Building simply two: Sustainable, cost-efficient, local 9783955531737, 9783920034676

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in ∂

Building Simply Two sustainable cost-efficient local

Christian Schittich (Ed.)

Edition Detail

in ∂ Building Simply Two

in ∂

Building Simply Two sustainable cost-efficient local Christian Schittich (Ed.)

Edition DETAIL – Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG Munich

Editor: Christian Schittich Editorial services: Steffi Lenzen (project management), Eva Schönbrunner, Melanie Weber Editorial assistants: Katinka Johanning, Michaela Linder Translation German/English: Sharon Heidenreich, Nuremberg Proofreading: Kathrin Enke, Ludwigsburg Drawings: Marion Griese, Martin Hämmel, Nicola Kollmann, Emese M. Köszegi, Dejanira Ornelas DTP: Simone Soesters A specialist publication from Redaktion DETAIL Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG Bibliographic information published by the German National Library The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at . This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN: 978-3-920034-62-1). © 2012 Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, P. O. Box 20 10 54, 80010 Munich, Germany www.detail.de This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.

Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp (TCF ∞) Printed in Germany Reproduction: Martin Härtl OHG, Munich Printing and binding: Kösel GmbH & Co. KG, Altusried-Krugzell

ISBN: 978-3-920034-67-6 987654321

Contents

Building simply – a matter of attitude or necessity Christian Schittich

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Single-family home in Stuttgart lohrmannarchitekt, Stuttgart

108

Simply constructed Christiane Sauer

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Dwelling in Andalue Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects, Concepción

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Simply complex Fabian Scheurer

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Oyster farmer’s house in Brittany RAUM, Nantes

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Simply reasonable Ansgar und Benedikt Schulz

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Cowshed in Thankirchen Florian Nagler Architekten, Munich

120

Simply sustainable Andrea Georgi-Tomas, Martin Zeumer

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Open-air pool in Eichstätt Kauffmann Theilig & Partner, Ostfildern/Kemnat

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Simply local Anna Heringer

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Commercial complex in Munich bogevischs buero, Munich

128

Print and media house in Augsburg OTT ARCHITEKTEN, Augsburg

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Mobile showroom Jürke Architekten, Munich

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Joiner’s workshop near Freising Deppisch Architekten, Freising

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School cafeteria in Berlin ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin

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School in Berlin AFF architekten, Berlin

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Day-care centre in Unterföhring hirner & riehl architekten und stadtplaner, Munich

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Day-care centres in Munich schulz & schulz, Leipzig

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Kids’ activity centre near Melbourne PHOOEY Architects, Melbourne

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Project data – architects

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Authors

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Illustration credits

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Summary of projects Restaurant on Teshima Architects Atelier Ryo Abe, Tokyo Schools in Mozambique Ziegert  Roswag  Seiler Architekten Ingenieure, Berlin “Slumtube” pallet house near Johannesburg Andreas Claus Schnetzer & Gregor Pils, Vienna Museum and community centre in Johannesburg’s Alexandra township Peter Rich Architects, Johannesburg Hospital in Rwanda MASS Design Group, Boston/Kigali Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo TYIN tegnestue, Trondheim

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Social housing in Iquique Elemental – Alejandro Aravena, Santiago de Chile

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Social housing in Ceuta MGM, Morales-Giles-Mariscal Architects, Sevilla

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House in Oderbruch HEIDE & VON BECKERATH, Berlin

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Summer house near Saiki Takao Shiotsuka Atelier, Oita

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Summer cabin near Gothenburg Johannes Norlander Arkitektur, Stockholm

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Building simply – a matter of attitude or necessity Christian Schittich

The demand for simplicity is a constantly recurring theme in philosophy, art and science. World-renowned thinkers throughout the ages, from Confucius to Albert Einstein, from Seneca to Ludwig Wittgenstein, have praised its advantages for a host of areas of everyday life. Friedrich Schiller, for instance, regards simplicity as “the result of maturity”; and for Sergei Korolev, who is considered the father of Russian cosmonautics, “the genius of design lies in simplicity” – because “anybody can build complicated things”. In contemporary architecture, too, minimalist tendencies resurface at regular intervals, bringing with them a return to the basics, to the simple form. In a time of pluralistic diversity, these trends encounter other, sometimes contradictory, movements, attitudes and approaches, such as the currently very popular computer-generated free forms. However, it does not always follow that formal simplicity, resulting from aesthetic aspirations, is simultaneously simple in its technical and financial implications. After all, the perfectly reduced form of a highly complex building can frequently be attained only with much greater-than-usual effort. This effort manifests itself in more elaborate design work, as well as in complex but hidden details, found, say, beneath the smooth outer surface of a multi-layered wall construction. At the same time, a building referred to as “simple” in common parlance is one that is straightforward, cost-efficient and constructed within a short period of time. Building simply therefore has many facets. The term can apply to the shape, the construction, the material and many other criteria related to the building. The simple form Our world is becoming more and more complex, its interrelationships increasingly difficult for individuals to comprehend. At the same time, the flood of stimuli and sensory impressions is growing ever more insistent. Confronted with all this, many people yearn for clear forms, ones that are immediately accessible and recognizable. A brand like Apple, for instance, is groundbreaking because it relies on consistent, clear design and instantly comprehensible interfaces across all of its devices, from the laptop to the smartphone, and omits all superfluous details. A simple form can, however, also be a conscious expression of attitude: a break with consumerism, an avoidance of the superfluous and the wasteful approach to form, colour and detail it entails. Some buildings in traditional architecture are based on clear geometries. These structures range from farmhouses and barns, which often appear to be embedded in the surround-

ing landscape, to sacred spaces for meditation. Simple geometric forms embody a particular confidence or charisma and have high symbolic value. Japan is a country where simplicity, based on the central tenets of Zen Buddhism, is an integral part of traditional culture. This finds expression not only in numerous objects of everyday life, but also in traditional Japanese architecture, including its teahouses and palaces. The famous Imperial Villa Katsuro in Kyoto, dating back to the 17th century, is the most prominent example known in the West. To this day, it has lost none of its fascination and appeal, especially among architects, thanks to its simple floor plan and shape, the modular arrangement of its floors and walls, and the clear alignment of its timber construction. It is not surprising that two of the foremost proponents of minimalist architecture today, the British architects John Pawson and David Chipperfield, started their professional careers in Japan. The architecture of Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa, whose buildings reflect a particular focus on the impact of space and the way in which the user takes possession of the building, can be referred to as simple because of their reduced construction and general omission of colour. But as is often the case with simple forms, one can easily forget the enormous amount of time and effort that went into the development of the building (as is true for the sophisticated concrete construction of the Rolex Learning Center), and the maintenance involved. Simply reasonable Building simply is frequently equated with low construction costs. This equivalence is actually true for many of the projects presented in this book. Even if the minimalist form of architecture described above can usually be executed only with a great investment of time and money, as today’s envelope inevitably consists of a refined system of different functional layers, it is nevertheless true that a simple, clear structure without elaborate protrusions and setbacks is generally more reasonable from a cost perspective, as Ansgar and Benedikt Schulz point out in their article (see pp. 34ff.). Minimalist architecture is distinguished by material efficiency, requires a smaller proportion of expensive facade, and, thanks to its compactness, is generally more energy-efficient. A straightforward layout not only simplifies orientation and usability, but it also facilitates the design of a clearly aligned load-bearing structure, which can be based on low-cost structural components. It is generally true that a simple solution is necessary if one 9

wants to achieve a high degree of efficiency. Simplicity starts with the design and may well require greater time and effort at the planning stage. On the other hand, restricting oneself to a few well-thought-out details can lead to greater planning efficiency. Upkeep and maintenance are especially important aspects when it comes to costs. After all, over the life cycle of a building, the outlays for running, upkeep and necessary refurbishment significantly exceed the costs of development. Building simply can make a considerable contribution towards a more cost-efficient building. The simple construction In terms of traditional building practices, building simply means making do with locally available materials – in other words, using the construction materials that nature yields – in order to save on transportation costs and conserve transportation energy. But it also means arranging the load-bearing and non-load-bearing construction elements in such a way that the available resources are used as efficiently as possible and that the energy budget is well balanced. The technical solutions applied in traditional building methods are consistent with the available material and skills, the climate and the geographical conditions at the building’s location. It was not until the advent of industrialization that simplicity was suppressed. Specialization, division of labour and more efficient transportation systems tend to encourage more elaborate construction products and the application of nonlocal materials. The fact is that a building can be regarded as simple if it is based on a clear structure that follows an intrinsic logic.

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In this case, the shape of the building and its load-bearing structure are closely related, as is true for the cowshed designed by Florian Nagler in Thankirchen (see pp. 120ff.). At a time when computer-controlled planning and construction processes have made almost anything possible, clear structures are no longer a matter of course; simple constructions require discipline. The conception of when a construction, a wall configuration or a detail is simple varies significantly from one country or region to another, even within the western hemisphere. The judgement is very much dependent on the location, the local climate, standards and regulations and, moreover, the intended use of the building. The construction process is invariably a significant aspect of building simply. In less-developed regions of Africa, Asia and South America, where there is an abundance of manpower, this means making use of local skills and building practices. In the article “Simply local” (see pp. 50ff.), Anna Heringer illustrates how this approach encourages not only ecological balance, but also social justice. The author argues that if labour, know-how and responsibility remain at the building’s location, regional small and medium-sized businesses benefit. At the same time, under certain circumstances, it may make sense even in a highly developed country to generate easy-assembly structures made of inexpensive and universally available materials. Shima Kitchen, an infrastructure project on the Japanese island of Teshima (see pp. 58ff.), is planned in such a way that the village community can assemble and look after the building without professional support. Architect Ryo Abe developed a structural system incorporating easily obtainable building materials, such as reinforcing

rods, water pipes and cable ties, which even unskilled labourers can assemble without difficulty. This example demonstrates that the simple process refers not only to the construction of the building, but also to its possible deconstruction. Easily separable connections allow for a fairly quick and straightforward removal and the possibility of reusing the parts somewhere else or recycling them, as appropriate. Simple applications Material and construction are closely related. Criteria such as availability, production, processing, application, insulation properties and durability of the building material have a clear bearing on whether a structure or building may be considered simple. Limiting the range of materials to a few or even just one for certain building components and functions implies simplicity in terms of uniformity. At the same time, this minimal use of material leads to an economical and ecological solution. When a building is “constructed simply”, as Christiane Sauer explains in her article of the same title (see pp. 12ff.), the type of construction ideally suits the material properties and uses them to the full. Numerous buildings presented in this book are made of wood, an ancient building material that is easy to work with and widely available – though by no means everywhere. Throughout the world, there are many desert regions with little vegetation and hence few trees, where wood is naturally highly valuable. Earth, on the other hand, is abundantly available in the ground in most places and is still considered an extremely inexpensive building material in large parts of Asia and Africa. In Western countries, however, where the material is being rediscovered, not least because of its ecological benefits, earth buildings tend to be rather expensive. The numerous positive properties of this building material – it is cheap, obtainable from the ground almost anywhere, virtually fully recyclable, and beneficial in terms of room climate and acoustics – are in stark contrast to the large amount of manual labour it requires. So whereas earth building is considered a luxury in our spheres, it is looked down on as a cheap material in large parts of the southern hemisphere, where it enjoys a long tradition and where human labour is abundant and inexpensive. Depending on the place it is used, then, one and the same building material may either be considered simple or – at least from a cost perspective – uneconomical. Today most building products are factory-made; the material is not necessarily sourced from the immediate surroundings. But even materials such as steel, (precast) concrete elements and plastics are suitable for simple constructions. This is evidenced by projects such as the kids’ activity centre in Melbourne (see pp. 164ff.), the small dwelling in the Chilean town of Andalue (see pp. 112ff.) and the social housing project in Ceuta (see pp. 92ff.). This book is focused in particular on small, mainly economical constructions – straightforward projects that provide the architect with the opportunity to manage the planning and construction process more or less single-handedly. They allow for the shaping of the smallest detail, which is no longer the case in most larger building projects. In principle, it is often these simple construction tasks that allow young architects to gain a foothold in professional life. It comes as no surprise, then, that many of the examples presented here were planned by very young designers. Other examples, however, indicate clearly that renowned

offices, too, are now addressing this subject. In the greater part of the world, simple building is the rule rather than the exception. In places where urbanization is proceeding at an incredible pace and where building activity is often shaped by the mere struggle for survival, different, simpler solutions are required than in our parts – solutions such as the naturally ventilated hospital in Rwanda (see pp. 78ff.) or the schools in Mozambique (see pp. 61ff.) built exclusively from regional building materials. No matter how different the projects are in terms of actual construction task, social setting, climate conditions, structure or material, they all have one feature in common: a consistent approach marked by a focus on the essentials and an omission of all superfluous elements. The professional articles address the various aspects of simplicity ranging from the construction to the costs. The fact that sustainability requires simplicity is illustrated by Andrea Georgi-Tomas and Martin Zeumer (see pp. 42ff.), whereas, in his article on computer-generated free forms (see pp. 24ff.), Fabian Scheurer highlights the need for simplicity even in complex structures. Building simply can be a matter of attitude or pure necessity. The aim of this publication is to show how fascinating this subject is in all of its many facets.

1 Dwelling, Zurich (CH) 2007, Christian Kerez 2 Holiday cottage, (S) 2005, John Pawson 3 Museum Turner Contemporary, Margate (GB) 2011, David Chipperfield Architects 4 Weekend cottage, Vallemaggia (CH) 2000, Roberto Briccola

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Simply constructed Christiane Sauer

Traditional constructions, developed without architects, have always been “simple”, easy-to-erect buildings that make perfect use of local material resources and available skills. The availability of local resources is one of the most important considerations here. In former times, if no other construction materials were at hand, people even used blocks of snow to build protective shelters, as in Greenland’s icy plains. In wooded areas, on the other hand, where tree trunks were plentiful, log construction developed (fig. 1); and in the southern hemisphere, solid earth walls provided protection from the sun and overheating. In the case of these local construction methods, the question of whether or not to choose a simple construction never arose, as in pre-industrialization days people had no other choice. Nevertheless, each generation improved and refined the structural design and efficiency of the construction method. The material, structure and shape of the buildings had a symbiotic connection, each influenced by the regional conditions. The constructions went hand in hand with aesthetic decisions, which were not based on the taste of an individual, but which evolved from the features of the surroundings. The aesthetic conveyed by these “simple” buildings is intuitively understood and remains comprehensible to this day, beyond the vagaries of fashion. Simple structures are still being developed in some parts of the world where resources are scarce. Whatever material is at hand is used as efficiently as possible. In developing countries, for example, PET bottles are filled with sand and used as bricks to erect entire houses (fig. 2). A barrel-shaped construction made of disused wooden shipping pallets, which can also be assembled by unskilled workers, was recently developed as a prototype for a simple residential building in South Africa (see “‘Slumtube’ pallet house near Johannesburg”, pp. 66ff.). The strategy of re-using materials and building components to create resource-saving constructions is gaining momentum in our climes as well. What is central to this design process is not perfection in terms of detail, but rather that the available material determines the construction and joining method.

possible input of funds and resources – in other words, using the most efficient way to transform a design into an actual building. The most appropriate solution will depend on the demands of the individual construction task. There are no generally recognized codes of practice for building “simply”. Nevertheless, planners must be in a position to assess the consequences that decisions made during the design phase may have on the construction. The requirements of a building are determined primarily by its type of use and location. The orientation and the geometric shape have a significant impact on the climatic conditions inside the building and on its power economy. A building’s intended use – industrial, commercial or residential – has its own particular implications. A residential building must provide an interior space that is independent of the outside environment and able to offer comfort, an adequate room temperature, good lighting and a fresh air supply around the clock. The energy demand can be reduced by applying simple measures, such as temperate zones as a climate buffer or south-facing thermal storage walls. In office buildings, with their large, fully glazed facades, provisions have to be made to prevent a build-up of heat. An alternative to expensive airconditioning units, structural facade protrusions, such as a

Simply appropriate So, in our industrialized world, what does it mean to build “simply”? Every construction scheme has its own individual parameters in regard to cost and time frame, type and duration of use, quality of workmanship and design, for which the architect has to find a suitable solution. In this case building simply could mean attaining the best result with the least

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“brise soleil”, can prevent the building interior from overheating. Le Corbusier was the first architect of the modern era to develop such rigid sun-shading elements for his buildings in the southern hemisphere, where, as in the government buildings in the Indian town of Chandigarh, they also function as a facade design feature (fig. 3). In industrial buildings, the requirements with regard to thermal insulation and building envelope differ considerably and are very much dependent on the function of the building, which can range from a noninsulated warehouse at one extreme to a high-tech manufacturing plant with a precisely defined room climate at the other. Working on a heat transfer station with fairly low demands on the building envelope near Utrecht, in 1997, NL Architects came up with a technically simple solution with its own, unique aesthetic (fig. 4). A plastic coating usually used to seal flat roofs was simply wrapped around the whole building. The plastic skin is watertight, but open to diffusion, so that the complete building envelope could be reduced to this single layer. Thanks to the application of this material, details such as rain gutters or weather bars could be omitted, and rainwater simply runs down the facade. The load-bearing structure underneath is purpose-built and consists of inexpensive conventional sand-lime bricks and precast concrete elements. In order to select an appropriate construction method, it is important to ascertain which room sizes and therefore spans are required and how construction sequences are to be organized. Modular building methods with elements that can be assembled either by hand or using light plant, such as brickwork or in situ concrete with simple formwork, are suitable for smaller schemes with short spans. Structural steelwork is predestined for flexible floor plans with minimal construction space; in terms of logistics, too, the short erection time of the bar-shaped members makes them excellent candidates for industrial buildings. Prefabricated timber construction using laminated timber beams, often found in hall structures, is best suited to individually shaped load-bearing elements. Solid concrete construction, on the other hand, makes sense for large developments and multi-storey buildings, especially if the erection of formwork is simplified by repeating floor plans or if serially made precast concrete elements are used. During the planning process, it is important to consider not only the construction phase of the building, but also the operation phase, including maintenance aspects, and a possible deconstruction of the structure. All surface finishes should either be low-maintenance or able to sustain wear and tear without a diminishing of their aesthetic and functional aspects. The architect’s contract usually ends with the completion of the building or once all defects have been made good. The planning of an efficient deconstruction or recycling of building components for the time when the useful life span of the building has expired does not yet form part of the everyday job description of the planner. Particularly in terms of a sustainable planning approach and a “simple” disposal of building components, however, it would be sensible to incorporate this service into the scope of the planning work. New technical innovations, such as microchips, could be integrated into components to store valuable information regarding the origin and properties of materials used. 14

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Traditional log cabin wall PET bottles are filled with sand or rubble and laid like brickwork with a mixture of sand and loam. Medellin (CO) 2011, Eco-Tec Andreas Froese 3 Palace of Justice , Chandigarh (IND) 1955, Le Corbusier 4 Heat transfer station, Utrecht (NL) 1997, NL Architects 5, 6 Residential building, Berlin (D) 2007, Arge Bonnen + Schlaich a 80 mm planted roof b 120−420 mm sloping insulation, 2.5 % pitch c 250 mm reinforced concrete d poured asphalt with underfloor heating e 220 mm reinforced concrete f 50 mm thermal insulation g 500 mm infra-leightweight concrete, inside and outside with exposed concrete finish 7 Section through insulating concrete

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Multi-layered or monolithic The increasing demands placed on the building envelope in terms of indoor climate and energy standards have caused wall structures to become more sophisticated over the past few decades. The load-bearing structure, insulation, waterproofing, and interior and exterior finishes form a coordinated system perfectly suited to each individual purpose. A clear and straightforward structure simplifies the construction process and saves money. Especially when it comes to the enclosing surfaces, such as exterior walls, all aspects of building physics must be considered carefully in order to avoid damage. Generally there are two structural approaches. The first one is the multi-layer, additive method, which combines a variety of materials, each fulfilling its own specific requirements. Here, the main attention during execution should be focused on the structural detailing of joints, penetrations and connections. For room enclosures, it is possible to use a variety of boarding, cladding or coating materials, this being independent of the underlying construction. The layers used in a multilayer, additive construction can be separated easily, as they are only mechanically joined. They are therefore reversible, can be changed when necessary and are simple to recycle. In the case of frame or skeleton constructions, such as are used in timber and steel structures, the layer of insulation can be positioned in the same layer as the load-bearing elements, which reduces the overall thickness of the wall significantly. This is particularly interesting when one considers the high demands of the new Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, as the required insulation values would otherwise lead to very thick walls and a loss of usable floor space inside. If the load-bearing structure is made of concrete or masonry, the load-bearing and insulation layers are separate and the thickness of the insulation has to be added to the thickness of the load-bearing component. The second structural approach is based on a solid monolithic construction, in which the same component, thanks to its specific properties, fulfils both the structural and the physical requirements. If a part of a building is made of a single material, the interfaces and connections to other trades – and therefore also possible sources of error – are minimized. Where the selected material also functions as the visible room enclosure, the quality of workmanship evidenced by the surface finish becomes more important. The wall thicknesses of solid monolithic constructions are usually considerable, as the insulation, which is generated through high porosity and low density, reduces the load-bearing capacity of the material. Single leaf constructions can be made of insulating concrete, insulating bricks, solid timber elements or earth. Insulating concrete, also called lightweight concrete, is construction and insulation in one and therefore simplifies work processes and shortens the construction period. Porous aggregates, such as expanded clay or crushed foam glass, are added to the material as extra insulating pores. The thermal conductivity of the material is dependent on its density – in this case, the mix design of the concrete. While conducting research as a professor at TU Berlin, Mike Schlaich, together with Mohamed El Zareef, developed an extremely lightweight concrete with a dry gross density of below 800 kg/m3 for Zareef’s house. This so-called infra-lightweight concrete with light expanded clay aggregate has a thermal conductivity of ¬ = 0.18 W/mK (figs. 5 – 7). By way of comparison: the thermal conductivity ¬ of solid wood is 0.10 – 0.20 W/mK.

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b

f c g

d

f e

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The compressive strength of ultra-lightweight concrete is lower than that of normal concrete, so it can deform more easily. Glass fibre rods are therefore used to reduce cracking, which would ultimately lead to corrosion and thermal bridges. Insulating concrete can either be produced in situ or prefabricated. The high-quality finish is similar to that of exposed concrete, which reduces the need for further layers of, say, plaster, hence saving costs. A hydrophobic coating of the exterior surface minimizes the risk of the completed concrete absorbing too much water. The mechanical and electrical installations, fundamental components of every building, can complicate the planning and construction process quite significantly. The aim is generally to enable a simple installation, revision and replacement of all elements. The options for integrating services are determined to a significant degree by the type of construction. In the case of frame construction, it is easy to integrate cables and pipes into the wall structures before these are closed with some kind of panelling. To avoid damage to the building’s physical properties, installations into exterior walls must be performed in such a way that the vapour barrier is penetrated as little as possible. Monolithic constructions, such as concrete, require elaborate preparatory work, as the pouring process is a one-try-only situation. Once all conduits and sockets have been fixed into the formwork and the concrete is poured, no more changes can be made.

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Construction and material Constructing simply implies having an effective structure and an economical use of materials. The type of construction should match the material’s properties and use them to the full. Every material has its structural advantages and is suited to particular applications. Steel If large distances are to be spanned or the construction space is to be kept as small as possible, steel is the most suitable material. It has a very good ratio of cross-sectional area to load-bearing capacity. Although the price of steel has increased in recent years, efficient and precise work processes mean that building with steel remains economically viable. Industrially produced steel sections are an off-theshelf product and available in a large range of sizes (fig. 9). In order to construct buildings simply, use should be made of the selection available and sections should correspond to the structural requirements. Understanding the processing technologies helps one to prepare detailed solutions. It is, for example, much easier to weld two rectangular hollow sections than two circular hollow sections together. The design should therefore be consistent with the section formats to simplify work processes. Steel sections are true to measure and constant in quality. Sufficient allowances must be made, however, for the completed construction to accommodate changes in the material’s length caused by temperature fluctuations. Steel can be recycled infinitely and without any loss of quality; the proportion of recycled material in new steel products is approximately 50 per cent. Steel can be used either for frame or for skeleton constructions, which, depending on the requirements, are filled with infill panels. The joining of parts is either permanent, as in the case of welding, or separable, as when using bolt or pin joints. In order to simplify construction, it is better to perform

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all welding operations in controlled conditions in the factory. Work on site should ideally cover only assembly operations. Thanks to the quick and secure connection methods that steel offers, there are no downtimes during site operations for the setting and curing of materials, such as those required for concrete. Especially in the case of industrial buildings, for which steel is well suited due to the large spans involved, the precise scheduling of a construction scheme to prevent interruptions during operation is extremely important. Alongside its structural advantages, however, steel also has several material-specific disadvantages: its thermal conductivity, its reaction to fire and its susceptibility to corrosion. Steel sections conduct heat and turn into thermal bridges where structural elements penetrate the building envelope. Steel constructions are therefore better suited to the inside of the building, although it is necessary, in terms of fire precaution, to protect load-bearing elements against the impact of fire (fig. 8). This can be achieved by using intumescent coatings, which form a layer of char foam in case of fire, or by encasing the steel sections with concrete or other cementbonded panel materials. Protection against corrosion is best achieved by means of paint or coatings of different metals, such as zinc. Hot dip galvanizing is a durable, inexpensive and common technique, which generates a characteristic crystalline surface. Timber Originally, the dimensions of the trees determined the size of structural elements in timber construction if either the whole trunk or boards cut from the trunk were used. The position of the material in the trunk is a fundamental factor affecting the tendency of wood to cup or warp. In this respect, heart wood is the most stable. Timber materials, which are made up of several layers of wood, are no longer bound to the dimensions of the trunk and allow for a more economical use of the raw material. Wood is easy to work with and can, when used as laminated timber, span large distances. Timber lends itself to single-storey halls and residential buildings. Owing to its natural beauty and positive properties in terms of building physics, it is an extremely popular material. The sections of load-bearing timber elements tend to be larger than those of steel, but the ratio of weight to loadbearing capacity is better, and wood has excellent heatinsulating properties. Timber elements must be protected, however, from changing moisture conditions. Special paint coatings or structural measures, such as sufficient ventilation or roof overhangs, can be very helpful. For reasons relating to fire protection, the use of timber as a construction material in buildings with more than just a few stories is limited. In a given case, it may be necessary to reach an appropriate agreement with the relevant authorities. A possible approach could be to oversize load-bearing parts, which in case of fire only char on the outside, or to encase or coat the elements with suitable fire-resistant materials. Glued laminated timber, also called glulam, is composed of at least three layers of dried, parallel grain boards or lamellas that are glued together. It is especially suitable for structural bar-shaped elements, such as beams (fig. 10). Because face-bonded timber hardly shrinks or swells, glulam is considered a dimensionally stable construction material, which simplifies detailing and production processes. Ribbed-panel and hollow-box elements can be prefabricated and assembled to span large distances – up to 15 metres in the case

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Steel construction with fire protection coating, New Museum, New York (USA) 2006, SANAA Standard steel sections Timber wall panels and glulam beams

of floors and up to 23 metres in roofs. These efficient components are therefore particularly attractive for industrial buildings. Planar elements made of solid timber are load-bearing with excellent insulating properties. In contrast to lightweight constructions, monolithic constructions have a larger storage mass, which is able to function as a climate buffer. Thanks to the phase shift and amplitude reduction, they provide good heat protection in summer and lengthen cooling-off times in winter, therefore improving the overall comfort conditions inside. This is especially valuable for detached buildings, such as single-family homes. Solid cross-laminated or naillaminated timber elements, for example, have a thermal conductivity of ¬ = 0.13 W/mK. Timber elements are soundabsorbing, fire-resistant and, given the right thickness, diffusion-tight, so that vapour barriers can be omitted on the interior surface. At the same time, the surface-active properties of the room enclosures are able to regulate moisture naturally and contribute towards a better room climate. All necessary installations have to be accommodated in surface-mounted service ducts or in wall chases and then covered. Crosslaminated timber (CLT) is a planar, monolithic timber material available in thicknesses of 30 to 50 centimetres. It is made of at least three layers of board that are stacked at right angles to one another and glued. As a result of this structure, the elements are extremely resistant to deformation and are able 17

to transfer normal and shear forces. High-quality coatings providing the visible surface finish can be added in shop. Prefabrication and the availability of large elements up to 20 metres in the case of glued elements lead to short construction periods and cost savings. These large dimensions are suited to the scales of halls and industrial buildings. Stacked timber elements, too, are monolithic wall or floor elements, although they consist of upright timber sections or planks joined with dowels rather than with glue or nails. They are available in thicknesses of up to 26 centimetres, widths of up to 2.5 metres and lengths of up to approximately 18 metres (see Day-care centres in Munich, pp. 159ff.). Acoustic strips can be fixed to the room-facing side, which makes them ideal for use in schools and offices (fig. 11). Stacked timber floors can be used as permanent formwork by adding a shear-resistant bonded concrete topping to form a solid composite floor. The dead weight of the floor slab is increased by the concrete, reducing oscillation and improving sound protection. Glued laminated timber, crosslaminated timber and stacked timber elements are all made of softwood and can be thermally recycled. Thanks to computer-assisted design and production processes, timber construction has recently become a more prefabrication-oriented construction method. In traditional timber-framed buildings, all bar-shaped elements work together to form the framework. They are braced with diagonal struts and are not able to transmit loads until joined on site. Frame or stud-wall constructions are, in contrast, ideally suited to prefabrication. Boarding is added to the bar-shaped bearing members to form stiffened structural

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elements. Prefabricated in a workshop, the boarding transforms the bar-shaped structure into a structural timber panel system. Timber wall or ceiling panels can be produced either as planked or as monolithic elements. The forces are no longer transferred as concentrated loads, but in a linear fashion with diaphragm action. A large part of the construction process, in the case of structural timber wall and ceiling panels (fig. 10, p. 17), is performed in shop. They are therefore particularly suited to quick and fixed-cost projects. Bamboo The use of the renewable raw material bamboo for barshaped constructions has recently garnered a lot of attention from architects (fig. 12). For centuries, the quickly growing woody grass has been used to construct traditional buildings in Asian countries. In contrast to wood, bamboo grows extremely quickly and independently without having to be replanted. It can be harvested after 3 to 6 years. The plant is native to the entire world with the exception of Europe. In countries where bamboo grows naturally, it is readily available, inexpensive and easy to work with (see Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo, pp. 84ff.). The sections are of course naturally grown and therefore not uniform, which means that constructions must make allowances for this. Simple lashed connections or tied joints are most suitable for these hollow, dimensionally irregular sections. While bamboo is still used mainly for traditional constructions, some contemporary architects are also applying the material, for which there are as yet no standard rules or regulations in our climes. Thus, individual calculations and approvals may still be required for certain applications, even for simple constructions.

Brickwork /masonry The development of modular constructions made of brickwork is fairly simple and inexpensive. Bricks are also suitable for self-built homes, as they do not require any elaborate technology for their construction. If the planning is performed with due regard to the dimensions of the bricks, walls can be produced quickly and without waste. This traditional construction material has in recent years advanced to an ultramodern material with a high degree of dimensional accuracy and very good properties in terms of building physics. Alongside traditional brick sizes, a large range of block systems has become established on the market. Thanks to their flat ground surfaces, blocks can be laid quickly and with little mortar using a thin bed method. The minimized mortar joints reduce the thermal conductivity and the initial construction moisture significantly, sparing the need to heat the building site for it to dry out. Brick constructions are durable and do not generally require any maintenance. Bricks create a balanced indoor climate, are fireproof, and can be recycled easily into brick chips. Clay bricks are fairly heavy, which means that they have a good heat-storage capacity. They are also porous – in other words, low-density – which means they are good insulators. Special insulating bricks (fig. 13) with insulationfilled vertical cores (mineral wool or perlite) reach a thermal conductivity value of ¬ = 0.07– 0.09 W/mK. According to German DIN standards, materials with a thermal conductivity value below 0.10 W/mK are regarded as insulating materials. It is therefore possible to use these construction materials for single-leaf exterior walls without adding an extra layer of insulation. Because of its high gross density, brickwork made of calcium silicate (sand-lime brickwork) is not such a good thermal insulator; on the other hand, it is an excellent sound insulator. Due to the high compressive strength of sand-lime bricks, the necessary wall thickness is lower than that for clay bricks.

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Acoustic strips, mountain cabin, Grimentz (CH ) 2009, Baserga Mozzetti Architetti Temporary bamboo pavilion, 2009, Markus Heinsdorff Laying of insulation bricks using a thin-bed method Polystyrene insulation elements used as permanent formwork for concrete

Concrete The effort required to construct with concrete is largely dependent on the desired surface finish and the shape of the finished part, as the formwork must be built accordingly. In the case of complex shapes, the arrangement of formwork panels is in itself a challenge and should be incorporated into the planning process as early as possible. Plane surfaces without any undercuts or curved parts can be produced fairly easily. The texture of the formwork determines the surface of the finished material. The use of a release agent helps to ensure that formwork comes away easily. Permanent formwork, in contrast, is not removed after the concrete is placed, and stays together with the concrete as a load-bearing or insulating component. Permanent formwork streamlines the construction process and omits the need to remove the formwork from the construction site. Load-bearing trapezoidal sheet is, for example, suitable as permanent formwork for slab constructions providing an accurate metal ceiling finish. Reinforcement or dowels should be used to connect concrete and metal sheet to achieve a frictional connection and, from a structural point of view, incorporate the sheet into the slab’s tension zone (fig. 17, p. 21). Modular systems made of polystyrene are available as permanent formwork for walls. Hollow blocks made of the insulation material and assembled to walls provide a layer of permanent insulation. Filled with concrete, they make simple walls ideal for DIY

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Concrete formwork made of textile membrane Concrete wall completed by using textile formwork, »URC (Unno Reinforced Concrete) house with grass«, Tokio (J) 2003, Umi Architectural Atelier, Kenzo Unno Permanent formwork using trapezoidal sheet for a composite concrete floor slab Cob construction method Residential building with cob walls, Deitingen (CH) 2010, spaceshop Architekten

(fig. 14, p. 19). Due to the transverse webs incorporated in the blocks, there is a slight danger that entrapped air remains in the concrete after compacting. Precast concrete elements are efficient owing to the fact that they can be manufactured in serial production in the controlled environment of a concrete plant. The various elements can be adapted to the individual requirements of the scheme and produced as a batch. Reusable steel formwork ensures that exposed surfaces are even and smooth. There are system providers who market special parts, such as prefabricated basements, floors and stairs, which, thanks to standardization, are produced at low cost. Because of their economy and efficiency, semi-finished concrete parts, which are used as permanent formwork, have become widely accepted. They are transported to the building site as floor elements and hollow walls, including reinforcing steel, and filled with concrete in situ to form solid monolithic structural components. This method ensures that force-locking connections are produced between adjoining elements. The advantages are controlled quality, a reduction of transportation weight and simplified site operations. When the rigid formwork is replaced by a flexible textile membrane, the concrete changes the shape of the mould thanks to the force of gravity. The Centre for Architectural Structures and Technology (C.A.S.T.) at the University of Manitoba’s Faculty of Architecture is currently experimenting with this technology. Concrete beams produced according to this principle follow the rules of gravitation and take on special shapes. The elements produced by pouring the concrete into membranes subjected to tension match the moment diagram and are therefore, in terms of structure, extremely efficient despite the minimal use of material involved. In order to produce very thin elements, the concrete can be reinforced with glass or carbon fibres instead of steel. In the case of panel-shaped elements, such as walls or ceilings, the flexible formwork produces pillow-shaped parts (figs. 15, 16). What is more, the textile functions like a drain, filtering out excess water and air and helping to cure the concrete surface quickly and permanently. The membranes are reusable, as the concrete does not adhere to the surface. This means that release agents, which are commonly used in traditional formwork construction, are no longer required. The plastic textiles are 100 to 300 times lighter than formwork panels, but cost only a tenth of the price. This technology not only optimizes the use of resources, but is also cost-effective. As concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world, this technique, which is currently still in the development stage, could simplify building operations significantly, especially in structurally and financially weak regions. Earth The mineral construction material earth, which has for a long time been regarded as low-quality, is currently enjoying a renaissance thanks to its ecological, climate-regulating and aesthetic properties. In terms of their construction, earth buildings, which are usually monolithic, are extremely labour-intensive. This means that, in countries with high wage levels, earth is a very expensive construction material. In countries with low wage levels and a large proportion of self-built houses, on the other hand, earth is highly suitable. The material is simple to process, usually inexpensive, and locally available. It is a fact that today approximately a third of the world’s population lives in earth buildings. Even long-

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lasting multi-storey buildings are built with earth, as can still be seen today in the very impressive historic old town of Sanaa in Yemen. Through the addition of water, earth can be reworked and moulded into different shapes. Small signs of wear and tear can easily be made good, and the material can be recycled over and over again. A certain amount of oversizing is necessary when using earth, as the thickness is reduced over time by the weathering of the outer layer. Thus, roof overhangs are a good structural way of conserving the material. It is important for earth walls to be protected from permanent exposure to moisture. An appropriate damp-proof course to the foundation must be provided, or the base of the building must be made of a water-resistant material such as concrete. Earth walls improve the room acoustics and are odour-absorbing. Since earth absorbs moisture, in winter the room temperature can be set 2 to 3 °C below that of conventional rooms without reducing the level of comfort. Energy and cost savings are the result. Earth products that can easily be integrated into today’s construction processes include unfired earth bricks or simply earth plaster, which consists of a sandsilt mixture in a 2:1 ratio and improves the physical properties of existing rooms. The rammed earth construction method is suitable for loadbearing walls. This is an ancient technique, whereby layers of soft earth are filled into slip formwork and compacted by ramming. Posts made of wood, steel or concrete can be incorporated into the walls to increase the load-bearing capacity. The dry earth then has a preservative effect on the integrated reinforcement. Even simpler, as it does not require any formwork, is cob construction, a technique invented in the Middle Ages. Cob, a mixture of cut straw and earth, is packed in layers, pounded and finally shaped on both sides using a special spade (fig. 18). Spaceshop Architekten from Biel in Switzerland have reintroduced this ancient construction method and used it to design a contemporary dwelling. Simple detail solutions with a certain degree of ruggedness characterize the building and highlight its unique, charming style (fig. 19). In terms of structure, the house has been raised because of the high groundwater table and to avoid additional dampproofing. Waste stones and derelict gravestones from the surroundings layered with simple horizontal joints made of cement-free trass-lime mortar form the base of the building. To ensure sufficient stability and insulation, the cob walls were built 80 centimetres thick. Roof overhangs protect the walls from the rain.

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Prefabrication and standardization The type of construction has always been closely linked to the availability of tools and technologies. This is clearly demonstrated by the example of timber construction, which over time has developed in line with technical innovation. In the case of ancient, simple log cabin construction, an axe was used by a single person to hew tree trunks and connect them by notching. Industrial sawmills streamlined this process and cut the trunks into dimensionally stable beams and planks, which, thanks to standardization, could be produced and kept in stock. Even the production of geometrically complex components and non-uniform series is possible today, thanks to CNC-controlled milling and turning machines (fig. 21). Naturally, the client is keenly interested in keeping within the set budget and timeline during the building process. This applies as much to the construction of private single-family dwellings as it does to industrial and commercial buildings. Time is money, and construction schemes must be financed accordingly. As prefabricated elements allow building operations to be planned and calculated with accuracy in advance, prefabrication and building with standardized systems is gaining momentum. Thanks to the dimensionally stable parts and the omission of non-standard designs and adaptation work, these buildings can be assembled quickly on site. Various degrees of prefabrication are available. There are element systems with individual components, which are joined together on site to form floor slabs and walls; prefab home systems with prefabricated modules (floor slabs, walls), which are assembled to form a building on site; and box systems, in which buildings are made up of several prefabricated units. Transportation determines the logistics (fig. 20). Without a special permit, the dimensions of transport vehicles including cargo may not exceed 2.55 metres in width, 18 metres in length and 4 metres in height on German roads. Element systems consist of a range of prefabricated components that are joined together on site using a standardized joining technique. These range from precast concrete parts and timber wall and ceiling panels to large-sized blocks (fig. 22). They simplify the construction and shorten the construction period. Naturally the size of the elements influences the efficiency of the construction process. The larger the element, the quicker the desired volume takes shape; also, the fewer joints are required, which means less sealing and a smaller potential source of defects. Because most systems are limited to a certain number of elements, these are usually bound to a modular grid, which is defined by multiples of the smallest module. The dimensions of the building should be adapted to this grid in the design phase if the aim is to avoid the production of custom-made pieces. There are also various system suppliers for facades who offer structural systems made of wood, steel or aluminium with matching glazing and cladding panels. Flexible systems, consisting of small-scale elements such as struts and nodes, can be connected to large-scale structures such as space frames. A good example is the MERO node system, which can be used for a multitude of applications, ranging from a light partition wall to a hall roof. Prefab house builders supply the whole building as a prefabricated system. Creative and demanding clients and architects harbour prejudices against these so-called “catalogue homes”, as they allow little flexibility in their shape and detailing and are quite often debatable from an aesthetic point 22

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Transportation of precast concrete elements to the building site CNC controlled prefabrication of solid timber elements Prefabricated blocks, hotel management college, Nivilliers (F) 2000, tectône 23, 24 Unit building system, hall of residence, Utrecht (NL) 2004, Spacebox, Mart de Jong

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of view. Leaving aside false dreams of a romantic “Tuscan” style prefab home, system building can actually be used to develop sophisticated but simultaneously simple buildings in a fruitful collaboration between architects and prefab house manufacturers. Digitally coupled planning and manufacturing processes make it possible to offer a variety of floor plans. Door and window openings, insulation, vapour barriers and empty conduits are integrated into the prefabricated elements in shop. Digital parts lists minimize waste and streamline the process. Even the loading sequence is planned meticulously before the transportation of the parts to site to ensure a smooth assembly upon arrival. The client benefits from the short construction period and the reliable cost estimate. Flexible concepts are especially interesting as they can cater for regional conditions and the orientation of the plot. The prefabricated box is a modular unit, which is provided with all installations in shop and simply has to be stacked on site to form a kind of cellular structure. This principle is suitable for situations in which buildings must be assembled, dismantled and moved repeatedly, as in the case of temporary container offices. Because of the cellular structure, the load-bearing elements are duplicated. This is not very efficient if the building is to remain permanently. Walls, floors and ceilings are usually made of insulated sandwich elements. When it comes to the construction and sizing of box units, two factors must always be considered: the transportation phase, during which the units are relocated, and the fixed phase. Spacebox, for example, a transportable module designed by the architect Mart de Jong, takes up the 1960s concept of “plug-in housing”. The connectable home units are made of composite panels with an insulating and fireresistant core of hard foam and glass-fibre reinforced polyester exterior finishes. Lorries transport the units, which are either used as minimum housing or student apartments, to their destination, where a crane lifts them into place. The result is the provision of inexpensive residential space at short notice where it is needed (figs. 23, 24).

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Formally simple = technically simple? Beyond all formal preferences, there are unchangeable parameters that every building around the world must face up to: wind and weather, wear and tear, structural and physical parameters. Each and every structure must take account of these factors. Here, the detailing determines the simplicity of the structural development. Ambitious creative details, such as very square-edged corners, minimized and hardly visible joints, or building envelopes supposedly without any detail, are structural challenges that can usually be achieved only with a great investment of time and expense. Even if such buildings appear to be extremely minimalist in their completed state, they usually involve the use of custommade parts to meet the technical requirements. A “simple appearance” can therefore not automatically be equated with a “simple construction”. The skill of simple construction has much to do with the effective use of resources, materials, time and money, but at its root lies the ability to assess carefully and use to full advantage the given circumstances and boundary conditions of a design task. The process is not one of confrontation, but rather of applying logic to the selection of materials, to the purpose of the project and the impact of the location, with the aim of finding a solution that is to the full satisfaction of both architect and client.

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Simply complex Fabian Scheurer

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“Anyone can make the simple complicated. Creativity is making the complicated simple.” Charles Mingus At first glance, reconciling the two antagonists “simple” and “complex” appears impossible; nevertheless, it has to be done. In an average project, simplicity may be just a virtue – in effect, an extra quality feature – but in a complex scheme, it becomes a key factor in the project’s successful realization. The vexing thing about complexity is that it is extremely difficult to get rid of once it has gained a foothold in a project. In fact, if left to its own devices, it actually tends to multiply as things progress. Digital tools for architects, engineers and contractors do not help matters. Computer-assisted methods, such as CAD (computer-aided design), CAE (computeraided engineering), CAM (computer-aided manufacturing), and the like provide the facilities to administer enormous amounts of information and see it all the way through to the end of the process, where the constructed final result takes shape. However, these digital tools are not able to reduce the sheer volume of data by recognizing interrelationships and breaking down or abstracting information. Herein lies the crucial difference between “complicated” and “complex”. Whereas the former describes the quantity of individual components in what is essentially a linear format, the latter indicates the degree of interdependence between the individual components. Put simply, a complicated system creates a great deal of work, but can with some effort eventually be untangled, understood, and the course of its further development predicted (fig. 2). On the other hand, there is so much interdependence in a complex system that it is virtually impossible to make a long-term forecast and control the outcome (fig. 3). In meteorology this may be accepted as an annoying fact of life. However, for those wishing to successfully complete a large construction project on time and within budget, the ability to plan is essential. For this reason, it is better to accept complexity only when it is unavoidable, and otherwise keep it strictly within bounds. Complexity starts with the precise description of geometric shapes and the design of clear details, and ends with a thorough definition of interfaces and responsibilities during the construction process. This is difficult enough in “regular” projects, but as long as the plans are not too out of the ordinary, there is at least a range of tried-and-tested tools at one’s disposal, ranging from the right angle and industry standards to the regulatory framework governing the standard services of architects and engineers. But woe betide anyone who wants to tread the less-beaten path. So-called

non-standard projects cannot by definition be completed with standard products and using standard processes. This is not to say that unprecedented challenges can never be overcome while retaining a high level of control; but for this to happen, the individual solutions must be kept as simple as possible. The following examples are intended to illustrate what this means. Simple models As a rule, architects and planners tend not to work directly on a project, but on a representation thereof. Every drawing, every model, whether analogue or digital, is an attempt to describe the proposed building as accurately as possible. The development of an architectural design is actually a communication process, and a key competence in this is the ability to conceptualize. It is a feature of every good model that it does not contain as much information as possible, but only as much as is necessary to fulfil a particular need. An acknowledgement of this fact raises an important question: What is necessary? Or, conversely, which parts can be omitted without a loss of information? At best these are superfluous data in the model. However, in most cases, it is difficult to differentiate between “useful load” and “ballast load”, as the information is not independent but redundant. This means that the same information is defined in several parts of the model, and it is extremely important to make sure that alterations do not give rise to inconsistencies. The more interdependencies exist in a model, the greater, according to the definition above, the complexity and the risk of ending up with unexpected and contradictory information. Hence, only a “simple” model is a good model, which is often forgotten in

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times of almost unlimited memory capacity. The digital stacking of information is becoming cheaper and cheaper, whereas the price for interpreting data remains as high as ever. Human intelligence costs time and money. The fact that the purpose of the model determines what can be left out and what cannot has further implications. The central question is: What does the model actually intend to communicate? And only once there is an answer to that is it possible to decide what information the message should contain. It is a trivial insight to note that a structural model requires different initial data than would a climate simulation or production planning. Taking this thought to its logical conclusion, there are two options. The first is a single joint model as the lowest common denominator for all participants. This, however, may not contain the information required to satisfy any of its purposes and hence may need to be augmented; lastly, then, this joint model would mean a number of different models grouped around a single common core. The second, alternative model includes all the information all participants need, including a comprehensive definition of dependencies, in order to ensure prevention of inconsistencies. However, with this approach, not only the amount of data but also the complexity increases almost uncontrollably. Against this backdrop, it becomes clear that not even Building Information Modelling (BIM), which is frequently regarded as a cureall, is able to solve all these problems. The quality of a model, even in our digital era, is more dependent on the knowledge and experience of the model builder than on the nature of the design tools.

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5 1 Centre Pompidou Metz (F) 2010; Shigeru Ban in cooperation with Jean de Gastines 2 Complicated: explosion drawing of an engine 3 Complex: isobar map provided by the German Meteorological Service 4 Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart (D) 2006, UNStudio 5 Extract from the parametric 3D CAD model of the Mercedes-Benz Museum, which was further developed throughout the entire planning and construction period and used to produce a total of approximately 35,000 2D plans. 6 When parallel projections of three-dimensional space are presented in a two-dimensional format, the only lines that are shown in their true length and angle are those that are parallel to the drawing plane. The metrically correct illustration of curved shapes is therefore virtually impossible. 7 Centre Pompidou Metz 8 Completed roof beams for the Centre Pompidou Metz. Almost 1,800 individual beams were CNC-produced. 9 Centre Pompidou Metz a Mesh model: the intersections are connected by straight lines. However, the roof beams were supposed to be curved continuously throughout their full length. b NURBS model: the continuously curved roof surface was constructed on the basis of the mesh in order to define the exact course and twist of the beams. c The 18 km of roof beams are arranged in six levels and three directions. Two parallel chords always form a rigid truss structure.

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Three dimensions The degree to which even sophisticated projects are pushed ahead by means of two-dimensional planning and a few working models – sometimes even beyond the building permission phase – is quite remarkable considering the risks to one’s day-to-day work this entails. The following project, fortunately, took a different approach. It was planned from the outset with the help of a three-dimensional model – a fact that must have enabled the project to be completed on time and within the set budget. In the Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart, two separate ramps wind upwards around three concrete cores over a total of seven storeys (fig. 4). In the building designed by UNStudio, planar surfaces, right angles, level floors and any kind of repetition are an exception rather than the rule. The attempt even to begin to describe a building like this by means of 2D plans is doomed to failure. The basic concept of a 2D drawing is to present the true lengths and angles of an object on a single plane in such a way that the missing third dimension of the spatial original can be reconstructed from the flat plan. This feat, however, can be performed successfully only if the lines are parallel to the plane of projection. All other lines are foreshortened (fig. 6). Either a myriad of dimension lines and levels must provide the correct dimensions in a single plan, or a vast quantity of plans must include the individual projection and sectional planes. Large sets of plans are, however, a prime example of redundant information with enormous problems in terms of consistency, as every alteration must be fed into all relevant plans. In projects exceeding a certain size, consistency can only really be achieved if a 3D model forms the centrepiece of planning, a model that is then used to automatically generate new

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consistent 2D plans after alterations are made (fig. 5). In the case of the Mercedes-Benz Museum, the number of individual plans, generated according to need, eventually added up to approximately 35,000. The call for 3D planning is not intended to cast doubt on the value of the 2D drawing; still, it is evident that, if a project exceeds a certain level of (geometric) complexity, it makes sense to develop and maintain a 3D model rather than trying to update thousands of 2D plans. Meshes v. NURBS Even if a 3D model exists, it does not necessarily make the matter any easier. This is exemplified by the roof covering the Centre Pompidou in Metz (fig. 7). Taking inspiration from a Chinese straw hat, the architect Shigeru Ban designed a large timber structure covering an area of 8,500 square metres, which was to consist of approximately 18,000 running metres of curved laminated timber beams. As the beams, with a section of 140 by 440 millimetres, are a lot more rigid than a straw and as it was not possible to bend them on site, a CNC (computer numerical control) timber processing machine was required to prefabricate the beams in their final shape (fig. 8). To this end, the company commissioned with the prefabrication received a complete 3D model of the beam grid system. Unfortunately the data had been generated as a DXF file, in which the 2,782 intersections of the axes had been connected by straight lines. This obviously did not reflect the desired shape of the beams between the intersections, as Shigeru Ban wanted continuously curved beams and not straight ones with a kink at each node (fig. 9 a). Despite the extensive amount of data contained in the model, this vital piece of information was missing. In order to define the position of the axis and the angle of the section accurately at every point in every beam, it was necessary first of all to create a new, perfect, continuously curved reference plane from the “point cloud” of the existing 3D model, which could eventually only be achieved with the support of specialists from the automobile industry (fig. 9 b). Only then could the course of the beam axes and the angles of the beam sections be determined accurately – not just for 2,782 points, but for every possible point throughout the entire roof area. Problems like these are encountered in numerous projects, and there is a fairly simple explanation: most of the CAD systems commonly used in the industry (including the current BIM format IFC 2x3) simply reach the limits of their capabilities when it comes to curved free-form structures. These CAD systems record curved surfaces as a so-called mesh of small

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A relatively coarse network of 100 control points (left) defines accurately every possible position on the curved NURBS surface. The mesh model (right), on the other hand, only provides an approximate description of the curved surface despite having 10 times as many points. Club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort, Yeoju (ROK) 2010, Shigeru Ban, KACI International, Kevin S. Yoon The first of the 9-by-9-metre “crown elements” forming the roof construction of the club house is being raised and fitted into place. Geometric definition of the reference surface, club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort Club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort a, b The components are manufactured on a 5-axis CNC machine including all connection details.

triangular or square planes. This means that large amounts of data are produced, as coordinates must be recorded for every nodal point within the mesh. At the same time, there is a lack of precision, because only the nodal points are positioned on the original surface, whereas intermediate points deviate from the mesh to a greater or lesser extent. Real free-form CAD systems, in contrast, use the mathematical principle of the Non-Unified Rational B-Spline Surfaces (NURBS), which was developed in the 1960s in the French automobile industry, but not introduced into affordable CAD systems until the 1990s. These systems are able to describe complex curved shapes precisely, even with a relatively small number of “control points” (fig. 10). This is not always a trivial task, as the mathematics underlying the NURBS models frequently requires to split up a continuous surface into several patches with continuous transitions at their edges. Nevertheless, it is certainly easier to use NURBS than to try to reconstruct lost information, as in the case of Centre Pompidou Metz. The development of CAD systems is currently moving towards NURBS. The next version of IFC will incorporate NURBS as well; not as a replacement, however, but as an addition to the already established meshes. Then it is again up to the model builder to decide which system is better suited to the task at hand. Precision and abstraction The problems regarding precision are not purely theoretical, as is illustrated by the following observations: CNC machines in digital prefabrication usually work with a tolerance of a few tenths of a millimetre. This degree of precision is necessary for the perfect fit of connections. If the input for these machines is to be derived directly from an established 3D model, the model must offer the same degree of accuracy or, even better, one level higher. This is because the machine replicates with unnerving precision every mistake in the model. A kink in the model becomes a kink in the structural component. In order to accommodate millimetre-scale tolerances in construction, the necessary joints and so on must be planned with the same degree of precision, for it is simply impossible to set a machine that is digitally controlled for perfect accuracy, to make a cut “plus/minus about 5 millimetres here”. Prefabrication means thinking things through to the end before going on site. In the case of the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House in Yeoju, Korea – a further project designed by Shigeru Ban (fig. 11) – the pre-assembled roof elements made of CNCproduced components, each covering an area of 81 square metres, were so precise that it was possible to lift them on to the columns with an assembly joint of only 2 millimetres to the adjoining element (fig. 12). As a rule, architects and engineers do not really require a model with a tolerance range down to one hundredth of a millimetre to fulfil their tasks. Neither in competition renderings nor in execution drawings to a scale of 1:50 are such differences apparent. So why should designers go to the trouble of preparing models so precisely in such an early phase of the project? And how can this possibly be regarded as costefficient in relation to the overall budget? To answer this question, one must take a different approach: a model that is developed continuously throughout the entire process must, in its degree of abstraction, correspond to the

relevant stage of planning. In this respect, too, the model is not improved by adding more and better information. It simply does not make sense to describe a roof using thousands of coordinates, each down to eight decimal places, if the measurements of the structural members have not yet been determined.

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16,3°

10 850

Developed at almost the same time as the Centre Pompidou in Metz, the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House also employs a curved roof structure with intersecting timber beams – this one, however, based on a regular column grid. For this reason, only five different elements were required for the assembly of the roof, although it was important to make sure that the adjoining elements were continuous in their flow and did not meet with a visible kink. At the beginning of this project’s execution phase, there was no 3D model of the roof. There was, however, a very precise, abstract description based on grid dimensions, several contour lines and angular measurements – including exactly those details that other parts of the design were dependent upon (fig. 13). On the basis of these few facts and boundary conditions, it was a fairly simple task to construct reference surfaces for the five roof elements, which in turn were used to create detailed models for the almost 3,500 digitally prefabricated components (figs. 14 a and b). A “simple model”, then, is not necessarily a 3D model. Sometimes it is sufficient to prepare a description that is restricted to the absolutely essential information required to construct a model. A cuboid is defined precisely by the three measurements length, width and height. Those who provide the x, y, z coordinates of all eight corners, produce eight times the amount of data and cannot really be sure that the eight points actually describe a cuboid (fig. 15, p. 30). The same applies to more complex shapes: a quick sketch describing the design principle of the shape, including a few reference points and basic measurements, is easier to communicate than a cloud with thousands of control points. Furthermore, this method also guarantees that important information is not lost somewhere in this cloud. The likelihood that some of the information is misinterpreted when handed on is therefore minimized. Some architects’ practices, such as Foster + Partners, have gone over to describing complex shapes in their projects in this way instead of providing 3D models, simply to ensure that, throughout all the technological and contractual work, their design is strictly adhered to.

tangency continuity inside this line R1146 90

00

25

45

00

00

00

25

00

90

0 50

13

4

Parametrics a This simple method of describing a geometric shape has a further advantage: it can be applied directly as a blueprint for so-called parametric models. The measurements (in the case of the cuboid, length, width and height) are defined as variable parameters, and their application (“defines a cuboid”) is translated into a formal, computer-readable description. The result is an algorithm, which for various inputs (parameters) produces the perfect CAD model as output (fig. 16, p. 30). In this approach, it is possible to change, say, the height and immediately create a model corresponding to these new conditions. And it is in turn possible to use this output as input for a further parametric model, and so on, until one gradually arrives at a more and more complex model which contains detailed information down to the last screw, but which is nevertheless still robust, i.e. able to adapt to changes b without crashing.

14

29

P8 P5 height

P7 P6 P4 P1 len

gh

t

P3

th

wid

15 a

b

P2

16

15

16

17

Possibilities for describing a cuboid a using lengths b using coordinates Parametric model to produce a cuboid (box) using the Grasshopper software. The inputs x, y and z on the left side of the box component define the cuboid’s length, width and height. Input B provides the reference plane and therefore the position and orientation of the cuboid. If B is not defined, the cuboid, which is provided as the output B on the right side, is positioned in the point of origin. Department store in Cologne (D) 2005, Renzo Piano Building Workshop The facade consists of 6,500 individual plane glass panes.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is based on the same principle. Its basic idea is not only to, as has been the case so far, describe the geometric shape in the model and then leave it up to the human mind to interpret the data as it would a drawing, but to store the “meaning” of the data with the facts (“it is a cuboid” or “it is an escape door in a load-bearing wall”). This method allows for a mechanical interpretation and evaluation of the data, but also has completely new ramifications for the work of the CAD model builder. The major challenge in planning large-scale, complex architectural projects is to translate the designer’s intentions, which tend to at first be sketchy and vague, into formally correct, machinereadable descriptions and gradually make these more and more detailed. The aim should always be to separate the wheat from the chaff, to incorporate the important decisions clearly into the description and omit everything else. The earlier the planning takes this route – in the case of the Mercedes-Benz Museum, it was immediately after winning the competition – the more secure the foundation for the following planning phases. Simple details If the level of detail increases in the course of the planning process, it is absolutely essential to limit the complexity by using a carefully chosen form of description. After all, what really makes irregular structures so elaborate is their lack of repetition. Whereas a few standard details, which are simply strung together any number of times, suffice to construct a flush facade with a regular grid, a curved facade such as that of the Peek & Cloppenburg Weltstadthaus in Cologne requires 6,500 different panes of glass and therefore also 6,500 workshop drawings for the production (fig. 17). Structures like this can be planned efficiently only if common rules are determined for the description of all panes and a parametric model is produced based on these. And only if the possibilities offered by digital production are used to the full – the key word here is “mass customization” – can this number of individual components be produced efficiently. But how does one develop structural details that are able to work for thousands of different geometric situations? The worst first The most important rule for developing details is often simply ignored, as it contradicts the usual approach favoured by engineers under time pressure: namely, that if 100 problems have to be solved by the day after tomorrow and 80 per cent of these are trivial, then it is logical to sort out the 80 simple ones today and supply the waiting project partners with the solutions, before racking one’s brain over the remaining 20. This approach temporarily reduces the project manager’s anger in regard to deadlines not being met to 20 per cent, but at the same time increases the probability of having to construct, model, produce and assemble special detail solutions – which, in the long term, will mean considerable extra time and expense. Instead of only one, two different details must now be planned and executed for the whole of the ensuing process chain: one for the 80 per cent of trivial cases and the other for the 20 per cent of difficult cases. And if there should be fiendishly difficult cases among the difficult cases, the result may be a third, fourth and perhaps fifth special detail solution. Again, Shigeru Ban’s golf club house provides a useful illustration of the wisdom of the other approach. In a single

17

30

one of the five roof elements, there are a total of 248 nodes, where the timber beams intersect. In contrast to the Centre Pompidou in Metz, the three beams approaching from different directions do not cross and pass at different levels, but meet at the nodes on one level, which requires the provision of two lap joints at every crossing (fig. 19). Due to the complex geometry, all of these 556 connection details are slightly different, and because the beams are curved and twisted, the four corner points of each notch are not all on one plane as is the case in traditional timber joints. In most nodes, deviation is less than the production tolerance, but in the case of the intersections in the corners of the elements, deviation increases to a few millimetres. Thus the requirements for precision in the visible joints can no longer be fulfilled; what is more, assembly is complicated. After a careful analysis of the geometry, the possible manufacturing methods and the assembly process, the planners decided to execute all of the 15,000 lap joints in the roof with slightly curved so-called HP (hyperbolic paraboloidal) surfaces, so that the corners of the lap cheeks would be exactly in the centre of the beam (fig. 20). Although the slight torsion can hardly be perceived in most nodes, and although the production (fig. 14 b, p. 29) took slightly longer, it was more efficient to develop only one single parametric detail all the way down to the automatic production of machine data – the detail which fits the worst case but works in every other situation, too. This leads to an important observation: in order to make decisions like the one mentioned above, it is usually necessary to fully understand the entire process, including all ancillary aspects. Otherwise, an improvement in one part can quickly lead to a worsening of the whole. In the building industry, with its fragmented processes and responsibilities, this is unfortunately a daily occurrence. It is therefore extremely important for the person in charge to keep track of everything that happens. In the case of the undulating timber facade of the performing arts centre in Kristiansand, this holistic approach was in several ways crucially important in achieving the final result (fig. 21, p. 32).

18

Knowledge of material and production The initial plan was to build the 3,500-square-metre timber facade on a form-giving secondary structure made of curved steel tubes, which would have been fixed to a primary structure of straight steel girders suspended from the reinforced concrete core of the building. However, several failed attempts and the construction of a mock-up revealed that, using this method, it would not be possible to meet the quality standards sought by the designers at ALA Architects. Ten-millimetre-wide gaps between the oak cladding boards were supposed to run straight up the undulating wall and meet the similarly straight roof edge at right angles. From a mathematical point of view, the sophisticated geometry of the facade would have made this possible. But in order to achieve the perfect result, the 3,000 metres of steel tube that defined the (seen from the bottom) decreasing wave of the facade, would have had to be placed in exactly the right position. Today, computer-controlled bending machines can be employed to shape steel tubes. However, once the tube diameter exceeds a certain size, it is only possible to produce ring segments with a constant radius. In order to approximate a curve with a continuously changing bending 18

19

20

Roof structure during the assembly process, club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort, Yeoju (ROK) 2010, Shigeru Ban, KACI International, Kevin S. Yoon The roof structure of the club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort consists of five beam levels arranged in three directions. Thanks to two half lap joints at each intersection, the connections are hardly visible after the assembly. Club house at the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Resort Because of the curved beams, the lap joints do not have a single mathematically planar cut surface.

19

20

31

radius, such as was required by the wall, an enormous number of very short tube segments would have had to be welded together. This would have had a devastating impact on costs as well as on the achievable accuracy. A Norwegian joiner finally solved the problem by suggesting that the form defining components should not be made of steel, but of wood. In the production of curved laminated timber beams, the tolerance is similar to that associated with steel, simply because the residual stress leads to a slight retraction movement after the bending process. But timber has the decisive advantage that it can be machined easily and quickly afterwards. So the near perfect timber blank can be fixed into a CNC machine and milled to the correct shape down to a few tenths of a millimetre (fig. 22). Because the material change from steel to timber did not occur in the final cladding, but underneath in the secondary structure, it was possible to achieve much greater accuracy.

21

To have knowledge of materials and their properties and uses is a key skill when it comes to the design and construction of non-standard structures, for which, by definition, precedents are unlikely to exist. The change to a more suitable material or a different processing method often simplifies matters considerably. On the other hand, very trivial constraints – such as the available standard sizes of primary products and the corresponding working zones of machines – can lead to significant difficulties. The biggest problem in this context lies in moving this know-how to the front of the process chain, from the executors to the planners. This is where traditional structures in the construction business must be dismantled and rearranged so that the necessary expertise is already available prior to the tendering and contracting phase of a project. Prefabrication The computer-controlled production of components almost inevitably results in the prefabrication of parts away from the construction site. The machines are set up in workshops and are generally not mobile. Given the degree of precision that can be achieved in CNC production, it is obviously a further advantage to have all geometrically difficult matters dealt with by the machines and not later by workers on the building site. Similarly, it is vastly preferable to pre-assemble the perfectly fitting jigsaw pieces of tailor-made components in the controlled environment of a production shop than to put them together in the wet and cold of the building site. For this, too, the concert hall can serve as an example. The change of material from steel to wood also brought about a change regarding the production site, moving from on-site assembly to a pre-assembly concept. So, instead of erecting the facade, measuring 100 metres wide and 22 metres high and overhanging by up to 36 metres, entirely on site, 126 facade elements of up to 50 square metres were preassembled in a shipyard, brought to the construction site by boat, and finally raised and fixed to the primary steel structure. To ensure that the gaps between the oak boards were continuous, even where two elements meet, the cladding had to be placed accurately down to the millimetre. It would simply not have been possible to calibrate each single one of the 12,500 boards accurately on to the curved element frame within a reasonable time frame. This is why shallow notches were milled into the laminated timber beams during the prefabrication process in Switzerland, a total of

22

23

32

55,000 notches defining the exact position of the oak boards, which were also digitally prefabricated (fig. 19). Of course, this increased the necessary machine time immensely (by a few seconds per notch), but shortened the assembly period on the building site in Norway by several months. All wood-wood connections in the facade were prepared in a self-positioning way, in order to prevent mistakes from occurring during the assembly. In all, 14,000 components with almost 60,000 connections were prefabricated. This means that they all had to be planned precisely with the help of parametric CAD models beforehand, right down to the last of the 125,000 drill holes for fixing the oak boards. The workload was shifted forward from the building site and the pre-assembly to the planning phase. And the incredible amount of information can only be mastered in the planning phase if it is systemized as much as possible. Simple processes A well-organized process is required to achieve this degree of systemization in the planning phase, while at the same time one must stay close enough to reality to ensure that no unpleasant surprises arise on site towards the end of the project. This is important, because in every construction scheme there are many project participants, who all have their own needs and speak their own language. A central model To meet these objectives, the three-dimensional, parametric CAD model functions as the central data storage device in the overall process. It is essential that only much-needed information find its way into it. CAD model builders therefore effectively take on the role of “recording clerks”. This means that they are aware of all decisions, or even better, that they have been a part of the decision-making process. It is extremely important to check the geometric impact of structural decisions immediately and indeed for all situations that arise. Clear interfaces Good communication is the foundation of every planning process, and this also applies to digital data. Where traditional communication media in architecture – 2D plans – have reached their limits, new, more suitable forms of information flow must replace them. Contrary to common belief, 3D models are only suitable to a limited extent, as they generally contain too much information and the really important aspects are thus easily overlooked. Unfortunately, there is still a considerable need for further innovation. “Geometry definitions”, such as are prepared by architects Foster + Partners to communicate the initial geometry, are a first step in the right direction. But how one should go about documenting with a few drawings a parametric detail that appears in a thousand different variations in a single facade remains an unsolved problem. It is therefore extremely important for the interfaces to be defined accurately within the project team and for all participants to receive precisely the information they require and in a way that enables them to continue the development with minimal effort. This might mean that the engineers receive Excel spreadsheets with coordinates and part numbers from the central model, whereas the executing parties receive a 2D DXF plan for every component, which enables them to order the materials, and finally maybe even get the machine data for the production. What does not

24

work, in the case of large schemes, is simply to grant all participants access to all planning information and hope that everyone finds the data they require. This is exactly what determines whether a process is being managed in a responsible way. Collaboration A deciding factor for the efficient solution of non-standard problems is a process marked by a spirit of close collaboration from beginning to end. The definition of clear interfaces cannot mean putting up high fences everywhere. Those who retreat into their own little areas and optimize everything there may not notice how difficult they are making matters for others. What is required here, too, is a responsible management of the entire process. Ultimately, after all, what really counts for the client is the quality and the price of the final result. This objective is probably the greatest challenge in the building industry’s present business process management system and is accordingly difficult to achieve. However, experience proves that it is definitely worth trying. A devil-may-care attitude when taking on or delegating responsibility does not pay off in the long term. The most sustainable solution for the complexities of building is to run a tight ship and work together with all project participants in a long-term partnership based on mutual trust. To manage an unwieldy, complex task, the overarching aim has to be to find a solution that, though it may be complicated, is above all manageable. After all, probably the best compliment one can hear on completion of a project is an uncomprehending “I don’t know what you’re on about. Everything looks so simple!”

21 22 23

24

Performing arts centre in Kristiansand (N) 2012, ALA Architects CNC cutting of a curved facade element from a laminated timber blank for the performing arts centre in Kristiansand Performing arts centre in Kristiansand Flat notches have been milled into the more than 1,700 curved facade beams to ensure the correct positioning of the 12,500 oak boards. Performing arts centre in Kristiansand The undulating timber facade is separated by a glass wall to create an interior and exterior space.

33

Simply reasonable

Quality Qualität

Ansgar and Benedikt Schulz

Building Gebäude

Kosten Costs

Termine Time

2

These days, “cost-effective building” is a sadly overused phrase. Does the opposite, “wasteful building”, even exist? Every development scheme is subject to financial limitations. In this context, “cost-effective” does not necessarily imply reduced or fundamentally low costs. It is far more a matter of what can actually be achieved for the amount of money invested. From this standpoint, cost-effective building can only have one meaning: good architecture at an appropriate price. Budget and architecture When are costs regarded as appropriate? The question that arises at the beginning of every project is the one concerning the expected total costs. The private client calculates the amount of money available; the public client determines the financial framework for the development according to comparative figures. It is generally the case that a cost budget has been determined before the start of a project. If there are no major differences between the budget and the client’s expectations (which is actually not uncommon), it is a matter of defining architectural objectives that are consistent with the available means. The strategy “no money no detail” can be attributed to Rem Koolhaas. Of course, it is also possible to change the emphasis and express the priority as “no money no space”. By sacrificing space, which always requires greater investment in the structure, financial means are freed up for detail. This quite clearly shows that a budget limits the architectural leeway in accordance with the principle of exclusion. It is therefore most important to assess the budget available for the architecture at the outset of a project and determine realistic design targets accordingly. Instead of building only the very best, one must set priorities. Costeffective building is therefore above all a cost-conscious way of building. Having to complete buildings on a tight budget can lead to new architectural solutions and structural concepts. It has been observed that, in times of low funds, buildings in the public sector tend to become more and more compact. Whereas ten years ago, new schools were constructed with multi-storey halls and a single-file arrangement of classrooms, it is common today for schools to be built with a single-storey communal space and classrooms set on both sides of a central corridor. In architectural competitions for public buildings, it has become standard practice to include clear specifications concerning space efficiency, which inevitably results in more compact buildings.

Cost pressure can help architects to focus on essential aspects and ultimately improve their effectiveness. However, too much emphasis on saving money can result in an architecture that oversteps the bounds of the acceptable. The success of a project depends upon having a proper balance between the three sides of the magic triangle – the factors of time, cost and quality. If one factor is too dominant, the others suffer. A disproportionate emphasis on quality, for example, leads to higher costs and a longer construction period; tight deadlines impair the quality and increase costs. The primary consequence of extreme cost pressure is inferior quality, but it also leads to a more time-consuming development (fig. 2). Cost planning … … is not a closed book, but an easily learned skill. The main tool in Germany for cost planning is DIN 276. Due to its simple, systematic approach and high degree of clarity, the standard is an excellent basis for dealing with construction costs. The basic principle is to envision the building separated into its individual components – in a sense, to perform an analytical deconstruction of the completed building (fig. 3, p. 36). This represents a departure from the developmentoriented classification, with its division according to structure, services and fit-out, which, for example, is still practised under the Austrian B 1801 standard. The shift towards a system using the “house of cards principle” has enabled architects, even those without site experience, to determine costs precisely. The picture commentary complementing DIN 276 published by the Construction Costs Information Centre of the German Chamber of Architects (BKI) gives a helpful insight into the standard. It is especially useful as a tool for clarifying the assignment of costs to individual cost categories and as a checklist for making sure that all costs have been recorded accurately. From the preliminary design onwards, all the individual elements of the deconstructed project are relevant for the estimate of costs. As planning becomes more detailed, individual elements get more precisely defined and the accuracy of the cost estimates improves. Area and volumerelated reference values are too vague to form the basis of a cost estimate. They should really only be used for verification purposes. Databases published by the BKI or the Ministry of Finance and Economics of the German state of BadenWuerttemberg (RBK – guidelines for planning construction costs, Plakoda – planning and cost data) are helpful for the validation of estimates. However, it does require a certain 35

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Cafeteria, Berlin (D) 2009, ludloff + ludloff Architekten The magic triangle of building Principle of a selective vision Car port for the riot police’s emergency vehicles, Chemnitz (D) 2006, Knoche Architekten in cooperation with Neumann Architekten a Due to the simple construction, regional, less specialized structural steelwork companies were able to develop the project, which could be calculated without adding a risk surcharge. b Using off-the-shelf, partially perforated trapezoidal sheet is a simple and cost-effective way of creating a playful semi-transparent design. Allocation of costs in cost category (KG) 300 Allocation of costs in cost category (KG) 400 Allocation of costs in cost category (KG) 300 and 400 according to building type Allocation of costs according to performance phase

amount of experience to use these tools correctly. The greatest potential for mistakes lies in the fact that these databases draw on results from older projects, and experience from recent developments is not included. There are currently, for example, few reliable data on public buildings built according to passive house standards, which frequently results in the costs for such projects being pitched too low. The reference values of the various databases do not yet sufficiently reflect the extra costs involved in construction designed to meet passive house standards, such as the costs of a better heat insulation standard, the necessary ventilation with a heat recovery system, and the larger storey heights needed to accommodate the air ducts. Furthermore, if the costs determined are compared with a budget established according to reference values, all project-specific data, including, for example, additional costs for unfavourable ground conditions or site situations, must be added on top of these reference values. A further mistake that frequently occurs when working with reference values is that they are not usually adjusted to the building price index. This applies particularly to public buildings, where the project budget is often fixed years in advance, and an adjustment according to recent price developments never takes place. The result is cost-saving measures that are difficult to sustain or cost overruns over the course of the project. The case of the German federal government’s second stimulus package, which was passed in January 2009, underlines how economic fluctuations can lead to deviations from the average costs established by data collections. Over the duration of this programme, the prices for building materials and transportation rose disproportionately, having a major impact on total construction costs. Developments such as these are not necessarily foreseeable and the cost difference has to be absorbed into the budget. Cost control If the projected construction costs deviate too far from the given budget, cost controlling is called for. Its aim should be to ensure maximum architectural quality within the set budget. Changes can be made at both ends – a reduction in the estimated costs, so long as the architectural objectives can still be met; or an increase in the budget, if the proposed design cannot be realized within the existing monetary constraints. Increasing the budget is the easier and more comfortable solution, but also the one least practised. The budget is generally adjusted only if alterations are made to the plans after the fact, if the construction cost index increases unexpectedly, or if a mistake was made in fixing the budget. On the other hand, in the case of cost reductions, the assumption is that the same objectives can be achieved with fewer design features. Cost control here therefore means channelling money into the most important components and saving on the less important ones. This process requires a clear overview of the entire project and transparency concerning the goods and services incorporated in each cost item. Being able to distinguish between more important and less important aspects is an essential skill in this endeavour. A constant exploration of possible alternatives can also contribute towards spending money on the right things. Cost control does not end until the building has been completed. This way it is still possible to make decisions on the channelling of financial resources during the construction phase. Once, for example, costly works, such as the shell

4a

b

36

and facade, have been executed and invoiced, it might turn out that there is additional scope for not yet completed work, such as the fit-out. The difficult reverse scenario occurs when, due to extra spending in the early phases of the project, too little money remains for the final finishes. This almost always affects the exterior landscaping, which then has to be accomplished on a shoestring budget. The widely followed practice of setting a sum of money aside for eventualities is not very helpful from the standpoint of professional cost control. It often leads to an undisciplined approach to cost matters, since the buffer is relied on in the event of faulty cost calculations. The opposite method is the better one: all possible risks affecting the costs must be identified and assessed adequately. Natural disasters or similar exceptional situations should be the only unforeseeable issues, and even large contingency sums cannot compensate for the impact these may have.

Cost distribution in cost category 300 – Building construction 1) Cost subcategory 310 Construction pit

Proportion 3%

320 Foundation

12 %

330 Exterior walls

31 %

340 Interior walls

16 %

350 Floor slabs

15 %

360 Roofs

18 %

370 Structural fit-out 5 390 Other building constructions

2% 3%

Cost distribution in cost category 400 – Technical installations 1) Cost subcategory

6

Proportion

410 Waste water, water, gas

27 %

420 Heating systems

29 %

430 Ventilation systems

8%

440 Power installations

24 %

450 Communication technologies

4%

460 Transport equipment

3%

470 User-related systems

4%

480 Building automation

1%

490 Other technical installations

0%

Cost distribution over cost categories 300 and 400 by building type 1) Type of building

KG 300

Office buildings

77 %

KG 400 23 %

Laboratories, hospitals

65 %

35 %

Nursing homes

70 %

30 %

Primary and secondary schools

81 %

19 %

Vocational schools

75 %

25 %

Multi-use gymnasium

80 %

20 %

Single and two-family houses (simple standard)

85 %

15 %

Single and two-family houses (passive house standard)

79 %

21 %

Simple warehouses

90 %

10 %

Multi-storey car parks

93 %

7%

Theatres

70 %

30 %

86 %

14 %

7 Ecclesiastical buildings

Cost allocation according to performance phase 1) Performance phase

8

Proportion

Shell

47 %

Building services

18 %

Fit-out

33 %

Others

2%

1)

compiled on the basis of data from: BKI Construction costs 2011, Part 1 Statistical reference values for buildings

Cost allocation In Germany, the allocation of costs is regulated by the DIN 276 standard. On the first level, the costs are divided into seven cost categories (KG 100 to 700), which are differentiated further on a second and third level according to structural elements (e.g. KG 300 – building, construction works; KG 330 – exterior walls; KG 331 – load-bearing exterior walls). In order to control the costs, it is necessary to understand how the costs are allocated in the building. On average, approximately a third of the costs allocated to DIN 276’s cost category 300 are attributed to the exterior walls (fig. 5). The design of the facade, therefore, has a considerable effect on the project costs. If the budget is on the low side and the design is only moderately compact, it will hardly be feasible to finance a fully glazed facade. If it is clear from the brief that, for the sake of blending in with the surroundings, a more expensive facade material has to be used, the two remaining thirds of cost category 300 will suffer in the case of a tight budget, or, alternatively, a space-efficient design is required to leave sufficient scope to finance the facade. Almost two thirds of the costs for the construction are absorbed by the building envelope including the foundation, ground slab, exterior walls and roof. In terms of costs, compact designs are therefore always advantageous. This makes clear the impact of passive house standards: if the costs of thermal insulation increase, it is difficult for these to be offset by savings in the remaining third of costs for the building interior. A more even allocation of costs is apparent in the case of the relationships within cost category 400 (building services) (fig. 6). The provision of water, heat and electricity takes up approximately 80 per cent of the costs for building services. If these are not in balance, the reason can usually be ascribed to special features in one of the cost categories. The installation of a sprinkler plant, for example, increases the costs in category 410 (waste water, water, gas installations) immensely; if ground heat is sourced, the costs in category 420 (heat supply equipment) rise disproportionately. Central ventilation units also change the average allocation of building services costs significantly. The relationship between the costs of building construction and the costs of building services is heavily dependent on the type of building involved (fig. 7). The more sophisticated the building’s function, the greater the proportion of technical costs. In the case of buildings requiring vast technical 37

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Application of anodized aluminium panels at the Cloud Laboratory in Leipzig (D) 2005, schulz & schulz Limited access to the construction site, Federal Commercial Academy and Federal Business School (BHAK/BHAS), Feldkirch (A) 2009, schulz & schulz Neatly constructed exposed brickwork, Central City Cleaning Depot in Leipzig (D) 2001, schulz & schulz

installations, such as laboratories or hospitals, the proportion of technical costs can even amount to more than half of the total building costs. From a cost control perspective, it is wise to consult building cost statistics and perform a plausibility check on the ratio of costs of building construction to costs of technical installations. The average allocation of building costs of shell, services and fit-out illustrates how the room for manoeuvre in terms of cost control decreases as construction work progresses (fig. 8, p. 37). Almost 50 per cent of the total building costs are taken up by the shell, which clearly limits the scope to influence costs even before construction work has commenced. In public-sector building projects, it is customary to tender for 60 to 80 per cent of all works prior to the start of construction, generally covering the trades for the main works and building services. This method provides a higher degree of cost certainty, but limits cost control to the remaining 20 to 40 per cent of the total costs. Project brief and quality standards The definition of the building’s purpose and usage forms the foundation for the project cost calculation. A school cannot be built for the same price as a warehouse. Budget and task should match. It also makes sense, at an early project stage, to define the operating life of the building as well as the ratio of capital costs to operating expenses. The consideration of a building’s lifecycle costs is becoming more and more established, giving rise to a different approach to assessing the capital costs. At the same time, sustainable thinking is leading to increased calls for more durable materials. By carefully scrutinizing the project brief, one can generate great potential for cost-effective building – a potential that is tapped far too rarely. Standards of comfort that are by now regarded as customary, especially those concerning technical installations, are frequently simply executed when it would be worthwhile to ask whether they are necessary according to the brief. A careful assessment of requirements prior to the planning phase contributes immensely towards the creation of useful added value. The quality of the project brief also has an influence on the project costs. An inadequate brief – which unfortunately appears to be the rule – leads to cost-increasing additional work and alterations, simply because needs and requirements were not communicated clearly beforehand. Impact of location Local features, such as unfavourable position of the property or soil conditions, are often not considered in the budget analysis, an oversight that must then be corrected at a later date. The building foundation tends to be the most frequently underestimated cost element. A soils report prepared at an early stage would enable a design tailored to satisfy the ground conditions and permit a realistic assessment and steering of the foundation costs. There is nothing more annoying than spending a lot of money on things underneath the building and not having enough left for the visible parts above ground. A further site factor that can affect costs is the accessibility of the construction site or the region. Building in Vorarlberg, Austria, for example, is expensive, because large components must be transported via two tunnels and several bridges across the Rhine before reaching their destination (fig. 10). In this case, a project planned according to regional

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traditions and with local materials can prevent costly transportation and the transfer of technology it entails. Not every type of construction is suitable for every region, and a skills shortage or long haulage routes, especially when it comes to the shell, can give rise to extra costs, which add nothing to the quality of the building and are therefore wasted. Solid timber construction is, for instance, fairly common in southern Germany and therefore cheaper than in northern Germany, as most of the timber component manufacturers are based in the foothills of the Alps. On the other hand, the accompanying finishing trades are extremely mobile, and long distances to the building site can be compensated by low wage levels at the company headquarters. Concept A simple design concept is not per se also reasonably priced; however, it does offer greater potential for cost-effective building. Well-arranged structures, a clear organization of space, a compact building and, more than anything else, a focus on the greater architectural idea are a way to create good architecture at a reasonable price. A powerful concept helps to usher the project through the planning and execution stages, all the while helping to distinguish between the more important and less important matters. This kind of simplicity should not be confused with the kind found in reduced architecture, which is motivated by purely formal and aesthetic aspects and can only ever be achieved at great expense. The ratio of area to volume is a popular tool used to check the economic feasibility of a design. However, the area ratios, first and foremost the quotient of gross floor area to usable floor area (GFA/UFA), are in fact more meaningful than the volume. Optimized area ratios contribute to a reduction of costs in all building elements. The optimized volume, in contrast, brings about a reduction in wall heights and therefore produces cost savings in the cost groups 330 and 340 (exterior and interior walls) – at the price of a painful loss of space crucial to the light, air circulation and atmosphere in the interior of the building. Building compactly is a possible strategy. The resultant reduction in area and space must be compensated by the design. This in turn increases the demands in terms of material and detail. “No money no detail” therefore only applies if a decision was made beforehand to finance space by saving on materials and detail. If a building has neither space nor detail, it is not architecture. Construction If a good design idea is transformed into a clear structural form, a low-cost supporting framework is possible. Repetitive detail solutions can be carried out according to the respective design objectives. A limited material and colour concept based on a central architectural idea prevents unnecessary variety in design elements. The choice of materials and their surface finishes is in this case the most fundamental cost factor of architectural expression. The balance between cost and usage is decisive for cost allocation. Exposed concrete can, for example, become a bottomless pit, and the final result may still be disappointing, in particular because project participants tend to have very different expectations concerning the finish. Accurately laid brickwork costs less than a plastered wall and saves on further finishing work (fig. 11). The strategy “building shell =

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Gymnasium at the Franz-Mehring-Schule, Leipzig (D) 2011, schulz & schulz Standardized panel sizes characterize the trapezoidal sheet facade. Multi-storey car park, Coesfeld-Lette (D) 2007, Birk und Heilmeyer Architekten The construction of the facade has been reduced to the basic requirements set out in the brief. Larch battens provide a uniform skin, which functions as both visual screening and prevention against falling. The construction period is minimized by applying a modular building system, day-care centre, Munich (D) 2010, schulz & schulz

building finish”, however, creates a cost advantage only if the aesthetic standards of a bare structural shell are actually applied. The costs of solid timber walls increase considerably if their surfaces must be without knotholes and treated. Anodized aluminium is only slightly more expensive than powder-coated aluminium, while its effect, in terms of style, is much more sophisticated (fig. 9). Mosaic tiles in remote bathrooms only heighten the cost, not the atmosphere. Costeffective materials can turn into costly constructions if off-theshelf dimensions are diverged from, dressing and correcting is required, or the assembly and joining do not match the material. It is thus worthwhile, as in the case of trapezoidal sheet, to use standard panel sizes exclusively (fig. 12). Complicated steel connectors make timber construction expensive, so a few aspects concerning prefabrication must be kept in mind. Complex, multi-ply elements with intricate joints do not usually achieve a cost advantage. Cost-effective system building is much more straightforward. It might, for example, involve the prefabrication of individual components, such as solid laminated timber floors and walls, which have been optimized in terms of their size and weight for easy shipment and quick assembly. At the end of the day, the success of prefabrication is dictated by the market. Prefabricated bathroom units, for example, have not gained acceptance, as there is no cost advantage. Semi-finished concrete parts, on the other hand, are state of the art; as long as the shapes are straightforward and the walls are of an appropriate thickness, they are more reasonable than in situ concrete. It is a paradox, but precast hollow core walls with a thickness of 25 centimetres are now cheaper than 20-centimetre-thick in situ concrete walls. Those banking on prefabrication should therefore look into successful products or develop system solutions that are simple and allow almost any craftsperson to assemble them quickly and cost-effectively with commonly available tools. Closed construction systems, in contrast, limit the freedom of architectural design. Building services The challenge inherent in the approach to the building services budget lies in attaining transparency in all cost matters. It is important for the architect to be fully conversant with cost category 400 (technical installations) and to completely understand what money is actually being spent on in order to avoid providing unnecessary technical gimmicks. If the capital for building services is to be used properly, the architect must participate actively in assessing the cost-benefit ratio and not limit involvement to the choice of lamps suitable for the design. The relationship between building construction and building services has a considerable impact on the costs. Oversized shafts and ducts, unnecessary cut-outs in the construction, and the fire-resistant cladding of installations are examples of wasteful spending. Structural solutions that appear to be economical can also end up requiring a considerable investment of time and money. Not providing well-arranged zones for the installations, or positioning rooms requiring similar services at great distances from each other instead of above or next to each other, is not a trivial offence. Such an arrangement generates additional cost by requiring longer and more complicated duct and cable routing. Poor structural fire protection concepts, which depend heavily on technical installations such as mechanical smoke extraction or fire-alarm and sprinkler systems, can also be

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very costly. The same maxim applies here: a clear design is the basis for reasonable building services costs. Contracting What is more reasonable – commissioning each trade individually, or hiring a general contractor? The arguments in favour of commissioning a general contractor with all trades remain popular, despite the fact that practical experience often proves otherwise. The general contractor adds a surcharge to all services, which is higher than the savings on planning fees. Lower overall costs can therefore never materialize. Savings achieved thanks to alternative proposals are rare, as general contractors nowadays frequently lack the necessary know-how. Commissioning a general contractor can even lead to substantial extra costs if the project is not suitable because of its small size or its extraordinary construction – if it involves, say, a master trade unfamiliar to the general contractor. The “unambiguous and exhaustive specifications” requirement stipulated in the German VOB/A2 construction contracts procedures is fundamental for cost-effective building. Clever wordings and descriptions, such as “turnkey services”, do not necessarily lead to better offers. Special services, according to VOB/C3, must be described individually so that the contractor can understand and cost them appropriately. Craftspeople may not fully comprehend what is meant by the description “timber cladding including all connections, ranging from shadow gaps, etc., to final ready-to-use finish”. The contractor will either tender by adding a risk surcharge or demand a justified extra payment on completion – which will then no longer be subject to competition and hence will tend to be too high. Money is wasted in either case. Only those who can describe precisely what they want to build will get good architecture at a reasonable price. The timing of tendering has a bearing on costs, but is difficult to control. If building work must be tendered for during periods of economic growth, a considerable cost increase may result, as happened when steel prices rose due to great demand on the world market. There was also a spike in the price of timber elements caused by the construction of wooden emergency shelters after the 2009 earthquake in the Italian town of L’Aquila. Building site A lot of money can be unnecessarily wasted on site if the supervision of the construction is not performed with the same diligence as the preceding planning. This is because

the quality of cost control is actually determined on site. The building site as a social community, where many people work together in close contact under immense cost and time pressure, can turn into a cost trap if site supervision is not recognized as an essential element in the implementation and execution of the planning. To prevent ex post facto claims from getting out of hand, it is vital for the site manager to keep the contents of the specifications firmly in mind and to be able to differentiate clearly between services that are due and those that are additional. Far-sighted quality monitoring prevents subsequent trades from accruing additional costs due to defective work having been performed beforehand. Meticulous checking of measurements and payments is a basic prerequisite for an effective allocation of capital. It is important to monitor costs straight away to avoid having to compensate for an unexpected increase of costs with a fit-out of lesser quality. Naturally, the degree of prefabrication is an issue on site too. A shorter construction period achieved through prefabrication can reduce costs if, for example, the periods of provision of scaffolding or site facilities and equipment are shorter (fig. 14). However, cost-effective assembly of prefabricated elements is extremely dependent on the weather. If, for example, the filling of precast hollow core walls must be delayed, because the setting heat is not sufficient on cold winter days to perform the work in a single process, the cost advantages of prefabrication are wasted. The same applies to protective measures required during the assembly of timber structures in winter. Scheduling is an important aspect of building work in general, not just construction with prefabricated elements. A well-thought-out schedule with a seamless transition of trades results in lower site overheads; inadequate scheduling, on the other hand, can quickly drive up the costs due to unplanned downtimes. Responsibility for costs Could the principle “what does not fit, will be made to fit” also apply to cost-efficient building? Generally, yes. However, it is important who makes what fit. Only the architect can take responsibility for costs. And only one who has full control over the costs can direct the money to the right place. The usual practice of having a project manager or building administrators controlling the purse strings lacks transparency and tends to be a hindrance to the development of good architecture. There is an opportunity here for architects to reclaim the entire planning process, so that good architecture can once again be created at reasonable cost. 41

Simply sustainable Andrea Georgi-Tomas, Martin Zeumer

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Simple and sustainable – would that not be a perfect pairing? But those two terms are mutually exclusive, aren’t they? Simplicity implies using Occam’s razor and holding on to the “essentials”; sustainability, on the other hand, implies complexity. Its multifaceted nature, including the many new aspects invariably needing to be considered, means that it cannot simply be reduced to a single denominator. If one looks just at the way the term “sustainability” is used in vaguely worded objectives or abused as a catchphrase, the concepts of sustainability and simplicity do indeed cancel each other out. Nevertheless, if one attempts to understand the objectives of sustainability and its impact on everyday life, there is a substantial overlap in what those two terms imply. This overlap is most evident in everyday objects. Simple + timeless Are there products that have been around for a long time, products that are timeless and not dependent on the zeitgeist? If the aim is for something not to go out of fashion, it might be worth taking a close look at precisely this line of business. The “little black dress”, the creation of which is attributed to Coco Chanel in the 1920s [1], is a simple and very effective piece of clothing and almost certainly a part of every woman’s wardrobe (fig. 2). Thanks to its simple design, the “little black dress” never becomes outmoded, always looks modern and can be worn for many years. In a sense, this long validity makes it “sustainable”.

first wash. In economic terms, reasonable is not the same as cheap. Especially with regard to products with a long life expectancy, it is more economical to consider the expected period of use. And there are few products more durable than buildings. Safeguarding value is a further aspect of being economical. In the case of sustainable building, this value is the occupant, which is clearly indicated through the buildings’ focus on the user. This feature is also found in objects of everyday life, such as the egg box or egg carton. Invented in the 1960s, it helps to keep its fragile contents protected and reduces significantly the risk of breakage. Prior to its invention, 30 per cent of all eggs broke during transport [2]. It is also economical to be flexible and look at multiple applications, rather than be restricted to one niche. If the product is based on a low-tech design, its economic importance is further enhanced. The principle of the egg box, its material and processing technology has now been widely applied to the transport of sensitive foodstuffs and technical equipment. simple + ecological If the product consists of renewable resources and materials that consume little energy in their production (grey energy), economic and ecological benefits are combined. What is

Simple + durable Like the dress, the English dial clock, which has been in production since around 1800, is regarded as durably modern (fig. 3). Found on English schools and railway stations, the wall clock is more or less standardized, is reduced to its technical essentials, and is distinguished by an especially high-end design and long durability of critical parts (in particular the clockwork). This makes the clock extremely accurate and virtually maintenance-free. Nevertheless, just in case, the clockwork is easily accessible. The clock ages with dignity and gains its very own patina, for example from coats of polish. Its long “shelf life” and quality mean that it does not decrease in value – it is simply durable. Simple + economical “Buy cheaply, pay dearly.” This old adage is daily proved true by our everyday objects, from watches that stop working after a few days, to dresses that lose their shape after the

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1, 5 CO2 storage made of paper: architectural journals as wall material in the graphic design firm Oktavilla, Stockholm (SWE) 2009, Elding Oscarson 2 The little black dress as worn by Audrey Hepburn 3 English dial clock designed by Benjamin Lautier, Bath (GB), around 1819 4 Egg boxes made of waste paper

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important here – and this applies to the egg box as well – is the structural optimization towards lightweight construction, which uses materials sparingly while meeting the defined objectives precisely. Everything about the egg box is purposebuilt. It makes do without any lavish design features, but is nevertheless valuable in its own way. The fact that the boxes can be recycled increases the value of the product further. simple + convenient The ideas at the heart of sustainable building include convenience and relevance for the user. The egg box protects and is simple to use as well as practical. The clock is precise due to its accuracy in timekeeping. And the dress is comfortable on the skin as well as appealing to the eye. simple + generally accepted Dress, clock and egg box: all three have made it to the centre of society thanks to their simplicity, practicability, general acceptance and, at the same time, their uniqueness and that certain je ne sais quoi. The fact that designs like these do not inspire great excitement, as might be the case with technical innovations or architecture with visionary qualities, is not a sign of their lesser value – quite the opposite: these designs are embraced precisely because of their quiet calm. They are simply an integral part of society’s tradition. This is just the quality that a large proportion of products used in the building industry should aspire to, particularly because they are destined to perform well for decades. Not until this is recognized do opportunities arise that go beyond the actual value of the object. The egg box – simple, functional and matter-of-course – is today being used to treat children with poor arithmetic skills [3]. It is just such a comprehensive, broad appeal that makes for true sustainability. Simply sustainable in practice Initially, sustainability in practice does not really express itself in simplicity, but rather in complexity. This derives from the broader way of viewing things. Sustainable projects try to influence several aspects positively with one measure, taking, as far as possible, a holistic approach. The fact that this leads to a greater amount of work is a given. Planning a sustainable building seems inefficient simply because it takes longer to achieve results. Thus, the goal of sustainability appears to be in opposition to what could be simplicity in building. Like others, James Timberlake (KieranTimberlake, Philadelphia) has concluded that sustainability is currently too complex and too expensive 44

owing to the programmes and technical systems it requires. On the other hand, it is a fact that sustainable buildings are actually able to offer more in terms of space, functions and energy conservation. In regard to technical installations in particular, Timberlake recommends that the time and effort required should be determined clearly first in order for these to be reviewed during the course of the building’s life cycle [4]. This implies that planners must consciously search for potential solutions by applying new technologies in innovative ways. At the same time, planners must consider that the systems applied may not last the full life cycle of the building and may have to be replaced. Hence, truly sustainable solutions depend upon planners giving consideration to all matters. Designing and planning sustainably The most important aspect in the end is efficiency. Efficiency means developing things effectively with as little effort as possible. In other words: in order to achieve the utmost efficiency, a simple solution is needed. And the solution starts with the design. Sustainability requires the expertise of the person creating the architecture. That is why an architectural concept is essential. It is the only way in which the various aspects of sustainability can be brought together to shape an overall solution. Thus, sustainability should be an essential characteristic of architecture. In contrast to conventional building, the planning and construction of sustainable building is simplified by a much improved “navigation system” based on the large variety of criteria defined by assessment schemes such as the German government’s BNB (Assessment System for Sustainable Building) and the German Sustainable Building Council’s DGNB system. A simultaneous widening of one’s viewpoint and sharpening of one’s focus on the really important aspects in the planning phase permits the development of more target-oriented building concepts (see, for example, “Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo”, pp. 84ff.). And the focused project brief, which is dictated by sustainability, enables the integration of all criteria so that the resulting building can display the quiet calm that is ultimately the hallmark of simplicity. The process starts with an in-depth examination of location and use. To achieve sustainability, it may, for example, be advisable to provide a mixed-use concept for a site. In terms of the individual building, the question is whether it has the potential to cater for different needs based on its brief (see

“Museum and community centre in Johannesburg’s Alexandra township”, pp. 72ff.). If a capacity to adapt to various needs is built into the design, the resulting building will feature the flexibility that sustainability demands. In the case of residential buildings, for instance, different apartment layouts can contribute towards a mixed structure of inhabitants in terms of age or financial means (see “Social housing in Ceuta”, pp. 92ff.). In office schemes, different use zones can give rise to quarters that transcend the functions of the actual site, offering the user significant value in terms of services and facilities and a high level of appeal. Such flexibility is facilitated by a modular approach. This does not have to be limited to the construction; it can also refer just to separate use zones. Sustainable building, then, involves a consideration not only of what the building is currently being used for, but also of later or even different types of use. By incorporating flexibility, a sustainable building retains its value over time. If, in addition, the building is designed in such a way that it can be deconstructed easily, this simplifies the execution of unforeseen measures and facilitates the recovery of production energy for the material cycle. Material efficiency Simple, sustainable architecture is frequently expressed in the choice of materials. But no material is in itself sustainable. It is in the way that they use the material that planners decide whether it will or will not be sustainable during its life cycle. And with the physical and technical properties of their product and the sum of the emissions created in the course of its production, manufacturers determine the environmental

impact that can be attributed to their product. The simplest and most sustainable way to reduce the environmental impact of building materials is to reduce the quantities used. Simply by making better use of existing buildings, for example by requalification of building stock, planners can contribute towards increasing the efficiency of materials. Further highly efficient parameters for sustainable planning and building include compact building methods and lightweight construction [5]. Primary energy savings On a slightly more subordinate level when it comes to selecting materials, planners can contribute towards resource conservation by increasing the application of, ideally, locally available materials with low primary energy content. There is noticeable scope for optimization, especially in functional layers, such as damp-proof courses and insulation, which do not actually have an impact on the building’s appearance [6]. Furthermore, local and renewable resources can – even as part of unconventional solutions (fig. 1, 5) – be used to reduce and store CO2. Material optimization In terms of simple building, it makes sense to place the building material and its inherent properties at the heart of the pursuit of sustainability. This is because the material performance, in a similar way to the building itself, is related to the individual properties of the building materials used. The well-known construction materials concrete, steel, timber and brick are among the most efficient, most broadly applicable materials. But the possible applications of glass and

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earth are similarly wide. Homogeneous materials and components provide for an honest outward appearance of the structure – on the basis that the material satisfies the complex configuration of needs in regard to construction, structure, building physics and aesthetics (fig. 7). Requirements that have got out of hand, however, can exceed the performance specifications of a single building material. When one figures in the additional demands that the sustainable approach places on the building over its life cycle – from production, construction, use, change of use and reuse to recycling – the problem becomes even worse. The material chosen is then in danger of losing its key characteristics and therefore its identity. The solution is a combination of materials, which is able to cater for individual requirements far more specifically than any single material can. By means of functional layers or prefabricated elements, components are developed with specific material compositions, whose characteristic properties contribute to the sustainability of the building. Functional in terms of their sustainability and in a combination that enhances the building’s life cycle, these components help not only to increase the effectiveness of the properties of their constituent materials, but also to reduce the number of different building materials and standard details (see “Print and media house in Augsburg”, pp. 132ff.). Ideally, material compositions allow several requirements to be met by means of a single material input (e.g. a building envelope which also bears loads or acts as a stiffening member). Possibilities like these arise predominantly in facades and frequently at the intersection of structural features, building physics and energy engineering. Usually this leads to a fusion of building envelope and building services. The result is a building that, despite technical additions, has a simple material impact and a distinctive aesthetic. Durability Prefabrication – no matter whether it is done in a factory or by using already available components, such as shipping pallets (see “‘Slumtube’ pallet house near Johannesburg”, pp. 66ff.) – improves efficiency in production and, thanks to the greater precision involved, also reduces the risk of potential structural damage. At the same time, it provides an opportunity for a more efficient application of material, greater durability and a better recyclability of the component. Durability is especially important as a means to ensure that sustainability is securely anchored in building. The question whether a design is trendy or timeless points us to one of the key issues of architecture: time. Durability must go hand in hand with a building’s ability to “grow old gracefully”. Through patina, materials yield a whole range of styles. Many people ascribe the success of the Modern Age buildings from the 1920s to their ability to age with grace, coupled with the passion for detail and the vision incorporating the entirety of an estate that they evince [7]. When it comes to the conservation of historic buildings, too, the main objective today is not to give them the “splendour of the new”; rather, the patina of a building is actually considered building stock worth protecting [8]. In terms of sustainability, this aspect can be extended by letting a building’s ever-changing surroundings leave their imprint on it, for example by means of a living facade, thus helping the building become embedded in its environment (see “Day-care centres in Munich”, pp. 159ff.). 46

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6 Bronze head in new condition without patina (left) and aged condition (right), Bunte Götter exhibition, Glyphothek Munich 7 Single-layered facade made of lightweight concrete with a monolithic appearance, extension and refurbishment of the Museum Biedermann, Donaueschingen (D) 2009, gäbele&raufer.architekten 8 Office building, Reutlingen (D) 2002, Allmann Sattler Wappner The building envelope made of stainless steel is beneficial in terms of both energy and design.

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Along with durability, the issue of use is becoming ever more important in architecture. With regard to materials, for example, considerations of use could imply the application of easy-to-clean surfaces. But they can also entail more farreaching solutions, such as room layouts that allow flexibility in anticipation of later changes in use; structures that are easy to dismantle; or technical installations that can be adapted within the building’s infrastructure. Energy efficiency In any evaluation of a building’s sustainability, its energy efficiency is of central importance. To a greatly increased degree, local framework conditions – solar radiation energy, wind, ground conditions, the water regime and, in certain regions, local resources such as biomass – form the basis of technically simple but nevertheless complexly interactive energy concepts. Planners have only to “reap” these forces at the envelope of the building. The building responds to them with its orientation, its shape, its facade design, its material composition and the structure of its components, thus creating an individual and simple reference to its local environment. The building envelope: An energy interface Over the years, the facade has been transformed from a conventional protective skin to an energy interface. The design approach is always based on the elements that are made available by the architecture. Structural measures, such as effective insulation, airtightness, windows with appropriate g values, a minimum of thermal bridges, structural solar shading and building-related storage mass, allow for the utilization of passive heat gains and provide opportunities to improve energy efficiency. These considerations are obviously not fundamentally new; rather, they are classic topics within architecture. Better orientation to the sun is already a feature in autochthonal buildings. And where user requirements intersect with the climatic conditions, functional associations with the cardinal directions result. An example of this is the strict north orientation of the joiner’s workshop near Freising (pp. 140ff.) for purposes of uniform natural lighting. The demand for “light, air and sun” made by the German architectural movement Neues Bauen in answer to the call for “housing fit for human habitation” enshrined in the 1919 Weimar Constitution, is today is a fundamental aspect of building tradition [9]. These traditional demands generally correspond with the concept of the passive house, which can certainly be regarded as an implementation of these objectives with the aid of technology in the service of achieving greater energy efficiency. But because relatively optimal values can be achieved for the envelope with passive house standards and a loss of energy can now be offset by generating energy on site, the once very dogmatic approach to the extensive guidelines for the passive house is no longer quite so rigid. It is becoming easier to develop individual but at the same time comfortable solutions for buildings, which are also able to meet high demands in terms of architecture (see “Daycare centre in Unterföhring”, pp. 154ff.). It is noticeable that more and more attention is being devoted to technical installations, especially the ventilation system. The impact it has on the design is therefore also increasing, as the space has to enable the flow of air. One

way to cater for this new influence, for example, is to create the building itself as a continuous space – an interesting solution in terms of both technology and design. Need-based energy supply The concept of a need-based energy supply no longer means maximizing the performance of an installation, but generating, distributing and storing energy according to need and, at the same time, only letting as much energy (heat in particular) penetrate the building as is required for its operation. This is where factors such as the storage capacity inherent to the built mass come in. Without any great effort, mass helps to make buildings inert in their thermal behaviour; the need for technical installations, for example to cover peak loads, is reduced significantly. Combination of systems The technical interaction of installed systems will be one of the most important ways in future to increase sustainability, as it not only allows for the enhancement of an individual building’s efficiency, but also influences the efficiency of systems beyond the building’s boundaries. On the surface, this primarily concerns the energy supply. Smart metering, i.e. the installation of meters that record the actual energy consumption and real-time usage and make the data accessible to the consumer, contributes towards making activities in the building transparent and therefore enables third parties to use the data as a means to identify ways of increasing efficiency. System interdependences like these, however, not only have an impact on energy matters, but reach further, affecting urban planning or even the development of entire regions. It is not so much the technical performance that plays a role here, but rather factors that concern the overall quality of life in an area, such as short distances to a large variety of services and facilities, a resource-saving treatment of space, and the development of local identity (fig. 8). An urban-planning-oriented approach towards sustainable building tries to fill gaps in supply and demand. High quality is created wherever designs and projects achieve the kind of authenticity that is the distinguishing feature of a “simple” solution. Cost efficiency From an economic point of view, sustainable building is equal to a building that has been optimized in terms of its lifecycle costs. The combination of durability, a sensible choice of building materials, and reduced operating expenditure in sustainable buildings results in low user costs. Compared with conventional buildings, sustainable buildings usually incur lower life-cycle costs (fig. 11, p. 49) [10]. This is the consensus; the reality, however, is sometimes quite different. Discussions of the pros and cons of sustainable measures are frequently stonewalled by planners, who use their clients’ limited funds as an excuse. Interestingly, according to the German Official Scale of Fees for Services by Architects and Engineers (HOAI), planners are obliged to provide cost-efficient schemes. Limiting cost-effectiveness to the investment costs alone, as is usually done, is not something included in the regulations. For a planner, it is surely essential to consider all costs that may arise during the life cycle of the building (i.e. the long-term user costs) and discuss these thoroughly with the client. 47

Relationship of investment costs to operating costs In the framework of the EnOB programme (a research initiative by the German federal government to analyse energyoptimized building), the investment costs and operating costs of energy-optimized buildings were compared. The findings did not identify significantly higher investment costs for individual projects. The large majority could be positioned among the lower or average range of reference values published in the BKI building cost index (BKI – Building Costs Information Centre of the German Federal Chamber of Architects). Investment costs that are approximately 2 per cent higher lead to considerable savings down the line (fig. 10). And even where the investment costs are 10 per cent higher than average, there are still cash savings over a 50-year period [11]. In many different ways, simple building contributes immensely towards cost efficiency. Most importantly, however, it has an impact on the investment costs. Simply through theuse of a reduced design language, a large number of costly connections can be left out (see “Summer cabin near Gothenburg”, pp. 104ff.). An incidental by-product of this reduced application of materials is a lessening of their environmental impact [12]. Furthermore, simple buildings frequently have a lower standard of fit-out. If the building shell qualifies as being ready-to-use, it is sometimes even possible to omit entire components (see “Summer house near Saiki”, pp. 100ff.). Life-cycle costs During their life cycle, simple buildings contribute towards keeping costs down, in particular by requiring few outlays for maintenance and upkeep. This can be achieved by limiting

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the selection of materials to a few well-combined and easily maintainable products whose maintenance intervals can be synchronized, or by making do without the use of elaborate technology. But, in a similar way to the “excessive functional demands” imposed on materials, “excessive technical demands” can be imposed on passive technology: the costs in cost category 400 according to DIN 276 (technical installations) tend to be higher in buildings with low total construction costs. It is foreseeable that carefully planned and successfully implemented energy concepts will in future feature as important prerequisites for the value retention of buildings [13]. Simple building, however, also expresses itself through a focus on the fundamentals. Even over a long period of time, its emphasis on quality helps to promote the increased value stability achieved through energy-efficient and sustainable planning. Like the little black dress, simple buildings transcend fashion and trends, embodying a timeless architecture. Efficiency in the design process A novelty in the design process of sustainable buildings is the size of the planning team and the way in which team members interact. Only an interdisciplinary search for solutions leads ultimately to a holistic consideration of the issue. This is the only way to ensure that competing strategies, for example the question of whether to use the building’s southfacing facade for generating solar power or for capturing daylight, are compared realistically. Thinking about alternatives is as much a part of sustainable planning as is the early development of partial concepts, and not only within one’s own field of expertise, but also across

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disciplines. Efficiency is achieved primarily by reviewing individual decisions that have caused problems for other project participants in their respective fields of activity. Such problems frequently go back to decisions made in the early planning stages. Hence, in sustainable design, it is especially important to be vigilant during these early phases. A further aspect is the need for transparent decisions, which reduce the potential for conflicts in the project and among the project team. Sustainable planning generally tries to prevent certain problems from ever arising. From the very beginning, it is aimed at simplifying matters for all parties to the planning process. This approach requires experience in exploring the limits of the feasible and the reasonable and aligning these with other disciplines. A sustainable planning process, then, is distinguished by an understanding of when one’s own know-how is actually required and when others might be better equipped for the details or the task. The readiness to be personally accountable for decisions of which one is convinced is a further requirement. It is certainly not possible to claim that the demands of sustainability make planning any easier. But it is true that this planning is founded on a more reliable basis; and a high standard can be determined and therefore planned with greater accuracy (fig. 11). We are all called on to make contributions towards sustainable development, and to leave room for the work of planners who come after us. “Simple building”, in particular, requires a comprehensive understanding of all problems and a complex planning process. In other words: it is not easy to plan buildings in a “simply sustainable” way.

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References: [1] http://einestages.spiegel.de/static/topicalbumbackground/2805/so_ schlicht_so_sexy.html (retrieved 19 March 2012) [2] http://www.emfa.eu/index.php?section=10&lang=de (retrieved 19 March 2012) [3] Schmidt, Harald: Mathematik beginnt mit dem Eierkarton. Ein Praxis-Buch zur Dyskalkulietherapie mit theoretischem Hintergrund für Eltern, Lehrer und Therapeuten von rechenschwachen Kindern. Göttingen 2008 [4] http://www.detail.de/artikel_nachhaltige-architektur-usakierantimberlake_23706_De.htm (retrieved 19 March 2012) [5] Hegger, Manfred et al.: Energie Atlas. Munich 2007, p. 168 [6] ibid, pp. 262ff. [7] http://www.tagesspiegel.de/zeitung/licht-luft-sonne/1035940.html (retrieved 19 March 2012) [8] http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patina (retrieved 19 March 2012) [9] http://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/artikel/artikel_44921 (retrieved 19 March 2012) [10] Bartels, David et al.: Investitions- und Baunutzungskosten energieoptimierter Gebäude. In: Detail green 2/2011, pp. 84ff. [11] ibid. [12] see ref. 6, p. 264 [13] see ref. 11, p. 87

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Conversion and refurbishment, Haus der Museumsgesellschaft, Ulm (D) 2007, schaudt architekten Resource-saving method of dealing with space and enhancement of local identity by changing and adding to existing building stock Example of the differences in costs involved in a life-cycle-based planning approach in comparison to a project that does not make use of this optimization method Development and controllability of total costs during the planning process

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Simply local Anna Heringer

Creating a dwelling by hand and using the natural materials from the immediate surroundings is a skill that has been practised for thousands of years and one that goes back to prehistoric times. Now and in the future it will be necessary to revive this skill in order to enable the world’s growing population to have access to sustainable housing and living conditions. It frequently happens that projects are planned and completed without the planners ever having been at the place of construction. With the help of satellite images from the internet, they analyse the site and the neighbourhood, read climate data into a simulation programme and prepare plans without ever having experienced the climate in person. To planners, it may seem simple and economical to deliver generalized concepts to various places around the world, and to provide technologically standardized solutions in which local craftspeople are involved as little as possible in order to ensure high quality from a distance. But who profits from this way of doing things? How does the region benefit? What effect does this approach, which is focused on standardized, industrially prefabricated products, have on the ecosystem and on cultural diversity? Alongside the development of good, durable architecture, planners should see it as their task to improve inadequate living conditions at the same time as maintaining the ecological balance, supporting social justice and encouraging cultural diversity. Building with natural, local materials and energy resources with the involvement of local inhabitants presents itself as a possible and realistic approach to the problem, one that has been successfully tried and tested for centuries. Matter, energy and information are the three components of every creative endeavour. Materials drawn from local vegetation and geological resources, and manpower as the most important energy source, have for centuries been the basis for building. Even if the materials and the energy derived mainly from local resources, the know-how – the information – was not necessarily limited to a certain location. Thanks to traditions of learning trades and taking to the road or travelling journeymen, the essence of craftsmanship and building know-how spread to different regions of the world. The know-how was always adapted to the available building materials and the local climate. This resulted in the development of a local identity and building culture, which then continued to evolve. Rules, for example, which only permitted trees to be felled on

certain days, helped to encourage a responsible attitude towards the use of available resources. Such rules for bamboo still exist in Bangladesh today. Maximizing the endogenous potential Building with natural materials does not imply a standstill in building history or a romanticizing of the past, during which resources were often exploited. From a pragmatic viewpoint, however – in order to, for example, be independent from oil and other world market prices – it simply makes sense to work with resources that are naturally available on site. Moreover, the increased employment of skilled tradespeople encourages social justice, because it ensures that small and medium-sized businesses benefit rather than large-scale industry. Finally, the completed building demonstrates wilfulness and is tailored to the user, the surroundings and the climate at the given location. This process, however, requires a further development of architectural expression in line with the requirements of today’s society, and a continuous improvement in building techniques. These objectives are best illustrated by earth, one of the oldest building materials known to man. The material meets more needs than virtually any other. It has a positive influence on room acoustics, absorbs odour, regulates room humidity, is impeccable from an ecological point of view, and, in its great variability, is even aesthetically pleasing. For the conversion of an old blacksmith’s shop to a cinema in the Swiss town of Ilanz, the two architects Gordian Blumenthal and Ramun Capaul used earth in a contemporary fashion to demonstrate, refreshingly, how complex technical requirements can be solved with the simplest of means (figs. 2 – 4, p. 52). In the 1980s, Rudolf Olgiati, the father of the architect Valerio Olgiati, converted the 19th-century building into a residential and commercial complex. Then, in 2004, the local film club moved into the rear part of the building, a former blacksmith’s and later wine shop. Public interest in the cinema was tested in these provisional rooms for a period of two years, after which the members of the film club made up their minds to invest in a conversion. Because their budget was tight, the club members fell back on their own resources: they volunteered to lend a hand. For this reason, it was necessary to restrict the design to technically simple solutions, which the film club members would be able to accomplish without any previous knowledge or training. By using target-oriented and extremely subtle measures, the architects succeeded in maintaining the special, rugged 51

flair of the rooms, while meeting the demands of a modern cinema. Because the upper floors of the building accommodate apartments, the rooms of the film club – particularly the cinema and the bar with a small stage – had to be provided with good soundproofing. Finally, under the guidance of clay building expert Martin Rauch, the laypeople developed the building with earth from Surrein, a tributary valley in the region (fig. 4). The room-in-room construction with an infill of local sheep’s wool made of 16-centimetre-thick rammed earth walls with a porous texture dampens even low frequencies. The rounded corners not only have a sound-damping effect; they also enhance, together with the surface feel of the earth, the archaic appearance of the room (figs. 2, 3). Wall-heating pipes of 8 millimetres in diameter were integrated into the lower wall sections to provide the cinema with a comfortable temperature. The structure of the material created by the way in which the earth was rammed into the formwork (giving it an effect similar to geologic stratification) and the closed nature of the descending cinema hall give visitors the impression they are entering a natural earth room. Earth is capable of keeping the air humidity of rooms at a constant level of around 50 per cent throughout the year, which has a major impact on thermal comfort. Because the construction can breathe, it was not necessary to install a technically sophisticated ventilation system. The floor and ceiling are also made of earth, which creates a very harmonious appearance with a calming effect and provides a powerful contrast to the moving pictures. The cinema in Ilanz shows how a sensitive design approach, pragmatic technical solutions, a meaningful selection of materials from the local surroundings, and personal initiative can help to create a successful cultural attraction. Its fame extends beyond the small town to the whole region, proving that modern technical requirements can be fulfilled with local low-tech solutions. This extremely sustainable approach highlights a strategy that could also be applied in developing countries. The current trend in the sustainability debate, which is reflected, for example, by the various certification systems (DGNB, LEED, etc.), is moving towards a reliance on high-tech solutions. Only a minority of the world population is actually able to afford this. Sustainability can and should not be exclusive.

2

3

Upgrading everyday matters Using local resources to create good architecture with a positive, sustainable impact initially involves building up trust in these materials and increasing their appreciation. This can be achieved by taking great care in the development of the building, by creating a unique design, by applying logic to the functions and technical installations, by letting local inhabitants participate, and by giving the building concept true meaning. The two latter aspects, in particular, have a bearing on the simplicity of building. The building concept and the technical installations must be sufficiently easy to comprehend and execute that anybody is able to replicate them, and that they maintain their validity in a sustainable way, no matter how many times they are repeated. Precisely this strategy was the basis for the DESI (Dipshikha Electrical Training Institute) project, a vocational school for electrical training in a village in northern Bangladesh [1]. The locally available natural building materials are mainly earth and bamboo. Even though the inhabitants have been building with these materials for decades, the existing building

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practices are poorly developed and the building stock in the region’s villages is in a bad state of repair, as is clearly evidenced by damp walls riddled with rat trails and a house life expectancy of about ten years. This raises the question of why the building practices appear to be so little developed and why they have not been improved over the years. The answer could perhaps lie in the theory that people only develop what they cherish. Not until they have learned to appreciate an object’s value are they willing to invest time and passion in making it better than it was before. Often, earth only has the status of dirt, which is simply slapped together to form walls. An earth building is frequently regarded as a temporary solution until sufficient funds are available to invest in more expensive materials, such as fired brick or cement. The focus of the project is twofold. Firstly, it aims to “refine” the local materials through craftsmanship in order to promote their appreciation; secondly, it seeks to improve the local building techniques in terms of their durability and thermal comfort. The building constructed together with craftspeople from the village in 2008 consists mainly of bamboo and earth (fig. 5). Only minor changes were made to the traditional building practices, albeit ones that are extremely beneficial to the life expectancy of the building. A masonry foundation slab with a damp-proof course consisting of two layers of PE foil has replaced the conventional earth foundation. Straw mixed into the earth functions as reinforcement for the walls. In contrast to conventional earth building practices, the formation of cracks is therefore largely prevented and, thanks to the optimized material mix, the surfaces can remain as they are without plaster. Since the bamboo joint most commonly used in Bangladesh would not have been adequate for the required ceiling span of 5.5 metres, a new joint for three bamboo poles (fig. 6), which is based on the traditional cross joint and strengthened with iron pins, was designed to replace the old one [2]. In case some parts of the construction need to be replaced, the new joints can easily be taken apart and the bamboo can be recycled. A thermal simulation performed during the planning phase highlighted the need for insulation beneath the rear-ventilated corrugated sheet metal roofs. It also confirmed that single glazing, otherwise unusual in these regions, and simple cross-ventilation combined with the appropriate orientation and positioning of windows, would suffice to ensure a comfortable room climate throughout the year [3]. Coir fibre has replaced the conventional insulation material. The fibre layer is 25 centimetres thick and positioned loosely on a substructure made of bamboo and an 8-centimetre-thick layer of earth at a distance of approximately 30 centimetres below the sheet metal roof. In Bangladesh, the skill of creating something aesthetic with the simplest of means is usually confined to the small scale. There, everyday objects such as baskets and bow nets are skilfully made pieces of wickerwork. These techniques have been used in a modified form and on a larger scale to produce a decorative bamboo wicker facade on the first floor, which at the same time functions as fall protection (fig. 7, p. 54). The colourful fabrics that the local villagers often suspend from the ceilings of their earth houses, especially above beds, were a further inspiration. On the veranda, finely woven, semi-transparent fabric panels have been fixed

5

6

1 Vocational school for electrical training (DESI), Rudarpur (BD) 2008, Anna Heringer Some of the cob wall surfaces have been left as they were, others have been smoothed with a red earth plaster. The covered exterior space just outside the classrooms is often used by the apprentices for practical work. 2 Cinema Sil Plaz, Glion/Ilanz (CH) 2010, Capaul & Blumenthal Architekten Club members tackle the work together: not only does their participation have a positive effect on the costs, it also creates an added social value. 3 The heaviness of the rugged earth walls and the ethereal lightness of the film projections give the cinema a unique atmosphere. 4 The rounded corners and the rough surface of the rammed earth provide good room acoustics and eliminate the need for acoustic panels in the cinema. 5 East view of the vocational school for electrical training (DESI) 6 Day labourers from the village were trained as bamboo farmers for the DESI project. Now, they are being employed for other projects, even as far away as the capital city.

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7

8

beneath a transparent roof skin made of corrugated polycarbonate sheets and a shade-giving wicker weave of dried palm leaves to create an atmospheric, colour-suffused space (fig. 8). Visitors have nicknamed the building “the Bamboo Palace”. They were amazed to see that it is possible to create something that looks so precious simply by using the everyday material bamboo. The intention of the DESI project is to encourage local residents to improve their own, often very humble homes with conventional everyday means. The search for appropriateness Technology alone will not be able to compensate for an excessive consumption of resources. However, increased efficiency can temper resource use. The Training Centre for Sustainability, near Marakkech, is seeking exactly this kind of synthesis: a type of construction that is based on a wide range of traditional crafts in Morocco and supplemented by modern technology in matters of energy production and efficiency. The aim of the design and concept of the training centre is the transformation of readily available natural resources into architecture with a strong local identity, using the smallest possible amount of energy and providing the largest possible benefit for the local population (fig. 10). It is about the further development of traditional know-how and building practices making use of different levels of technology, chosen according to their usefulness and replicability. The predominant building material in this project, rammed earth (fig. 11), is employed using a variety of techniques, ranging from lowtech to high-tech. Rammed earth is a labour-intensive building technique. In countries with a vast number of unemployed youths, it offers good and creative work to counteract the potential build-up of aggression. Research on site revealed that the construction material earth, which was formerly used for buildings of all sorts and sizes, is nowadays reverted to only for the construction of fencing walls and dwellings in poor, mainly rural areas. Alongside good, contemporary role model buildings, improved building techniques are required to reintroduce earth as an appropriate material for modern building. The material is often not applied in today’s projects because of the long construction periods required by this traditional technique. In this project, traditional know-how is supplemented by modern technology in order to meet the needs of today’s society for safety and comfort. Local prefabrication of earth elements increases the speed of construction using 54

this material and broadens the range of potential applications. Here, geothermal cooling systems have been incorporated into the structures surrounding the classrooms. Simple vertical moulds are set into each layer of rammed earth elements. These are offset slightly towards the top of the walls to create hollow cores, which, with the help of fans, provide the rooms with cool air. Solar panels supply the energy required to drive the fans. For the poorer locals, who, for instance, have no access to a crane, even minor technical improvements are important. For this reason some parts of the project, such as the exhibition area, are rammed by hand in the traditional manner. The improvements here are based on the use of systemized formwork elements, greater care given to the mix of materials, a foundation slab with damp-proofing, and increased structural stability thanks to the introduction of ring beams. Morocco has a rich cultural heritage with architecture embodying a strong local identity. Building locally means learning from this heritage and applying the accumulated knowledge to today’s needs. An eye for the essentials Every decision with regard to a building technique should reflect who is going to benefit from the completed development. At university, the syllabus should include practical experience in manual crafts in order to increase awareness of the consequences that derive from choice of material or construction method. The fact is that one designs differently, in a more responsible way, with materials that have been fully understood. Richard Sennett writes in his book The Craftsman: “We can achieve a more humane material life, if only we better understand the making of things.” [4] A construction method that, through better workmanship, makes perfect use of local materials, supplemented by a sensible application of new technologies, can function as a global long-term model for sustainable building. The Vorarlberg region in the western part of Austria is a prime example. The combination of outstanding craftsmanship and intelligent use of technologies for energy efficiency enhance the value of the abundant local building material, wood. The architecture is characterized by a feeling for the material, shows pragmatism in its design for easy use, and is frequently participative in the development process. On a very personal level, the subject “simply local” can be translated as “simply yourself”. In his hierarchy of needs, the psychologist Abraham Maslow puts “self-actualization” on the top level (fig. 9). Physically creating something, applying

7 8

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Decorative wickerwork as a permeable room enclosure, DESI The veranda on the first floor of the training centre is a favourite place for many children. It is used as an extended living room, kitchen and workspace, and for the morning assembly before school starts. Hierarchy of needs according to Abraham Maslow Working model of the Training Centre for Sustainability, Marrakech (MA) 2013, Anna Heringer, Martin Rauch, Elmar Naegele, Ernst Waibel in cooperation with Salima Naji The sculptural shape is inspired by two Moroccan archetypes: the rural ksar and the urban medersa (madrasa). The earth excavated for the training centre’s foundations is sieved and then used to make rammed earth walls.

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your own creative potential to achieve the desired product, increases satisfaction and happiness. In its implementation, this philosophy implies minimizing the use of external energy resources in everyday life and replenishing this “energy loss” with skilful creativity. The will to create something oneself automatically restricts the quantity, as time and energy resources are simply not infinite. The little that one is able to produce, though, is meaningful from beginning to end and therefore purer and more easily comprehensible. The same lesson can be learned in building. Being restricted to a few locally available resources can, in a way, be liberating and can spark creativity. If something does not work, it cannot simply be replaced by another technology or material. A small choice of materials and the craftspeople’s skills are givens, and the process is about what the planner can produce in conjunction with the craftspeople using the resources available. Developing a design from only two materials (e.g. earth and bamboo) means fully committing to the character of the materials and giving them one’s entire focus. What results from this is an identity that – so long as the project is based on a concept that adds to the building culture – refers uniquely to the place and the builder, and that, ideally, can be considered architecture (see “Schools in Mozambique”, pp. 61ff.). Matter, energy and information – what is it that unites all three and gives objects their individual character? More than anything else, it is a deep regard for and commitment to a place, including its socio-cultural factors, the developers, the users and the ecosystem. This approach makes it possible to create unique architecture that honours the human scale and human means as well as the special qualities of the location.

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Notes: [1] Financed by Shanti-Partnerschaft Bangladesh e.V., Shanti Schweiz and Omicron; clients: Dipshikha (Non-formal Education Training and Research Society for Village Development) [2] The joints were originally developed by the carpenter and wicker maker Emmanuel Heringer for the METI school in Rudrapur and by Dr Christof Ziegert at TU Berlin. [3] Energy analysis and consulting: Oskar Pankratz [4] Sennett, Richard: The Craftsman, London 2008, p. 8

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Summary of projects Page 58 61 66 72

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84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 117 120 124 128 132 136 140 145 150 154 159

164

Project

Gross floor area Gross volume

Construction costs

Construction

Restaurant on Teshima Architects Atelier Ryo Abe, Tokyo Schools in Mozambique Ziegert  Roswag  Seiler Architekten Ingenieure, Berlin “Slumtube” pallet house near Johannesburg Andreas Claus Schnetzer & Gregor Pils, Vienna Museum and community centre in Johannesburg’s Alexandra township Peter Rich Architects, Johannesburg Hospital in Rwanda MASS Design Group, Boston/Kigali

430 m2

€ 50,000

steel, timber

72 / 110 m2 192 / 285 m3

approx. € 900 / € 1,900

earth, bamboo

150.08 m2 381 m3

pallets, straw, earth

1,100 m2

€ 760,000

steel, earth

6,040 m2

€ 3.2 million

natural stone, concrete brick, steel, reinforced concrete

Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo TYIN tegnestue, Trondheim Social housing in Iquique Elemental – Alejandro Aravena, Santiago de Chile Social housing in Ceuta MGM, Morales-Giles-Mariscal Architects, Sevilla House in Oderbruch HEIDE & VON BECKERATH, Berlin Summer house near Saiki Takao Shiotsuka Atelier, Oita Summer cabin near Gothenburg Johannes Norlander Arkitektur, Stockholm Single-family home in Stuttgart lohrmannarchitekt, Stuttgart Dwelling in Andalue Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects, Concepción Oyster farmer’s house in Brittany RAUM, Nantes Cowshed in Thankirchen Florian Nagler Architekten, Munich Open-air pool in Eichstätt Kauffmann Theilig & Partner, Ostfildern/Kemnat Commercial complex in Munich bogevischs buero, Munich Print and media house in Augsburg OTT ARCHITEKTEN, Augsburg Mobile showroom Jürke Architekten, Munich Joiner’s workshop near Freising Deppisch Architekten, Freising School cafeteria in Berlin ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin School in Berlin AFF architekten, Berlin Day-care centre in Unterföhring hirner & riehl architekten und stadtplaner, Munich Day-care centres in Munich schulz & schulz, Leipzig

5.3 m2 22 m3

€ 7,700

timber, bamboo

3,620 m2

€ 700,000

reinforced concrete, masonry

10,565 + 5,128 m2 47,079 m3

€ 13.7 million

reinforced concrete

108 m2 568 m3

€ 238,061

timber

81.94 m2

€ 190,000

masonry

81 m2 284 m3

€160,000

timber

206 m2 620 m3

€ 300,000

reinforced concrete

136 m2 550 m3

€ 75,000

steel

130 m2 353 m3

€130,500

timber

978 m2 7,150 m3

€ 518,000

timber

1,650 m2 5,250 m3

€ 7.5 million

reinforced concrete

11,321 m2 83,279 m3

€ 23.8 million

reinforced concrete

ca. 770 m2 5,770 m3

€ 1.05 million

reinforced concrete

44.77 m2 110 m3

€ 190,000

steel

1,224 m2 6,748 m3

€ 744,192

timber

290 m2 1,170 m3

€ 630,860

timber

1,534 m2 6,519 m3

€ 2.36 million

reinforced concrete

4,115 m2 15,545 m3

€ 12.24 million

timber

640 / 910 / 1,100 m2 2,200 / 3,100 / 3,800 m3

€ 803,200 / € 1.14 million / € 1.25 million

timber

Kids’ activity centre near Melbourne PHOOEY Architects, Melbourne

95 m2 276 m3

€ 75,822

recycled shipping containers

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Restaurant on Teshima Architects: Architects Atelier Ryo Abe, Tokyo

Water pipes, reinforcing rods, cable ties and cedar shingles form part of the canopy roof undulating above the new dining venue Shima Kitchen. For many years, the island of Teshima, set attractively in the Seto Inland Sea of western Japan, was known primarily as a dumping ground for hazardous waste. Apart from decontamination measures, a symbolic new beginning was required after the depot’s closure. The neighbouring island of Naoshima, renowned for its art projects, has served as a role model for the revitalization process. The aim on Teshima, too, has been to place art, architecture and agriculture into the picturesque landscape of the island to herald a better future. In addition to Ryue Nishizawa’s impressive Teshima Art Museum, an abstract concrete bubble of seemingly ambiguous scale, the new measures include the development of the modest Shima Kitchen project. In the middle of a small village, a meeting place for locals and visitors has been created around a formerly derelict old building. The now refurbished dining room opens out

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generously on to a covered veranda. Sweeping and looping around a stage set amid trees, the low, undulating roof ties together the exterior space, which recalls a traditional Japanese theatre. The canopy construction is made of simple, locally available materials. Fire-charred cedar shingles, traditionally used to clad houses on Teshima, cover the roof. Attached loosely at their upper ends with cable ties, the shingles flutter in the breeze, exposing only a very small surface to the wind. It was thus possible to design the entire load-bearing system as an extremely lightweight structure. The cedar boards are placed on reinforcing rods, which are fixed to a grid of common water pipes by means of wire loops. The slender columns, also simple water pipes, are anchored to the ground using helical steel piles, similar to those used in greenhouses. This simple solution obviates the need for elaborate earthwork. The architect and engineer deliberately decided not to use a more durable material for the roof covering. Instead, the idea is for the village community to come together and celebrate the renewal of the shingles as a regularly recurring event.

aa

a

5

Site plan scale 1:1,250 Section • Floor plan scale 1:400

6

a 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Entrance gate Restaurant entrance Open kitchen (in existing building) Veranda (new) Guest area Stage Gallery (in existing building)

1

3 2

Project data:

7 Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

restaurant, cultural steel, timber 1.2 – 3.0 m 430 m2 20 ≈ 25 m € 50,000 2010 4 months

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2

4

1

3 5

4 7

6

8

9

10

Vertical section scale 1:5

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60

1 roof covering: 500/250/9 mm fire-charred cedar shingles 2 cable tie (shingles are only fixed at upper edge; lower edge simply rests on top of the next-lower shingle)

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Ø 10 mm rebar batten wire-loop connector Ø 27 mm steel water pipe Ø 32 mm steel water pipe standard tubular connector, modified Ø 32 mm steel water pipe post gravel 12 mm steel foundation plate helical steel pile

Schools in Mozambique Architects: Ziegert | Roswag | Seiler Architekten Ingenieure, Berlin

The 11 schools made of locally available natural resources are designed to encourage local residents to use this durable and affordable construction method for the development of their future homes. Together with the Habitat Initiative Cabo Delgado, the Aga Khan Foundation supports villages in the building and running of schools. Eleven preschools, which are also used for social gatherings and adult education, have been completed so far. The developments are also intended to advance and refine local building practices based on the skills of resident craftspeople. A rural province in the northernmost part of Mozambique, Cabo Delgado is approximately 83,000 square kilometres in size and home to around 1.69 million people. The traditional huts built by the villagers have very short life spans of as little as eight years, as the rising damp destroys the walls and the straw roofs begin to leak after about two years. Furthermore, the parts made of wood and bamboo are prone to attacks by termites or other insects.

Eleven schools, one system The architects developed two building types, which are built exclusively from locally available natural resources such as earth and bamboo. At first the architects, together with local craftspeople, completed a prototype with a floor area of about 16 by 6 metres. This was then used in a slightly modified form for a so-called standard school in six further locations. The walls are made of hand-pressed, sun-dried earth bricks. Earth is especially suitable for Mozambique’s humid climate, as it absorbs moisture and thus has a positive influ-

ence on room climate. If allowed to cool adequately at night, the daytime temperature inside is 5 –10 °C below the peak temperature outside. Plastic sheeting placed on top of the stabilized rammed earth foundation functions as a horizontal damp-proof course and protects the walls from rising damp. To counteract further deforestation of the once tree-rich region, the roof structure, doors and window shutters have been made of bamboo treated against insect and fungus infestation. Beams consisting of three 3.5 – 5.0-centimetrethick bamboo canes fixed together with bamboo dowels and wire, spanning a total of 6 metres, were especially developed as basic components for the purlins and roof trusses. The total structure is based on dowel connections with cord ties. Shingles made of palm leaves cover the roof.

Future outlook A slightly smaller variation of the school, measuring about 10 by 4 metres, is particularly suitable for smaller groups of users. As the roof span is shorter, the roof structure requires only single bamboo poles. In shape and size, this simple building resembles the traditional dwellings and is intended to show the villagers the advantages of improved building methods. The aim is for the locals to able to afford these more durable houses. The cost of a new home is approximately € 80 –100, which is two or three times the monthly income of a day labourer. With the help of microcredits, villagers should be able to finance the construction. During the course of building the 11 schools, 40 craftspeople were trained in the new building practices. These skilled builders are now able to share their knowledge in order to boost the local economy and make the villages more independent.

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a

1

aa

1

a

Simple school

b

Sections Floor plans scale 1:200 1 2 3 4

Classroom Covered outdoor classroom Compost toilet Bathroom

3 1

4

bb Prototype

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b

2

c

d

1

2

cc

Standard school

c

d

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1

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs:

Year of completion: Construction period:

education earth, bamboo 2.5 – 4.1 m (simple school) 2.5 – 4.7 m (standard school) 192 m3 (simple school) 285 m3 (standard school) 72 m2 (simple school) 110 m2 (standard school) 12 ≈ 6 m (simple school) 13.25 ≈ 8.38 m (standard school) approx. € 900 (simple school) approx. €1,900 (standard school) 2010 4– 6 months

4

5

2

3

6

dd

64

8

9

7

Vertical section, standard school scale 1:20

1 palm-leaf roof covering, prefabricated battens, halved bamboo canes 3-layered bamboo beam 2 earth bricks with straw reinforcement, sun-dried earth plaster with whitewash

3 4 5 6

stabilized earth bricks, 10 % cement Ø 120 mm timber post, charred at base natural stones in rammed earth footing stabilized rammed earth foundation slab, 10 % cement 7 80 mm rammed earth floor PE foil, horizontal moisture barrier 8 wall connecting piece, bamboo cane 9 bamboo ring beam

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“Slumtube” pallet house near Johannesburg Architects: Andreas Claus Schnetzer & Gregor Pils, Vienna

The barrel-shaped structure made of salvaged shipping pallets, straw and timber waste can be hand-made by local residents. The “slumtube” pallet house is a residential house prototype by the Ithuba Skills College, which people from the extremely poor township to the south-east of Johannesburg will be able to build for themselves. In view of the materials used, the climate conditions and the residents’ financial means, the building is perfectly suited to local needs, with materials and costs kept to an absolute minimum. The project enables the township residents to participate in the simple construction process and shows them how useful discarded products such as shipping pallets can be. For the first 15 years of its existence, the Ithuba Skills College, a product of the non-profit organization S2arch, has the use of a site measuring 22,000 square metres. The college provides young adults with an opportunity to acquire general knowledge as well as additional practical skills in the course of a five-year training programme. The intention is for the school to resemble a small village. So far, 11 projects have been planned and completed, including workshops and affordable accommodation for European teachers and students.

wall, back wall and roof, respectively, and joined to form a rigid frame. Apart from the beams, the shipping pallet, which in Africa usually measures 1.20 by 1.00 metres, is the main structural element. Wedges made of salvaged formwork panels connect the pallets at their corners and maintain the distance between the two pallet layers forming the exterior envelope. The formwork panel connectors are point-fixed and screwconnected to the pallets using laminated board splice plates. The angle of the wedge determines the diameter of the barrel construction. Plywood panels sheathe the rear of the inwardfacing pallet, behind which the insulation – compressed, dry straw – is installed. The outer pallet serves to transfer loads, but also provides a means of rear ventilation. Thanks to the height difference between the air inlet and outlet, the air circulates naturally and the warm air is easily removed. A layer of earth protects the insulation from insects, small animals, moisture and wind. Old pallet boards are used to create the substructure and distance pieces for the exterior skin, a 6-millimetre-thick plywood panel layer with a sheet metal covering. As the height of the point-fixed distance pieces varies, the exterior skin is perfectly curved on the flat pallets. An additional, curved piece of trapezoidal sheet takes care of roof ventilation and thus removes heat.

Shape and space The barrel-shaped house for a family of five consists of two separate parts. An inner courtyard connects them and bridges the difference in ground levels. As the apex of the barrel roof remains the same throughout the length of the building, the room heights differ inside. The entrance and the living and dining area with an integrated open kitchen are situated in the taller part. The adjoining courtyard is hardly visible from the outside, functioning as a private and sheltered exterior space. The similarly open-plan sleeping area with a bathroom unit is located on the other side of the courtyard. The fully glazed front and back face provide views out into the surrounding landscape. The natural curve of the barrel roof lets rainwater simply drain off without any additional building measures.

Material and construction The barrel shape simplifies the load transfer via the exterior walls. In the event of earthquakes and hurricanes, it is a stable and resilient structure, as the construction itself is selfsupporting. The surface area exposed to wind is minimized. To optimize the building from a structural point of view, three timber formwork beams have been incorporated into the front 66

Suitable for the developing world When covered with a water-repellent skin of, say, plastic sheet, tarpaulin, panel or sheet metal, the pallet construction can quickly become an emergency shelter, providing protection against the weather. Once insulated, the “slumtube” also protects residents from heat and cold. The favourable ratio of volume to external wall surface of the barrel-shaped structure reduces the consumption of material. With a weight of only around 25 kilograms, the pallets can be installed easily and without the need for heavy plant. Two to five labourers, skilled or unskilled, can construct this simple building with appropriate training. The room climate in the building is pleasant even without mechanical ventilation or heating. Pieces of fibre-cement pipe built into the earth and straw walls of the front and rear face provide the necessary interior airflow during the summer months. The different height of the penetrations supports cross-ventilation. If need be, they can be closed at night to, among other things, provide necessary security. Despite being made of the most inexpensive locally available construction materials (earth and straw), the walls have excellent insulating properties.

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residential lightweight timber building made of local materials (pallets, straw, earth, etc.) 2.62 m (living area); 2.15 m (sleeping area) 381 m3 150.08 m2 26.8 ≈ 5.6 m 2010 3 months

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Vertical section scale 1:20 1 wall construction: 0.8 mm metal sheet with black sand coating 6 mm curved plywood panel 22 mm timber boards, 1 or more layers depending on distance to pallet 1,200/1,000/144/22 mm shipping pallet providing 100 mm ventilation cavity

40 mm earth render on chicken mesh 240 mm straw insulation 6 mm plywood panel 1,200/1,000/144/22 mm shipping pallet providing installation zone 2 21 mm reused formwork panel 3 3 mm perforated metal sheet 4 90/60/4 mm steel angle plate

5 floor construction: 80 mm reinforced screed 1,200/1,000/144/22 mm shipping pallet cavity with 100 mm straw insulation infill 100 mm reinforced concrete floor slab 6 50 mm trapezoidal sheet metal 7 200/70 mm timber formwork Å-beam 8 27 mm wedge as connector and distance piece, reused formwork panel

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Museum and community centre in Johannesburg’s Alexandra township Architects: Peter Rich Architects, Johannesburg

With its robust structure and clear and simple design belying a sophisticated arrangement, Alexandra Heritage Centre shows how architecture can help address social issues.

Coloured glass panes, featuring abstract paintings of the township made by locals, cast tinted patches of light on to the walls of the interior space.

Constructive details Alexandra township, located on the northern outskirts of the megalopolis Johannesburg, covers an area of less than eight square kilometres, yet is home to nearly half a million people – a stark contrast to the nearby wealthy suburb of Sandton. The Alexandra Heritage Centre is above all a museum whose main aim is to archive and present the history of the township to locals and visitors from abroad. It also incorporates public and commercial facilities, which offer local residents new opportunities while at the same time honouring their local traditions. A long, stone-clad ramp, which was built in the traditional style, leads up to the community facilities on the first floor. A reception area separates the exhibition space from the community and jazz archive and the internet cafe, which is run as a small business by local residents. The exhibition hall not only bridges the street, but also uses it as a metaphor. It literally elevates the story of the township and forms a gateway to the past, present and future. The flexible multifunctional space can be subdivided for smaller local events. At road level, the structure helps to redefine two important public squares, now lined by public amenities, shops and benches. The workshops and training facilities have been positioned to the rear of the building.

“Jazz architecture” The language of the building celebrates the contradiction between the colourful, densely populated township with its seemingly ad hoc aesthetic, and its highly considered spatial order. It is for this reason that the structure of the building has been conceived as a steel framework filled with a collage of contrasting materials in line with the lively colours and textures of the surroundings – which were born out of necessity rather than choice. The local residents lovingly refer to the playful arrangement of earth bricks, steel sections and polycarbonate sheeting as “jazz architecture”. Coated aluminium strips generate a vertical rhythm to contrast with the horizontal structure of the polycarbonate cladding. The atmosphere in the exhibition space is pleasant, with soft light filtering though the translucent facade. This is a peaceful place to retreat to from the busy street below. Steel angles precisely set into the facade define small windows in the south-facing elevation. All the fixtures required to set the acrylic panes into the facade are concealed from the outside. 72

The ridge cap is black, so that the air beneath it is heated before escaping at the upper edge of the single-pitched roof. This generates an airflow through the building, with cool air being drawn in at the bottom of the corrugated polycarbonate panels. The corrugated polycarbonate cladding captures the sounds from the street; the sliding windows in the facade also have the effect of letting in some of the hustle and bustle from outside. The areas clad with on site manufactured earth bricks, in contrast, tend to be more contemplative.

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross floor area: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

cultural, education, retail steel, earth 2.6 / 3.3 /4.4 m 1,100 m2 € 760,000 2012 96 months

Inspired by the surrounding shacks, where cardboard and the like is fixed to the ceilings as insulation with whatever is at hand, lengths of flexible thermal insulation have been tied to the ceilings with wire. The jointing of the rubble stone facing on the exterior is kept in black as a reference to traditional South African buildings.

Building together The involvement of the community extends from the excavation to the design of the exterior space. Under the guidance of the architect, residents were encouraged to create mosaics using marble off-cuts. All the infill brickwork was laid by unemployed local labourers as part of a government-sponsored poverty-relief initiative. The bricks were made on site with mobile hydraulic presses, using earth

from within 10 kilometres of the site. This process of community involvement is part of a broader endeavour to understand and empathize with the concerns of local residents. All of those involved felt privileged to be a part of this grass-roots approach. Most importantly of all, however, the participation of the community in the conception, the design and the construction of the building has given the residents of the township a genuine sense of ownership in their new community centre, despite the fact that its development has been protracted and is still not completely finished. The building itself is a structured framework that provides room for improvisation, a space that residents can fill with life and meaning – a unique and sustainable solution for this time and place.

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Elevation Sections Floor plans scale 1:500

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Public square Vegetable patch Shop Sunken courtyard Stair seats Floodlighting mast to illuminate the township (exhibit from the days of apartheid) Training room Restaurant Kitchen Access ramp Main entrance Reception Office Community space Access internet cafe /archive Exhibition Balcony/exhibition exit

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Vertical section scale 1:20 1 ridge cap, black coating 2 lengths of flexible thermal insulation, wire-tied to ceiling 3 203/146 mm steel Å-section 4 100/50/20/2 mm cold-rolled steel channel section 5 240/65/73/20/2 mm cold-rolled steel section 6 1.2 mm translucent polycarbonate cladding, horizontal corrugated panels 7 perspex sheeting, concealed fixture 8 reinforced concrete floor slab 9 150/150/15 mm steel angle 10 254/146 mm post /beam steel Å-section

11 column base covering: reinforced concrete, natural stone covering with black joints 12 150 mm reinforced concrete seat 13 natural stone finish, black joints 14 mosaic made of marble cut-offs laid in bed of black mortar 15 240/220/115 mm earth bricks, bevelled edges, laid without mortar; manufactured on site with mobile hydraulic presses 16 concealed gutter 17 50/50 mm steel SHS frame (exterior: window frame, interior: exhibition showcase) 18 transparent /etched polycarbonate window pane, illustrations of the township painted by local residents

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Hospital in Rwanda Architects: MASS Design Group, Boston/Kigali

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Simple design and technology measures, such as natural ventilation and the omission of corridors, reduce the risk of airborne diseases spreading in the hospital. Resembling a village atop a steep hill, the hospital complex of eight two-storey buildings is characterized by covered verandas, interior courtyards and terraced gardens. All 140 patients have a view out into the surrounding landscape, as the head of each bed abuts an inner service core which delivers oxygen and electricity. Prior to the development of this hospital, the Burera district, with a population of over 340,000, had very poor health care. Today 1,500 volunteers, trained by the doctors working in the hospital, manage the local health-care system.

health care natural stone, concrete brick, reinforced concrete, steel 6,040 m2 € 3.2 million 2011 24 months

Simple methods to avoid infections Crowded corridors and insufficient ventilation frequently lead to patients and staff contracting airborne diseases in hospitals. The simple design of this project – individual buildings without central corridors – reduces this risk. Thanks to the undulating nature of the plot, the individual buildings are connected by covered verandas on both levels instead. Coloured signs have been introduced as a guidance system to help people find their way around. So that the air can be exchanged fully 12 times per hour, the large open wards require a good ventilation system. A simple solution was sought and found here as well, as expensive ventilation systems would have been vulnerable and prohibitively expensive over the long term, requiring trained engineers for their complex maintenance and repair. The task is fulfilled by simple ceiling fans measuring 3.6 metres in diameter. They have been fitted in the centre of the room at a height of 4.5 metres, thus avoiding any draughts at bed level. The rotors move the air past germicidal UV lamps to openings in the exterior walls covered only by timber louvres.

Architecture for the people The objective of the project was not only to create a modern hospital, but also to train the local inhabitants, provide them with work and therefore improve their economic outlook. More than 3,000 people from Burera District were trained in skilled trades such as welding, carpentry, and masonry. The total workforce was around 12,000 people using rotating employment contracts. As it was more expedient to perform the excavations by machine, rather than manually with the support of the helpers, a bulldozer was brought in to do the job. It was, however, the only heavy plant used during the entire construction period. The landscape of northern Rwanda is characterized by volcanic rock, which is commonly regarded a nuisance by farmers working their fields. Its use in building is typically restricted to foundations and garden walls, where it is obscured with a thick layer of plaster. Yet this local material was precisely the one chosen by the architects for the exterior walls of the hospital. With the help of numerous full-scale mock-ups, the masons developed a way of laying the stones to form flush, seamless surfaces with only a very small amount of mortar, permitting the beautiful texture of the darkgrey porous material to be displayed to the full. In total, the development of the Butaro hospital has ended up costing only about two thirds of a comparable building in Rwanda. 78

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Outpatient clinic Pharmacy Laboratory Administration Staff training Warehouse Women’s ward Intensive-care unit Post-operative care Operating theatre Emergency room Neonatal ICU

Delivery room Pre-delivery ward Paediatric ward Post-partum ward Men’s ward Laundry Roof construction: local clay roof tiles on 20 mm steel SHS substructure 40/20 mm steel RHS rafters roof covering, sheet metal with lateral upstand 20 mm steel SHS purlins truss girder, welded using 80/40/3 mm for top/bottom chord and 40/40/3 mm for struts 8 mm plywood

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1 local clay roof tiles on 20 mm steel SHS substructure; 40/20 mm steel RHS rafters roof covering, sheet metal; 20 mm steel SHS purlins; truss girder, welded using 80/40/3 mm for top/bottom chord and 40/40/3 mm for struts; 8 mm plywood 2 2≈ 40/80 mm sapele timber post, 40 mm spacing between 3 70 mm concrete parapet cap 4 400/200 mm ring beam, reinforced concrete 5 300 mm masonry wall, volcanic rock 100 –150 mm mortar 200/200/400 mm masonry wall, concrete brick 40 mm cement plaster 6 4 mm single glazing in steel frame 7 40 mm epoxy resin screed

140 mm reinforced concrete 8 200/200/400 mm masonry wall, concrete brick 10 –20 mm cement plaster on both faces 9 200/200 mm ring beam, reinforced concrete 10 wall light, UV lamp 11 timber louvres, sapele wood in 40/40/3 mm steel frame 12 mosquito net with sapele wood frame fixed on to steel sections 13 high-volume low-speed fan, Ø 3,600 mm 14 20 mm media panel, plywood with coloured finish, on 40/40 mm timber substructure and 80/40/3 mm steel post, seamless coved joint to floor covering, upper finish with 30/200 mm sapele wood 15 window reveal, reinforced concrete

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Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo Architects: TYIN tegnestue, Trondheim

Small, easy-to-erect cabins made of locally available construction materials provide children with a place to play, retreat and sleep. The non-profit organization TYIN tegnestue, founded in 2008 by two former students of architecture from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, is dedicated to improving the living conditions in regions affected by poverty, ethnic conflict and natural disasters. Within the framework of an aid programme, the student group was commissioned to create additional sleeping quarters for the local orphanage. The village of Noh Bo in north-west Thailand, on the Burmese border, hosts a number of Karen refugees, an ethnic minority subject to persecution in Burma. In collaboration with the villagers, the team designed six small huts with sleeping berths for four children each. But the small cabins are more than just a shelter for the night; they also provide the children with an area to play in and a place they can retreat to. The shape of the huts and the materials used suit the climate and the skills of the Karen people. The timber-frame structure, for example, is filled with bamboo wattle. The huts are called “butterfly houses” because of their characteristic roof shape, which not only facilitates the natural circulation of air, but also enables the collection of rainwater. The students stayed in the village for six months and erected the first pavilion with the villagers as a kind of model house. The structure consists of bolted, preassembled units of columns and beams made of ironwood, a tropical wood of particular hardness. To avoid problems caused by ground moisture, the huts have been raised; old tyres filled with concrete serve as the foundations. The bamboo harvested in the surroundings is used for a multitude of purposes: the thinner bamboo stems are split and woven according to Karen traditions to make infill walling. The bamboo wattle enables the air to circulate and creates a surprisingly attractive play of light and shadow. Thicker bamboo poles are used for the door sheathing, slatted wall elements that provide views in and out, and the berths. Thanks to the offset arrangement of the beds, the house with an area of only about 2.5 by 2.5 metres provides sufficient space for play. TYIN tegnestue planned additional facilities for the children on site: a covered patio, a barbecue area with benches, and a swing made of bamboo poles. The group of architects also completed a library and a bathhouse in one of the neighbouring villages in the borderland. Capacity building in deprived regions is to remain the central focus of the team’s work. 84

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

sleeping quarters timber, bamboo 4–5 m 22 m3 5.3 m2 2.5 ≈ 2.5 m € 7,700 2009 4 months

Isometric drawing Floor plan scale 1:200

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Social housing in Iquique Architects: Elemental – Alejandro Aravena, Santiago de Chile

The estate of terraced houses in the Chilean desert offers refreshing variety with individual opportunities for expansion. Thirty years ago, a hundred families squatted on a piece of land measuring half a hectare in the centre of the Chilean desert town of Iquique and illegally built houses there. A decision was made to demolish the buildings and make space for new but absolutely low-cost dwellings for these same people to purchase. Commissioned by the government, the Chilean-American housing initiative Elemental developed a concept for an estate of terraced houses arranged in groups around four central courtyards, each house accommodating two families. The high inner-city land prices, in particular, did not allow the development of singlefamily homes; space-saving apartment blocks were not an option, either, as these would have limited the scope for future extensions.

it was hoped, would eventually open up new prospects for the inhabitants and help them to escape from poverty. The units consist either of a ground floor area taking up two grid spaces with an opportunity to expand at the rear, or two stacked upper floor levels of the same size with an opportunity to expand into the initially empty three-metrewide gap to the next upper floor unit. It was vital for the first 30 square metres not to appear as a finished entity, but rather as if the first half of a much larger building were contained within its structure. In effect, the terraced houses were only half-built – the half including the fundamental parts, such as a bathroom, kitchen, staircase and structural partition walls, which the inhabitants would never or only at great expense be able to add later. The aim was for the construction and layout of the building not to constrain the living conditions or the add-on capability. On the other hand, the negative impact on the surroundings caused by additions was to be minimized by providing a stable architectural framework.

Better living standards Because of low public subsidies and a lack of means on the part of most residents, the dwelling units were kept fairly small. However, the floor area of each unit can be increased to more than twice its size as a self-build project at a later date. This method was chosen not only to enable alterations according to the changing needs of the individual families, but more importantly to make sure that the dwellings would see a significant long-term increase in value thanks to improved living standards and increased floor area. This,

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross floor area: Apartment sizes: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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social housing reinforced concrete, masonry 2.25 m 3,620 m2 70 m2 (25 + 45 m2 extension or 36 + 34 m2 extension) € 700,000 2004 12 months

Not unstructured, but varied Today, a few years after its completion, the estate stands for refreshing variety. This has been achieved thanks partly to the enthusiasm with which the residents have embraced their courtyards. These collectively owned areas are not generally accessible to passers-by and provide space for extended family life outside. This project proves that the right strategic choice of minimal architecture can in fact inspire creativity and initiative among residents.

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Social housing in Ceuta Architects: MGM, Morales-Giles-Mariscal architects, Sevilla

The patio houses and towers, built using select locally available materials, stand up to the onshore winds without obscuring the views out to sea. The buildings of the new residential estate in Ceuta, a Spanish enclave in North Africa, have been carefully placed into the rugged landscape of a former quarry. The development comprises 127 apartments arranged in four groups of two-storey patio houses and a total of six towers. Open areas, loggias and courtyards provide the dwellings with a link to the exterior. They also offer structural protection against the aggressive winds that blow 200 days a year at an average speed of 80 kilometres an hour, without obstructing views of the Mediterranean Sea and a castle situated nearby. Each tower has its own protected, niche-like entrance area, whereas the two-storey patio houses feature an entrance at both ground-floor and first-floor level. To avoid the costly import of construction materials, the architects decided to source local materials that local tradespeople were able to handle. Thus, exposed concrete dominates the closed surfaces, whereas galvanized steel gratings have been used to give the open facades a uniform appearance. The gratings are also intended to enhance the cubic character of the individual blocks while providing visual as well as solar screening for the apartments. Colour-highlighted facade elements, wooden panelling and shutters made of recycled formwork panels are visible through the gratings. Despite the coarse materials, the layering of materials helps to generate a cheerful, southern flair within the estate.

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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residential reinforced concrete 2.6 m 47,079 m3 10,565 m2 (housing), 5,128 m2 (garage) € 13.7 million 2009 48 months

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House in Oderbruch Architects: HEIDE & VON BECKERATH, Berlin

A uniform dark skin with large sliding shutters characterizes this simple, economically constructed timber cottage. What is immediately striking about this house is its distinctive and contemporary design, particularly its uniform anthracitecoloured envelope. The holiday cottage is positioned on a plot behind the dyke of one of the Oder River’s many branches, occupying the spot on which a fisherman’s house once stood. While the single-storey new build with its saddle roof is similar in scale to the former building, its dark facade and timber construction set it apart from the surrounding buildings, which are made of brick in the local tradition. The development was rendered possible only by modifications to the law regulating the use of exterior space. The homogeneous appearance of the outer skin is due to its monochromatic design. The timber facade painted black with Swedish mud paint blends in with the anthracite-coloured flat roof tiles and the dark pre-weathered copper copings around the roof. Large wooden sliding shutters with vertical louvres function as both visual and solar screening. When closed, these elements, together with the pivoting shutters of the smaller windows, transform the building into an abstract volume. The building consists mainly of a timber stud construction with a rear-ventilated timber facade cladded with spruce tongue-and-groove weatherboarding. Whereas the walls were prefabricated off-site and brought in as complete elements, the rafter roof was erected on-site. The ridge is a very distinctive feature. It has been constructed as a flat roof and incorporates a roof light for maintenance purposes as well as the chimney flue. The dark, raw-sawn surface of the facade is in stark contrast to the light interior with its all-inwhite gypsum plasterboard finish. The fact that the elongated house has been divided into three equal parts can be perceived from the outside. Large, almost square sliding glass doors and roof lights with corresponding shutters separate the volume into three sections. The main living space with an open fireplace is positioned in the centre. The two-storey-high room reaches into the gables and receives natural daylight via one of the large roof lights. From this middle section, two separate flights of stairs lead up to the gallery level of the two-storey sections at either end of the building. The wood theme is continued inside, with boarded floors, sliding doors and built-in cupboards all made of oak.

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Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

residential timber 2.55 / 5.44 m 568 m3 108 m2 13.3 ≈ 8.1 m € 238,061 2009 10 months

Site plan scale 1:1,000 Sections • Floor plans scale 1:200 1 2 3 4 5

Living /dining area Kitchen Room Bathroom Void

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1 bituminous damp-proof membrane, 2 layers 22 mm OSB board roofing membrane 200/200 mm purlins 80/140 mm rafters with 140 mm mineral wool insulation infill vapour barrier 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard 2 0.5 mm copper sheet, pre-weathered separating layer; 22 mm OSB board 3≈ 24/48 battens roofing membrane 80/140 mm rafters with 140 mm mineral wool insulation infill vapour barrier 24/48 mm battens 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard

3 19 mm weatherboarding, spruce 40/60 mm battens; roofing membrane 60/40 mm counter-battens with 40 mm mineral wool insulation infill 16 mm particle board, open to diffusion 60/140 mm timber post with 140 mm mineral wool insulation infill 15 mm OSB board 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard 4 flat roofing tiles 30/50 mm battens; 30/50 mm counter-battens roofing membrane 80/140 mm rafters with 140 mm mineral wool insulation infill vapour barrier 24/48 mm battens 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard

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5 lift slide window with insulating glazing 6 mm toughened glass + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm toughened glass, UW = 1.5 W/m2K 6 sliding shutter: 19 mm vertical battens, spruce 10 mm horizontal liner 10/70 mm, 10/60 mm steel plate 7 20 mm brick pavers 10 mm bed of mortar 65 mm heating screed 30 mm PUR insulation 90 mm PS insulation waterproofing 200 mm reinforced concrete 8 19 mm weatherboarding, spruce 20 mm frame 19 mm weatherboarding, spruce

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Summer house near Saiki Architects: Takao Shiotsuka Atelier, Oita

The facade made of concrete blockwork with a visible pattern of joints highlights the simplicity of the building. This small, introverted summer house is located in the village of Honjo on Kyushu, the southernmost of the four major Japanese islands. The visible concrete blockwork and simple details enable the building to reflect the quiet, rustic atmosphere of the surroundings. The interior space is set inside a perforated outer skin: a narrow passageway wraps around the inner enclosure, running alongside the living room with a small kitchen unit and along the bedroom and bathroom. This space serves as a transition space between inside and outside, a function that recalls an element of traditional Japanese architecture. The openings in this facade, however, are not glazed, nor can they be closed with sliding elements. The outer skin is intended simply as a means of protection against the weather and as solar shading for the large sliding doors on both sides of the inner enclosure. Three cuboids of different heights rise above the roof, reflecting the inner layout whilst creating a variety of spatial volumes inside. The tallest of these “boxes” incorporates a gallery level as a place to retreat.

Site plan scale 1:10,000 Floor plans • Sections scale 1:200

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The design is based on a modular building approach, which has been adhered to down to the last detail. The architects developed the internal space and the entire structure based on the smallest structural element, the hollow concrete block measuring 390 by 190 by 190 millimetres. The blockwork was laid, reinforced with steel and filled with concrete. The lintels and roof parapets were constructed on-site according to the same principle and with the help of formwork. Despite the fine mortar joints used, the building has a monolithic appearance.

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Limited number of materials On the exterior, the concrete blockwork has been treated with a transparent, water-repellent coating. The simple, archaic quality of the walling matches the clarity of the overall shape. The objective of avoiding superfluous features is continued in the design of the interior, which is marked by a limited number of materials and by a puristic approach to surface finishes: exposed concrete for the ceilings and bathroom units, wooden floorboards and tatami mats in the bedroom. 100

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1 roof construction: 50 mm gravel 40 mm PS insulation plastic sealing sheet, 2 layers 120 –150 mm reinforced concrete 2 wall construction: hollow concrete blockwork 390/190/190 mm, water-repellent coating, 10 mm reinforcing steel, concrete infill 3 floor construction of peripheral passage: 500 mm sloped reinforced concrete, smooth finish damp-proof membrane 50 mm filler coarse, concrete ballast coarse 4 1.6 mm sheet steel, coated 5 floor construction of gallery: 18 mm floor boarding, Japanese cedar, waxed 12 mm plywood floor battens 60/140 mm joists 140 mm reinforced concrete 6 sliding fly screen polypropylene fabric in wood frame 7 sliding door with single glazing 8 mm float glass in wood frame 8 floor construction in bedroom: 40 mm tatami mats 250 mm reinforced concrete damp-proof membrane 50 mm filler coarse, concrete ballast coarse 9 36 mm wooden louvre sliding door

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Summer cabin near Gothenburg Architect: Johannes Norlander Arkitektur, Stockholm

The plain black building with its simple construction has united a 60-year-old cottage and its various extensions in a single uniform structure. Featuring velvety black surfaces and a simple construction, this clearly outlined summer cottage stands in the rugged landscape of Brännö Island at the entrance to Gothenburg’s harbour. The new building envelopes a cottage built in the 1950s and its small extensions added in the 1970s in a uniform skin incorporating the same volume as the original. Intact elements from the existing building, such as the loadbearing timber studs of the exterior walls, have been retained and integrated into the improved structure, which has been set out on a 6-metre grid. The facades with their new plywood cladding have been coated with a tar-coloured paint in the style of traditional boathouses. The mitred panel edges have also been protected with a mixture of tar and linseed oil. All windows and doors have been set flush into the facade; window sills have been reduced to a minimum. Simple black aluminium channel sections finish off the narrow roof overhang and function as a very basic gutter. Together with the black tarpaper-covered roof, they complete the uniform appearance of the exterior. The wooden surfaces found throughout the interior, in contrast, give the space the effect of having an inner lining made of pine, which lends it a casual elegance. The screws used to fix this sheathing are visible. All window reveals, skirting boards and pieces of in-built furniture have been made from 16-millimetre-thick plywood. Painted white on the inside, the window frames emphasize the light atmosphere of the interior space.

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residential timber 2.3 / 3.4 m 284 m3 81 m2 14.2 ≈ 4.8 m € 160,000 2011 5 months

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1 roofing felt, 2 layers 18 mm laminated veneer lumber, 12 mm OSB board 220/45 mm laminated veneer lumber rafters with 195 mm mineral fibre insulation vapour barrier, plastic sheeting 70/28 mm timber battens 12 mm pine plywood board 2  75 mm vent hole in rafter 3 400/115 mm glulam ridge beam 4 60/60 mm aluminium gutter, black, powder-coated 5 16 mm pine plywood cladding, tar-coloured coating; 28/70 mm timber battens; wind barrier 45/45 mm timber stud with 45 mm mineral fibre insulation 45/95 mm timber stud (existing) with 95 mm mineral fibre insulation vapour barrier, plastic sheeting 45/45 mm timber stud with 45 mm mineral fibre insulation 12 mm pine plywood board 6 sliding door with double glazing 2≈ 6 mm float + 16 mm cavity in aluminium frame 7 22 mm pine board flooring 250/45 mm timber beam (existing) d with woodchip-filled cavities (existing) false floor (existing) 8 22/95 mm pine board terrace decking 7 9 8 mm HPL laminated board

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Single-family home in Stuttgart Architect: lohrmannarchitekt, Stuttgart

Despite the difficult and cramped site on a steep slope, the architects have successfully created a simple family home with an interior that feels spacious. Stuttgart’s city centre lies in a narrow valley surrounded by hills on three sides – a circumstance which may explain why a house on a slope with a spectacular view just outside the city centre is not considered out of the ordinary. What does merit attention, however, is the fact that this house for a family of four has been developed on a 100-metre-long but only 10-metre-wide site. This, after all, was an allotment on a former vineyard, originally only permitting a three-metre-wide construction at its bottom end. Following lengthy negotiations with the local building authorities, the developable footprint was brought in line with the neighbouring residential buildings and increased to a width of five metres. This enabled the construction of a compact and monolithic building with a solid concrete core wrapped in timber cladding, which the architects have taken to the very limits of permissible volume.

Effective use of space In view of the stringent restrictions concerning the building’s volume, it was crucial that the interior space be used as effectively as possible whilst, at the same time, creating an impression of spaciousness. In contrast to the layout of conventional terraced houses with comparable dimensions, the rooms were neither strung together nor stacked, but arranged as an array of connecting levels with an open living space.

Here, the kitchen with an adjoining dining and living area is positioned on the entrance level, the ground floor. The upper storey also provides space for living and working. On the two lower levels, the bedrooms are arranged around a freestanding core with open bathroom facilities. Sliding doors transform the open space for the two children on the first of the lower levels into a private retreat. The solid core houses not only toilets and bathrooms, but also built-in wardrobes and technical installations. Terraces on the south-east and south-west sides of the building extend each of the levels out into the surrounding landscape and provide a panoramic view across Stuttgart. To spare the residents from having to negotiate the 150 steps separating the house from the street with heavy loads, a small rope lift of the kind used by vineyard workers on steep hills has been installed to convey shopping and other things up and down the hillside. This touch recalls this site’s winegrowing past.

Clear design with few materials Through a reduction of the palette of materials and surfaces to just a few – primarily timber and concrete – the conceptual and formal clarity applied to the building envelope has been continued in the interior of the house. The rough exposed concrete visible on the ceilings and the inner surfaces of the exterior walls emphasizes the structural mass of the load-bearing system, whilst the slightly set-back wooden facing between the large window frames, which have been set flush into the facade, and the load-bearing concrete wall highlights the layered construction of the building envelope.

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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residential reinforced concrete 2.40 – 2.95 m 620 m3 206 m2 5 ≈ 12 m € 300,000 2006 10 months

bb Site plan scale 1:3,500 Sections • Floor plans scale 1:250 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Entrance Terrace Kitchen Living /dining area Study Lounge Void Storage space Bedroom Bathroom Service room aa

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1 roof construction of dead flat roof: roof covering, not resistant to foot traffic 22 mm Douglas fir decking 60/60 mm Douglas fir sleepers 40/50 mm aluminium RHS rubber matting bituminous damp-proof membrane, 2 layers 120 mm rigid PUR foam insulation hot asphalt bitumen 180 mm reinforced concrete roof slab 2 0.7 mm anodized aluminium 3 22 mm rough-sawn Douglas fir battens /rear ventilation 60/40 mm Douglas fir 100 mm fibreboard insulation 180 mm reinforced concrete 4 10 mm veneer plywood facing 5 wood-aluminium frame slide /tilt door 6 22 mm Douglas fir decking 50 mm aluminium SHS rubber matting

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bituminous damp-proof membrane, 2 layers 120 mm rigid PUR foam insulation hot asphalt bitumen 180 mm reinforced concrete 16 mm fully glued larch parquet flooring 55 mm heating screed; separating layer 140 mm rigid foam impact sound insulation 55 mm polished concrete with embedded floor heating system PE foil separating layer 50 mm rigid foam impact-sound insulation 180 mm reinforced concrete  70 mm downpipe 16 mm fully glued larch parquet flooring 65 mm heating screed separating layer 80 mm rigid foam impact-sound insulation bituminous damp-proof membrane, 2 layers 180 mm reinforced concrete ground slab PE foil separating layer 100 mm perimeter insulation

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Dwelling in Andalue Architects: Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects, Concepción

The simple means of linked voids creates a feeling of generosity despite the limited floor space permissible for this clear steel structure, which makes do with only three different steel sections. A

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The suburb Andalue on the outskirts of the Chilean town of Concepción is characterized by two-storey dwellings with pitched roofs. That, however, is just what this three-storey new build does without: with three full storeys, the permissible gross floor area would have been exceeded. For this reason the architects created several voids throughout the building, linking the various levels. The dwelling, designed for a male client living alone, is totally enveloped in bronze-coloured, corrugated aluminium-zinc sheeting. Only the narrow, dark fascia and the slim, darkbrown window frames around the large, irregularly placed apertures structure the flush facade. Daylight can thus enter the partly two-storey living space from a variety of angles. Viewed from the outside through the square-shaped windows, the interior space looks unusual and, thanks to the high voids, appears almost empty. The simple steel structure, using only three different crosssections, protrudes outwards asymmetrically on the longer sides of the building. Maximum use has therefore been made of the small site’s developable footprint. The zones created on either side of the building between the living areas and the skin are used to accommodate stairs, bathrooms and storage space, as well as to enhance the seclusive nature of the private zones. There is really only one generous opening to the outside, and that is the one providing direct access to the terrace.

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Site plan scale 1:3,000 Floor plans • Sections scale 1:200 Isometric drawing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Kitchen /dining area Living room Storage space Bedroom Void Bathroom Study

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

residential steel 2.5 /5.0 m 550 m3 136 m2 10.3 ≈ 6.8 m € 75,000 2007 10 months

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Axonometric drawing of steel framework Vertical section • Horizontal section scale 1:20 1 0.5 mm standing seam roof cladding, coated steel sheet vapour barrier 20 mm MDF board 100/50/3 mm steel channel section cavity 240/120 mm steel Å-section surrounding 50/100 mm pine joists, 100 mm rock wool insulation 15 mm gypsum plasterboard, painted 2 100/50/3 mm steel channel section 3 50 mm rock wool thermal/ acoustic insulation 240/120 mm steel Å-section 4 fixed glazing: 4 mm float glass+ 6 mm cavity + 4 mm float glass in 25/25 mm dark-brown anodized aluminium angle frame 5 42/30 mm dark-brown anodized aluminium RHS frame 6 0.5 mm aluminium zinc corrugated sheeting, panel depth 11 mm

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vapour barrier 20 mm MDF board 100 mm rock wool insulation 15 mm gypsum plasterboard, painted wall cupboard: 15 mm MDF board, painted white, on MDF substructure 25 mm screed with epoxy-resin coating 80 mm reinforced concrete on 0.8 mm trapezoidal sheet steel 240/120 mm steel Å-section with 50/70 mm pine joists, 50 mm rock wool insulation 15 mm gypsum plasterboard, painted window 5 mm float glass+ 6 mm cavity + 5 mm float glass in 25/25 mm dark-brown anodized aluminium angle frame kitchen worktop 0.5 mm stainless steel 25 mm screed with epoxy-resin coating 100 mm reinforced concrete 5 mm impervious mat 100 mm gravel bed

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Oyster farmer’s house in Brittany Architects: RAUM, Nantes

Large wall panels slide away to connect the clearly structured living and working spaces as well as open up the building to the exterior. Depending on the tides, the elongated and rugged shoreline of Etel bay in Brittany provides a constantly changing spectacle varying between landscape and seascape. In line with the mutable character of the bay, the design of this house is based on the idea of creating a building that can easily adapt to different needs and occasions. The compact, prism-shaped building accommodates a storage room as well as a temporary living and office space for the client, a lady oyster farmer. A central courtyard adjoined by the kitchen and a small bathroom separates the living and working zones. Sliding facade panels and partition walls

create various spatial situations. The enclosed courtyard can, for example, be converted into a terrace that opens out into the surrounding landscape. A ladder leads up from the courtyard on to a small roof terrace with an integrated bench, which reveals a bathtub when opened. The green roof is home to an array of plants. Wood has been used throughout, for the structure as well as the interior fit-out. The walls are sheathed in vertical slats – the outside with a uniform black paint coating, the inside kept all in white. Narrow vertical slits behind translucent polycarbonate sheeting perforate the barn’s facade. Here the loadbearing structure is visible, as the workroom does without an interior wall covering. A berth made of wood for lounging and sleeping frames the generous panoramic window in the living room. Floor plan • Sections scale 1:200

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Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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residential, commercial timber 4.19 m 353 m3 130 m2 24.23 ≈ 5.92 m € 130,500 2009 6 months

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1 80 mm soil for planted roof (reused excavated soil) 10 mm drainage mat 1.5 mm UV-resistant plastic sealing layer 60 mm mineral wool insulation separating layer 18 mm OSB board 75/200 mm Douglas fir roof beams with 200 mm glass wool insulation 25/25 mm pine battens 150/18 mm white-washed timber sheathing 2 60/25 mm black Douglas fir sheathing 25/45 mm battens and counter-battens, Douglas fir damp-proof membrane 12 mm OSB board 145 mm glass wool insulation 12 mm OSB board vapour barrier 25/25 mm pine battens 150/18 mm white-washed timber sheathing 3 fixed double glazing 6 mm + 16 mm + 10 mm in wood frame 4 22 mm veneer plywood sheathing for lounging/sleeping berth 5 reinforced concrete, smooth finish 6 sliding door with double glazing 4 mm + 16 mm + 4 mm in wood frame

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Cowshed in Thankirchen Architects: Florian Nagler Architekten, Munich

Despite the constraints of a tight budget and the choice of a seemingly simple structure, even a design task such as a cowshed can reveal unexpected interior qualities. Because of their purely functional purpose, agricultural buildings are rarely distinguished by their aesthetic qualities. What they have to be, above all, is practical and cost-efficient. The fact that both of these qualities can be combined with good architecture is demonstrated by Florian Nagler’s cowshed in Thankirchen, in the foothills of the Bavarian Alps. Built as extensions to an existing barn, the two new structures – the cowshed and a milking barn – are lined up along a road just outside the village. Owing to this arrangement, the view of the village scenery has remained unobstructed. Because of the tight budget, it was decided that the wood for the main structure would be cut in the client’s own forest, taken to the sawmill two kilometres away and then assembled on site largely by the owners themselves. In terms of design, this meant that the construction had to be kept as simple as possible in order for the work – cutting timber sections to length and drilling holes – to be performed by unskilled workers. The result is a structure made of solid sawn timber with a three-bay layout, in which each of the bays accommodates a different function: an area with stalls and a dunging passage, a feeding alley, and a feeding trough. The close spacing of the columns and beams clearly accentuates the separation of these individual areas. What at first appears as a simple structure reveals a remarkably diverse interior design.

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Site plan scale 1:2,000 Sections • Floor plan scale 1:500

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Cowshed Milking parlour Waiting area Dairy Plant room Office Calving box

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galvanized steel sheet capping 45/280 mm timber fascia board 50/200 mm ridge cleat 500/650/27 mm ridge connector, three-ply spruce board roof structure (29° pitch): interlocking roof tiles 30/50 mm battens 60/80 mm counter-battens 45 mm rough-sawn sheathing, unitized 200/260 mm truss rafters 50/200 mm timber cleat 200/260 mm interior post, rough-sawn spruce 200/200 mm raking strut (29° pitch) 60/200 mm timber tie  16 mm galvanized steel tie rod 80/300 mm timber tie 50/180 mm eaves board 160/100 mm galvanized steel angle  76.1/4 mm galvanized steel tube wind screen, PVC/glass fibre fabric 50/80 mm spruce post 25/40 mm galvanized steel channel guide track with elastomer lining 200/200 mm exterior post 80/80/200 mm bottom rail 160 –200 mm reinforced concrete 160 mm precast concrete slatted floor spruce sill, half-round wood 24 mm vertical spruce boarding 250 mm reinforced concrete partition wall to manure pit

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions:

Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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agriculture timber 3.1– 4.5 m (eaves) 8.4 m (ridge) 7,150 m3 978 m2 44.0 ≈ 16.6 m (cowshed) 20.5 ≈ 12.2 m (milking barn) € 518,000 (gross) 2007 18 months

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Open-air pool in Eichstätt Architects: Kauffmann Theilig & Partner, Ostfildern/Kemnat

The single-storey, unheated building of the open-air swimming pool complex is unobtrusive and blends in with the surrounding landscape. Before the backdrop of the Benedictine Abbey of St. Walburg, worldly pleasures of the aquatic variety await. Situated on an island in the river Altmühl, a new family swimming pool complex has replaced an ageing open-air pool. As protection from floodwaters, the new grounds have been moved about a metre higher. Because of unstable subsoil conditions, the soil beneath the complex had to be exchanged to provide a good foundation. The leisure facilities, including a lap pool, diving pool, adventure pool and kids’ pool, which are linked by benches and grassy areas for sunbathing, have been arranged to create a lively outdoor water park. A playground

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and beach volleyball courts round out the programme for younger visitors. A densely planted roof with circular rooflights covers the central entrance area, incorporating a kiosk, the entrance, changing rooms and sanitary facilities, and creates a seamless transition to the wooded hill in the background. The green roof surface is inclined on this side, almost touching the ground in some places, which helps it to blend in with the surrounding landscape. The changing rooms are set into the spatial continuum as colourful cubes. Visible from the outside, they pick up the colours of the immediate surroundings, whereas the main volume with its flat, planted roof and dark, fully glazed surfaces takes a back seat and opens up to the island. The building overall is not heated, but a heatable area next to the changing rooms makes for a pleasant stay even on cooler summer days.

Site plan scale 1:4,000 Sections • Floor plan scale 1:400

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Vertical section scale 1:20 1 extensive planting with a variety of seeds and plants, herbs and grasses 150 mm substrate, filter fleece 50 mm drainage layer plastic membrane high-polymer waterproofing membrane, root resistant 80 mm polystyrene rigid foam insulation vapour barrier 240 mm reinforced concrete 2 6 mm galvanized steel angle 3 ventilation louvres with double glazing 4 double glazing with 2≈ 8 mm safety glass + 10 mm cavity horizontal steel profiles, powder-coated 5 70/140 mm steel RHS post 6 620/380 mm concrete bench

7 800/400/10 mm tiling 3 mm thin bed mortar plastic sealing layer 85 mm fibre-reinforced heating screed PE foil, 2 layers 60 mm PUR insulation bituminous sheeting 40 mm screed 250 mm reinforced concrete 8 10 mm tiling, 3 mm thin bed mortar bonded sealing 10 mm reinforced plaster 180 mm masonry, 20 mm plaster 200 mm reinforced concrete 9 120 mm fibre-reinforced screed, painted PE foil, 2 layers, open to diffusion 250 mm reinforced concrete 10 PMMA rooflight, double glazing, openable 500 mm GFP base

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Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Pool area: Grassed area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

leisure reinforced concrete 2.20 m (technical facilities); 2.67 m (toilets); 3.42 m (changing rooms) 5,250 m3 (entrance building) 1,650 m2 (entrance building) 2,100 m2 11,200 m2 70 ≈ 15 m € 7.5 million 2010 13 months

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Commercial complex in Munich Architects: bogevischs buero, Munich

Simple measures lend the facade of this costefficient commercial building a varied, almost graphic appearance. Following an architectural competition in 2007, Munich’s eighth commercial complex has been developed on one of the city’s most important arterial roads. With a floor area of 11,000 square metres, it provides space for a large number of small and medium-sized commercial and artisanal businesses. A central foyer connects the road with the delivery yard to the rear of the building, i.e. adjacent to the railway tracks. Two further entrances at the east and west ends of the building can also be approached from the yard. Large freight lifts are located here for the delivery and transport of materials and goods. A central corridor on each of the five levels provides access to the rental units positioned to the left and right of this main axis. Daylight enters the corridors through two large glass facade elements with recessed balconies at the ends of the building and through the vertical light shafts of the three staircases. With their sculpted stairways and oak handrails, these access cores of exposed concrete convey an air of quality and durability.

Simple construction Together with the columns in the interior, which are laid out on a 7.5-metre grid, and the access cores, the load-bearing exterior walls of concrete form the structural system of the building. Anthracite-coloured glass fibre concrete panels clad the base of the reinforced concrete frame construction. Vibrant green metal panels are used to highlight the area with retail shops set back alongside the street. Atop the dark base

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rests the main structure with its semi-transparent skin of profiled glass, which is structured by a rhythmic pattern of horizontal and vertical openings and which partially covers the square-shaped workshop windows. This simple overlapping produces an exhilarating, graphic facade, despite the fact that only two window formats are used on the upper levels. The multilayered design is especially noticeable at dusk and dawn, when the windows are lit from within. All rental units can be ventilated naturally and without disturbance from traffic noise, thanks to the double-skin facade system.

Cost-efficient fit-out To keep rents reasonable, the units are let in a near-buildingshell state, with plain white walls. All surfaces in the interior are durable and robust to withstand wear and tear. The landlord installs only the partition walls between the units, which range in size from 39 to 105 square metres. Thanks to the regular facade grid of approximately 2.5 metres, the installation of these walls is simple and flexible. The tenant is responsible for the fit-out, such as the laying of floors and all mechanical and electrical installations, as well as the connections of the rental units to the technical zones incorporated in the central cores via routing trays, which were fitted into the corridors by the landlord. The rooms intended as toilets, which are also incorporated in these central core zones, have also not been fully fitted, so that these spaces can be used flexibly, e.g. for storage space. As the basement level is used exclusively for storage facilities, the underground parking area is positioned below the delivery zone. Light and air openings hidden in the grass allow for low-cost natural lighting and air exchange.

Site plan scale 1:5,000 Section • Floor plans scale 1:800

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10 60 mm green roof system with substrate and sedum carpet 25 mm drainage mat 5 mm protection mat with waterstorage capacity 12 mm two-ply bituminous damp-proof membrane 300 mm sloping rigid polystyrene insulation 6 mm reinforced bitumen vapour barrier

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300 mm reinforced concrete 11 300/300/50 mm concrete paver 30 – 50 mm crushed stone chips, lime-free 12 3 mm aluminium sheet with antidrumming coating 13 45/83/3 mm aluminium RHS 14 262/60/7 mm channel-shaped glass 0.75 mm polyacrylic facade membrane, open to diffusion 100 mm mineral fibre insulation 250 mm reinforced concrete 15 solar and sound-protective glazing in aluminium frame 8 mm float + 16 mm cavity +

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4 mm float, Ug = 1.1 W/m2K, R'w= 37 dB 262/60/7 mm channel-shaped glass 2≈ 45/83/3 mm aluminium RHS frame 3 mm aluminium sheet floor covering of tenant’s choice 114 mm floating reinforced concrete slab 2 mm PE-separating foil 8 mm polyurethane sound insulation 320 mm reinforced concrete textile vertical awning heating pipes

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office, retail reinforced concrete 4.15 m (ground floor) 3.30 m (upper floors) 83,279 m3 11,321 m2 140.0 ≈ 20.8 m € 23.8 million 2011 25 months

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Print and media house in Augsburg Architects: OTT ARCHITEKTEN, Augsburg

On a tight budget and schedule, an expressive facade has been developed using a system of prefabricated modules. 5

The monolithic building for a printing company provides a refreshing contrast to the bland and impersonal buildings surrounding it on the industrial estate in the northern part of Augsburg. Alongside production facilities and a cafeteria on the ground floor, the simple yet distinctive building houses offices and a small apartment for the managing director on the first floor. The extremely tight budget and time schedule prompted the selection of a facade system of prefabricated sandwich panels consisting of precast, anthracite-dyed concrete elements. Three different modules have been used in a variety of combinations to suit the functional requirements of the interior. The rounded corners of the building required a further standard module. These few elements were all it took to create this varied facade. Like the corners, the window openings have also been rounded, adding an interesting touch to the punctuated facade, which is further enlivened by the sun shading in red and orange hues. A setback at ground-floor level marks the entrance to the two-storey entrance foyer, which clearly links the two otherwise separate levels. The coloured units and full-height doors inside are in deliberate contrast to the rough look of the precast concrete floor slabs and exposed cable ducts. The aubergine-coloured reception desk in the entrance area picks up the theme of rounded windows.

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commercial reinforced concrete 2.6 – 2.9 m 5,770 m3 approx. 770 m2 40.2 ≈ 20.4 m € 1.05 milion 2003 6 months

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c 7 precast concrete sandwich panel: 100 mm exposed concrete facing, anthracite-dyed, fixed to load-bearing element with stainless-steel wall ties 100 mm thermal insulation 200 mm reinforced concrete load-bearing element, interior surface machine smoothed 8 insulating glass 4 mm + 16 mm cavity + 4 mm 9 vertical electric blind 10 195/100 mm precast exposed concrete element 11 15 mm shadow gap

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1 roof construction: 50 mm gravel; 1.8 mm damp-proof membrane separating non-woven fabric 160 mm rigid foam insulation 0.2 mm PE foil vapour barrier 300 mm reinforced concrete 2 24 mm veneer plywood, sloped 3 1.5 mm metal sheet, dark grey 4 100 mm composite thermal insulation smooth plaster finish, 2 mm grain 5 sliding door with insulating glass 6 mm + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm 6 80 mm reinforced concrete 20 mm perimeter insulation 7 floor construction: 25 mm parquet strip flooring 60 mm screed

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20 mm impact sound insulation 60 mm levelling insulation 300 mm reinforced concrete exposed concrete soffit of filigree floor 8 roof terrace construction: 80/30 mm timber decking, Douglas fir 60/80 mm squared timber, Douglas fir 400/400/40 mm concrete pavers 10 mm protective rubber mat separating non-woven fabric 1.8 mm damp-proof membrane separating non-woven fabric 100 mm insulation 0.2 mm PE foil vapour barrier 300 mm reinforced concrete 9 2 mm aluminium sheet, powder-coated 10 8 mm tension cable, stainless steel

11 precast concrete sandwich panel: 100 mm exposed concrete facing, anthracite-dyed, fixed to load-bearing element with stainless-steel wall ties 100 mm thermal insulation 200 mm reinforced concrete load-bearing element, interior surface machine smoothed 12 vertical electric blind 13 insulating glass 4 mm + 16 mm cavity + 4 mm 14 floor construction: 25 mm parquet strip flooring, birch 40 mm + 60 mm insulation bituminous damp-proof membrane 120 mm reinforced concrete; 150 mm gravel 15 50 mm perimeter insulation

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Mobile showroom Architects: Jürke Architekten, Munich

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The mobile showroom made of prefabricated modules takes a single day to assemble and packs into a single ISO shipping container for transport around the world. This mobile showroom is used by a kitchen appliance manufacturer for the presentation of its products worldwide. It is based on a patented construction system incorporating a self-supporting spatial cell with curtain wall facades. Additional variants are in the pipeline, such as ones with thermally separated facades, vacuum insulation or solar panels. The rectangular pavilion is structured into two terrace elements and three fully prefabricated modules featuring glass facades, kitchen units and installations. Thanks to the complete shop assembly, a high degree of precision is achieved and a dependence on local production facilities avoided. A central energy module connects the two exhibition rooms and provides the necessary installations for air conditioning, electricity, water and drainage. Once the thickness of the floor and ceiling has been subtracted, the clear room height is 2.36 metres. The spatial configuration is made to measure for transport in a 45-foot ISO high cube shipping container measuring 13.72 by 2.44 by 2.90 metres. The loading clearance between module surface and container hatch is only two centimetres. The showroom can easily be transported by lorry or ship to places around the world. The steel container also provides protection for safe storage when the showroom is not in use.

Quick assembly and disassembly The showroom can be assembled in a single day. A rail system, which eventually functions as a substructure for the terrace elements, is used to unload the modules from the containers. The greatest stress by far on frame and glazing occurs when the crane lifts the modules into place. In order to bear these loads, removable diagonal bracing members with flange plates can be bolted to the insides of the frames. The rigid frame joints suffice to resist the impact of wind. The individual modules are placed on 20 accurately positioned screwpiles, which are height-adjustable and interconnected. Additional steel plates are provided at floor level to lock the modules securely into place. In order to return the site to its original condition after the dismantling of the showroom, the helical steel piles are simply unscrewed. The screwpile manufacturer is experienced in the installation of temporary structures, as the company’s product range also includes Christmas tree stands. 136

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showroom steel 2.36 m 110 m3 44.77 m2 9.75 ≈ 4.59 m € 190,000 (gross) 2009 3 months

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Horizontal section • Vertical section Scale 1:10 1 80/80/5 mm steel SHS corner profile 2 6 mm satinized toughened glass in aluminium frame 3 panel: 3 mm aluminium sheet metal, galvanized, folded 60 mm PS foam insulation 40/60 mm wood framing 3 mm aluminium sheet metal, galvanized, folded 4 40/80/5 mm steel RHS facade profile 5 5 mm facade connecting flat steel plate 6 50/100/6 steel channel 7 25 mm veneer plywood 8 sliding door with 4 mm SG + 16 mm caving + 4 mm SG insulation glass in aluminium frame

9 3 mm aluminium sheet metal, galvanized, folded 10 tube sealant, EPDM cellular rubber 11 60/60/4 mm steel SHS post 12 alkyd resin paint finish 20 mm veneer plywood 60 mm thermal insulation 25 mm substructure 12.5 mm gypsum board, coated 13 3 mm linoleum 8 mm hardboard 20 mm veneer plywood 60/60/4 mm steel SHS post 14 steel plates (extra weight) 15 M 30 bolt 16 10 mm load distribution plate, with welded positioning ring 17 anti-slip mat 18 steel screwpile foundation

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Joiner’s workshop near Freising Architects: Deppisch Architekten, Freising

Site plan scale 1:3,000 Floor plan scale 1:500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

With its simple details, select natural materials and the client’s support, this timber skeleton construction conveys a sense of casual elegance. This extraordinary joinery shop is located on the outskirts of Pulling, close to Munich airport. Its clear shape derives from the structural arrangement inside; the details are simple and straight to the point. The facades facing east, south and west are fully clad with black-coated timber. Horizontally folding top-hinged shutters, which have been set flush into the facade, protrude in a prominent way when raised, revealing narrow vertical window openings as and when required. The matte shimmering surface of the photovoltaic modules forming the surface of the low-pitched roof is visible from afar. Diffuse light, similar to that in a studio, filters into the hall through the polycarbonate multi-wall panels fitted on the north facade. Three large glass doors with narrow wooden frames have been set into the translucent facade, resembling a display cabinet. They not only offer views in and out of the building, but also facilitate the delivery of large parts.

Authentic materials The light and spacious interior has been designed using only a few materials that have been left to reveal their natural surfaces. The characteristic materials include untreated spruce, which is used for the construction and the interior fit-out; a floor slab with a polished concrete surface, its expansion joints aligned with the grid of the timber framework; and the light-diffusing multi-wall panels made of recycled polycarbonate. Large-format prefabricated timber frame elements ensured a short construction period. The client took on the

Machine area Workbenches Office Changing room Staff room Shop office Tools Spray room Heating Pellet store Stock room Building services Wood store Storage

task of fitting the polycarbonate panels and the timber cladding, including the installation of doors, windows and shutters, and completing the interior fit-out. The detail solutions were developed in close cooperation with the architects and immediately put into practice on site.

Building services and energy production The open, grid-based layout of the simple frame building offers a great deal of flexibility; the building services, which have been designed according to an additive concept with clearly separate functions, can easily adapt to these changing needs. The main beams have, for example, been provided with large cut-outs for the installation of heating pipes, electrical cables and dust extraction equipment. Heat and power are generated on the premises. The sawdust produced is extracted and pressed into pellets. Fired, these cover the total heat demand of the heating system and the in-house spray shop. Photovoltaic modules covering an area of 1,200 square metres produce some 70,000 kilowatt hours per year, which exceeds the demands of the joinery shop. The modules cover the entire roof area without penetrations and appear to finish off flush with the exterior walls. In fact, the rear-ventilated modules are at a distance to the dampproofing and can be exchanged easily.

Schematic sections of structural, energy and lighting concept scale 1:250 a structural elements/materials /U-values of envelope

translucent facade: polycarbonate multi-wall panels 0.90 W/m2K

b life cycle wood /waste: sawdust extracted from the workshop is compressed to pellets and used to heat the building in winter c use of daylight / photovoltaics

roof: box elements, prefabricated, infill insulation 0.18 W/m2K

wall: box elements, prefabricated, infill insulation 0.22 W/m2K

glulam structure, spruce windows triple glazing 0.90 W/m2K

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concrete floor slab, unreinforced, polished, expansion joints aligned with grid of structure, perimeter insulation 0.32 W/m2K

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insulation infill 200 mm mineral wool insulation vapour barrier 18 mm 3-ply board, spruce 2 60/495 mm multi-wall panel, light-diffusing, made of recycled polycarbonate 3 glass door in north facade:

31 mm double glazing in 50/200 mm spruce frame with aluminium cover profile on the outside Ø 6 mm diagonal stainless steel tension rod 4 70/170 mm laminated timber cross bar

5 200/160 mm laminated timber post 6 120 /60 mm squared timber, vertical in main axis 7 200/160 mm laminated timber beam 8 10 mm steel splice plate, painted 9 250 mm concrete floor slab, polished

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10 440/160 mm laminated timber roof beam 11 250/340/15 mm slotted splice plate 12 M16 threaded rod with turnbuckle, welded to splice plate 13 20 mm top-hung folding shutter, spruce, black finish

14 motor for top-hung folding shutter 15 triple glazing in spruce frame 16 hoist cable/guide rail 17 pulley 18 20 mm spruce cladding, black finish 50/40 mm battens

ventilation cavity facade membrane, open to diffusion 22 mm wood fibre sheathing 80/140 mm squared timber with insulation infill 140 mm mineral wool insulation 18 mm 3-ply board, spruce

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Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Useful floor area Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs:

Year of completion: Construction period:

commercial timber 3.5 – 5.6 m 6,748 m3 1,128 m2 1,224 m2 18 ≈ 68 m € 744,192 (gross, cost categories 300+400, without PV plant) 2010 4 months

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1 wall construction: 100 –160 /20 mm spruce cladding, black finish 40 /50 mm battens ventilation cavity facade membrane, open to diffusion 22 mm wood fibre sheathing 80/140 mm squared timber with 140 mm mineral wool insulation 18 mm 3-ply board, spruce 2 open top-hung folding shutter 3 triple glazing in spruce frame 4 hoist cable /guide rail for lifting mechanics of top-hung folding shutter 5 200 /160 mm laminated timber post 6 60/495 mm multi-wall panel, light-diffusing, made of recycled polycarbonate 7 glass door in north facade: 31 mm double glazing in 50/200 mm spruce frame with aluminium cover profile on the outside Ø 6 mm diagonal stainless steel tension rod

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School cafeteria in Berlin Architects: ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin 1 2 3

Site plan scale 1:4,000 1 Gymnasium 2 School building 3 Cafeteria

The clear rectangular building with its playful timber structure was developed on a tight budget and a short timescale over the summer holidays. The primary school in Berlin’s Tempelhof district has adopted the concept of school as an all-day place to learn and thrive. The refurbishment of the 1950s’ ensemble and the development of a new school cafeteria have provided the architectural means to fulfil the demands placed on an all-day school. A larch-clad timber stud structure encloses the simple, rectangular dining hall with its embedded “kitchen box” on three sides. The south-facing facade, a folded, permeable glass wall, opens on to an oak timber deck with semicircular cutouts for the old trees. The timber beams of the interior are set against a green background and are intended to look like branches, creating a visual link to the exterior. However, the ceiling design cannot be regarded as just an aesthetic feature. Developed in a close collaboration between the architects, structural engineers and contractors, the “branches” are a fundamental part of the load-bearing structure supporting the pavilion, which measures 21.3 by 10.5 metres. It was possible to undertake this innovative construction despite a tight budget and the construction period being limited to the summer holidays. Planks of inexpensive solid timber measuring 6 by 28 centimetres were fixed to the underside of an only 50-millimetrethick laminated veneer panel, but not spanning the full width of 9.5 metres. Unlike conventional multi-wall panels, the ribs appear to be almost randomly placed. In fact, their arrangement was precisely dictated by engineering calculations, which were carefully tested in three-dimensional models. In order for the forces to be transmitted from one rib to the next, overlaps and distances could not be undercut, and defined angles had to be adhered to. Once the pattern was copied on to the panels in the workshop, the ribs were aligned using dowel pins and glued permanently into place. They were screwed only at the ends in order to direct the considerable shear stress into the panel. Since the ribs end approximately 10 centimetres before the vertical supports, the prefabricated panel alone rests on the timber stud walls and the glass facade, and the size of the facade profiles makes additional posts unnecessary. The straightforward roof/wall connections have helped the project to stay within its low budget, as has the very simple interior fit-out. The building’s structure is exposed; only the beams have been painted with a clear, dust-binding lacquer and the laminated panels with a matt, green finish. 145

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Floor plan • Sections scale 1:250 Horizontal section scale 1:20 1 Access to school building via cloakroom 2 Registration 3 Dining hall 4 Kitchen 5 Timber deck 6 Door element, wooden frame, varnished with double glazing LSG 2≈ 4 mm + 16 mm cavity + SG 6 mm

7 18 mm tongue-and-groove boards, larch, brushed; 90/48 mm counter-battens 48/24 mm battens 16 mm cement-bonded particle board 60/200 mm timber posts with 200 mm thermal insulation infill 22 mm OSB panel vapour barrier 30 mm mineral fibre panel 30 mm timber substructure 16 mm MDF acoustic panel, fleece backing, micro-perforated surface

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Vertical section scale 1:20 1 3 mm polyurethane waterproofing membrane, UV resistant 180 mm thermal insulation, mineral wool vapour barrier roof element: 51 mm laminated veneer panel 60/280 mm timber beams, spruce, press-glued, brushed 2 51 mm additional laminated veneer panel for canopy roof 3 door element, wooden frame, varnished with double glazing LSG 2≈ 4 mm + 16 mm cavity + SG 6 mm 4 30/150 mm timber plank, oak 5 5 mm natural rubber flooring 50 mm cement screed; PE separating foil 22 mm OSB panel 60/260 mm timber beam 260 mm thermal insulation infill 22 mm cement-bonded particle board 6 18 mm tongue-and-groove boards, larch, brushed 90/48 mm counter-battens; 48/24 mm battens 16 mm cement-bonded particle board 60/200 mm timber posts with 200 mm thermal insulation infill 22 mm OSB panel vapour barrier 30 mm mineral fibre panel 30 mm timber substructure 16 mm MDF acoustic panel, fleece backing, micro-perforated surface 7 groove for excess glue

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs:

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cafeteria, education timber 3.57 m 1,170 m3 290 m2 21.3 ≈ 10.5 m € 630,860 (gross, cost categories 300 – 500) 2009 3 months

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School in Berlin Architects: AFF architekten, Berlin

Site plan scale 1:4,000

Unusually structured rendering on the outside and touches of bright colour within lend the low-budget school a sophisticated aesthetic. Since Germany’s disappointing results in the PISA education study in 2000, the federal states have been trying to revamp their school systems by introducing various reforms, and Berlin is no exception. Although the city is struggling with a mountain of debt, it is investing in new school buildings that will enable the merging of two types of secondary school into one, as well as meet the new demand for all-day schooling. The Anna-Seghers-Oberschule in Berlin’s Adlershof district is a pilot project, which currently accommodates the lower grades of one of these new comprehensive schools in its recently completed extension. The irregular U-shaped building opens up to the east and honours the scale of the neighbouring residential buildings. The appearance of the school has been enlivened by alternating the position of the larger windows in the facade (flush with the inner, then with the outer surface) and the position of the perforated sheet metal panels concealing the sash (on the left, then the right side of the fixed glazing). The outer pane of the insulation glazing has been glued to the frame to protect the wood. Smaller windows appear to have been scattered across the facade. Their wooden frames have been set deep into the reveals and are thus protected from the rain.

Distinctive facade The plans called for reinforced concrete walls with a composite thermal insulation system. To prevent drabness, the architects sought a way to make the facade more distinctive. At first glance, the pattern on the render appears to have been stamped into the surface, evoking associations with a hand-crafted rendered facade, especially in combination with the smooth window surrounds. But upon closer inspection, it becomes evident that the texture was applied as a layer of paint. A camouflage net of the kind used by the Swedish army in snow served as a model for three stencils, which were fixed to the walls and sprayed. Inside the school, the original of this inexpensive, washable, durable, tear-proof and above all fire-resistant material is used as curtains to conceal the yellow niches for coat racks. The stairwells have been painted the same bright yellow as the hallways, which widen in places to provide space for tailor-made benches of a special mineral material. The colour design is one of the measures chosen to set highlights at low cost. 150

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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education reinforced concrete 2.85 m 6,519 m3 1,534 m2 33 ≈ 27 m € 2.36 million (gross) 2010 15 months

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1 50 mm gravel 15 mm rubber granulate mat damp-proof membrane, 2 layers cold-applied, self-adhesive sealing membrane sloping insulation, min. thickness 180 mm vapour barrier 180 mm reinforced concrete 2 150 mm ETICS 250 mm reinforced concrete; 15 mm render 3 3 mm perforated aluminium sheet, matt lacquered finish 4 insulation glazing, fixed into rebated frame 5 3 mm acrylic solid surface material on lumber core panel 6 5 mm linoleum; 65 mm screed; PE sheeting 20 mm impact sound insulation 60 mm thermal insulation 270 mm reinforced concrete 7 safety railing: Ø 40 mm steel CHS, galvanized, painted

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Day-care centre in Unterföhring Architects: hirner & riehl architekten und stadtplaner, Munich

This clear and simple building made of crosslaminated timber wall panels and hollow box floors is enhanced by the contrast between the natural wood finish and the red fabric sun sails. Movable sun sails of red fabric lend the day-care centre in Unterföhring, near Munich, a playful air. They break up the clear, cubic building, allow it to present itself in different guises, and function as a link between the interior and exterior space. Two courtyards have been cut out of the timber building’s rectangular floor plan: the entrance courtyard and the garden courtyard, both of which extend all the way to the central corridor and allow daylight to flood inside. The main corridor is an important space that functions as a joint play area for all groups, a waiting zone for parents and a cloakroom for the children. The ten rooms for individual group units arranged alongside the facade, offering space for up to 250 children in all, are almost identical in size to allow a multifunctional use of the building. They are linked by smaller adjoining rooms, which extend the play area. Four therapy rooms on the first floor are available for sessions with individual children and for meetings with parents. All group rooms, including their adjoining areas, have direct access either to the terrace surrounding the ground floor or to the balconies and three spacious terraces on the upper level. All exterior space is covered, so that a dry outside play zone is available even on rainy days. The kitchen and the children’s canteen are located on the basement level next to a sunken courtyard, which is connected to the outside play area via a landscaped ramp.

Project data: Use: Construction: Clear room height: Gross volume: Gross floor area: Dimensions: Construction costs: Year of completion: Construction period:

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child-care timber 3.01 m 15,545 m3 4,115 m2 70 ≈ 20 m € 12.24 million 2011 15 months

Furniture and fit-out Rather resembling pieces of furniture, the two single-run stairs have been set into the middle of the central corridor. A waist-high door prevents the children from falling down the stairs in mid-play. The coat cubbies, showcases, fitted cupboards and a pool with plastic balls have been set flush into the walls, minimizing the risk of injury and providing the children with an unencumbered space in which to play.

Material and construction The building has been developed using a cross-laminated timber system erected on a reinforced concrete basement level. The ceilings above the ground-floor and first-floor levels each consist of hollow box timber elements. Except in the wet areas, the spruce surfaces are visible throughout the interior. On the exterior, however, weather-resistant oak boards have been used for the facade cladding as well as the terrace decking. As no paint or other coatings have been applied, the building’s structural and material features are exposed and pronounced.

Sustainability The use of timber as the main construction material throughout the building has led to a positive carbon balance and favourable primary energy values. The photovoltaic plant installed on the building’s flat roof covers a large proportion (16 kW/m2a) of the total electricity demand. By means of solar thermal panels, fitted next to the photovoltaic modules, and a large buffer storage tank, the building generates 70 per cent of its required heat. Peak loads are covered by environmentally friendly heat from a waste power plant.

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5 Staff 6 Multipurpose room 7 Playground equipment /garden tools 8 Entrance ramp to underground car park 9 Garden courtyard 10 Administration 11 Entrance courtyard

First floor plan

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Day-care centres in Munich Architects: schulz & schulz, Leipzig

Prefabricated components, repeated detail solutions and a limited range of building materials characterize these system-built day-care centres. By 2011, architects schulz & schulz had completed three of six planned day-care centres in Munich using two different layouts and a single modular building system (series 1). The main objective behind the systematized approach taken here has been to make use of prefabricated components – not primarily to develop complex multilayered elements or modules, which are extremely dependent on the quality of their joining on-site, but to follow a more pragmatic approach and move a large proportion of the construction work from the building site into the workshop. A key facet of this approach has been to limit the number of building materials to a few while making full use of their respective attributes, and to use repetition to simplify the construction process. The aim has been to create a basic order with both the rigidity that a modular building system requires and the flexibility of floor plans called for by the various programme requirements.

System principles and construction The structural system includes load-bearing wall and floor elements made of timber. The advantage of this construction method lies in the low weight of the elements and the gridindependent prefabrication in shop. The only restriction imposed on the size of the modules is that they must be transportable. With a room height of 2.5 metres on the ground floor, the walls can be prefabricated and assembled without any joints. The surface finish of the stacked and cross-laminated timber elements is a further advantage, as the colour of the spruce creates a warm atmosphere in the interior space. All floor elements are two-span one-way slabs. The interior wall divides the floor plan into two zones: deep group rooms and a narrow adjoining access corridor with side rooms. Because of the linear arrangement of the building, the size of the respective day-care centre determines the length of the structure; the depth always remains the same. For reasons of structure and energy efficiency, the building is kept as compact as possible. Owing to the clever arrangement of space with naturally lit zones and areas for flexible use, the building is not very deep. The solid timber construction method allows an assembly without thermal bridges; only the joints have to be closed to provide airtightness. In order to clearly undercut the current thermal protection standards and reduce transmission and infiltration heat loss,

the cross-laminated timber walls have been enveloped in a seamless composite thermal insulation system with mineral rendering. Floor plan zoning and the amount and southern orientation of windows contribute towards a reduction of ventilation heat loss and an increase in solar gains.

Noise protection and room acoustics In order to meet noise protection regulations, a layer of concrete has been added to the timber floor elements. Apart from the soundproofing advantages, the composite construction improves the structural stability. All wall elements with stricter soundproofing requirements have been constructed as two-leaf cavity walls. Milled grooves or adhesive-fixed timber strips on the visible surfaces of the prefabricated wall elements improve the noise conditions in rooms with special acoustic requirements.

Room climate and building services A combination of measures ensures a balanced and pleasant room climate. A planted trellis enveloping the building functions as a buffer and helps generate an agreeable microclimate in front of the windows. The balconies positioned in front of the group rooms provide structural shading in summer. In spring and autumn, or when the sun is low, the wooden roller shutters fitted at the windows come in useful. Since all windows have also been provided with a tilting sash, the heat absorbed by the solid timber walls during the day can dissipate at night via the corridor areas by means of cross-ventilation. The approach to the building services is characterized by a clear and accessible layout of cable runs, a bundling of all rooms with a sanitary purpose and of rooms requiring ventilation, and a prefabrication of components. The installation of all wall conduits for electricity and water has been performed off-site so that the laminated timber elements can be assembled in a fully installed state.

Distinction through a green facade In order to give the day-care centres a uniform appearance, the architects have planned to envelop each of the buildings in a trellis designed to support a variety of low-maintenance climbing plants, such as Virginia creeper, firethorn or pipevine. The green skin is a distinctive feature intended to call attention to the building’s function as a children’s day-care centre. To avoid the plants from damaging the construction, the trellis has been placed at a clear distance from the facade. 159

Floor plans Section scale 1:500 Isometric drawing

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floor slab timber composite construction

Year of completion: Construction period:

education timber 2.5 – 3.0 m 3,800 m3 (model I), 3,100 m3 (model II), 2,200 m3 (model III) 1,100 m2 (mod. I), 910 m2 (mod. II), 640 m2 (mod. III) 40.2 ≈ 13.8 m (mod. I), 33.0 ≈ 13.8 m (mod. II), 23.4 ≈ 13.8 m (mod. III) € 1.25 million € (mod. I), € 1.14 million (mod. II), € 803,200 (mod. III) (cost categories 300+400) 2010 –2011 (series 1) 11 months

secondary facade (trellis)

north-facing primary facade with boxed windows, outer load-bearing element: single-leaf wall with composite thermal insulation system ancillary zones, single-leaf walls, some with layer of gypsum plasterboard middle load-bearing element: some two-leaf walls

two-leaf partition walls for group rooms south-facing primary facade, outer loadbearing element: single-leaf wall with composite thermal insulation system

escape balcony terrace secondary facade (trellis)

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Vertical section scale 1:20 1 50 mm gravel 1.8 mm FPO membrane 20 mm EPS insulation 4 mm elastomeric bitumen vapour barrier 60 mm cross-laminated timber panel, visible face: glazed larch 2 extensive green roof, 50 mm substrate filter fleece 50 mm drainage layer 1.8 mm FPO membrane, glass fleece 120 g/m2 200 mm EPS insulation 4 mm elastomeric bitumen vapour barrier 80 mm concrete layer 110 mm stacked timber floor panel, spruce 40/60 mm battens 60 mm acoustic board, solid timber/ wood fibre 3 40/60 mm trellis, solid larch 2≈ 50/30/5 mm steel angle substructure 4 Ø 60.3 mm galvanized steel pipe 5 20 mm mineral render on reinforcing fabric mesh 160 mm rigid rock wool insulation 100 mm cross-laminated timber wall panel, spruce 6 casement door: spruce frame with double glazing 6 mm + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm, Ug = 1.2 W/m2K 7 standard press-welded grating with 30/10 mm mesh, 30 mm grating height 8 2.5 mm linoleum floor covering 55 mm floating cement screed with trowelled finish; PE separating foil 2≈ 15 mm impact sound insulation 80 mm concrete topping 110 mm stacked timber floor panel, spruce 40/60 mm battens 60 mm acoustic board, solid timber/wood fibre 9 2.5 mm linoleum floor covering 55 mm floating cement screed with trowelled finish; PE separating foil 2≈ 15 mm impact sound insulation bitumen damp-proof membrane 200 mm reinforced concrete ground slab PE foil; 160 mm XPS insulation 50 mm concrete sublayer 10 60 mm cross-laminated timber wall panel, spruce 25 mm soft wood-fibre insulation 10 mm joint, acoustically decoupled 25 mm soft wood-fibre insulation 60 mm cross-laminated timber wall panel, spruce 11 60 mm laminated timber 12 spruce frame with double glazing 6 mm + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm, Ug = 1.2 W/m2K

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Kids’ activity centre near Melbourne Architects: PHOOEY Architects, Melbourne

The brief for this low-cost project was not only to exclusively use salvaged materials, but to find a purpose for every bit of scrap material and to produce zero waste. This children’s activity centre has been built on a playground on the outskirts of Melbourne. It is a place for kids to meet, do their homework, work on arts and crafts projects, listen to music, and so on. The budget was extremely tight, and the brief called for a very low-maintenance building. At the same time, the energetic and boisterous nature of the building users had to be taken into account. A short construction period was essential, as the entire site had to remain accessible at all times. The architects, already very experienced in working with recycled materials, decided to employ four disused shipping containers. These have been arranged and stacked in such a way that ample, multifunctional zones have been created for joint activities, as well as quiet areas for the children to retreat to. Each container relates to its surroundings and provides direct access to the exterior. An added complication was a project proviso that no waste was to be produced in the course of construction. All elements removed had to be reused. The sheet metal cut out of the containers to create windows and doors was therefore reused to produce balustrades, sun screening and other interesting design features. The container doors support the balconies; scrap wood is used to sheathe the soffits. All materials and building components applied have either been recycled or are being reused. Salvaged carpet tiles stuck to particle board in a two-colour pattern line the walls inside. In order to reduce heat build-up in summer, the insulation on the outside of the containers has been lined with heat-reflecting aluminium foil. The raised roof deck, the projecting parts of the upper containers that have been placed diagonally on top of the lower-level containers, and the stairway provide protection against direct sunlight. The sheet-metal containers with their painted surfaces and signs of wear and tear have deliberately been left as they were found. They tell a tale of a past life on the seas now that they have found a resting place close to Melbourne’s harbour. Section Floor plans scale 1:200 Site plan scale 1:500

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leisure recycled shipping containers 2.8 m 276 m3 95 m2 15.6 ≈ 10.2 m € 75,822 (gross) 2007 6 months

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Project data – architects

Restaurant on Teshima

Schools in Mozambique

“Slumtube” pallet house near Johannesburg

Client: Art Front Gallery, Tokyo Architects: Architects Atelier Ryo Abe, Tokyo Project management: Ryo Abe Team: Megumi Motouchi, Miki Ozeki, Nobuaki Takatsuka Structural engineering: Tokyo University of the Arts Mitsuhiro Kanada, Masayoshi Kurashige Site management: Nomura-Gumi, Kagawa Landscape design: Architects Atelier Ryo Abe, Tokyo Stage design consultant: Showa Academia Musicae, Yu Furuhashi, Kanagawa Building services: Maruzen Co. Ltd., Tokyo Electrical engineering: Iguchidenki, Kagawa Completion: 2010

Client: Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) Mozambique, Pemba Architects: Ziegert  Roswag  Seiler Architekten Ingenieure, Berlin Project management: Eike Roswag, Arne Tönißen Team: Alexandra Sohn, Eva Holtz, Nicolas Hißnauer, Joao Guimaraes, Hendrik Schultz, Amaya Barrera Gonzales Structural engineering: Ziegert  Roswag  Seiler Architekten Ingenieure, Berlin Consultant for bamboo construction, joining techniques: Geflecht und Raum, Schechen Completion: 2010

Client: Verein für soziale, nachhaltige Architektur Research project: Haus der Zukunft Plus Architects: Andreas Claus Schnetzer & Gregor Pils, Wien Structural engineering: Dr. Karlheinz Hollinsky & Partner Ziviltechnikergesellschaft mbh, Vienna Consultants: Andreas Claus Schnetzer & Gregor Pils; Karin Stieldorf/TU Vienna, Institute for Housing and Design Building physics: Kreč, Schönberg am Kamp Completion: 2010

www.zrs-berlin.de [email protected]

www.palettenhaus.com [email protected] [email protected]

www.aberyo.com [email protected] Ryo Abe Born 1966 in Hiroshima; studied at Waseda University in Tokyo, awarded Bachelor’s degree in 1990 and Master’s in 1992; lecturer at the Department of Architecture, Waseda University, Tokyo 1995 –1996, Tokyai University, Tokyo 2000 –2010, Meiji University, Tokyo since 2010. Establishment of Atelier Ryo Abe in 1995

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Eike Roswag Born 1969 in Gießen; apprenticeship as joiner 1989 –1991; studied architecture at TU Berlin 1992– 2000; freelanced at eins bis neun architekten ingenieure 1994 –2006; research assistant at TU Berlin’s Chair for Building Services Engineering and Design 2006 –2007; lectures and presentations in Germany and abroad. Establishment of Ziegert  Roswag  Seiler Architekten Ingenieure in 2003

Andreas Claus Schnetzer Born 1984 in Wels; degree from TU Vienna in 2009; research project “Haus der Zukunft Plus” in 2010; project assistant at TU Vienna’s Institute for Housing and Design in 2010; lecturer at TU Vienna in 2011; project manager Solar Decathlon Team Austria 2011–2013. Gregor Pils Born 1982 in Linz; degree from TU Vienna in 2009; research project “Haus der Zukunft Plus” in 2010; project assistant at TU Vienna’s Institute for Housing and Design in 2010; lecturer at TU Vienna in 2011; project manager Solar Decathlon Team Austria 2011–2013.

Museum and community centre in Johannesburg’s Alexandra township

Hospital in Rwanda

Accommodation for orphans in Noh Bo

Social housing in Iquique

Client: Department of the Environment and Tourism (DEAT), Gauteng Tourism Agency (GTA), Alexandra Renewal Program (ARP) Chief agency: The Heritage Agency Architects: Peter Rich Architects, Johannesburg Team: Walter Martins, Jonathan Manning Structural engineering: Semane Consulting Engineers, Johannesburg Cost consultant: Koor Dinar Mothei, Johannesburg Completion: 2012

Client: Rwandan Ministry of Health; Partners In Health/Inshuti Mu Buzima Architects: MASS Design Group, Boston/Kigali Team: Michael Murphy, Alan Ricks, Sierra Bainbridge, Marika Clark, Ryan Leidner, Garret Gantner, Cody Birkey, Ebbe Strathairn, Maura Rockcastle, Dave Saladik, Alda Ly, Commode Dushimimana Structural engineering: ICON Site management: PIH/IMB Bruce Nizeye, Felix Ndagijimana Water purification plant design: EcoProtection Landscape design: Sierra Bainbridge, Maura Rockcastle Completion: 2011

Client: Ole Jørgen Edna Architects: TYIN tegnestue, Trondheim Team: Pasi Aalto, Andreas Grøntvedt Gjertsen, Yashar Hanstad, Magnus Henriksen, Line Ramstad, Erlend Bauck Sole Structural engineering: TYIN tegnestue/Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim Completion: 2009

Client: Tarapacá regional government /Programa Chile-Barrio of the government of Chile Architects: Elemental – Alejandro Aravena, Santiago de Chile Team: Andrés Iacobelli, Alfonso Montero, Tomas Cortese, Emilio de la Cerda Structural engineering: José Gajardo, Juan Carlos de la Llera, Karl Lüders, Mario Alvarez Site management: Constructora Loga, Iquique Landscape design: Families of Quinta Monroy, Iquique Completion: 2004

www.peterricharchitects.co.za Peter Rich 1971 Bachelor’s and 1991 Master’s degrees in architecture from the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg; founding member of Light Earth Designs LLP; specialist for architecture in Africa. Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 2010.

www.massdesigngroup.org [email protected] Michael P. Murphy Born 1980 in New York; Bachelor of Arts from the University of Chicago in 2002; Master in Architecture from the Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design in 2011; assistant at the Harvard Graduate School of Design 2007–2008; lecturer at various institutions including Harvard School of Public Health 2009 –2012.

www.tyintegnestue.no [email protected] Andreas Grøntvedt Gjertsen Born 1981 in Trondheim; studied architecture at the NTNU in Trondheim 2004 –2010. Yashar Hanstad Born 1982 in Tehran; studied architecture at the NTNU in Trondheim 2004 –2010. Establishment of TYIN tegnestue in 2008

www.elementalchile.cl [email protected] Alejandro Aravena Born 1967; studied architecture at Universidad Católica de Chile in Santiago de Chile; founded Alejandro Aravena Architects in 1994; visiting professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Design in Cambridge 2000 – 2005; executive director of Elemental since 2006.

Alan Ricks Born 1983 in Texas; Bachelor of Arts from Colorado College in Colorado Springs in 2005; Master in Architecture from the Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design in Cambrdige in 2010; Contract Magazine’s Designer of the Year in 2012; lecturer at various institutions including Harvard School of Public Health 2010 –2012. Establishment of MASS Design Group in 2007

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Social housing in Ceuta

House in Oderbruch

Summer house near Saiki

Summer cabin near Gothenburg

Property developer: Empresa Municipal de la Vivienda de Ceuta, Ceuta Architects: MGM, Morales-GilesMariscal architects, Sevilla Sara de Giles, José Morales, Juan G. Mariscal Project management: José Morales, Juan G. Mariscal Team: Magdalena Undurraga, Fernando Carrascon Structural engineering: Grupo Ros Casares, Valencia Site management: Reyes Lópes Martín, Antonio Francia, Manolo Ariza Completion: 2009

Client: n. s. Architects: HEIDE & VON BECKERATH, Berlin Tim Heide, Verena von Beckerath Project management: Henrike Kortemeyer Team: Sarah Humpert, Jürgen Krafft (site management) Structural engineering: StudioC, Berlin Nicole Zahner Completion: 2009

Client: n. s. Architect: Takao Shiotsuka Atelier, Oita Structural engineering: Oga Structural Design Office, Tokyo Shigenori Ota Building services, electrical engineering: Kawano Mechanical engineering, Oita Yorimichi Kawano Completion: 2008

Client: n. s. Architect: Johannes Norlander Arkitektur, Stockholm Site management, structural engineering, building services, electrical engineering: Johannes Norlander, Stockholm Completion: 2011

www.shio-atl.com [email protected]

Johannes Norlander Born 1974 in Gothenburg; studied architecture at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg 1993 –1995; enrolled at Konstfack University College of Arts, Crafts and Design in Stockholm in 1996; studied architecture at the Stockholm Royal Institute of Technology 1996 –1999; degree from the Stockholm Royal Institute of Technology in 2001; establishment of Johannes Norlander Arkitektur in 2004; Establishment of Norlander Projekt in 2006.

www.morales-giles-mariscal.com [email protected] José Morales Sánchez Born 1960 in Sevilla; degree from Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura (ETSA) Sevilla in 1985; PhD from ETSA Sevilla in 1988; lecturer at ETSA Sevilla 1985 –1989; professor at ETSA Sevilla since 1990; tenured professor at ETSA’s Department of Architectural Projects since 2004. Juan González Mariscal Born 1961 in Sevilla; degree from ETSA Sevilla in 1986; lecturer at ETSA Sevilla since 1986. Sara de Giles Dubois Born 1972 in Sevilla; degree from ETSA Sevilla in 1998; partner at Morales de Giles Arquitectos SL since 1998; lecturer at the ETSA Sevilla since 1999. Establishment of the practice in 1987

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www.heidevonbeckerath.com [email protected] Tim Heide Born 1959 in Hamburg; studied industrial design and architecture at Universität der Künste Berlin and TU Berlin; awarded degree in 1988; lecturer at various institutions and visiting professor at TU Berlin 1993 –1995 and 1997–2004. Verena von Beckerath Born 1960 in Hamburg; studied sociology, psychology and art history at Hamburg University; studied architecture at TU Berlin; degree from TU Berlin in 1990; lecturer at various institutions since 1990; locum professor at TU Braunschweig 2010 –2011. Establishment of HEIDE & VON BECKERATH in 1996

Takao Shiotsuka Born 1965 in Fukuoka Prefecture; degree from Oita University in 1987; Master’s degree from Oita University in 1989; worked at Archaic Associates 1989 –1993; lecturer at Kyusyu University in Fukuoka and Oita University since 2002. Establishment of Takao Shiotsuka Atelier in 1994

www.norlander.se [email protected]

Single-family home in Stuttgart

Dwelling in Andalue

Oyster farmer’s house in Brittany

Cowshed in Thankirchen

Client: Holger Lohrmann Architect: lohrmannarchitekt, Stuttgart Holger Lohrmann Team: Christine Baumgärtner, Sebastian Schelling Structural engineering: Büro für Bauwesen Thomas Seyferle, Leinfelden-Echterdingen Completion: 2006

Client: Juan Carlos Heijboer Architects: Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects, Concepción Mauricio Pezo, Sofia von Ellrichshausen Structural engineering: German Aguilera, Concepción Site management: Ricardo Ballesta, Concepción Building services: Juan Carlos Sánchez Electrical engineering: Carlos Martínez Completion: 2007

Client: n. s. Architects: RAUM, Nantes Project management: Julien Perraud Furniture design and manufacture: RAUM with Violette Le Quéré Completion: 2009

Client: Kaspar Raßhofer, Regina Raßhofer Architects: Florian Nagler Architekten, Munich Florian Nagler, Barbara Nagler Team: Matthias Müller, Almut Schwabe Structural engineering: Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn Completion: 2007

www.lohrmannarchitekt.de [email protected] Holger Lohrmann Born 1967 in Rodalben; studied architecture and urban design at the University of Stuttgart in 1991, at the University of Westminster, London, in 1994, at Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Stuttgart, at Studio David Chipperfield in 1996; worked at David Chipperfield Architects in London in 1998; degree from the University of Stuttgart in 1999; freelance lecturer at the Institute for Housing and Design in 2002 and the Institute for Public Buildings at the University of Stuttgart in 2007. Establishment of lohrmannarchitekt in 2001

www.pezo.cl [email protected] Mauricio Pezo Born 1973 in Angol, Chile; Master in Architecture from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile in Santiago in 1998; degree from Universidad del Bío-Bío in Concepción in 1999; frequent lecturer in Chile; visiting professor at Cornell University in New York 2009 and at the University of Texas in Austin 2011. Sofia von Ellrichshausen Born 1973 in Bariloche, Argentina; degree from Universidad de Buenos Aires in 2001; frequent lecturer in Chile; visiting professor at Cornell University in New York 2009 and at the University of Texas in Austin 2011. Establishment of Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects in 2002

www.raum.fr [email protected] Julien Perraud Born in Saint Nazaire in 1982; degree in architecture from École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture (ENSA) Nantes in 2007; worked at Agence Roulleau-Puaud as project manager 2007–2009; degree in philosophy and architecture from ENSA Paris La Villette in 2009; PhD from Laboratoire GERPHAU of ENSA Paris La Villette (in progress). Benjamin Boré Born 1982 in Villeneuve Saint George; degree in architecture from ENSA Nantes in 2008; founding member of Forcebéton (screen, concerts); worked at FP Architects, Architect Planner Xavier Fouquet, Berdaguer & Péjus. Thomas Durand Born 1977 in Nantes; degree in architecture from ENSA Nantes in 2003; worked at Agence Roulleau-Puaud as project manager 2003 –2009; lecturer at École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture since 2009; joined RAUM in 2010.

www.nagler-architekten.de [email protected] Florian Nagler Born 1967 in Munich; apprenticeship as carpenter 1987–1989; studied architecture at TU Kaiserslautern 1989 –1994; self-employed since 1996; visiting professor at the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen in 2002; visiting professor at Hochschule für Technik in Stuttgart 2005 –2006; professor of design methodologies and building theory at TU München since 2010. Barbara Nagler Born 1969 in Bayreuth; studied mathematics and physics in Regensburg 1988 –1989; studied architecture at TU Kaiserslautern 1989 –1995; joined Florian Nagler’s practice in 1997; partner since 2001.

Establishment of RAUM by Benjamin Boré et Julien Perraud in 2007

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Open-air pool in Eichstätt

Commercial complex in Munich

Print and media house in Augsburg

Mobile showroom

Client: Public utility of Eichstätt Architects: Kauffmann Theilig & Partner, Ostfildern/Kemnat Project management: Christian Joeken, Jakob Eckert Team: Martin Kraus, Lisa Keglmaier, Götz Förg, Petros Teclom, Emel Bulut, Tobias Pietzsch, Claudia Weinberger Site management: Architekturbüro Böhm, Eichstätt Landscape design: Lohrberg StadtLandschaftsarchitektur, Stuttgart Structural engineering: Schneider Ingenieure, Eichstätt Building services: Ingenieurbüro Karl Kluge, Eichstätt Electrical engineering: Arzenheimer Elektrotechnik GmbH & Co KG, Eichstätt Pool technology: Ingenieurgesellschaft Bannert mbH, Bremen Building physics: Ingenieurbüro für Bauphysik Horstmann+Berger, Altensteig Completion: 2010

Client: Münchner Gewerbehof- und Technologiezentrumsgesellschaft mbH, Munich Architects: bogevischs buero architekten & stadtplaner gmbh, Munich Project management: Juliane Zopfy Team: Sebastian Seyboth, Marc Sikeler, Katrin Hauth, Thomas Bönsch, Ulrike Kreher Structural engineering: Sailer Stepan and Partner, Munich Building services: Konrad Huber GmbH, Munich Electrical engineering: Ingenieurbüro Werner Kasprowski GmbH, Grünwald Light design: Gabriele Allendorf Light Identity, Munich Completion: 2011

Client: phg GmbH, Augsburg Architects: OTT ARCHITEKTEN, Augsburg Wolfgang Ott, Ulrike Seeger Project management: Andreas Petermann Site management: OTT ARCHITEKTEN, Augsburg Andreas Petermann Structural engineering: Türk Statik, Augsburg Building services: ist EnergiePlan, Augsburg Electrical engineering: iB2 Daschner, Augsburg Completion: 2003

Client: HUXEL Tech GmbH Architects: Jürke Architekten, Munich Joachim Jürke Project management: Stefan Girsberger Structural engineering: Imagine Structure, Frankfurt am Main Light design: Axelmeiselicht GmbH, Munich Completion: 2009

www.ktp-architekten.de [email protected] Andreas Theilig Born 1951 in Stuttgart in 1951; degree from TH Darmstadt in 1978; professor at Hochschule Biberach since 1987; co-founded Kauffmann Theilig in 1988. Dieter Ben Kauffmann Born 1954 in Sindelfingen; degree from FH Augsburg in 1978; cofounded Kauffmann Theilig in 1988. Rainer Lenz Born 1960 in Rohrdorf; degree from FH Biberach 1989; partner at Kauffmann Theilig & Partner since 1995; lecturer at Hochschule Biberach since 1996.

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www.bogevisch.de [email protected] Rainer Hofmann Born 1965 in Reutlingen; studied at TU München and East London University 1986 –1993; degree from TU München 1993; Master’s degree from Iowa State University in 1995; lecturer at the Bartlett School of Architecture 1995 –1997, at the AA School of Architecture 1999 –2000, at the Greenwich School of Architecture in London 2000 –2002. Ritz Ritzer Born 1963 in Würzburg; apprenticeship as carpenter 1982–1984; studied at TU München and E.T.S.A.B Barcelona 1986 –1993; degree from TU München in 1993; lecturer at TU München 1997–2001; office with H. Kube in Sonthofen in 1993; project partnership with Prof. Reichenbach-Klinke 2000 –2003. Establishment of bogevischs buero in 1996

www.ottarchitekten.com [email protected] Wolfgang Ott Born 1961 in Augsburg; degree from FH Augsburg in 1990; worked at Behnisch & Partner, Stuttgart, 1990 –1994; worked at Peter Hübner, Neckartenzlingen, in 1995; degree from the University of Stuttgart in 1997. Ulrike Seeger Born 1966 in Langenargen; studied architecture at FH Biberach 1988 – 1992; worked at Behnisch & Partner in Stuttgart 1992–1993; worked at Kaufmann Theilig in Stuttgart 1993 –1994. Establishment of OTT ARCHITEKTEN in 1996

www.juerkearchitekten.de [email protected] Joachim Jürke Born 1959 in Munich, studied architecture at TU München 1981–1988; office partnership with Peter Fink 1992–1999; lecturer for building construction at FH München in 1996; lecturer in the interior design department, professor for building construction and experimental constructions at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste in Munich 1997– 2007. Establishment of Jürke Architekten in 1999

Joiner’s workshop near Freising

School cafeteria in Berlin

School in Berlin

Day-care centre in Unterföhring

Client: design.s Richard Stanzel, Freising-Pulling Architects: Deppisch Architekten, Freising Michael Deppisch Project management: Johannes Dantele Team: Christian Klessinger, Kerstin Schneider, Manuel Schachtner Structural engineering: Häussler Ingenieure, Kempten (timber construction); Brandl + Eltschig Beratende Ingenieure, Freising (foundation /floor slab) Completion: 2010

Client: Tempelhof-Schöneberg district authority, Berlin Architects: ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin Team: Laura Fogarasi-Ludloff, Jens Ludloff, Corinna Noack, Dennis Hawner, Pilar Muñoz Tendering: Michael Stollenwerk Structural engineering: Arup Ingenieure und Planer, Berlin Building services: Riethmüller Plan, Berlin Building physics: Müller BBM, Berlin Acoustics: Ingenieurbüro Moll, Berlin Completion: 2009

Client: Treptow-Köpenick district authority, Berlin Architects: AFF architekten, Berlin Martin Fröhlich, Sven Fröhlich, Alexander Georgi Project management: Jan Musikowski Team: Francesca Boninsegna, Monic Frahn, Ulrike Dix, Franziska Sturm, Sascha Schulz, Robert Zeimer Structural engineering: HEG Beratende Ingenieure, Berlin Site management: AFF architekten, Berlin Building services: PI Passau Ingenieure, Berlin Landscape design: Grün + Bunt, Berlin Completion: 2010

Client: Municipality of Unterföhring Occupant: AWO, Munich Architects: hirner & riehl architekten und stadtplaner, Munich Team: Matthias Marschner, Yvonne Toepfer, Michaela Weingut, Manuel Benrath Structural engineering: Seeberger Friedl und Partner, Pfarrkirchen Landscape design: Büro Prof. Kagerer, Ismaning Building services: Ingenieurbüro Heiland, Altenau Electrical engineering: Ingenieurbüro Kasprowski, Grünwald Completion: 2011

www.deppischarchitekten.de [email protected] Michael Deppisch Born 1963 in Freising; worked for SEP Baur and Professor Deby in Munich 1989 –1990; worked for Professor Betsch in Munich 1992–1994; degree from FH München in 1993; self-employed in Freising since 1994; first signatory of the climate manifesto for architects, engineers and town planners in 2009; appointed to the council of the Federal Building Culture Foundation in 2010. Establishment of Deppisch Architekten in 2002

www.ludloffludloff.de [email protected] Jens Ludloff Born 1964 in Haan; degree from Cracow University of Technology in 1994; project architect at Sauerbruch Hutton Architekten in Berlin 1995 –1998; partner at Sauerbruch Hutton 1999 –2007; managing director of Sauerbruch Hutton Generalplanungsgesellschaft 2004 – 2007; lecturer for MA students at Münster school of architecture (msa ) 2010 –2011.

www.aff-architekten.com [email protected]

Laura Fogarasi-Ludloff Born 1967 in Zurich; degree from TU Dortmund in 1994; project architect at J. P. Kleihues, Ortner & Ortner, David Chipperfield, and Anderhalten Architekten 1994 – 2007.

Sven Fröhlich Born 1974 in Magdeburg; studied architecture at Bauhaus-Universität Weimar 1994 – 2000, also communication design 1994 –1999.

Martin Fröhlich Born 1968 in Magdeburg; studied architecture at BauhausUniversität Weimar 1989 –1994; assistant at the Department of Building Morphology at BauhausUniversität Weimar 1995 –2002; visiting professor at Universität der Künste Berlin in 2010.

www.hirnerundriehl.de [email protected] Martin Hirner Born 1954 in Munich; studied architecture at TU München and ETH Zurich 1977–1982; architect at the Curia of the Archdiocese of Munich 1988 –1990. Martin Riehl Born 1954 in Nuremberg; studied architecture at TU München 1976 –1982; studied philosophy and art history at the University of Munich 1983–1987; PhD in art history (dissertation on Le Corbusier) from Universität Eichstätt in 1987. Establishment of Hirner & Riehl in 1990

Establishment of AFF architekten in 1999

Establishment of ludloff + ludloff Architekten in 2007

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Day-care centres in Munich

Kids’ activity centre near Melbourne

Client: City of Munich Architects: schulz & schulz, Leipzig Team: Matthias Hönig, Carola Troll Structural engineering: Seeberger Friedl und Partner, Munich Site management: m3 bauprojektmanagement gmbh, Munich Landscape design: Rehwaldt Landschaftsarchitekten, Dresden Completion: 2010 –2011 (series 1)

Client: City of Port Phillip, St. Kilda Architects: PHOOEY Architects, Melbourne Peter Ho, Emma Young Project management: Peter Ho Team: James Baradine, Alan Ting Structural engineering: Perrett Simpson Consulting, Melbourne Site management: Speller Constructions, Victoria Landscape design: PHOOEY Architects, Melbourne Completion: 2007

www.schulz-und-schulz.com [email protected] Ansgar Schulz Born 1966 in Witten/Ruhr; studied architecture at Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen and ETSA de Madrid 1985 –1992; lecturer at TU Karlsruhe 2002–2004; locum professor at the Chair for Building Construction at TU Dortmund’s Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering since 2010. Benedikt Schulz Born 1968 in Witten/Ruhr; studied architecture at RWTH Aachen and UC de Asunción, Paraguay, 1988 –1994; research assistant at RWTH Aachen 1995 –1996; lecturer at TU Karlsruhe 2002–2004; locum professor at the Chair for Building Construction at TU Dortmund’s Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering since 2010. Establishment of schulz & schulz in 1992

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www.phooey.com.au [email protected] Peter Ho Born 1971; Bachelor in Planning and Design from the University of Melbourne in 1992; Bachelor in Architecture from the University of Melbourne in 1996. Emma Young Bachelor in Environmental Design from the University of Canberra in 1992; Bachelor in Architecture from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) in 1997; Graduate Certificate (Business Property) from RMIT in 2007. Establishment of PHOOEY Architects in 2004

Authors

Christian Schittich (editor)

Andrea Georgi-Tomas

Born in 1956 studied architecture at Technische Universität (TU) München; worked as an architect and publicist for seven years; joined the editorial staff at the architectural magazine DETAIL in 1991, became senior editor in 1992 and editor-in-chief in 1998; author and editor of numerous specialist books and articles on architecture.

Born 1966 studied architecture at ETH Zurich; research assistant for design and energy-efficient building at TU Darmstadt under Professor Manfred Hegger 2002–2007; managing partner at ee concept gmbh since 2006; lecturer at TU Darmstadt 2007–2008; adviser to the chambers of architects of Hesse, Baden-Wuerttemberg and Bavaria since 2010.

Christiane Sauer Born in 1968 studied architecture and sculpture in Berlin and Vienna; founded “forMade, Büro für Architektur und Material” in Berlin; edits the section on material and construction at Architonic, the Internet portal for architecture and design; lecturer and researcher, most recently at Universität der Künste Berlin; frequent contributor to specialist books.

Fabian Scheurer Born in 1969 studied architectural computing at TU München; worked as an assistant/lecturer at Ludger Hovestadt’s Chair for ComputerAided Architectural Design (CAAD) at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich 2002–2006; co-founded designtoproduction, a research team at ETH Zurich in 2005; associate at designtoproduction since 2006.

Ansgar Schulz Born in 1966 studied architecture at Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen and Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura (ETSA) de Madrid; lecturer at TU Karlsruhe 2002–2004; locum professor at the Chair for Building Construction at TU Dortmund’s Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering since 2010.

Martin Zeumer Born in 1977 studied architecture at TU Darmstadt; research assistant for design and energy-efficient building at TU Darmstadt under Professor Manfred Hegger 2005 –2010; lecturer for building construction, sustainable building, and construction in existing building stock at Hochschule Bochum in 2010; research assistant for design and energy-efficient building as well as architectural design at TU Darmstadt under Professor Johann Eisele since 2010.

Anna Heringer Born in 1977 studied architecture at the University of Art and Design Linz; various construction projects in Bangladesh since 2005; visiting professor in Stuttgart and Linz; head of BASEhabitat – studio for architecture in developing countries 2005 –2011; currently Loeb Fellow at the Harvard Graduate School of Design.

Benedikt Schulz Born in 1968 studied architecture at RWTH Aachen and Universidad Católica (UC) de Asunción, Paraguay; research assistant at RWTH Aachen 1995 –1996; lecturer at TU Karlsruhe 2002–2004; locum professor at the Chair of Building Construction at TU Dortmund’s Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering since 2010.

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Illustration credits

The authors and editor wish to extend their sincere thanks to all those who helped to realize this book by making illustrations available. All drawings contained in this volume have been specially prepared in-house. Photos without credits are from the architects’ own archives or the archives of “DETAIL, Review of Architecture”. Despite intense efforts, it was not possible to identify the copyright owners of certain photos and illustrations. Their rights remain unaffected, however, and we request them to contact us.

from photographers, photo archives and image agencies: • p. 8: Walter Mair, Zurich • p. 10: Jens Weber Photography, Munich • p. 11 top: Richard Bryant/David Chipperfield Architects • p. 11 bottom: Friedrich Busam, Berlin • pp. 12, 56, 60, 124 –126, 127 top, 156 right, 157, 158 top: Christian Schittich, Munich • p. 13: Andreas Froese/Eco-Tec Soluciones Ambientales • p. 14 top: Scott Norsworthy, Toronto • p. 14 bottom: Daria Scagolia /Stijn Braakee, Rotterdam • p. 15 top: Lutz Artmann, Berlin • p. 15 bottom: Liapor Gmbh & Co. KG, Hallerndorf-Pautzfeld • pp. 16 top, 72 top, 73 –77, 79, 81– 83: Iwan Baan, Amsterdam • p. 16 bottom: Klöckner & Co SE, Duisburg • p. 17: Stephan Holzbau GmbH, Gaildorf • p. 18: Thomas Jantscher, Colombier • p. 19 middle: Deutsche Poroton GmbH, Berlin • p. 19 bottom: Karl-Josef Hammer /Styro Stone

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• p. 20: Mark West, Winnipeg • p. 21 right: Stephan Weber, Nidau • pp. 22 top, 24, 27 left: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich • p. 22 bottom: Stora Enso Timber, Bad St. Leonhard • pp. 23 bottom, very bottom: www.spacebox.nl • p. 25 top: www.ducatimeccanica.com • p. 25 bottom: Deutscher Wetterdienst • p. 26 top: Brigida Gonzales /UN Studio • pp. 26 middle, 27 right, 29 bottom, far bottom, 32 middle, 32 bottom: designtoproduction, Zurich / Stuttgart • pp. 28, 29 top, 31: Blumer-Lehmann Holzbau, Gossau • p. 30: Jochen Helle, arturimages • p. 33: Trebyggeriet, Hornnes • p. 34: Nathan Willock, London • p. 36: Dietmar Träupmann, Augustusburg • pp. 38 top, 159, 160, 163: Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich • p. 38 bottom: Sabrina Scheja, Heerbrugg • p. 39: Jörg Hempel, Aix-la-Chapelle • pp. 40 top, 145, 147, 148: Werner Huthmacher, Berlin • p. 40 bottom: Christian Richters, Berlin • pp. 42, 45: Åke E:son Lindman, Stockholm • p. 43 top: Photofest, New York • p. 43 bottom: www.gutlin.com • pp. 44, 162: Eva Schönbrunner, Munich • p. 46 top: Matthias Kabel, Salzburg • p. 46 middle: gäbele&raufer.architekten.BDA • p. 46 bottom: Florian Holzherr, Munich • p. 48: Martin Duckek, Ulm

• pp. 50, 54: Naquib Hossain, Montreal • pp. 52 top, 52 middle: Laura Egger, Zurich • p. 53 top: Kurt Hörbst, Rainbach • pp. 58, 59: Daici Ano, Tokyo • pp. 61 top, bottom right, 62 – 65: Paula Holtz, Dortmund • p. 72 bottom: Thomas Madlener, Munich • pp. 84, 85, 86 right, 87: Pasi Aalto, Trondheim • p. 86 left: Andreas Gjertsen, Trondheim • pp. 92 – 95: Jesús Granada, Seville • pp. 96 – 99: Maximilian Meisse, Berlin • pp. 100 –103: Toshiyuki Yano/Nacása&Partners Inc., Tokyo • pp. 104 –107: Rasmus Norlander, Stockholm / Zurich • pp. 109, 110 bottom: Susanne Wegner, Stuttgart • pp. 112–116: Cristóbal Palma, London/ Santiago de Chile • pp. 117–119: Audrey Cerdan, Paris • pp. 120 –123: Florian Holzherr, Munich • p. 127 bottom: Werner Prokschi, Eichstätt • p. 128 top: Melanie Weber, Munich • pp. 129, 130 top, bottom, 131: Michael Heinrich, Munich • p. 130 middle: Julia Knop, Hamburg • p. 133 top: Helfried Prünster/phg • p. 133 bottom: Cordula Rau, Munich • p. 134: glaeslephoto cologne • pp. 136 –137, 139: Manfred Jarisch, Munich • pp. 140 –144: Sebastian Schels, Munich • pp. 150 –153: Hans-Christian Schink, Leipzig • pp. 154, 155, 156 left: Stefan Oláh, Vienna • pp. 164 –167: Peter Bennets, Melbourne

• p. 174 bottom left: Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk, Berlin

from books and journals: • p. 49 bottom: Hegger, Manfred et al.: Energy Manual. Munich 2007, p. 187

Articles and introductory b /w photos: • p. 8: Dwelling, Zurich (CH) 2007, Christian Kerez • p. 12: Traditional log cabin wall • p. 24: Centre Pompidou Metz (F) 2010; Shigeru Ban in cooperation with Jean de Gastines • p. 34: Cafeteria, Berlin (D) 2009, ludloff + ludloff Architekten • p. 42: CO2 storage made of paper: architectural journals as wall material in the graphic design firm Oktavilla, Stockholm (S) 2009, Elding Oscarson • p. 50: Vocational school for electrical training (DESI), Rudarpur (BD) 2008, Anna Heringer • p. 56: Commercial Complex, Munich (D) 2011, bogevischs buero

Dust-jacket: Vocational School in Cambodia Architects Rudanko + Kankkunen, Helsinki Photograph: Architects Rudanko + Kankkunen, Helsinki

Project data are provided as is by the responsible architectural offices. The publisher is not responsible for correctness of provided data.