 8

4 0 3 , 4 1 8 , 4 2 3 ;W iis e a k s , 1 8 7 - 8 N isg a ’a d e c is io n ( 1 9 7 3 ) . See Calder v. Attorney General

N u n a v u t L a n d C la im S e ttle m e n t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , 4 0 8

N is g a 'a N a tio n , 3 3 2 , 4 1 8

N ungak , Z ebed ee, 40 1

N is g a 'a 's F in a l A g r e e m e n t A ct (N isg a 'a tr e a ty ), 3 3 6 ,

n u ts , 2 1 N u u 'c h a h 'n u lth (N o o tk a ), xiv , 4 8 - 9 , 1 8 7

3 3 8 -9 , 4 1 8 -1 9 N is g a 'a T rib a l C o u n c il, 3 3 2 , 3 3 9

NWMP. See N o rth -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e

N is h g a . See N is g a 'a

N y u m b a le e s , 3 0 8

N ix o n , J o h n , 1 2 0 N o d o g a w e r rim e t, 9 9

O axaca, 41

N o ë l, Ja c q u e s , 8 1 - 2

O b la te s , 2 1 5 , 2 4 6 , 2 7 2 , 3 6 5 , 3 6 9 , 3 7 1 , 3 9 5

N o e l, J o h n , 2 3 0

o b s id ia n , 1 4 , 5 9

N o lin , C h a rle s , 2 7 5

O c h a s te g u in , 1 0 1

n o n - s ta tu s In d ia n s . See s ta tu s a n d n o n - s ta tu s In d ia n s

O c m u lg e e , 2 8

N o o tk a (N u u 'c h a h 'n u lt h ), x iv , 4 8 - 9 , 1 8 7

O d a n a k (S t F r a n c is ), 9 5 - 6 , 2 0 9

N o o tk a S o u n d , 1 7 9 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 6

O d a w a (O tta w a ) (p e o p le ), 5 0 - 1 , 5 4 - 5 , 9 9 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 3 0 -1 , 158, 165, 195, 2 1 2 , 2 3 1

N o rd e n s k iô ld , E rla n d , 6 3 N o r m a n W e lls (N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 3 6 9

O 'D o n o g h u e , W illia m B ., 2 5 0

N o rq u a y , J o h n , 2 7 4

O g d e n , P e te r S k e n e , 1 8 8

N o rr id g e w o c k , 9 6 - 9 , 1 3 5 , 1 5 4

O h io , 2 6 , 2 9 , 1 0 9

N o rris, M a lc o lm , 3 4 9

O h io R iv er, 1 9 3 , 1 9 7

N o rse , x , 4 5 , 6 7 - 7 0 , 7 3

O h io V a lley , 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 9 3 - 4 , 2 0 0

N o r th A frica , 4 0

o il: o o la c h o n , 6 0 ; s tu rg e o n , 2 1 7 ; w a lru s, 7 4 ; w h a le ,

N o r th A tla n tic T re a ty O r g a n iz a tio n lo w -fly in g e x e r c is ­

7 4 , 2 0 5 , 3 6 3 . See also p e tr o le u m O jib w a (A n is h in a b e , A n is h in a b e g ), 4 , 5 4 , 6 2 , 9 9 , 1 0 7 ,

es in L a b ra d o r, 4 1 0 N o r th C a r o lin a , 1 6 2 , 1 9 3 . See also C a r o lin a s

124, 132, 157, 161, 165, 171, 177, 195, 199, 210, 2 1 2 -1 4 , 2 3 2 -4 , 2 4 4 -5 , 250, 259, 277, 301, 305,

Northcote (s h ip ), 2 8 8 N o r th D a k o ta , 1 4 9

3 0 9 , 3 1 3 , 3 2 6 , 4 2 7 ; o f C h e n a il E c a rte a n d L o w er

N o r th e a s te r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t (1 9 7 8 ) , 3 9 7

S t C la ir, 2 1 0 - 1 1 ; C r a n e c la n , 1 2 5 ; o f t h e G ra ssy

Northern Development: At W hat Cost? (p a m p h le t), 3 9 5

N a rro w s a n d W h it e d o g re se rv e s, 3 9 4 ; G u ll B a y

N o r th e r n Q u e b e c I n u i t A s s o c ia tio n , 3 9 7

b a n d , 3 8 6 ; o f K e n o ra , 3 8 3 - 4 ; o f L a k e S im c o e , 2 1 2 ; la n g u a g e , 1 4 9 , 2 1 7 , 4 2 9 ; P erry Is la n d b a n d , 3 0 7 ;

N o r th W e s t C o m p a n y , 1 7 3 - 4 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 - 8 2 , 1 8 6 - 7 ,

o f S a b a s k o n g Bay, 3 1 9 ; S a u g e e n , 2 1 3 - 1 4 . See also

2 1 6 -1 7 , 242, 355

C h ip p e w a ; S a u lte a u x

N o r th w e s t G a m e A c t (1 9 1 7 ) , 3 6 7

O jib w a y W a rrio rs S o c ie ty , 3 8 4

N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e (NWMP), 2 6 0 - 2 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 8 - 9 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 5 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 3 , 3 5 9 - 6 2 , 3 6 4 , 3 7 0 . See

also R o y a l N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e ; R o y al C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e

O k a (K a n e s a ta k e ), 1 8 0 , 2 0 9 , 3 1 3 , 3 2 6 - 3 1 , 3 4 6 , 3 8 6 ; crisis ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 6 , 3 2 9 , 3 8 4 , 3 8 6 , 4 1 3 , 4 1 7 , 4 3 1 O k a lik , P au l, 4 0 8 , 4 1 1

N o r th w e s t P assag e, 1 1 7 , 2 0 6 , 4 0 7

O k e y m a w , N e ls o n , 3 9 5

N o r th -W e s t R e b e llio n ( 1 8 8 5 ) , 2 6 3 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 8 ,

O k la h o m a , 1 0 9

2 8 5 -9 4 , 2 9 9 , 3 2 4 -5 N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s (N o r th -W e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 1 7 9 ,

O k p ik , A b e, 3 8 9 , 4 0 3 o ld a g e p e n s io n s , 3 1 1 , 3 8 7

206, 237, 2 5 5 , 257, 2 6 2 -3 , 265, 2 6 7 -8 , 282,

O ld C o p p e r C u ltu r e , 3 9

2 8 5 -6 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 2 , 29 6 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 1 , 32 4 , 3 6 4 -5 ,

O ld m ix o n , J o h n , 1 2 0

______________

551

O liv e r A ct, 3 0 1

P a u k e e sa a , 1 9 9

O liv e r, F ra n k , 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 1 7

P a u l, C h r is to p h e r , 2 3 0

O lm e c , 2 8 , 3 7 , 4 1 - 2

P a u lin e C o v e , 2 0 5

O m in a y a k , B e rn a rd , 3 8 3

P a u l, J a c q u e s -P ie r r e P e m in u it, 2 3 0

O n a s a k e n a r a t, J o s e p h , 3 2 7 - 8

P a u li, A n d rew , 3 0 4 , 3 1 0

O n e A rro w (K a p e y a k w a s k o n a m ), 2 8 8 , 2 9 0 - 1 O n e id a , 5 2 , 1 0 2 , 1 2 8 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 4 , 2 0 0

P aw nee, 3 2 7

O n io n L ak e, 2 9 0 O nond aga, 52, 109, 128, 1 3 0 -3 , 148, 161, 164

P e a ce k e e p e rs (p o lic e ), 3 4 6 , 3 8 6 P e a ce R iver, 1 8 0 - 1

O n ta r io , 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 9 , 4 5 , 5 1 , 1 3 2 , 1 6 4 - 5 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ,

P e a c e R iv e r C r o s s in g , 2 9 6

215, 231, 2 3 3 -4 , 238, 246, 250, 255, 257, 2 5 9 -6 0 ,

P a y m e n t, D ia n e , 2 9 4

p e a n u ts , 2 1 , 3 6 , 3 9

268, 3 0 0 -1 , 30 3 , 3 0 5 , 30 7 , 30 9 , 31 9 , 3 2 3 -7 , 334,

P ea u d e C h a t, C h ie f, 2 3 2 - 3

3 3 6 -7 , 3 3 9 -4 1 , 343, 352, 3 6 8 -9 , 381, 383, 386,

P e e l R iv e r P o s t, 2 0 6

3 9 9 , 4 1 5 , 4 1 8 . See also C a n a d a W e s t; U p p e r C a n a d a ; P ro v in c e o f C a n a d a

P e g a h m a g a b o w , F ra n c is , 3 0 7

P e e p e e k is is R eserv e, 2 9 9

O n ta r io C o u r t o f A p p e a l, 3 2 5 , 3 3 9 - 4 1 O n ta r io P ro v in c ia l P o lic e , 4 1 8

P eg u is, 2 1 6 , 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 4 8 , 3 0 5

O n ta r io S u p e rio r C o u rt, 3 4 0 - 1

P e ig a n P o s t (O ld B o w F o rt), 1 7 4

o o l a c h o n o il, 6 0

p e m m ic a n , 5 8 , 1 7 5 , 2 4 2 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 6

O o lig b u c k , 2 0 6

P e m m ic a n P r o c la m a tio n ( 1 8 1 4 ) , 2 4 2

O p e k o k ew , D e lia , 4 0 1 O rego n , 1 8 9

P e n a s h u e , P eter, 4 1 4

O r o n to n y , 1 0 9

P e n n e r R e p o r t (R e p o rt o f t h e S p e c ia l P a rlia m e n ta ry

O ssossan é, 1 11 O s tra , 2 6

P e ig a n , 1 1 , 1 7 0 - 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5

P e n n e r , K e ith , 4 0 1 C o m m it te e o n In d ia n S e lf -G o v e r n m e n t), 4 0 1 - 2 , 404, 4 2 6 -7

O tr e o u ti, 1 3 0

P e n o b s c o t, 9 5 , 9 9 , 1 6 0

O tta w a (p e o p le ). See O d a w a

P erley , M o s e s H ., 2 0 8

O tta w a R iver, 1 0 8 , 1 1 5

P e r m a n e n t F u n d (A la sk a ), 3 8 5

o tte r s , sea , 1 8 3 - 4 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 9

P e rro t, N ic h o la s , 1 4 2

O tte r, W illia m D illo n , 2 8 8 - 9

P eru a n d P e ru v ia n s , 1 1 , 2 1 , 2 3 - 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 7 , 3 9 - 4 2 , 6 8 P e tr o -C a n a d a , 3 8 3

O u c h a la , 1 3 4 O u jé -B o u g o u m o u C r é é N a tio n , 4 2 2 - 3 O u m a s a s ik w e ie , 1 0 8 O x b o w (S a s k a tc h e w a n ), 5 7 O z e tte , 5 9 - 6 0

p e tr o le u m , 3 5 2 , 3 6 3 , 3 6 7 , 3 6 9 - 7 0 , 3 7 6 , 3 8 2 - 5 , 3 9 4 , 3 9 9 -4 0 0 , 411 P e tu n . See T io n o n ta t i P h é ly p e a u x , Je a n - F r é d é r ic , C o m te d e M a u re p a s , 1 4 2 , 148

P ad d le P ra irie, 3 5 0

P h o e n e c ia , 4 0 , 4 2

P a h p a h s ta y o (P a ssp a ssc h a se ) b a n d , 3 0 5 P a in te d F e a th e r, 1 7 0

P ia p o t, 2 7 7 - 8

p a in tin g , 1 8 9 , 4 3 0 ; h id e , 2 9

P ic R iv e r b a n d , 2 3 1

P ia n k e sh a w , 1 9 6

P a k ista n , 3 9

p id g in , 1 4 9

P a le o -E s k im o s , 1 6 , 5 S

P id ia n s k e , 9 5

P alliser, J o h n , 2 1 5 , 2 4 4

P ie rre , Larry, ii

P alliser, S ir H u g h , 7 5 , 2 0 4

P ie sk a re t, 1 2 7

p a p a l b u lls (1 4 9 3 ) , 9 7

p ig s, 3 8 7

P ap u a N e w G u in e a , 3 4 , 6 7 - 9 , 7 4 P aris, 1 4 9

P ig w a c k e t, 9 6 , 9 8 - 9 P im a , 4 0

p a rk a s, 3 8 8

p in e a p p le s , 2 1 , 4 0

Parker, J o h n , 4 0 6

p ip e s , 1 8 9 , 4 3 1

P a rk la n d s P e o p le , 2 7 8

P ita w a n a k w a t, Ja m e s , 4 1 7

P a rk m a n , F ra n c is, 1 4 2

P itik w a h a n a p iw iy in . See P o u n d m a k e r P la in s c u ltu re , 1 1 , 1 6 9 - 7 7

P a r lia m e n t (C a n a d a ), A b o rig in a ls in , 4 0 3 - 4 , 4 0 9 P a rsn ip R iver, 3 9 5

P la in s o f A b ra h a m , B a ttle o f t h e , 1 3 5

P askw aw , 2 7 6 - 7

P la n o c u ltu re , 11

p a ss sy s te m , 2 9 3 , 3 0 7

p la n ts , d o m e s tic a t io n o f, 1 6 , 1 9 - 2 6 . See also

P a ta g o n ia , 3 4 p a te r n a lis m , 2 2 5 , 4 2 4 . See also a s s im ila tio n o f A m e r in d ia n s

a g r ic u ltu r e p la tin u m , 3 7 P lin y , 3 9

Index 553 p o e try , 4 8

P r in c e Ed w ard Isla n d , 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 8 , 3 0 0

P o in te -a u x -T r e m b le s , 1 3 1 p o in ts a n d b la d e s , 4 , 1 1 - 1 5 , 3 9 , 5 9 - 6 0 , 8 2 , 9 4 , 1 1 8

p r in tm a k in g , 4 3 0

p o is o n , u se o f b y tra p p e rs, 3 5 8 , 3 6 4

P riv y C o u n c il, 2 3 4 , 2 4 3 , 3 0 4 , 3 2 3 , 3 2 5 - 6 , 3 2 8

P o itra s , A udrey, 3 5 1 - 2

P r o c la m a tio n o f 1 7 6 3 , 1 5 6 - 7 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 - 6 , 1 9 5 , 2 0 9 ,

Polar Sea (s h ip ), 4 0 7 p o lic e , 3 5 5 , 3 8 6 ; e n fo r c e m e n t o f p a ss s y s te m by, 2 9 3 ,

P rin c e , H en ry , 2 4 8

2 1 8 , 22 7 , 22 9 , 2 3 3 , 25 3 , 3 2 4 -6 , 33 3 , 3 3 5 -6 , 385, 410, 419

3 0 7 ; a t Ip p e rw a s h , 4 1 8 ; a t O k a, 3 2 8 - 9 , 4 1 7 ; o n

P ro cte r, H e n ry A., 1 9 8 - 9

re serv es, 2 3 8 , 3 0 1 , 3 3 2 , 3 4 5 - 6 , 3 8 6 ; s u r v e illa n c e

P ro g re ssiv e C o n s e r v a tiv e Party, 4 0 3 - 5

o f F re d e rick L o ft, 3 1 0 . See also N o r t h - W e s t

P ro p h e to w n , 1 9 7

M o u n te d P o lic e ; R o y a l C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e ;

P r o te c tio n A ct ( 1 8 3 9 ) , 2 2 8

R o y a l N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e

P r o te c tio n o f t h e In d ia n s o f U p p e r C a n a d a fr o m

p o litic a l rig h ts . See c iv il a n d p o litic a l rig h ts

I m p o s itio n , a n d t h e P ro p e rty O c c u p ie d a n d

p o ly g y n y , 1 7 0 , 1 7 5

E n jo y e d b y T h e m fr o m T resp ass a n d In ju ry , A n

P o ly n e s ia , 4 2

A ct fo r th e ( 1 8 5 0 ) , 2 2 8 , 2 6 3

Pom a, H uam an, x

P r o te s ta n ts , 2 4 9

P o n d In le t, 7 7 , 3 8 9

p ro to -A lg o n k ia n (s ), 6 8 , 7 5

P o n d , P e te r, 1 8 0 - 1 , 3 5 8

P ro u v ille d e T racy, A le x a n d re , 1 2 9 - 3 1

P o n tia c , 9 9 , 1 5 7 - 6 0 , 1 9 4 , 2 1 8 , 3 3 3 , 3 8 5

P ro v e n c h e r, J o s e p h - N o r b e r t, 2 1 5

P o n tin g , J . R ick , 4 0 1

P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a , 2 1 5 . See also C a n a d a East;

p o p u la t io n , 4 5 , 5 1 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 1 0 1 , 1 8 3 , 2 1 3 , 2 2 8 , 2 7 6 ,

C a n a d a W e st

9 - 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 9 ; fig u re s (p r e -1 8 0 0 ) , 9 , 2 9 , 4 5 , 5 2 ,

P ru d h o e Bay , 3 8 5 , 3 9 4 P u b lic S e rv ic e C o m m is s io n (C a n a d a ), 3 1 9

5 6 - 7 , 7 5 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 3 ; fig u re s (1 8 0 0 - p r e s -

P u rc h a s, S a m u e l, 9 3

3 0 2 - 4 , 3 5 2 , 3 7 9 , 4 2 8 ; d e n s ity o f p r e -c o n ta c t,

e n t) , 8 6 , 1 8 9 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 6 , 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 3 , 238, 242, 263, 273, 2 7 5 -6 , 316, 3 4 9 -5 3 , 355,

Q a llu n a a t, 7 1

3 6 1 - 2 , 3 8 2 , 4 1 4 , 4 2 2 , 4 2 7 - 8 ; im p a c t o f d ise a se s

Q itd la rs s u a q , 3 6 1

on , 9, 24, 5 0 , 9 1 , 93, 106, 109, 1 1 1 -1 2 , 130,

Q u a lic u m First N a tio n R eserv e , 3 4 0

1 3 2 -3 , 165, 172, 176, 189, 27 6 , 35 5 , 3 6 2 -3 ;

q u a r tz ite , 1 1 7

im p a c t o f w a rfa re o n , 1 0 9 , 1 3 2 ; o f re serv es,

Q u e b e c (c ity ), 8 4 - 6 , 9 4 - 5 , 1 0 1 - 4 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 9

1 6 4 -5 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 3 3

Q u e b e c (p r o v in c e ), 1 1 0 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 - 3 , 2 1 0 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 8 ,

p o r c u p in e q u illw o rk , 8 7 , 4 3 0

2 4 1 , 2 4 9 -5 0 , 2 6 8 , 2 9 4 , 30 0 , 3 0 9 , 3 14, 3 1 8 -1 9 ,

p o rp o is e s , 2 0 7

3 2 6 -9 , 3 3 2 , 33 4 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 5 , 3 5 2 , 36 8 , 3 7 3 , 3 8 5 -6 ,

P o rsild , A .E ., 3 8 6

3 8 9 , 3 9 4 - 5 , 3 9 7 - 8 , 4 0 2 - 5 , 4 2 2 - 3 . See also C a n a d a

P o rsild , R o b e rt T., 3 8 6

E a s t; L o w er C a n a d a ; P ro v in c e o f C a n a d a

P o r ta g e la P ra irie , 2 4 5

Q u e b e c A ct ( 1 7 7 4 ) , 1 6 0 , 3 2 5

P o rt R o y a l, 8 7 , 1 4 7

Q u e b e c a n d L a k e S u p e rio r M in in g C o m p a n y , 2 3 2

P o r t S im p s o n , 2 6 7

Q u e b e c C o u r t o f A p p e a ls, 3 9 7 , 4 1 3

P o rtu g a l a n d P o rtu g u e s e , 7 1 , 9 7 , 1 5 3

Q u e e n C h a r lo tt e Isla n d s, 1 8 9 , 2 3 9

p o ta to e s , 2 1 , 3 8 7 P o ta w a to m i, 1 0 7 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 0 , 2 1 2

Q u e e n s to n H e ig h ts , B a ttle o f, 1 9 8 Queen v. George, The, 3 3 2

p o tla c h e s , 5 0 , 5 8 , 1 8 6 - 7 , 1 8 9 , 2 6 5 - 6 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 1

Queen v. Symonds, 3 3 4

p o ts , 1 1 7 p o tte r y a n d p o tte r y -m a k in g , 3 3 , 3 6 - 7 , 4 0 - 1 , 5 1 - 2

Q u e tz a lc o a tl, 4 1 , 6 8

P o tts , Je rry , 2 6 1 P o u n d m a k e r (P itik w a h a n a p iw iy in ), 2 7 9 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 8 - 9 1 ,

q u illw o rk , p o r c u p in e , 8 7 , 4 3 0

293, 325

Q u ile u te , 4 8 Q u in a u lt, 4 8 q u in o a , 2 2

P o u n d m a k e r 's L o d g e , 4 1 4 P o w e ll, Is ra e l W o o d , 2 4 1

Ra II, 4 0

P ow ley , R o d d y , 3 4 0 - 1

R a b e s c a , L o u is, 4 0 3

P ow ley , S te v e , 3 4 0 - 1

r a d io c a r b o n d a tin g , x v i

p o w w o w s, 3 0 0 , 3 3 0

R a d is s o n , P ie rre E sp rit, 1 1 2 , 1 1 6

p ra ir ie tu r n ip , 2 0 P r e -e m p tio n A c t (B r itis h C o lu m b ia , 1 8 7 0 ), 2 4 0

R ae, B o b , 3 3 9

P r e s b y te ria n is m , 2 1 5 , 3 1 8

ra ilw a y s, 1 7 5 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 9 , 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 9 - 6 1 , 2 8 5 , 2 8 8 , 292, 3 4 8 -9 , 358, 366, 368, 394

P r ib ilo f Is la n d s , 1 8 4

R a le , S e b a s tia n , 9 8 , 1 2 8

P r in c e A lb e rt (S a s k a tc h e w a n ), 2 8 8

R a m a F irs t N a tio n , 4 0 4

P rin c e A lb e rt S o u n d , 3 6 0

R am sa y , S ir G e o r g e , 2 0 9

554 Index R asm u ssen , K nud, 3 7 3

c a re a n d h e a l t h c o n d itio n s o n , 2 3 8 , 2 6 4 , 2 6 6 ,

ra tio n s , 2 7 7 - 8 0 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 6 , 2 9 3 , 3 1 6

2 7 9 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 1 , 3 1 1 ; a n d t h e I n d ia n A ct, 2 6 3 - 5 ,

R a t R iver, 2 7 5

2 8 2 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 6 , 4 2 4 ; L a b ra d o r, 4 1 3 - 1 4 ; M a n ito b a ,

RCAP (R o y a l C o m m is s io n o n A b o rig in a l P e o p le s ). See

2 4 4 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 3 ; m a p s, 3 0 2 ,

under ro y a l c o m m is s io n s r c m p . See R o y al C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e

3 0 6 ; a s a m e a n s o f 'c iv iliz in g ' A m e rin d ia n s , 2 0 9 ,

r e a d in g a n d w r itin g , 2 9 , 4 1 - 2 , 1 2 2 , 2 1 7 - 1 8 . See also illite r a c y

A m e r in d ia n le g a l in t e r e s t in la n d s o f, 3 2 6 ; N ew

R e b e llio n s o f 1 8 3 7 - 8 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 , 3 2 7

N ew F ra n c e , 2 0 9 - 1 0 ; N o r th w e s t T e rrito rie s

R e c o lle c ts , 8 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 5 , 1 4 2 , 1 5 5 R ed C ro s s, 3 0 7 , 3 2 9

2 0 6 - 7 , 2 3 4 , 3 0 5 , 4 1 5 ; O n ta r io (U p p e r C a n a d a ,

2 3 2 ; a n d t h e M é tis , 2 7 2 , 2 9 5 , 3 4 8 ; n a tu r e o f B ru n s w ic k , 2 0 8 , 2 3 4 , 3 4 0 ; N e w fo u n d la n d , 2 0 6 ; (N o r th -W e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 2 6 7 , 3 6 7 ; N o v a S co tia ,

R ed Ja c k e t, 1 6 1 , 1 9 9

C a n a d a W e s t), 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 1 1 - 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 3 8 - 9 ,

R ed P h e a s a n t R eserv e , 3 7 8

2 5 9 , 2 6 4 , 3 0 0 -1 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 5 , 3 2 6 -8 ,

R ed R iver, 1 6 5 , 2 1 5 - 1 7 , 2 4 1 - 5 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 1 - 2 , 2 7 4 , 285, 294

3 3 6 - 7 , 3 4 3 - 6 , 3 7 6 , 3 8 6 , 3 9 4 , 4 1 7 - 1 8 ; a n d th e

R ed T h u n d e r, 1 9 6

3 4 5 - 6 , 3 8 6 ; P r in c e E d w ard Is la n d , 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 3 4 ;

p a ss s y s te m , 2 9 3 , 3 0 7 ; p o lic e o n , 2 3 8 , 3 0 1 , 3 3 2 ,

R eed , H ay ter, 2 6 4 , 2 8 0 - 1 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 6

Q u e b e c (L o w e r C a n a d a , C a n a d a E a s t), 2 1 0 , 2 2 8 ,

R eed P a p e r C o m p a n y , 3 9 4

2 3 4 , 3 1 4 , 3 2 6 - 3 0 , 3 3 2 , 3 4 5 - 6 ; in t h e RCAP R eport,

R e g in a , 2 8 2 , 2 8 8

4 2 0 ; r e m o v a l o f A m e r in d ia n s fr o m , 3 0 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 6 ,

Regina Regina Regina Regina

v. Cooper, 3 3 2 v. Sikyea, 3 3 2 v. Simon, 3 3 0 v. Wfyte and Bob, 3 3 0 , 3 3 2 , 3 7 9

3 8 1 ; S a s k a tc h e w a n , 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 0 3 ; s c h o o ls o n , 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 2 7 - 8 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 1 5 , 3 1 9 , 3 4 6 , 3 4 8 ; selec­ t i o n o f, 2 7 8 - 8 0 , 2 8 2 , 3 2 6 , 3 6 6 ; fo r t h e S io u x ,

R e g u la tin g t h e Fur T rad e a n d e s ta b lis h in g a C r im in a l

2 6 2 - 3 ; to t a l siz e o f, 3 0 5 , 3 7 9 ; tr e a ty p ro v isio n s

a n d C iv il Ju r is d ic tio n w it h in c e r ta in p a rts o f

fo r, 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 5 ,

N o r th A m e ric a , A n A ct fo r ( 1 8 2 1 ) , 2 1 6 re in d e e r, 3 6 , 3 7 3 , 3 8 6 - 7 r e lig io n , 3 0 , 4 1 , 4 9 , 5 8 , 6 0 - 3 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 0 -1 1 , 117, 146, 158, 172, 183, 1 9 4 -5 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 , 227, 266, 276, 278, 286, 288, 3 1 5 -1 8 , 328, 343,

3 2 5 , 3 6 6 ; Yukon, 3 0 6 , 3 1 4 , 3 6 5 re s id e n tia l s c h o o ls , 3 1 5 - 1 8 , 3 2 0 , 3 9 5 , 4 2 5 - 6 R e s o lu te Bay , 3 8 9 re s o u rc e s , o v e r e x p lo it a tio n o f, 8 6 , 9 1 , 1 8 0 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 5 , 231, 276, 352

3 5 7 , 3 6 6 , 3 7 7 , 3 8 5 , 3 9 5 , 4 1 6 , 4 2 3 , 4 2 9 . See also

R e s tig o u c h e R eserv e , 2 1 0 , 3 3 2

c o s m o s ; e v a n g e liz a tio n ; m is s io n a r ie s ; m y th s ;

R e v illo n F rère s, 3 6 9

n a tiv is tic m o v e m e n ts ; specific religions

R e y n o ld s , H . A n th o n y , 4 2 0

R e n é (c h ie f), 1 3 6

ric e , 2 1 , 3 9 ; w ild , 5 4 - 5 , 3 9 4

Report o f the Cree-Naskapi Commission, 1 9 8 8 , 4 0 5

R ic h e lie u , A rm a n d -Je a n d u P lessis, C a r d in a l a n d D uc de, 1 0 8

R e p o rt o f th e S p e cia l P a r lia m e n ta r y C o m m it te e o n I n d ia n S e lf-G o v e r n m e n t (P e n n e r R e p o rt), 4 0 1 - 2 ,

R ic h e lie u R iver, 1 0 8

404, 4 2 6 -7

R ic h , P a u l, 4 1 4

R e p u b lic o f M a n ito b a h , 2 4 5 - 6

R ic h te r, D a n ie l K., 6 3

R e p u ls e Bay, 2 0 5

R id in g to n , R o b in , 4 5

re serv es, 2 9 0 - 1 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 7 , 3 1 7 , 3 3 6 - 7 , 3 4 3 , 3 4 9 , 3 6 3 ,

R iel, L o u is, 2 4 7 - 8 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 3 - 5 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 5 - 9 2 , 3 2 5 ,

3 6 7 , 3 7 8 , 3 8 6 , 4 1 1 , 4 2 7 ; a g r ic u ltu r e o n , 2 1 0 - 1 2 , 22 7 , 241, 2 5 8 -6 0 , 27 7 , 2 8 0 -1 , 2 8 6 , 29 9 , 303,

3 9 8 , 4 0 3 . See also N o r th - W e s t R e b e llio n R iel, L o u is, Sr, 2 4 2

3 0 5 - 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 8 1 ; A lb e rta , 3 0 3 - 6 , 3 1 4 , 3 4 8 - 9 , 3 6 7 ,

rig h ts , A b o rig in a l. See A b o rig in a l rig h ts

3 8 2 - 3 , 3 8 6 , 3 9 9 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 4 ; a lie n a tio n o f, 1 6 4 - 5 ,

R itc h o t, Jo s e p h - N ô e l, 2 4 7

208, 210, 215, 225, 231, 2 3 3 -4 , 2 3 9 -4 1 , 301,

RNWMP. See R o y a l N o r th - W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e

3 0 3 - 5 , 3 3 9 , 3 7 6 ; a p p lic a tio n o f p r o v in c ia l law s to ,

R o a n , L a z a ru s, 4 1 0 - 1 1

3 0 1 ; a n d t h e B a g o t C o m m is s io n , 2 2 7 - 3 1 , 4 2 0 ;

R oan, W ayne, 4 1 1

b a n k s o n , 2 2 7 , 4 2 0 - 1 ; B ra z il, 2 0 9 ; B r itis h

R o b e r ts o n , G o r d o n , 3 8 9 - 9 0

C o lu m b ia , 1 6 5 , 2 1 9 , 2 3 4 , 2 4 0 - 1 , 2 6 7 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 - 5 , 3 3 6 - 7 , 3 4 0 , 3 6 7 , 4 0 9 , 4 1 6 ; i n t h e B r itis h N o rth

R o b e rv a l, Je a n - F r a n ç o is d e La R o c q u e d e, 8 1 ro b e s , b u ffa lo , 1 7 0 , 1 7 5 , 2 7 4

A m e ric a A ct, 2 3 7 , 3 3 3 ; C a n a d a ( 1 9 9 9 ) , 3 0 5 ; c o n ­

R o b in s o n S u p e rio r a n d R o b in s o n H u ro n tre a tie s

f ir m a t io n o f, 3 2 6 ; d e fin e d , 2 1 0 , 2 6 4 , 3 2 6 ; e d u c a ­

(1 8 5 0 ), 1 6 4 , 2 3 1 - 4 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 9 , 3 3 3

ti o n o n , 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 2 7 - 8 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 0 ,

R o b in s o n , W illia m B e n ja m in , 2 3 2 - 4

2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 5 , 3 1 9 ; a n d e n fr a n c h is e m e n t,

R o c k , A la n , 4 1 5

2 2 9 , 2 3 9 , 3 9 3 ; in fo r m e r R u p e rt’s L a n d , 2 5 3 ; g o v ­

R o c k y M o u n ta in E c o s y s te m C o a litio n , 3 9 9

ern m en t on , 2 3 8 -9 , 2 6 4 -8 , 2 9 9 -3 0 1 , 31 1 , 31 3 ,

R o c k y M o u n ta in H o u se , 1 7 0 , 1 7 3

3 1 5 , 3 1 9 , 3 4 5 - 6 , 3 7 6 - 9 , 3 8 1 , 4 2 5 , 4 2 7 ; h e a lth

R o g ers, R ic h a rd A ., 6 , 4 6

Index R o g e rs, R o b e rt, 9 5 - 6 , 1 5 8

S a in t-C a s tin . See A b b a d ie d e S a in t-C a s tin

R o m a in , A n d ré, 2 2 6

St C a th e r in e 's M illin g a n d L u m b e r C o m p a n y , 3 2 3 - 5

R o m a n C a t h o lic is m a n d R o m a n C a th o lic s , 9 0 , 1 1 1 ,

St Catherine's Milling v. The Queen, 2 3 3 , 2 6 0 , 3 2 3 - 6 ,

145, 20 6 , 21 5 , 22 0 , 23 4 , 24 9 , 2 8 5 , 318, 3 2 7 -8 , 348-

9 , 3 6 6 , 3 9 5 , 4 0 2 , 4 2 9 . See also specific Roman

Catholic orders

33 3 , 3 3 6 -7 , 379 St C la ir, A rth u r, 1 9 6 St C la ir O jib w a R eserv e, 3 0 1

R o m e , a n c ie n t , 4 0

S a in te -F a m ille m is s io n , 9 7

ro p e m a k in g , 1 6

S a in t F r a n ç o is d e S a le s (A b e n a k i v illa g e ), 2 1 0

R o u n d P la in , 2 6 6

St F r a n ç o is R iver, 9 5 - 6

R o u sse a u , Ja c q u e s , 3 1 8

St G e o rg e 's Bay, 2 3 4

R o w e, J o h n H o w la n d , 4 1 - 2

S t J o h n R iver, 1 3 6 , 1 5 4 - 5

R o y a l B r itis h C o lu m b ia M u s e u m , 4 1 8

St J o h n 's (N e w fo u n d la n d ), 1 3 7

R o y a l C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e (RCMP), 3 0 8 , 3 4 4 ,

St L a u re n t c o u n c il, 2 7 3 - 5

3 4 6 , 3 7 0 - 3 , 4 0 0 , 4 0 2 , 4 0 8 , 4 1 6 - 1 7 . See also N o rth -

St L a u re n t, L o u is, 3 7 5

W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e ; R o y a l N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d

St L a u re n t m is s io n , 2 7 2 - 3 , 2 9 2

P o lic e

St L a w re n c e R iver, 5 0 , 5 2 , 7 9 - 8 2 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 8 - 9 ,

r o y a l c o m m is s io n s : A lb e rta (C a w s e y In q u ir y ), 3 8 6 ;

154, 180

A rc tic ( 1 9 2 2 ) , 3 7 3 ; B r itis h C o lu m b ia ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 6 ) ,

S t L o u is m is s io n , 2 7 2

3 0 4 ; jo i n t re s e rv e s a l l o t m e n t (1 8 8 8 ) , 3 3 2 ; R o y al

S t M a u r ic e R iver, 1 1 5

C o m m is s io n A p p o in te d t o In v e s tig a te th e

S a in t-O v id e . See M o n tb e t o n d e B ro u illa n

C o n d itio n s o f t h e H a lf-B re e d s o f A lb erta , 3 4 6 - 7 ,

S a in t-P a u l-d e s -M é tis (M é tis re se rv e ), 3 4 8 - 9

349-

S t P e te r's R eserv e (M a n ito b a ), 2 4 4 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 8 1

5 0 ; R o y a l C o m m is s io n o n A b o rig in a l P e o p le s

(RCAP), x iii, 3 1 7 , 3 4 7 , 4 0 5 , 4 0 9 , 4 1 3 , 4 1 9 - 2 7 , 4 2 9 ;

S t P e te r's R e se rv e A ct ( 1 9 1 6 ) , 3 0 5

R o y a l C o m m is s io n o n t h e E c o n o m ic U n io n a n d

S t P ie rre a n d M iq u e lo n , 1 3 7

D e v e lo p m e n t P ro s p e c ts fo r C a n a d a (M a c d o n a ld

S t R eg is. See A k w esa sn e

C o m m is s io n ), 4 0 7

S t S a u v e u r (F r e n c h s e ttle m e n t) , 9 4

R o y a l G e o g r a p h ic a l S o c ie ty , 2 4 4

S a la b erry , C h a r le s R e n é d e, 2 4 9

R o y a l Iris h C o n s ta b u la r y , 2 6 0

S a lis h , 4 , 2 5 , 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 1 8 , 2 3 9 - 4 0

R o y a l N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e (RNWMP), 6 7 , 3 0 5 .

S a lis h a n , 1 6 5

See also N o r th -W e s t M o u n te d P o lic e ; R o y a l

s a lm o n , 3 3 2 , 4 1 8 ; s o c k e y e , 3 1 0

C a n a d ia n M o u n te d P o lic e

sa lt, 1 0 6

Ruffled Feathers (W u ttu n e e ), 3 7 8

S a m s o n (c h ie f), 2 8 1 - 2

ru m , 1 5 8 , 1 9 6

S a n d e rs, D o u g la s, 2 0 7 , 2 3 7

R u n d le , R o b e rt T e rrill, 2 1 5

S a n d u sk y , 1 9 3

R u p e rt's L an d , 1 6 2 - 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 2 - 3 , 2 4 6 - 8 , 2 5 1 , 253, 323, 355

S a rce e . See T su u T ’in a S a rce e B o a r d in g S c h o o l, 3 1 6

R u s h -B a g o t C o n v e n t io n , 2 0 0

S a r n ia (O n ta r io ), 3 0 1 , 3 3 9

R u sse ll, J o h n , 2 0 5

S a s k a tc h e w a n , 2 6 , 5 7 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 1 , 2 1 5 , 2 6 2 - 3 , 2 6 6 , 2 8 0 ,

R u sse ll, P eter, 4 1 3 R u ssia a n d R u ssia n s, 8 3 , 8 5 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 3 - 6 , 2 0 6

R. v. Adams, 3 3 7 R. v. Sioui, 1 1 0 , 3 3 7

28 6 , 2 9 2 , 29 6 , 2 9 9 -3 0 0 , 30 3 , 31 0 , 319, 352, 368, 395, 427 S a s k a tc h e w a n F e d e r a tio n o f I n d ia n N a tio n s , 4 2 3 - 4 S a s k a tc h e w a n In d ia n E q u ity F o u n d a tio n , 4 2 4 S a s k a tc h e w a n R iver, 1 7 0 , 1 7 2 , 2 8 8 ; N o r th , 1 7 3 , 2 8 2 ,

S a a le q u u n tr ib e , 3 3 2

3 5 8 ; S o u th , 2 7 2

S a b a s k o n g Bay , 3 1 9

S a s k a to o n , 4 2 3

sachem s, 5 4 , 9 9

S a u er, C a rl, 1 6 , 1 9 - 2 0

S a c h s H a r b o u r (N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 3 9 0

S a u g e e n P e n in s u la , 2 1 4

Sackom aph, 170

S a u g e e n tr a c t , 2 1 4

Sacred Feathers (S m ith ), 2 1 3

Sauk, 1 3 5

S a d d le L a k e R e se rv e , 4 1 4

Sau kam ap ee, 171

S a d le rm u it, 3 6 3

S a u lt-a u x -R é c o lle c ts , 3 2 7

s a g a m o re s , 8 7 , 9 3 , 9 5 , 1 4 1 S a g a rd , G a b r ie l 'T h e o d a t', 8 6 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 5

S a u lte a u x , 1 7 1 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 7 , 2 5 9 , 2 7 4 ,

S a g e, R o w a n , 1 9

S a u lt S te M a rie , 1 2 4 , 1 3 0

S a g u e n a y R iver, 8 3 ^ 1 , 1 1 5

S a v e lle , M a x , 1 5 5

S a h tu D e n e /M é tis , 4 0 6

S a w rid g e b a n d , 4 0 4 , 4 0 9

S t A lb e rt (M é tis s e t tle m e n t) , 2 7 2

Say er, P ie rre -G u illa u m e , 2 4 3

S t A n to in e d e P a d o u e m is s io n , 2 7 2 , 2 8 8

sc a lp in g , 5 0 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 1

276, 279, 300, 305

555

556 Index S c h e ffe r v ille , 3 9 7

S ifto n , C liffo r d , 2 6 3 , 3 0 3 , 3 1 6

S c h le d e r m a n n , P eter, 4 , 9

S ik sik a . See B la c k f o o t (S ik sik a ) a n d B la c k f o o t

S c h o o lc r a ft, H en ry , 6 2

C o n fe d e r a c y

s c h o o ls . See e d u c a tio n

S ik sik a R eserv e , 3 9 9

S c h u ltz , J o h n C h r is tia n , 2 4 6

S ille ry , 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 2 6 4

S c o tt, D u n c a n C a m p b e ll, 3 0 8 , 3 1 7 , 3 4 5

silv er, 3 7

S c o tt, T h o m a s , 2 4 9

S im c o e C o u n ty , 1 6 5

scrip , 2 4 6 , 2 7 5 , 2 9 4 - 6 , 3 0 5 , 3 4 8 - 9 , 3 6 8

S im c o e D e e d ( 1 7 9 3 ) , 1 6 5 , 3 4 5

s c u lp tin g , 1 8 9

S im o n , M ary , 4 0 4

sc u lp tu re , s to n e , 1 2 , 2 9 scu rv y , 1 4 5 seals, 8 7 , 3 6 1 , 3 9 0 ; fu r, 1 8 4 sea o tte r s , 1 8 3 - 4 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 9 S e c h e lt b a n d , 4 0 9 Sehkosow ayan ew , 2 8 1 - 2 S e k a n i, 2 9 6

S im p s o n , A rc h ib a ld W e m y s s , 2 5 8 S im p s o n , S ir G e o r g e , 2 4 2 - 3 S in n is ia k , 3 7 1 S io u a n s a n d S io u a n la n g u a g e g ro u p , 4 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 7 1 , 196, 266 S io u i, O v id e , 1 0 7

S e le c t C o m m it te e o n A b o rig in e s r e p o rt ( 1 8 3 6 - 7 ) , 2 2 5

S io u x , 1 3 3 - 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 9 , 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 4 8 , 2 6 1 - 3 , 2 8 0 , 3 2 7 ; H unkpapa, 2 6 1 -2

s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t, x iii, 2 1 3 , 2 3 4 , 2 4 3 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 4 , 2 9 2 ,

S is s o n s , J a c k , 3 8 6

3 1 0 -1 1 , 3 1 4 -1 5 , 31 9 , 3 3 0 , 3 3 7 -9 , 344, 3 5 0 -1 ,

S itt in g B u ll (T a -ta n k a -l-y o ta n k ), 2 6 1 - 2

376, 3 7 8 -9 , 385, 395, 4 0 0 -2 , 4 0 4 -6 , 409, 4 1 8 -2 2 , 4 2 4 -6 , 4 2 9 -3 1

S ix N a tio n s . See Ir o q u o is

Selk irk , T h o m a s D o u g las, Earl o f, 1 6 5 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 4

S ix N a tio n s R eserv e , 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 6 4 , 3 0 1 , 308, 315, 3 4 3 -6 , 3 7 6

S e lk irk T re a ty ( 1 8 1 7 ) , 1 6 5 , 2 1 6 , 2 4 4 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 7 - 8

S k e e n a R iver, 2 2 0

S e m p le , R o b e rt, 2 4 2

S k o o k u m Jim , 3 6 4

S e n a te (C a n a d a ), A b o rig in a ls in , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 , 4 0 3 - 4

S k ra e lin g s , 6 8 - 7 0 , 7 3

Seneca, 5 2 , 1 0 2 -3 , 1 0 8 -9 , 1 2 8 -3 1 , 134, 148, 1 5 8 -9 ,

s la te a rt, 1 8 9

161, 164, 194, 197, 199, 343

S la v e R iver, 3 5 8

S e r p e n t M o u n d s P r o v in c ia l P a rk , 4 1 8

sla v e s, 4 9 - 5 0 , 6 7 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 1 3 4 , 1 7 2 , 1 8 6

s e ttle m e n t, d e v e lo p m e n t o f p e r m a n e n t , 2 5 - 6 , 2 8

Sla v ey , 1 1 , 4 0 3

S e ttle m e n t S o o n iy a w C o r p o r a tio n , 3 5 2

S lo a n , W .A ., 1 8 1 - 2

S e v e n O ak s, B a ttle o f, 2 4 2 , 2 4 4 s e w in g , 8 5

S m a llb o y , J o h n n y B o b (R o b e r t), 4 1 0 - 1 1

s e x u a l d iv is io n o f la b o u r, 4 8

S m ith , D o n a ld A ., 2 4 9

S e y m o u r, F re d e rick , 2 4 0

S m ith , D o n a ld B ., 2 1 3 , 3 2 6

s m a llp o x , 1 0 6 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 8 - 9 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 6 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 0

s h a k in g t e n t ritu a ls , 4 1 1

S n a k e R iver, 1 7 5

S h a k 'p a y , 2 4 5

S n a k e , W illia m , 2 1 2

sh am ans, 6 3 , 77, 9 0 , 106, 111, 2 6 1 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 9 , 361 S h a o , P a u l, 3 7

sn o w sh o es, 11 8

S h a rp e , R o b e r t C , 3 4 1

S o c ia l C r e d it P a rty (A lb e rta ), 3 5 0

S h a w n a d ith it, 7 6

s o c ia l s e rv ic e s , 3 1 5 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 9 , 3 8 1 , 4 2 8 . See also fa m ily

Shaw nee, 9 9 , 158, 1 9 5 -6 , 1 9 8 -9 S h e a ffe , R o g er, 1 9 8

s o a p s to n e c a rv in g , 4 3 0

a llo w a n c e s ; i n c o m e s u p p o rt, h u n te r ; o ld age p e n s io n s ; w e lfa re

sh eep , 3 8 7

S o h o n , G u s ta v u s , 2 7 7

s h e lls a n d s h e llw o rk , 2 9 , 6 0 , 6 9 , 7 4 , 1 1 7 , 1 8 5

S o k o k i, 9 5

S h e s h a ts h iu , 4 1 4 - 1 5

Son gh ee, 2 1 9

s h ie ld s , 1 7 1

S o n g h e e s R e se rv e (V ic to ria , B r itis h C o lu m b ia ), 3 0 1

S h in g le P o in t (Y u k o n ) s c h o o l, 3 1 8

s o n g s , 3 7 , 4 8 , 5 0 , 6 2 , 3 0 8 , 3 7 2 . See also m u s ic S o n o ra , 1 6 9

S h in g w a u k o n s e , C h ie f, 2 3 1 - 3 s h ip s a n d b o a ts , 6 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 8 7 - 8 , 1 3 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 7 9 , 184, 1 8 6 -7 , 2 1 9 -2 1 , 28 8 , 3 3 9 -4 0 , 3 5 8 , 36 2 , 369, 4 0 5 , 4 0 7 . See also c a n o e s ; k a y a k s; u m ia k s

so u rs o p s , 4 0 S o u th A m e ric a , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 1 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 1 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 3 , 36, 39, 42, 63

S h o s h o n i, 1 7 0 - 3 , 1 7 6

S o u th a m p to n Is la n d , 3 6 3

S h u b e n a c a d ie , 1 3 6 , 1 5 5 , 3 4 0 , 4 1 5

S o u th B r a n c h H o u se, 1 7 6

S h u sw a p T ra d itio n a lis ts , 4 1 6

S o u th B r a n c h M é tis s e ttle m e n ts , 2 7 2 - 5 , 2 8 8 - 9 , 2 9 2 , 294

S h u te , S a m u e l, 9 8 S ib b e s to n , N ick , 4 0 3

S o u th C a r o lin a , 1 5 4 , 1 6 2 . See also C a r o lin a s

S ib e r ia , 4 , 8 , 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 6

S o u th e a s t A sia, 3 4 , 3 9 , 4 2

S id d o n , T o m , 3 8 6

S o u th In d ia n L a k e ( M a n ito b a ), 3 9 5

Index s o v e re ig n ty , 8 8 - 9 , 9 7 , 1 3 5 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 1 5 3 - 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 9 0 , 253, 301, 315, 330, 3 3 5 -7 , 343^1, 3 6 3 -4 , 379, 3 8 8 -9 , 4 0 0 -1 , 407, 4 1 0 S p a in a n d S p a n ia rd s , 4 2 , 6 0 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 1 2 2 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 9 - 7 2 , 179, 183

Political, Educational Needs and Policies, A (H a w th o rn R e p o r t), 3 7 6 - 7 , 4 2 6 - 7 Su sq u eh an n o ck, 52 , 129 S w a n (C re e tra d e r), 1 2 2 Sw e e tg ra ss (A b ra h a m W ik a s k o k is e y in ), 2 7 6 - 8

S p a n is h R iver, 1 1 5

s w e e t p o ta to s , 3 9 , 4 2

Sparrow v. R., 3 3 7

s w o rd fish , 8 7

sp ea rs, 9 4

sw ord s, 9 4 , 1 5 9

sp e a r th ro w e rs , 1 5 - 1 6 , 5 6 , 71

sy lla b le s , 2 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 7 6

Sp ence, T h o m as, 245 s p in n in g , 3 9

T a c h é , A le x a n d r e -A n to n in , 3 5 8

S p in tlu m , 2 4 0

T a d o u s sa c, 8 3 - 6 , 1 1 5

S p ir ita n s , 9 0

T a g is h (p e o p le ), 3 6 4

S p ra g g e , W illia m P ro s p e ro u s , 2 3 1 , 2 3 9

T a g ish (Y u k o n ), 3 6 5

S p ra g u e , D o u g , 2 9 2

T a h o n ta e n r a t, 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 9

S q u a m is h , 3 0 4

T a ig n o a g n y , 7 9 - 8 1

S q u a m is h N a tio n , 3 3 9

T a jln , 4 1

sq u ash , 19 , 2 1 - 3 , 5 1 , 2 8 0

T a lo n , J e a n , 1 2 5 , 1 3 0

s q u a tte r s , 1 5 6 , 2 0 7 - 8 , 2 1 4 , 2 7 2 , 3 0 5 , 3 4 9

T a m a n a m o u s ritu a ls , 2 6 6

S ta a t, A n d rew , 1 0 7

ta p e s tr ie s , 4 3 0

S ta d a c o n a , 7 7 , 7 9 - 8 2 , 8 4 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 7

T a s m a n ia , 7 6 - 7

S ta n le y , G e o r g e , 2 3 7

T a -ta n k a - I- y o ta n k (S ittin g B u ll), 2 6 1 - 2

S ta r b la n k e t, 2 8 6

ta x a t io n , 2 8 , 2 2 8 - 9 , 2 4 5 , 2 6 5 - 6 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 3 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 8 ,

Star Chrom e M ining c a s e , 3 2 6 s ta r v a tio n . See f a m in e /s ta r v a tio n S ta te D e p a r t m e n t (U n ite d S ta te s ), 4 1 7 s ta tu s a n d n o n -s ta tu s In d ia n s , x v i, 2 2 9 , 2 3 9 , 2 6 3 - 5 , 294, 308, 3 1 3 -1 4 , 404, 427 s te e l, 5 9 - 6 0

341, 350, 393, 400, 404, 418, 420, 425 T a x ila , 3 9 te c h n o lo g y , 6 3 , 8 6 , 1 6 9 , 1 8 0 , 2 6 5 , 3 5 8 , 3 9 3 , 4 1 0 ; a d a p ta tio n o f, 8 5 , 1 1 8 ; h u n tin g a n d g a th e rin g , 4 5 ; I n u it d e e p -se a w h a lin g , 7 2 ; S to n e A ge, 1 1 - 1 6 , 24, 52, 102

S te e le , D o n a ld , 3 3 3

T ecu m p ease, 1 9 9

S te fa n s s o n , V ilh ja lm u r , 3 8 9

T ecu m seh , 9 9 , 1 5 9 , 1 9 4 -7 , 1 9 9 -2 0 0 , 2 1 8

S te in h a u e r , R a lp h , 4 0 4

T e g a n is s o re n s , 1 3 1 - 2

S te v e n s , J o h n , 4 1 7

T e h a r io lin a , M a rg a re t V in c e n t, 1 0 9

S te w a r t, J a n e , 4 2 5

T e h u a c a n V alley , 2 2

S te w a r t, J a n i c e , 4 1 7

te le g ra p h s a n d te le g r a p h lin e s , 2 7 7 , 2 8 5 , 2 8 8

S tik in e R iver, 1 8 8 , 2 3 9

T e llo t, 2 4 0 T e m e -a g a m a A n is h n a b a y (B e a r Is la n d p e o p le ), 3 3 3

S t o n e c h ild , A. B la ir, 2 9 0 , 2 9 3 S t o n e y N a tio n (M o rle y , A lb e rta ), 3 9 9 S t o n e y R e se rv e , 3 9 9 S to n e y s . See A s s in ib o in e S t o n y P o in te rs , 4 1 7 S to n y P o in t R eserv e , 4 1 7

T e m is k a m in g R iver, 1 1 5 T e m p o ra r y G o v e r n m e n t o f R u p e rt's L a n d , A n A ct fo r t h e (G re a t B r ita in , 1 8 6 8 ) , 2 4 6 T e n n a n t, P au l, 2 1 8 - 1 9 T e n sk w a ta w a (S h a w n e e P ro p h e t), 1 9 4 - 5 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 8

S tr a it o f B e lle Isle, 7 2 , 7 4 , 8 3

te o s in te , 2 2

S tra n g e , T h o m a s B la n d , 2 8 8 - 9

T e o tih u a c â n , 4 1

s tro u d , 1 7 0

terra nullius, 1 5 3 T e rrito ria l C o u r t o f t h e N o rth w e s t T e rrito rie s, 3 8 6

s tu rg e o n o il, 2 1 7 s u b s ta n c e a b u s e , 4 1 5 ; g a s o lin e s n iffin g , 4 1 3 - 1 5 . See

also a lc o h o l

T e s lin (Y u k o n ), 3 9 4 T e s s o u a t, 8 5 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5

s u b s u rfa c e rig h ts , 3 6 7 , 3 8 4 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 6

T e tlic h i, J o h n , 4 0 3

su ic id e , 4 0 9 , 4 1 4 - 1 5 , 4 2 7

T h a m e s R iv e r (O n ta r io ), 2 1 1

S u lp ic ia n s , 1 1 8 , 3 2 6 - 8 S u m m it o f t h e A m e r ic a s ( 2 0 0 1 ) , 4 3 1

T h a n a d e lth u r , 1 2 1

su n d an ces, 2 9 3 , 4 1 1 , 4 1 6 - 1 7

th im b le s , 1 8 5

s u n flo w e rs , 2 2 S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a n a d a , 1 1 0 , 2 1 5 , 3 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 2 5 ,

T h ir te e n C o lo n ie s , 8 9 - 9 0 , 1 2 4 , 1 6 0

330, 3 3 2 , 3 3 6 -9 , 341, 344, 373 S û re té d u Q u é b e c , 3 8 6

Survey o f the Contemporary Indians o f Canada: Economic,

T h ib a u lt, Je a n - B a p tis t e , 2 4 9 th ir s t d a n c e s , 2 6 6 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 9 , 3 0 8 T h o m , A dam , 2 4 3 T h o m p s o n , D a v id , 8 5 - 6 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 2 , 1 7 0 - 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 186

___

557

558 Index T h o m p s o n R iver, 1 9 0 , 2 2 0

rig h ts , 1 3 6 , 1 5 4 - 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 5 8 - 6 0 , 2 9 9 , 3 3 0 ,

T h u le c u ltu re , 5 5 - 6 , 6 8 , 7 0

3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 9 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 3 , 3 6 6 - 7 , 3 7 0 , 3 9 7 ; a n d th e

T ie rra d e l F u e g o , 11

I n d ia n A ct, 2 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 6 , 3 1 0 ; a n d in te r n a tio n a l

tim b e r , 9 8 , 2 2 7 , 2 4 6 , 2 9 9 , 3 2 4 , 3 2 7 , 3 5 0 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 6 ,

law , 3 3 0 ; In u v ia lu it F in a l A g r e e m e n t (W e stern

3 9 9 -4 0 1 tim e lin e s , 2 , 1 8 , 3 2 , 4 4 , 6 6 , 7 8 , 9 2 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 6 , 140, 152, 168, 178, 192, 20 2 , 22 4 , 2 3 6 , 2 5 2 , 27 0 ,

A rc tic C la im A g r e e m e n t) ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 0 6 , 4 0 5 ; Ja m e s B a y a n d N o r th e r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t (1 9 7 5 ) , xiii, 2 5 3 , 3 8 4 , 3 9 7 , 4 0 4 - 5 , 4 2 2 ; J a y T re a ty ( 1 7 9 4 ) ,

284, 298, 322, 342, 354, 374, 392, 412

1 6 1 - 2 ; la n d -c e s s io n , x i i - x i i i , 1 6 3 - 5 , 1 9 4 - 5 ,

T io n o n ta t i (P e tu n ), 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 2

2 0 9 -1 1 , 2 1 3 -1 4 , 226, 2 3 1 -4 , 246, 248, 253,

tip i rin g s, 5 8

2 5 5 -6 0 , 2 6 2 , 27 9 , 3 2 3 -6 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 4 -7 0 ;

tip is , 1 7 5

M a n ito u lin Is la n d tr e a ty ( 1 8 3 6 ) , 2 1 3 , 2 3 4 ;

T ip p e c a n o e , B a ttle o f, 1 9 7

M a n it o u lin Is la n d tr e a ty ( 1 8 6 2 ) , 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 4 6 ,

T itley , E. B r ia n , 3 1 6

2 4 8 , 3 0 5 ; a n d t h e M é tis , 2 9 4 - 6 , 3 0 8 , 3 4 6 - 7 ,

T la lo c , 2 8

3 6 7 - 8 ; N is g a 'a 's F in a l A g r e e m e n t A c t (N isg a'a

T lin g it, 4 9 - 5 0 , 1 8 7 - 8 , 2 0 6 , 3 6 4 , 3 7 2 T l'o o n d ik H e a lin g C a m p , 4 0 6

tr e a ty ), 3 3 6 , 3 3 8 - 9 , 4 1 8 - 1 9 ; N o r th e a s te r n Q u eb ec A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 3 9 7 ; p r im a c y o f fe d e ra l legisla­

to b a c c o , 2 1 - 2 , 5 8 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 8 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 0

ti o n o v e r, 3 3 0 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 7 , 3 8 1 ; a n d t h e

T o b in , B r ia n , 4 1 5

Re p o r t, 4 1 9 - 2 0 ; a n d re serv es, 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 8 - 9 ,

rcap

to b o g g a n s , 1 1 8

2 7 2 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 5 , 3 2 5 ; R o b in s o n

T o c a d o B o q u e ir’a o d o P ed ra F u rad a, 6

S u p e rio r a n d R o b in s o n H u ro n tr e a tie s ( 1 8 5 0 ) ,

T o lm ie , S.F., 2 9 4

1 6 4 , 2 3 1 - 4 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 9 , 3 3 3 ; a n d t h e St Catherine's Milling c a s e , 3 2 3 - 6 , 3 3 3 ; S e lk ir k T re a ty ( 1 8 1 7 ) ,

T o lte c s , 4 1 to m a h a w k s , 1 1 7

1 6 5 , 2 1 6 , 2 4 4 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 7 - 8 ; T re a ty N o . 1 (S to n e

'T o m a h a w k S p e e c h ’ (S ir J o h n J o h n s o n ) , 1 9 3

F o rt T re a ty ) ( 1 8 7 1 ) , 2 5 3 , 2 5 5 - 8 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 5 ; T reaty

to m a to e s , 2 1

N o . 2 (M a n ito b a P o s t T re a ty ) ( 1 8 7 1 ) , 2 5 5 - 8 , 2 6 0 ;

Tonquin (s h ip ), 1 8 7

T re a ty N o . 3 (N o r th w e s t A n g le T re a ty ) ( 1 8 7 3 ) ,

to o ls , 6 0 , 1 4 4 , 1 8 5 , 3 5 5 , 3 5 7 ; b o n e , 1 2 - 1 3 ; ir o n , 7 2 , 9 3 - 4 , 1 8 5 ; o b s id ia n , 1 4 , 5 9 ; s to n e , 1 1 - 1 6 , 2 2 . See

also specific tools

2 5 8 - 6 0 , 3 2 3 - 6 , 3 9 4 ; T re a ty N o . 4 (Q u 'A p p e lle T re a ty ) ( 1 8 7 4 ) , 2 5 9 , 2 7 7 , 2 7 9 , 3 0 0 ; T re a ty N o. 5 ( 1 8 7 5 ) , 2 5 5 , 2 5 7 , 2 5 9 ; T re a ty N o . 6 ( 1 8 7 6 ) , 2 5 5 ,

T o r o n to -D o m in io n B a n k , 4 2 3 - 4

2 5 7 , 2 5 9 - 6 1 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 8 2 , 2 9 1 , 3 0 5 ; T reaty

to r tu r e , 2 7 , 5 4

N o . 7 ( 1 8 7 7 ) , 2 5 7 , 2 6 1 - 2 ; T re a ty N o . 8 ( 1 8 9 9 ) ,

to t e m p o le s , 1 7 7 , 1 8 5 , 2 6 6 ; m in ia tu r e , 1 8 9

2 4 1 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 7 , 2 6 2 , 2 9 5 -6 , 3 6 3 -8 , 3 7 0 , 3 8 2 -3 ,

T racy. See P ro u v ille d e T ra cy

3 9 4 , 4 1 8 ; T re a ty N o . 9 (Ja m e s B a y T rea ty )

tra d e : p r o to c o l, 7 3 , 8 6 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 8 3 ; ro u te s a n d

( 1 9 0 5 - 6 ) , 2 1 8 , 2 5 7 , 2 9 5 , 3 6 8 - 9 ; T re a ty N o. 1 0

n e tw o rk s , 3 5 , 5 2 , 5 8 - 9 , 7 0 , 7 3 , 8 2 , 8 4 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 5 ,

( 1 9 0 6 ) , 2 9 5 , 3 6 8 ; T re a ty N o . 1 1 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , 1 5 5 , 2 5 3 ,

110, 112, 1 1 5 -1 7 , 1 3 2 -4 , 1 6 9 -7 0 , 1 7 2 -3 , 176,

2 9 5 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 0 , 3 9 4 ; T re a ty N o . 2 3 9 (M a sca re n e 's

1 7 9 -8 3 , 1 8 7 -9 , 3 5 7 , 3 6 4

T re a ty ) ( 1 7 2 5 ) , 1 3 5 - 6 , 1 5 4 - 5 ; T re a ty o f B o s to n

tr a d in g p o sts, 9 0 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 - 3 , 1 3 8 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 3 - 6 , 1 7 9 -8 1 , 183, 1 8 7 -8 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6 , 2 1 8 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 2 61, 278, 280, 355, 363, 369

( 1 7 2 5 ) , 9 8 , 1 3 5 - 6 , 1 5 4 - 5 ; T re a ty o f G r e e n v ille ( 1 7 9 5 ) , 1 9 4 , 2 0 0 ; T re a ty o f F o r t S ta n w y x (1 7 6 8 ) , 1 9 3 ; T re a ty o f G h e n t ( 1 8 1 4 ) , 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 5 0 ; Treaty

T ra il o f T ears, 2 0 0

o f H a lifa x ( 1 7 5 2 ) , 1 3 6 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 5 , 3 3 0 ; T re a ty o f

tr a n s fe r p a y m e n ts , 3 8 3

M o n tr e a l ( 1 7 0 1 ) , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 3 2 - 3 , 1 6 1 ; T rea ty o f

tr a p p in g , 7 5 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 3 , 2 1 0 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 2 7 6 - 7 ,

P a ris ( 1 7 6 3 ) , 1 5 5 , 1 6 2 ; T re a ty o f P a ris ( 1 7 8 3 ) , 1 61,

309, 332, 3 4 9 -5 0 , 35 2 , 3 5 8 -9 , 3 6 4 -5 , 3 7 5 , 387,

1 9 3 , 2 0 0 ; T re a ty o f P o r ts m o u th ( 1 7 1 3 ) , 9 6 , 1 5 4 ;

3 9 4 ; rig h ts , 3 6 3 , 3 6 6 - 7 , 3 7 0 , 3 9 7

T re a ty o f T o rd e s illa s ( 1 4 9 4 ) , 9 7 ; T re a ty o f U tre c h t

tra p s, m e ta l, 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 0

( 1 7 1 3 ) , 8 8 - 9 , 9 6 - 8 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 9 3 , 3 4 4 ; T rea ty o f

tr e a s o n , 2 9 0 - 1

W a te r to w n ( 1 7 7 5 ) , 1 6 1 ; a n d t h e W h it e P ap er

tr e a tie s , 5 8 , 8 3 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 5 3 - 5 ,

( 1 9 6 9 ) , 3 7 7 - 9 ; W illia m s tr e a tie s ( 1 9 2 3 ) , 2 5 7

1 6 3 -5 , 190, 2 1 8 -1 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 7 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 4 , 2 5 0 ,

tr ib a l d is tr ib u tio n s , 4 7 , 1 7 1

2 5 3 -4 , 2 5 9 -6 0 , 2 6 3 -1 , 2 7 7 -8 , 282, 304, 308, 310,

T rigger, B ru c e G ., 8 2

33 5 , 33 7 , 35 2 , 3 5 9 , 36 3 , 37 3 , 38 1 , 38 5 , 3 9 3 -4 ,

tr ip s a c u m , 2 2

3 9 8 , 4 0 6 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 6 , 4 1 8 , 4 2 1 , 4 2 4 - 5 ; a n n u itie s ,

T ro is-R iv iè re s, 9 5 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 1 1 5 , 1 4 3

136, 155, 165, 210, 226, 2 3 2 -3 , 239, 2 5 8 -9 , 263,

T ru d e a u , P ie rre , 3 3 3 , 3 7 7 - 9 , 3 9 8 , 4 0 1

2 6 5 , 2 9 3 ; B la c k f o o t T re a ty ( 1 8 7 7 ) , 2 7 5 ;

tr u s t fu n d s , b a n d , 3 7 6

C o llin g w o o d T re a ty ( 1 8 1 8 ) , 1 6 5 ; C r e e -B la c k fo o t

T ru tc h , J o s e p h W ., 2 2 0 , 2 4 0 - 1

b is o n h u n ti n g tr e a ty ( 1 8 7 1 ) , 2 7 1 , 2 7 6 ; d e fin e d ,

T s h a k a p e s h , S im e o n , 4 1 4

2 5 5 ; h e a l t h c a re p ro v is io n s in , 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 2 7 9 ,

T s im s h ia n , 4 , 2 5 , 4 8 - 5 0 , 1 8 7 - 8 , 2 2 0 - 1 , 2 3 9

3 6 7 , 3 7 7 ; a n d h u n tin g , fis h in g , a n d tr a p p in g

T sio u i, M ic h a e l, 2 2 6

Index 559 T s o n d a ts a a , C h a r le s , 1 0 2

W a b a k in in e , 1 6 4

T su u T 'i n a (S a rce e ), xiv , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 2 , 2 9 3 , 3 8 6

W a b a n a k i. See A b e n a k i

tu b e r c u lo s is , 7 7 , 3 1 6 , 3 8 8

W .A .C . B e n n e t t D a m , 3 9 4 - 5

T u p in a m b â , 6 3

w a g es a n d w a g e la b o u r, 1 9 0 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 6 , 2 7 1 , 3 8 3 , 4 2 5

tu rk e y s, 2 5

W akanozhan, 245

T u rn e r, C h r is ty G ., II, 1 2

W a lp o le Is la n d F irst N a tio n , 3 1 8 , 3 7 9

T u rn e r, M o n ic a , 3 1 4

w a lru s, 7 4 , 8 7 , 2 0 5 , 2 8 0

T u s c a ro ra , 1 3 3 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 4

w a m p u m , 6 0 , 9 9 , 1 2 8 ; b e lts , 2 1 4 , 3 2 7

T u tc h o n e , 3 9 , 5 5 , 2 0 6 ; K w a n lin -D u n b a n d , 3 0 6

W ap ah aska, 2 6 3

tw in e , 1 2 0 , 3 5 5 , 3 6 6

w a rfa re , 2 6 - 7 , 4 9 - 5 1 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 6 2 - 3 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 7 7 , 8 1 - 3 ,

T w in n , W a lte r, 4 0 4

85, 8 8 -9 , 9 1 , 9 3 -9 , 1 0 1 -5 , 1 0 7 -1 2 , 1 1 5 -1 7 ,

T y e n d in a g a R eserv e , 1 6 5 , 3 7 6

1 2 0 -1 , 124, 127, 1 3 7 -8 , 142, 144, 148, 1 5 3 -4 ,

U lu k su k , 3 7 1

2 0 0 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 2 2 , 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 8 2 , 3 3 6 , 3 4 4 . See

1 5 8 -6 0 , 1 6 9 -7 3 , 175, 183, 1 8 5 -6 , 1 9 3 -4 , 1 9 6 -7 , U m b r e lla F in a l A g r e e m e n t (Y u k o n ), 4 0 5 - 6

also specific conflicts

u m ia k s , 5 6 , 2 0 7

W an, 23

U m is ta , 3 0 8

W a r M e a su re s A ct, 4 1 7

u n e m p lo y m e n t, 3 5 3 , 4 0 9 , 4 2 7

W a r o f 1 8 1 2 , x ii, 1 9 0 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 7 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 ,

U ngava, 55 U n i o n o f B r itis h C o lu m b ia C h ie fs , 3 7 9

231, 242, 245, 303 W a rrio r m o v e m e n t, 3 2 9 , 3 4 6

U n ite d C h u r c h , 3 1 8 , 3 9 5

W a s h in g to n s ta te , 4 8 , 6 0

U n ite d F a rm e rs o f A lb e rta , 3 4 9 - 5 0

W a s ite c k , 2 1 8

U n ite d N a tio n s , 3 4 6 , 4 1 1 , 4 2 0 , 4 2 2

W a s k a g a n is h b a n d G a m es B a y C re e ), 3 9 7

U n ite d N a tio n s H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m itte e , 3 1 3

W a tt, C h a r lie , 4 0 4

U n ite d S ta te s , 1 6 , 2 0 , 2 3 - 4 , 5 2 , 9 9 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 1 ,

w e a lth /p r o p e r ty , 2 7 , 5 0 , 5 8 , 6 9 , 7 4 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 5 - 6 ,

164, 1 7 3 -5 , 1 9 3 -2 0 0 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 7 , 2 4 4 -6 , 2 4 8 -9 , 2 6 0 -2 , 266, 274, 280, 293, 308, 320, 336, 378, 384, 407, 409, 417, 420, 428 u n iv e r s itie s , 3 1 9 , 3 5 3 , 4 2 1 ; U n iv e r s ity o f A lb e rta , 3 1 9 ; U n iv e r s ity o f V ic to r ia , 4 0 8 U n o r g a n iz e d T e rr ito rie s ' G a m e P re s e rv a tio n A ct (1 8 9 4 ), 3 6 4 U pper C anad a, 161, 1 6 3 -5 , 1 9 7 -8 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 -1 5 ,

1 8 9 , 3 4 3 . See also la n d w e a p o n s , 6 9 , 7 2 , 9 3 - 4 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 4 . See also specific

weapons W ea v er, Sally, 4 0 4 - 5 w e a v in g , 2 5 , 3 9 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 9 w e lfa re , 3 0 9 , 3 5 0 - 1 , 3 7 6 - 7 , 3 8 9 , 4 1 4 - 1 5 , 4 2 2 , 4 2 7 . See

also s o c ia l se rv ic e s W e n d a t (H u ro n C o n fe d e r a c y ). See H u ro n a n d H u ro n ia

2 2 6 - 8 , 3 4 4 . See also C a n a d a W e st; O n ta r io ;

W e n e m o u e t, 9 9

P r o v in c e o f C a n a d a

W e s te r n A rc tic C la im A g r e e m e n t (In u v ia lu it F in a l

U p p e r S k e e n a R iv er, 1 8 7 - 8 U p to n , L e slie , 2 0 8 U rs u lin e s , 1 4 6

A g r e e m e n t) ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 0 6 , 4 0 5 W e st, J o h n , 2 1 5 W e t's u w e t'e n (C a rrie r), x iii- x iv , 1 8 9 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 - 8 w h a le s a n d w h a lin g , x - x i , 4 8 , 6 0 , 7 2 - 5 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 2 0 5 ,

V a c h o n d e B e lm o n t, F r a n ç o is , 3 2 7

2 0 7 , 2 8 0 , 35 5 , 3 6 0 -1 , 363

V a ld iv ia , 3 6 - 7

w h e a t, 2 1

V a n co u v e r , 3 1 3 , 3 3 6 , 3 3 9

W h it b o u r n e , S ir R ich a rd , 7 5

V a n c o u v e r Is la n d , 4 8 , 5 0 , 1 8 7 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 4 3 , 3 3 2 , 3 4 0 , 418

W h ite d o g R eserv e , 3 9 4 W h it e h o r s e (Y u k o n ), 3 0 6

V a n k o u g h n e t, L a w re n c e , 2 8 0 , 2 8 6

W h it e H o rs e P la in , 2 4 5

V a u d re u il, P h ilip p e d e, 9 7 - 8

W h it e P a p e r ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 3 1 1 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 5 , 3 7 7 - 9 , 3 8 1 , 3 8 4 ,

V e la s c o , D o n L u is d e, 6 9

393

V e r m ilio n L ak es, 11

W h itn e y , R oy, 3 8 6

V e rra z z a n o , G io v a n n i d a, 7 0

w ig w a m s, 2 1 0

V e tc h , S a m u e l, 1 4 7

W ik a s k o k is e y in , A b ra h a m (S w eetg ra ss), 2 7 6 - 8

V ic to r ia (B r itis h C o lu m b ia ), 3 0 1

W ik w e m ik o n g , 2 1 2 , 2 3 4

V ir a c o c h a , 4 1 , 6 8

W illia m s o n , R o b e rt, 3 8 8

V irg in ia , 1 6 3

W illia m s tr e a tie s ( 1 9 2 3 ) , 2 5 7

v is io n q u e s t, 6 3

W ils o n , B e r th a , 3 3 7

V o is e y Bay, 4 2 2

W ils o n , E d w a rd E , 3 1 8 , 4 0 1

V o is e y siste rs, 3 8 8

W ils o n , M e e k a , 3 9 5

v o y a g e u rs , 1 4 6 , 1 4 9 , 2 4 2 . See also coureurs de bois

w in d ig o , 2 1 8 W in n e b a g o , 1 9 6

560 Index W in n ip e g , 2 4 2 , 2 8 2

W u ttu n e e , W illia m I .C ., 3 7 8

W is c o n s in , 1 2 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 9 9

W y a n d o t, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 6 . See also H u ro n a n d H u ro n ia

w o lfe rs , 2 6 0 - 1 W o lf L ak e (A lb e rta ), 3 5 0 W o ls e le y (M a n ito b a ), 2 9 0

Y a h g a n , 11

W o lseley , G .J., 2 5 0 , 2 5 9 , 2 8 5

Y a k u k tia , 4

w om en , 54, 105, 121, 123, 136, 142, 1 4 5 -9 , 170, 175,

Y a ld e n , M a x , 3 9 3

229, 239, 264, 308, 311, 313, 318, 345, 360, 421.

y am s, 2 1

See also s e x u a l d iv is io n o f la b o u r

Y a n k to n a i D a k o ta , 1 2 0 , 1 9 6

W o o d B u ffa lo N a tio n a l P ark, 3 6 7 W o o d M o u n ta in , 2 6 3 , 2 6 6

Y e llo w k n ife (N o r th w e s t T e rr ito rie s ), 3 1 2 Y e llo w k n iv e s, 1 8 0

w o o d w o rk , 2 9

Y o rk F a cto ry , 1 2 1 , 1 8 0 - 1 , 2 4 5 , 3 5 7

Worcester v. Georgia, 3 3 6

Y ukon , 8, 3 9 , 5 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 6 2 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 6 , 3 1 4 ,

W o rld C o u n c il o f In d ig e n o u s P e o p le s , 4 1 1 W o rld W a r I, 3 0 6 - 7 , 3 0 9

35 5 , 3 5 9 -6 2 , 3 6 4 -5 , 3 6 9 -7 0 , 38 1 , 3 8 5 , 394, 399, 4 0 2 -3 , 4 0 5 -6 , 415, 427

W o rld W a r II, 3 1 0 - 1 2 , 3 8 7 , 4 1 7 W o w u rn a , 9 7

Z a p o te c -M ix te c , 4 1 - 2

W ra x a ll, P eter, 1 5 7

Z aslo w , M o rris , 3 7 5

W rig h t, Ja m e s V., 1 1 , 2 2 , 2 6 , 3 3 , 4 5 , 6 0

Z u n i, 4 0

w r itin g . See r e a d in g a n d w r itin g W u a s tu k w iu k (M a lis e e t), x iv , 5 5 , 8 3 , 8 7 - 8 , 9 1 , 9 3 - 4 , 1 3 6 -7 , 147, 154, 163, 1 8 5 -6 , 193, 2 0 8