Bliss Bibliographic Classification: Class AY/B General Science. Physics 9783110970883, 9783598243301

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Bliss Bibliographic Classification

Bliss Bibliographic Classification Second Edition

J. Mills and Vanda Broughton School of Information and Communication Studies University of North London

Class Class

AY General Science B Physics

BOWKER SAUR

L O N D O N MELBOURNE M U N I C H N E W P R O V I D E N C E , N E W JERSEY

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (including photocopying and recording) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OLP. The written permission of the copyright holder must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce, transmit or store in a retrieval system any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher. Warning: The doing of any unauthorised act in relation to copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. First edition by Henry Evelyn Bliss published under the title A Bibliographic Classification. Volume 1 - 4, 1940 - 1953 © The H. W. Wilson Company, New York Second edition by J. Mills and Vanda Broughton published under the title Bliss Bibliographic Classification. 1977-. © Bliss Classification Association

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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Contents Outlines of the complete B C 2 classification Volumes in the series

vi viii

Bliss Classification Association

ix

Introduction to Volume A Y / B Main features of the classification Acknowledgments

xiii xiii xv

Introduction to Class A Y / I The Sciences Scope of AY/I and its place in BC'2 Structure of classes in BC'2 Citation order Filing order Notation and classmark building Alphabetical index Automated databases and manual catalogues Classes AY/I in BC2 compared with BCl

xvii xvii xx xxii xxiv xxvi xxix xxxi xxxi

Introduction to Class A Y General Science Scope of Class AY Citation order and filing order Notation and classmark building Special problems in Class AY Practical classification in Class AY

xxxv xxxv xxxvii xxxviii xl xli

Introduction to Class B Physics Scope of Class B Citation order and filing order Notation and classmark building Special problems in Class B Practical classification in Class B

xliii xliii xlv xlvi xlix li

Summary outline of Class A Y / I T h e sciences S u m m a r y outline of Class B Physics

lv lvii

Outline of Class A Y / I T h e sciences

1

Schedules of classification of A Y

3

Outline of Class B Physics

35

Schedules of classification of B

45

Alphabetical Index to schedules

145

v

Outline of t h e c o m p l e t e B C 2 classification 2

Physical forms and forms of arrangement of documents

3

Phenomena: objects of knowledge Prolegomena

5

Knowledge, information Disciplines: forms of knowledge

A

Philosophy

AM

Mathematics

AY

Science

B

Physical sciences

E

Biological sciences

H

Human sciences and human studies Physical anthropology, health and medicine, psychology

J/T

Social sciences and humanities

U/V

Technology and useful arts

W/Y

T h e Arts (including music and philology)

vi

Second outline [History LD] By ethnic group

2

Genera lia: physical forms & forms of arrangement of documents 3 Phenomena: objects of knowledge * For completely multidisciplinary documents, unclassifiable under any one discipline. Attributes, activities & processes, entities Prolegomena 6 Universe of knowledge Methods of enquiry... Disciplines (general) 7 Information science & technology Information processing... computers 8 Information work... retrieval Information systems & services Primarily reference retrieval.. .computerised services 9 Primarily document retrieval... libraries Disciplines: forms of knowledge A Philosophy & logic AM Mathematics, statistics & probability AY Sciences, natural sciences B Physics Physics-based technologies * Alternative only. C Chemistry Chemistry-based technologies * Alternative only. D Astronomy & space sciences DH Earth sciences Geophysics, geology, hydrology, meteorology... Geography: regional... systematic... E Biological sciences EK Microorganisms F Botany G Zoology GR Applied biology Agriculture & animal exploitation GY General & human ecology H Human sciences & human studies HA Human biology... physical anthropology HH Health & medicine I Psychology J K K9Q KAH KC KK KLK KRS KW LA LB LC LD LE LF LG

By broad period LI M N 0 P Q R S T U/V

Education Society Perspectives: sociology, social anthropology... Social ecology & environment.. .demography... Social processes: change... social behaviour... Social structure Collectivities: groups...classes.. .family... Inclusive societies... non-literate... literate... Customs, folklore & mythology Area studies Geography * Alternative only. Travel & description, topography History Study of history... auxiliary sciences: archaeology Prehistory By social activity Social history... political history... * Alternative only.

W W8 WC WE WJ WP WV WY X XA XL

Y Z

vii

Ancient history Modern history Favoured country * For example, U K in British libraries Other countries A s Schedule 2. Local history... biography... * Alternative only for local history. Religion., .occult... morals & ethics Social welfare & criminology Politics... public administration Law Economics... management of enterprises Technology & useful arts Equipment, plant, instrumentation Systems engineering... control... computers. .. Technical testing, maintenance, design.. . production technology... Materials handling... packaging... storing... Energy technologies (general) Physics-based technologies (nuclear, electrical, thermal, mechanical technologies) Construction technology... architecture... physical planning... Environmental technology... safety technology... Transport technology Military science & technology * Alternative only. Minerals extraction technology... oil & gas well technology... Process industrial technology... chemical technology... Manufacture & technology of special products * Not classed elsewhere. Agriculture & animal exploitation * Alternative only. Useful arts, personal services i¿ technologies Household management.. catering... hotels... Recreative arts, leisure arts Arts, fine arts Styles, schools, subjects & genres Architecture as an art Plastic arts: sculpture, glyptics, ceramics... Graphic arts: painting... reprographic arts... Decorative arts Music Performing arts Philology: language & literature Linguistics Literature (general & comparative) Individual languages L their literature * A s Schedule 3 (with modifications), e.g. Y V French. Favoured language * For example, English in British libraries. Religion...occult... morals & ethics * Alternative is at P.

Volumes in the series T h e second edition of the classification will be complete in twenty-two volumes. Thirteen have been published so far and are identified by their dates of publication. Introduction and Auxiliary schedules. 1977. Class 2/9: Generalia, Phenomena, Knowledge, Information science and technology. Class A / A L : Philosophy and Logic. 1991. Class A M / A X : Mathematics, Statistics and Probability. 1993. Class A Y / B : General science and Physics. 1999 Class C: Chemistry. Class D: Astronomy and Earth sciences. Class E/GQ: Biological sciences. Class G R / G Z : Applied: Agriculture and Ecology. Class H: Anthropology, Human biology, Health sciences. 1980. Includes medicine. Class I: Psychology and Psychiatry. 1978. Class J: Education. 1990. Class K: Society. 1984. Includes social science, sociology, social anthropology, customs, folklore and mythology. Class L/O: History. Includes area studies, travel and topography, and biography. Class P: Religion, the Occult, Morals and ethics. 1977. Class Q: Social welfare. 1994. Includes criminology. Class R: Politics and Public administration. 1996. Class S: Law. 1996. Class T : Economics, Management of economic enterprises. 1987. Class U/V: Technology and Useful arts (including household management and services). Class W: Recreation and Arts. Includes music. Class X / Y : Language and Literature.

viii

T h e Bliss Classification Association Registered charity no. 270580 The Bliss Classification Association is an association of users and supporters of the Bibliographic Classification. It promotes the development and use of the classification, publishes official amendments, enables users to keep in touch and exchange experience, and gives them a say in the future of the scheme. It is a nonprofit organisation, founded in 1967, with members all over the world. An Annual General Meeting is held each November in London. The Association holds occasional other meetings, organises training in the use of the classification, raises funds, and publishes the Bliss Classification Bulletin each winter. The Bulletin carries amendments to BC2, news about the Association and the development of the scheme, articles on classification, and reviews. It is available only to members. Membership is open to all organisations and individuals interested in BC2. The Association's address is:

Bliss Classification Association T h e Library Fitzwilliam College Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3ODG United Kingdom

The Association is pleased to hear from users and supporters of the classification and to answer questions about it. Please address enquiries about membership or subscriptions to the Hon. Treasurer, and other enquiries to the Hon. Secretary at the addresses given below.

Mrs Heather Lane BCA Secretary The Library Sidney Sussex College Cambridge CB2 3HU

Ms Angela Haselton BCA Treasurer Tavistock Library Tavistock Centre 120 Belsize Lane London NW3 5BA

[email protected]

[email protected] IX

Officers of the Association and members of t h e C o m m i t t e e During the preparation of the present volume the following members served on the Committee elected at each Annual General Meeting to carry out the work of the Association.

Chair & Hon. Editor Jack Mills Hon Secretary Heather Lane

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge

Hon. Treasurer Angela Haselton

Tavistock Library, Tavistock Centre

Hon. Editor, BC Bulletin Anthony Curwen

University of Wales Aberystwyth Dept of Information and Library Studies

Committee members Vanda Broughton Sally Chambers Frank Emmott Marion MacLeod la Mcllwaine Elizabeth Russell Alan Thomas

University College London Senate House, University of London Barnardo's Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge University College London Personal member Pratt Institute, New York

x

Bliss Classification Association (Registered charity no. 270580)

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xii

Introduction to Volume A Y / B General science and Physics

1

This volume of BC"2 contains the first two classes of the natural sciences — Class AY General science and B Physics. The full classification of the sciences in BC2 will occupy seven volumes. This volume is therefore somewhat unusual in that it does not contain the schedules for the complete class (Science and the natural sciences). It contains only those for the preliminary classes in AY (mainly Processes and properties, Operations, Agents and Common Subdivisions) and for just one of the individual sciences - Class B Physics. In order to avoid duplication in the explanation of features common to science as a whole, to its preliminary class (called general science here) and to the first of its particular sciences (physics) the following order of explanation is given:

1.1

A brief statement of the purpose of this classifcation of science and of its central features;

1.2

An introduction to Class AY/I (the sciences as a whole);

1.3

An introduction to Class AY, called General science since it contains those categories of concepts common to all the individual sciences;

1.4

An introduction to Class B Physics.

2

The classification is designed to perform two major functions:

2.1

To serve as a library classification. This makes possible the organization of a comprehensive collection of documents on science in a clear and logical sequence on library shelves, in other physical media, or of entries for them in catalogues and bibliographies or other linear displays. The fundamental purpose of its logical structure is to make the locating of any particular subject within the sciences, however complex, highly predictable - the central requirement of any instrument for information retrieval.

2.2

To serve as a highly structured and detailed map of the concepts in the field of science. This may be used as the basis for thesauri or other aids for searching an information store, through the control of synonyms and the comprehensive display of the connections of all kinds between the different concepts. (Ref.l: Aitchison, Jean. Bliss and the thesaurus: the Bibliographic Classification of H.E.Bliss as a source of

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thesaurus terms and structure. Journal of Documentation, v.42, no.3. September 1986. pp. 160-181). This function is considered further in the Introduction to AY/I (section 10). 3

The central feature of a library classification, as distinct from any other kind of knowledge organization, is that it presents all its concepts, simple or complex, in a single, one-dimensional sequence. Most of the subject classes represented by books, journal articles, research reports, etc. axe compounds of. several different concepts and could equally well be classified in a number of quite different ways. For example, a work on radiography in the diagnosis of stomach cancer could go equally well under radiography, diagnostic techniques, stomach, or cancer. Such a compound reflects twenty-four different locations in a linear sequence, all of them are logically justifiable and sensible (twenty-four is the factorial product of four and represents the different combination orders in which the four concepts could be taken).

3.1

Whilst catalogues, bibliographies and other media can multiply the entries representing a document (so that the work above might get four separate entries, say, under Stomach, Cancer, Diagnosis and Radiography) this option is not open for the physical arrangement of the documents: a document can go in one place only. If the library user is to locate any given subject class easily, the sequence of classes throughout must reflect strict rules as to the combination order in such classes. So the work above might be located as Stomach - Cancer of - Diagnosis of - using Radiography, and nowhere else. Applying such rules minimizes the central (but uavoidable) weakness of the linear order, which is the scattering of some concepts by subordination to others (as works on cancer will be scattered under the different parts of the body in the order suggested above).

3.2

Whilst the development of such rules is an absolute necessity if the location of any given class is to be highly predictabe, it is also the great strength of library classification as an instrument in retrieval. The harsh demands made by the need for comprehensive rules for a consistent order of combination force the designer of the classification to examine closely the categories into which the many concepts fall and the multifarious relationships between them more rigorously than is the case with any other system of retrieval. The exposure of synonymity or near-synonymity between terms is only one by-product of the rigorous mapping of the semantic (generic and partitive hierarchical) and syntactic (non- generic) relationships between them. It is no exaggeration to say that the modern faceted classification is the most comprehensive and sophisticated organization of knowledge to be met with in the field of information retrieval.

4

BC2 schedules axe the result of a rigorous and detailed analysis of the vocabulary of each of the subjects in the field of knowledge, using the techniques of facet analysis. As such, they represents a radical revision and expansion of the first edition of the Bibliographic Classification of H.E. Bliss (BC1) (ref.2: Bliss, Henry Evelyn. A Bibliographic classification. New York, The H.W. Wilson Company, 1940-1953.

xiv

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AY/B

o

4v.). The general reasons for making the revision so radical a one are given in the Introduction to BC2 (ref. 3: Bliss Bibliographic Classification. 2nd ed. [by] J. Mills and Vanda Brought on. Introduction and auxiliary schedules (Butterworths, 1977). The particular changes in AY/B are considered briefly in section 15 below. 4.1

The summary outline of AY/I on page 1 (after the preliminary pages) is designed to give a clear view of the basic structure of the schedules for science and the natural sciences. If it is remembered that the outline schedule is, like all BC2 schedules, an inverted one (see the Introduction to AY/I (Section 5.7) the outline will be seen to show not only the general sequence of categories and their classes but also the basic operational rule in applying the classificationl This is the rule that compound classes (those reflecting the intersection of two or more simpler classes) are located under the class appearing later (lower down) in the schedule. For example, in Class AY, the subclasss Spectrographic instruments (AY7 M4) is located under Spectroscopy (AY7 M) and not under Scientific instruents (AY4; Geophysics (DGB) is located under Earth sciences (DG) and not under Physics (B); Biochemistry goes under Biology (E) and not uner Chemistry (C).

4.2

The basic operational rule demonstrated above is supported by a number of other basic rules governing both the design and the application of BC2 schedules. These rules are described fully in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3) and are repeated briefly in each separately published class, with examples demonstrating their application to the class in question. In this volume, these rules are briefly described in the introduction to Class AY/I Science and the natural sciences.

5

Acknowledgments We are deeply indebted to Eric Coates, former Editor of the British Technology Index, and Editor of the Broad System of Ordering for his absolutely invaluable and unstinting help throughout the production of these particularly demanding two classes. Not only has his unique experience in the field of indexing technology been indispensable in the Operations and Agents facets of AY, but the whole structure and vocabulary of Class B has benefited from his unerring grasp of classificatory relations. His work on the schedules of the Broad System of Ordering (BSO) has been a constant reference point when wrestling with the complex relations manifested in the physics schedule. His contribution to this volume of BC2 has been incalculable. We are pleased also to acknowledge the valuable contribution made by friends and colleagues in the Classification Research Group. CRG discussions have been a constant help and stimulus in designing the schedules. In particular, we are very pleased to thank Magda Whitrow, Editor of the Isis Cumulative Bibliography [of the history of science] for her valuable help in deciding the structure of the big history of science class in AY; Jean Aitchison, whose work on faceted thesauri (particularly her Thesaurofact for the English Electric Company) has been very helpful; Chris Preddle for his excellent section on the use of BC2 in automated systems in his revised edition of xv

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O

Class Q. In the accumulation and monitoring of vocabulary we have been helped by the full schedules of the UDC and by the Unified classification and its accompanying Thesaurus of INSPEC (Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1973/1983).

xvi

Introduction to Class A Y / I Science and the natural sciences

1

Scope of t h e class and its place in B C 2

1.1

The natural sciences study the phenomema of the natural world, using as their fundamental mode of enquiry what is generally known as the scientific method. Although philosophers of science dispute certain of its features, its essence is that close observation of the phenomena, combined with the use of induction and deduction, leads to the advancing of an hypothesis as a provisional explanation of what is observed. This hypothesis is then analyzed and tested objectively by a wide variety of procedures in which measurement of the data involved and controlled experiments, as far as these are possible, are major features. From consideration of the evidence thus established the hypothesis is accepted, modified or rejected. Hypotheses which are thus validated may then form the basis of further hypotheses, thus building up the vast corpus of what is called scientific knowledge. Those parts of it which have been validated beyond any reasonable doubt take on the status of scientific laws. But it is fundamental to the idea of scientific enquiry that if further evidence demands the modification or even abandonment of a theory, however immutable it may seem to be, so be it. This may be a question of limiting its applicability rather than falsifying it, as in the well-known example of Newton's laws of gravitation being modified by the theory of relativity. But whatever the nature of the revision, the readiness in science to accept criticism and revise opinion makes science the most modest of the major fields of knowledge in the claims it makes for its product.

1.2

When the classification of the vast and endlessly multiplying body of scientific knowledge is considered, the principle of gradation, supported by and reinforcing the concept of integrative levels, has proved to be a powerful and effective instrument. It produces a major organization of the field whereby phenomena are grouped into particular sciences which can then be presented in a sequence in which each successive science builds on the preceding ones. Successive sciences then study phenomena at higher and higher levels of complexity, in the sense that they require for thenexplanation not only knowledge of preceding classes but also of new or emergent phe-

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nomena. Bliss called this ordering 'gradation in speciality'. Thus, energy and matter at its most fundamental level is the subject matter of physics. Organized into more complex forms, at the molecular level, it gives the subject of chemistry and this is therefore regarded as being more 'special' than physics in its scope. At more complex levels, molecular aggregations give celestial bodies and planetary systems (the subject of astronomy and the earth sciences) and these constitute environments for the development of yet more complex forms in living matter. 1.21

Human biology, the science of the most complex animai in the evolutionary progression, at present seems to mark the end of the line for the indisputably natural sciences. Whilst the demonstrably physical phenomena studied in anatomy and physiology are still amenable to the full rigour of the scientific method, the study of human behaviour, the central phenomenon underlying all the social sciences and human studies comprising Classes J / Z in BC2, has proved far less so. Whilst the principles of rational enquiry, based on logic, are still fundamental, the complexity of the relationships evident in human behaviour have not as yet allowed anything like the predictability which is taken as axiomatic in scientific enquiry (see Ziman, John. Reliable knowledge; an exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge University Press. 1977).

1.22

Although the natural sciences display systems of great complexity (eg the near-chaos found in the behaviour of our planetary atmosphere) these are all reducible to systems of atomistic facts, reflecting energy forms, particles, atoms molecules, molecular aggregates, minerals, planetary bodies, etc. The nature and behaviour of these constituents allows accurate measurement and the development of models (explanatory theories) which can be tested, disproved or validated to form a highly reliable body of knowledge This is not the case with human behaviour and the great systems of artefacts (from social organizations to semiconductors) and mentefacts (both intellectual and imaginative) which are the products of human behaviour. No equivalents of the atomistic and eminently quantifiable phenomena, found in the natural sciences have as yet been isolated in the human studies (as Bliss called them). Although psychological and sociological theoretical constructs abound and some of the social sciences (especially some parts of economics) allow some degree of quantification, there is nothing remotely approaching the predictability which marks those throughout the natural sciences. However, it should be remembered that on the scale of human history these studies are still in their early infancy, as is science itself, however lusty that infancy may seem already.

1.23

Another classificatory feature which marks the natural sciences but is much less evident in the social sciences and humanités is that of gradation. Bliss argued that sociology (interpreted as the basic theorizing science on which all the succeeding social sciences draw) was analogous to biology in its relation to the biological sciences (in BC2 parlance, the Properties and processes facets in relation to the Part and xviii

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o

Types). Apart from this, no claim was made in respect of gradation amongst the other classes of J / Z . It should be remembered, however, that a principle like gradation has been used in BC2 not as an assertion of a particular interpretation of the nature of the sciences but as an instrument of proven value in the organization of knowledge. It contributes significantly to an organization which is readily communicable, operates with exceptional consistency, and facilitates the locating and relating of classes of knowledge with a high degree of predictability - a major virtue in an instrument for information retrieval. 1.3

In the metascientific fields of knowlege which Bliss characterized as the human studies, the subject of technology (covering most of the physical artefacts of humanity) has a particularly close relationship to science. This is reflected in the fact that the general science class (AY'2/AYY) is preceded (at AY1) by an even broader class, science and technology in general. The appearance of this class at AY1 is entirely a reflection of literary warrant and not of the principles of gradation or integrative levels. There is a symbiotic relationship between science and technology. It is well know that many significant developments in science have waited on the invention of artefacts to assist the process of scientific enquiry. Major examples are the dependence of optics on the development of effective optical instruments and, in turn, the dependence of other sciences on these (of biology on the microscope, of astronomy on the telescope and so on). The reverse process, in which scientific discoveries prove the basis for the development of new technologies, is equally well known and has been particularly conspicuous in the past two centuries.

1.31

This close relationship does not mean that technology should be regarded as applied science. Much of it is not particularly 'scientific' and its objectives are quite different. The cental objective of science is to elucidate the nature of phenomena dispassionately and objectively. The purpose of technology is to serve the material interests of humans. The principle of gradation implies not only that a clear distiction be drawn between technology and science but that the latter, as a product of human social activity, should file after those studies which have the structure of society and its major social processes as their subject

1.32

Nevertheless, having acknowledged these differences, the fact remains that some of the products of technology play an important and even crucial role in science. It is not merely that scientific instruments (a major part of the Agents facet in general science) are primarily the product of technology. There is also the fact that some of them raise acutely the distinction between natural phenomena (the legitimate object of scientific enquiry, demanding a location within science itself) and applications of these (which are not). Whilst some artificial products are readily accepted as quasinatural phenomena (eg the transuranic elements, which are artificial radionuclides, produced by bombarding heavy atoms with high-energy particles) this is partly because their production is primarily an element in the scientific study of the closely

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related natural phenomena. But many occasions now arise where natural phenomena are subjected to highly sophisticated and contrived manipulations designed primarily to serve utilitarian human purposes; an obvious example concerns the application of optical phenomena associated with holography. Whether such concepts should be regarded as part of physics or of physics-based technology poses a. problem in the classification of science and technology. This problem is considered further in the introduction to Class B Physics (section 10). 1.33

The conclusion reached by Bliss after considering such problems was that technology should be a separate class, following the social sciences and collocated with economics, the social science concerned with the production and distribution of society's material wealth. However, Bliss provided alternative locations whereby a library could collocate a technology with its dominant scientific base in cases where a close relationship held. BC'2 continues this policy but with an important modification. In the case of biological technology, the study of the science and its possible applications is so intimately connected that a complete separation would be both extremely difficult and unlhelpful. This is particularly true of medicine; here, problems of human biology which are indisputably 'natural' phenomena and the legitimate province of the science are nevertheless studied primarily because of the utility that knowledge of them would have for human welfare. A classification of medicine which did not embrace human biology would be a very defective one. So the biology classes in BC"2 (E/I) include substantial portions of applied science - ie technology.

2

S t r u c t u r e of C l a s s A Y / I

2.1

All classes in BC'2 are designed consistently according to a basic pattern which reflects the six fundamental features of a modern documentary classification. In the design operation, these six features are taken (analogously to the principle of gradation) in an invariant order in which each step depends on the proeceding ones, but not vice-versa. The steps are, in order:

2.11

Organizing the terms into broad facets;

2.12

Organizing the terms in each facet into specific arrays (sub-facets);

2.13

Deciding the citation order between the facets and between the arrays;

2.14

Deciding the filing order of the facets and of the arrays within them;

2.15

Adding a notation, in which every class is represented by a symbol possessing ordinal value, to faciitate locating the class in the file;

2.16

Adding an alphabetical index, whereby a user can go directly from the name of a class to its position in the notation and file.

2.2

The theory underlying these feature is explained in detail in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3). Here, the structure of Class AY/I is described in the same order of funda-

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mental features and it is assumed that users of this class will familiarize themselves with the essentials of the theory explained in the Introduction. 3

Facet s t r u c t u r e of Class A Y / I Science and the natural sciences

3.1

The main feature of the schedule is a strict adherence to the principles of facet analysis. A facet consists of the sum of classes produced when the vocabulary of a subject is divided by one broad principle of division. So the terms making up the vocabulary of science are initially organized into ('divided into') broad facets, so that terms representing concepts which all stand in the same broad relationship to the containing class are found in the same facet. For example, all terms reflecting the notion of a natural phenomenon investigated in science (eg energy, matter, molecule, star, planet, atmosphere, river, plant, animal) are brought together in an Objects of scientific enquiry facet. All terms reflecting a subsystem of any of the above (eg the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of a planet, the regional parts or organs of an organism) are brought together in a Subsystems (Parts) facet - and so on.

3.2

Facets in Class A Y / I The facets identified are summarized below; their scope and relations are considered in more detail under citation order (section 4.5).

3.21

The entities and systems defining the objects of scientific enquiry; eg energy and matter, molecular systems, stars, planets, living things.

3.22

Subsystems and parts of the entities; eg lithosphere, nervous system.

3.23

Properties and processes of entities and subsystems; eg distribution, dimension, deformation, diastrophism, respiration, reproduction.

3.24

Operations: actions performed on all the above by human agents - eg recording, measuring, visualizing, analyzing. Operation are distinct from processes, which are activities internal to a system, as in the examples in 3.23.

3.25

Agents of processes and of operations; eg catalysts, equipment, instruments, materials. This facet also includes scientific personnel.

3.26

Common subdivisions (CSD); concepts which are to be found in all subjects and which refer largely to the human study and practice of the subject and the conditions (eg of time and place) under which is or has been pursued.

3.3

A r r a y s w i t h i n facets

3.31

Most facets contain terms which reflect different specific principles of division, whereas a facet as a whole reflects only one broad principle of division. For example, in biology, a major facet is that of Types of organisms; these may be further divided by specific principles like taxonomic status, habitat, sex, age and so on.

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3.32

This operates at every level of the classification; eg as specific a concept as fluid flow (itself reflecting the intersection of an entity, the state of matter Fluid, and a process, Flow) may still be divided by a large number of different specific principles of division, giving such classes as conical flow, compressible flow, viscous flow, laminar flow, etc.

3.33

Terms in an array are mutually exclusive, so that there is no question of compoundsing between them; eg there is no class of turbulent laminar flow. So the crucial problem of citation order between the components of a compound (see section 7) no longer arises within an array - only between them (eg to give a compound like viscous laminar flow).

4

C i t a t i o n order ( c o m b i n a t i o n order)

4.1

This refers to the order in which the elements of a compound class (one consisting of more than one element, whether from different facets or from different arrays) are combined (cited) in a heading; eg whether the heading (which reflects the order in which the classes and subclasses are taken) is Animals - Birds - A q u a t i c birds - Charadriiformes - Behaviour or Animals - Birds - Behaviour - A q u a t i c birds - Charadriiformes or Animals - Behaviour - Birds - A q u a t i c birds - Charadriiformes or any of the other 21 permutations possible here.

4.2

Citation order reflects the order of application of principles of division and determines which concepts are subordinated to which; eg using the first heading above would scatter literature on animal behaviour according to the various types of animals.

4.3

If a consistent citation order is followed, the scattering of some subjects because of their subordination to another (an inevitable feature of classification applied to a linear order, whether of documents on library shelves or entries in manual catalogues) is strictly controlled and the location of quite complex classes (reflecting the compounding of several different facets or arrays) is always predictable. The retrieval of the information on the scattered classes is thus ensured.

4.4

Citation order is the most important single feature of a classification system. But clear and consistent rules for it can only be expressed in terms of the facets and arrays involved - hence the prior need to organize terms into their facets and arrays (see the order of operational steps in section 2.1).

4.5

C i t a t i o n order b e t w e e n facets In all its classes, BC2 seeks to observe as far as possible the 'standard' citation order. In any subject, this takes as the primary facet (the first-cited one) that facet which reflects the ultimate purpose or object of study in the subject, and within which the xxii

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other concepts and their facets are defined. Each class in the facet may then be divided into the following facets and in the following order: Types, Parts, Properties, Processes, Operations (actions on it), Agents (of processes and operations), Common subdivisions The following notes explain how these general rules have been applied to Class AY/I. 4.51

The primary facet consists of the entities defining the objects of scientific enquiry. They embrace fundamental manifestations of energy and matter (kinetic energy, forms of motion, waves, electromagnetism, particles and more complex aggregations of these (molecular, astronomical and planetary, living organisms, etc). The concepts making up these classes are easily recognized as defining the well-known sub-disciplines of science (physics, chemistry, etc).

4.52

The second-cited facet consists of the Subsystems and Parts of these; this facet has no general class independently of the entities above, only those subsystems special to a given entity and which vary widely according to the entity. It includes subsystems of chemical molecular systems, parts of planets such as lithospheres and atmospheres, the regional parts and organs of living things and so on.

4.53

The third-cited facet consists of Properties and Processes of systems and subsystems. These range from ubiquitous concepts appearing in all systems (eg distribution, variation, frequency, dimension) to specialized ones such as oxidation and reduction in chemical substances, tectonic and degrading processes in planets, and respiration, evolution, etc. in living things.

4.531

Properties are conceptually distinct from processes (actions internal to a system); eg colour is a property, change is a process.

4.532

Where the distinction is clear, two different facets will be recognized; but in many fields the distinction is so blurred that the two facets are conflated. In terms of citation order, property is always subordinated to whatever it qualifies, whether this is an entity, a process or even another property (eg the durability of a colour).

4.54

The fourth-cited facet consists of Operations; these are actions performed on all the above by human operators and their agents, as distinguished from processes, which are activities internala to a system, such as the physiology of living things.

4.55

The fifth-cited facet consists of Agents; these are usually agents of external human Operations, such as equipment and instrumentation. But the relationship of action/agent also occurs with processes (eg enzymes acting as biochemical agents in a physiological process).

4.56

The sixth-cited facet consists of Common Subivisions (CSD); these are concepts which are to be found in all subjects and provided for in BC"2 by Common Auxiliary Schedules 1/4, applicable to all classes. They range from bibliographical forms (dictionaries, graphic materials, etc) to operations like study and research and agents of these such as organizations.They also include the two major facets of Time and Space in their

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commonly occurring manifestations of chronological periods and geographic places. The concepts of Time and Space as fundamental parameters in natural phenomena are regarded as subject classes in physics (at B9B). 4.6

Citation order within facets (between arrays)

4.61

In contrast to citation order between facets, there are no general principles available for deciding citation order between arrays. Decisions are largely empirical, based on considerations of whether any given compound (reflecting two or more different arrays) would most helpfully go.

4.62

The number of different arrays is often so large that it is out of the question to list them in citation order as is done for facets in section 5. However, the order in which they should be cited is shown clearly by the inverted filing order (see section 5.2 below); an array filing later (further down) in the schedule should be cited before one filing earlier (see examples in section 5.22).

4.7

General indexing rules for citation order

4.71

The rules described above govern by far the greater number of decisions for compounding in BC2. However, a number of well-established indexing rules, all of them consistent with the standar citation order, are also observed and are very useful in practical classification (see Introduction to BC2 (Ref. 3) section 7.331). Sometimes, these demand that synthesis should be by building forward, not retroactively. This is because the normal relationship between the facets or arrays has changed. The most prominent of these is probably the rule for citing in the order Patient (ie recipient of action) - Action - Agent. This is usually taken care of by the normal citation order; eg Techniques in scientific investigation AY6/AY7 file after Equipment and Materials AY3/AY5 and are cited before them. But when one thing influences another (a special case of the agent relationship) the influencing factor, which is cited second, may file after the thing affected; eg thermal acoustics BRG HGP is built by citing acoustics (BRG H) before thermal properties (BRG P) although acoustics (here, the thing affected) files before thermal properties.

4.72

The situation may be generalized thus: whenever the relationship between concepts varies from that embodied in the standard citation order, these general indexing rules should be invoked.

5

Filing order

5.1

This is the order in which the individual classes, simple or compound, file one after the other, whether in the schedule, on the shelves or in a catalogue or bibliography. It has two quite separate components - facet filing order and order in array.

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5.2

Facet filing order

5.21

This is the order in which the different facets, each one containing a block of different classes, file one after the other.

5.22

All schedules in BC2 are inverted ones; ie the facets file in an order which is the reverse of the order in which they are cited when compounding terms to form compound classes. So the primary facet files last, the second-cited facet files next to last, and so on.

5.23

The reason for this (see the Introduction to BC'2 (Ref.3) is solely to preserve a consistent order of general-before-special. The assumption that, a general class should file before its subclasses is virtually universal.

5.24

Example of an inverted schedule: G GHT

GL GN GP GPH T GPN GPP T GPP T H T

Zoology, animals (Processes) Behaviour (Types of animals) (Types by development) Young (Types by habitat) Aquatic (Types by taxonomy) Birds Behaviour Aquatic birds Eagles Behaviour

5.25

In the file above, the compund Bird behaviour (GPH T) files after both the more general classes to which it belongs (Animal behaviour GHT and Birds GP). If the schedule were not inverted, and the Processes facet filed after the Types of animals facet (just as it is cited after it) the general class Animal behaviour would file after its subclass Bird behaviour.

5.26

Similarly, within each each facet the arrays are inverted; the first-cited array files last, the second-cited array files next to last, and so on.

5.27

It was noted in section 4.62 that the inverted filing order embodies within itself a comprehensive guide to the citation order. The sequence of classes in 5.24 demonstrates this. It implies, inter alia, that a process is cited after a type of animal; also, that within the Types facet an animal characterized by its taxonomic class is cited before its habitat.

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5.3

Order in array

5.31

The classes in an array are mutually exclusive and cannot normally be compounded (see section 3.33). So their filing order cannot be determined by citation order. Where there is an obviously helpful order, that is used; eg chronological order of periods in AY7 History of science; evolutionary order, reflecting development over time, of organisms in biology; geographical order of places in DU Geography.

5.32

However, order in array is usually pragmatic. The filing order of the individual sciences is a somewhat special case and is probably best regarded as that of a quasifacet order. The order is essentially one of gradation and integrative levels (see sec 1.3) and provides both a filing order and a. citation order. Compounding between the special sciences (which is not uncommon) conforms to the basic retroactive rule, the class filing later being cited before that filing earlier; so the physics of chemical substances, of astronomical bodies, of terrestrial processes, of biological processes, etc all go under the class filing later, not under physics.

6

Alternative treatments and arrangements in the order of classes

6.1

These serve the demands of particular types of libraries. In each case, the notation has been designed specifically to allow alterations to be. made to the preferred arrangement. In all cases, the preferred arrangement is stated clearly and any special notational instructions needed to implement the alternative are indented under the note for it. The general pros and cons of alternatives are explained in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3).

6.2

The main alternatives in Class AY/I are noted in the separate introductions to the classes concerned. One common to all the sciences is that for the collocation with its science of the applied science or technology of that science. But note that in the case of the biological sciences, the collocation of the technology with biology is the preferred arrangement.

7

Notation This is explained in detail in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3), Only its main features are described here.

7.1

Notation is a system of classmarks representing the terms (classes) of a classification. Its function is to locate in a mechanical fashion the position of each and every class, simple or compound, in the system. It does this mechanically because the symbols (in BC2, capital letters and numerals) have an ordinal (positional) value already well known to the users. The only special ordinal value the user of BC2 must remember is that a number files before a letter; eg AY9 files before AYA.

7.2

The notation is purely ordinal - ie it makes no attempt to express hierarchical relations by adding another character to symbolize each step of division. Such an attempt must xxvi

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always fail sooner or later and more likely sooner. So BC'2 notation concentrates on the primary function of notation, which is simply to maintain the order of classes already determined completely by the theoretical rules governing order (citation order and filing order). By doing this, it secures classmarks which are as brief and as simple as possible. For example: AY3 6 AY3 B AY3 U AY4 AY4 5 AY4 K

Practical scientific work Equipment & materials Equipment & plant Scientific instruments Components Switching devices

7.3

Only one classmark in the above chain (sequence of successively subordinate classes) is 'hierarchical' in that it adds a character to the classmark of its immediate containing class; ie AY4 5 can be 'seen' to be subordinate to AY4. On the other hand, the classmarks are much shorter than they would have been otherwise; eg the last class would need a classmark nine characters long if the notation were hierarchical.

7.4

It should be emphasized that notation in no way determines the order of the classification. The order is determined entirely by the theoretical principles and rules described in sections 3/6 above. All that notation does is to maintain this order mechanically; it is the servant of the order, not the master. Nevertheless, notation is an important feature of a classification; as Bliss said, it may not make the classification, but it may mar it. BC'2 seeks to keep notation as brief as possible (whilst still being as specific as possible in pin- pointing classes) since brevity is the major element in simplicity.

7.5

The notation is fully faceted and synthetic. Compound classes formed by the intersection (coordination) of two or more separate concepts or classes are given classmarks which are built ('synthesized') from the simpler constituent classes according to strict rules. These are explained fully in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3) but the essential ones are repeated here for convenience.

7.51

The main function of synthesis in notation is to provide maximum hospitality. Within any subject, the number of potential classes is enormous. Every term in every facet is theoretically capable of intersecting with every term in every other facet. Although the literature may reflect a large number of these, this number is still only a fraction of the number it might conceivably deal with. The notation must be flexible enough to accommodate all of them.

7.511

It must also, of course, be able to accommodate new concepts as they arise. It is assumed that new concepts will always fit into existing facets, which reflect categories of concepts fundamental enough to ensure this. The provision of correctly located classmarks for newly inserted concepts is also facilitated by the ordinal notation, which suffers far less from rigidity (as Ranganathan called it) than so-called hierarchical xxvii

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notation. 7.52

Enumeration of compound classes in the schedule

7.521

Because of the practical impossibility of printing out ('enumerating') in the schedules all the compound classes which may arise, a faceted classification may decide to adopt a rigorous policy of not giving any. This was the case in the first fully faceted classification to be made - the Colon classification of S.R Ranganathan. This simply listed all the elementary terms in their facets and left it to the classifier to build the classmarks for all compound classes as they appeared in the documents being classified.

7.522

For a number of reasons this schedule style is not followed in BC'2. which enumerates a fair number of compound classes. The main reason is that this assists the classifier to grasp the structure of the whole class as it affects the particular class concerned. It shows clearly how the the concepts in a subject are handled consistently despite the ambiguities and confusions in the terminology. These are far more prevalent in the case of the natural sciences than is warranted by the description of their terminology as being 'hard' (as compared to the 'soft' terminology of the social sciences). Wherever necessary, definitions of terms are given so that the classifier can see why the concept has been classified as it has been. Enumeration of compound classes also facilitates the provision of A/Z index entries for important compound classes (which would not get an entry were the schedules to be confined to the elementary terms).

7.523

In such cases (of some enumerated compound classes appearing in the schedule) it should not be thought that the detail under that part is limited to the subclasses thus enumerated. When assessing the specificity of the vocabulary in a given class it should always be remembered that the class may be qualified by all earlier facets and arrays, whether this is hinted at by a limited enumeration or not. For example, there is enumeration of the class Neutron-neutron interaction at BNW QW; but this could easily be notated if the need arose.

7.6

Classmark building (synthesis) This is best demonstrated by detailed examples from a specific class; so the explanations in the introduction to Class B Physics may serve to demonstrate the problems for all the sciences. Here, only the briefest summary of the position is given.

7.61

The chief method of synthesis is by retroactive notation. It must be remembered that compounding in BC2 is nearly always done by qualifying a given class by one or more other classes preceding it in the schedules. The classmark for the compound is obtained by adding the earlier classmark directly to the later one after dropping any initial letters (or, much less commonly, numbers) common to the two classmarks being joined; eg BF

Waves

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o BM BMF

o

Particles Particle waves

Here, the earlier class (waves) is added directly to the later one (particles) after first dropping the initial B, which is common to both of them. 7.611

A distinction worth noting here is that of a notational facet, as distinct from the more commonly referred to conceptual facet. A notational facet is the set of subclasses beginning with the same initial notation; eg the notational facet AY7 consists of all the subclasses beginning with AY7 (whereas the conceptual facet of Techniques in scientific investigation in which it appears covers AY6/AY7). This distinction is useful when considering how many letters can be dropped in retroactive notation.

7.62

The second method of synthesis uses an intercalator. This is any letter or number used t o introduce subclasses other than by the automatic operation of retroactive notation. It is always accompanied by an Add instruction; eg AY3 B AY3 K

Equipment & materials (in scientific investigations) (Physical properties of equipment & materials) * Add to AY3 K letters A/W following B; eg AY3 KGP Thermal properties [from BGP]

7.621

An important use of intercalators is when every member of a large class has to be qualified by a standard set of subclasses (eg every particle in physics, any given element in chemistry).

7.622

Intercalators are quite prominent in Class B Physics and the Introduction to Class B Physics (section 8.4) gives further examples.

7.7

The different ways of building classmarks described above may give an impression of complexity at first reading. But so would the simplest action if described in terms of its basic operational steps. The detailed sequence of instruction we need to give a computer before it can process the simplest operation demonstrates this. Applying notation is a practical operation; the steps involved are basically simple and quickly become familiar after a little practice.

8

T h e alphabetical subject index The function of the A / Z index to a classified indexing system is considered in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3) (section 6.5 gives general principles and section 7.5 gives practical guidance for a library making its own A / Z index to its own stock). Only the basic features are given here.

8.1

The main points to be remembered for the efficient use of the printed index to the schedules in this volume are given on the page preceding the A / Z index.

8.2

The A / Z index to this volume is essentially a quick guide to the location of any given concept in the schedules. It is important to remember that it is not a substitute for xxix

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the categorized and hierarchical display of the schedules. The classifier should never classify solely by the index, but turn to the schedules to verify that a given context is the correct one for the concept as used. 8.3

Most of the terms indexed are elementary ones, whereas much of the literature to be classified reflects several such terms combined in some form. The classifier must be thoroughly familiar with the basic rules governing how these terms are put together in order to get a classmark which locates the compound accurately in its correct context.

8.4

The basic rules followed in making the index are those of chain indexing. This is a highly economical way of reducing the number of entries needed for compound classes whilst ensuring that all keywords likely to be sought by a user of the index will still appear. The main rule is very simple: if an entry term is qualified at all, it is by a superordinate term (ie a containing class, which helps to define it). An entry term is never qualified (followed by) a term representing one of its own subclasses in the schedule; eg entries may appear for Propagation of waves BFC Waves BF but NOT for Waves, Propagation BFC

since the last class represents a subclass of waves in the schedule. Should a user of the index consult it under the last form, and not find it, they will nevertheless find the direction to BF Waves (in general) and can locate the desired subclass in a slightly less direct way via the schedule. 8.5

The A/Z index to BC'2 classes is now produced largely by automatic selection of terms from the schedules, using a computer program written to this end. This include, for example, rules for deleting 'a.nti-chain' entries; this ensures that no entry appears for Wave propagation (say).

8.6

A problem which will need resolving when BC"2 is complete is that of a consolidated A/Z index. The obvious desirability of one A/Z index to all the sciences and not just to AY and B anticipates the more general problem. The Bliss Classification Association has begun looking at this, but until BC2 is complete the actual production of such an index is, unfortunately, not practicable.

9

Practical classification in A Y / I This considered in detail in the Introduction to BC2 (1979). Some brief notes on the problem, with demonstrations of the different situations which arise, will be found in the Introduction to Class B Physics.

10

Applications of Class A Y / I

10.1

The use of BC2 to arrange files of documents or catalogue entries for them, including xxx

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the provision of a conceptual framework to assist the analysis of the documents, should be clear from the various sections above. But BC'2 is also extremely useful in the construction and searching of automated as well as manual databases. 10.2

Automated catalogues and databases

10.203 Reference has already been made in the Introduction to Volume AY/B (section 2.2) to Jean Aitchison's paper in the Journal of Documentation on the use of BC2 in this context. An even more detailed account, albeit one restricted to a single subject field for its examples, is given in the introduction to Chris Preddle's revised edition of Class Q Social welfare and criminology (Bowker-Saur, 1996). It considers the problems of subject keyword indexing, the precoordination of terms, indexing aids in controlling preferred terms, synonyms, etc, subject keyword searching, thesaurus construction and searching for documents by searching classmarks. 10.21

Ideally, the substance of the above would be repeated here, but using the vocabulary of science for its demonstrations. However, the exigencies of getting this first volume of the BC2 classification of the sciences published without further delay have made this impracticable. But although the examples used in the Class Q Introduction are drawn from a quite different field of knowledge, the principles involved are much the same as will be found in any field and their exposition should proved of great help to users of this volume until an exposition tailor-made to the needs of the sciences is available.

10.3

The use of BC2 in constructing traditional manual catalogues is considered in the Introduction to BC2 (Ref.3) and will not be repeated here. Excellent comments on this problem will also be found in the Introduction to Class Q.

11

General science and physics in B C 2 compared with B C l

11.1

The general sequence of the sciences in BC2 is virtually the same as in BCl. This is not surprising, since the main-class order has always been recognized as the greatest strength of BCl. But within each individual science, the differences between BCl and BC2 are very substantial indeed, both as to the organization of classes and the size of vocabulary. These differences in the individual sciences are considered under each science and only AY and B are considered here.

11.2

Class A Y In BCl the subject of science in general is at AK, following philosophy (A/AJ) and preceding logic (AL). Bliss acknowledged that both logic and mathematics (AM/AY in BCl) were not sciences properly, being concerned not with the observation of natural phenomena per se but with general methods applicable to all subjects, and particularly to philosophy and science. Nevertheless, he described them as abstract xxxi

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sciences which made a bridge between philosophy and science proper. BC2 has interpreted the scope of the latter as it is more generally understood, as consisting of the empirical sciences concerned with 'objective realities' as Bliss put it. By this reckoning they are more concrete than logic and mathematics and therefore follow them in main-class order. 11.21

The small vocabulary of AI< in B C l consists mainly of relatively generalized terms which tend to mix up concepts usually regarded as beloging to the common subdivisions (eg surveys, recreations in science), social relationships of science (eg science and theology, science impostors, applications to industry) and scientific operations (eg organization of research). Only one classmark is given to the agents of scientific activity (laboratories and equipment) and this is separated from scientific instruments, which is preferred under physical sciences (AZN). There is only one concept representing the general processes and properties (AKS Symmetry and conformity in natural objects). Although AK contains several concepts relating to different categories of sciences (eg exact sciences, formal sciences, natural sciences, sciences grouped for some purpose) the general concept is not completed until the widely separated class for physical sciences at AZ. So AI\ is not used in BC2 and all its concepts are contained in AY.

11.22

The overall order of Class B Physics in BCl is broadly similar to that in BC2, but lacks consistency in its categorization. This is best shown by outlining it: BA/BB BC/BD BE/BF BG BH/BL BM/BO BP BQ/BR BS/BT BU

Theoretical & practical physics Mechanics Matter & energy... Radiation Properties of matter, changes of state Heat... Light... Electricity & magnetism. Electrical techology & Engineering Sound Hydromechanics & hydraulic engineering Aerodynamics & aeronautics Physical technology

11.221 In terms of facet structure this shows some confusion. Although BG, for example, includes the general classes for the particular states of matter (which are given in the same order as in BC2 - Fluids... Gases... Liquids... Solids) the content of these classes is scattered (at B Q / B T ) with little apparent rationale. No clear distinction is made between the particular states of matter and the processes concerned in their changes. 11.222 The general state of this internal structure in the class is one reflecting the state of library classification before Ranganathan introduced the strict application of the rules of logical division to sort out categories of concepts and developing clear rules for their interaction. 11.223 The other striking difference between BCl and BC2 in the two classes is the size xxxii

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of vocabulary. It is very difficult to give even an approximate figure for the size of vocabulary in a synthetic classification, since the compounding of classes can generate tens of thousands of classes if the literature demands it. 1 1 . 2 2 4 If we consider only those terms enumerated in the schedules with a specific classmark, BC2 has something like twenty times as many terms as B C l in the general science class and some twelve times as many in physics. The figures (very roughly indeed) axe: for general science B C l has (in AK and AY) some 50 enumerated classes of which some 40 have individual classmarks. BC2 has (in AY) some 1100 enumerated classes. These figures exclude the Common subdivisions, or the disparity would be even greater. In physics, B C l has some 600 enumerated classes, of which only about half have an individual classmark; BC2 has between 3500 and 4000 enumerated terms, all with individual classmarks. 1 1 . 2 2 5 When it is remembered that BC2 is a fully synthetic scheme, whereas B C l has verylimited synthesis in its two classes, these differences in range of vocabulary increase more or less beyond measure.

xxxiv

Introduction to Class AY General science

1

Basic principles and structure

1.1

The underlying principles governing the classification of all subjects in BC are described briefly in the Introduction to Class AY/I (sections '2/11). They include definitions of facets and arrays and basic rules for citation order and filing order and for notation.

1.2

The Outline of Class AY (p.l) is designed to give a clear view of both the scope and the basic structure of the class. Since the schedule is an inverted one (see section 8.2) the outline will be seen to show not only the general sequence of categories and their classes but also the basic operational rule in applying the classification. This is the rule that compound classes (those reflecting the intersection of two or more simpler classes) axe located under the class appearing later (lower down) in the schedule. For example, Recording is AY7 4T and Holographic techniques is AY7 K; so recording techniques in holography is AY7 K74 T.

2

Scope of Class AY and its place in BC2

2.1

The facets in the complete class AY/I (Science and the natural sciences) are summarized in the Introduction to AY/I (section 3) and explained more fully in sections 5.5 (under citations order). This shows that the main body of the individual sciences, dealing with the different types of natural phenomena studied, together with their subsystems, occupy classes B/I. Collectively, they makeup the primary and secondary facets of science.

2.2

However, a small residue of concepts belonging to Facets 1 and 2, but more general in scope than any of the classes B/I, are located in AY. The full facet structure of AY can now be summarized.

3

Facets in Class AY:

3.1

Objects of scientific enquiry & their subsystems (AYE/AYR)

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3.11

As noted above, nearly all the classes in these first two facet of science are accommodated in B / I and only a small residue of more general concepts is found in AY: ie

3.12

Aggregations of the individual sciences (eg empirical sciences, fundamental sciences, physical sciences);

3.13

Systems and subsystems in general: this class is on the borders between the categories of entities studied, structural properties of those entities and conceptual tools for the study of these. One feature of a class on systems and subsystems in general is that it may be equated with the idea of complex systems in general and it is this sense that makes its location immediately preceding the individual, special sciences both logical and helpful.

3.14

Although the application of systems theory is usually in the area of the natural and social sciences, it is also used in the applied social sciences, particularly in the field of management, and to technology (in systems analysis, systems engineering, etc). In this relationship, the locating of systems here is consistent with that of other concepts with a base in science but applied extensively outside it.

3.2

Properties and processes (AY9 "2/AY9 R)

3.21

The contents of this facet vary considerably from one individual science to another. For example, in DG Earth sciences, they include seismic and volcanic action and processes of erosion and deposition in the lithosphere: in the hydrosphere and atmosphere quite different concepts have to be accommodated. In E Biology, processes like the evolution and development of species and the physiology of individual organisms are found.

3.22

In AY, enumeration is restricted to those general concepts which are to be found in all or many of the individual sciences. These include concepts like distribution, change, dimension (in time and in space) and others from systems theory, such as systems behaviour, constancy, reversibility, etc.

3.23

A facet containing terms of high generality which are applicable to many different contexts is likely to clash on occasions with the special provisions found in those contexts. For example, the array for Conditions & parameters (AY9 4/AY9 7) duplicates the provision for a few ubiquitous concepts, such as temperature and pressure; they are designed to be used when qualification by the general classes in the large Energy interactions &; forms facet is unwieldy and the wide context implied by these terms is not required. But if there is some doubt as to which is best for a particular situation, the general class should be preferred.

3.3

Operations (AY2 YM/AY8)

3.31

These reflect the actions of humans in their scientific study of phenomena. They constitute a major facet in AY and two major quasi-arrays are distinguished: theory, representing purely intellectual operations, and practical scientific work and tech-

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niques. Strictly speaking, both these are subclasses of the one overarching operation of scientific research. 3.4

Agents (AY3 B/AY5) This facet consists almost entirely of the equipment and instrumentation used to assist the operations of enquiry. A few agents (notably the persons themselves) will be found in the Common subdivisions.

3.5

Common subdivisions (CSD) These are common to all subject field, not only to general science and the individual sciences. Conceptually, they constitute a special application of the relationship of operations and agent in which the operations relate to the social organization of the study and practice of the subject and the agents are persons and organizations. Its most prominent class is probably that of the history of science, where the history relates not to the phenomena which are the object of scientific study but to the study itself, as manifested over historical time and in different places.

4

Arrays in Class A Y Arrays are sets of terms within a facet which reflect a specific principle of division as distinct from the broad principle which is demonstrated by all the terms in the facet. For example, in the CSD, Persons in science (AY'2 4) are divided by sex, by ethnic group, by occupational characteristics, etc. Operations in scientific investigation are divided by scale (AY6 6), by energy form utilized (AY6 9), by the functional action performed on phenomena (AY7) and so on.

5

C i t a t i o n order

5.1

Citation order of facets The citation order between the facets in AY is the order in which the facets are set out in section 3 above. This reflects the standard citation order. The Objects of scientific study are part of the primary facet and are therefore cited first. The classes in the Properties & processes facet are integral features of the natural phenomena studied in science and are therefore cited next, before the Operations on them and the Agents of those operations. CSD are cited last, as in all BC2 classes.

5.2

Citation order of arrays The distinction between citation order of facets and of arrays is explained in the Introduction to AY/I.

5.21

Although there are no comprehensive rules governing citation order in array, the practical rule of retroactivew synthesis is readily followed by citing first the class appearing later in the schedule; eg the array of Operations by energy array (AY6) files earlier than the array of Operations by purposive function (AY7). So a. compound on electronic techniques in imaging would be AY7 161 B, not AY6 IB7 I. xxxvii

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5.22

Where the standard citation order can be applied, order in array reflects this; eg under Persons in science (AY2 4) the array (By occupational characteristics) files last, since it reflects a functional definition, and would therefore be cited before the others.

5.3

The basic indexing rules described in the Introduction to Class AY/I (section 5.7) are likely to be invoked in AY rather more often than in other classes; eg

5.31

Common subdivisions have always been distinguished by the fact that citation order may sometimes call for forward building; eg the history of anything is normally subordinated to that thing; so a history of scientific societies would go under the societies, although these file earlier than history. But a society devoted to the history of science would go under history of science.

5.32

In the same way, some operations, like measurement and evaluation, will always be cited after the thing acted on, even if this calls for building forward rather than retroactively; eg AY7 4N7 D Telemetry - Evaluation.

5.33

Although the fact that facets and arrays in AY are introduced by numbers allows forward building to be done quite easily, it should not be done in cases where provision is already made for the special relationships which the basic indexing rules cover; eg the Agents facet at AY3 B has its own special Operations facet provided and the general Operations facet at AY6/7 should only be used for operations not provided for by this special facet.

6

Filing order in A Y This cited first. their

7

is inverted, as explained in the Introduction to AY/I (section 6). So the first facet (Objects of scientific enquiry) files last, and the last cited facet (CSD) files Similarly, within each facet, the arrays file in the order which is the reverse of citation order.

A l t e r n a t i v e s in A Y An example of the modification of the preferred BC'2 order to meet special requirements occurs at AY2 8/AY2 9B. Here, libraries wishing to keep together all the material on the history and philosophy of science, including that of the individual sciences, may do this by using the intercalator for individual sciences at the end of the history class, following AY2 96E.

8

N o t a t i o n and classmark building in A Y

8.1

AY has an unusual feature compared with most BC2 classes in that all its subclasses have a number as their initial character. Since the great majority of BC2 classmarks consist mainly of and end in letters, qualification by another AY classmark (after dropping the initial AY which is common to them all) is readily done by simple addition, without the need to reserve earlier characters as is the normal case with xxxviii

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pure retroactive notation. The change from letters to numerals clearly signals that synthesis has been effected; eg AY7 M4 clearly indicates that the classmark AY7 M (for Spectroscopy) has been qualified by the earlier classmark AY4 (for Instruments). 8.2

It has already been noted (in section 6.231) that this feature makes forward building of compound classmarks easier than it usually is. However, it should be done only to implement the citation order rules of BC'2, otherwise it would undermine the predictable consistency which is a hallmark of BC2.

8.3

Apart from the two features above, notation is governed by the normal rules for retroactive notation: earlier classmarks are added directly wherever this has been provided for.

8.31

Since the initial AY is common to all classmarks in AY, this is always dropped before adding earlier classmarks; eg AY4 is Scientific instruments, AY2 7 is History of science, so a history of scientific instruments is AY4 27.

8.32

Within a 'notational facet' (all the classes beginning with the same numeral division of AY) the initial three characters (AY and the initial numeral) may usually be dropped; eg AY3 B AY3 BD AY3 C AY3 C B D AY3PV AY3R AY3 RC AY3 RPV

8.33

Equipment & materials Design of equipment & materials Handling of equipment & materials Design of handling equipment & techniques Intelligent equipment & materials Materials in general Materials handling Intelligent materials

On those occasions when it is necessary (because of the basic citation order rules) to add a classmark occurring later in the schedule, the use of the initial numeral allows synthesis; eg AY7 MLX AY7 MLX 7MNP

X-ray spectroscopy Electron probe microanalysis

Here, the electron probe acts as an aid (agent) to the primary purpose of X-ray spectroscopy, so it is cited after the latter although it files later than the concept qualified. 8.4

Intercalators are used where convenient to introduce concepts from other classes; eg AY3 7 AY3 7MG AY3 7N

Hazards in practical scientific work Dangerous substances Specific substances * Add to AY3 7N letters H/U following C in Class C Chemistry.

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Special problems in Class AY As far as is feasible, problems of definition and analysis and the practical decisions taken to meet them are noted in the schedule at the point of occurrence. Others are implicit to some extent in the provision of alternatives. But a number of theoretical problems not adequately explained in the space of a schedule note are briefly considered here.

9.1

AY4/5 Instruments & instrumentation The distinction between components of instruments and types of instruments is not as clear as the usual distinction between types of a thing and the parts of those things. Most components function withins a more comprehensive system of interacting components; eg one which observes, detects, indicatea, records, and measures in one integrated system. Each functionally defined device may be considered separately, but as a component rather than as a type of instrument and so the main enumeration under instruments is of the components rather than the types.

9.2

AY6/7 Investigative techniques A distinction has been drawn between those techniques which largely reflect a mode of operation, energy form, etc (eg mechanical, electronic) and those which reflect a particular action on the phenomena investigated. The latter may be defined by what the human operator does (observe, detect, record, measure, test, etc) or by a particular property or process of the phenomenon studied (eg its spectra, microscopic structure, etc). The distinction between the mode of investigation and the thing investigated gives not only reasonably distinct arrays but also allows the application of the standard citation order (which cites the thing investigated first).

9.3

AY7 E Standards The location of this concept was decided by the fact that the notion of testing and evaluation is implicit in its definition (see note at AY7 A). Although standards are more often considered in a technological context than a purely scientific one, their origin seems to lie clearly in the general technique of testing and evaluation of material phenomena It should be noted that the the subject of standards in other fields of knowledge is a very different matter.

9.31

The importance of standards in the study of materials, equipment, etc has led to the development of a substantial social organization for their agreement and maintenance. This is also regarded as a distinct subject in the social organization of science and technology and is therefore located in AY1 (Science and technology together).

9.4

The filing order between theory and practice was originally considered to be determined by the general principle of increasing concreteness (formalized by Ranganathan) which would file theory before practice. But when developing the physics schedule it became apparent that this would give an unhelpful order. The theoretical constructs in physics are intimately bound up with the phenomena studied. In may

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cases they are akin to the systematic presentation of the various processes and properties of the phenomena investigated and are designed to explain their interrelations. If an hypothesis is a strong one, the theory may hardly be distinguishable from a statement of the real relationships between the phenomena. As a result of this, it was decided to locate theory immediately ahead of the Processes and properties facet, and filing after the practical techniques and agents. 9.41

It is arguable that physics is atypical in this respect, so an alternative is provided (at AY3 2) which files theory before practice.

9.5

The history of science proved to be an example of the need to adjust the standard citation order to the demands of a. special subject. In the history of science the period is far more significant than place and the collocation of all works on the history in a given period is much more helpful than the collocation of all the work done in a particular place. So the citation oder was changed to one in which period is cited before place.

10

P r a c t i c a l classification in Class A Y The general problems relating to the choice of alternatives, deciding which concepts are needed to summarize the subject of a document, etc. are dealt with briefly in the Introduction to Class B (section 10) and are not repeated here. The examples below demonstrate some of the problems which may arise in conceptual analysis and the assignment of classmarks. The final classmark of the document is the one which appears at the end of the chain (eg AY4 SS3 V) for intelligent sensors.

10.1

Title: Intelligent sensor systems This demonstrates the problem of overlap between functional operations (eg sensing) and instruments which are defined by their main operation. This work seems to be concerned chiefly with instrumental systems and is therefore placed under instruments. The resultant chain is: AY4 AY4 AY4 AY4 AY4

10.2

5 S SS SS3 V

Instruments )Components( )lnput devices( Sensors, probes Intelligent sensors

Title: Radiation protection of accelerator environments This demonstrates the application of the general Operations & agents facets in AY to a specific context. BM BM7 T BM7 T37 BM7 T37 K

Particle physics Acceleration of particles )Hazards( )Radiation hazards( xli

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)Protection(

AY7 T uses a set of classmarks reserved at AY7 T for operations special to a given context. The ER for protection is built by normal retroactive notation from AY3 7ER. 10.3

Study for a degree in science & technology This demonstrates the use of a common subdivision, with an intercalator introducing classmarks from another main class (here, degree courses in education J F O R) and the use of the very first class in AY - Science & technology together (AY1). AY1 AYI 26A AYI 26A R AYI 26A RFO R

Science & technology )Study & education( )Higher education( [from JR] Degree courses [from JFO R]

Some librarians would regard the concept of degree as being implicit in higher education and prefer the shorter classmark AYI '26A R. 10.4

Title: Nationalism and internationalism in science, 1880-1940: four studies of the Nobel population. The publisher's catalogue entry for this work describes its subject as scientific activity since 1880 viewed as being part of the emergence of the nation state. Applying the general indexing rules mentioned in the Introduction to AY/I (section 4.7) this is analyzed as the influence of nationalist sentiment on scientific activity; as such, the thing influenced (scientific work) is cited first. The Nobel prize winners are clearly the study sample taken to investigate the problem. The subject could be analyzed as: AY2 9R AY2 9RA NS AY2 9RA NS2 8N

Science & politics Nationalism [from RAN S Ideologies] 20th century

The period indicated covers most of that dealt with. But a library holding a large ctock in this area might wish to be more precise. In this case, Auxiliary Schedule 4A could be use to obtain high precision, in which the starting date is given followed by the duration of the period studied (to the nearest decade). This would add to the classmark -28 (for historical period) the starting date - L P T for 1880 followed by the duration (60 years) to give - L P T T . This would exact a long classmark as the price of its high precision: AY2 9RA NS2 8LP T T . Strictly speaking, a completely specific index description here would add the further step: Study sample - Scientific award winners - Nobel prize winners. However, a more practical solution would be to treat the Nobel population as a subject of enquiry in its own right and give it an added entry in the subject catalogue. Such an entry would be classed at AY2 9KH KM.

xlii

Introduction to Class B Physics

1

Basic principles and structure

1.1

The underlying principles governing the classification of all subjects in BC2 are described briefly in the Introduction to Class AY/I (sections 2/11). They include definitions of facets and arrays and basic rules for citation order, filing order and notation.

1.2

The Summary outline of Class B (p. 20?) is designed to give a clear view of the basic structure of the class. Since the schedule is an inverted one (see section 8.2 of the Introduction to AY) that outline will be seen to show not only the general sequence of categories and their classes but also the basic operational rule in applying the classification. This is the rule that compound classes (those reflecting the intersection of two or more simpler classes) are located under the class appearing later (lower down) in the schedule. For example, BAF is Energy interactions & forms; BM is Particles; so Energy interactions of particles is BMA F - ie under the later-filing Particles, not the earlier-filing Energy interactions in general.

2

Scope of Class B and its place in B C 2

2.1

Broadly speaking, physics may be defined as the study of matter and energy aimed at describing natural phenomena in terms of fundamental laws. Using the terminology of gradation and integrative levels (see Introduction to AY/I, section 1.2) this means that it considers natural phenomena at their most elementary level, before they are organized at more complex levels as molecules, macromolecules, aggregations of these as minerals, planetary and astronomical bodies and eventually as life forms.

2.2

The elucidation of the relations between energy and matter has been an important feature of 20th century physics, leading to the conclusion that they are interconvertible. So elementary particles, for example, may be seen sometimes as forms of energy and sometimes as particles of matter. Nevertheless, a distinction between energy and matter is one reflecting a basic human sensory perception of the concepts and this makes a comprehensible and practical basis for their linear ordering. This is also consistent with a helpful indexing principle formalized by Ranganathan as a filing

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The boundaries of the physics class are determined largely by gradation, which gives a broad sequence: BA/BL Energy interactions and forms BM/BQ Particles BR/BW Bulk matter Although particles are at the border between energy and matter they themselves reflect differences in mass and this principle provides the primary array within the particles facet. It also leads logically onto bulk matter, the forms of which are ordered primarily by increasing density.

2.4

The physical states of matter themselves form a disputed area which is sometimes claimed for physical chemistry. The term 'physical' is often used with a meaning broader than the one used here, which is of something pertaining to the world of energy and matter - ie to physics. So the forms themselves (gas. liquid, solid, etc) are preceded by the process of change of state, which is purely physical and does not involve chemical change.

2.5

A notable feature of the bulk matter class is that a number of the energy forms and interactions are manifested primarily and sometimes even uniquely in bulk matter. The principle of dependence in indexing rules that a class which depends entirely on the context of another class should be subordinated to the latter. As a result, the main enumeration of much of the electromagnetic phenomena class and of optics is given under bulk matter. Some of these concepts are dependenat on subjective human responses to the phenomena (eg luminosity and colour in optics) and this in turm implies the context of bulk matter. Other concepts reflect the problem of natural phenomena which are virtually defined by technological artefacts; examples of this are circuits and electric power.

3

Facets in Class B The nature of these follows from consideration of the nature of facet structure summarized in sections 3/4 of the Introduction to AY/I:

3.1

Systems of macromatter, bulk matter These consist primarily of the familiar physical states or forms of matter - gases, liquids, solids.

3.2

Parts, subsystems of macrosubstance Although this includes concepts like surfaces, interfaces, etc. the most prominent are the elementary and other particles which make up the macroforms.

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Processes and properties This facet consists mainly of the different forms of energy and their interactions; it includes classical mechanics, gravity and the complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including light.

3.4

General processes and properties These could be regarded as part of Facet 3; but they are general in scope and not confined to physics. They are described in section 4.22 of the Introduction to AY.

3.5

Operations These are the same concepts as described in section 4.3 of the Introduction to AY. But this facet in class B restricts them to their operation in physics.

3.6

Agents These also are the same concepts are described in section 4.4 of the AY Introduction but restricted in their application to the field of physics.

3.7

C o m m o n subdivisions These are described in the Introduction to AY (section 3.5).

4

Arrays in Class B As noted in AY/I section 3.3, arrays reflect specific principles of division applied to the classes within a facet. For example, the particles in facet 4.2 are divided by Quantum property (to give conserved particles, etc), by Source (to give accelerator particles, etc), by Lifetime (to give stable particles, resonances, etc) and so on. At the more specific level of fluid flow (say), the schedule distinguishes more than seventeen different arrays defining types of flows.

5

Citation order in Class B

5.1

The citation order between the facets in physics is their order in 4.1-7 above. This reflects standard citation order. Bulk matter (BR/BW) represents the containing systems within which the subsystems (BM/BQ) are found; both of these display processes and properties (B9/BL); all these may be investigated by the operations in B6/8 and these in turn may utilize the agents in B3/5 to assist them. Finally, all concepts may be qualified by the CSD in B2.

5.2

Citation order between arrays is always clear from the inverted filing order. It is largely pragmatic (see section 4.6 in the Introduction to AY/I) but sometimes reflects xlv

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principles akin to the standard citation order. For example, in the subordination of energy forms like absorption or diffraction to a particular wave-length of the electomagnetic spectrum; or, when two particles interact, the subordination of the particle with less mass to the one with more. 6

Filing order This is inverted (see section 6 of the Introduction to AY/I). So the first cited facet (bulk matter) files last, the second cited facet (subsystems, particles) files next to last, and so on. Similarly, within a facet the first cited array files last and the last cited one files first.

7

Alternatives in Class B

7.1

The most far-reaching provision is that for the location of physics-based technologies at BX/BY instead of in technology at U/V.

7.2

An example of a less far-reaching alternative is at BBS B Theories of mechanics; those theories frequently referred to as theories of mechanics (eg classical mechanics, quantum mechanics) may be located here rather than in the preferred location at B8B, where they are interpreted as theories applying to all or most of physics.

7.3

Another example is at BWY P where chemical crystallography may be collocated with general crystallography rather than separately in chemistry.

8

Notation and classmark building in Class B

8.1

The general features of BC"2 notation are explained in section 8 of the Introduction to AY/I. The notes here give in some detail how the general principles are applied and interpreted.

8.2

Normal retroactive notation, in which earlier classes may be added directly to a later one with the omission of the initial letter B, is common throughout BA/BM; eg B BAF BF BFT BJ BM BMM B

Physics Energy interactions and forms Waves Scattering Magnetism Particles (Special processes/properties) Symmetry [first enumerated subclass]

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The fact that the first class special to particles doesn't appear until BMM B means t h a t all the earlier subclasses of B (BA/BL) may be added directly to BM (to qualify particles) without clashing with the subclasses special to BM; eg BMF T Particles Scattering. 8.21

From BM onwards, compounding between classes in B M / B W displays more complex relations and these are handled by a number of different arrangements involving intercalators. But with only rare exceptions (always noted in the schedule) Classes BA/BL can continue to be added directly as in the example above.

8.3

In many cases, two (or even three) initial letters can be dropped in retroactive notation. This is particularly the case in B R / B W Bulk matter, where all classes have at least two initial letters in common (BR, BS, BT etc.); eg BRL BRL L BRL M BRL ML

Optics (in bulk matter) Luminosity Colour Luminosity, brightness

In the last class, three initial letters (BRL) are dropped. 8.31

This notational facet (BRL) is an example of one which has examples of dropping three letters yet apparently has assigned classmarks to some enumerated subclasses which would not allow this; eg BRL X BRL XU

X-rays Grenz rays [the first enumerated class]

So BRL U (say) could not be added directly to BRL X (to give BRL XU) because this would clash with the enumerated special subclasses of BRL X. This, howevever, is not inconsistent with dropping three letters throughout BRL: the classes BRL U / B R L Y form an array of mutually exclusive classes between which no compounding is possible (there is no such thing as visible X-rays, for example). So the letter U is available for the first special subclass under BRL X without breaking the rule which holds through the rest of the notational facet BRL. 8.32

A similar situation holds under BVH Electrical properties of solids; eg BV BVH BVH BVH BVH

I K N NK

Solids Electrical properties Charge Electrostatics Charge [dropping BVH]

8.4

U s e of intercalators

8.41

These may be used to extend the range of subclasses in a notational facet; eg in BF xlvii

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Waves * Add to BF letters A / D R following B; eg Wave energy [from BBB Energy]

This allows the enumeration of particular wave properties to begin at BFB rather than B F F (which would be necessary if direct addition of classes B / B E were allowed). 8.411

But compounds in BF formed by retroactive synthesis continue to be possible to the very end of the long list of properties (at BFV). So a further intercalator is inserted for classes B F G / B F Y ; all these may be divided retroactively by direct addition of A / F (following B F in B F A / B F F ) , but addition of classmarks from B G / B X need an intercalator to introduce them; eg BFD BFL BFS BFS D BFS GL

Frequency Absorption Collisions Frequency [by direct addition] Absorption [by addition after intercalator]

8.412

A similar situation is found in B R / B W ; generally speaking (there are some exceptions, always noted in the schedule) all these classes can add A / L (from BA/BL) directly but use M as an intercalator when adding classes from BM/BQ; eg BRM 0 Nuclear physics of bulk matter (where BR is Bulk matter and BO is Nuclear physics).

8.5

A more extended use of intercalators is found in handling complex relations in which concepts take on different roles, demanding varying citation orders which cannot be handled by direct retroactive notation. For example, at BNB instructions are given for the subdivision of any given particle in BM/BQ. Whilst direct addition of classes BMA/BMQ is allowed (dropping the two initial letters BM) beyond that, several distinct intercalators are use to introduce various types of compounds. So whilst Q introduces interactions with another particle, R and S introduce specification by another particle; eg BPQ P Electron-atom interaction (where BP is Atom and BNP is Electron) but B P Q RHW Neutral atoms (where BNH W is Neutral particles).

8.51

Direct retroactive notation may still be used within this framework of intercalators; eg BNF BNN BNO BNO RN BNO RNR F

8.52

Anti-particles Muons, mu-mesons Neutrinos Muon neutrinos Muon anti-neutrinos

Another example of retroactive synthesis being effected by intercalators is found when compounding between different states of matter according to their (physical) phase relations. This maintains a consistent rule that the denser state is cited first in such compounds (and in filing order the denser state files after the less dense); eg xlviii

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INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

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Solids ( B y state dispersed in the solid) Liquids in solid dispersions

It may be noted that the N for liquids is not a mnemonic got by using an earlier classmark (Liquids in general is BU). Maintenance of mnemonics would only be possible here at the expense of inordinately long classmarks. BC2 prefers brevity. 8.6

Interruption of normal synthesis A situation sometimes arises where one class demands a large expansion of an earlier class to meet its special needs. To squeeze this expansion into the earlier, more general classmarks would produce inordinately long classmarks; so the normal provision for retroactive notation is interrupted: eg BS BSB BSF BSG E

BSG P BSK Q BSL T BSM

B S M GH

Fluids Fluid flow ( f r o m BB Mechanics) Waves ( f r o m BF W a v e s ) (Special attributes & elements) * Normal retroactive notation is interrupted here & resumed at B S M . Boundary layer Flow around 3-d bodies Blunt bodies ( O t h e r energy interactions) * Normal retroactive notation is resumed; Add to B S M letters G F / L following BR; eg B S M GH Acoustic properties in fluid flow

8.61

In this way, the special needs of the fluids class is met whilst maintaining the consistent order of the general bulk matter class. There are numerous situations akin to this in class B; all such situations are clearly guided by explicit instructions for synthesis. They demonstrate the claim made in section 7.4 of the Introduction to AY/I that notation is always the servant of the order, not its master.

9

Some special problems in Class B So far as is feasible, problems of definition and analysis and the practical decisions taken to meet them are noted in the schedules at the point of application. Others are implicit to some extent in the provision of alternatives. But a number of theoretical problems seem to call for a slightly extended explanation.

9.1

The problem raised by the overlapping of natural phenomena (the legitimate province of physics per se) with techniques of enquiry and other applications which extend the scale of some phenomena for practical purposes has already been noted (in section 1.42 of the Introduction to AY/I). The problem is particularly acute in physics, although xlix

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the developing field of genetics technology is likely to equal it. Prominent examples are the techniques of stimulated emission of electomagnetic radiation in masers and lasers and the production of stereoscopic images in holography; but the whole area of electronics is full of examples of similar situations. 9.11

Two distinct questions are posed. Firstly, how far should the processes and properties developed be provided for as part of the naturally occurring phenomena they are based on? Secondly, should the general class for the resulting techniques and instruments be regarded as primarily dependent on the natural phenomena and therefore be subordinated to these within physics proper, or should they be treated as being primarily scientific and technical aids and therefore be located either in B or AY or in U / V Technology (according to the range of their application)?

9.12

It is not claimed that the solutions given in these schedules are ideal, but t h e p r o v i s i o n s for synthesis in BC'2 at least ensure that the concepts involved find a h e l p f u l p l a c e whatever the relationship is in which they occur.

9.121

When the class developed is almost entirely humanly devised and preferred in technology; eg the large literature on electrical circuits duction will be found mainly in technology rather than at BVH, semi-conductors (rather than at BVI). This should become clearer Technology class is published (in 1999 it is hoped).

9.122

When the techniques or instruments are developed primarily in the investigation of the natural phenomena they are collocated with that (whilst still appearing, of course, in the Operations and Agents facets too). Examples of this are at BRG V where thermometry and thermometers appear under the thermal properties of bulk matter, and at BRL where optical techniques and instruments are collocated with optics. But masers and lasers are located under techniques at B6K QM and holography at B7K.

9.2

Thermodynamics raises the question of whether it should be subordinated to bulk matter (at BRG P Thermal properties) or located at a more generally applicable position. In terms of the inverted schedule it seems clear that the fundamental thermodynamic laws should appear quite early, since they are applicable to all physical phenomena, including particle physics. So the general class is preferred at the beginning of the energy interactions and forms facet (at BAF).

9.3

A similar question as to the generality of concepts is found in the treatment of major bodies of theory (classical, relativistic, quantum, etc). Although the terminology used often suggests a scope less than the entirety of physics (eg classical mechanics, quantum mechanics) these have been put at B8B as theories applying to all physics.

9.4

A thorny problem of terminology arises over the distinctions between oscillation, vibration, wave motions and radiation Physics textbooks use these terms somewhat indiscriminately and numerous glossaries and dictionaries are little better. A controlled vocabulary like that of BC2 has to be more precise and it was decided to provide separate classes for all these terms, with a warning as to their ambiguity.

1

controlled it is and power proas will that on when the BC2

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Enumeration of detailed subclasses is confined to one of them (Waves, at BF); within B R / B W Bulk matter the separate class for vibration and oscillation together (BE) is used as being more appropriate but it is divided in exactly the same way as is BF. 9.5

The location of the general classes for electrical energy and for optics raises the question of dependence. The latter principle requires many of the concepts involved to be subordinated to bulk matter (eg circuits, electrical power, luminosity, colour). In practice, most libraries probably prefer to keep the general classes on electricity and optics intact and not distributed between general physics and bulk matter physics. This is an example of literary warrant running counter to the theoretical requirements of consistent class formation. No perfect solution is possible and BC2 prefers the theoretical solution, since this is likely to be most helpful in the long run.

9.6

Particle physics poses the problem of a rapidly developing subject. The late appearance of this class of BC2 has at least the advantage of there having been a significant stabilization of this field over the last two decades or so. The definitions accompanying many of the terms attempt to indicate the underlying factors determining the treatment of the class.

9.7

A theoretical weakness of the Particles schedule, it may be thought, is the treatment of the basic interactions. The general concept of basic interactions (BMN V) naturally precedes the particles themselves, which are quasi-material entities. The notion of exchange particles ( B M 0 ) is subordinated to the general class as agents of the interactions. Theoretically, the individual particles would similarly be subordinated to the basic interaction they display. This is done for the gravitational force (BMP G) and the electroweak (BMP J); but the electromagnetic forces and the strong interactions have been subordinated to the types of particles which define them (charged particles and hadrons respectively) following the principle of dependence.

9.8

Another theoretical problem relating to particles is the appearance of gravity and electromagnetism as major energy interactions in general physics, ahead of their appearance as basic interactions. This separation reflects the fact that these interactions appear at every level of physics and not simply at the level of particles (where, in fact, gravitation effects are extremely difficult to find). On the other hand, the separation of the particles per se from the general interactions is consistent with the theory of gradation.

10

P r a c t i c a l classification in Class B The general rules for classifying documents by BC'2 are considered in the Introduction to BC2 (Section 7) and only a summary of the main points is given here.

10.1

Decide first which alternatives are to be used (if any) and delete clearly from the schedules those which are rejected. Once this is done it is done for good and henceforth the alternative are irrelevant to the library concerned. It also results in some simplification of the schedule. li

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10.2

Classification deals with the concepts which define the subject of the document and not with the terms used by the author to present the concepts (and which not infrequently may obscure the sense of some of the concepts). The schedule should provide a firm and predictable framework within which the classifier can locate the class (frequently a compound one) which accurately summarizes the overall subject of the document (as distinct from any subsidiary subjects referred to in the document).

10.21

In formulating the concept analyis of the document it is helpful to ask questions in a systematic order, posed in terms of the facets in their citation order. For example, does the subject of the document imply a context of bulk matter? If so, is it a particular state of matter? If so, does it deal with the relations of that form with particle physics and if so is it a particular particle? And so on.

10.22

The result of this systematic procedure is a summary statement of the document's subject in the form of a chain of terms; eg Fluids - High speed flow - Turbulent Boundary layer. When the chain is complete, the classmark is built from an examination of the schedules, a consideration of the basic rules of retroactive notation and the noting of any special instructions along the way (in the use of intercalators, for example).

10.3

A few titles from recent publishers' catalogues in physics will demonstrate such chains and the building of the classmark:

10.31

Title: Detection of gravitational waves Analysis of concepts in terms of the citation order, taking terms filing later before terms filing earlier gives the chain: BGR BGR F BGR F74 J

Gravitation Waves Detecting

The first qualification of gravitation uses simple retroactive notation in which the earlier class BF Waves is added directly, dropping the initial B. The second qualification is also by direct addition of B74 J, dropping the initial B. The last classmark had itself been constructed by adding to B the numbers and letters following AY, the general class for detecting as a technique in scientific enquiry. 10.32

Title: The interacting boson-fermion model Concept analysis produces the chain: B BNK BNK Q BNK QJ BNK QJ8 B

Particle physics Bosons (Interactions with other particles) Fermions Theoretical models

lii

o

I N T R O D U C T I O N TO P H Y S I C S

o

The first qualification of bosons is by direct addition of the class BMQ Interactions between specific particles, dropping the first two letters BM. The authority for doing this is found in the instructions at BNB for the subdivision of any given particle. The Q in BMQ acts as an intercalator which introduces, with direct addition, the clasmark for all particles in BNB/BNY. Since Fermions is BNJ, only the J is added to BNK Q. The last addition is from B8B Theory & theoretical models in physics itself taken from AYS B Scientific theories & models. 10.33

Title: Turbulent boundary layers in supersonic flow Concept analysis begins here with fluids in general; although supersonic flow more usually implies aerodynamic flow, there is nothing in the catalogue description to limit this study to gases. However, if examination of the document showed this to be the case, the commencing class would be BT (Gases) - nothing else would change. BS BSJ BSJ BSJ BSJ

T W WJ WJG P

Fluids High-speed flow Supersonic flow Turbulent flow Boundary layers

The schedule at BSJ, containing the array (Flows by speed) stops at BSJ T High speed flow. But the instruction at BSG E (which introduces a special expansion of the class of fluid flow) states clearly that the details given under gases in BT may be used anywhere in the fluids class if necessary; so the W in BSJ W is taken from BTJ W. The next two additions from the same set of arrays of fluid flows (BSJ Turbulent, and BSG P Boundary layers) are both added directly, dropping the two letters BS which are common to all the subclasses in BS. 10.34

Title: Quantized vortices in Helium II The annotation states that the subject relates to superfluids, so the concept analysis begins with that as the context: BS BSM PBF BSM PBF DP BSM PBF DP8N

Fluids Superfluids, helium II (superfluids) Vortices Quantized

The starting class Superfluids is enumerated in the schedule but is clealy the result of synthesis, locating it under atomic energy states in fluids. After that, simple retroactive notation gives Vortices by dropping the B in BDP and then Quantized by dropping the B in B8N (under quantum theory). In this context, helium II is interpreted as synonymous with superfluids, since no other superfluid is known. A more general work on helium II would go under atom physics, at BPU HH. The connection between the general class and this special aspect of it is made clear in

liii

o

Buss

CLASSIFICATION

O

the A/Z index, where the entries for the two classes come together under the term helium. 10.35

Title: Atomic transport in solids Building from the concept appearing latest in the schedule gives the chain: BV BVM B V M NP B V M NPA T

Solids (Relations with particles) Atoms Transport

liv

Summary Outline of Sciences Class A Y / I . General science and the sciences. This is an inverted schedule: each class may be qualified by all preceding classes so far as they apply — e.g. History of scientific instruments AY4 27; Physics in earth science DGB

(Subjects of scientific enquiry)

AY1 Science Si technology (general) * For technology, see U / V .

AYE AYF

AY2 Science in general (Common subdivisions) AY27 History of science AY29A Social aspects AY2A Philosophy of science AY2M Mathematics in science

AYG AYNP AYY B C D DG DU DY

(Operations Si agents) AY32 AY36 AY3B AY3U AY3X AY4 AY62 AY69 AY6H AY6KQ AY6X AY74 AY76 AY7H AY7J AY7M

AY7XN AY82 AY8B

Research operations (general) Practical scientific work Equipment Si materials Equipment, plant Laboratories Instruments

E EK F G

Investigative techniques Physical methods Electromagnetic... Microwave techniques Chemical techniques (By action on phenomena) Detecting... Indicating... Measurement.. Simulating... Visualizing Si imaging Microscopy...

GRX GS GT GU GV GX H I IRF

Spectroscopy (Types of research) Non-experimental Experimental (general) Scientific theory

(General processes Si properties) * For qualification of individual sciences. Classes AY92/AY95 are not used here. AY92D Distribution... Variation... AY94 Conditions Si parameters... AY9B Dimension... Time... Space... AY9G Systems characteristics * As AYG/AYS; eg AY9NP Continuous... Adaptive ...

lv

The Sciences (in aggregate) General phenomena * As Class 4 Phenomena. Systems... Complex phenomena... Adaptive systems... Physical sciences Physics Chemistry Astronomy Earth sciences Geography Ecology Si environment * Alternative to GX. Biology Microorganisms Plants, botany Animals, zoology Applied biology Agriculture Animal husbandry Veterinary science Forestry Human ecology Human biology... Medicine Human psychology Psychiatry

Ivi

Summary Outline of Physics Class B. Physics. This is an inverted schedule: each class may be qualified by all preceding classes so far as they apply — e.g. Particles— Waves BMF.

B Physics B2 (Common subdivisions) B2M Mathematics Si statistics in physics

BMNV

(Operations Si agents) Research (general)... Methodology... Practical physics Equipment Si materials (Operations on) Equipment, plant Instruments, instrumentation Investigative techniques B69 Physical methods B6H Electromagnetic... Electronics.. B6RGH Acoustic... Thermal... B76 Measurement... Testing... B7H Visualizing Si imaging B7J Microscopy... Holography... B7M Spectroscopy... B7X Vacuum techniques... B8B Theoretical physics B8D Relativistic... Quantum... (General processes & properties) B92 Distribution... Dimensions... B9G Systems characteristics... BAF Energy interactions Si forms BAG Thermodynamics (general) BB Mechanics BBB Energy... Forces... BCH Statics... BCX Dynamics BDA Kinematics... Kinetics BDS Periodic motion... Harmonics... BE Oscillation Si vibration BF Waves BFL Refraction... (Special energy forms) BGR Gravitation... Ballistics... BGY Electricity Si magnetism BK Electro-magnetic radiation (By frequency Si wavelength) BKM Radiofrequency... BL Optics... Ultra-violet...

BMPG BNB BNFX BNG BNJ BNM BNQ BNQP BO BOW BP BPBD BQ BQU

B32 B36 B3B B3BD B3U B4

Basic interactions * For Electromagnetic see BNG; For strong interactions see B N Q P Gravitational... Electroweak... (Types of particles) Charged Electomagnetic interactions Fermions... Boson... Leptons Hadrons Strong interactions Nuclei, nuclear physics Fission... Fusion... Atoms, atomic physics Energy levels Molecules, molecular physics Ions

BQV Vacuums BR Bulk matter BRE Oscillation, vibration BRGH Sound, acoustics BRGP Thermal properties BRH Electromagnetism BRL Optics * The main schedule is here. BRM Particle physics in bulk matter BRN States of matter BRNP Change of state BRST Dispersions... Colloids... BRV Plasmas BS Fluids BSB Flow... BSNP Change of state BT Gases BTX Condensed matter BTXBF Energy bands BU Liquids BV Solids BVH Electromagnetic properties * The main schedule is here. BW Crystallography

BM Particle physics BM75 Detecting... BM7T Acceleration... BMBD Energy levels... BMFS Collision... Scattering... BMMD Quantum number properties BMME Parity... Spin... lvii

AY1

Outline of Science & Technology in general Science & technology in general

AYl

* Add to AYl numbers & letters 2/9,A/V following AY; eg

AY1 29A 29U

. Social aspects of science & technology . . Standards & standardization (general) . Science in general

AY2

. .

AY2 6C 7 7C 8 8C 8F 8H 92 9A 9EP 9X A M Y YQ

AY3 2 2C 4

6 7

B C r G J JE K

. . . .

subdivisions

* Add to AY2 numbers 2/9 from Auxiliary Schedule 1; eg

. . Research (general) . . History of science . . . By place . . . By period Ancient science Medieval science Modern science . . . Biography of scientists . . . Social aspects of science, science & society . . . . Science policy . . . Science as a discipline . . Philosophy of science . . Mathematics in science... Statistics... . . Relations between sciences . . Operations & agents . . . Organization & management of scientific . . . work . . . .

* As TQ (including operations research).

. . . . . . . .

* Alternative (not recommended) to locating after Practical science, at AY8 B.

. . . Research operations (general) . . . . Methodology... . . . Theory . . . .

. . Practical scientific work . . . Unwanted effects... Safety & ... protection... . . . Agents Equipment & materials (together) Operations on equipment & materials Handling techniques... Processes in equipment & materials Deterioration... Properties of equipment & materials Reliability... Responsiveness... By energy interactions & forms

* Add to AY3 K letters A / W following B Physics; eg magnetic properties AY3 KJ.

NB PV R RC RP U

[Science it technology in general AYl] [Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] . [Equipment & materials together AY3B] . . [Equipment AY3U]

* For Technology in general, see U.

. . Common . . . . . .

AYÓKQ

Parts Surfaces Types of equipment & materials Smart equipment & materials... Materials in general Materials handling Types of materials Equipment, plant

AY3 UR UU

. . . Materials of equipment . . . Parts, components of equipment . . . .

UVT G X AY4 AY 4 37 3B 3J 3R 5

. . . . .

. . . .

* As AY4.

. . Types by various characteristics . . . Glassware... . . Laboratories, scientific stations . . Instruments, instrumentation . . . Unwanted effects Interference... . . . Operations on . . . Properties of . . . Materials of . . . Parts, components Parts bv energy system * Add from Technology U/V

AC D F G H K L N R S SL SS T TRY AY5 5

Electrical & electronic components... Lasers... Optical components Thermal components... Mechanical components... Parts bv internal function Switching devices... Transducers... Indicators... Recording devices... Input devices Transducers... Sensors... Output devices Viewing & display devices... . . . . Types of instruments By possession of a particular component * As AY4.

D HS V

Laser-driven instruments Fluidic instruments Special to a given context

7 9

Operations in scientific investigation Investigative techniques . Serving all investigative objectives . . Data handling & processing... . By scale . . Microtechniques... . Physical methods

B KQ

. . Mechanical... Electro-magnetic... . . Microwave & optical techniques

AY6 2 3

* As BA/BW; eg

1

AY6KS

Outline of Science & Technology in general

AY9DF

[Science Si technology in general AYl] [Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] . [Practical scientific work AY36] . . [Investigative techniques AY62] . . . [Physical methods AY69] . . . . [Microwave Si optical techniques AY6KQ]

AY6 KS LWY M R UCW X

AY7 3 4 6 A F GY I IX J K M P WD WL X XE XN

xu

AY8 2 2D 5 B

Lasers... . . . . Radiological techniques... X-rays... . . . . Particle physics techniques . . . . Bulk matter techniques Hydrodynamic techniques... . . . . Chemical techniques... Chemical .... analysis... . . . By action on the phenomena investigated . . . . Production techniques... . . . . Observing... Detecting... Indicating... . . . . Measurement... Metric system... SI... . . . . Testing & evaluation... Standards... . . . . Simulation, modelling (simulation) . . . . Visualizing & imaging (together) Imaging Magnification, amplification... Microscopy Holography... Radiography... . . . . Spectroscopy... Spectrometry... . . . . Tracer techniques... . . Research by persons as agents . . . Individual research... Group... . . Research by environment . . . Special environments . . . . Vacuums (research environments) . . . . Subsurface... Submarine... Space... . . Non-experimental research . . . Surveys... Expeditions... Fieldwork... . . Experimental research (general) . . . Design of experiments . . By broad objective . . . Fundamental research... Oriented... . . Scientific theory... theoretical models... . . .

C D AY9

AY9 2D 4 4C 4J B C D DF

2

AY9DP G

General processes & properties * 9 is reserved here for use as a facet indicator to introduce the concepts below under the individual sciences. The classes AY9 2/AY9 Y are not used on their own at this position.

Distribution... Variation... Conditions & parameters . Critical point... Volume conditions... . Pressure conditions... . Dimension... . . Time... Frequency... . . Space... Mean free path... . . . One-dimension... Distance...

. . . . Two dimensions... . Systems characteristics * As AYG/AYS; eg

KV LR

. . Continuous... Discontinuous... . . Linear... Non-linear... Subjects of scientific enquiry . The Sciences (in aggregate)... Nature... . By phenomena investigated . . General phenomena

AYE AYF

. . . AYFX AYG AYG 3D C AYH AYH W AYl H AYJ AYKB V AYL R AYN J MS P AYPM N AYQ AYS

* Alternative (not recommended) is AY3 4.

. . . Hypotheses... Concept formation... . . . Theories special to a subject

. . . . . . . .

[Science Si technology in general AYl] [Science in general AY2] [General processes Si properties AY9] . [Conditions & parameters AY94] . . [Dimension... AY9B] . . . [Space... Mean free path... AY9D] . . . . [One-dimension... Distance... AY9DF]

. . . . .

* Add from Class S Phenomena.

. Systems, communication & control, complex . phenomena . . Systems, systemology . . . General systems theory . . . Systems behaviour... State of system... Variabiity... Change of state... Instability... Chaos... Adaptive behaviour... . . . . Subsystems Structure of systems... Networks... . . . . Types of systems Abstract... Stochastic... Open.. Continuous... Discontinuous... Linear... Non-linear... Reactive... Reactive... Dynamic... Stable... Adaptive... Communication & control (systems theory) Information theory Cybernetics... Artificial intelligence * Alternative (not recommended) to locating under computer science 8.

AYY

. . Physical sciences

AYl

Science & technology (in general) Science & technology (in general)

AYl

* The connections of science with technology as a whole are very close, both conceptually and bibliographically. In some contexts (eg their history) the two subjects are so inextricably bound up at the general level that it is doubtfully helpful to maintain two separate classes. So this class (AYl) should take only those works which deliberately distinguish science and technology together from science alone or technology alone. When in doubt, prefer AY2/AYY. * Works which deal with technology alone go in das» U/V. * Add to AYl numbers and letters 2/9,A/V following AY so far as applicable; eg AYl 2ÔA 29T Q

. Social aspects of science & technology . . Economic organization & management . . of science & technology . . . . . .

29U

* In society in general, at national or international level.

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . 29U 295 E . 29U 29T Q .

. . . .

. . . .

. International standards . organizations . National standards organizations . Organization & management

29U 295 D

[Science in general AY2]

Common subdivisions * Add to AY2 numbers 2/9 in Auxiliary Schedule 1, with the modifications and additions indicated. AY2 AY2 2H

. . . . . . . .

* Agreement on and enforcement of standards by the scientific and technological communities. * In cases of doubr, prefer Technology U29U. * For the operation of evaluation in arriving at standards, see AY7 E.

Standardization * Process of agreeing on standards.

3AF

. Research & development in science & technology * See also R & D in science AY8 6M

AY2

Science in general * Science in its broadest sense, including the 'formal sciences' of logic and mathematics as well as empirical sciences (natural and social) and those applications often described as 'sciences' (eg medical sciences, engineering sciences, information sciences). It excludes only the Humanities (philosophy, history, religion, arts, philology). * For general works on Science of science (formal science, abstract science, scientia narrowly), see AK. * For works on a particular science, see the appropriate class (eg B Physics, HM Medical science).

* For production of pictorial matter, see AY5MR.

2U 3A 3G 3MC 3NK 3NL

. . . . . .

3NP SP 4

. . . Conversion tables . . . Technical data . Persons in science, scientists

. . . Graphs . Dictionaries & encyclopedias . Serials . Aids to study . Tables (general) . . Tables of constants

. . . .

. . . . . 4C

. . . . .

4TQ 4UM 4UN 5

sc

. . . . . . . . . .

* Arrange A/Z; eg Unesco AY2 5DU.

* Add to AY2 5F letters D/Z from Schedule 2.

. . . Government bodies . . . . . . . .

5JQ

* For meetings as a form of communication in science, see AY2 5LP W.

. . National bodies . . . By country . . . .

5J

subject

* For technologists, see U24. * Add to AY2 4 letters L/R following K in KL/KR; eg

. . International bodies, intergovernmental . . bodies . . . By name . . . .

SE

* Collective body of persons in the subject.

. . By sex . . . Women scientists . . By ethnic group . . By occupational characteristics . . . Amateurs in science . . . Technicians in science, auxiliaries in ... science, laboratory assistants . . . Consultants in science Organizations in science . Conferences

. . . . . . 5D

* In the community, in society; including works on scientists t i technologists together. For organization of personnel in technical operations, see Management of scientific work AY2 YQ. * See also Biography of scientists AY2 92; Social aspects of science AY2 9A.

. . . Status of scientists . . Types of persons in the . . . . . . . . .

4NW 4PD

* For constants as a subject, see AY7 6C.

. . Profession . . .

4CD

* Of institutions concerned with standards. 29U B

. Forms of presentation . . Physical forms . . . Graphic materials

. . . Standards & standardization . . . . . . .

AY25JQ

* For official bodies. For inter-governmental bodies, see AY2 5D.

. . Learned societies

3

AY25L

Science & technology (in general)

AY26QT

[Science n general AY2] [Common subdivisions] [Organizations in science AY25] [Learned societies AY25JQ]

m

5L

Communication & information in science * Add to AY2 5L letters F / P S following KE so far as applicable (with the slight amendments indicated).

5LG L 5LI 5LK

. Diffusion of scientific information . Audience (scientific communication) . Semiology in science, signs in science, symbols in science . . . .

5LK 0

. . Codes, notations . . Language of science, terminology, . . nomenclature . . . . . .

* Add details from Language & linguistics XA so far as applicable; notation is provisional.

. . Scientific terms, technical terms . . Abbreviations Media (scientific communication) . Mass media (scientific communication) . Meetings (scientific communication) Science writing, scientific authorship

. . SMC 5ME 5MG 5MH 5MJ

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . .

Publishing scientific writings Translation (science writing) Reporting scientific work . Scientific papers . Scientific journals

5NR

. . . 5NW Y . . 5NXH . 5NX KJ . 5P .

5VA 5VB 5VD 5VE 5VF 5VG 5VJ 5VM 5VP 5VS

5W

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. Information services, information . collections . . Computerized information services . . . International information services . . . National information services . . . Regional information services . . . Local information services . . . Publicly-owned information services . . . Academic information services . . . Private information services, profit... making information services . . . Special information services

* Add to AY2 5T letters E / X following 2 in Auxiliary Schedule 1. * Add to AY2 5U numbers & letters 3/9,A/X following 3 in Auxiliary Schedule 1.

. . . Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . .

6A

* Add to AY2 5W letters D/S following AY2 5V; eg National science libraries AY2 5WE.

Education of scientists, study & teaching of science * Alternative (not recommended) is to locate in Class J Education. * Add to AY2 6A numbers & letters 2/9, A/Z following J.

6AJ LO . Laboratory demonstrations (science 6C

education) Scientific research * By definition, all activity in a pure science is implicitly research, or investigation with a large research element. Theory is closely allied to practical and experimental work and the two activities have been integrated at AY3/AY8 below. * This general class for research is retained here primarily to allow qualification, if necessary, of classes preceding AYS in filing order. * For scientific methodology broadly, see Science as a discipline AY2 9X; for the operations involved in practical research, see AY36/AY7.

* Add to AY2 5N letters R / Y following KE; eg

* Details are taken from Classes 3/9 (not yet published). Notation is provisional.

* Selecting, storing, indexing, retrieval.

. . . . Bibliography . . Types of records

* Restricted as to subject. General works only; services for a specific subject go with the subject.

* For electronic information systems, see AY2 5VB.

. . Radio (scientific communication) . . Television (scientific communication) Other elements in scientific communication . Popularization in scientific . communication . Publicity . Public image (of science) Information science in science, documentation in science

. . . .

4

. . . . SS

. . Broadcasting (scientific communication) . . .

5NR V 5NS

* Treated as a subject. For the journals themselves, see AY2 3G.

. . Science books . . Correspondence in science . The Press (scientific communication) Pictorial matter (scientific communication) . Illustration in science . Cartoons in science Telecommunications (scientific information)

. . . .

. . Computers in science . . Operations on information records . . . Information handling & processing

* For creativity, see AY2 9XB.

. . . . . . . . 5MK 5MN 5MP 5MR 5MS 5MT 5MV

5R

* For metric system, see Metrology AY7 7E.

. . . . . . 5LOT 5LO V 5LP 5LP Q 5LP W 5MB

AY2 5Q

* See also Constants & units (measurement) AY76C

. . . 5LO

[Science in general AY2] [Common subdivisions] [Communication & information in science AY25L] . [Information science in science AY25P]

6QT

Exhibitions, museums * See also Physical models AY7 FYS

AY26R

Science & technology (in general) [Science in general AY2] [Common subdivisions] . [Exhibitions AY26QT]

K\2 6R

[Science in general AY2] [History & philosophy of science AY26Y] [History of science AY27] [By period and place]

. . Science museums by place . . . . . . . . .

6SV 6SW

AY28CLX

* For special types of collections (eg of minerals) see subject concerned. * Add to AK6 R letters C/Z from Schedule 2.

AY2 8CR 7EP N Ancient Greek science 500/001 BC: AY2 8J7 KKV 17th century science, 1640/1680; AY2 8J8 E7K KV Science in Britain 1640/1680. * An alternative (not recommended) is provided at AY2 7B, allowing period to be cited after place at AY2 7D.

. Curiosities in science, mysteries in science . . Natural wonders (of the world) . . .

* Works restricted to the earth sciences go in D.

6SX 6SY

. Frauds, deceptions, hoaxes . Recreations (scientific), popular science

6Y 7

History & philosophy of science . History of science

AY2 7A

Early works (on history of science) * For works published before 1800 AD.

. . . . . 77

. . . . .

period * Alternative (not recommended) for libraries citing place before period (see note above). If this option is taken, proceed as follows: * Add to AY2 7B letters from Auxiliary Schedule 4B (for Time); eg 18th century AY2 7BK. * These periods may then be used to qualify the places in AY2 7C; eg French science in the 18th century AY2 7F7 BK.

* Including works which consider technology as well but only insofar as it is contributory to, or inseparable from science. For history of technology alone, see U27. * See also scientific revolutions AY2 9XQ * History of writings & studies in history of science. * Notation provisonal; this class is taken from L History (not yet published 1998).

7C

By place

. . . History of science as a discipline . . . . Sources and methodology * As a subject itself. Early scientific works (up to 1800) are classed under the period in which they were contemporary. If limited to a specific subject, they go under the history of that subject.

79

By

. . Historiography of science . . . . . . . . .

78

7B

. . Ancilliary studies in history of science . . By period and place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* The universality of science is such that period is much more significant characteristic than place. So the preferred arrangemnt here is to cite period before place. * Citing period first raises serious problems in that the literature can (and does) select any of an infinite number of different periods within which it considers the history of science. * The solution below attempts an arrangement of optimum usefulness and clarity by following the citation order: Broad period—Place- -Specific period. The broad periods are enumerated; the places follow Auxiliary Schedule 2; the specific periods may be taken from one of the three options in Auxiliary Schedule 4 (but 4A is the recommended one). * In addition to the above basic provision, it may be noted that any broad period, or any place, or any broad period qualified by place, may be further divided using 7 to introduce specific periods or 8 to introduce specific places. Examples (using Auxiliary 4A Periods) are AY2 8C7 EPN Ancient science 600/300 BC;

* For general works on history of science in a given place. If confined to a particular period, cite period first (from AY2 8 onwards). * Add to AY2 7 letters C/Z from Schedule 2. 8A

By period . Periods from the earliest . . . .

8AR

. . Prehistory science, primitive science . . . . .

8AY 8B

. . . . . .

* For works on science in contemporary nonliterate societies in general, see AY2 9KS LM. Individual non-literate societies go with the nation state in which they live.

. . . .

. . . Neolithic science . . Ancient & medieval science (together) . . .

8B8 8C 8C7

times

* Add to AY2 8A letters D/Y following AB in Auxiliary Schedule 4B; eg

* Do not divide by specific period.

. . . By place . . Ancient science (general) . . . Specific periods of ancient . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

science

* Add to AY2 8C7 letters DF/EU from Auxiliary Schedule 4A; eg AY2 8C7 EPN is Ancient science in 600/300 BC.

. . . By place . . . . . . . . . . . . 8CD 8CD C 8CLN 8CLX

* Add to AY2 8C letters C/Y following C in Schedule 2 (for places in the ancient world); eg

. . . . Mesopotamia (Ancient world), .... Fertile Crescent Babylonian science . . . . Asia (ancient science) . . . . Americas (ancient science)

5

AY28CLZA

Science & technology (in general)

AY29A

[History & philosophy of science AY26Y] [History of science AY27] . . [By period] . . . [Periods from the earliest times AY28A] . . . . [Ancient science general AY28C] [By place]

[Science in general AY2] [History & philosophy of science AY26Y] [Biography of scientists AY292] . [Individuals AY294]

. .

K.Y2 8CL ZA 8CM 8CN 8CQ 8CQ Y 8CE 8CY S 8D

AY2 96C 96D

Mayan science Africa (ancient science) Egypt (ancient science) Europe ancient science Classical antiquity (ancient science) Greece (ancient science) Sicily (ancient science) . . . Medieval and modern science (together) . . . . . . . . . . . .

8D8 8E

* Do not divide by specific period; for this, see the individual broad periods Medieval, Renaissance, 17th century, etc.

. . . . By place . . . . Medieval & Renaissance science .... (together) * Do not divide by specific period; see the broad periods Medieval and Renaissance.

8E8 8F 8F7

By place Medieval science (say 500/1350 AD) Specific periods in medieval science * Add to AY2 8F7 letter F in Auxiliary Schedule 4A.

8F8 8G

By place Renaissance science (say 1350/1550) Specific periods in renaissance science * Add to AY2 8G letters G/HM in Schedule 4A.

8G8 8H

By place . . . . Modern science (1550 to date) * Do not divide by specific period. Use the individual centuries (17th onwards) for this, adding to each the relevant block of letters for starting dates (to each of which may be added the letter for the duration of the period); eg AY2 8LP FW History of science 1820/1850.

8H8 8J 8K 8L 8N 8P 8V

By place 17th century 18th century 19th century 20th century 21st century . . . . Trends in science, futurology in .... science * Speculations on future history of science. * For scientific forecasting, see AY2 9EF.

92 93 94

6

Biography of scientists . Collective biography . Individuals

. . . . 96E

* Arrange A/Z.

Progress in science . Discovery & invention in science . . . .

* When treated as a result of science. If in doubt, prefer Technology U. * For invention, patents, etc., see Technology U26 QH.

. . Discovery in science . . . . . . . . .

9A

* The finding of something existing in nature but not hitherto known. * For scientific explanation, see AY2 9XL.

History & philosophy of science (together) * The preferred arrangement is to locate the philosophy of science at AY2 A. This location provides an alternative (not recommended) for libraries wishing (1) to keep together the history and philosophy of science in general, and (2) to subordinate to it the history and philosophy of the individual sciences. If this option is taken, proceed as follows: * Add to AY2 numbers 7/96 for history (as at present); * Add to AY2 9 letters A/L following A (for the philosophy of science); * Add to AY2 9M letters A/K from the main classification (for history & philosophy of the individual sciences). * Add to AY2 9N letters A/X following AY2 9 below (for Social aspects of science); eg AY2 9NE P Science policy. * Each individual science may then be qualified as follows (where the hyphen represents its classmark): * Add to -2 numbers 7/96 for history; eg History of physics AY2 9MB 27; * Add to -29 letters A/L for philosophy; eg Philosophy of physics AY2 9MB 29A * A further alternative (not recommended) is to add the social aspects of an individual science after its history and philosophy, using - 2M to introduce the divisions of AY2 9; eg Science policy relating to physics AY2 9MB 29M EP.

AY29A

Social aspects of science [Science in general AY2] [History & philosophy of science AY26Y] [History Sc philosophy of science together AY29A]

«lY2 9A

9EF 9EP

9EP 5 9EP SJ 9G

AY29RA OF * In much of this literature, science and 9S technology are inextricably bound up. So all classes below are assumed to include technology whenever this is considered along with science; eg AY2 9EP includes works on science & technology policy together. 9SB LJ * Add to AY2 9 letters E / J following K9. 9SBM 9T * Add to AY2 9K numbers Sc letters 9Q.A/Y following K at K9Q/KY. 9TC D * A selection of concepts is given here for 9TC DQ convenience. 9TC DR . Forecasting 9TC DS 9TP G . Science policy 9TP H * See also Economics of science AY2 9T

. Organizations . . Policy making bodies . . . Government . Planning and development in science

. . . . . . 9KA

[Science in general AY2] [Social aspects of science AY29A] [Other aspects of society AY29L] [Politics Sc science AY29R]

Social aspects of science, society & science

. . . .

9TP K 9TQ

* See also Research Sc development in science Sc technology AY1 3AF

. . .

* Science as a subsystem of society as a whole.

. . . Scientific culture . . . Social processes in science . . . . Science input to society

9KF D

. . . Attitudes to science

9V

. . . .

9KI G 9KLK 9KL KFB 9KL KPM

. . . . . . . .

* See also Antiscience AY2 9KI G

* The law of special subjects is preferred in Class S. Locate here only those works dealing with legal aspects as they may impinge on scientific activity.

. Intellectual property in science . . Patent law & science Economics . Growth & development . . Needs of science (economics) . . . Science priorities . . Resources in science . Modern economic systems & science . . Less developed countries (science in), . . LDC science . . Developing countries (science in) . Economic organization & management of science * In society in general, at national or international level; for the organization of scientific work per se (of research, experiments, etc.), see AY2 YQ * For Standards Sc standardization, see AY1 29U.

Technology in science * General works on role of technology in science. For specific applications of technology in science (e.g. instrumentation) see application. For role of science in technology, see Technology (Class U).

* Science as agent of change, etc.

9KHK 9KH KM

. Internationalism in science Law & science

. . . . . .

. . Social system of science, science system

9KB V 9KC 9KC E

AY29VN

9VN

. Environmental technology in science

. . Rewards in science . . . Awards and medals in science Hostility . Antiscience Communities . Scientific community . . Institutionalization of science . . . Informal structures Invisible colleges science, see Organizations AY2 5.

9KS LM 9KW 9L

. . Non-literate societies . Custom, folklore & mythology in science . Other aspects of society . . . .

9P

. . Religion in science . . . . . . . . .

9PY

* Religious beliefs Sc loyalties in scientific work. For impact of science on religion, see Class P.

. . Morality in science, ethics in science . . .

9PY MJ 9PY NH 9R

* Add to AY2 9 letters L/Y from the main classification; eg

* See also Philosophy of science AY2 A

. . . Values in science . . . Responisibilities of science . . Politics & science

7

AY29X

Science as a discipline

AY2YQK

[Science in general AY2] [Science as a discipline AY29X] . [Logic in science AY2L]

[Science in general AY2] [Social aspects of science AY29A] . [Other aspects of society AY29L] . . [Technology in science AY29V] . . . [Environmental technology in science AY29VN] AY2 M VY2 9X

9X5 9X6 9X8 9XA 9XB 9XC 9XE 9XG 9XJ 9XL 9XM

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attributes of scientific enquiry . Autonomy of science . Constraints in science, limits of science . Criteria in science . Non-rational elements in scientific enquiry . . Imagination in science, creativity in . . science . . Intuition in science . . Aesthetics in science . Interdisciplinary relations between sciences Objectives of science . Explanation in science . . Theories in science (as a subject), . . hypotheses, models in science (as a . . subject)

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* As a subject of study. For theory as an investigative method in scientific research, see AYSD.

9XP 9XQ 9XS

....

A

. Philosophy of science

BA CKQ GG GQD GR GSV HK L

. . . . . .

Science as a discipline, scientific method * General investigation of t h e aims, concepts and principles of reasoning in scientific enquiry and the relationships between its subdisciplines. * F o r methodology in t h e narrower sense of t h e study of t h e m e t h o d s or procedures in science, see AY3 2C. F o r theory as a particular component of this, see AY8 B.

M8L M8N

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. Viewpoints, doctrines . . Evolutionism in science . Metaphysics . . Causation in scientific explanation . Epistemology . . Scientism . Ethics Logic in science

. .

* An alternative (not recommended) is t o collocate t h e philosophy of science with the history of science, by locating it immediately after it, at AY2 9A (qv). * Add to AY2 letters A / L following A in A A / A K ; eg

* See also scientific method AY3 3F

. . . . . .

* General applications only. For applications of mathematics t o specific topics in science, see the topic. * F o r m a t h e m a t i c a l models as types of theory, see AY8 B2M. * Add to AY2 letters M / X following A in A M / A X ;

• • eg . . Functions, operators . . . Named functions . . . .

M9L M9N

P2

QK X XG XHB B XS Y

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

Coefficients Statistics in science . Statistical probability . . Expected values, errors . Statistical analysis, data analysis . (statistical) Relations to other sciences

YQJ YQK

Operations & agents . Preliminary operations . . Preparing research proposals . . Planning & design of research . . Disseminating & publishing research . . reports * See AY2 5MB

. Organization & management of scientific work . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* One subject of some importance in science (operational research) is given below, together with some m a j o r classes from t h e detailed schedule at T Q which gives operational research its context. * Add t o AY2 Y letters Q / V following T.

Management services . Communication & control (scientific . work), systems analysis in . scientific work

. . . . . . . .

8

* For systems, principles, laws, etc referred to by the name and connoting concepts not easily defined by a more specific subject; eg BB2 P2H Hamiltonian system.

* Add to AY2 Y letters B / I in the main classification; eg relations t o astronomy AY2 YDA

. . . YQ

* For inequalities, use 2M9 O. * Arrange A / Z .

. . Mathematicians, names of scientists (as . . principles, etc)

. . . .

YMH YMJ YMP

* Arrange A / Z .

. . Equations . . . Named equations . . . . . . . .

Paradigms Scientific revolutions . . . Scientific laws, laws of nature

. . . .

. Mathematics in science

* Its application to scientific work; as an object of s t u d y itself, see AYD.

AY2YQR

Science as a discipline Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] [Organization ti management of scientific work AY2YQ] [Management services AY2YQJ] [Communication tc control scientific work AY2YQK]

Management techniques, scientific management . Operational research, operations research, OR

VY2 YQR YQS

. . . . • . YQT B YQTL

. . . . . .

. . Problem-solving techniques . . . Mathematical & statistical . . . techniques in OR . . . . . . . .

YQT M YQU C YQUD YQU E YQU F YQU H YQU K YQU L YQU M YQU N YQU P YQU PW YQU Q YQU YQU YQU YQU

QV QX S T

* Improvement of efficiency of management by techniques derived from numerical analysis, q.v. (AX7 6D). Aims to increase the results/effort ratio by increasing the first or decreasing the second without altering the other.

* Add to AY2 YQT letters M/X following A in AM/AX.

. . . . Mathematical models in OR . . . Decision theory . . . . Decision analysis Decision trees Branch & bound analysis . . . . Risk analysis . . . Optimization (OR) . . . . Mathematical programming Linear programming Simplex method Transportation method (OR) Assignment method Non-linear programming, higher order programming Quadratic programming Convex programming Static programming Dynamic programming, control programming * See also Inventory problems AY2 YQW S

YQU V YQV B YQV C YQV F YQV J

. . . . . .

Integer programming . . Simulation (operational research) . . . Computer simulation (operational ... research) . . Heuristic programming . . Network analysis, network planning, . . project planning

. . . . . . . . YQV K

* See also Networks (systems theory) AYJ W

. . . . Critical path scheduling, critical .... path analysis * See also Branch & bound analysis AY2YQU F

ay2YVJ

[Organization ti management of scientific work AY2YQ] [Management services AY2YQJ] . [Management techniques AY2YQR] . . [Operational research AY2YQS] . . . [Problem-solving techniques AY2YQTB] . . . . [Network analysis AY2YQVJ] [Critical path scheduling AY2YQVK]

AY2YQV M YQV P

YQV Q YQV R

Critical path method, CPM (networks) Programme evaluation & review technique, PERT (networks), programme evaluation procedure, PEP (networks) Line of balance networks Other scheduling methods * Arrange A/Z; eg WASP.

. . . . Other special YQV T

. . . Operational YQW YQW YQW YQW YQW

D F G J L

YQW YQW YQW YQW

N NUN NUT Q

YQW YQW YQW YQW

QTM QXD S V

YQW VTX YQW X YQXB YQX BUC YQX BVB YQX BVD YRE YRF YRF H YRK B YRY YSO YTS YU YVE YVJ

procedures

Action research

problems

. . . . Deterministic problems . . . . Probabilistic problems Stochastic problems, randomness Allocation of resources Sequencing problems, scheduling problems Routing problems Linear programming Dynamic programming Queuing problems, waiting time problems Mathematics Queuing theory Delay problems Inventory problems Replacement problems Statistics Renewal theory Search problems Competitive problems Decision theory Simulation Operational gaming . . Organization & methods, O & M . . (management) . . Work study . . . Method study Management functions Management resources . Office services, administrative services . Funding research in science . Personnel management Production management . Equipment & materials (production management)

9

AY2YVP

Science as a discipline

AY36

[Science in general AY2] [Operations it agents] [Organisation it management of scientific work AY2YQ] . [Production management AY2YVE] . . [Equipment it materials production management AY2YVJ]

For general works only, on management of equipment it materials. For specific equipment it materials as integral elements in practical scientific work, see AYS B.

Production planning & control . Quality control . .

* For Standards it standardisation see AY1 29U.

[Science in general AY2] [Operations it agents] [Research operations general AY32] . [Procedures St methods research AY32B] . . [Methodology AY32C] . . . [Empirical methods AY32G]

AY3 2L 2N 2Q 2R 2S 2T 4

. Analytical methods . Synthetic methods . Comparative investigations . . Time comparison research . . Longitudinal research . . Secular studies, long-term studies Scientific theory, theoretical models * Alternative (not recommended) to locating at AY8 B; If this option is taken proceed as follows: * Add to AY3 4 letters B / C following AY8; eg Hypotheses AY3 4C.

Research operations (general) * It is often not feasible to distinguish between 'pure' and applied research or between research per se and general scientific work. So for specific methods, techniques, types of equipment, etc. only one schedule is provided, covering both research narrowly and scientific investigative procedures in general. For the latter, see AYS; for technological research in general, see US. * Practical work, both in its operations and the equipment used, is essentially an agent of research (a form of investigation). * Theory per se, regarded as the exposition of the principles of the subject concerned, is intimately linked with the phenomena and concepts investigated; physics is a particularly clear example of this. For this reason, the preferred arrangement is to file theory after practice (observing the retroactive principle) thereby collocating it with the concepts making up the subject proper. * In some sciences, it may be thought that this relationship is less significant; so an alternative is provided at AYS 4 for libraries wishing to file theory before practice (reflecting the principle of increasing concreteness in filing order).

Procedures & methods (research) * For classification, see AY8 BT; for Scientism, see see AY2 GSV; for techniques narrowly, see AY6 2.

Methodology

* The study of research methods themselves, especially as to their logical bases. For methodology in the wider sense, defining the nature of science as a discipline, see AY2 9X. * Those concepts in this class which are special to the social sciences are given in K6/K9. * See also Philosophy of science AY2 A * Add to AYS 2 letters D/G following K6; eg

Qualitative methods (general) Quantitative methods (general) Non-empirical methods Empirical methods * Usually assumed. For induction, see AY8 BL; for hypothesis testing, see AY8 CJ.

10

4D

. Theories particular to a subject . . . .

. . . .

* Alternative (not recommended) to locating after Practical scientific work, at AY8 D. * For works under specific classes dealing with the theories per se.

Experimental research * Alternative (not recommended) to locating at AY8 2. * Add to AY3 5 letters A / Y following AY8 2; eg 5D 6

. Design of experiments Practical scientific work * The classes of procedures, techniques, equipment and instrumentation given below are usually considered in the context of experimentation. So the latter is included here, as being nearly synonymous with practical scientific work. Provision is made at AY8 2 for general works on experimental research should these distinguish it from practical science. * This location provides for truly general works on these classes and for the qualification of all other types of scientific enquiry so far as applicable; eg Field studies Equipment it materials AY7 YF3 B. * Note that the building of classmarks for compound subjects will sometimes entail building forward (not retroactively, as is the general rule in BC2); eg Instruments - Calibration - Testing AY4 4BW 7A (when the general class Testing AY7 A files after the general class Instrument calibration AY4 4BW). * Building forward by direct addition is not always feasible. If the dassmark added to ends in a numeral (eg Instruments AY4) direct addition may produce an ambiguous classmark since numerals may be used for its own enumerated subclasses. In such cases (which are rare) building forward is still possible, but an intercalator must introduce it; in these cases, proceed as follows (where the hyphen represents the classmark added to): * Add to -36 numbers 3/9 following AY.

AY37

Practical scientific work Science in general

AY3JK

[Science in general AY2]

AY2]

[Operations Si agents]

[Operations Si agents]

[Practical scientific work AY36]

[Practical scientific work AY36]

[Agents] \.Y3 7

[Equipment Si materials together

Unwanted effects, hazards, accidents, safety & hygiene precautions

AY3B]

[Operations on equipment Si materials] . [Maintenance

AY3BH]

* F o r Interference, see Instrumentation A Y 3 4 8 K . * Add to A Y 3 7 letters A / Y following H J ; eg

7DV 7DW 7E 7ES 7EU 7EV

. Reporting systems (hazards), warning systems . Control measures (hazards) . Protective measures, monitoring & protecting (hazards), safety . . Protective equipment . . . Protective clothing . . . . Specific items

AY3 BK

. . . .

BR

. . . .

. .

71 7J 7K 7KL 7LH 7LM 7MG 7N

. . . .

8E

C

CD CF CH CI

CJ CK

AY7DA.

. . .

* E g optical aberration; interference in

. . .

instrumentation A Y 4 3 8 K .

Unwanted effects

special to instrumentation

CL CM CP CQ CR

* See Instrumentation A Y 4 3 8 K

8S

B B37

Falsification of results

BF BG

CT

Agents . Equipment & materials (together) . . Unwanted effects . . Operations on equipment & materials

CV

eu CW

D

. . .

* For example, by glove boxes.

. . Holding, supporting . . . By agent

* Arrange A / Z ; eg clamps, mandrels, tripods.

. . . . . . .

. Joining, joints . Closing . . Materials for closing . . . Packing materials, caulking . . Equipment for closing . . . Seals . . . Other

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

* Arrange A / Z .

Fastening Containing Sequencing Positioning Lifting Special to materials

. . .

* See Materials handling A Y 3 R C

* Add to A Y S F letters A / W following

. . .

equipment or to materials and the terms below

. . .

will be used mainly to qualify these separately.

. . .

This class ( A Y 3 B / A Y 3 P ) takes only those works

. .

. . .

covering materials, equipment and

. . .

instrumentation together.

* Most of the literature relates specifically to

. . . Design . . . Installation & use . . . Workshop techniques . . . .

* Welding, machining, lubricating, etc.

Coupling

* O f one piece of apparatus to another.

BH

given science, see latter.

. . Synchronizing . . Manipulating

Processes in equipment & materials . Effects of physical phenomena on equipment

. . . . BGP

CS

* See also E r r o r analysis (evaluation) A Y 7 D A

. . .

BD

* For handling techniques special to a

. .

. . . . . . . .

. . .

. . Hazards special to a given context

AY4 4BW.

. Handling techniques (general)

. .

* Add to A Y 3 7N letters H / U following C.

* For error analysis, see Testing Si evaluation

instruments, see A Y 4 3 B R . * For calibration, etc., see Instruments

. .

contexts.

. . Error, accidental error, human error . . .

8J

* Notation reserved for amplifying particular

Types of hazards . Aberrations, anomalies . Pollution hazards in research . Radiation hazards in research . . Ionizing radiation hazards . . Electromagnetic radiation hazards . . Particulate radiation hazards . Dangerous substances, dangerous materials . . Specific substances

* For performance criteria control

. . . .

. . . . . . . . .

Standards A Y 7 643 B K E .

. Control of operations (on equipment & materials) . Performance criteria control

. . . Special to a particular science . . . .

7H

* Add to A Y 3 B K letters A / E following A Y 7 ; eg Measuring instruments -

. . BN

* Arrange A / Z ; eg masks A Y 3 7 E V M.

7EX

. Testing & monitoring (equipment & materials)

. . . Maintenance

F

B ; eg Effect of pressure A Y S F B J .

G JC JE JG JI JK

. Deterioration Properties of equipment & materials . Characteristics (equipment & materials) . Reliability . Accuracy . Sensitivity . Responsiveness

11

AY3JL

Practical scientific work

AY3UV

Science in general AY2] [Operations te agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] [Equipment Si materials together AY3B] [Properties of equipment Si materials] . [Responsiveness AY3JK]

\.Y3 JL

. Gain . .

JS JT

[Science in general AY2] [Operations Si agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] [Equipment Si materials together AY3B] [Materials in general in practical science AY3R] . [Types of materials]

AYS R P V

* See Instrumentation AY4 3JL

. Stability (equipment & materials) . Time response

. . .

. . KGH KGP KH KL L

•

. . . . .

. . . . .

B; eg

Acoustic properties Thermal properties Electromagnetic properties Optical properties Chemical properties

. . . M

NB PV

R

* Add t o AYS L letters following C

. Properties special to a material or device Parts . Surfaces (equipment & materials) Types of equipment & materials . Intelligent equipment & materials, smart equipment & materials . . . . . .

. . . . . .

* Equipment or material which responds t o external stimuli in a specific, controlled way; eg lenses reacting t o sunlight. Used particularly when properties demonstrate use of artificial intelligence.

Materials in general (in practical science) * For materials technology in general, see Class U. * Add to AY3 R numbers ie letters 6 / P following AY3; eg materials reliability AYS R J E .

RC RD

RDH

12

RQV RQX RS RV

TF TG TH TJ TL TN TP TR TS TT U

U37

UJE UR UTS UU

. . . . .

* Add to AY3 RD letters following U F (Materials technology) so far as applicable. Notation is provisional until publication of Class U / V Technology.

. . . . Bulk handling of materials . Processes, properties & parts of materials * Add to AY3 R letters F / N following AYS (Equipment ie materials); eg

. . Reliability of materials . Types of materials

. Films . Coatings . Fluids (materials) . Solids (materials) By chemical constitution * Add to AY3 S letters H / W following

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. Metals (materials) . Organic materials (materials) Specific materials . Fibres . Glass . Ceramics . Plastics By utility . Fuels & explosives (practical . work) . Adhesives (practical work) . Light sensitive materials . Solvents (practical work) . Insulating materials . Refractories (practical work)

Equipment & plant, equipment (general), apparatus (general), devices (equipment) * Add to AY3 U letters B D / M and R / T following AY3; eg

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

matter

* Add to AYS R letters Q / W following B (with modifications; eg

C; eg SIB SO

UBD UCK

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . .

. Operations on materials . . Materials handling . . . Special to materials

. . . . RJE

. . . . . .

properties

* Add t o AY3 K letters A / W following

* See definition at AY3 P D .

. . By state of

* See AY4 84J T

. Physical

. . Intelligent materials, smart . . materials

. . . . . . . . .

Unwanted effects Operations on . Design . Closing Properties . Reliability Materials of equipment . Insulating materials Parts of equipment

. . . . UUB UV

* Add t o AY3 UU letters A / Y following AYS N; eg

. . Surfaces . Types of equipment . . By material . . . . . .

* Add t o AY3 UV letters R P / V following AY3 so far as applicable; eg

AY3UVTG

Practical scientific work Operations & agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] [Equipment & materials together AY3B] [Equipment & plant AY3U] [Types of equipment AY3UV] . [By material]

AY3 U V T G

. Glassware Types of equipment

by

function

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] [Equipment ti materials together AY3B] [Equipment & plant AY3U] [Instruments AY4] [Unwanted effects AY437] . [Special to instrumentation]

AY4 38K 38L

* See function; note that this may sometimes entail building forward, rather than retroactively; eg equipment for handling AY3 C3U. V

w X

38M

. . . .

38N

Types of equipment special to a sub ject Laboratories, scientific stations * Regarded as aggregates of the total resources of equipment, materials, etc. in a given operation.

X24 UM X3B D XL XM XN XP XR XV

. Personnel . . Assistants, technicians . Design & layout . Buildings . Mobile laboratories . Testing laboratories . Analytical laboratories . Control laboratories Special environments (practical work) * Vacuums, high altitudes, space, etc. * Alternative (not recommended) to treating as special forms of enquiry. See AY7 WB and the notes there. If this option is taken, proceed as follows: * Add to AY3 X letters W/Y following AY7: eg Vacuums AY3 XX.

Y

Special

to a context

* For example of use, see BT3 YL Wind tunnels. AY4

AY4 37 371

. Unwanted effects . . Aberration . . Special to instrumentation

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* Modification by the probe, etc. of the property under examination. * See also error analysis (evaluation) AY7DA

. . . Environmental interference . . . (instrumentation) . . . . By form of interfering energy * Add to AY4 38N letters A/Q following B; e.g.

38N J 38N KJ 380 38P

Magnetic interference Ionizing radiation . . Drift (instrumentation) . . Faults (instrumentation)

3BF 3BR 3BR W 3BS 3BT 3BU 3BV

Operations on instruments . Installation & use . Performance criteria control . . Allowances . . Clearances . . Tolerances . . . Limits & fits (instrumentation) . . . . Specific fits

. . .

* Avoidable engineering defects.

* Arrange A/Z; eg sliding fits AY4 4BV S. 3BW 3BW 7A 3BW 7C0 3BW S 3C 3G

Instruments, instrumentation * As distinct from equipment and plant generally, instruments form a class of devices which perform a particular variety of operations in investigation: measuring, counting, monitoring, scanning, indicating, imaging. * Add to AY4 3 letters BD/M and R / T following AY3 U with the additions indicated; eg

. . Interference . . . Self-interference, instrumental . . . error . . . .

. Intelligent equipment, smart equipment * For intelligent instruments specifically, see AY4 5V.

AY45

3JC 3JE 3JL 3JM 3JN 3R

. . Calibrating . . . Testing . . . . Standard test objects .... (calibration) . . . Objective calibration . Handling Processes in instruments . Deterioration in instruments Properties of instruments . Characteristics . Reliability . Gain . Attenuation . Signal-to-noise ratio Materials of instrumentation Parts * Add to AY4 4 letters A/Y following AY3 N, with the additions shown; eg

4B 4H 4P 5

. Surfaces . Housings . Power input sources (instrumentation) Components in instrumentation

13

AY45V

Practical scientific work

AY4CP

Operations tc agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Agents] [Equipment h materials together AY3B] [Equipment & plant AY3U] [Instruments AY4] [Components in instrumentation AY45]

AY4 5V 6T

7 8

82M 837 83J S 83JT

847 84L 84L4N

14

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Instruments AY4] [Components in instrumentation AY45] [Control instruments AY48] . [Components] . . [Transducers AY484L] . . . [Indicators AY484L4N]

* This class takes literature on AY4 84T SW components of instruments (which 84V are used in a variety of types of 84W instruments) and discusses the 84X component as such rather than the 84Y C whole instrument in which the 84Y E component is used. * Documents sometimes consider a component only as it functions within (and is used to define) a 86B particular type of instrument. Such documents are classed under AY5 81 Types of instruments, in the array 8IR ((By possession of a particular 8J component)); eg AY5 HS Fluidic instruments (meaning instruments 8K with fluidic components). * The retroactive rule for 9M compounding may occasionally be broken since one component may have another component of its own, filing later than itself; eg AY4 SL4 ST Input tranducers Receivers. * Add to AY4 5 letters UV/V following AY3; eg AC Intelligent instruments AD I n f o r m a t i o n processing AE instruments AF (components) AG . Computers (instrument AH AJ components) AL Control instruments * The following is an extract from AM a larger schedule in U / V AN Technology, from which further AP details are obtainable. Notation is provisional. AV . Mathematical techniques

. . . . . . . . .

U n w a n t e d effects Properties . Stability (control systems) . T i m e response (control . systems) Components . Computers . Transducers . . Indicators

. . . . . . . .

. Windows . Regulators (instrumentation) . Filters . Actuators . Compensators . Energizing systems Types of control systems . By form of working energy

. . .

. . . . . . . .

* Add to AY4 86 letters A / J following AY4: eg

. . Electronic . By input-output structure . . Open loop control systems . . . R e m o t e control . . Closed loop control systems, feedback . . control systems . . . Servomechanisms . By general systems concepts

. . .

* Add to AY4 9 letters K / P following AY; eg

. . . N o n - l i n e a r control systems Types of instrument components by system

energy

* Add to AY4 letters A / T following U in U/V Technology. * Notation for the examples below is provisional until publication of Class U/V Technology.

. . . . . . . . . . .

Electrical & electronic components . Electrical converters . . Rectifiers . Transformers . Capacitors . Resistors . Switchgear . Relays . Conductors . Insulators . Circuits (instruments)

. . . . . .

* For circuits special to a given context, see context; eg for integrated circuits, see AY4 BB.

. . Excitation systems (instrument . . components) . . . . . .

* Applying an electric signal to drive a device (eg an amplifier).

AW AX

. . . Transmitters . . . . Waveguides

B BB BD C CP

. . . . .

* Completely shielded transmission lines.

. . . . .

Electronic instrument components . Integrated circuits . Electron tubes . Semiconductors . Superconductors

AY4CS

Practical scientific work Practical scientific work AY36] [Instruments AY4] [Components in instrumentation AY45] [Types of instrument components by energy system] [Electrical & electronic components AY4AC] . [Electronic instrument components AY4B] . . [Superconductors AY4CP]

A.Y4 CS CV D DS DT DU DW E EL EO F F3Q

. . Stimulated emission devices . . (components) . . . Masers (as components) . . . Lasers (as components) . . Resonators Telecommunication components (instruments) . Telemetering components (instruments) Electromagnetic components Magnetic components . Magnetostrictive components . Nuclear magnetic resonance (instruments) Optical components . Properties . . Scales (optical components) . . . . . .

FH FJ FK FL FN FP

. . . . . . . .

Types of optical components By energy form . Photovoltaic components . Photoconductive components . Laser excited optical components . Optoelectronic components . . Photomultiplier tubes . Photonic devices

. . . . . . FR

* Uses light rather than electrons to transmit signals in computers, etc.

. . Opto-acoustic components . By function . . . .

FUF FV FWB

* Range of brightness or density for reproduction.

* A detailed schedule for these components is given under Optics at BRL 4U/X. * Add to AY4 F letters U/X following BRL; eg

. . Filters (optical components) . . Lenses . . Prisms . . . . . .

* Refracting media which deviate and/or disperse light.

FWG FWM

. . Gratings . . Mirrors

G

Thermal engineering components (instruments) . Thermoelectric components . Thermomagnetic components . Heat exchangers (instruments) . Thermal insulation (instruments)

. . .

OH GJ GM GN

AY4MAI

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Equipment & plant AY3U] [Instruments AY4] [Components in instrumentation AY45] [Types of instrument components by energy system] . [Thermal engineering components instruments AY4G] . . [Thermal insulation instruments AY4GN]

H

. . . . .

HL HM HN HP HQ HS

. . . . . .

AY4 GP GR

. Heat energy sources (instrument . components) . Refrigeration components . (instrumentation) Mechanical engineering components (instruments) . Linkage mechanisms (instruments) . Mechanical transmission (instruments) . . Couplings (instrument components) . . Bearings . Damping devices . Fluidic components, fluidics

. . . . . . . . . HT HU HV HW HX J JL

* Fluid flow simulates electron flow in conductors; the interactions of streams of fluid is used to control instruments, etc.

. . Piezoelectric components . . Acoustoelectric components . . Photoelastic components . . Acoustic components . . . Ultrasonic components . Chemical components (instruments) . . Electrolytic components Types of components by internal function * Acting on other parts or features of the instrument.

K

KN KP L

. Switching devices (instrument components), conversion devices, converters . . Analogue-digital converters, digitizers . . Digital-analogue converters . . Transducers, converters (transducers) . . . . . . . . .

L4A V LN LP LR

* Reflect light without significant dispersion.

. . . . . .

* Converts one physical parameter (eg sound) into another (usually electrical or optical signals).

. . Excitation . . Types of transducers . . . Non-self-exciting transducers . . . Self exciting transducers . . . Digital transducers . . . By form of energy input * Add to AY4 M letters A/J following AY4; eg

MA MAG MAH MAI

Electrical transducers Capacitive transducers, capacitance transducers Resistive transducers Reductance transducers

15

AY4MCW

Practical scientific work

AY4V

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Types of components by internal function] [Switching devices instrument components AY4KJ . . [Types of transducers] . . . [By form of energy input] . . . . [Electrical transducers AY4MA] [Reductance transducers AY4MAI]

AY4 MCW MCX

Electromagnetic transducers Inductive transducers, inductance transducers MD . . . . Magnetic transducers MDL Magnetostrictive transducers MDO Nuclear magnetic resonance transducers ME . . . . Laser excited transducers MF . . . . Optical transducers MFH Photovoltaic transducers MFJ Photoconductive transducers MFL Optoelectronic transducers MFQ Opto-acoustic transducers, acoustooptical transducers MG . . . . Thermal transducers MGMA Thermoelectric transducers MGM D Thermomagnetic transducers MH . . . . Mechanical transducers MHR Electromechanical transducers MHS Fluidic transducers MHT Piezoelectric transducers MHU Acousto-electric transducers MHV Photoelastic transducers MHW Acoustic transducers MHX Ultrasonic transducers MJ . . . . Chemical transducers MJL Electrolytic transducers N Indicators (instrument components), pointers (instruments) NN . Mechanical indicators NR Q QV R

. .

* Needles, pointers, etc.

. .

* Arrange A / Z .

. Radiation indicators . Optical indicators (instrument components) . Other indication devices

Recording devices (instrument components), recorders (instrument components) RQ . Automatic recorders RR . Coded recording devices RS . Graphic recording (instrument components) s Input devices S4A v . Excitation systems S4A w . . Transmitters . Transducers SL . . Input transducers . . . Parts SL4 ST . . . . Receivers . . . Types of input transducers . . . . By location of environment

16

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Components in instrumentation AY45] [Types of components by internal function] . [Input devices AY4S] . . [Transducers] . . . . [Types of input transducers] [By location of environment]

AY4 SLR SLS SLT SLU SLV ss SS3 v ssv ssw ST

T

Airborne transducers Space vehicle borne transducers Underwater transducers Underseas transducers Subterranean transducers . . Sensors, detectors, probes . . . Intelligent sensors . . . Image sensors . . . Tactile sensors . . Receivers . . . . . . . . .

* Parts in contact with the phenomena measured. * For remote indication, see AY7 4M.

. . . . . . . . .

* Visualization illuminates only; it doesn't necessarily form an image. For Imaging, see AY7 I.

. Output devices . . Transmitters T4A w . . . Signals transmission (technical . . . operations) TR . . Recorders TRT . . . Chart recorders TRU . . . X/Y plotters TRV . . . Oscillographs TRW . . . Digital recorders TRW M . . . . Magnetic tape recorders, tape .... recorders TRX . . . Event recorders TRY . . Viewing devices, visualization devices, . . display devices

TSC TSD TSS TSW TTC TTE TTL TU v

. . . Properties . . . . Contrast . . . Dials . . . Scales . . . Windows (instrument controls) . . . Cathode ray tube displays . . . Electroluminescent display . . . Liquid crystal displays . . Intensifies, amplifiers (intensifiers) Types of instrument components by special function 41

4V/4Y are reserved for these. They are used, eg, at AY4 84V Regulators. * If a special component is used in another context, details may be taken from the relevant classes; eg Optical instruments -4U (from BRL 4).

AY53V

Practical scientific work [Practical scientific work A Y 3 6 ]

AY6KU

[Science in general AY2]

[Agents]

[Operations Sc agents]

. [Equipment Sc materials together . . [Equipment Sc plant

AY3B]

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Operations in scientific investigation]

AY3U]

. . . [Instruments AY4] . . . .

[Components in instrumentation A Y 4 5 ] [Types of instrument components by special function

AY6 2

AY4V]

. . . .

Types of

. .

instruments

3

* Add to A Y 5 3 letters J / V following A Y 3 so far as applicable; eg

A.Y5 3V

Intelligent instruments By possession of a particular

component

A Y 4 ; eg

V

4B 4C

* Add to A Y 5 numbers Sc letters 5 / U following D HS

Investigative techniques (general) . Operations serving all techniques & ob jectives

Laser-driven instruments Fluidic instruments, instruments with fluidic components Types of instruments special to a context Types of instruments by investigative function * T h e general arrangement in B C 2 is to locate

4D 4E 4KN 4R 6

. . . . .

. . . 7 74V 8

. . . .

81

. . . .

A Y 7 64; flowmeters B S 7 64; R a t e flowmeters

8M

B S D C76 4 .

Operations

in scientific

investigation

9

. . . .

* Taking a microsecond or less.

. Microtechniques (general) . . Instruments . . . Micromachines . . Nanotechniques

. . . . wherever t h a t may be in the general classification; e.g. measuring instruments

* F o r analysis, see A Y 7 2N.

. Data handling, data processing . . Automated techniques . . Computer techniques . . . Programs . . . Digital techniques Analogue-digital conversion . . . Data recording & display . Operations by scale . . High-speed techniques

* On scales approximating the size of atoms and molecules.

. Semi-microtechniques (general) . Macrotechniques (general) Operations by energy form . Physical methods in investigation

. . .

* Add to A Y 6 numbers is letters 9 , A / W

* T h e central operation in much practical scientific

. . .

following B 6 . A selection of major concepts is

investigation is a combination of observation and

. . .

given here to show scope. More detail will be

measurement. T h i s is supplemented by numerous

. . .

available when the technology schedules are

contributory activities such as sensing, detection,

. . .

published.

indication, recording, etc. In many cases it may be

B

unhelpful to try to draw fine distinctions between these

E

activities, so omnibus headings are provided for when

GH

the literature is too broad in coverage to justify making

GP

such distinctions.

HY

* Compounding of operations and agents should be done

IB

with caution. Often, one element in a potential compound is implicit in the other; e.g. measurement

J K

often implies the initial operation of observation; testing

KFT

and evaluation usually implies measurement. Telemetry

KQ

reflects the dual operation of indication and measurement together.

KQM KR KS KTV KTX

. . . . . . . .

. . Mechanical techniques . . Sonic vibration techniques . . Acoustic techniques . . Thermal techniques . . Electromagnetic & electronic techniques . . . Electronic techniques . . . Magnetic techniques . . . Radiation techniques electro-magnetic Scatter techniques . . . . Microwave & optical techniques . . . . together Stimulated emission techniques Maser techniques Laser techniques Non-linear optical techniques . . . . Electrical engineering techniques * Add details from U Technology (when

KU

. . . .

published).

Telecommunications techniques * Add details from U Technology (when published).

17

AY6KV

Investigative techniques (general)

AY74U

[Operations Si agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [Operations by energy form] . [Physical methods in investigation AY69] . . [Electromagnetic Si electronic techniques AY6HY] . . . [Telecommunications techniques AY6KU]

AY6KV

KW KY L LFP LFR LM LPF LU LW LWY LX M MGB

....

. . . . . . .

Microwave techniques

.. .. .. .. .. .. ..

. . . . . . .

. Radio & television techniques . Radar techniques Optical techniques . Polarization optical techniques . Interferometry . Colour optical techniques . Forms of light Coherent light techniques . . . By wavelength Infrared techniques Ultraviolet techniques . . Radiological techniques . . . X - r a y techniques . . Particulate radiation techniques, . . particle physics techniques . . . Particle beam techniques . . . By particle

* For tracer techniques, see AY7 P.

Ion techniques . . Vacuum techniques

* For sonic techniques and thermal techniques, see AY6 E. * Add to AY6 letters R / W following B; eg

. . . .

x

. . . Chemical techniques

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

Phase transition techniques Gas dynamics techniques Hydrostatic techniques Hydrodynamic techniques * Add to AY6 X letters A / S following C (notation is provisional); eg

* Eg AY7 76Y C Conversion (of measurement systems).

By action on the phenomena

18

* Production of the phenomena investigated; e.g. light sources in optical investigations.

3B 3C 3D 3F 3H 3K 3L

. Sampling (production techniques) . . Preparation of sample . Generation techniques, reproduction techniques . . Computer generation (production . . techniques) . . Synthesis (of phenomena . . investigated) . By source, medium

investigated

* For example, Sound - Blowing BRG H73 LB.

. Special . . . .

4 4D 4G

to a context

* For example, separation in particle production BM7 3P.

Observing . Direct sensory perception of phenomena Detecting & indicating (together) * See also detecting Si counting (together) AY7 5

4J 4L

. . . . Chemical analysis (techniques) . . . . Electrochemical techniques Electrolytic techniques . . . Biological techniques . Operations special to a context . .

. Qualitative analysis . Quantitative analysis Production techniques

. . . .

* For vacuums as a form of matter, see BRY.

RNR TCW UCH ucw

Control techniques . Hysteresis (control techniques) . Damping (control techniques) . . Isolation damping Analysis (of phenomena investigated) * For example, analysis of sound.

2P 2Q 3

. . Bulk matter techniques . . . . . . . . .

XB XCE XCEL xx Y

AY7 2 2B 2D 2E 2N

* Add to AY6 letters N / Q following B; eg

Photon techniques, photonics Electron techniques Nuclear reaction techniques Radioactivity techniques

. . .

R

* Many of the physical methods of investigation above (at AY6) serve several operations; eg X-ray techniques may serve detection, indication, monitoring, imaging etc. The classes below take t h a t literature which deals primarily with the specific operations themselves, regardless of technique used.

* Add to AY6 KV letters U / W following BK if applicable; eg AY6 KVV B Superhigh frequency techniques.

NGO NP o OFK QU QX

[Science in general AY2] [Operations Si agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated]

. Detecting, detection, sensing . Indicating, display . .

4M 4N

4T 4TR 4U

See also Visualizing Si imaging AY7 H

. . Remote indication . . . Telemetry . . . .

4P 4Q

41

* Presenting results at a distance.

. . . Echo probing . . . . Radar (indicating), radio echo .... sounding Recording . Interpretation . Graphic representation

AY74V

Investigative techniques (general) [Operations Si agents]

Science in general AY2]

[Practical scientific work A Y 3 6 ]

[Operations Si agents]

[Investigative techniques general AY62]

[Practical scientific work A Y 3 6 ]

[By action on the phenomena investigated]

[Investigative techniques general AY62]

[Measurement

[By action on the phenomena investigated] [Recording

. .

* Giving information on conditions at

. . . .

various positions in space, examined cyclically.

. .

4W S

AY74U]

. Scanning

* See also Monitoring A Y 7 C

. Identifying Counting, counting & detecting (together), calculation (counting) * Include here works on counting

AY7 6J

6K 6L 6M 6N 60 6P

techniques alone. * See B M 7 5 for a detailed schedule relating to particles. * See also Visualization Si counting (together) A Y 7 G Y .

6 62M 638 B 64

643 BKE 69

Measurement, mensuration, metrology . Mathematical methods in measurement . Errors in measurement . Instrumentation . . Measuring instruments, gauges, . . meters . . .

69D 6A

6C

6D 6F

6H

* Interaction of instrument Si measurand.

. .

* F o r telemetry, see A Y 7 4N.

. . . . . . .

. Precision . Signal-to-noise ratio . Dynamic response . Drift (measurement) . Hysteresis (measurement . techniques) Presentation characteristics (measurements)

. . Digitalization . . Amplification . . . Magnification

. Special . . . .

7

7C

7 6 Y C2

* Enlargement without increasing power of signal. F o r microscopy, see AY7J.

to a subject

* F o r example, under pyrometry B R G X76.

Systems of measurement . Operations . . Conversion (measurements) . . . Tables . Weights & measures

. .

multiplicity of criteria representing

. .

. .

desiderata in some context, see

. .

mass, volume, distance, area. Now

. .

Standards A Y 7 E .

. .

includes other parameters also (e.g.

. .

temperature, luminosity).

. . . . .

* See also Performance criteria A Y 7 E P

. Summation methods, integral . measurement . . Micromeasurement . Units of measurements, systems . of units, standard units

. . . .

. . . .

. . . 6C6 Y C

. .

. . . . 6T

AY76H]

. Performance characteristics in measurement

. . . . . . . .

. .

. . . . . . . .

measurement A Y 7 7M.

. Dimensions of units . Absolute units . Relative units, practical units Constants

. Metric system

7G

. C G S system . . * Centimetre, gram, second; now largely . .

7J

7M 7P 8 84 84V C 84V E 84V G

replace by M K S and SI.

. M K S system . .

7K

* F o r tables of constants, see A Y 2 3NL

. . Conversion Techniques of measurement . Direct measurement . Differential methods . (measurement), small . differences method . (measurement) . Maxima & minima (measurement)

* Originally consisted of four measures -

7E

* F o r SI units, see Systems of

. . .

6AD

6S

76Y C

. . .

6AL 6A R

6R

* F o r photogrammetry, see A Y 7 K V .

. .

69B

6Q

. . . Standards . Principles of measurement

* F o r measurement of things by a

AY76]

[Techniques of measurement] . [Maxima Si minima measurement

AY74T]

. [Graphic representation

fc.Y7 4V

AY784VG

* Metre, kilogram, second

. M K S A system . .

* Amplification of, Si now largely

. .

replacing, M K S systeml includes

. .

amperes, etc.

. Systeme Internationale d'Unitees, SI (measurement) . Imperial system (measurement) . Time variables measurement . . Instrumentation . . . Components . . . . Hands (clocks & watches) . . . . Winding mechanisms . . . . Movements (clocks & watches) . . . Types of time instrumentation

19

AY785VK

Investigative techniques (general)

AY7FG

[Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Measurement AY76] . [Systems of measurement AY77] . . [Time variables measurement AY78] . . . [Instrumentation AY784] . . . . [Types of time instrumentation!

\.Y7 85V K Clocks & watches 85V L Electronic clocks 85V M Atomic clocks 85V P Chronometers 85V R Timing devices 85V S Start devices 85V T Stop devices 85V V Stop clocks & watches 88B . . . Time standards 8B . . . Frequency measurement 8D . . . Calendars . . . . * See Class D Astronomy & Earth sciences. 8J . . Space variables measurement systems 8L . . Scales . . . * For example, seismic scales in Class D. . . Systems of measurement special to a 8Q

. .

context

. . . 9

A

AY7DC DD

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* The preferred arrangement is to subordinate the measurement of a specific thing to the latter. This location is an alternative (not recommended) for libraries wishing to keep all works on measurement together. * If this option is taken, proceed as follows: add to AY7 9 letters A / Y following B; eg Density measurement AY7 9CL.

Testing & evaluation

DDE DDG DDI DDK DDM DE DF DG DH DK DO E

EH

AEM B

. . . . . . . . .

Equipment, laboratories, facilities . Test chambers Inspection, examination Testing, trials, tests . Preliminary tests . Working tests, operational tests, in-house . tests . Re-testing, post-modification tests . Technical testing

. . . . . . C

. . Monitoring . . . . . .

D DA

* Testing over time; periodic or continuous determination and/or verification of a variable.

. Evaluation, assessment, appraisal, estimating (evaluation), valuation . . Error analysis . . .

20

* Add letters from UE Technical testing (technology) (not yet published).

* For errors as a source of hazards, see AYS 8E.

* See also Feedback control AYP J

. . . Types of errors . . . . Mean error . . . . By source Observer error Instrument error Transmission media error Object of measurement error . . Types of evaluations . . . Expert assessment . . . Current assessment . . . Retrospective assessment . . . Prospective assessment . . . Undervaluation . . . Overvaluation . . Products of evaluation . . . Standards (evaluation), desiderata . . . (standards) . . . . . . . . . . . .

* For social agreements on and administration of standards generally, see AY1 29U.

. . . . Quantitative standards, .... dimensional standards * See also Systems of measurement AY7 7

EL

* Measuring something against an agreed standard which conforms to some set of desired criteria, which together define an ideal model. * For technical testing, see Technology UE A3U A3Y AB AE AEF AEH

. . . Accuracy (errors) . . . Correction of error . . . .

* For example, BRL L78 R Visual photometry

. . Other variables measured . . . . . . . .

[Operations & agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Testing & evaluation AY7A] . [Evaluation AY7D] . . [Error analysis AY7DA]

. . . . Qualitative standards, performance .... standards * For quality assurance and quality control, see Technology UF.

. . Subjects . . . . . EP

. . . . . .

. . . .

of

evaluation

* The general arrangement is to subordinate evaluation to the phenomenon evaluated. Below, a number of very generalised attributes of action, too diffuse to warrant citing first, is given.

. . . Performance evaluation, . . . performance criteria . . . . . . . .

* See also Performance criteria control AYS BR

EQ ER ES ET EV F

. . . . Efficiency (evaluation o f ) . . . . Reliability evaluation . . . Problem evaluation . . . . Risk evaluation . . . Project evaluation Modelling, simulation, models

FAE FG

. Testing . Solving (models)

* See also Statistical models AXQ R

AY7FH

Investigative techniques (general) Science in general AY2] [Operations t i agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Modelling AY7F] . [Solving models AY7FG]

A.Y7 FH FM

. Predicting (models) . Types of models . . Mathematical & statistical models . . . . .

FX FYC FYE FYG FYI FYK FYL FYN FYP FYS G GY

. . . . . . . . . .

* Add to AY7 FM letters B/Y following AM4 Q; * Add to AY7 FN letters A / E following AM4 R; eg AY7 FMT Abstract models.

. . . Probabilistic models . . Causal models . . Natural models . . Scale models . . Iconic models . . Structural models . . . Graph models . . Static models . . Dynamic models, process models . . Physical models Prediction, forecasting Visualization & counting (together) * See BM7 H Track visualization (particles) for a special application of this class. * For counting (general), see AY7 5.

H H4 HV

Visualizing & imaging (together) . Instrument components . . Display devices (visualizing & . . imaging) . Visualizing (techniques) . . . .

I

I6M GB

ICP ID

AY7 IFV

* Use AY7 IM.

IGB

IM

IM4FV IM4 FVV IM4 FVW IMG B INP INV

IO

1ST IX

* Add to AY7 I letters D F / F following BM7 IM; eg

. . . . Beam defection . . . . Focusing Beam trapping . . . Resolution( . . . Modulation . . . Scanning . . . Projection

. . Beam profile Types of imaging or particle

by radiation

form

. Infrared imaging, thermal imaging, thermography . Particle beam techniques . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. Instrument components . . Lenses . . . Electrostatic lenses . . . Magnetic lenses . Properties . . Beam profile . Types of particles . . Electron beams . . Proton beams

. . . . . . . .

IQU

. . . . Phase transfer function . . . Beam handling (general)

* Add to AY7 IG letters B/V following BM7 IMG; eg

* Add to AY7 I letters H/Q following B; eg ILU

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* Mathematical representation of the effects on imaging of lenses or other components.

. . Collimation Properties . Beam properties . . . .

. . Operations . . . Optical transfer function

. . . . . . . . IDF IE IEG IF IFH IFS IFT

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Visualizing & imaging together AY7H] [Imaging techniques AY7I] [Operations] . [Projection AY7IFT]

. Imaging (techniques) . . Particle beam techniques . . .

ICN

* Illuminates only; does not necessarily form image.

AY7J4WB

J

J4F UF J4F V J4W B

* Focusing of particle beams to form images, analogously to the formation of light beams in optics. * The detailed schedule for this is given under particle physics BM. Details may be taken from there if needed. * Add to AY7 IM numbers ii letters 4/G following BM7 IM; * Add to AY7 I letters N/Q following B; eg

* For proton resonance imaging, see AY7IO.

. . . Nuclear magnetic resonance . . . imaging . . . Ion beams, ion optics Types of imaging by other characteristics . Stereographic projection, stereograms Magnification techniques. amplification techniques (images) . Microscopy . . Instrumentation . . . Components . . . . Filters . . . . Lenses . . . . Prisms . . . Types

21

AY7J5

Investigative techniques (general)

AY7JSUS

investigative techniques general AY62] [Visualizing Si imaging together AY7H] [Imaging techniques AY7I] [Magnification techniques AY7IX] [Microscopy AY7J] [Instrumentation] • [Types]

VY7 J5 JED JEF JEH JEJ JEL JEN JES

. . Simple & compound microscopes Types of microscopy by illumination . Dark field microscopy, dark ground microscopy . Field emission microscopy . Field ionization microscopy . Fluorescent microscopy . Phase contrast microscopy By direction . Vertical field microscopy . Stereoscopic microscopy By property * Add to AY7 J F letters B / Y following B F ; eg

J FN JFP JFQ JFR J F R 7K

. Reflecting microscopy . Polarizing microscopy . Diffraction microscopy . Interference microscopy . . Holographic microscopy, . . holomicrography By wavelength * A d d t o AY7 J letters G / Q following B, with t h e modifications indicated:

JGH

. . . .

JM5 V JNP

. . . . . . .

JPM

22

JPP JPR

. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

JQC JQG

* Use AY7 J P . * T h i s interrupts the division by N Q / Q , which is resumed at AY7 JS.

. Electron microscopy . . By characteristics of specimen . . . Specimen cooling electron ... microscopy

* Add to AY7 J Q letters C / U following BF, with modifications; eg

. . . Transmission electron microscopy . . . Emission electron microscopy . . . . . . . .

JQH JQN

JQQ JQQ T JQQ V JQQ W

JRG

JRT V JRW JRX JS

911

See also Field ion electron microscopy AY7JXP

. . . . . . .

. . . Field emission electron microscopy . . Reflection electron microscopy . . Diffraction electron microscopy . . . Transmission diffraction electron ... microscopy . . . Selected diffraction electron ... microscopy Shadow diffraction electron microscopy . . By special method . . . Gas reaction electron microscopy . . . . . . . .

JRN JRS JRT JRTT

AY7JPM]

. Specimen heating electron microscopy By component . Mirror electron microscopy . Replica electron microscopy By radiation property

. . . . . .

* See also Field ion electron microscopy AY7JSU P

. . . Thin film electron microscopy . . . Shadow electron microscopy . . . Scanning electron microscopy . . . . Scanning-transmission electron .... microscopy . . . High voltage electron microscopy . . By focusing system . . . Electrostatic electron microscopy . . . Electromagnetic microscopy Other particle microscopies * Division by B M / B Q is resumed here after its interruption at AY7 J P . * Add to AY7 J S letters N P R / Q following B; eg

* See also Electron microscopy AY7 J Q

. X - r a y projection microscopy . X-ray absorption microscopy . X - r a y diffraction microscopy Particle microscopy . Instrumentation . . Ultramicroscopes . Electron microscopy

. . . . . . . . . JP

* Visible light usually assumed. Includes documents dealing with i - r and u - v light as well.

. Infrared microscopy . Ultraviolet microscopy . . Flying spot microscopy X - r a y microscopy

. . JLX G JLX L JLX Q JM

* Using acoustic waves at microwave frequencies.

. . Ultrasonic absorption microscopy . Optical microscopy . . . . . .

J LU JLW JLW N JLX

AY7JPN

. Acoustic microscopy . . . .

JGL JL

[Investigative techniques general AY62] [Microscopy AY7J] [By wavelength] [Particle microscopy AY7JM] . [Electron microscopy AY7JP] . . [By characteristics of specimen] . . . [Specimen cooling electron microscopy

JSO

. Nuclear magnetic resonance microscopy . . . .

JSU JSU N JSUP JSU R JSU S

. . . . . .

* For nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, see AY7 10.

Ion microscopy . Field ion microscopy . . Electron (field ion) microscopy . . Field emission ion microscopy . . . Atom probe field ion electron ... microscopy

AY7K

Investigative techniques (general) [Investigative techniques general AY62] [Magnification techniques AY7IX] [Microscopy AY7J] . . . [Ion microscopy AY7JSU] . . . . [Field ion microscopy AY7JSUN] [Field emission ion microscopy AY7JSUR] [Atom probe field ion electron microscopy AY7JSUS]

A.Y7K

Holography (techniques), wavefront reconstruction imaging * Imaging technique without using camera or lenses. Records and reconstructs the wavefront emanating f r o m an object illuminated by a laser beam.

. Instrument components . . Optical elements . . Holographic gratings, holographic plates . . Holograms, interferometers (hologram) . Recording K 7 4 T . . Recording (holographic) . Processes

KS5 K5F K5F V K5X

. . KFQ KFR KHR KHS KK KLH KLJ KLL KLQ KLX KM

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Add to AY7 K F letters B / Y following BF; eg

. Diffraction . Interferometry . . Interferometry (holographic) Product elements . Real image . Virtual image Types . Computer generated holography Types of holography by wavelength . Acoustic holography . . Holographic multiplexing . Ultrasonic holography . Microwave holography . Optical holography . Particle field holography

. . . . . . KRF KRH KT KV

. Types of holography by technique . . In-line Fraunshofer holography . . High-speed holography Photographic techniques . Photogrammetry . . . . . .

L

* Add to AY7 K letters M / Q following B if applicable.

* Use of photographic records for mapping, measurement of dimensions, etc (eg by aerial surveying).

L

. By radiation . .

LLX LLXT LNV LNW

[Investigative techniques general AY62] [Visualizing Si imaging together AY7H] [Imaging techniques AY7I] . [Magnification techniques AY7IX] . . [Radiography AY7L] . . . [By radiation source AY7L] . . . . [Neutron radiography AY7LNW]

AY7LR LRS LRT LRX LS LSQ LSS LV

LV6 4C M

. . . .

. . . .

source

* Add to AY7 L letters L / Q following B; eg

X - r a y radiography Gamma ray radiography Proton radiography Neutron radiography

. . . . . . . .

. . Autoradiography . . . Shadowradiography . . . Colour radiography . . Flash radiography . . Microradiography . . Macroradiography . . Stereoradiography . Tomography

. . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . .

* Image of a selected plane in a material, etc. The material is examined by rotating a detector and the source of radiation in such a way as to blurr points outside the plane and thereby highlight t h e latter.

. . . Computerized tomography Spectroscopy, spectrography, spectrum analysis * Terminology varies; spectrometry is often equated with spectroscopy and works which do this should be classed here, not at AY7 N. * See also Scatter techniques AY7 K F T

M4 M5W MBD MBE MBG MBH MBJ MC

. . . . . . . . . . .

Instrumentation . Spectroscopes . Spectrographs Operations . Excitation . . Activation analysis Processes measured . Continuous spectrum . Line spectrum . Band spectrum . Radiation phenomena (spectroscopy)

. . . . . . . . . MCG MCL MCP MCR MCT

Radiography * Use of shortwave ionizing radiation t o produce images.

AY7MFNH

MDC MDE MDF MDL

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . Emission . . Absorption . . Polarization . . Interference . . Scattering By exciting agent . Arc spectroscopy . Spark spectroscopy . Flame spectroscopy . Fluorescence spectroscopy By radiation phenomenon

. . MFF MFG MFL MFN H

. . . .

* See also types of spectroscopy specified by these (at A Y 7 M F ) . * Add to AY7 MC letters B / U following BF; eg

. . . .

* Add t o AY7 M F letters B / Y following BF; eg

Coherence spectroscopy Emission spectroscopy Absorption spectroscopy Reflectance spectroscopy

23

AY7MFO

Investigative techniques (general)

AY7MNP

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Visualizing & imaging together AY7H] [Spectroscopy AY7M] [By radiation phenomenon] . [Reflectance spectroscopy AY7MFNH]

AY7 MFO

Resonance spectroscopy * See also particular resonating energies or particles; eg Nuclear magnetic resonance

MFO Q MFP MFP

. Quadrupole resonance spectroscopy Polarization . Rotational spectrum . . . .

MFR MFS MGD MGF MGG MGH MGJ

Interference spectroscopy Collision spectroscopy By special wave properties Quantum beat spectroscopy Fourier transform spectroscopy Hadamand transformation spectroscopy Acoustic spectroscopy Magnetic resonance spectroscopy By wave/particle

MKN Q MKN R MKO MKS MKS R MKU MKX

MKX S MKYP MKY R

24

AY7 MKY S

ML

used

* For acoustic spectroscopy, see AY7 MGC * Add to AY7 M letters K/Q following B; eg

Radiofrequency spectroscopy Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, NMR, nuclear magnetic spin resonance spectroscopy . Nuclear quadrupole resonance spectroscopy . Pulse nuclear magnetic resonance High frequency spectroscopy Microwave & optical together Laser spectroscopy . Raman laser spectroscopy Microwave spectroscopy Electron spin resonance spectroscopy, ESR spectroscopy, electron spin magnetic resonance spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy . Electron spin double resonance spectroscopy Atomic beam electron resonance (spectroscopy) Phosphorescence microwave double resonance, PMDR

Phosphorescence microwave photoexcitation spectroscopy, PMPS Optical spectroscopy * If confined to visible light wavebend, see AY7 MLV. By property * For coherence spectroscopy, see AY7 MFF.

* See also Chemical analysis C9M LCP R.

* See also resonating particles; eg nuclear magnetic resonance AY7 MON.

MKM MKN

[Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Visualising ti imaging together AY7H] [Spectroscopy AY7M] [By wave/particle used] [Microwave spectroscopy AY7MKU] . [Phosphorescence microwave double resonance AY7MKYR]

MLF G MLF O MLF OH MLP MLQ MLR

Emission spectroscopy Optical double resonance . Microwave optical double resonance Light beating spectroscopy Monochromatic light spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy

* See also Raman spectrophotometry AY7NSL NQ

MLS MLU MLU GF MLV MLW MLW V MLX

Photoacoustic spectroscopy, optoacoustic spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy . Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy Visible light spectroscopy Ultraviolet spectroscopy, UV spectroscopy . Vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy X-ray spectroscopy * For Appearance potential spectroscopy, see Ion spectroscopy AY7 MUL.

MLX 7MN P

Electron probe microanalysis

* Examining X-ray spectra by electron beam.

MLY MLYM MM MNG

Gamma ray spectroscopy Mossbauer spectroscopy Particulate spectra techniques Photon spectroscopy

* For photoemission spectroscopy (result of bombardment by photons) see Electron spectroscopy AY7 MNP.

MNH MNJ

MNP

Two photon spectroscopy Photon correlation spectroscopy

* See also Photo-electron spectroscopy AY7 MNP T

Electron spectroscopy, electron emission spectroscopy * For electron spin resonance spectroscopy, see AY7 MKX.

AY7MNPQ

Investigative techniques (general) [Investigative techniques general AY62] [By action on the phenomena investigated] [Visualizing & imaging together AY7H] [Spectroscopy AY7M] [By wave/particle used] . [Particulate spectra techniques AY7MM] . . [Electron spectroscopy AY7MNP]

AY7 MNP Q MNP S MNP T MNT MNW MO

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. Electron energy loss spectroscopy . Auger electron spectroscopy . Photo-electron spectroscopy, . photoemsssion spectroscopy Baryon resonance spectroscopy Neutron capture spectroscopy Nuclear spectroscopy

. . . . . . . . . MP

. . Atomic spectroscopy . . . . . .

MPL MQ MQM MQN MQP B MQP D MQP F MQU MQUL MQU M MQU P MQU Q N

NMN NNP NNW NO NOQ G NOX NS

* See note under Spectroscopy B7M. Prefer latter if spectrometry is equated with spectroscopy.

. . Instrumentation . . . Spectrometers . . By radiation/particle . . .

NLX NLXT NM

* See also Atom probe field ion microscopy AY7JXS

. . . Atomic absorption spectroscopy . . Molecular spectroscopy . . . Rotation spectroscopy . . . Vibration spectroscopy . . . Band spectroscopy . . . Time resolved spectroscopy . . . Beam foil spectroscopy . . Ion spectroscopy, ion beam . . spectroscopy . . . Appearance potential spectroscopy . . . Secondary ion spectroscopy . . . Ion microprobe analysis . . . Ion cyclotron resonance spectroscopy By various physical constants . Spectrometry . . . . . .

N4

* For nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, see radiofrequency spectroscopy AY7 MKN.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Add to AY7 N letters L / Q following B; eg

. . X - r a y spectrometry . . Gamma ray spectrometry . . Particle spectrometry, mass . . spectrometry . . . Cherenkov spectrometry, Cerenkov ... spectrometry . . . Beta particle spectrometry, beta ... ray spectroscopy . . . Neutron spectrometry . . Nuclear spectrometry . . . Photoneutron spectrometry . . . Alpha particle spectrometry Spectrophotometry

. . . .

AY7S

[Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative techniques general AY62] . [By action on the phenomena investigated] . . [Visualizing & imaging together AY7H] . . . [Spectroscopy AY7M] . . . . [By various physical constants] [Spectrophotometry AY7NS]

AY7 NS4

Instrumentation Spectrophotometers By special wave properties * Add to AY7 NSF letters B/Y following BF; eg

Emission spectrophotometry Absorption spectrophotometry, absorptiometry Differential spectrophotometry NSH Bv radiation/particle NSL Optical spectrophotometry Monochromatic NSL NQ Raman spectrophotometry NSL U Infrared spectrophotometry NSL W Ultraviolet spectrophotometry NSP Atoms NSP FL Atomic absorption spectrophotometry NX . . . . Mass spectrum analysis 0 Mass spectroscopy

NSF G NSF L

* Measures atomic mass by separating beam of ions into components reflecting different mass/charge ratios. OP

OQ OT OU OV OV4 P P75 P75 4 PE PG PJ

Q S

Mass spectrographs Time of flight mass spectroscopy Tunnelling spectroscopy Quadrupole mass spectroscopy Mass spectrometry Instrumentation Mass spectrometers, velocity spectrometers . . Tracer techniques . . . Counting . . . . Counters . . . Labelled compounds, tracers . . . . Radioactive tracers, radioisotope .... tracers . . . . Tritium tracers, tritiaated tracers . . Techniques special to a subject Investigative procedures special to a subject * Notation AY7 S/V is reserved for such operations; eg seismological techniques in Earth sciences; Conversion of optical frequencies BLF D7T; Acceleration of particles BM7 T

* Measures intensity of wavelength in optical spectra.

25

AY7WD

Practical scientific work

AY89H

Science in general AY2] [Operations t i agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Investigative procedures special to a subject AY7SJ

A.Y7 WD WG WJ WL

Types of investigation by persons as agents . Individual research . Group research, team research, organized research . . Big science Special environments (practical science) * These represent quasi-laboratory conditions affecting the conducting of experiments, etc. * For research into the environment, see Class D. * An alternative (not recommended) is to locate these with laboratories at AY3 XV.

WN WP

. Operations . . Control of environment in practical work . Hypothetical environments

[Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] [Practical scientific work AY36] [Experimental research general AY82]

* For non-experimental investigation, see AY7 XN. * An alternative (not recommended) is to locate this class at AY3 5 (where it will be collocated with general theory at AY3 4 if the alternative for that is also taken). AY8 22X

* Use AY8 2E. 2D 2E

. Design of experiments . . Statistical methods

2ER 2ES V

. . . .

. . .

2QS

* For Aether, see BAC EH. X

* Including pressures below one atmosphere. * For vacuum as a state of matter, see BQX

. . . . .

X3W X73 X73 P X73 Q X73R X73 S . X73 S4 .

. Equipment . . Auxiliary vacuum apparatus . Production . . Evacuating power (vacuums) . . . Residual gas (vacuums) Degasification, degassing (vacuums) . . Pumping (vacuums) . . . Vacuum pumps . Measurement . . Vacuum meters, vacuum gauges High pressure techniques Subsurface (research environments) Submarine investigations, underwater investigations High altitude (research environments) Research in space, zero-gravity research

X76 4 XC XE XF

. . . . .

XH XJ

. .

XN

Non-experimental research (general)

XO

. Observational research

. .

Types of research by broad

XR XU

. Descriptive research . Surveys (research) . .

YB YD

* Applies mainly to social sciences.

5 6 6M

YF AY8 2

* Usually within a particular scientific field; arrange by name A/Z.

. Field investigation Experimental research (general), experiments, experimentation * Use this class only for general works which draw a clear distinction between experimental and practical work. See note at AY3 2. If in doubt, prefer AYS 6.

26

. Fundamental research, basic research, free research, pure research . Applied research . Research & development in science, R & D in science . . . .

. . . . . . 7 7J 7L 7M

. Scientific exploration, scientific expeditions . . Specific expeditions . . . . . .

objective

* In principle, types of enquiry defined by purpose should file after all other types. Because of its special status as a form of enquiry (see notes at AY3 2) theory files after this array in order to collocate it directly with the phenomena investigated (see AY8 A).

* For theoretical investigation, see AY8 B. * Usually implies biological context. For 'natural history', see note at AYB N

* For replication of research, see AY8 CJ. * Add to AY8 2 letters QS/R following AY2 Y; eg

2QU K . . . Optimization (experiments) 2QW Q . . . Queuing problems (experiments) 2T . Falsification (experiments)

* For research into space itself, see Class B.

. . . .

* Add to AY8 2E letters A/Y following AX; eg

. Statistical design (of experiments) . Factor analysis (design of experiments) Organization of experiments . Operations research in experimentation

. . . . . . . . .

. Vacuums (as research environments) . . . .

. Statistical methods

. . . . .

Oriented research . Oriented free research . Discipline oriented research . Science missions (general), mission. oriented research

. . . . . . 8 9C

* For missions reflecting specific fields, see latter; eg Space missions in Class D.

. Interdisciplinary research in science, multidisciplinary research . Civil research . . . .

9E 9H

* Research and development (R & D) is unequivocally technological and general works on it go at U. But in social policy relating to science it is often considered alongside purely scientific research; for this conjunction, see AY1 3AF. * See also Planning & development in science AY2 9G

* Includes civil research which has military applications also.

. Exploratory research . Adaptative research

AY8B

Practical scientific work

Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] [Practical scientific work AY36]

[Science in general AY2] [Operations & agents] . [Practical scientific work AY36] . . [Scientific theory AY8B] . . . [Theories & models particular t o a subject

[Types of research by broad objective] . [Adaptative research AY89H]

A.Y8B

General

Scientific theory, theoretical models, theories (general)

conditions affecting a phenomenon) duplicate provision made in the main schedules. Synthesis by the latter may not produce the most helpful order for these concepts and may entail long classmarks. In such cases, the concepts are better taken from here,

operations involved in theorizing. * A n alternative (not recommended) is to locate this class at AYS 4, preceding practical work. * For scientific laws, see AY2 9XS.

BF

. Mathematical models (general)

BG BH BK BL BM BQ BT C CJ

. . . CL CM CN

CS CT

. . . .

* See also Experimentation A Y 8 2

. Working hypotheses, heuristic hypotheses Concept formation & meaning . Meaning, interpretation, interpretative . analysis

. . .

* For explanation in science, see AY2 9XL.

. . .

* For statistical analysis, see A Y 2 XS.

substantive classes. AY9 2D 2E 2F

2H 2J 2L 2M 2N 2S 2T 2V 4

& models particular to a subject

. .

* For works under specific classes dealing with the

. . . . .

theories per se; eg Particle physics - Grand unified theory BM8 KQ. * A n alternative (not recommended) is to locate this class preceding practical scientific work, at AYS 5.

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

* For constants in measurement, see AY7 6C.

Variation, change, variables . Rate of change, gradient . Decrease . Increase . Cyclical change . Development . . Formation, origin . . Growth Conditions & parameters & environments physical events

. .

4C

. Theories

features, see AYH U.

. .

. . .

variables.

* For concepts of stability and instability as systemic

. .

4BC

* Expressing functional relations between

. Distribution . . Incidence, occurrence . Invariability, constancy . .

. . Causal analysis . . Levels of analysis . . .

D

alongside those truly common concepts which do not appear in the main schedules. * The classes - 9 2 D / 9 S below are for use only as qualifiers; they should not be used as

* If distinguished from scientific models generally. * For particular mathematical techniques used in science, see A Y 2 M.

. Formulation of theories, construction of theories . . Formulation of problem . . Abstraction . Hypothetico-deductive system . . Induction (scientific method) . . . Generalization (scientific method) . . Deduction (scientific method) . . Classification, categorization . Hypotheses . . Testing hypotheses, validation (research), . . replication (research)

processes/properties

occurring processes or properties (particularly the

a disipline A Y 2 9XM. This class is for the

. . . .

AY8D]

* Some of the concepts below, reflecting commonly

* For the role of theory in explanation, see Science as

B2M

AY94R

* Environments of physical events; includes relations

. .

4E 4F 4G 4H 4J 4JC 4K 4L 4M 4N

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

of influence, effect, etc.

Degrees of freedom Critical point, critical state (conditions) Volume conditions . Constant volume conditions . Decreasing volume conditions . Increasing volume conditions Pressure conditions . Critical pressure conditions . Constant pressure, isobaric conditions . Decreasing pressure conditions . Increasing pressure conditions . Other pressure conditions

. . . . . . . . 40 4P 4PC 4Q 4R

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

of

* Add t o A Y 9 4N letters P / S following B S B J if applicable.

Velocity conditions Thermal conditions, temperature conditions . Critical temperature . Constant temperature, isothermal . conditions . Adiabatic conditions

27

AY94S

General processes/properties

AYF

[Science in general AY2] [General processes/properties] [Conditions & parameters & environments of physical events AY94] [Thermal conditions AY94P] . [Adiabatic conditions AY94R]

AY9 4S 4V 4Y 5 6 7 8 B

[Science in general AY2] [General processes/properties] . [Conditions ti parameters & environments of physical events AY94] . . [Systems characteristics properties AY9G] . . . [Non-linear AY9M]

. Decreasing temperature conditions . Increasing temperature conditions Electric & magnetic conditions . Electric field conditions . Magnetic field conditions . Radiation conditions . Other conditions Dimension (general properties) * As a qualifying property. * Details for AY9 B/AY9 D are taken from the substantive classes for dimensions at B9B/B9D. * Add to AY9 letters B/D following B9 if applicable;

Subjects

. . . . . . . .

. Dimensional analysis . Degree, number . .

BH BI BK C CI CM CQ CU D DE DF DG DH DJ DK DP DQ DV G

* For example: many, few, double, very, optimal.

. Nodes, points dimensions . Indexes . Similarity parameters . Time general properties . . Duration, life . . . Mean life . . Frequency . . Periodic . Space general properties . . Direction . . One-dimensional space general properties . . Distance . . . Mean free path . . . Width . . . Radius . . Two-dimensional space general properties . . Three-dimensinal space general properties . . Multidimensional space, hyperspace . . general properties Systems characteristics (properties) * As qualifying properties; for the substantive subject of systems, see AYG. * Add to AY9 letters G/S following AY; eg

GE GV JV KV KX LR M

28

. . . . . . .

Disturbances, perturbations Conservation Shape, configuration Continuous Discontinuous, discrete Linear Non-linear

enquiry

. The Sciences

AYE

eg

B2X BG

of scientific

* In principle, the end-product of any discipline constitutes the main facet of that subject. In science, the main product consists of the great bodies of information and methods of enquiry into natural phenomena which constitute the special sciences. These will be found in B/G (the natural sciences) and to a lesser degree (since other forms of knowledge also contribute to them) in H/V (social sciences and technologies). Locate here only general studies of the products of science.

. . . . . . . .

. .

AYE 3E G

Operations

. . . Classification of sciences, systematics of ... the sciences, taxonomy of the sciences . . Empirical sciences (general) . . .

* For empirical science, see AY3 2G.

. . .

* Usually taken to exclude the social sciences.

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* In nearly all the literature using this term, Biology is implied, together with environmental factors important to living things. For this use of the term, see Biology ET. * Locate here works which are truly general, with mineralogy, earth sciences, astronomy, etc. considered as well as biology.

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* The fields of scientific enquiry are usually defined by the established sciences (physics, chemistry, etc.), each encompassing a level of organization in natural phenomena (eg energy and matter per se, molecular organization (substances) and so on). But some very general phenomena have no particular place in these, appearing in several or all of the individual sciences; eg properties like form, processes like periodicity, abstract entities like systems. One such phenomenon, that of systems, has achieved the

L

. . Fundamental sciences, pure sciences, basic . . sciences . . Natural sciences

N

. . Nature, The natural world, natural history

H

AYF

* The totality of the different fields of enquiry in science. This class should not be qualified by classes AY2/AYA except for works treating the different sciences as an aggregate (and usually including a comparative element). When in doubt, prefer AY2/AYA. * For interdisciplinary relations between sciences, see AY2 9XG.

. . General phenomena (extra disciplinary)

AYFX

General processes/properties Science in general AY2] [Subjects of scientific enquiry] [The Sciences AYE] [General p h e n o m e n a e x t r a disciplinary AYF]

s t a t u s of an independent field of study, applicable throughout t h e sciences, natural and social; this is given in detail below. * If considered completely generally (as, for example, in a work on form in n a t u r e and in art) these concepts are treated as general phenomena and located in Class 2. If regarded scientifically, they belong here. * Add t o A Y F letters A / Y following 3 in Class 3 P h e n o m e n a (notation is provisional until publication of Classes 2/9); eg Complementarities A Y F C. AYFX AYG

AYG 2M 2M3L 2M8H 2P2H

2RC N8U

3D 9B

9D C E

H

AYG J

. . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. Mathematics & statistics . . Models & simulation . . Optimization (systemology) . . . Hamiltonian systems (systemology) . . Fractals (systemology) . General systems theory, GST . Operations on systems . . Analysis & design of systems, . . planning of systems

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . Prediction (systems approach) . Properties & processes of systems . . Systems behaviour (general) . . . Error (systems behaviour), ... disturbance, perturbation, ... degradation (systems ... behaviour)

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

* Theoretical studies only. For practical studies, see system concerned, especially in Technology U / V . * F o r systems analysis in the narrow sense of a preliminary t o operational research or computerization, see latter.

Compensation (systems error) Transients (disturbances), temporary disturbances . . . . Environment of system

Wholeness, holistic process * For synergism, see AYI R.

K L M N P

Teleology (systems) . Directiveness . Goals of system, objectives of system . Ideals of system State of system * Set of properties relevant to the behaviour of a system at any given time.

Q

* A set of interacting units with relationships between t h e m (Miller). An organized or complex whole. * F o r a prominent applications of t h e systems approach, see systems engineering U.

* For error analysis, see AY7 DA (Evaluation it testing); for error detection, see UC (Systems engineering). F G

[The Sciences AYE] [General phenomena e x t r a disciplinary AYF] [Systems ti communication Si control AYFX] [Systems AYG] [Properties & processes of systems] [Systems behaviour general AYGC] [Environment of system AYGH]

Systems & communication & control, complex phenomena (general) . Systems, systemology . . . .

AYHNW

R S T V

. . . . . .

Reliability Consistency Sensitivity Constancy, . Conservation (systems . behaviour)

. . . . . . X Y AYH AYH H

. Homogeneity . Heterogeneity . Variability, variance (general properties) . . Events in system, change of . . state in system . . . . . .

HM I

J K L

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . LM MP MR N

. . . .

* For conflict and competition, see Biological systems E.

Degree of freedom Transformation, phase transitions (systemology) Periodic change Cycles Action & reaction (systems) * Event caused by another event.

. . . Susceptibility . . . Persistence . . . Resistance . . Response (systems)

. . . . . . . . NT NW

* For conservation laws, see Physics B9G V.

* Event is associated with another event.

. . . . Time response Delay

* Set of elements and their properties which are not p a r t of the system b u t which may affect it.

29

AYHQ

General processes/properties

AYKN

[Systems behaviour general AYGC] [State of system AYGP] [Variability AYH] . [Events in system AYHH] . . [Response systems AYHN] . . . [Time response AYHNT] . . . . [Delay AYHNW]

Hysteresis (systems behaviour)

AYH Q

* Dependence of the state of a system on its previous history; usually seen in the lagging R

* Autonomous changes, self-determined. * For self-differentiation, see Biological systems, E

. Variations special to a subject Deterministic behaviour, determinate behaviour Probabilistic behaviour Static behaviour Dynamic behaviour Stability (systems behaviour) . Homeostasis, self-regulation . . Compensation (systems behaviour) . . . Feedback . . . .

VX

w X

. . . . .

* A state of disorder whose development in time is highly sensitive to initial conditions, which may lead to sudden and unpredictable departures from equilibrium. Implies some degree of non-linearity. * See also Chaos theory (mathematics) AWE ME8 CC

. . Attractors . . Non-attracting sets Reversibility Irreversibility Adaptive behaviour * See also Goals AYG M; Adaptive systems AYN P

HK

. Other-other (systems behaviour) . . . .

* Adapts to external change by modifying environment.

HM

. Other-self (systems behaviour)

HP

. Self-other (systems behaviour)

. . . . . . HS

L N

. . . Finality

* Of systems components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q R

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

T

. . . Merging with other systems . . . . Synergy, synergism (general systems)

....

Coupling * See also Man-machine interface, in Class 8 Computer science; Symbiosis, in Class E Biology

Subsystems . Structure of systems, organization of systems . . Arrangement . . . Order . . . . Hierarchy (systems) . . . . Pattern Symmetry Parity . . . . Shape, configuration . Networks (systems) Types of systems . By abstractness A Y K B . . Abstract systems D . . . Ideal systems, perfect systems

AYJ AYJ H J K P S T V W

. . . . . . . . F

. Self-self

* Ideal assumptions are qualified by particular conditions.

. . Concrete systems . . . Biological models (general systems theory) . . . . . . . . . . . .

L N

* Conforming to certain simplifying assumption (usually to assist analysis)

. . . Real systems, non-ideal systems, imperfect . . . systems . . . . . . . .

J K

30

* Final state may result from different initial conditions and by different processes. Typical of biological systems. In open systems, this maintains the steady state.

* Additional benefits accrue on coalescence ('the whole greater than its parts'). * See also Wholeness AYG J

* Adapts to external change by modifying self. * Adapts to internal change by modifying environment.

* Direct cause/effect relation between initial conditions and final state. Typical of physical systems.

. . . Equifinality

P

* See also feedback control in Cybernetics AYQ J

. Asymptotic static stability Instability . Chaos, catastrophe . . . . .

YC YE AYI C E H

* Adapts to internal change by modifying self.

. . . Growth in time (systems), systems . . . development . . . . Relative growth

AYI K

. . Acts (systems), autonomous events (systems) . . . . . .

S T TU TV TY U V VV VW

[Systems k communication h control AYFX] [Systems AYG] [Properties ic processes of systems] . [Systems behaviour general AYGC] . . [State of system AYGP] . . . [Adaptive behaviour AYIH] . . . . [Self-self AYIHS]

* Use only when taken as models for non-biological systems. For biological systems per se, see E; for Equifinality, see AYI P.

. By statistical concepts . . Analytic systems . . Stochastic systems

AYKO

General processes/properties

[The Sciences A Y E ]

[Systems & communication & control

[General phenomena extra disciplinary

AYF]

[Systems & communication & control

AYFX]

[Typ es of systems] [By environment]

[Types of systems]

. [By state of system]

[By statistical concepts]

. . [Stable systems A Y N N S ] . . . [Self-regulating systems A Y N O ]

. [Stochastic systems A Y K N ]

P Q S V X

AYL D F N P R AYM

. . . . . .

. Markov processes (systemology) Stationary systems Non-stationary systems Multivariable systems Continuous systems Discontinuous systems, discrete systems By composition, structure . Ordered systems . Disordered systems By openness . Open systems, self-maintaining systems . Closed systems By linearity . Linear systems . Non-linear systems . .

AYN G

. . . . AYN P

. . . PR PS PT PU PUW PV PVW

. . . . .

. . . . .

By

911

From Ackoff's categorization.

State-maintaining systems . Variety-increasing systems Goal-setting systems, goal-seeking systems . Multi-goal-seeking systems Purposive systems . . . Purposeful systems . . . . Ideal seeking systems By function

. . . . .

* Characterized by a special function rather than by structural or behavioural features. * See also Natural systems (B/K), Technological systems ( U / V ) and other classes to which systems theory may be applied. * An alternative (not recommended) for libraries

Chaos A Y H X

wishing to keep together works dealing with

. . Large-scale systems, complex . . systems By behaviour * Add to A Y N letters GJ/IT following A Y

* Elements & environment are dynamic.

. . Adaptive systems

* See also Multivariable systems A Y K S;

. . AYM S

AYFX]

[Systems A Y G ]

[Systems A Y G ]

AYK 0

AYPX

particular fields from a systems point of view is provided here. If this option is taken, proceed as follows:

. Applications of systems theory

AYO

for concepts not enumerated at

. .

A Y N J / A Y N P below; eg Holistic

. .

systems A Y N GJ.

. .

environment

. .

* Alternative (not recommended) to subordinating to subject. * Add to A Y O numbers and letters 3/9,A/Z from the whole classification.

* See also open & closed systems A Y L N/P G

J K L MN MP MQ MS

. Metasystems . .

* Systems over and beyond those of a

. .

lower logical order (eg the system of

. .

monetary values affecting decisions in a

. .

gambling game).

. . . . . . . . . .

By state of system . Reactive systems . Responsive systems . Autonomous systems . Deterministic systems . Probabilistic systems . Static systems, one-state systems . Dynamic systems, multi-state . systems, non-equilibrium . systems

. . .

* State changes over time.

MT

. . . Simple dynamic systems

NS

. . . .

. . . . O

. . . .

* For example, clockwork systems.

Stable systems . Self-regulating systems, self. organizing systems, . homeostatic systems

AYPM

. Communication & control (systems theory) . .

N P P3J

Q R S T

. . . . . . . . .

TU TV TW TX U V W X

. . . .

* For control systems in technology, see U7.

. Information theory, communication . theory (information theory) . . Transmission & reception (information . . theory) . . . Shannon's theory . . . Transmission (information theory) . . . Reception (information theory) . . Signalling . . . Coding Decoding Decodability Correction codes Group codes . . Channel capacity (information theory) . . Redundancy . . Interference (information theory) . . . Noise (information theory)

31

AYQ

General processes/properties

AYS

[Systems AYG] [Types of systems] [By function] [Communication & control systems theory AYPM] [Information theory AYPN] . [Interference information theory AYPW] . . [Noise information theory AYPX]

Cybernetics, control (systems theory)

AYQ

* Definitions vary; in the West, it generally refers to the scientific theory of communication and control. Elsewhere, it often refers to control and information processing together (including computers). * See also Control systems in technology U7 AYQ 2M 2M8 YT 2WK 8F

[Types of systems] [By function] [Communication & control systems theory AYPM] [Cybernetics AYQ] . [Types of cybernetic systems] . . [By general systems theory concepts] . . . [Stationary control systems AYRKP]

AYR KQ KS KV KX LL LR LS M MS MT NP O P S

Mathematics & statistics Transfer function Optimization (cybernetics) Theory Control theory Operations on system * Add to AYQ 9 letters B/D following ATG 9; eg

9B

Analysis & design Properties & processes

* Arrange A/Z: eg proportional, derivative, timesharing.

* Add to AYQ letters C/G following AYG; * Add to AYQ H letters H/J following AY; eg GR GS HHU HIH

Consistency Sensitivity Stability Adaptive behaviour Subsystems Types of cybernetic systems By input-ouput relation Open loop systems, environmental control * No direct control.

Closed loop systems, feedback control systems, negative feedback control systems * For automata, see Articial intelligence AYR.

By general systems

theory

concepts

* Add to AYR letters K / P following AY, with the additions indicated. AYR KN KO KP

32

Non-stationary control systems M u l t i v a r i a t e control systems Continuous control systems Discontinuous control systems, discrete control systems Integral control systems Linear control systems . Bilinear control systems Non-linear control systems Dynamic systems Optimal control systems Adaptive control systems Self-organizing control systems Fuzzy control systems Other types of control systems, A/Z

Stochastic control system . Markov processes control systems Stationary control systems

AYS

Artificial intelligence, machine intelligence * Branch of computer science which assumes that computers can be programmed to behave as though they are exercising human intelligence. Embraces pattern recognition, knowledge-based systems, automata and robots. * Alternative (not recommended) to subordinating to computer science in Class 8.

AYQ

General processes/properties

AYS

(The Sciences A Y E ] [General phenomena extra disciplinary AYF] . . [Systems A Y G ] . . . (Types of systems] . . . . [By function] [Communication & control systems theory AYPM] [Artificial intelligence AYS]

AYY Physical sciences (general)

33

34

B

Outline of Physics B

PHYSICS

B2

. Common

B29 A x B2M

. Social aspects of physics . Physics as a discipline... Philosophy... . Mathematical physics... Statistics in physics

[PHYSICS B] [Operations & agents of operations] • • [Types of investigation] . . . [Practical physics B36] . . . . [Investigative techniques in physics B62] [Physical methods B69] [Electromagnetic it electrical techniques B6H] [Nuclear techniques... B60]

subdivisions

* As AY2; eg

. .

B32 B32 c B36

. . . . .

* As AM.

Operations & agents of operations . Research in physics (general) . . Methodology... . . Types of investigation . . . Practical physics * As for Practical science AY36/7, with adjustments.

B37 B3B B3B D B3R B3U B4 B45 B5 B62 B63 B67 B69

Unwanted effects... Safety precautions... Equipment & materials Operations on... Handling... Materials (general) Equipment & plant (general) Instrumentation (general) Instrument components Types of instruments Investigative techniques in physics Serving all techniques & objectives Data processing & recording... By scale Microtechniques... Physical methods, physical techniques

B6R B6R GH GP NR TCW B6X

B6HI B6IB

Mechanical... Vibration techniques... Electromagnetic & electrical techniques Electrial techniques Electronics * Divided as in Technology U.

c p

B6J B6K B6K Q R TX u v B6L B6L WY x B6M B6N p B60

Semiconductors... Superconductors... Magnetic techniques Radiation, wave & pulse techniques Microwave & optics (together), quantum optic techniques Masers... Lasers... Electrical engineering techniques Telecommunications techniques... Microwave techniques... Radar... Optical techniques... Radiological techniques X-rays... Gamma rays... Particle physics techniques... Electron techniques... Nuclear techniques...

Bulk matter techniques Acoustic techniques... Ultrasonic... Thermal techniques... Cryogenic... Phase translation techniques Gas dynamic... Hydrostatic... Chemical techniques... Techniques by action on phenomena Production techniques... Observing... Measurement... Counting... Testing & evaluation... Monitoring... Simulating, modelling... Visualizing & imaging techniques Microscopy... Holography... Photography... Radiography... Spectroscopy, spectrography Spectrometry

B73 B76 B7A B7C B7F B7H B7J B7KT B7M B7N

* If distinguished from spectroscopy.

B7P

* As BA/BW, with amendments & additions.

B6B B6H

B9D

B7X B7X N B82

. . . .

Tracer techniques... Isotopes... . . Investigations by special environment . . . Vacuums... Subsurface... Space... . . . Non-experimental . . . Experimental research * If distinguished from practical physics.

B85 B8B

. . . .

. . Investigations by objective . . . Fundamental research... Oriented... . . Investigations by methods, techniques . . . Theoretical physics (general) Particular theories * Theories restricted to a specific field go with that field.

B8D B8F B8H B8M B8M N B8P B9

Classical, Newtonian... Statistical mechanics... Field theory (general) Relativity theory (general) Quantum theory (general) Quantization, quantum numbers (general) Wave mechanics... Matrix mechanics... General processes & properties * B92/99 are for use only as qualifiers. * As AY92/99.

B92 B94 B94K B9B B9C B9D

. . . . . .

Distribution... Change.. Cyclical change... Conditions, parameters, influences . Isobaric... Isothermal... Physical dimensions... Similarity... . Time... Horology... Duration... . Space... Size...

35

B9DF

Outline of Physics

BJ

[PHYSICS B] [General processes & properties B9] . [Physical dimensions... Similarity... B9B] . . [Space... Size... B9D]

B9D F B9G

[PHYSICS B] [Energy interactions ti forms BAF] . . [Dynamics BCX] . . . [Forms of motion] . . . . [Periodic motion... Harmonics... BDS] [Oscillation & vibration BE] [Harmonics... BEB)

. . . One-dimensional... Radius... 3-d, bodies... . . . . Systems characteristics

Types of oscillation & vibration By degree of freedom By external/internal origin Forced vibration... Radiation (general)

* As A Y G / R Systems theory.

B9G v B9J B9K v BAE BAE9GW

BAF BAG

. . Conservation laws (general) . . Structure... Symmetry... . . Continuous systems... Non-linear systems... . . Energy & matter (together) . Equivalence of energy & matter Energy interactions & forms . Thermodynamics . . . .

BAH BAP J BAT BB BB8B

BBB BBG BBJ BBK

. . . .

* Interactions between energy systems and their effect on the states of the systems. For thermal phenomena narrowly, see Bulk matter physics BRG P.

. . Principles & laws of thermodynamics . . Properties & processes . . . Internal energy... Free energy... . . . Transport processes (general)... . Mechanics . . Theory . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

* Classical, relativistic, quantum mechanics, etc are treated as theories of general physics and are preferred at B8B. This location is an alternative.

. Energy... Potential energy... Kinetic... . Force(s)... Moment, torque... . . Types of forces . . . Pressure... . . . Deformation... Stress... Strain...

* The detailed schedule is at BRB K under bulk matter (which is usually implied).

BCB BCEL

BCF

. . . . Elasticity . . . . Couple... Attraction.. Repulsion... . . . Forces special to a context . . . .

BCH BCI BCN BCS BCX BDA BDB BDC BDE BDKB

BDM BDP BDS BE

36

BEY

H

. . Statics . . . Inertia... Mass... Density... . . . Equilibrium... Stability... Instability... . . Motion... Momentum... . . Dynamics . . . Kinematics, pure motion... . . . . Displacement... . . . . Velocity... Acceleration... . . . Kinetics . . . Forms of motion . . . . Of points... Of extended figures... . . . . Circular motion... Rotation... Spin... Vortices... . . . . Periodic motion... Harmonics... Oscillation & vibration Harmonics...

* If distinguished from wave motion (BF). For electro-magnetic radiation, see BK.

BF

Waves, wave motion

* Add to BFA letters A / E following B.

Properties & processes Harmonics (waves) Propagation, transmission... Frequency... Spectra... Coherence... Emission... Absorption... Refraction... Reflection... Resonance... Polarization... Diffraction... Interference... Collision... Scattering... Diffusion (waves)... Types of radiation/wave motion By property

BFB BFC BFD BFF BFL BFN BFP BFQ BFS BFT BFV V

* As BF; eg polarized waves BFV VP.

BFW c BFY G R u BGA BGB BGH

By directional & transience factors Isotropic waves... Waveforms... Standing waves... Continuous... Transverse waves (general)... Longitudinal waves (general)... Shock waves... Blast waves... Beams... Rays... . . . . Acoustic properties... Thermal properties... * See Bulk matter, BRG H.

* Eg, energy loss (particles) BMC F.

* Add to BE letters A / V following BF; eg

BEB

BEX C

BGR BGRG

BGY

BH BHI BHK BHN BHP

Special energy forms . Gravitation... Gravitational waves... . . Ballistics... . Electricity & magnetism... . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

Elecromagnetism... Electromagnetic field... Electricity, electrical properties . Charge... Voltage... . Electrostatics... Electrodynamics... . Current... Circuits... Conduction...

. . . . . . . .

. Biu B . . BJ .

* The main schedule for this class is under bulk matter at BRG Y. All the details there are available here.

* For semi-conductors, see solid state BVI; for electronics in general, see Techniques B6I B.

. . Interactions with other energy forms . . . Mechanoelectric effects... Photoelectric ... effects... . Magnetism

BJK

Outline of Physics [PHYSICS B] [Special energy forms] . [Electricity b magnetism... B G Y ] . . [Magnetism BJ]

BJK BJQ BK BKF C p BKJ BKM BKQ

. . . . . . . . . .

. . Magnetic flux... Magnetization... . . Diamagnetism... Paramagnetism... . Electromagnetic radiation . . Propagation, transmission . . Polarization . . By product . . . Ionizing radiation... Non-ionizing... . . By wavelength & frequency . . . Radiofrequency waves, Hertzian waves... . . . M i c r o w a v e & optics (together) * For masers and lasers, see stimulated emission of radiation (techniques) B6K R.

BKU BL

. . . . . . . .

Microwaves... UHF... SHF... Optics * The main schedule is under bulk matter, at BRL. All the details there are available here.

BLL

Properties & processes Wave motion Physical optics... Propagation, transmission Rays, geometrical optics... Electrooptics... Special properties & processes Luminosity... Colour...

BLP

Types of light by wave property

BLF BLF c BLG c BLH

[PHYSICS B] [Particle physics BM] [Theory BM8B] . [Unification theories... Gauge theories... BM8FG]

BM8M . Quantum theory MJF . . Relativistic quantum field theory Processes & properties BMAF . Energy interactions & forms, particle interactions BMB B . . Energy c . . . Energy ranges... Low... High energy... D . . . Energy levels & states E . . . . Stationary state... Excited state... EM . . . . Bound state... F . . . Energy bands . . . .

BMC F x BMD N BMF BMF G RU s UR BMH

* A s BF; eg

BLU BLV BLW Y ... BLX

Coherent light... By wavelength & frequency Infrared radiation... Visible light... Ultraviolet... . Radiology X-rays... G a m m a rays...

BLY

Matter

BM

Particle physics, nuclear physics (broadest sense)

BMM BMM B E RU BMN J v x BMO

* For elementary particles specifically, see BNB.

BM3 6

. . BM7 3 . 4G . 5 . . 54 H . IM . T . BMSB . FG .

Practical & experimental, high energy physics . Investigative operations . . Particle production... Separation... . . Detecting & indicating... . . Counting & detecting... . . . Instruments Ionization counters... Scintillation counters... . . T r a c k visualization... Cloud chambers... . . Beam handling, particle optics... . . Acceleration... Accelerators... Cyclotrons... Theory . U n i f i c a t i o n theories... Gauge theories...

. . . . . .

BMP G J

* For angular momentum, spin, etc, see special quantum properties BMM D.

. . Wave properties . . . Emission... Decay... . . . Coupling... . . . Collision... Scattering.. . . . Capture... Annihilation... . Electromagnetic properties...

. . . . . .

BMJ

* See condensed matter B T X BF

. . . Energy loss of particles... . . Dynamics . . . Rotation... . . . . . . . .

* See Bulk matter B R L L

BLP F

BNB

* For charge, see special quantum properties BMM M.

. . . .

. . Magnetism . Special particle processes & properties . . Quantum number properties . . . Symmetry... Parity... Spin... Magnetic moment... Charm... Strangeness... . . Interactions by energy expenditure . . . Superhigh energy... . . Basic interactions . . . Exchange forces, field particle exchange . . . . Exchange particles, gauge bosons, field . . . . particles (general), quasi-particles . . . Gravitational interaction . . . Electroweak forces . . . . Elecromagnetic interactions * See charged particles, B N G .

L N

. . . . . . . .

Weak interactions Strong interactions * See Hadrons BNQ PN

BMQ

. . Interactions . . . . . . . . .

BMV BMW BNB

with another

particle

* This class appears only under specific particles as required and is divided like BN. See BNQ for examples.

Parts of particles . Composite particles, composite models... Types of particles Elementary particles types

37

BNC

Outline of Physics

BORBB

[PHYSICS B] [Particle physics BM] [Types of particles Elementary particles types BNB]

For exchange particles, see BMO. * Each type of particle is divided as follows (where represents the particle's dassmark): * Add to - letters A / Q following BM (for Processes ti properties); * Add to -QY letters V / Y following BM (for Parts); * Add to - R letters B / X following BN (for types by other particles); eg B P R Q Hadronic atoms; * Add to -S letters O / Q following B (continuing types by other particles); * Use letters T / Y for types special to a given particle; eg BNT T Dibaryons.

BNC

By quantum

property

* As BMM; eg

BNC AS BND A c RD RH BNF BNF x BNG BNG O BNH BNI BNJ BNL c Q BNM BNN BNP BNQ BNQ MB MCS MRW PN Q QP T BNR BNRMRS

38

. Conserved particles... By source . Particle asccelerator particles... . Cosmic rays... By aggregation . Many-particle systems... By lifetime . Stable particles... Resonances... By relation between quantum numbers . Antiparticles... By charge . Electromagnetic field particles . . Electromagnetic interaction (particles) . . . Exchange particles . . . . Photons... . . Electrically charged particles... . . Magnetically charged, magnetic monopoles By spin . Fermions... Bosons... By energy characteristics . Monoenergetic... High energy particles... By mass . Light particles... Heavy particles... By strength of interaction . Leptons . . Muons... Neutrinos... . . Electrons... Positrons... . Hadrons . . Symmetry . . . Unitary symmetry... . . Strangeness... . . Strong interactions (general) . . Interactions with other particles . . . Electron-hadron interactions . . Types of hadrons . . . Multiplets... SU3 groups... . . . . Quarks Properties Colour... Charm...

[Particle physics BM] [Types of particles Elementary particles types BNB] [Types of hadrons] . [Multiplets... SU3 groups... BNQT] . . [Quarks BNR] . . . [Properties] . . . . [Colour... Charm... BNRMRS]

BNR R F BNS BNS T BNT BNU BNX

BNXT BNY BO

B07H B 0 8 VC B 0 9 JV BOA F

. . Types of quarks . . . Antiquarks... Flavours... Mesons . Pions... Kaons... Eta-mesons... Baryons . Nucleons... Protons... Neutrons... . Hyperons... Lambda particles... . . Lambda particles... Sigma particles Atomic & nuclear physics (together) Nuclei, nucleus, nuclear physics Operations Track visualization Theory, models Unified model... Liquid drop model... General properties Shape, configuration Energy interactions & forms * For nuclear reaction in the narrower sense (usually assumed) see BOR.

BOB B D DN

G GH BOC X BOF J K

S BOH

Nuclear energy . Nuclear energy levels... . . Transitions Nuclear forces . Binding energy... Dynamics . Radiation . . Decays . . . Radioactivity... Beta decay... . . Collisions... Scattering... Electromagnetism * For nuclear magnetic moment, see BOM NJ

BOM B NJ

0 BON V BOQ BOQM U BOR

Special nuclear processes & properties Quantum number properties . Symmetry... Parity... . Nuclear magnetic moment . . Nucler magnetic resonance, NMR... Basic interactions Interactions with other particles Lepton-nucleus reactions Nucleon-nucleus reactions Nuclear reactions * Between nucleus and bombarding particles. * The provisions indicated at BNB for the subdivision of any particle are modified here in order to provide more room for special nuclear reactions. Types of nuclei follow at BOX D. * For constituents of reactions (collision, scattering, etc.) see BOF.

BOR BB

Nuclear reaction energy, Q-factor Types of nuclear reactions

BORPN

Outline of Physics [PHYSICS B] [Particle physics BM] [Ato mic & nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] . [Special nuclear processes & properties] . . [Nuclear reactions BOR] . . . [Types of nuclear reactions]

BOR PN

Q

BOS BOS HD T BOT BOT HD BOU BOU V Y

. . . . Natural... Artificial... . . . . Chain reaction... Cyclic... . . . . By product nucleus Deuteron... Helium-4... . . . . By emitted radiation/particle Gamma particle product reaction... . . . . By projectile, incident radiation Deuteron... Alpha particle... . . . . By incident & emitted .... radiation/particle combined Proton (incident & emitted) . . . . By target nucleus

BRGW

[PHYSICS B] [Particle physics BM] . [Atomic & nuclear physics together BNY] . . [Atoms BOY] . . . [Atomic physics BP] . . . . [Types] [Nuclides... Isotopes... BPV]

BQ BQBD DQ BQC F BQN V BQP L LBG BQQ W

* Add to BOV letters D / R following BOX; eg

. . . Molecules (physics), physics of single . . . molecules . . . . Energy levels Molecular electronic structure Isomerism... Molecular orbitals... Energy loss... Molecular stopping power... . . . . Basic interactions Weak interactions Van der Waals forces . . . . Interactions with another particle Neutron-molecule interaction . . . . Types of molecules Diatomic molecules... Conjugated...

Deuterons (targets)... Lithium... . . . . By mode of energy release Fission Reactors Fusion Fusion reactors Plasma confinement... . Types of nuclei . . Active... Unstable, radionuclides . . By mass number . . . Nuclei with mass numbers 1-5... . . By host chemical element . . . Hydrogen... Deuterons... Tritons . . . Helium nucleus, alpha-particles...

BQT D

BOY BOY BD NV

Atoms, molecules & ions (together) . Energy levels . Basic interactions

BQX

Vacuums

BR

BP BPB B D DT EU BPE Y BPF S BPG B

. . . . . . . . . . . .

BRA G

Bulk matter physics, macrophysics . Energy interactions & forms . . Thermodynamics

BOVHD BOW BOW 3W BOX B B3W B7R FQ GB HB HH

BPQ P YP

Atomic physics, physics of single atoms . Energy . . Energy levels... Transitions... . . . Atomic orbitals... . . . Multiplets... Triplet state... . Radiation . . Collisions—Scattering... . . Atomic beams . Interactions with other particles . . Electron-atom interaction . . Atom-atom interaction . Parts

. . .

* See Electrons BNP; Nucleons BNU; Nuclei BO

. . .

* For ions, see BQU.

. . Types BPR LS BPV

. . . By mass . . . . Heavy atoms... . . . Nuclides... Isotopes...

BQU

. . . Ion physics . . . . Radiation

BQU F

Ion optics Interactions with other particles Atom-ion interaction... Molecule-ion interaction... . . . . Types of ions By charge state Cations... Anions... Paired ions... By origin Metastable ions... Recoil ions...

911

QYP QYQ

RHU TIU

. . .

T BRB BRB G K

. . . .

For ionization, see BKJ.

* For thermal properties narrowly, see BRG P.

. . Transport properties . Mechanics . . Forces . . . Deformation

* The full schedule for this is at BVB K.

BRCX BRE BRG H HN N P

Q

V

W

. . . Dynamics . . . . Mechanical vibrations, sonics Acoustics, sound... Ultrasonics... Noise Ultrasonics... Thermal properties... Heat transfer... Heat loss... Temperature... Thermal regimes Low temperature physics, cryogenics

39

BRGX

Outline of Physics

BSGL

[Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms] [Mechanics BRB] . . [Mechanical vibrations BRE] . . . [Thermal properties... BRGP] . . . . [Thermal regimes] [Low temperature physics BRGW]

High temperature physics Electrical & magnetic properties * The full schedule for this class is at BVG Y; all its details are available here.

Optics (bulk matter)

* This is the main schedule for optics; all its details are available at BL and in BS/BW.

Optical instruments Physical optics Luminescence... Transparence... Acoustooptics... Electrooptics... Luminosity... Colour... Types of light . Polarized light... Optical solitons... . Infrared light . Visible light . Ultraviolet light X-rays Particle & high energy physics in bulk matter

[PHYSICS B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Systems] . [Heterogeneous... Dispersions... BRST] . . [Colloids... Composite materials... BRTV]

BRU BRU J BRV BRV 73 73M B

* See note re amended notation following BSF.

MGY MJ PW SN VB BS BSAG

States of matter, physical phases (states)

BSB BSB 9BK

* For chemical studies, see Chemistry C .

9BM G

Processes Change of state Phase transformation, phase transition . Latent heat... Phase equilibrium... By states involved * Use only when qualifying a particular state of matter; eg BUO G Liquids - Evaporation * When two different states interact, the denser state is cited first and dassmarks are built retroactively; eg liquefaction of gases goes under liquids, at BUO H.

Subsystems Surfaces... Interfaces... Films... Systems, by number of components Single... Mixtures... Systems, by number of phases

* Phase here means a state of matters, not a chemical substance or crystal structure.

Fluids Thermodynamics Transport properties... Diffusion... Viscosity, fluidity Fluid mechanics, flow of fluids Similarity parameters, dimensionless numbers . Mach number... Reynolds number... Forces

* Many of these are mainly associated with, or even special to, gases rather than liquids; see BTB G for examples.

IQ J JW L QU BSC H P PS X BSD E N BSF

HomogeneousHeterogeneous... Dispersions... . Colloids... Composite materials...

Pitching... Rolling... Yaw... Pressure External forces( . Stress... Loading... . Buffeting... Drag Statics Stability . Static stability... Dynamic... Dynamics Kinetics Forms of motion . Rotational flow... Vortices... . Waves... Shock waves... Special attributes & elements of flow * Normal retroactive synthesis is interrupted here to accommodate the large vocabulary of fluid flows. It is resumed at BSM.

BSG FC L

40

Electric & magnetic properties . Magnetohydrodynamics of plasmas Subsystems . Impurities in plasmas... Types of plasmas . Homogeneous... Heterogeneous . Plasmoids... Collisionless plasmas...

* For thermal properties narrowly, see BSM GP.

T W

* Add to BRM letters M / Q following B; eg

. Nuclear physics of bulk matter... Atomic...

Systems by particular state of matter Plasmas & fluids (together) . Magnetohydrodynamics, MHD Plasmas Plasma generation . Excitation, ionization... Confinement... Flow of plasmas (general)

. Suction... Wake... . Jets... Cavities... Boundary layers... Types of flow

BSGRE

Outline of Physics [Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Systems by particular state of matter] [Fluids BS] [Fluid mechanics BSB] . [Dynamics BSCX] . . [Types of flow]

BSG RE RJ SM U BSH L

BSI BSJ R BSKB BBG

D H K

Q BSM

. . . By compressibility Compressible... . . . By viscosity Viscous flow... . . . Inviscid... . . . By degree of attachment Separated . . . flow... . . . By pressure Isobaric flow... . . . By velocity potential Potential . . . flow... . . . By degree of mixing . . . . Laminar flow... Turbulent flow... . . . By speed . . Flow defined by bodies in fluid . . . Bodies in fluid flow . . . . Control forces... Longitudinal .... controls... . . . . By part of body Surfaces... Corners... Holes... . . . . By dimension of body Two-dimensional... Nozzles... Conduits... Three-d.... Bodies of revolution... . Other energy interactions . . . . . .

* Normal retroactive synthesis is resumed here after its interruption at BSG F. * Add to BSM letters G F / Q following BR; eg

BSRD

. . Acoustic properties . . Thermal properties . . Relations with particles & atomic . . physics . . . Atoms . . . . Superfluids... . . Change of state Subsystems, parts . Surfaces... Interfaces Types of fluids . Perfect fluids...

BSS T

. By number of phases . . Heterogeneous... Dispersions...

BSM GH GP M P PBF BSN P BSQ

. .

BT BTB BTB 3YE 9BM G IQ JW

. . . . . . . . .

* For superfluids, see BSM PBF.

Gases . Gas mechanics, flow of gases . . Equipment . . . Wind tunnels... . Similarity parameters . . Mach number... Reynolds number... . Forces . . Pitching... Rolling... Yaw... . . External forces(

BTT

[States of matter BRN [Systems by particular state of matter] [Fluids BS] [Types of fluids] [Gas es BT] [Forces BTBG] . [External forces BTBJW]

BTB Q QU BTC B X BTD V BTE H BTG A

. . Loads . . . Buffeting... Lift.. Drag... . . Aeroelasticity general Aerodynamics (narrowly) . Vibrations . . Flutter... Buzz... . . Shock waves... Special elements & attributes of flow * Normal retroactive synthesis is interrupted here to accommodate the large vocabulary of gas flows. It is resumed at BTM.

FC FE

. Suction... . Aeronautical factors . . . .

FH FP GQ P RE BT1 BTJ S BTKH

Q X

* Alternative (not recommended) to locating in V Technology.

. . Balancing... . . Manoeuvrability forces... . . Downwash... . Slipstream... Wake... Jets.. . Boundary layer... Types of gas flow . Compressible flow . Laminar flow... Turbulent flow... . Subsonic flow... Supersonic... . Defined by bodies in flow . . Two-dimensional... Nozzles... . . Three-d.... Bodies of revolution... . . By aeronautical structure . . . . . .

BTM

* See Aeronautical engineering U; eg fixed wing, sweepback.

Other energy interactions

* Normal retroactive synthesis is resumed here after its interruption at BTG F. * Add to BTM letters GH/Q following BR; eg

BTM GH G HT GY HR BTNP BTQ

BTRD BTT

. Acoustic properties of gases... . . Sonic boom... . Electrical & magnetic properties . . Electric discharge... Arc . . discharge... . Change of state Subsystems, parts . Surfaces... Films... Types of systems . By number of phases . . Perfect gases... Real gases... . . Dispersions . . . . . .

* Gases in liquids and in solids go under liquids and solids.

41

BTUB

Outline of Physics

BVHS

[Systems by particular state of matter] [Fluids BS] . [Types of fluids] . . [Gases B T ] . . . [Types of systems] . . . . [By number of phases] [Dispersions B T T ]

BTUB G

[Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Systems by particular state of matter] [Condensed matter physics narrowly B T X ] [Liquids BU] . [Other energy interactions Si forms] . . [Relations with particle physics BUMM]

Plasmas in gases, gaseous plasmas Gases in gases . . . . By constitution * For gases of particular elements and

. . Liquids . . .

BTXBF BFO BG BJQ BK GY IP

Q

BUQ

* See under Condensed matter B T X .

. . . . . . . . . . .

* In present usage, this means liquids and solids. together. The term condensed matter is sometimes used to mean all forms of bulk matter, in which case B R should be used.

Energy bands, band structure... . Valence band... Forces . Pressure . . High pressure physics . Deformation . . Rheology Electrical & magnetic properties . Superconductivity (general) Parts . Surfaces... Interfaces...

. Liquids

BU

. .

BUB BUC H X BUF

. . . . . .

BUG E R BUI BUK KN BUL W

. . . .

BURD BUT BUU G S

* Normal retroactive synthesis is resumed here, after its interruption at BUG E R . * Add to BUM letters GH/Q following BR; eg

. . . Acoustic properties . . . Relations with particle

physics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. Change of state . . Change of liquid to gas... . . . Evaporation... . . Change of gas to liquid... . . . Condensation... Subsystems . Surfaces... Films... Types of liquids . By simplifying assumptions . . Ideal liquids... . By number of phases . . Liquid dispersions... . . . Gases in liquids... . . . Liquids in liquids... . By composition

. . . . . . . . .

BV

BVB H K KL L T VE YD YK BVC B BVG H BVH

. . . . . . . . . . .

* For solid state physics in the narrower sense of electric and electronic properties of solids, see BVH.

Forces . Deformation . . Stress-strain relationships . . Stress... Tension... Loads... . . Strain . . . Elastic deformation... Plastic... . . . Failure... Fatigue... . . . Creep... Fracture... . Elasticity... Plasticity... Acoustic properties... Thermal... Electromagnetism . . . . .

. . . . . . BVHK MC N NBH 0 P S

* For liquids defined by chemical composition, see Class C; for liquid crystals, see BWU L.

Solids, rigid bodies

. . . . .

* Normal retroactive synthesis is interrupted here; it is resumed at BUM.

. . . Flow regimes... Boundary layers... . . Types of flow . . . Laminar flow... Turbulent flow... . . . Flows defined by bodies in liquids Channel flow... Immersed bodies... Immersed bodies... . . Other energy interactions & forms . . . . . . . . .

BUM GH M

* Add to BU letters A/Q following BS Fluids.

. Mechanics . Hydromechanics, flow of liquids . . Statics . . . Hydrostatics . . Dynamics . . . Hydrodynamics Waves . . . Special attributes & elements of flow . . . . . . . .

42

see Earth's atmosphere DSQ.

Condensed matter physics (narrowly)

BTX

BUN P BUO E G H I

. . . . . . .

* This is the main schedule for this class, since many of its concepts are dependent on bulk matter and on the solid state in particular. * Many of its concepts (eg circuits) also imply human artefacts and strictly speaking should go in the technology class. Locate works here only if they treat the subject from a strictly physics aspect; in cases of doubt, prefer Technology U/V.

. Charge... Voltage... . Power... Load... . Electrostatics . . Electrostatic field . Electrodynamics . . Current . . . Circuits

BVHSV

Outline of Physics [Systems by particular state of matter] [Condensed matter physics narrowly BTX] [Solids BV] [Electromagnetism BVH] . [Electrodynamics BVHO] . . [Current BVHPl . . . [Circuits BVHS]

. . . .

. Immittance . . Admittance... . . . Conductivity, conduction . . Impedance... Resistance...

. . . .

. . .

[Systems by particular state of matter] [Condensed matter physics narrowly BTX] [Solids BV] [Systems] [By number of phases] . [Homogeneous BVSN] . . [Solid solutions... BVSNRS]

BVS T BVT BVU G L

* For dielectrics, see BVI S.

. Types of currents Electrodynamics of special materials . Semiconductors . . Electron states... Energy levels... . . Energy bands... . . Charge carriers... . . Semiconductor materials . . Semiconductor devices

* The full schedule for this is at BK; all its details are available here if required.

Optics

* The full schedule for optics is at BRL; all the details there are available here (and at BL if applicable).

Luminosity... Colour... Relations of solids with particle physics Change of state of solids To & from gases... Sublimation... To & from liquids... Melting... . Liquids to solids... Supercooling... Subsystems Surfaces . Tribology, friction... Lubrication... Systems By number of phases . Homogeneous . . Solid solutions...

Heterogeneous . Dispersions... Colloids...

. . Gases in solids... Solids in gases... . . Liquids in solids... Solids in . . liquids... . . Solid in solid systems Types of solids by composition See Class C Chemistry for metal physics, polymer physics, etc.

Crystallography

BW

* For chemical aspects, see Class C. * Alternative (not recommended) is in Class C Chemistry.

* See Semiconductor techniques B6I HB

. Superconductors . Dielectrics, dielectric materials . . Dielectric strain, displacement... Interactions of electricity with other energy forms Electromechanical effects... . Piezoelectricity... Acoustoelectric effects... Thermoelectric effectsMagnetic properties ResonanceMagnetic flux... Magnetization... Paramagnetism... Ferromagnetism... Interactions with other energy forms . Magnetomechanical effects... . . Magnetostriction, piezomagnetism Radiation

BWYF

BW3 6 BW6 K LX BW7M BWA BWB K XD BWL BWM BWN P R

Practical & experimental . Radiation techniques... Diffraction... . . X-ray techniques... . Spectroscopy... Processes & properties . Physical crystallography . . Deformation . . . Dislocation... Cleavage... . Optical properties Relations with particle & atomic physics Change of state . Phase transitions Processes special to crystallography * Normal synthesis as instructed at BR is interrupted here. It is resumed at BWR B.

BWO G J T BWP BWP S BWQ L V BWRB

Growth, formation... Nucleation... Crystallization... E p i t a x y Structural crystallography Lattices . Symmetry... Defects... . Space groups... Subsystems Microstructure, grain structure Surfaces * Normal synthesis is resumed here after its interruption at BWO.

M BWVN SD BWYF

Systems, types of crystals Crystal systems . By symmetry . . Body-centred... Face-centred... . By crystal form . . Pedion... Pinacoid... Dome... . By bonding . . Ionic... Covalent... Metallic... . By specific element or compound

43

BVHSV

Outline of Physics

BWYF

[Condensed matter physics narrowly BTX] [Solids BV] [Systems] . [Crystallography BW] . . [Systems] . . . [Crystal systems BWRM] . . . . [By specific element or compound]

BWY p

Chemical crystallography * Alternative (not recommended) to locating in C Chemistry; eg metallic bond crystals BWY Q.

BX

Applied physics, physics-based technologies * Alternative (not recommended) to locating in U/V. * Add to BX letters following U * Add to BY letters following V

44

B

Physics Physics Common

B5

[Physics B] [Physics as a discipline B29X] . [Mathematical methods in physics B2M] . . [Sets B2RB]

subdivisions

* Add to B2 numbers 2/9 in Auxiliary Schedule 1, with the additions and modifications given in AY2 2/9; eg

Forms of presentation . Serials . Tables of constants . Technical data Persons in the subject . Physicists * See also Biography B292

. . Profession . . .

* For Education, see B26A.

Organizations in physics Communication & information in physics Education, study & teaching of physics * Alternative (not recommended) is to locate in JK Education.

B2R CN8 U B2S A B2V UYJ R B2W 6Y G IOR B2X B2X8 FY N NW O

Research

* This position is used only to qualify classes preceding B32.

History of physics Biography of physicists Social aspects of physics, physics & society Physics as a discipline * For methodology narrowly, see B32 C (and the notes at AY2 9X). * Add to B29 X numbers t i letters 5/Y following AY2 9X. * Add to B2 letters A/X following A in classes AA/AX; eg

Philosophy of physics Atomism The Absolute Complementarity

* Add to B numbers tc letters 2YM/8 following AY; eg

B2Y Q B32

* See also Particle physics theory BM8 B

Causality . Irreversibility (causality) . Indeterminacy, uncertainty Analogy, similarity

* See also Dynamic similarity (dimensions) B9B K

Mathematical methods in physics Numerical analysis Computation Approximation Functions . Named functions, A / Z Equations . Named equations, A / Z Inverse problems Non-linear (mathematical physics) Systems of individual mathematicians

Organization & management of work in physics Research operations general

* See note at AY3 2; much of the literature will be at B4/B7, under instrumentation, physical methods, etc. * Add to B3 numbers & letters 2/X following AY3; B32 B C B36

Q

eg

Procedures & methods in physics research * For theoretical physics, see B8B.

. Methodology narrowly . Comparative investigations 'radical physics

* All procedures other than theoretical physics. * See also Experimental physics B82 and the general note at AY3. * Add to B numbers 36/7 following AY.

* See also Quantum theory B8M P

Cosmology

. Fractals Groups Differential topology Variational calculus Partial differential equations Dynamical systems Statistics & probability Statistical methods Probability . Stochastic processes . Ergodic processes . . Markov processes Operations & agents in physics

B37 B3B B3C B3J G B3R B3U B3X B4 B45 B4A

Unwanted effects & safety Equipment & materials Operations on . Handling techniques Properties . Accuracy Materials in general Equipment & plant . Laboratories . Instrumentation . . Instrument components . . . By energy system . . . . . . . . . . . .

B4K B4L B5

* Details here are taken from Technology U/V (not yet published, so notation is provisional); eg

. . . . Switching devices, converters Transducers . . Types of instruments Operations

* For principles, systems, etc. of named persons; eg Hamiltonian principles B2P 2H.

Sets

45

B62

Investigative techniques

B6IB

(Physics B] [Operations h agents in physics] [Practical physics B36] [Operations]

B62

B63 B64 B D

Investigative techniques . Operations serving all techniques & ob jectives . . Data processing & recording . . . Automated methods . . . Computer programs . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . B69 B B6AT

* Operations acting on physical phenomena, using various physical processes, properties, etc. as agents of investigation. * This class takes works on these techniques only when they are used in physics. Completely general works on them go in AY6 9. When considered as agents in the investigation of a particular problem in physics, class under the problem. * Add to B6 numbers & letters 9,A/W following B in B9/BW with the adjustments indicated (eg at B6I B, which is divided like Technology U, and at B6K T/B6K Y).

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . Dimensional techniques . . Transport techniques (general) . . .

B6B B6B IM

J

* For heat transfer, see B6R GS

. . Mechanical techniques . . . Torque (techniques) . . . Pressure (techniques) . . . .

K UN B6C B E EG H K KL L B6D C CP D LV N

* For vacuum techniques, see B6Q X.

. . . Deformation (techniques) . . . . Torsion (techniques) . . . . Elasticity (techniques) . . . Inertial force (techniques) . . . . Centrifugal force (techniques) . . . Static forces (techniques) . . . Weight (techniques) . . . . Tare techniques . . . Density (techniques) . . . Techniques using forms of motion . . . . Velocity (techniques) High speed techniques . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

* In microseconds or shorter.

Acceleration (techniques) Ballistics (techniques) Rotation (techniques), gyroscopic techniques Vibration (techniques), oscillation (techniques), sonic (vibratory) techniques * For radiological techniques, see B6L WY.

. . Sonic techniques . . Acoustic techniques . . . . .

* Arrange A/Z; e.g. REDUCE B64 DR

. Physical methods in investigation

B69

46

B6G G H

. Operations by scale . . Microtechniques

B67

B6E

[Practical physics B36] [Operations] [Investigative techniques B62] [Physical methods in investigation B69] [Mechanical techniques B6B] [Techniques using forms of motion] . [Vibration techniques B6E]

H7S HFG

HFL HFO HFR

HFT N P

. . . . . .

. . . .

* For acoustoelectric techniques, see B6I XR; for thermoacoustics, see B6G PGH; for photoacoustics, see B6L GH; for acoustic holography, see B7K GH

. . . Acoustic signal processing . . . Emission . . . . Acoustic emission techniques, .... acoustic radiation .... techniques . . . Absorption . . . . Acoustic absorption techniques . . . Resonance . . . . Acoustic resonance techniques . . . Interference . . . . Acoustic interference .... techniques, acoustic wave .... interferometry . . . Scattering . . . Acoustic scattering techniques . . . Ultrasonic techniques Thermal techniques * Techniques using thermal energy (ie heat possesed by substances, bodies, etc. in the form of molecular vibrational energy).

P3U P3W PGH PQ PQ7 6 PQ7 8R PQ7 8V T U V76 W X B6H B6H I

. Equipment . . Furnaces (thermal techniques) . Thermoacoustic techniques . Quantity of heat . . Calorimetry . . . Bomb calorimetry . . . Microcalorimetry . Cooling techniques . Heating techniques . Temperature techniques . . Thermometry . . Low temperature techniques, . . cryogenic techniques . . High temperature techniques, . . pyrometric techniques Electromagnetic techniques Electrical techniques * For electrochemical techniques, see electrolytic techniques, see B6X L.

N B6I B

. Electrostatic techniques Electronic techniques * See also particle physics techniques using electrons B7N P.

B6IBM

Investigative techniques Operations & agents in physics] [Practical physics B36] (Operations] [Investigative techniques B62] [Physical methods in investigation B69] [Mechanical techniques B6B] [Electronic techniques B6IB]

* Add to B7I letters following UL Electronic engineering (notation provisional); eg

361 BM BS C

E HB HC HD HE HG HJ J JP K L M N 0

[Operations & agents in physics] [Practical physics B36] [Operations] (Investigative techniques B62] [Physical methods in investigation B69] [Mechanical techniques B6B] [Magnetic techniques B6J]

B6J FO

. . . . . .

FP U

* Add to B6I C letters A / C following BVI. * Add to BCI D letters D/Q following B if applicable. * Add to B6I letters E/G following BVI; eg

. Charge carriers . Semiconductor devices . . Point contact devices . . Junction devices, bipolar . . devices . . Diodes (semiconductors) . . . Point contact diodes . . . Junction diodes . . Transistors . . . Point contact transistors . . . Junction transistors N - p - n transistors P - n - p transistors Four layer transistors . . . . Field effect transistors, .... bipolar transistors

. . . . . . . . . . .

UB UBL

B6K

FM4 FMF C4 FQ

RN S

. . . . . . SLH

* Add to B6I P letters A/Y following BVI P.

. Electrical resistance (techniques using) . . Dielectric techniques

B6J

Measurement . Dosimetry . . Dosimetry below 5 MeV . . . Electron dosimetry . . Microdosimetry Refraction techniques, refractometry . . Instrumentation . . . Refractometers . . Transmission refractometry . Diffraction techniques, diffractometry . . . . .

* Analysis of structure of matter by the diffraction of x-rays, neutrons, etc. in crystals. * More detail may be taken from crystallography, at BW6 KFQ.

. . Prisms . . . Diffraction gratings . . Diffractometers . . . . . . . . .

FR

* Add to B6I U letters B / L following BVI U; eg

. . Electromechanical techniques . . . Piezoelectrical techniques . . . Acoustoelectrical techniques . . Thermoelectric techniques . . Photoelectric techniques Magnetic techniques

. . . . . .

. . By type of

. . . Electro-optical techniques . . . .

UB UC UGH UGP UL

FQ4 FWB FQ4 FWG FQ7 64

* Add to B6I S letters A/M following BVI S.

. Interactions of electric with other energy forms

. Magnetic polarization techniques . Magnetic field effects (techniques) . . Magnetomechanical effects . . (techniques) . . . Magnetostriction techniques, . . . piezomagnetism . . . techniques Radiation techniques (electromagnetism), wave techniques (electromagnetism)

. . . . .

. Superconductor techniques . . . .

* For magnetic resonance imaging, see Imaging B7I 0 .

* For tracer techniques, see B7P. B6K 76 78S 78T 78U 78V FM

* For those with an optical input and/or output, see Optics BL. P

. Magnetic resonance techniques . . . .

. Vacuum tube techniques . Gas discharge tube techniques . Semiconductor techniques . . . . . .

B6KFR5W

FR4

. Electromagnetic wave interferometry . . Instrumentation . . . Interpherometers . . . .

FR5 V FR5 W

radiation

* See the radiation or particle at B6K U/B6Q; eg X-ray diffraction B6L XFQ.

* Arrange A/Z; eg

. . . . Etalons Microinterferometers

47

B6KFT

Investigative techniques

B6KT

[Investigative techniques B62] [Radiation techniques electromagnetism B6K] [Electromagnetic wave interferometry B6KFR] . [Instrumentation] . . [Interpherometers B6KFR4] . . . [Etalons B6KFR5V] . . . . [Microinterferometers B6KFRSW]

. By type of . . . .

36K F T

radiation

* See radiation; e.g. acoustic wave interferometry B 6 R GHF R.

Scatter techniques

* Using irregular reflection, dispersal, etc. of particles or waves.

FX GB

Pulses . Pulse techniques Beams . Beam handling (general), beam techniques (general) . . . .

GBF H J J4U J4Y

J75 4 J 83 JP JPQ M

Q

QM

R

. . Beam modulation

By result of action

. Ionizing radiation techniques, radiology . . Equipment . . . Cloud chambers

RLP RST S

S4 S4D S

48

* Add to B6K J 4 Y letters K / P following BM7 H; eg

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. Bubble chambers . Spark chambers Measurement . Counters Production Irradiation techniques . Microirradiation techniques

. . . . . . . .

Radiofrequency techniques Microwave & optical techniques (together) . Stimulated emission techniques, induced . emission techniques, quantum optic . techniques . . Maser techniques (general), microwave . . amplification by stimulated . . emission

By wave

. . . . . . . .

R4

. . . .

.... . . . .

B6K SS

length/frequency

* Add to B6K R letters A / T following B6K S (with additions & modifications).

Instruments Masers

Types

Pulsed masers Gas masers . . Laser techniques, lasing process, light . . amplification by stimulated . . emission . . . Instruments Lasers

Components

Cavity resonators

. . Types of instruments . . .

* See B6K SL

S 71 D S 71 FH S 71 FW

Beam handling . Modulating . Pulsing & switching

SBD SBD L

. . . . . . . . .

SFI N SFI 0

* Add to B 6 K GB letters D / G following AY7 I (Beam handling in imaging) ; eg

. . . . . . . . J4YM J4YP

[Investigative techniques B62] [Stimulated emission techniques B6KQM] [Las :r techniques B6KS] [Instruments] . [Lasers B6KS4] . . [Components] . . . [Cavity resonators B6KS4DS]

SFR

SLH SLP SLQ

Processes & properties

Energy states . Population inversion . Excitation . . Stimulated emission of light . . . Laser pumping, optical pumping, . . . electronic pumping, pumping . . . (lasers) Interference . Laser interferometry

Types of laser action . By energy

. . High energy lasing process, Q switching

Types of lasers

. Pulsed lasers . Continuous lasers

. By radiation or particle . .

* Add to B6K S letters LU/Q following B; eg

SLU SLV SLW SO

. . . .

. . . .

Infrared lasers Visible light lasers Ultraviolet lasers Nuclear-powered lasers

SR ST STV STW

. . . .

. . . .

Lasing action media Gas lasers . Inert gas lasers . Other gas lasers

SU SV SVV W SVXB SVXG SVX J SVXM

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

Liquid lasersSolid lasers . Semiconductor lasers, diode lasers . Ruby lasers . Glass lasers . Fibre lasers . Chemical lasers

SX

. . Surface emitting lasers, S E L

. By medium

. . . .

. By action of laser . . . . . .

T

* Arrange A/Z.

* Key component of optic-electric integrated circuits.

. . Quantum well lasers

B6KTV

Investigative techniques [Investigative techniques B62] [By wave length/frequency] [Microwave Si optical techniques together B6KQ] . [Stimulated emission techniques B6KQM] . . (Laser techniques B6KS] . . . . [By action of laser] [Quantum well lasers B6KT]

B6KTV

. . Non-linear optical techniques . . . . .

TX

. . . . . . . . . .

[Investigative techniques B62] [Mechanical techniques B6B] [Radiation techniques electromagnetism B6K] [By wave length/frequency] . [Optical techniques B6L] . . [Types of optics by wavelength] . . . [Ultraviolet techniques B6LW]

B6L WY

X XFQ XFQ R XFQ S XFQ W XT

Electrical engineering techniques Telecommunications techniques * A d d details from Class U Technology when published.

V

Microwave techniques * F o r masera, see B6K R. * Add to B6K V letters U / W following BK; eg

VVB VWE

B6M

. . . . . .

B6N DC GO

FN FP FQ FQS FR FRL FT GH L M PF

w

. . . .

* Using photons instead of electrons.

. Electron techniques

P4 P4F V PFQ PFR PGB

. . . . . .

V W WFQ

. . . .

* For b e t a ray techniques, see nuclear radioactivity techniques B 6 0 F K R

. . . . . .

Instrument components . Electron lenses Electron diffraction Electron interferometry Electron beam techniques, electron optics techniques

. . .

B60

* See also Electron optics imaging B7I NP

Proton techniques Neutron techniques . Neutron diffraction Nuclear reaction techniques

. . B 6 0 FK F KM N

FKR FKS

* For g a m m a ray techniques, see B6L Y.

. . Radioactivity techniques . . . Radioactivation analysis . . . . . . .

* For stimulated emmission of light, see B6K S (lasers)

Types of optics by wavelength . Infrared techniques . Visible light techniques . Ultraviolet techniques

. Cosmic ray techniques . Photon techniques, photonics . . . .

F o r photoelastic stress analysis, see BVBKL6LFMJ.

. Reflection techniques . Polarization techniques, polarized light techniques . Diffraction techniques (light) . . Schlieren techniques . Interference techniques, interferometry . . Interference fringes (techniques) . Scattering (optical techniques) . Acoustooptic techniques, photoacoustics . Luminosity (techniques) . Colour (techniques) . Coherent light (techniques) . . . .

U V

911

* Add to B 6 M G B letters D / G following B M 7 I M * Add to B6 letters N / Q following B; eg.

. . P

Optical transmission techniques . Fibre optic techniques Absorption techniques Refraction techniques . Birefringence techniques, double . refraction techniques

. . . . . .

. Particle diffraction . Particle interferometry . Particle beam techniques, bombardment (particles) techniques . . . .

* For q u a n t u m optic techniques see B6K QM; N o n linear optical techniques B6K TV; for optical techiques in bulk m a t t e r , see B6R L. B6LFC FCT FL FM FMJ

. X - r a y techniques . . X-ray diffraction . . . Bragg method (X-ray diffraction) . . . Laue method (X-ray diffraction) . . . Weissenberg method (X-ray diffraction) . Gamma ray techniques Particulate radiation techniques * Add to B6M letters F / G following B; eg

B6M F Q FR GB

. Superhigh frequency techniques . Millimetre wave techniques Optical techniques

B6L

Radiological techniques (general) * Applications of X - r a y s , g a m m a rays and other p e n e t r a t i n g radiation, ionizing or non-ionizing.

* Effect of very intense light beams on m a t t e r t h r o u g h t which they are propagated. Utilizing the optical effects of laser radiation interacting with non-linear materials. * See also Q u a n t u m optic techniques B6K QM

* A d d details from Class U Technology when published. U

B60FKS

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

* Studies artificially created nuclei in order to elucidate the isotopes produced by bombardment. * F o r activation analysis, see Chemical analysis C. * F o r radioactive isotope techniques, see T r a c e r techniques B7P.

. Alpha radiation techniques . Beta ray techniques

49

B60F0 B7MNJ

Investigative techniques

[Operations] [Investigative techniques B62] [Physical methods in investigation B69] [Mechanical techniques B6B] . [Radiation techniques electromagnetism B6K] . . [Particulate radiation techniques B6M] . . . [Beta ray techniques B60FKS]

B 6 0 FO

[Physics B] [Operations & agents in physics] [Practical physics B36] [Operations] [Investigative techniques B62] [Physical methods in investigation . [Techniques special to a context B6Y]

Nuclear resonance techniques

Techniques by action on phenomenon

* For nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, see B7I O B6P B6Q B6QU U72 N U7S U7T UEY UFQ X B6R

Atom techniques Molecular techniques Ion techniques Ion beam analysis Special procedures . Ionic implantation . Ion exchange techniques Processes & properties Ion irradiation techniques . Ion diffraction Vacuum techniques Bulk matter techniques * For sonic techniques, see B6E; for thermal techniques, see B6G P .

B6T CW

States of matter( Phase transition techniques, thermodynamic phases Gas dynamics techniques

B6U CH CW B6W

Hydrostatic techniques Hydrodynamic techniques Crystallographic techniques

B6RN NR

* For electrical discharge techniques, see B6I BS.

B6X B6XCE CEL X B6Y

Chemical techniques in physics . Electrochemical techniques in physics . . Electrolytic techniques Biological techniques in physics Techniques special to a context

B72 B73 B74 G L N T v B75 B76 B7A B7C B7F B7G B7H B7H L B7I B7I o B7J B7J L LX M P so su B7K B7K KS T B7L B7LV

B7M B7M KM KN KU KX L LX M NJ

50

* Add to B7 numbers it letters 2.A/S following AY7; eg

. Control techniques . Production techniques . Detecting & indicating techniques . . Indicating . . . Telemetry . Recording techniques . . Scanning techniques . Counting . Measurement . Testing & evaluation . . Monitoring . Modelling & simulation . Prediction, forecasting . Visualizing & imaging techniques . . Visualizing techniques general . . Imaging techniques . . . Nuclear magnetic resonance . . . imaging . . . Microscopy . . . . By wavelength . . . . Optical microscopy . . . . X-ray microscopy . . . . Particle microscopy Electron microscopy . . . . Nuclear magnetic resonance .... microscopy . . . . Ion microscopy . . . Holography techniques . . . . Acoustic holography . . . Photographic techniques in . . . physics . . . Radiography in physics . . . Tomography . Spectroscopy, spectrography, spectrum analysis . . By spectrum . . . Radiofrequency spectroscopy . . . . Nuclear magnetic resonance .... spectroscopy . . . Microwave spectroscopy . . . . Electron spin resonance .... spectroscopy . . . Optical spectroscopy . . . X-ray spectroscopy . . . Particulate spectra techniques . . . .

* For mass spectroscopy, see B 7 0 P.

. . . . Photon correlation spectroscopy

B7MNP

Techniques by action on phenomenon [Physics B] [Investigative techniques B62] [Techniques by action on phenomenon] . [Spectroscopy B7M] . . [By spectrum] . . . [Particulate spectra techniques B7MM] . . . . [Photon correlation spectroscopy B7MNJ]

[Physics B] [Practical physics B36] [Operations] [Investigative techniques B62] . [Special forms of enquiry] . . [By broad objective] . . . [Oriented research B87]

B7M NP . . o . p . QU . . B7N .

B8B

. . . Electron spectroscopy, electron emission ... spectroscopy . . . Nuclear spectroscopy . . . Atomic spectroscopy . . . Ion spectroscopy . By various physical constants . . Spectrometry

. . . . . . . .

B7N s

...

B70

. . . . .

. . . . .

* See note under Spectroscopy AY7 M; if in doubt, prefer B7M. * Measures intensity of wavelength in optical spectra.

. . . . .

* Measures atomic mass by separating beam of ions into components reflecting different mass/charge ratios. Not strictly spectroscopy, since does not utilize the separation of wavelengths.

B8D

. . . .

* If distinguished from practical physics. * See notes at AY3 2 regarding relations between experimental research and practical scientific work. For practical work in physics (which includes experimental methods, equipment, etc.), see B36.

. By broad objective . . Fundamental research . . Oriented research

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

theories in

physics

* Theories relating to a specific field, large or small, go with that field. Provision of notation at this point allows the qualification of any specific subject by its special theories; eg BGR 8TB Falling body theory of gravity. * Some major theories in general physics are often (and in some cases usually) referred to for historical reasons as theories of mechanics (eg classical mechanics, quantum mechanics). The preferred arrangement is to locate them here. * An alternative (not recommended) is to locate them under mechanics specifically, at BB8. In such cases, their classmark will have an additional initial B; eg quantum theory becomes BB8 M.

. . Classical physics, classical mechanics, . . Newtonian mechanics, ensemble . . theory, non-quantized physics . . . . . .

* For example, BWQ D7S Crystal defects - Doping.

Special forms of enquiry . Special environments investigative techniques . . Vacuums . . High altitude research environments . . Space research environments . Non-experimental research . Experimental physics general . . . .

B85 B87

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . Tracer techniques . . . Radioactive isotope techniques . Techniques special to a context . .

B7W L B7X B7X H J N B82

* For practical physics, see B36.

. Particular

. . . Mass spectroscopy . . . . .

B7P B7P G B7Q

Theoretical physics

Spectrophotometry

. . . . . . . .

B8H

B8D N BSE

. . . Newton's laws of mechanics . . Statistical mechanics, many-particles . . systems, statistical thermodynamics . . . . . . . . .

B8E K R B8F

. . . .

* For unified field theory, see particle theory BM8FG.

. . . Properties . . . . Potential (field theory) . . . Classical theory . . . . Maxwell theory (field theory) . . . U n i f i e d field theory . . . .

L R s T B8G P B8H

* Basic 19th century theories, applicable mainly to bulk matter (BR). * See also Quantum theory B8M

. . Kinetic theory (general), molecular . . theory . . Ergodic theory . Field theory (general)

. . . . . .

B8F 97 D DM G

* The term 'mechanics' on its own usually assumes this.

* For grand unified theory, see BM8 FJ.

. . . . Supersymmetry theory . . . Gauge theory . . . . Gauge transformation . . . . Gauge invariance . . N o n - f i e l d theories . . Relativity theory, relativistic mechanics

51

B8HQ

Theoretical physics

B8RB

[Physics B] [Operations & agents in physics] [Practical physics B36] [Operations] [Theoretical physics B8B] [Particular theories in physics] [Relativity theory B8H]

* See also Gravitation BGR; Astronomy Sc astrophysics DA * For relativistic treatment of specific phenomena, see the phenomenon; eg relativistic scattering theory (elementary particles) BMF T8H. B8H Q R S B8J

. Space-time continuum, fourdimensional continuum . . Interval (space-time) . . Events (space-time) . General relativity . .

. . . . . . . . . B8M FN FX H HF N P R

* See also Cosmology DA

* Further details are given at BM8 M Particle physics. Details from there may be used here if necessary. Examples are given below. * For quantum theory of specific phenomena, see the phenomenon; eg quantum electrodynamics BNG 8M; quantum chromodynamics BNR 8M. B8M 27 27E 27F 27H

. . . .

History . Early period . . Planck quantum theory . Later period

. . . 27J 27K 2X

. . . .

. . Einstein quantum theory . . Bohr quantum theory Statistics . Quantum statistics

. . . . . . 2XY AB 2XY AF 76C D DT DV

. . . . . . . . . . .

* See also Elementary particles Energy levels BMB D

. . Bose-Einstein statistics . . Fermi-Dirac statistics Constants . Planck constant Particular quantum theories . Classical theory . . Semi-classical quantum . . theory . . Non-relativistic quantum . . theory . Field theory

. . . . . . F

* 1924 onwards.

* For Gauge field theory, see BM8MFR.

. . . Quantum field theory, . . . quantified fields, . . . quantized fields

RW S

* For quantum field theory of specific phenomena, see the phenomenon - e.g. meson field theory BNS 8MF.

. . . Non-linear field theory . . . Axiomatic field theory . Relativistic quantum theory . . Relativistic quantum field theory Quantum properties . Quantization . Complementarity . Quantum number (theory) . . . .

. Special relativity Quantum theory, quantum mechanics

B8K B8M

52

[Operations] [Theoretical physics B8B] [Particular theories in physics] Quantum theory B8M] [Particular quantum theories] . [Field theory] . . [Quantum field theory B8MF]

* For quantum number properties, see Particles BMM D.

. . Correspondence principle . . Pauli exclusion principle . . . . . .

T B8N

* See also Periodic table CH; Spin (particles) BMM K

. . Principal quantum number Special quantum properties, quantum numbers * This allows the qualification of a particular property if its quantization is the subject.

Special

B80

quantum

effects

* For example, BRQ BBQ 8 0 Surfaces Potential energy - Potential barrier Tunnellling. B80 V B8P B8P 2M 2M8 GE 2M8L 2M8NH

2M9 NS 2TB QU S

u B8RB

Two-state quantum theory Wave mechanics (quantum theory), corpuscular waves (quantum theory) . Mathematics . . Perturbation theory (quantum . . mechanics) . . Wave functions . . . Named functions . . . . Hamiltonian functions, .... Hamiltonians . . . Named equations . . . . Schrodinger wave equation . Matrices . Particular theories . . Bohr theory (wave mechanics) . . Schrodinger wave mechanics . . Uncertainty principle, indeterminacy . . principle, Heisenberg principle Matrix mechanics

B8RB8V

Theoretical physics [Physics B] [Operations & agents in physics] . . [Operations] . . . [Theoretical physics B8B] . . . . [Particular theories in physics] [Quantum theory B8M] [Matrix mechanics B8RB]

[Physics B] [Special properties] [Physical dimensions B9B]

B9B 2X 92K 92L

B8R B8V

Heisenberg representation General processes/properties in physics

G

H J K L N S T V B94 B94 BC

C

E F G H J JC K L M N O P PC

Q R

s

V Y B95 B96 B97 B98 B9B

H I IV J K

. Distribution . . Incidence . Invariability, constancy . .

* For constants, see Measurement B76 C

Variation, change . Rate of change, gradient . Decrease . Increase . Cyclical change Development . Formation, origin . Growth Conditions, parameters, environments, influences . . Degrees of freedom . . Critical point, critical state . . Volume conditions . . . Constant volume . . . Decreasing volume . . . Increasing volume . . Pressure conditions . . . Critical pressure . . . Constant pressure conditions, isobaric . . . conditions . . . Decreasing pressure conditions . . . Increasing pressure conditions . . . Other pressure conditions . . Velocity conditions . . Thermal conditions . . . Critical temperature . . . Constant temperature, isothermal . . . conditions . . . Adiabatic conditions . . . Decreasing temperature conditions . . . Increasing temperature conditions . . Electrical & magnetic field conditions . . . Electrical field conditions . . . Magnetic field conditions . . . Radiation conditions . . Other conditions Special properties . Physical dimensions, dimensions of a physical quantity

. . . . . . . . .

. .

* For mass, see BCJ; for measurement, see B76.

Dimensional analysis Processes . Contraction . Expansion Dimensional properties . Degree of dimension, number . . . .

* Classes B92/99 are for use only as qualifiers. See explanatory note at AY9. * Add to B9 numbers 2/9 following AY9 and letters G / S following AY (with the additions indicated); eg

B92 D E F

B9CR

Q R T

U V

w

. . . . .

* Use for any qualification or degree of a dimension - e.g. double, very, optimal.

Nodes, points (dimension) Indexes Dimensionless groups Similarity . Dynamic similarity, similarity principle

. . . . . .

111

. . .

1(1

. . . . . . .

Frames of reference . Inertial reference frame By number of dimensions . One-dimensional . Two-dimensional . Three-dimensional . Multi-dimensional

Time

B9C

B9C 76 92K 92L 9FC

. . . . . .

See also Similarity parameters (fluid flow) BSB9BK

More than three dimensions.

* The dimension of the physical universe which at a given place orders the sequence of events. * See also Space-time continuum B8H Q

Measurement . Horology (physics) . Processes , . Contraction time dimension . . Expansion time dimension . . Reversibility (time)

. . . .

* See also Relativity theory B8H

9FE 9FG C EN EP F G H I

. . . Irreversibility (time) . . . . Arrow of time . Time conditions . . Ante, prior . . Post (time) . . Rate (time) . . . Slow . . . Fast . . Duration, life

J

. . . . . . . . . .

. . .

K L M N P

Q

QS QU R

. . . . . . . . . .

* For lifetime as a quantum property, BMM FH

. Momentary, transient . Short duration . Long duration . Mean life . Half life, lifetime Time intervals . Frequency (time dimension) . Short intervals . Long intervals Instantaneous, immediate

53

B9CS

Physics

B9NP

[Physics B] [Special properties] [Physical dimensions B9B] [Time B9C] . [Time conditions B9CC] . . [Instantaneous B9CR]

Continuous (time) Discontinuous (time), discrete (time) Periodic (time conditions) . Isochronous Space, spatial dimension, size

* See also Space-time continuum B8H Q; Shape, configuration B 9 J V

Processes

Contraction (space dimensions) Expansion (space dimensions)

Constituents

[Physics B] [Special properties] [Physical dimensions B9B] . [Space B9D] . . [Multidimensional]

B9D V

Hyperspace, multidimensional space * More than 3 dimensions. * For space-time (3-d space and time), see Relativity B8H Q.

X B9G B9G C E G P T V

Non-Euclidean space Systems characteristics Systems behaviour Disturbance, perturbation . Temporary disturbances, transients State of system Constancy, invariance Conservation laws

Aether, ether

* For specific laws, see thing conserved; eg conservation of mass & energy B A E 9GV. * See also theory of elementary particles BNB 8B

* Hypothetical medium once thought to fill all space.

Direction Orientation Isotropic Anisotropic Position, location

* For example, back, front, side, end.

One-dimensional spaces, lines, linear dimensions . Distance . . Mean free path . Length . Width, breadth . Height . Radius . Diameter . . Chord (dimensions) . Perimeter, circumference Two-dimensional spaces, planes . Angles . Area . . Sectors (space dimensions) . Surfaces (dimensions) Three-dimensional spaces, bodies (3-d space) Cross section (3-d space) Edge conditions Volume . Critical volume Solid bodies Hollow bodies Homogeneous bodies Non-homogeneous bodies, heterogeneous bodies Physical field * For fields of force, use BBH. * See also Field theory B 8 F

Multidimensional

54

B9H B9H H J

Variability Change of state of system . Periodic change . .

K N

Q

R U V

w

B9I H B9J B9J S

* For periodic motion, see BDS.

. . Cycles periodic change . Response systems . . Hysteresis . Autonomous events Stability of systems . Homeostasis, self-regulation Instability of systems Adaptive behaviour Structure of systems physics Symmetry, homogeneity

* For symmetry reflecting invariance principle in particles, see BMM B

T T9G

Parity (general), space reflection symmetry, mirror symmetry . Conservation . . . .

V W B9K V X

* For P invariance (parity conservation), see BMM E9G V.

Shape, configuration Networks systems

Types of systems

Continuous systems Discontinuous systems, discrete systems * See also Quantum mechanics B8M

B9L R B9M B9N P

Linear systems Non-linear systems Adaptive systems

BAE

Energy interactions & forms [Physics

Bj

[Physics B]

[Special properties]

[Energy interactions Si forms

. [Types of systems] . . [Adaptive systems

[Thermodynamics B9NP]

* See also Thermal properties (bulk matter)

* Energy is the capacity for doing work.

BRG P

Interconversion between its different forms (potential,

BAO

kinetic, electrical, chemical, etc) can occur only in the presence of matter. Energy can only exist in the

BAP D

absence of matter when it is in the form of radiant energy.

E

* M a t t e r is a specialized form of energy having the

Fluctuation phenomena, variables (thermodynamics) Reversible thermodynamics, reversible processes Irreversible thermodynamics, nonequilibrium thermodynamics

attributes of mass and of extension in space and time.

* Extension of classical theory to cover real

F o r general works on m a t t e r per se, see B L Y .

dynamical processes; eg in biology.

* F o r Mechanical energy, see B B B M ; for Matter, see

* See also Entropy B A M

BLY. B A E 9GV 9GW

H

. Conservation . . Conservation of mass & energy . Equivalence of energy & matter

N R T

Energy interactions & forms . Thermodynamics

BAF BAG

. . . .

effect on the states of those systems. Bulk matter physics B R G P .

. . B A G 8D

. . . .

92N

BAQ

* F o r statistical theory of thermodynamics see B 8 E .

BAT

system. 41

electrical conductivity, neutron transport, dielectric relaxation, viscosity (fluids).

BAW

. . . . . . .

BAX

. Mass transfer

B A T 8EK

9IC

. . Systems characteristics . . . Reversible processes

BAU

. . . .

. . . Irreversible processes

BAU D

9IE

. . . .

BAH BAI BAJ BAK BAL BAM

. . . . . . . .

* See B A P D * See B A P E

. Principles of thermodynamics, laws of . thermodynamics . . Zeroth law of thermodynamics . . First law of thermodynamics, . . conservation of energy . . . Enthalpy . . Second law of thermodynamics . . . Entropy

F o r transport processes Si properties in particular energy systems, see the system - e.g.

* F o r reversible thermodynamics, see B A P D.

* See B A P Y

* Arrange A./Z\ eg

. . Carnot cycle Transport processes (general) * Transfer of mass, momentum or energy in a

. . . Equilibrium thermodynamics . . . Cycles . . . .

9G

Critical state, critical point phenomena Free energy, thermodynamic potential, Gibbs function Adiabatic processes Isothermal processes Isentropic processes Polytropic processes Cycles (thermodynamics) . Named cycles . .

BAQ C

Particular theories . Classical thermodynamics, ideal . processes, reversible processes . (classical theory)

. . . . 8DP

W Y

* F o r thermal phenomena and heat in general, see

. .

. . . .

V

* Interactions between energy systems and their

. .

BAF]

BAG]

[Thermodynamic processes Si properties]

Energy & matter (together)

BAE

BAX

92N

BAV

Theory . Kinetic theory Cycles (transport processes) Scattering (transport processes) Dissipation (transport processes) Diffusion (transport processes) Viscosity * See Fluids B S A W * See also Heat transfer B R G Q

* See also irreversible thermodynamics B A P E BAM J BAN

Entropy of substances . . . Third law of thermodynamics, Nernst . . . heat theorem . . Thermodynamic processes & properties . . .

* F o r internal energy, see B B B V .

55

BB

Mechanics

BBIY

[Physics B] [Energy interactions ic forms BAF] [Thermodynamics BAG] . [Thermodynamic processes Si properties] . . [Transport processes general BAT] . . . [Mass transfer BAX]

Mechanics

BB

BB2 M8L M8N H M9L M9N H M9N L

. . . . .

P2H P2L S BB8B

D BB9 KV

KVK KX KXK

Mathematical functions . Hamiltonian functions Equations . Hamiltonian equations . Lagrangian equations . Hamiltonian systems . Lagrangian mechanics . Geometric mechanics Theory . Particular theories

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

BBB

BBB 92D 9GV M P

56

V

. . Kinetic energy, energy of motion . . . . . .

* For motion, see BCS. * See also friction BVQ CA

. . . . . .

* Sum of the potential and kinetic energies of molecular interactions.

. . .

* See particle physics, BMB C

. . .

* See particle physics, BMB D / E

. . .

* See condensed matter BTX BF

. . Internal energy, thermodynamic energy . . Energy ranges

BBC

. . Energy levels

BBD

. . Energy bands

BBF BBF N

. Energy

systems

. . . . .

* Classical theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc are treated as theories of general physics (see B8D/Y). * An alternative (not recommended) is to subordinate them here,to mechanics. If this option is taken: * Add to BB8 letters D/Y following B8; eg

. Classical mechanics Continuous systems . Continuous mechanics, classical . mechanics of continuous matter, . continuous media (mechanics) . . Mechanical contact Discrete systems . Classical mechanics of discrete systems . . Few-body theory

. . . . KXM KXP KXR

BBB T

* Study of the behaviour of physical systems under the action of forces, especially with the motion and equilibrium of bodies in a particular frame of reference. Sometimes used with wider meaning, to include the behaviour of all physical systems under all interactions, when it is barely distinguishable from physics as a whole.

. Named

[Physics B] [Energy interactions & forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Energy BBB] . [Mechanical energy BBBM] . . [Potential energy BBBP]

. .

. . . Two-body problem . . . Three-body problem . . N-body problem, many-body problem Energy

. . . .

. . . .

* Capacity of a body or system for doing work. * For activation energy, see Chemistry C; for energy levels and energy bands, see Elementary particles BMBD.

* See Thermodynamics BAJ

. . .

* A measure of a system's capacity to do work.

. . Mechanical energy

. . . Potential energy, energy of space, . . . energy of position

to a

subject

* Any action which alters or tends to alter a body's state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. * For an expansion of this general class, see nuclear forces BOB G. For Gravity, see BGR.

. Fields of force

BBH

BBH J K L 0

Q

Q2U Q2V Q2W BBI G

H

. .

* A 3-dimensional space throughout which forces can act and in which energy is available.

. . . .

* Result of the exchange of energy between field and body experiencing forces.

. . . . . . . . .

. Gradient (fields) . Strength of field . Interaction (field) . Field effects . Lines of force, force field . . Graphs . . . Force polygons . . . Catenaries Work

. . Power . . .

HM J JM JS M

. . Distribution of energy . . Conservation of energy

. . .

special

Force

BBG

* See also Gravitation BGR

. . . .

concepts

* Eg Nuclear collisions - Excitation energy BOF SBF N.

N P

* Rate of doing work.

. . . . .

. . Turning moment . Mechanical efficiency . . Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage . Virtual work Moment, torque, turning effect

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

* The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the point or axis of rotation. * For moment of momentum, see Angular momentum BDN CV.

. . Centrifugal moment . . Moment of inertia

. Types of Y

forces

. . Generalized force

BBJ

Mechanics [Physics B] [Energy interactions Si forms 8AF] [Mechanics BB] [Force BBG] [Types of forces] [Generalized force BBIY]

BBYD

[Physics B] [Energy interactions & forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Force BBG] [Types of forces] [External forces BBJW] [Integral forces BBJWP]

Quotient of all forces acting in a system.

Pressure

BBJ

Deforming forces, deformation, distortion

BBK

* Force acting per unit area. * For compressibility, see Elasticity BCB; for load, see BBQ. BBJ 92D 94 94E 94K

BH BHJ BHK MP NN NP NQ

Distribution Pressure conditions . Critical pressure . Constant pressure, isobaric conditions Properties Pressure fields . Pressure gradients . . Pressure gradient force Pressure effect( . Centre of pressure . Compression . Head of pressure

* The detailed schedule for this class is given in bulk matter physics (at solid state BVB K), to which it is largely applicable. * Add to B letters BK/CD following BV (Solids) so far as applicable; eg BBKL N P BBL

Q

* Deforming force per metre. * For Creep, see Bulk matter BVB YK. BBL V

* See BSB JO (fluids) P

Q

Other * Add to BBJ S letters B / N following BSB JS if applicable; eg BBJ SF Induced pressure. TC TD TE

Conservative force Restoring force Elastic force * See Elasticity BCB

TI U

VP VR VS VU W

Propulsion, thrust, push (propulsion) Traction, pull Central force, Single force Multiple force External forces Impressed force, action (mechanics) Reaction (mechanics) Body forces Surface forces Integral forces

Tension Types of stresses Bending stress Normal stress, direct stress . Tensile stress, tensional stress . . . . . .

BBP BBQ

* For compression, see BBJ NP; for compressibility, see BSB QS.

Shear stress Loading, load * Force, external to a machine, which the work output must overcome. * The detailed schedule for this class is given under Gases (bulk matter) BTB Q. * For load as weight, see BCK; see also Stress BBL.

* Physical effect of impulsive force. * See also Ballistics BGR G

* Transmitted throughout a body WK WL WM WN WP

BBM T BBO BBO T

Impulsive force . Impact, collision of bodies . .

Stress components * Internal forces between contiguous parts of a body. * For normal stress, see BBO.

Types of pressure Low pressure High pressure * For high pressure physics, see BRB JQ

Stress-strain relationships Limit of proportionality Strength (stress-strain) . Yield point Stress (general)

BBQ S BBT

Compressibility Strain * Deformation resulting from stress.

BBUN BBV E BBW P BBY D

Torsion Elastic deformation Plastic deformation Failure (strain)

* Between neighbouring parts of a body.

57

BCB

Mechanics

BCSW2M9NL

[Energy interactions & forms BAFj [Mechanics BB] [Force BBG] [Types of forces] . [External forces BBJW] . . [Deforming forces BBK] . . . [Strain BBT] . . . . [Failure strain BBYD]

Elasticity * Property of a physical system allowing it to return to the original physical state after removal of a stress.

. Modulus of elasticity, elastic constants . .

* Ratio of stress to strain.

. Viscoelasticity Internal forces Inertial forces, effective forces, kinetic reactions * For inertia, see BCI * See also Dynamic equilibrium (statics) BCO V; Acceleration BDD

[Physics B] [Energy interactions & forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Statics BCH] . [Weight BCK]

* See also Gravity BGR BCL BCL L P T W BCM

*' Two equal Si opposite parallel forces acting on body.

Attraction, attractive force, potential (attraction) Repulsion Forces special to a context Statics * Behaviour of bodies at rest relative to a given frame of reference; the forces acting on them cancel each other out and produce a state of equilibrium in which the bodies are stationary or moving with constant velocity; i.e. acceleration and torque are * See also Hydrostatics BUC H ; Torque BBI M BCH2X5 8C 2XS

Graphical methods Analytical statics Moments Static moment Inertia * Ability of a body to resist changes in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. * For rotational inertia, see rotary motion BDN CI. * See also motion BCS; Hysteresis (general) B9H Q

Moments of inertia Angular inertia Products of inertia Vlass Relativity theory . Relativistic mass Weight, load (weight)

58

* See also Stress BBL; Couple BCE L

Equilibrium

BCN

* State of a body at rest or moving with constant velocity. * For Phase equilibrium, see States of matter BRN T.

BCN P T U V

Centrifugal force . Coriolis force . Centripetal force Couple, coupling

Density, API gravity, bulk density Specific gravity, relative density Low density High density Wet density Composition & resolution of forces

w X V BCO BCO P

Q U V BCP

Balancing Parallelogram of forces, polygon of forces Parallel forces Non-parallel forces Quasi-equilibrium Non-vanishing equilibrium Neutral equilibrium, indifferent equilibrium Stable equilibrium, static equilibrium . Least energy principle . Neutral equilibrium Unstable equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium Stability * General property of systems whereby the system returns to state of equilibrium after disturbance.

BCP Q R S BCQ BCR

Absolute stability Asymptotic stability Static stability Dynamic stability Instability

BCRS U V BCS

Dynamic instability Suspending Equalizing Motion

* For balancing, see BCN P

* A continuous change of position of a body. BCS 8DN T U V W W2M 9 W2M 9N

Newton's laws of motion Hamilton's principle (motion) D'Alembert's principle Principle of least constraint, constrained motion Principle of least action . Equations . . Named equations . . .

W2M 9NL

* Arrange A/Z; eg

. . . Lagrange's equations of motion

BCT

Dynamics [Energy interactions Si forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Motion BCS] . [Principle of least action BCSW] . . [Equations BCSW2M9] . . . [Named equations BCSW2M9N] . . . . [Lagrange's equations of motion BCSW2M9NL]

BCT BCT S

Properties & processes Immittance (mechanics) Mechanical admittance * Reciprocal of impedance.

Mechanical impedance

BDKMKJ

[Physics B] [Energy interactions Si forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Dynamics BCX] [Kinematics BDA] [Velocity BDC] [Relative velocity BDCJ]

BDC M N O P BDD

Terminal velocity Low speed Medium speed High speed Acceleration, change of motion * See also Force BBG

* Ratio of driving force to response. U V BCU

. Mechanical resistance . Mechanical reactance Momentum, linear momentum, vector momentum

BDD F

* 'Acceleration' in the popular sense. H J L

* Quantity of motion of a body; product of mass and velocity. * For angular momentum, see Rotation BDN CV. BCU Q BCV BCW

. Impulse (momentum) . Angular momentum Flux

Increase in speed Deceleration Linear acceleration Angular acceleration * See also Rotation BDN

Coriolis acceleration Kinetics

BDE

* Effect of forces or torques on motion. * Definition of this term varies; sometimes it is equated with kinematics, sometimes with dynamics. * For kinetics as rate of chemical reaction, see C; for kinetic theory (general), see BAT 8ES; for kinetic theory of fluids, see BSD E8B.

* A measure of the strength of a field of force (eg a rate of flow) through a given area. BCX

Dynamics, force & motion * Deals with the forces which change or produce the motions of bodies.

BCX 9BQ 9BS 9M E

Properties Frames of reference . Rotational frames of reference Non-linear dynamics Initial value problem, transient problem

7

orms of

* Value which determines subsequent state of a system.

Steady state problem State of the system remains unchanged in time after all the transients resulting from changes have been removed. BDA

Cinematics, pure motion * Motion independent of considerations of mass or force; geometry of motion. * See also Kinetic theory (general) BAT 8ES

BDAS

BDK B C D

Speed * A scalar quantity; use only if this is significant. Otherwise, use Velocity BDC.

BDB

Displacement

BDB E BDC BDC 92D E G H J

Principles . Laws of virtual displacement Velocity, speed (velocity) Velocity distribution, velocity gradient Principle of virtual velocity Linear velocity Angular velocity Relative velocity

41

motion

* Many of these relate almost entirely to particular states of matter (e.g. fluid flow). Classes are expanded where necessary for very specialized forms; e.g. attitudes in aerodynamics. * For Acceleration, see BDD; for acceleration due to gravity, see Gravitation BGR DD.

E G

Change of position. LKH LKJ M MKH MKJ

By entities in motion Motion of points Motion of extended figures Rigid figures (motion), rigid bodies (motion), solid bodies (motion) Deformable figures (motion) One-dimensional figures (motion) Two-dimensional figures (motion), moving planes . Rigid . Deformable Three-dimensional figures (motion) . Rigid . Deformable

* See also Doppler effect BFA DCK

59

BDKQ

Dynamics

BDUC

[Dynamics BCX] [Kinematics BDA] [Forms of motion] [By entities in motion] . [Motion of extended figures BDKC] . . [Three-dimensional figures motion BDKM] . . . [Deformable BDKMKJ]

[Physics B] [Energy interactions Si forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] [Dynamics BCX] [Kinematics BDA] [Forms of motion] [Coplanar motion BDRT]

BDK Q

BDS

. . . Articulated systems (motion) . . . .

T

Periodic motion, harmonic motion * Repetitive, periodic change in displacement with respect to a reference point. * There is relatively little literature on specific properties and processes treated completely generally (i.e. in mechanical vibration, radiation and wave phenomena, etc. together). So the detailed enumeration of properties and processes is given at BF Wave motion (much the biggest class in terms of literary warrant) and this may then be drawn on for synthesizing classes in the other contexts, as instructed below at BDU, BDV, BE and BF. * Add to BDS letters A/D following B; * Add to BDT letters B/W following BF; * Add to BDT X letters A/G following BG so far as applicable; eg

* 3 - d . deformable figures with rigid elements.

. Collective motions * See particle physics BNU DKT

BDL A

Pressure-affected motion * For fluid flow, see Fluids BSB.

c E L N R

Linear motion One-dimensional motion Relative motion Angular motion Rectilinear motion

T

Translation (motion), sliding motion

u v

Curvilinear motion . Ballistic motion

* See also Rays BGC * For friction, see Solids - Surfaces BVQ CA.

. . . .

BDM BDM u w BDN

* For ballistic motion as a property of gravitation, see BGR G.

Circular motion, circulatory motion . Uniform circular motion . Orbits (general) . Rotation, gyration, pre-rotation, revolution, revolving, rotatory motion . . . .

BDN ci cv cv cx p Q s T

* For internal rotation, see molecular motion BQBDQM.

. . Inertia . . . Rotary inertia . . Angular momentum . . . Moment of momentum . . . . Complex angular momentum plane . . Properties . . . Radius of gyration . . . Euler angles . . Spinning, spin . . . Nutation . . . .

BDP

u w wp

. . . .

BDS 92N BB

For radiant energy in general, see Radiation BEY. BDTB B73D BH BJ BM

* Usually implies bulk matter. * Add to BD letters P / Q following BSD so far as applicable; eg

BDQ R BDR

. . Three-dimensional vortex motion Irrotational motion

BDR s T

Planetary motion Coplanar motion

BN BQ BR C BDU

. Damped simple harmonic motion Anharmonics Isochronism, regular periodicity Transmission Oscillation (general) * See note at BE. Use only if distinguished from vibration; if in doubt, prefer the joint heading at BE. * Add to BDU letters A/V following BE; eg

* Special to fluids.

BDU B C

60

Harmonics Generation . Harmonic generation Elements Nodes Antinodes Types Simple harmonic motion, SHM * The standard component of all vibrations.

* Periodic variation in spin.

. . Precession . Whirl . Prewhirl Vortices, vortex motion

. . . . . .

Cycles (periodic motion) Energy

Harmonics Transmission

BDUVVEV

Periodic motion [Mechanics 8B] [Dynamic B BCX] [Kinematics BDA] [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Oscillation general BDU] . [Transmission BDUC]

BDU W E V WD BDV

. Large amplitude oscillations . Torsional oscillations Vibration (general) * See note at BE. Use only if distinguished from oscillation; if in doubt, prefer the joint heading at BE. * For mechanical oscillation, see Bulk matter BRE. * Add to BDV letters A / V following BE; eg

BDVB C WE V WD BE

. Harmonics . Transmission . Large amplitude vibration . Torsional vibrations Vibration & oscillation

[Dynamics BCX] [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Vibration & oscillation BE] . [Types of vibration S¿ oscillation] . . [By directional & transient factors BEVW] . . . [Pulse oscillations BEVX]

BEW D J L R S U V BEX C D E G

* Usage varies: in much of the literature oscillation and vibration are treated as synonymous; often, oscillation is used in relation to the wave motion of radiation whereas the term vibration is used for the same phenomenon in bulk matter (see BRE). See notes at BDU and BDV above. * Add to BE letters A/VV following BF; eg BEB BEC BED BED D BEP Y BERU BEV V

. . . . . . . .

Harmonics Transmission, propagation Frequency . Mode Interactions . Coupling Types of vibration & oscillation . By property

. . . . . . VEV W

wc X

BEYBCWCL

H

. . . Torsional vibrations . . . Linear oscillations . . . Non-linear oscillations . . . Transverse vibrations (general) . . . . Shear vibrations . . . Longitudinal vibrations (general) . . . . Axial vibrations . . By degrees of freedom . . . One degree of freedom (vibration) . . . Two degrees of freedom (vibrations) . . . Three or more degrees of freedom . . By origin as to internal/external . . . Free vibration, natural frequency . . . vibration . . . Forced vibration . . . .

J

....

* Frequency is determined by the natural frequency of the system. * For transients as transmission disturbances, see BFC F. K L

. . . . Steady component . . By origin as to action . . . . . .

. . Large amplitude vibration & . . oscillation . By directional & transient factors. . etc.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* See also BRE W (vibration in bulk matter) for amplification of some of these types of vibrations. * Add to BEV W letters C/V following BFW so far as applicable; * Add to BEV X letters A/Q following BFX so far as applicable; * Add to BEW letters B/X following BFY so far as applicable; * Add to BEW Y letters A / E following BG if applicable, applicable; eg

. . . Isotropic oscillations . . . Pulse oscillations

* For example, by vibrating body. * See Bulk matter BRE XL

Radiation (general)

BEY

* Energy from vibration propagated as rays, waves or a stream of particles. Often treated as synonymous with electromagnetic wave propagation. * Use this position only when a distinction is drawn between radiation and wave motion; also, in particular, for general works on the special energy features of radiation. If in doubt, prefer BF Waves. * For types of radiation defined by a specific energy form, see the latter; eg electromagnetic waves BK; sound waves BRG H. * For ionising radiation, see BKJ.

* Add to BEV V letters D/V following BFV V, so far as applicable; eg

. . . .

* For resonance, see BFO.

Transients (forced vibration)

BEY BB BB9 2D BCW

. . . . .

Energy . Radiant energy . . Distribution . . Radiant flux, radiant power, radiant . . energy flux

. . . . . . . .

* See also Opacity BRL FIL; Luminous flux BRLLBBF

Bcw CL . . . . Radiant flux density, irradiance, .... radiant exitance, power density

61

BEYBCWP

Waves

BFCR

[Dynamics BCX] [Periodic motion BDS] [Radiation general BEY] . [Energy] . . [Radiant energy BEYBB) . . . [Radiant flux BEYBCW] . . . . [Radiant flux density BEYBCWCL]

BEY BCW P

[Kinematics BDA] [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] (Energy] . [Wave energy BFABB] . . [Radiant power BFABBF]

. . . . Radiation intensity * For luminous intensity, see BRL LBB G.

BFA BBG

Radiance (intensity)

BCW Q

* Radiation intensity in a specified direction. F

. . . . FJ

* Add to BEY F letters B / V folowing BF so far as applicable; eg

. . Decay . Types of . . . .

VVP VWC WJ

. . . . .

. . . . .

BLR DA DCJ DCK

radiation

* Add to BEY letters VV/W following BE so far as applicable; eg

By property . Polarized radiation By direction, etc. . Isotropic . Linear

BFB

. . • • BFB H BFC

Waves, wave motion

BF

* Add to BFA letters A / D R following B. * Classes B F B / B F F are qualified retroactively as follows (where the hyphen represents the dassmark qualified): * Add to -A letters A / D R following B; * Add to - letters B / F following BF; eg Resonance Frequency BFO D; * Classes B F G / B F V are qualified retroactively as follows (where G is used as an intercalator): * Add to -A letters A / D R following B; * Add to - letters B / F following BF; * Add to -G letters G/Y following BF; eg Collisions - Absorption BFS GL. BF7 2 2D

. Operations . . Control wave motion . . . Damping . . . . . . . .

3D 3K

BF9 DI

* See also Frequency BFD

. Energy . . Wave energy, radiant energy (waves), . . radiative power (waves) . . . . . .

BBF

* For example, Sound- -Vibrating bodies BRG H73 LB.

. Properties . . Wavelength . . .

BFA BB

* For damping as a natural process, see Decay BFC N.

. . Generation of waves . . . By source, medium . . . . . . . .

62

BH BHK

. Processes & properties

* Add to BFA BB letters F / J following B E Y B B ; eg

. . . Radiant power

. . . Radiant flux density . . . . Magnitude (waves), power density .... (waves) Force . Field . . Field strength Stability . Relaxation (wave stability) Kinematics . Relative velocity . . Doppler effect Properties & processes . Harmonics

BFC 2QK

* Add to BFB letters A / R following BDT B; eg

. . Nodes . Transmission (radiation), propagation (radiation) . . Coefficients . . . Transmission coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . .

BHK F

. . Field strength . . Transients (transmission) . . . . . .

FR

G

* See also Resonance BFO

. . . Spreading anomaly, spreading loss . . . (waves) . . Propagation loss . . . . . .

H I K

. . . .

. . . .

. . . MG N P PU

Q R

* See also Attenuation loss BFC MG; Scattering loss BFT CG

. . Transmittance . . Transmittivity . . Modulation . . .

L LP LQ M

* Temporary disturbances. For transients as types of vibration, see BEX J.

. . Propagation anomaly . . .

FS

* Reciprocal of opacity (see Optics BRLFIL). *For transmittance, see BFC H.

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

* Changes in various parameters.

Amplification, gain . High gain . Low gain Attenuation

* Reduction of a radiation quantity.

. Attenuation loss, dissipation . Damping (waves) Transmission modes . Multimodes Types of propagation . Unguided propagation . Guided propagation

BFCRR

Waves [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Properties & processes) [Transmission radiation BFC] . [Types of propagation] . . [Guided propagation BFCR]

BFC RR RS RV RX S

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . .

[Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Properties it processes] [Amplitude BFES] . [Processes] . . [Damping BFESCN]

Network-guided propagation Conductive lines guided propagation Non-conductive lines guided propagation Hollow conductor guided propagation

. . Special

to a

context

* For example, Solar propagation BKM CS; Baryon photoproduction BNT FCS.

Frequency

BFD

BFD D DS B E9D J EP ER ET F G HB HD HL HS L N 0 P

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* See also Electro-magnetic waves by frequency BKL/BL; Wavelength BF9 DI

Mode Frequency shift Frequency bands, frequency ranges . Band width . Basebands . Broad bands . Narrow bands Cut-off frequency Critical frequency Variable frequency Difference frequency Double frequency Single frequency Low frequency Medium frequency High frequency . Very high frequency

. . .

* For short waves, see BKO.

. Spectra (general)

BFE

. . . . . .

* For spectroscopy, see Physical methods B7M. * For spectra of particular processes, see process; eg absorption spectra BFL E.

. . Conditions, BFE 94J 94P 94Y G H J L M N

. . . . . . . . . .

Q s SCN

BFE SL T U V X Y BFF BFF N R BFG BFG E EG J K

P

* For stimulated emission of radiation, see Techniques B6K QM; for excitation, see BFI N; for lasers, see B6K S.

. . Radiant exitance, radiant emittance . . . . . . . . .

* Radiant flux leaving a surface per unit area. * See also Luminous exitance BRL FGO

Q

. Incandescence

R

. Prompt emission, delayed emission

T U

. Secondary emission, re-emission . Thermionic emission

* See BRL FHQ (optics) * See BOF GR (nuclei)

* See BQU FGU (ions)

. Luminescence

BFH

. . . .

BFH V W

* See electromagnetic radiation BKF H; light luminescence BRL FH

Wavetrain Wavefront, primary wavefront * See also Rays BGC

X

Secondary waves, wavelets

X8I BFI

. Theory . . Huygen's principle Transparence

BFI K L

Translucence Opacity

* For secondary emissions, see BFG T.

* For optical transparence, see BRL FI

* Reciprocal of transmittance.

N

Excitation, stimulation

Q

. . . .

* See Acoustics BRG HFE N

. . Tone . . Beats Amplitude . Processes . . Damping

. Level (amplitude) . Small amplitude . Medium amplitude . Large amplitude Phase . Phase conjugation . Coherence . . Coherence time . . Coherence length Emission . Emission spectra . . Continuous emission spectra . Emissivity . Exitance, emittance . . . . . .

factors

. . Pressure . . Temperature . . Electrical & magnetic fields . Continuous spectra . Line spectra . Band spectra . Raman spectra . Mass spectra Special attributes in frequency . Pitch

. . .

P

influencing

BFIU

S T U

* See also Collision (particles) BMF S

Deexcitation Self excitation Excited state . Metastable state

. . .

* For example, in radiowaves.

63

BFIV

Waves

BFST

[Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Properties tc processes] [Excitation BFIN] . [Excited state BFIT] . . [Metastable state BFIU]

Cascade reaction

[Dynamics BCX] [Kinematics BDA] [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Properties tc processes] [Imaging BFNQ]

Resonance

BFO

* See BMF IV (particles)

* Maximum response to a mechanical system undergoing forced vibration by periodic forces at or near to the natural frequency of the system. * See also Magnetic resonance BJF O

Decay

* For damping (waves) see BFC N

Half life Absorption Absorption spectra . Absorption coefficient . .

* For extinction coefficient, see C Chemistry.

Absorptance, absorptivity . Spectral absorptance . Internal absorptance aturation Saturable absorption Refraction & reflection (together) Refraction

* When wave crosses boundary betweeen two media in which its phase velocity differs.

Modulus . Refractive index Refractivity Anomalous refraction Double refraction (general, birefringence (general) * See also Polarization BFP

. Ordinary rays . Extraordinary rays By medium . Refraction in real medium . Refraction in ideal medium, standard refraction Subrefraction Super-refraction Reflection Reflectance, reflectivity . Specular reflectance . Diffuse reflectivity, non-specular reflection . Total reflectivity Total internal reflection . Total internal reflectivity Surface reflection * For Fresnel reflection, see Optics BRL FNM R.

BFO D H L S

* See Acoustics BRG HFO S

'olarization (waves)

BFP

* Special to transverse waves. * For Birefringence, see Double refractions BFM J; for Electric polarization, see Dielectrics BVI SFP.

BFP R S T U Y BFQ BFQ T V BFR

Beat frequency Interference patterns . Interference fringes . Moire effect . Inclusion pattern interference Coupling * Interaction between different properties of a system or between two or more systems.

Inclusive interactions Collision

BFS

* Interaction in which momentum is conserved. * For capture, see particles BMF UR.

BFS9DR

Cross section (collisions)

* More detail is given at BMF S9D R (collision between particles).

* See Acoustics BRG HFN R

Imaging

64

Relaxation time Plane polarization Circular polarization, circulatory polarization Elliptical polarization nteractions (radiation) Diffraction Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction Interference

* See also Standing waves BFY G BFRH J L M N U

Reverberation

* Formation of a figure of an object by reflected or refracted rays. * See also Imaging (techniques) B7I

Frequency . Resonant frequency Double resonance Combination resonance Dissonance

L M T

Elastic collision Inelastic collision Action at a distance

BFT

Waves [Forms of motion] [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Properties & processes] . [Interactions radiation BFPY] . . [Collision BFS] . . . [Action at a distance BFST]

. . Scattering

BFT

B F T CG H

. . . Propagation loss . . . . Scattering losses( . . . Shadows . . . .

* Interference of incident & scattered waves.

. . . Types of . . . . . . . JS BFU F

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

BFY B C D E F G

scattering GFQ H J L N

. Diffraction Continuous waves Linear waves Non-linear waves . Solitons, solitary waves

P R S U V

Rotational waves Transverse waves (general) . Shear waves Longitudinal waves (general) . Axial vibration Shock waves, compression waves

. .

* For diffusion in general, see Transport processes BAV. BGA

. . .

* See B M F V (particles)

BGA R BGB

Types of waves . By . . VEV VP BFW C D L LT

M N P

Q R S V

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. Large amplitude waves . Polarized waves By directional & transience factors . Isotropic waves . Anisotropic waves . Waveforms . . Correction . . Sine waves, sinusoidal waves . . Square waveform . . Sawtooth waveform . . Rectangular waveform . . Spherical waveform . . Cylindrical waveform . Wavegroups

. . . BFX BFX9B 9DJ FD

property * Add to BFV V letters D / V following BF; eg

Usually refer to bodies moving at high speed in a compressible fluid. See BSG A for a detailed schedule.

Blast waves Beams (radiation/waves) * Radiation travelling nearly unidirectionally. * F o r particle beam handling, see Imaging BM7 I.

* F o r waves defined by energy form, see latter (eg electromagnetic waves B K L / B L ) . BFV V

* See also magnetic monopoles BNI

3)1

* See Particles B M F UR

. . Annihilation

. . . Repetition frequency . . Giant pulses Time dependent waves Random waves Torsional waves Plane waves Oscillating waves Standing waves, stationary waves * See also Interference B F R

* These are usually special to a particular radiation or particle. This class is amplified for particles at B M F T and for light at BRL F T and details from these m a y be added here if necessary: * Add to B F T letters J / Y following BRL F T and B M F T ; eg

. . . . Self diffusion . . Dispersion . . Capture . . .

BFV

Q

. . . . Coherent scattering . . . Diffusion (waves) . . . . . . . .

G H R

[Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Types of waves] [By directional & transience factors] [Wavegroups BFWV] . [Pulses wave motion BFX] . . [Frequency BFXFD]

BFX F D H

* Irregular reflection or dispersal of waves or particles. * See also Collision (particles) BMF S

. . . . . . . . .

BGC

BGB 7IE 7IF G 7IF J 7IF Q

Q R S T TV BGC

. Operations . . Focusing (beams) . . Modulating (beams) . . Pulsing (beams) . . Collimation . Types . . Reference beams . . Crossed beams . . Low energy beams . . Refractory beams . . . Doubly refractory beams Rays, rectlinear propagation (wavefront) * Geometrical p a t h normal to wavefront.

* Intermediate between pulses St pure sine waves.

. . . Pulses (wave motion) . . . . Dimensions Pulse width . . . . Frequency

65

BGD

Waves

BHIBH

[Energy interactions i i forms BAF] [Mechanics BB] . . . . [Periodic motion BDS] [Waves BF] [Types of waves] [By directional & transience factors] [Rays BGC]

BGD

. . Other types of

waves

[Physics B] [Energy interactions & forms BAF] . [Gravitation BGR] . . [Motion BGRCS] . . . [Ballistics gravitational field BGRG]

For ballistics as a form of motion, see BDL V. * See also Impact BBJ U

. Trajectories (gravitation) BGR GJ * Should any other concepts from the Free fall (gravitation) schedule in bulk matter prove applicable GL Properties, effects here, proceed as follows: Centre of gravity H * Add to BGD letters G C / M following . Centre of gravity of lines H9D F BS (Fluids); eg ripple waves BGD GNR. . Centre of gravity of planes H9D P 6GH . . Acoustics . Centre of gravity of volumes H9D S . . . * See bulk matter BRG H Absolute gravity L BGP . . Thermal properties Special energy forms . . . * See Bulk matter BRG P Relations between energy forms BGR BGX Gravitation, gravity * For Weight, see Statics BCK. Electricity & magnetism BGY * See also General relativity B8J * Field, wave, particle and dynamic aspects, not BGR2M Mathematics necessarily associated with a particular state of 2P2 L Lagrangians (gravitation) matter. Constants * Many major concepts of electricity and 76C Gravitational constants magnetism are dependent on bulk matter and Particular theories most of the literature implies it (and in particular, Unified field theory 8FG its solid state). So the main schedule is given Supersymmetry theory (gravity) 8FL under Solid state at BVH. The detail there may be * For gravitons, see Elementary particles used as required here and under each of the states BMP GN of matter at B R / B W . 8H Relativity theory * Add to B letters GY/J following BV when 8M Quantum theory of gravitation applicable. 8MF Quantum field theory of gravitation * For electromagnetic waves and radiation, see BK. 8ST . Supergravity Electromagnetism BH 8TB Falling body theory * Study of electric and magnetic fields and their 8TD Continuous media gravity 8TE . Mixed gravitational systems interaction with electric charges and currents. Alternative theories of gravity 8TL * For electromagnetism as a form of magnetism, Conservation laws 9GV see BVJ PX. Many-body problem 9KX R Electromagnetic field BHB H Energy * For electric fields, see BHI BH; for magnetic BB fields, see BJB H. BBP . Gravitational potential Force * See also Electrostatics BHN Gravitational field Properties BH . Gradient HJ * For ballistics, see BGR G. . Field strength HK CS Motion . Field interaction DA Kinematics HL . Excitation DD . Gravitational acceleration HM . Deexcitation Waves HN . Field effects Gravitational waves, gravitational radiation HO Electricity, electrical properties * For gravitons, see Elementary particles BHI Variables BMP GO. BHI 92H * Use BHJ c. Ballistics (gravitational field) Electric field * Study of the dynamics of the path taken by an BH * Usually implies electrostatic field; see object moving under the influence of a BHN BH. gravitational field. . . . . .

66

. . . . . . . . . .

BHJC

Electricity & magnetism [Physics B] [Special energy forms] [Electricity Si magnetism BGY] [Electricity BHI] [Electric field BHIBH]

BHJ C

Electrical quantities, electrical variables * For electric intensity, see electric field strength BVH JN.

Input-output relations . Gain . Loss Charge, electric charge . Electrification

[Physics B] [Special energy forms] [Electricity Si magnetism BGY] [Electricity BHI] . [Electrodynamics BHO] . . [Current electricity BHP] . . . [Types of currents]

. . . BIU

* See bulk matter BRH MC. The detailed schedule is under solid state (BVH MC).

Electrostatics, static electricity

* Phenomena associated with electric charge at rest, as compared with current electricity. * For electrodynamics, see BHO.

Electrostatic forces . Electrostatic field

* See note at BHI BH.

Charge . Electrostatic charge Electrification

BIV BJ

BJB H IM BJC P BJF O BJK BJK S BJL BJN BJN Q BJQ BJR BJU BJUB C BK

* For Frictional electrification, see BVH NKN

* See bulk material, BVH P

Magnetic field Processes & properties . Magnetic moment, dipole moment . Relaxation . Resonance . Magnetic flux . . Susceptibility . Magnetization Field components . Magnetic monopoles . Dipoles Forms of magnetism . Diamagnetism . Paramagnetism Interactions with other energy forms . Magnetomechanical effects . . Magnetostriction Electromagnetic radiation (general), electromagnetic waves (general)

* For waves in general, see B F ; for audio frequency waves, see Bulk matter B R G H. * Many properties Si processes applicable to all or most forms of e-m radiation are more usually considered under Optics (see BL). But all the properties, etc. given under waves in general at B F are available here.

* For alternating currents, see BVH Y.

Circuits . Admittance . . Conduction (electrodynamics) . Impedance . . Resistance (electrodynamics) Types of currents

Photoelectric effect, photoelectricity Magnetism

* See note at B G Y re magnetism and bulk matter. * Add to B J letters A / Y following B V J where applicable; eg

. Electrostatic induction . . Inductive electrification Special field properties . Edge effect Electrodynamics Electromagnetic induction Inductance . Self inductance . Mutual inductance Current electricity

* See Bulk matter BVH X B .

Interactions of electricity with other energy forms

* For interactions in which electricity is the agent Si not the recipient of the action, see the latter; eg electrooptics BLH (in which it is the optical properties which are affected). * Add to BI letters U/V following BVI; eg

* See also Electrostatics BHN

. Attraction . Repulsion . Electric moments . Polarity . Electric dipoles . Positive charge . Negative charge . Hypercharge Voltage, potential difference, electromotive force, E M F Capacitance Electrical power

BK73KO

BK7 3 3K 3KC 3KD 3KE 3KG 3KH 3 KM 3KN 3KO

Investigative techniques & agents Production techniques, generation Sources Positive sources Negative sources Ray sources . Positive ray sources . Negative ray sources Particle sources . Positive particle sources . Negative particle sources

67

BK73KP

Electricity & magnetism

BKNJ

[Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Electromagnetic radiation general BK] [Investigative techniques & agents] . [Production techniques BK7S] . . [Sources BK73K] . . . [Particle sources BK73KM] . . . . [Negative particle sources BK73KO]

BKB B BKC W WL BKD C

. . . Electrons (electrical sources) . . . Ions (electrical sources) . . . . Positive ion sources . . . . Negative ion sources Measurement . Radiometry . . Radiometers Energy Radiant energy . Radiant flux, radiant power . . Radiant flux density, irradiance Velocity

BKF C DL

Transmission Low frequency

BK73KP 3KQ 3KR 3KS 6 64

*

For Speed of light see BLD C.

G

Emission

H

. Luminescence

HW HX P T TN

Wavefront . Primary radiation . Secondary radiation Polarization Scattering Thomson scattering

* For stimulated emission, see Techniques B6K QM. * Usually implies optics, BLF H.

* See also Thermoelectric effect BVI U G P

Electromagnetic

BKG

processes & properties

* Add to BKG letters H / J following B so far as applicable.

Types of radiation by property * Add to BKH letters A / Y following BF; * Add to BKI letters A / F following BG; eg BKHF

Coherent radiation * See also maser Sc laser techniques B6K QM

P PT X BKJ

BKJ BBP FC

Polarized radiation . Circulatory polarized radiation Pulse radiation By product Ionizing radiation (general) * Electromagnetic or particulate radiation which turns a neutral target (particle or bulk matter) into a charged one. * For particular forms, see the wave or particle causing it. * For the process in a particular medium, see medium * For the subject of the charged target itself, see

. . . . .

Ion physics BQU. * See also Class E / H Biology (including human biology and medicine) for ionizing radiation as agent in pathology, therapy, etc; for deionization, see BKJ S.

. . . .

. Energy . . Ionization potential . Propagation . . Ionization, ionized state * See also states of matter; eg Gases Ionization BTM K J F C

FS9 DR FSI s p PQ s SR T u v BKK B D BKL BKM BKM FC FCS FCT

Collision Ionization cross section Ion surface impact . . Irradiation

FCU J FCV Few FCX GB R s T

* Exposure to ionizing radiation.

. . . Microirradiation . . Deionization . . . Ion recombination . . Types of ionization . . . Photoionization . . . Cosmic ray ionization . . . Low level ionizing radiation . Non-ionizing radiation (general) Types of radiation by energy stale . Transition radiation By frequency & wavelength . Long waves (general) . Radiowaves, radiofrequency waves, Hertzian waves . . Propagation . . . Atmospheric propagation (RF) . . . Scatter propagation, horizon . . . propagation . . . .

FCU

BKN J

68

. . . . .

. . .

* For low frequency RF waves, see BKN L.

. .

[Physics B] [Special energy forms] [Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Electromagnetic radiation general BK] [By product] . (Ionizing radiation general BKJ]

* See also Scattering BFT

. . . . Ionospheric propagation (RF), sky .... waves . . . . Magnetoionic propagation (RF) . . . . Tropospheric propagation . . . Groundwave propagation (RF), terrestrial propagation (RF) . . . . . . Multipath propagation (RF), mixed . . . path propagation (RF) . . . Radio beams . . . By origin . . . . Extraterrestrial radiowaves Solar radiation (RF) Cosmic radiation (RF), galactic radiowaves . . RF waves by specific frequency . . . Audiofrequency radiowaves

BKNK

Electricity & magnetism [Special energy forms] [Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Electromagnetic radiation general BK] [By frequency tc wavelength] [Radiowaves BKMj . [RF waves by specific frequency] . . [Audiofrequency radiowaves BKNJ]

. . . BKN K

M N BKO BKP BKQ

[Physics B] [Special energy forms] [Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Electromagnetic radiation general BK] [By frequency & wavelength] [Microwave & optical physics together BKQ] . [Maximum usable frequency waves BKWS]

Optics (general)

BL

. . Very low frequency waves, . . myriametric waves, VLF waves . . .

L

* c. 30 Hz/20kHz.

BLDC

* Originally confined to the study of visible light, the term 'optics' is usually used to cover infrared, visible light and unltraviolet. But it is sometimes used to embrace most of the electromagnetic spectrum in one way or another (eg including the behaviour of electrons and neutrons in an optical context). Here, it is restricted to the frequencies from infrared to ultraviolet. * Many of the concepts are dependent on the optical properties of bulk matter. Also, most of the literature refers to visible light in that context (BLV). So the detailed schedule is given at BRL (Bulk iriatter optics) and details from that may be added here as necessary. * An alternative (not recommended) is to confound visible light with optics in general and use BRL 2/BRL Q for it (BL2/BLQ when applied here). * Add to BL numbers & letters 2/Q following BRL if applicable.

* c. 30-3 kHz.

. . Low frequency waves, kilometric . . waves, LF waves . . Heterodyne frequency . . Medium frequency, MF waves, . . hectometric waves . . High frequency, HF waves, short . . waves, decametric waves . . Very high frequency, VHF waves, . . metric waves, millimetre waves Microwave & optical physics (together) * For quantum optics, see BL8 M; for stimulated emission devices (masers and lasers), see physical techniques B6K QM.

BKU

. Microwaves, mm waves, submillimetre waves

BKU P S U

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

V X BKV B M N P

Q

BKW E

G J

L N

Q s

* From very short wave RF to infrared.

. P-band waves . Centimetre wave frequency . . Ultrahigh frequency waves, U H F . . waves . . . L-band waves . . S-band waves . . Superhigh frequency waves, SHF . . waves . . . C-band waves . . . X-band waves . . J-band waves . K - b a n d waves . Extremely high frequency waves, . EHF, Millimetre wave frequency . waves . . Q-band waves . . V-band waves . . O-band waves . . W-band waves Maximum observable frequency waves Maximum usable frequency waves, M U F waves

BL2M M94 BL3 6

. Mathematics . . Fourier transform optics . Practical & experimental optics

BL4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* A detailed schedule is given at BRL 36.

BL8 D DS FDM M BL9M BLA F BLB B BLD A C

Optical instruments Theories . Emission theory of light (Newton) . Wave theory of light (Huyghen, . etc.) . Electromagnetic theory of light . (Maxwell) . Quantum optics (general) . Non-linear optics (general) Energy interactions & forms . Energy . Kinematics . . Velocity . . . Speed of light . Special radiation properties & . processes

. . . . . . . . .

* For optical properties of materials (eg optical activity, optical rotation) see Bulk material BRL.

69

BLF

Optics (general)

BLWN

[Special energy forms] [Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Electromagnetic radiation general BK] [By frequency ti wavelength] [Optics general BL] [Energy interactions & forms BLAF] [Special radiation properties & processes]

Wave motion Physical optics (general), electromagnetic optics (general), light waves

BLF

[Electricity & magnetism BGY] [Optics general BL] [Energy interactions & forms BLAF] . [Special radiation properties ti processes] . . [Wave motion] . . . [Types of light motion] . . . . [Rays]

BLG C

. . . . .

* Light as electromagnetic waves; for geometrical optics, see Rays BLG C.

BLF C

CM D E EX EY

Attenuation Frequency Spectra Phase . Optical phase conjugation, wave front reversal, reversed reflection Coherence * For coherent light, see BLP F.

G H

Emission Luminescence

L LX

Absorption Refraction & reflection together Refraction . Double refraction, birefringence

* See Bulk matter BRL FH

M MJ

ML N P PR

Q R T UF UP WR WS YN

forms

Electrooptics, electric double refraction, optoelectronics

BLH

* See also Dielectrics BVI S

Magneto-optical effects Special optical properties & processes Luminosity

BLJ BLL

* See Bulk matter BRL L

Colour

BLM

* See Bulk matter BRL M BLO B C

Other special optical properties Optical bistability Optical multistability Types of light by property * Add to BLP letters C/Y following BF. * Add to BLP Q letters A/D following BG; eg

BLP F

Coherent light, coherent optics * For laser techniques, see B6K S.

N P BLU BLU FE N R BLV

Refracted light Reflected light Polarized light . Partially polarized light . Circularly polarized light . Elliptically polarized light Isotropic light Anisotropic light Light pulses Continuous light waves Beams (light) By source Natural light Artificial light 3y frequency & wavelength Infrared radiation . Spectra . Near infrared radiation . Far infrared radiation Light, visible light * See notes at BL above. * For photons, see BNG O.

BLW BLW N

70

* Assumes rectilinear propagation of light, as rays, without reference to waves or the physical nature of light. The behaviour of light in optical instruments. * See also Optical instruments BRL 4

* For acoustooptics, see Bulk matter BRL GH.

M N P PP PT PU * See also Electrooptics BLH WC . . Extraordinary rays WD Reflection X Polarization YH . Optical rotation BLQB Diffraction

Interference Scattering Diffusion Dispersion Types of light motion . Spherical waves . Cylindrical waves . Optical solitons, solitary waves (optics) . Rays

. . . . .

interactions with other energy

Propagation, transmission

* For optical fibres, see Optical transmission techniques B6L FC.

. Geometrical optics (general), rectilinear propagation (optics)

Ultraviolet radiation . Long wave ultraviolet radiation

BLWV

Particles [Physics B] Special energy forms] [Electricity Si magnetism BGY] . . [By frequency & wavelength] . . . [Optics general BL] [Ultraviolet radiation BLW]

BLW V Y

....

Vacuum ultraviolet radiation, far ultraviolet radiation Radiology * Study of penetrating ionizing (or non-ionizing) radiation.

X-rays, Roentgen rays

BLX

* Penetrating electro-magnetic radiation, usually generated by accelerating electrons to bombard a solid body, or by inner shell transition of atoms.

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Practical Si experimental particle physics] [Equipment Si materials in general BM3B] . [Operation on] . . [Design BM3BD]

BM3 C R U BM4 BM4 5 7 8 85W 85Y E

Production Spectra Absorption Reflection Diffraction Scattering Grenz rays, Infra-Roentgen rays Continuous X-rays, Bremsstrahlung Cosmic ray X-rays

BLX FC FE FL FN FQ FT N P

Q

AC AP AQ AR ART AS AST AT FL FN

* For cosmic rays in physics (general), see BND C.

Gamma radiation

T

* High energy photons, especially as emitted by a nucleus in a transition between two energy levels.

K L

Non-solar gamma radiation

s ss

* For matter and energy treated together, see BAE.

T TR

U

Matter

BLY

. Particles, particle physics, high energy physics-

BM

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

* Terminology varies. Sometimes, particle physics is used to mean elementary particles only and nuclear physics to mean the physics of the single nucleus per se (its structure and the reactions involving changes in it). But sometimes, both terms (especially nuclear physics) are used to cover both the nucleus Si elementary particles. Use this class only for works reflecting this wider meaning.

BM2M . . Mathematical models SA . . . Groups BM3 2 . . Research operations general 6

BM74J

. . Practical & experimental particle physics . . . High energy physics (experimental . . . physics) . . . . . . . .

* Sometimes used more broadly, as synonymous with particle physics. In such cases, use BM.

. . . Unwanted effects & safety precautions . . . Equipment & materials in general . . . . Operation on BD Design

BM5

BM6 3 9 B H IB K KFT BM7 3

. . . . . . . . . . .

. Handling techniques Materials Equipment, plant Instrumentation . Instrument components . . Computers . . Control systems . . . Filters . . . Energizing units . . By energy system . . . Electrical & electronic Circuits Analogue circuits Pulse circuits Pulse height discriminators, kicksorters Counters circuits Coincidence counters circuits Ratometers . . . . Electrooptics Photomultiplier tubes . . . Components by internal function . . . . Switching devices Transducers . . . . Input devices Sensors . . . . Output devices Recorders . . Types of instruments Operations in investigation, techniques . Serving all other operations . . Data processing & recording . Physical methods in investigation . . Mechanical techniques . . Electromagnetic techniques . . . Electronic techniques . . . Radiation techniques . . . . Scatter techniques . By action on phenomena investigated . . Particle production . . . . . .

3K 3L 3P 4G

7 B

. . . .

. . Sources . . . Velocity selectors . . Separation . Detecting & indicating together

. . . 4J

* For acceleration, see BM7 T; for pair production, see BMF UL.

* See also Visualization Si imaging BM8 GY

. . . Detection of particles . . . . Radiation detection of particles * For track visualization, see BM8 H.

71

BM74J7C

Particles

BM7IM

[Particles BM] [Practical & experimental particle physics] [Operations in investigation] [By action on phenomena investigated] [Detecting ti indicating together BM74G] . [Detection of particles] . . [Radiation detection of particles BM74J]

[Particles BM] [Operations in investigation] [By action on phenomena investigated] [Counting ii detection particles BM75] . [Counters & detectors BM754] . . [Scintillation counters BM75N] . . . [Organic activated scintillators BM75NR]

BM7 4J7C

BM7 5NT 5P 5Q 5R 5S

. . . Monitoring . . . .

4JL 4JN s

* For dosimetry, see BM7 6K7 8S.

. . . Angular correction techniques . . . Coincidence techniques Counting & detection (particles), counting (particles) Instruments Counters & detectors * Synthesis by AYS is modified here: * Add to BM7 5A numbers tc letters 5/U following AY4 if applicable.

Gas ionization counters, ionization counters Ionization chamber counters . Integrating ionization chamber counters . .

* With long response time.

. . Lauritson electroscope . Non-integrating ionization chamber counters Proportional counters . Geiger-Muller counters . . Self-quenching Geiger counters . . Non-self-quenching Geiger . . counters . Gas-flow counters Spark counters Solid state ionization counters, crystal counters Semiconductor counters (particles), photodiode counters . Intrinsic semiconductor counters . . NaCl semiconductor counters . . CdS semiconductor counters . . Diamond semiconductor counters . Junction semiconductor counters . . Diffused semiconductor counters . . Surface barrier semiconductor . . counters . . Ion drifted semiconductor counters . . . . . Lithium drifted semiconductor . . . counters . . . Silicon semiconductor counters . . . Germanium semiconductor . . . counters Scintillation counters, scintillators Hodoscopes Inorganic activated scintillators Organic activated scintillators

72

. Liquid scintillation counters Four-pi counters Cerenkov counters, Cherenkov counters Electron multiplier counters Neutron counters * For scintillation counters, see BM7 SN.

5ST 5SU 5SV 5SW 5T 5V

Gas counter with nuclides . BF3 filled gas counter

. Helium filled gas counters . Fission chambers Fast neutron detectors Other detector & counters * Not classifiable under above classes. Arrange A/Z; eg

5VC 5VF 6 6K7 8S F H H5V HJ HK HL HM HN HP HPL HPM HPN HPP HQ HU

HV I

Coincidence counters Foil activation (particle detection) Measurement . Dosimetry Simulation & modelling Visualization & imaging together Track visualization (particles) Instruments . Hodoscopes Techniques defined by equipment Cloud chambers, Wilson cloud chamber . Diffusion cloud chambers . Expansion chambers (cloud chambers) . . Bubble chambers . . Luminescence chambers, scintillation . . chambers . . Spark chambers . . . Filmless spark chambers . . . .

TV camera spark chambers

. . . . Sonic spark chambers . . . . Wire spark chambers Emulsion techniques . Nuclear emulsions (particle detection), particle sensitive emulsions, photographic emulsions (particle detection Visualization techniques Imaging * Add to BM7 I letters C/L following AY7 I (if applicable) for imaging techniques other than by particle beams (for which see BM7 IM).

IM

Particle beam techniques, particle optics (imaging), beam handling

BM7IM4

Particles Particles BM] [Practical St experimental particle physics] [Operations in investigation] [By action on phenomena investigated] [Visualization Si imaging together] [Imaging BM7I] [Particle beam techniques BM7IM]

BM7 IM4 IM4FV IM4 FVU IM4 FVV IM4FVW IM4FX IM4FYE IM4 FYG IMC B IMC N IMD

F G H K L P Q G H J M N P R S T

IME U IME V IMF

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H J L P Q S T V W

. . . . . . . . .

* Use the general dassmark BM7 IM.

Beam defection . Injection (particle optics) . . Guns (particle optics) Extracting (particle optics) . Repetitive cycling Positioning (particle optics) . Alignment (particle optics) Focusing (particle optics) . Beam trapping . . Self-trapping . Electrostatic focusing . Magnetic focusing . Bunching . Phase focusing . Radial focusing . Axial focusing . Strong focusing, . alternating gradient . focusing, AG focusin ; . Momentum focusing . Velocity focusing Resolution

. . . . IMF IMF IMF IMF IMF IMF IMF IMF IMF

[Particles BM] [By action on phenomena investigated] [Visualization Si imaging together] [Imaging BM7I] [Particle beam techniques BM7IM] . [Operations] . . [Beam pulsing Si switching BM7IMFW]

. . . . . . . . . . .

Instruments BM7 IMG B . Lenses (particle optics) IMG E . . Quadrupoles IMG G . . Electrostatic lenses IMG J (particle optics) . . IMG L . . Magnetic lenses (particle IMG M optics) . . IMG P . Electrodes (particle optics), IMG Q probes (particle optics) IMG V . Beam expanders . Beam resonators Target materials INP Operations . Optical transfer function . Beam handling . . . .

IMD IMD IMD IMD IMD IMD IMD IME IME IME IME IME IME IME IME IME IME

BM7TL

. .

* Add to BM7 I letters N/Q following B; eg

. . Electron beams, electron optics, . . optoelectronics, optical electronics . . .

. . . . . .

INPX INV

10

* Using magnetic resonance of protons.

. . Ion beams (techniques), ion optics Acceleration (particle physics), accelerator techniques

. . . T3U3R . T4AX . T3U

* For high-energy physics, see Particles Practical physics BM3 6.

Equipment & plant . Particle accelerators, generators . (accelerators) . . Materials . . Waveguides

. . . . TF TG

* For optoelectronics, see BRL H.

. . Cathode rays (electron optics) . Proton beams . Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, . NMR imaging, magnetic . resonance imaging, MRI, proton . resonance imaging

. . . IQU T

* Use BM7 TK

. . . Parts of accelerators . . . . Particle sources Primary acceleration * Using another, simpler accelerator.

TH THJ

* For magnification, see AY7 6S.

Modulating (particle optics) Shaping Splitting Separation (particle optics) Stacking (particle optics) Scanning (particle optics) Projection (particle optics) . Collimation Beam pulsing & switching

Properties of beams . Beam profile . Beam diameter . Beam angle . Beam edges . Contrast . Divergence (particle beams) . Flux density (particle beams) . Emittance (particle beams) . Velocity (beam handling) By type of beam

. . . . Power supply (accelerators) Voltage multipliers, voltage amplifiers * For Cockcroft-Walton accelerators, see BM7 UK.

TJ TJP TJV TJX TK TKR TKS TL

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

Magnets (accelerators) Coils (accelerators) Vacuum chambers (accelerators) Storage rings (accelerators) Waveguides (accelerators Resonant cavities Superconducting resonant cavities . . . . Other accessories

73

BM7TNP

Acceleration (particle physics)

BM7VM

By action on phenomena investigated] [Visualization & imaging together] [Acceleration particle physics BM7T] [Equipment 4c plant] [Particle accelerators BM7T3U] [Parts of accelerators] . [Other accessories BM7TL]

. .

* Arrange A/Z.

Types of

. By particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . BM7 TNP

TNP RF TNV TQU TQU S TT TU TW TX UC UE

UG

74

. . . . . . . . . .

particles

* For general works on these as objects of acceleration (if the alternative above is followed)). * Add to BM7 T letters N/Q following B; eg

UJ UK UM UN

UO

UP

* See also Heavy ion accelerators— Van de Graaf BQU S7U H.

. Tandem generator . Cockcroft Walton generator Multipush accelerators, resonant accelerators . Linear (multipush) accelerators . . . .

. . . .

* See also particular particles accelerated: eg Heavy ion linear accelerators - Wideroe BQU S7U NW.

. Orbital accelerators (multipush), cyclic accelerators . . Cyclotrons, fixed field orbital . . accelerators . . .

UR US

* Usually assumed.

. . . Isochronous cyclotrons . . . . Fixed field alternating .... gradient cyclotrons * See also Electron cyclotrons BNP 7US; Ion cyclotrons BQU 7US.

uw

. . . Synchrocyclotrons, . . . frequency-modulated . . . cyclotrons . . . . . . . .

. . . Electron accelerators . . . . Positron accelerators . . . Proton accelerators . . . Ion accelerators . . . . Heavy ion accelerators . By shape . . Linear accelerators (general), . . linacs . . Orbital accelerators (general) . By field . . Fixed field accelerators . . Varying field accelerators . By focusing gradient . . Weak accelerators . . Strong accelerators, alternating . . gradient accelerators . By push . . Single push accelerators, . . electrostatic generators

ux

. . . . . .

VM

* Uses very high voltage to give direct acceleration.

. Van de Graaf generator . . . .

accelerated

* The preferred arrangement when a particular particle is accelerated is to locate under that particle (in BN/BQ); eg Positron - Accelerators - Linear BNPRF7UN. * An alternative (not recommended) is to cite the kind of accelerator first; in this case use this position ti proceed as follows (where the hyphen represents the type of accelerator in BM7 TN/V): * Add to -N letters B/Y following BN; eg Linear accelerators - Positron BM7 UNN PRF. * Add to - letters O/Q following B; eg Van de Graaf - Heavy ion accelerator BM7UHTQUS.

. . Specific

BM7 UH

accelerators

* Any given type may be qualified as follows (where the hyphen represents its dassmark): * Add to - letters P / L following BM7 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[Visualization ti imaging together] [Acceleration particle physics BM7T] [Equipment & plant] [Particle accelerators BM7T3U] [Types of accelerators] [By push] [Single push accelerators BM7UG]

. . . Microtrons . . . . . . . .

vc

* See also Electron synchrotons BNP 7VC; Proton synchrotons BNV7VC

. . . Alternating gradient . . . synchrotons . . . . .

VJ VK VL

* See also Electron microtrons BNP 7UX

. . Synchrotons, varying field . . orbital accelerators . . . . . . . . .

VG

* See also Ion synchrocyclotrons BQU7UW

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

* For Betatrons, see Electron synchrotons BNP 7VG; for Fixed field alternating gradient ring accelerators, see BNV7VH.

. . . Bevatrons . . . Cosmotrons . . Ring accelerators . . .

* Induction accelerated.

. . Separated orbit accelerators . . .

* Usually for protons.

BM7VN

Theoretical physics [Practical Si experimental particle physics] [Operations in investigation] . . . [Acceleration particle physics BM7T] [By push] [Multipush accelerators BM7ÜM] [Orbital accelerators multipush BM7UO] [Separated orbit accelerators BM7VM]

BM7 VN Colliding beam accelerators VNJ X Storage rings BM8B Theoretical physics F . Field theories FG . . Unification field theories, unified theories FH . . . Standard model FJ . . . Grand unified theories, G U T S . . . . * Of the four fundamental interactions. May or . . . . may not include gravitational force. FL . . . Supersymmetry grand unified theories . . . . * Includes gravitationl force. FR . . Gauge theory . . . * For Weinberg model, see electroweak . . . interactions, BMP 33. FS . . . Gauge transformations FT . . . Gauge invariance GP . N o n - f i e l d theories GS . . String theories GT . . . Membrane theories GU . . . Superstring theories H . Relativity theory HFG . . Unification theory M . Quantum theory . . * For quantum number properties, see BMM D. MF . . Quantum field theory MFM MFN MFR MFW MFX MGC MGO MJF

. . . . . . . . . .

SB SC SE SG SH SJ SL SN SNP

[Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Practical Si experimental particle physics] . [Theoretical physics BM8B] . . [Other special theories Si models] . . . [Duality models BM8SN] . . . . [Veneziano model BM8SNP]

BM8 SP SPQ SR SS

BM9 C CI

* See quantum properties BMM FH

. Space . . . .

DJ DK G GV

. . . .

* See also quantum properties parity BMM E and spin BMM K.

. Width . Radius Systems characteristics . Conservation laws

. . . . . . J JS

BMAF

BMB

* Exchange of energy between two particles or between a particle and an electromagnetic wave. * For interactions between two particles, see BMP

. . Statistical models . . Theory . . . . .

G T

* Use symmetry as a quantized property (BMM B).

Energy interactions & forms . Interactions of particles (general) . . . . . .

F2X F8B

* See also Symmetry Si conservation BMM Al; Equivalence of energy Si matter BAE 9GW

. . Structure . . . Symmetry . . . . . . . .

* See also quantum electrodynamics BNR

Other special theories & models . Diffraction model . Composite models . Many body theory . Spirality theory . Helicity theory . Form factors (elementary particles) . . Bootstrap theory, bootstrapping . Duality models, dual models, dual . resonance models . . Veneziano model

. . . Peripheral models, exchange models . . . . Multiperipheral models, multi-Regge .... models . . . Regge poles & trajectories . . . Pomeranchuk poles & trajectories General processes/properties in particle physics . Time . . Lifetime . . .

D

. . Properties . . . Renormalization . . Non-linear quantum theory, non-local . . quantum theory . . Gauge theory . . . Asymptotic freedom (gauge theory) . . Axiomatic quantum field theory . . Schwinger source theory . . Nuclear field theory . . Relativistic quantum field theory

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

BMB

. . . . . .

. . . .

* Theories Si models centred on particular types of particles, properties, etc. go with the particle, property, etc.; eg QCD (quantum chromodynamics) goes umder quarks (at BNR8M).

. . Thermodynamics . . . Transport processes . . Mechanics

75

BMBB

Energy

BMDNCX8SR

Physics B]

[Particles BM]

[Matter B L Y ]

[Energy interactions & forms]

[Particles BM]

[Interactions of particles general

[Energy interactions it forms] [Interactions of particles general

BMAF]

[Energy

[Mechanics B M B ]

BMB B

Energy Spin B M M K .

C

. Energy ranges, energies (particles)

CD

. . L o w & intermediate energy . . ranges

. .

* See also Energy loss BMC F

* < 1 GeV.

. . .

CF

. . . Thermal energies .... * < 5 eV. . . . Resonance energies

CG

. . . Fast energies

. . . . . . . . CH

D

* 0.01-30 M e V .

. . V e r y high energies

EP EQ

. . . . EQP

....

ES

. . . Fine state, fine structure . . . Hyperfine state . . . .

EU

. Energy levels (general), electron energy states EUK

. .

is given under atoms, at B P B D.

EV

. .

Details from it may be used to

EW

. .

qualify this more general class or

F

. .

any particular particle or group of

. .

particles to which its concepts

particles; eg isospin multiplets (strong

. . . .

interactions) BNQ T .

. . . .

. . . Spin-orbit multiplets . . . Doublets state . . . Triplets state Energy bands [

BMC F

. Energy loss of particles . . Energy-range relations, particle range . . (energy loss)

particles, see the particle; eg

. . .

. .

Molecules - Charge transfer state

. . .

. .

BQBEW;

B P B ; eg

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

* Measure of the uncertainty of a specified level.

Processes . Transitions (energy levels) . Isomerism (energy levels) Types of energy states

. . . . . .

. . . . H

3 JL L X BMD C D K MW N

* For types special to a particle, etc. see the

NCV NCX NCX8SR

* See also Electron energy loss spectroscopy B7M N P Q ; Channelling effect BMD UL

. . . Stopping power . . . .

matter B T X BF.

. . Properties . . . Energy level width

. . . .

FH

* For energy bands, see condensed * Add to B M B letters D/F following

levels or quantum states. * See also multiplets treated as groups of

. . . .

. .

. .

* Sets of related, closely spaced energy

* See Condensed matter B T X BF

* For energy levels of particular

. .

* When a magnetic field is applied.

. . . Multiplets (energy levels)

. . . .

* > 1 TeV.

might apply.

* Reflecting more than one quantum state.

Degeneracy have the same energy.

ER

. . .

* The detailed schedule for this class

particle.

Stationary state, quantum state, eigenstate, energy eigenstate, energy state Ground state, lowest energy state Excited state Bound state, discrete energy level Unbound state Degenerate level

* When two or more quantum states

. . . .

. .

76

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

. .

DQ

EM

. . . . . . . .

* > 1 GeV.

. .

DN

EK

. . . . . . . .

. . Superhigh energies

. .

D9D J

EG

* 30-100 M e V .

. . . CJ

. . . BMB E

* S eV-0.01 MeV.

. . High energies . . .

CI

BMBB]

. [Energy levels general BMBD] . . [Types of energy states]

* For energy associated with spin, see

CE

BMAF]

[Mechanics BMB]

* Measure of energy loss of substance when a charged particle passes through it.

Statics . Mass . . Mass difference . Density Dynamics . Velocity . Acceleration . Forms of motion . . Orbits . . Rotation . . . Momentum . . . . Angular momentum Complex angular momentum plane Regge poles & trajectories

BMDNCX8SS

Particles [Particles BM] [Dynamics BMCX] [Forms of motion BMDK] . [Rotation BMDN] . . [Momentum] . . . . [Complex angular momentum plane BMDNCX] [Regge poles & trajectories BMDNCX8SR]

BMD NCX 8SS NS

[Particles BM] [Energy interactions & forms] [Interactions of particles general BMAF] [Mechanics BMB] [Dynamics BMCX] [Wave properties BMF] [Collision BMFS]

Pomeranchuk poles & trajectories

short of impact. For actual contact, see capture BMF UM. * When qualifying specific particles, use Scattering BMF T; eg Beta ray Scattering BNP RDO FT. * For annihilation, see BMF V.

. . Spin . . . . . .

U UL ULD K BME XH Y BMF BMP 2M8 L

BMFTJP

* See quantum numbers properties of particles BMM K

Oscillation . Channelling e f f e c t . . Transients . Forced vibrations Radiation Wave properties Wave function

BMF S9D H

* Usually implies molecules. S9D R

* For particle production, see BMF UJ. CM F G IN

Attenuation Coherence Emission Excitation * For excited state, see Energy states BMB EH. * See also Polaritons BVE RU

IP IV J

. Coulomb excitation . Cascade reactions Decay * Transformation into a more stable particle. * For radioactivity, see Nuclear interaction BOF K.

JFC N KQF L

Damping Half life Absorption

N O

Reflection Resonance

* See also inelastic scattering BMF TM

S9D RQ S9D RR SJ SL SM SN SO SP

SQ T T2T B T8H

Polarization Coupling

RV

Russell-Saunders coupling, L - S coupling . Intermediate coupling J-J coupling Inclusive interaction (coupling) Exclusive interaction (coupling) Collision * Nearness of approach producing mutual interaction

Scattering losses Amplitude Shadows Types of scattering * For the scattering of particular radiations or particles, see latter; eg Light - Rayleigh scattering BRL FTQ; Photons Scattering - Compton effect BNG OFT.

* For K-coupling, see under Capture BMF UQ.

RVV RW RX RY S

Integral cross section Total cross section Impact Elastic collision Inelastic collision . Collisions of the first kind, endoergic collisions . Collisions of the second kind, exoergic collisions One-dimensional collision Binary collision Scattering Matrix algebra . S-matrix theory Relativistic scattering theory Processes & properties * See also Cross-section BMF SH

TCG TEP TH

* For magnetic resonance, see BVJ FO; for resonances as types of particles, see BND T. P RU

Cross section * Area presented to the incident particle as a measure of the probability of a particular collision process

* For parity, see BMM E; for molecular orbitals, see BQB DT.

Transmission, propagation

Mean free path

TJC TJF TJH TJL TJM TJN TJP

Angular distribution (scattering) Forward scattering Back scattering Elastic scattering Quasi-elastic scattering Inelastic scattering, absorption (scattering) Multichannel scattering, multiple scattering

77

BMFTJQ

Particles

BMMCC

[Particles BM] [Interactions of particles general BMAF] [Mechanics BMB] . . [Wave properties BMF] . . . [Scattering BMFT] . . . . [Types of scattering] [Multichannel scattering B M F T J P ]

Many-body scattering Coherent scattering Incoherent scattering Critical scattering Resonance scattering

BMF T J Q TJS TJT TJV TK

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Energy interactions Si forms] [Interactions of particles general BMAF] . [Electromagnetic properties BMH] . . [Electrical BMHI]

. . . . . . BMJ B M J BIM

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . Types of scattering special to a .... radiation/particle

* See the radiation or particle; eg Light Stimulated scattering B R L FTM; Charged particles - Coulomb scattering BNG F T S .

UF UH

. . . Diffusion . . . Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . .

UH9 J S UHL UHN UHP UL

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

* Dependence of wave velocity on frequency; a property of the medium in which the wave is propagated.

Symmetry Crossing symmetries . . N / D method (dispersion) . . Form factors (dispersion) . . Multivariable dispersion relations . . Pair production 1(1

UM

. . . . . . . .

UR

US

* See charged particles neutralization BNH WFU M

. . . Capture . . . . . . . .

. . . .

* Acquisition of an additional particle by nucleus, atom, molecule or ion.

Electron attachment

* Capture by atom molecule or ion. * For radiative capture, see B O F KU. * Capture of K-shell electron.

. . . Annihilation . . . . . . . .

X BMG B BMH

* Conversion, on collision, of a particle and its corresponding anti-particle into radiation.

. . . Pulses . . . Beams . . . . Particle beams Electromagnetic properties

AN AS AV B B2M B2S A

. Electrical

B2S J B2S K X Q B8B B8V L B8V P BT

. . Quantum numbers other than those . . enumerated below

* Add to BMM A numbers Si letters 9 / L following BM as applicable.

. Invariance principle . .

* Symmetry Si conservation together.

. . .

* See also general symmetry B 9 J S

. . Conserved properties . . Not-conserved properties . . Symmetry, symmetries

. . . Mathematics . . . . Symmetry groups (mathematics) Lie groups Poincare groups . . . Theory . . . . Invariance theory, symmetry law Lorenz invariance Poincare invariance . . . Spontaneous symmetry breaking . . . . . . . .

BX CC

78

* The possible values characterizing a property in a physical system when it has been quantized, i.e. the property has been found to take only certain discrete values. * The preferred arrangement is to collect all quantum numbers together here, enumerating the most prominent ones and providing for the others by synthesis (at BMM D9). * An alternative (not recommended) is to locate any property/process quantized at its normal position in B M A / B M L and qualify it by the general class for quantum number at B8N; eg charge quantum number BMHKB8N. * The order of concepts is the same as that in the general schedule (BMA/BML) but the notation is enumerated.

* For SU2, see BNQ MIT; for SUS, see BNQ T T .

* For QED, see BNG 8S.

BMH I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

K-coupling, K-capture

UT V

BMM 9

See also annihilation B M F V

. . . Recombination

processes/properties

. Quantum number properties

BMM

* Incident wave reflected at nuclear surface.

TM

. . Magnetic . . . Magnetic moment

Special panicle

* Incident wave penetrates nucleus.

Potential scattering

TKT

* For charge, see quantum properties BMM M.

* See also Higgs mechanism BMP J N R S ; Mass (quantum properties) BMM H

. . . Non-linear symmetries, spectrum. . . generating symmetries . . . Discrete symmetries

BMMCD

Particles [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Energy interactions tc forms] [Special particle processes/properties] [Invariance principle BMMAN] [Symmetry BMMB] . [Discrete symmetries BMMCC]

BMM CD CE CF CG CH CJ CK CL

. . Charge conjugation (symmetry) . . Time reversal (symmetry) . . C invariance . . CP invariance . . CPT invariance

. . T invariance . Dynamical symmetries . Chiral symmetries, chirality . . . . . .

CP

* Relationship between spin vector tc momentum vector, especially of neutrinos.

BMNJ

[Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Energy interactions tc forms] [Special particle processes/properties] [Invariance principle BMMAN] . [Spin quantum numbers BMMK] . . [Wave mechanics BMMKB8P]

BMM KB8 P2M 8NH KFTU KFT W KME KR KS KW L M

* Hypothesizes a corresponding boson for every fermion and vice versa. See notes at BNJ and BNK.

MP MT

. Unitary symmetry

E9G V EG

Parity, space reflection symmetry, P (parity) . Conservation . . P invariance, parity conservation . G-parity . . . .

EK

GJ GK H

NJ

0

. . . .

* Quantum number associated with elementary particles having zero charge, baryon number and strangeness. * See also mesons BNS

* For symmetry breaking, see BMM BT.

Isospin (general), isotopic spin, isospin isobaric spin, i-spin

J K

Angular momentum (quantum numbers) Spin (quantum numbers)

KB8P

. Wave mechanics

* Sum of baryon number and strangeness.

. Magnetic moment (quantum numbers) . Magnetic resonance (quantum numbers) * Add to BMM O letters P / R following BOM O.

. Properties defined system . . . . PM PT R

Duration (quantum numbers) . Short lived (quantum numbers) . Long lived (quantum numbers) . Mean life (quantum numbers) . Half life (quantum numbers) Size (quantum numbers), dimensions (quantum numbers) . Width (quantum numbers) . Radius (quantum numbers) Mass (quantum numbers)

I

. . Electrical moment (quantum . . numbers) . . Hypercharge (quantum numbers)

. . . .

* Quantum number associated with elementary particles having zero baryon number and strangeness. Conserved in strong interactions only.

. Charge conjugation parity, C-parity . . . .

FH FK FL FM FN G

. . . .

* For charge conjugation parity, see BMM EK.

. . . . . .

* See Hadrons BNQ MCS E

. . Hamiltonian functions . . . Spin Hamiltonians . Diffusion . . Spin disorder resistivity . Parity . Helicity . Spin orbit interaction . Non-zero spin Decay (quantum numbers) Charge (quantum numbers)

. . . .

. Supersymmetry . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

* Usually implies hadrons; see BNQ MI.

. . . . .

in

* Add to BMM P letters B/Y following BN; eg

. . Lepton number . . Baryon number . Properties special to particles . . . . . .

RS RU RW

by particles

particular

* This position allows features of particles to be treated as properties (for use as qualifiers) as distinct from using R (in instruction at BNB) to introduce them as specifiersr; eg Resonances Charm (property) BND TMR U; but Resonances - Charmed (type) BND TRR U. * Add to BMM R letters A/X following BN; eg

. . Colour (quantum numbers) . . Charm (quantum numbers) . . Strangeness Interactions by energy expenditure * For inclusive and exclusive interactions, see BMF RX/Y. * Add to BMN letters D / J following BMB C with the additions indicated.

* For isospin, see BMQ I BMNJ

. Superhigh energy interactions

79

BMNP BMW

Basic interactions

[Physics B] [Matter BLYj [Particles BM] [Energy interactions & forms] [Special particle processes/properties] [Interactions by energy expenditure] . [Superhigh energy interactions BMNJ]

BMN P

V X

. Large momentum transfer interactions

[Physics B] [Particles BM] [Energy interactions Si forms] [Special particle processes/properties] . [Basic interactions BMNV] . . [Electroweak forces BMPJ] . . . [Current BMPJHP] . . . . [Current theory electroweak forces BMPJHP8B]

BMP J H Y X

Basic interactions, fundamental interactions Exchange forces, field particle exchange

JM JMPM JO

* Forces acting between particles due to exchange of some property (charge, spin, etc).

JON JOP JOPQ

Agents Exchange particles (general), gauge bosons, field particles (general), virtual intermediate bosons, quasiparticles

BMO

* Particles which mediate the interaction between the fundamental particles; carriers of the forces between material particles (see BND X). Their status as particles is somewhat problematical; they are sometimes considered as being constituents of the material particle and their action has been likened to that of pulses. Their general nature is closely dependent on the interactions they mediate and this is the reason for their location here.

. . . JOR

* See under charged particles BNG * Only quantum numbers Q (charge) and B (baryon number) are conserved. LHYX LO

J8W JHP JHP 2RS JHP 8B

80

nteractions with another particle * This position is used only when qualifying a particular particle. * When dealing with reactants, the usual rule in BC2 is to cite the product first. However, in particle physics the exact relationships between the reactants are not always easily established and do not provide a basis for a consistent citation order. The rule is therefore to cite first the reactant which files latest in the schedule, followed by the second reactant; eg interaction between leptons (BNM) and hadrons (BNQ) is BNQ QM.. * Add to BMQ letters B/X following BN; * Add to BMQ Y letters O / Q following B; eg Molecule - Atom interactions BQQ YP.

Gravitational interactions

Exchange particles . Gravitons Electroweak forces, electroweak interactions Weinberg-Salam theory Current . Current algebras (electroweak forces) . Current theory (electroweak forces)

Neutral weak currents Exchange particles . W-bosons, intermediate bosons Strong interactions * See Hadrons BNQ PN

BMQ

* Generally speaking, particles are too small to be subject to gravitational forces. This position is provided for documents which consider these forces in relation to the other fundamental forces * For gravitation in general, see BGR. GO J

* Generate mass for IVBs.

. . Goldstone boson Electromagnetic forces (elementary particles) Weak interactions

* For particular exchange forces, see the type of interaction; eg Electomagnetic interactions Photons BNG 0 . BMP G

. Neutral weak currents, neutral current interaction Quantum numbers . Lepton number Exchange particles . W-bosons, intermediate bosons, intermediate vector bosons, IVBs, intermediate mesons . Z-bosons . Higgs boson, Higgs field . . Higgs mechanisms

BMV

Parts of

particles

* Theoretically, elementary particles cannot exhibit constituent parts. But a number of theories relate to the possible possession of parts. BMW

Composite particles, composite models * Particles considered to be substructures or constituents of other particles. * See also Exchange particles BMO; Partons BNU RBP; Quarks BNR.

BNB

Elementary particles (types) |Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Parts of particles BMV] . [Composite particles BMW]

Types of particles . Elementary particles (types), fundamental particles (types)

BNB

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BNB B

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Do not qualify this general heading (BNB) by processes and properties, etc.; for these, see BMA/BMQ. * Each type of particle (including its species, if any) may be qualified or specified in detail as follows (where the hyphen represents the particle's dassmark): * Add to - numbers it letters 2/9.A/Q following BM (for Processes & properties); eg Electrons Emission BNP FG. * Add to -QY letters V/W following BM (for Parts) * Add to - R letters B/X following BN (for Types by other types of particle); eg Low energy electrons BNP RLD. * Add to -S letters O/Q following B (continuing Types by other types of particle) if applicable. * (Types special to the particle) * Letters - T / Y are used for types special to the particle; eg BNT T Dibaryons.

. . Types by non-quantum . . . . . .

V

* Add to BNB letters B/L following BM if applicable.

. . Types by part . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . BNC AS

. . . .

AR B C

CFH W CFH X D DP DQ DR G H

* See BND RH

K

. . . By charge . . . .

* See BNF X...

. . . . . . . . .

Primary radiation Secondary radiation Showers (cosmic rays), bursts (cosmic rays) . Penetrating showers . Soft showers . Cascade showers Radiofrequency cosmic rays Solar cosmic rays

KJ LXT

. . . . . .

RH

* Use this position only when specifying a given particle. * Add to BND K letters A/Y following BK; * Add to BND L letters following BL; * Add to BND letters N/Q following B; eg

* Eg Neutrons - (By source) Gamma rays BNW RDL XT.

. . Deuterons (source of particles) . . . . . .

RC RD RE RF

radiation

. . Ionizing radiation (source of . . particles) . . Gamma rays (source of particles) . . . . . .

OXH D

* See also Cosmic ray photons BNG ORD C

. Source defined by a given or particle . . . . . .

* See BNL Q... * See BNJ...

. . . . . . . . .

* See also Very high energy particles BNL G

. . . . . .

* As in strong interactions. * As in weak interactions.

* Produced by accelerators.

. Nuclear reactor particles . Atmospheric particles . Cosmic rays . . . .

. . . By spin . . . .

M

number

. Particle accelerator particles . .

. . . By mass . . . .

K

BND A

* Add to BNC letters B/Y following BMM, except for those indicated below (which are enumerated separately); eg

. . Supersymmetric particles . . . Scalar particles . . . Sparticles . . By lifetime, mean life

. . . . H

& quantum

source

* For works considering the properties, etc of these particles per se (in terms of particle theory). For works regarding the particles as features of their origins, see the relevant context; eg cosmic rays in D Astronomy.

. . . Not-conserved particles . . . .

CP CQ CR FH

By origin,

. . . Conserved particles . . . .

AV

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Types of particles] [Elementary particles types BNB] [Types by special & quantum number property BNC] . [By charge BNCM]

* Add to BNB letters V/X following BM if applicable; at present this is only hypothetical.

. . Types by special . . property

BNC

property

BNDRH

* Eg Neutrons - (By source) Deuterons BNW ROX C.

By aggregation . Cluster aggregates (particles) . Many-particles systems . . Micelles . . Few-particles systems By lifetime, mean life . Stable particles . .

* Photons, leptons, mesons, baryons.

81

BNDRJ

Elementary particles (types)

BNIMMNT

Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Types of particles] [Elementary particles types BNB] [By lifetime] . [Stable particles BNDRH]

BND RJ

. Unstable particles . .

SL SN T

* With finite life, however long.

BNG FTS

. . Long-lived particles . . Short-lived particles . . . Resonances . . . . .

TMD TMRU TU V

[Elementary particles types BNB] [Electromagnetic field particles & waves BNFX] Electromagnetic interaction particles BNG] [Quantum mechanics] . [Quantum electrodynamics BNG8M] . . [Matrices] . . . [Feynmann diagrams BNG8M2M]

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

FTT

* With greatly increased probability of interaction with colliding particles at the resonance energy. * For psi particles (J particles), see BNS W.

KJ 0

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

036

OFT OMC P OMC Q OQ OQG 0

. .

By relation between quantum numbers . Antiparticles, antimatter, conjugate particles

BNF

. . . . .

BNF X

. . . . .

By charge . Electromagnetic field particles & waves, electromagnetic forces (particle physics) . .

BNG

BNG 8M 8M2M

82

* Retain mass and spin of their image particle, but all other quantum values are reversed. All particles except photons and pi-mesons have their antiparticle. * See also Annihilation BMF V

. . . .

* For charged particles, see BNH.

. Electromagnetic interaction . (particles) . . Quantum mechanics . . . Quantum electrodynamics, QED Matrices Feynmann diagrams

* See also applications of photon interaction; eg Photon correlation spectroscopy B7M NGO.

. . Scattering . . . Compton scattering . . Supersymmetry . . . Photinos . . Interactions with other particles . . . Photon-photon interaction . . Types of photons by source . . . Cosmic ray photons * For cosmic ray X-rays, see X-rays BLX Q.

. Material particles (general) * Ultimate constituents of matter; usually assumed to be point-like, with 1/2 integral spin. * Do not use to specify particular particles.

. . . Practical & experimental

. . . . . . . ORD C .

* The uncertainty principle allows particles to be created for short periods in apparent violation of the energy conservation laws; eg pairs of virtual electrons and positrons in a complete vacuum.

* For exchange particles (exchange forces), see BMO. . . . .

* For gamma rays (high energy photons), see BLY.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

By role in interaction X

Scattering . Coulomb scattering, electrostatic . scattering . Rutherford scattering Ionizing radiation . Nuclear radiation Exchange particles . Photons

. . . . . .

. . . . Quantum number properties Charm (resonances) . . . . B resonances . . . Virtual particles, virtual quantum . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

ORD H ORL F BNH

Solar cosmic ray photons . . . . High energy photons Electrically charged particles, charged particles * See also Alpha particles (nuclei) BOX HH; Electrons BNP; Positrons BNP RF; Protons BNV; Ions BQU; Cerenkhov radiation BNL N.

. Positive particles . Negative particles Zero charge particles, neutral particles . Recombination W F U M . . Neutralization BNI Magnetically charged particles, magnetic monopoles, magnetic particles

BNH U V W

* Hypothetical particles, analogous to the electrical electron and proton, with north and south magnetic charges. BNIJBLR MM MMNT

. . . . .

Magnetic relaxation . Spin-lattice relaxation Quantum number properties . Magnetic moment . . Gyromagnetic ratio

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* Ratio of magnetic moment to angular momentum. * See also Nuclear magnetic resonance BMO NO

BNJ

Elementary particles (types) [Particles BM] [Elementary particles types BNB] [By charge] . . [Magnetically charged particles BNI] . . . [Quantum number properties BNIMM] . . . . [Magnetic moment] [Gyromagnetic ratio BNIMMNT]

BNPBEK

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Types of particles] [Elementary particles types BNB] [By mass] [Heavy particles general BNLS]

By spin

. Fermions (general)

BNJ

. . . . . .

BNJ M CP MCQ

* Have 1/2 integral spin and observe Fermi-Dirac statistics. Comprise Leptons (BNM) & Baryons (BNT); all elementary particles except bosons.

. . Supersymmetry . . . Fermion partners of bosons . . . . . . . . . . . .

* The names of these are formed by changing the terminal -on of the boson to -ino; eg photino BNG OMC Q

. Bosons

BNK

. . . . BNK MCP MCQ

PJ T

BNL C D

. . . .

* All elementary particles except Fermions. Have integral spin and observe Bose-Einstein statistics. * For gauge bosons, see Exchange particles BMO. * See also Exchange particles BMP J O

. . Supersymmetry . . . Boson partners of fermions

K

L M

N

Q

R S

W BNM

BNM P J PJO QM RLR

BNN BNN RDC

. . Electroweak interactions . . Axions

RHU RHV U

. . . . . . . . .

* Hypothetical light bosons, postulated to explain features of quantum chromodynamics (BNR8M).

V X

By energy characteristics

. Monoenergetic particles . Low energy particles . Intermediate energy particles . High energy particles

. . . . . .

* Postulated to have velocity exceeding that of electromagnetic waves. * See also cosmic rays BND C

RN RNRF RNX

* See also Positronium BNP R F T

73P

8T BD

zero mass.

. . . .

. . Muon neutrinos . . . Muon antineutrinos . . Tauon neutrinos Electrons

. . . . . . .

. Practical & experimental . . Separation . . . Millikan separation . . . (electrons) . Theory . . Dirac electron theory . Energy levels, energy states

. . . .

BEK

* Thought to have

. . By associated particle

. . . .

By mass, & strength of interaction shown

. .

. . By charge

. . . Positive muons . . . Negative muons . . Muonium

BNO R F

. . Cerenkov radiation, Cherenkhov radiation . Light particles (general) . Medium heavy particles (general) . Heavy particles (general)

. Muons, mu-mesons . . By source . . . Cosmic ray muons

. .

BNP 36

. . High linear energy transfer particles . Tachyons

* For muons, see BNN; for heavierthan-muon leptons, see BNN V.

. . Antiparticles . . . Antineutrinos

. Linear energy transfer particles

* See also Transfer reactions (nucleon-nucleon) BOQUNR

Electroweak interactions . W- bosons Lepton-lepton interaction Heavy leptons (general)

BNO

BNP

. . . .

. . . .

* Fermions which do not participate in strong interactions.

. Heavier than muon leptons . . Tauons, tau particles . Neutrinos

. Very high energy particles . Excited particles

* With more energy than in ground state.

* Families of particles.

. Lepton & quark systems (generations) Leptons

. . .

* > 1 GeV. * For cosmic rays, see BND C.

. .

Generations (particles)

. . . .

* The names of these are formed by prefacing the name of the fermion by s - ; eg squarks BNRMCQ.

. . G H

BNL U

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* < 1 GeV.

E F

* See also specific types; e.g. muons BNN; baryons BNT.

. . . . . . . .

* See also Beta radiation BNP RDO; Beta decay B O F K R

* For electron energy states in particular media, see medium; eg in condensed matter B T X BD. * See also Photons BNG 0

. . . Excited state

* Heavier than pi-mesons.

83

BNPFG

Leptons

BNQFT2TB

Types of particles] [Elementary particles types BN8] [By mass] [Leptons BNM] [Electrons BNP] [Energy levels BNPBD] . [Excited state BNPBEK]

[Elementary particles types BNB] [By mass] [Leptons BNM] . [Electrons BNP] . . [Types of electrons] . . . [Anti-particles] . . . . [Positrons BNPRF]

Emission * For photoelectric effect, see BIV (general) and BVI V (solids).

BNP FG FGT FS

. Electron field emission, autoemission, cold emission. . Secondary emission Collision . Electron impact, electron beam interaction, electron ionization . . . . . .

FT FUS

* For Electron pair annihilation see BNP RDR FFV.

GB4 FV JR

* Producing hadrons.

* Short-lived association between positron and electron. * See also Muonium BNN U

* See also Atomic electron impact excitation B P F IXP; Molecular electron impact excitation BQF IXP

RFU RFV

Scattering . Compton scattering, Compton effect Electron attachment, electron interaction

RHV RLD RLF RLJ

Electron beams . Instruments . . Electron lenses, magnetic lenses Paramagnetism Spin . Electron spin resonance, ESR, electron paramagnetic resonance, paramagnetic resonance . . . .

MKF P MKJ CP

RDO RDQ

. Electron spin polarization . Magnetic relaxation . . Electron spin-lattice relaxation Types of electrons

RDRD RDRF RF

84

. By source . . Cosmic ray electrons . . Delta radiation . . . . . . . . .

* Secondary electrons (or protons) emitted as a result of ionizing radiation.

. . .

* For beta decay, see BOF KS.

. . Beta particles, beta radiation . • . . . . .

... ... ... ... ... ...

. Normal electrons Aggregations, generations . Many-electron systems . Electron pairs Anti-particles . Positrons, positons, positive . electrons

Orthopositronium Parapositronium By charge . Normal negatively charged electrons By energy . Low energy electrons . High energy electrons . Free electrons * See also conduction electrons (semiconductors) BVI FN

RNO RNO RF T V W BNQ

. . . By associated particle . . . . Electron neutrinos . . . . Electron antineutrinos . . . Inner shell electrons . . . Valency electrons . . . Hot electrons Hadrons (general)

* For electron spin resonance spectroscopy, see AY7 MKX.

* For orbital electrons, see Atomes BPD T.

RDC RDK J

Positronium

RFT

* For electron paramagnetic resonance, see BNP MKO.

MK MKF 0

Electron-positron collision

RFQ PFS

* See also radioactivity, BOF K

GB

Positron annihilation Electron pair annihilation Electron-positron interaction

BNP RFF V RFQ P

* All elementary particles except leptons and photons. BNQ 8B 8SC 8SL 8SN 8SP 8SP Q 8W

. . . . . . .

Theories, models . Composite hadron models . Bootstrap models . Duality models . Peripheral models . . Multiperipheral models . Classification models (hadrons)

. . . . . .

BCI BD BEM FS FSH FT FT2 TB

. . . . . . . . . . .

* For Parton model, see BNU RBW; for Quark model, see BNR.

Properties & processes . Very high energy . . Hadron-induced very high energy . . interactions . Energy levels . . Bound state . Collision . . Cross section . Scattering . . Matrix algebra . . . S-matrix

BNQFT8SR

Hadrons (general) [Elementary particles types BNB] [By mass] [Hadrons general BNQ] [Properties & processes] [Scattering BNQFT] . [Matrix algebra] . . [S-matrix BNQFT2TB]

HK

. Models . . Regge poles . . . Reggeons . Inelastic scattering . . Hadron induced inelastic scattering . . . Two-particle final states (hadron . . . scattering) . . . Many particle final states (hadron . . . scattering) Charge

M MB MCS

Quantum number properties . Symmetry . . Unitary symmetry, internal symmetry

BNQ FT8 SR FTJ N FTJ O FTJ P

[Elementary particles types BNB] [By mass] [Hadrons general BNQ] [Properties & processes] . [Interactions with other particles BNQQ] . . [Lepton-hadron interaction BNQQM] . . . [Charged lepton-hadron interaction BNQQMQH]

BNQ QN QP QPF T QPF TJL QPF T T

QQ QYO

MEK MH MI MIR MIS MIT MJ MM MMT MPT MRW

. . . . . .

RBW

U8U BNR

Electroweak interactions For electromagnetic interactions, see BNG.

. Weak interactions . . Weak hadron interactions Strong interactions (general) * Extremely short range force, particularly that holding protons and nueutrons together in the atomic nucleus. Primarily the result of the exchange of gluons between quarks, the constituents of hadrons; see BNR O.

PNO

. Exchange particles

Q

Interactions with other particles . Photon-hadron interaction . . Scattering . Charged hadron interaction . Lepton-hadron interaction . . Weak lepton-hadron interaction . . Charged lepton-hadron interaction

. . QGO QGO F T QH QM QMPL QMQH

U

* See also Hypercharge BMM MT 111

PL PN

DT T

Parity . Charge conjugation parity, C-parity Mass Isospin, isotopic spin . I (isospin) . 13 (isospin) Angular momentum Charge . Hypercharge . Baryon number Strangeness . Strange particles (hadrons)

. . Muon-hadron interaction . Electron-hadron interaction . . Scattering . . . Elastic scattering . . . Compton scattering . Hadron-hadron interaction . Nucleus-hadron interaction * See Nucleus BOQ Q

Types of hadrons . By part . . Composite models . By special & quantum . . Symmetrical . . .

* For the hypothetical groups characterized by this property, see multiplets BNQ T. * See also Isospin BNQ MI

. . . PJ

RCB

. . . SU2 (isospin)

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . .

* See quantum properties BNQ MM

. . . . . . . . .

BNRRF

property

* For multiplets, see BNQ T.

. By lifetime . . Resonances . Multiplets, isospin multiplets . . . . . . . .

. * Hypothetical groups of particles in which all . the particles are regarded as different states of . the same particle. All have the same spin (J), . parity (P) & baryon number (B). . * See also Hadron symmetry BNQ MC . SU3 (multiplets) . . * Special unitary group of 3x3 matrices, . . predictive of hadronic multiplet structure.

. . . .

. . Theory . . . Eightfold way (hadron theory), ... octet theory . . Quarks

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* Hypothetical particles corresponding to the basic building blocks of the SU3 group. Their charge is not the usual electron charge (e) but integral multiples of l/3e.

.... BNR8M 8MG MCP

Theory Quantum chromodynamics, QCD (quarks) Quark confinement . . . . Properties Supersymmetry * See also Axions BNK T

MCQ MRS

* For gluons, see under quarks BNR 0 .

Squarks Colour (quarks) * See also the types of quarks below manifestations of this property.

MRU O RF

Charm . . . . Exchange particles Gluons . . . . Types of quarks Antiquarks

85

BNRSF

Hadrons (general)

BNUMK

[Hadrons general BNQ] [Types of hadrons] [Multiplets BNQT] . [SUS multiplets BNQU] . . [Quarks BNR] . . . [Types of quarks] . . . . [Antiquarks BNRRF]

BNRSF SP SU T TX U UX VF VH BNS

. . . . . . . . .

Flavours With 2/3 the proton charge . Up (quark flavours) . Charm (quark flavours) Top (quark flavours) With 1/3 the proton charge . Down (quark flavours) . Strange (quark flavours) . Bottom (quark flavours)

SU4 (multiplets) SU6 (multiplets)

[Hadrons general BNQ] [Types of hadrons] [Mesons BNS] • [Types] . . [Pi-mesons BNST] . . . [Charged pi-mesons BNSTRH] . . . . [Positive BNSTRHU]

BNS TRH V U UFJ UFJ Q URH URH W V VFJ VPL VPN W

riesons WMB WMRS WMRU WQ WQQ T WQQ U WQR WQR MM Y

* Bosons, with mass usually intermediate between electrons and nudeons. * For mu-mesons, see under Leptons BNN.

BNS FJ FJM

FJMP FJM T FJQ MEG

Q

QS

RCRU RDC

RDT RDU RDV RLQ RLR T TFJ TQ

Interactions Decay Leptonic decay (mesons), semi-leptonic decay . Pi leptonic decay . K leptonic decay Hadronic decay (mesons) Properties G-parity (mesons) Interactions with other particles * For Meson-nucleon interactions, see Nucleons BNU QS; for Meson-hyperon interactions, see Hyperons BNX QS.

. Meson-meson interaction Types By property Charmed mesons By source Cosmic ray mesons By time Resonances . Meson resonances, vector resonances (mesons) . . A-resonances (mesons) . . B-resonances (mesons) By mass Light mesons Heavy mesons Pi-mesons, pions Decay Interactions with other particles * For pion-baryon interactions, see Baryons BNT QST.

TRH TRH U

86

Charged pi-mesons . Positive

. . Negative K-mesons, kappa mesons, kaons Decay . Hadronic decay (kaons) Charged kaons Zero charged kaons Eta-mesons Decay Weak interactions Strong interactions J particles, psi particles, psi mesons, psi resonances Symmetry Colour Charm Interactions with other particles . Multiplets . . SU3 . . . Quarks . . . . Charge Other mesons [ :

Arrange A/Z by equivalent of Greek initial letters; eg Upsilon meson BNS YU; Rho meson BBS YP

îaryons

BNT

* Fermions which decay into nucleons by emisssion of mesons.

BNT FC FCS FJ FJM FJQ

Propagation . Photoproduction of baryons Decay Leptonic decay (baryons) Hadronic decay (baryons) Interactions with other particles

* For baryon-hadron interaction, see Hadronic decay BNT FJQ Q

QM QST QSU RDT RF RH T BNU BNU DKT DKT BDN MK

Baryon-lepton interaction Pion-baryon interaction Kaon-baryon interaction Types Baryon resonances Antibaryons Charged baryons Dibaryons Nucleons Motions . Collective motions (nucleons) . . Transitions . . Collective transitions Spin . Exchange of spin direction

BNUMKNX

Hadrons (general) [By mass] [Hadrons general BNQ] [Types of hadrons] [Baryons BNT] [Nudeons BNU] [Spin BNUMK] . [Exchange of spin direction]

BNU MKN X MW

. . Bartlett force Composite models * For parton model, see BNU RBP.

QU

Interactions with other particles . Nucleon-nucleon interactions * See also Nuclear forces BOB G

QUF L QUF S QUF T QUM NX QUM NYH QUM NYM RBW

. . Absorption . . Collisions . . Scatter . . Exchange forces . . . Heisenberg force . . . Majorana force Types . Partons * See also Quarks BNR

[Hadrons general BNQ] [Types of hadrons] [Baryons BNT] [Nucleons BNU] . [Neutrons BNW] . . [Interactions] . . . [Diffusion BNWFUF]

. . . Multigroup diffusion . . Interactions with other particles QW . . . Neutron-neutron interactions . Types of neutrons . . By non-quantum properties . . . Beta decay RBF KS Delayed neutrons . . . By source RDA . . . . Particle accelerators neutron source RDA R . . . . Nuclear reactors neutron source RDC . . . . Cosmic ray neutrons . . . . Gamma radiation neutrons RDLXT RDN V . . . . Protons (neutron source) RDO XHD . . . . Deuterons (neutron source) RDT . . . Resonances RDU D . . . . Dineutrons RDU F . . . . Tetraneutrons RF . . . Anti-neutrons . . . By energy RLC . . . . Monoenergetic neutrons RLD . . . . Thermal neutrons, slow neutrons RLD N . . . . Cold neutrons

BNW FUH

QU QUR BW

. . Interactions with other particles . . . Parton-pion interaction . By aggregation . . Few-nucleon systems . Antinucleons Protons, protonium . Accelerators . . Synchrotons . . . Zero gradient synchrotons . . . Alternating gradient synchrotons RLE . . . . Fixed field alternating RLF .... gradient synchrotons, ring .... accelerators BNX . Interactions with other particles . . Proton-nucleon interaction . . Parton-proton interaction

QURBWFT

. . . Scatter

QV QVW

. . . .

RBW QST RDRF RF BNV BNV 7T3 U 7VC 7VD 7VG 7VL

. Proton-proton interaction . . Proton-proton inclusive . . interaction Types

. . RDC RF T BNW BNW AT

CW CWC L FJ FKS FQ FUF

BNX QNS RF T

* For delta radiation, see BNP RDK J.

. . Cosmic ray protons . . Anti-protons . . Delayed protons Neutrons . Transport . Interactions . . Flux . . . Neutron flux, neutron economy . . . . Neutron flux density . . Decay . . . Beta decay . . Diffraction . . Diffusion

BNXTPW

TPW

. . . . . .

* Very low energy neutrons, from reactor.

. . . . Intermediate neutrons . . . . Fast neutrons * >lMeV.

Hyperons * All long-lived baryons other than nucleons.

. Interactions with other particles . . . .

. . . . . .

* For hyperon-nucleus interactions, see BOQ NX.

. Meson-hyperon interaction Types . Anti-hyperons . Lambda particles . . Interactions with other particles . . . Lambda-neutron interactions

87

BNXTRF

Nuclei

BOBDNF

[Particles BM] [Types of particles] . . . [Hadrons general BNQ] [Types] [Lambda particles BNXT] [Interactions with other particles]

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atomic ii nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] [Theory & models B08B] . [Nuclear scattering model B08VE]

BNXTPW] B 0 8 VF VH BOX FT.

Anti-particles Antimatter state (hyperons) Sigma particles Antiparticles Charged Zero charged Charged Zero charged Xi particles, cascade particles Antiparticles Charged Zero charged Omega particles, omegaminus particles

BNX TRF

U URF URF URF URH URH V VRF VRH VRH W

RH RHN W

W

* See also Unitary symmetry BMM CS

Other hyperons

X BNY BO

Atomic & nuclear physics (together) . Nuclei, nucleus, nuclear physics . . . . . . . . . .

B03 6 W B07H IJ T TN B08B M M2M8G M2M 8GE P P2M 9NS VC VE

88

. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

* Works on nuclear physics using the term in its very broad sense (to include elementary particles) should go at BM. * Note that the instructions at BNB for qualifying and specifying any given particle, using letters A/S, are adjusted for nuclei (from BOQ YC onwards) in order to accommodate the special extension of the reactions facet. So Types of nuclei begin at BOX D, not BOR.

. Practical & experimental physics . . Plant . . . Nuclear reactors . . Track visualization . . . Particle beam handling . . Acceleration

. . . . Types . . General

VJ VK VL VN VP VR

* Arrange A/Z; e.g. Resonating group structure model B 0 8 VRR.

. .

Processes B09 D

G GV J

&

* For size of nucleus as a quantum number property, see BOM G.

. Systems characteristics . . Conservation . . Structure . . .

* See also nuclear models B 0 8 B

JS

. Symmetry

JV JVH JVS

. . . .

BOA F

properties

. Spatial dimensions . . . .

* Use BOM B

Configuration . Shape of nucleus . . Deformation (nuclear) . . Surfaces (nucleus)

Energy interactions & forms * For nuclear reactions in the narrow sense, see BOR.

BOB BOB B

. Mechanics . . Nuclear energy (general) . . . . . .

D

* For Nuclear reaction energy, see BOR BB

. . . Nuclear energy levels . . . . . . . .

D9C I D9D J

of accelerator properties

. . Theory & models . . . Quantum theory . . . . Perturbation theory Born approximation . . . . Wave mechanics Schrodinger's equation . . . Unified model (nucleus) . . . Nuclear scattering model

. . Optical model (nucleus) . Nuclear clustering model, alphaparticle model (nucleus) . Nuclear collective model . . Nuclear cranking model . . Liquid drop model (nuclear), drop . . model (nuclear) . Nuclear shell model, independent particle model (nucleus) . Hartree-Fock model . Other models

DN

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* For binding energy, see Nuclear forces BOB GH.

. Nuclear energy levels lifetime . Energy level width . Transitions nuclear energy . levels Nuclear electromagnetic transition * Change from one quantum energy level to another.

DNF

Internal conversion (nuclear transitions)

BOBDNG

Nuclei Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions & forms BOAF] [Mechanics BOB] [Nuclear energy general BOBB] . [Nuclear energy levels BOBD] . . [Transitions nuclear energy levels] . . . [Internal conversion nuclear transitions BOBDNF]

. . . .

BOB DNG DNJ DQ

. . . .

. Mossbauer e f f e c t . Branching & mixing ratios (nuclear . transitions) Nuclear isomerism

. . . . . . . . . DQD DQD DQD DQD DR DS DW

. . Isobaric analogue state . . Nuclear collective state . . Nuclear orientation, alignment Force . Nuclear forces . .

GH GJ GK GN

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . GN8 S GS GT GV IM BOC ER H J

L P

BOC X BOD E EN N

BOF BOF G GR GS IN IV J

* For nuclear exchange forces, see BON X.

* For charges, see BOM M. * See also nucleon-nucleon interaction BNU QU

* For mass as a quantum number property, see BOMH.

. Nuclear density . Nuclear stability

Dynamics . Kinetics . . Coupled channels . Rotation . . . . . .

Binding energy . Mass defect . Coulomb energy (nuclear forces) Nucleon-nucleon forces

. . . Meson field theory . . . Central force . . . Tensor force . . . Spin-orbital coupling . Moments . Repulsive force (nuclear) Statics . Nuclear mass . . . .

[Particles BM] [Atomic ti nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions ti forms BOAF] [Mechanics BOB] [Statics BOCH] . [Nuclear stability BOCP]

* Existence of different energy states in otherwise identical nuclides and resulting in different radioactivity characteristics.

N . . . Transitions 0 . . . . Isomeric transitions P Independent decay R Stable isomers

G

BOFKT

J8B JFC N JN

* For angular momentum, see quantum properties BOM J; for spin, see BOMK.

. . . . . . . . .

Wave motion . Emission nuclear reactions . . Prompt emission processes . . Delayed emission processes . . Excitation . . . Cascade reactions . Decays . . Disintegrative processes, . . spontaneous reactions

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

* For nuclear reactions resulting from the bombardment of nuclei by particles, see BOR. Use the latter also for works dealing with nuclear reactions in general.

. . . . Nuclear decay theory . . . . Damping . . . . By radiation/particle emitted * Add to BOF JN letters A/Y following BN; eg

JNW JP

....

Neutron product reaction Spallation * Very vigorous decay, usually following bombardment.

JT K

.... ....

Transmutation Radioactivity * Spontaneous decay of heavy elements.

K9C N KQW

H a l f - l i f e , lifetime Atmospheric radioactivity * Note preceding BND A applies here also. * See also DS Atmosphere

KQX KR KS KT

Fallout Alpha radioactivity, alpha decay, alpha radiation Beta radioactivity, beta decay Electron capture, electron attachment * Transformation of the nuclide in which a bound electron

89

BOFKU

Dynamics

BOMKR

[Dynamics BOCX] [Wave motion BOF] [Decays] . [Disintegrative processes BOF J] . . [Radioactivity BOFK) . . . [Beta radioactivity BOFKS] . . . . [Electron c a p t u r e B O F K T ]

[Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions Si forms BOAF] [Mechanics BOB] . [Dynamics BOCX] . . [Wave motion BOF] . . . [Scattering BOFT] . . . . [Elastic scattering B O F T J L ]

* For Coulomb scattering, see BNG FTS.

merges with t h e nucleus.

KV KW KX O

Radiative capture, orbital electron capture K-coupling (beta decay) L-capture . . . Gamma radioactivity Resonance

OQ OR OS P

. Giant resonances . Isobaric analogue resonance . Yield (nuclear reactions) Nuclear polarization

RX

Inclusive interactions Collisions . Bombardment (nuclear reactions)

BOF KU

BOF TJM TJN TT TU UR

. . . . .

* See also magnetic effects BOJ FO

* See also nuclear orientation BOB D W

S

. . S8B S8S E S8W L S8W N SBB SBF N SBFT SCU

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

* See also Compound nuclear processes B O F SR.

Theory . Many-body theory . Lane-Robson theory . Yang theory Energy . Excitation functions . Threshold energy Momentum

. . . . . .

. . . SH9DJ . . . SI

SCUR SCUU SH

. . . . . .

. Transverse momentum (nuclear) . Longitudinal momentum (nuclear) Cross sections . Mean free path Particular forms of collisions . Impact

. . . . . . . . SL SM SN SO SP SQ SR

. . . . . . .

* W i t h high r a t e of change of momentum, generating large contact forces.

. . Elastic collision . . Inelastic collision . . . Collisions of the first kind . . . Collisions of the second kind . . One dimensional collision . . Binary collision . . Compound nuclear processes

. . . . . . . . T

* F o r angular m o m e n t u m , see q u a n t u m number properties, B O M J .

* Forming highly excited and short-lived nuclei immediately after collisions.

90

US

. . . . .

. Special quantum models . . Form factors . Elastic scattering

. . . . .

. . . . .

....

* For the capture of specific particles, see nuclear reactions; eg nuclear muon capture BOQ NF-U R. * See also Direct nuclear reactions BOR W; Electron a t t a c h m e n t (radioactivity) BOF KT

Stripping (nuclear) * A part of t h e incident nucleus merges with target nucleus, the remainder proceeding largely unchanged.

Oppenheimer-Phillips process, OP process (nuclear) . . . . Pick-up reaction UT BOH Electro-magnetic phenomena BOH BIM . Electromagnetic moment I . Electricity IBI M . . Electric moment USP

. . . K

* See Charge BOM M P

. Charge . .

* See q u a n t u m number properties, BOM M

. Magnetism

BOJ

. . BOJ FO

. . . BOL Y

* For nuclear magnetic moment, see BOM NJ

. . Resonance * For nuclear magnetic resonance, see BOM NO.

Nuclear matter * For nuclear energy in general, see BOB B.

BOM BOMB E FM

Quantum number properties . Symmetry . Nuclear parity . Mean life . .

G GJ GK H HP I

. . . . . .

Scattering * In narrow sense: energy is transferred, b u t without removal or addition of n u d e o n s .

T8S J TJL

. . . . Quasi-elastic scattering . . . . Inelastic scattering . . . . Special to nuclei Shadow scattering Few neutron scattering . . . Capture

* For lifetime in radioactivity, see B O F KQF.

Size of nucleus . Width . Radius Mass . Packing fraction Isospin (nuclei), isotopic spin (nuclei) * A q u a n t u m mechanical variable. * See also Hadrons BN

J K KR

. . . .

Angular momentum Spin . Nuclear spin . . Helicity

BOMKS

Nuclei Atomic Si nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions Si forms BOAF] [Quantum number properties BOM] • [Spin] . . [Nuclear spin BOMK] . . . [Helicity BOMKR]

BOM KS

MP MT NJ NK NL NM O

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

OQV OR PM PT RU RW

BON J V X BOQ

BOQ DC DCF T DLXT GO

* For spin orbital coupling, see Nucleons BOB GV.

. . Intrinsic spin Charge . Charge distribution . Charge symmetry . Charge independence . Electric moment . . Quadrupole moments (nuclear) . Hypercharge Magnetic properties . Nuclear magnetic moment . . Dipole magnetic moment . . Quadrupole magnetic moment . . Octopole magnetic moment . . Magnetic resonance (nuclear), NMR . . (general)

. . . . . . . . . . . . OP OQ

[Matter BLY] [Particles BM [Atomic Si nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] Energy interactions Si forms BOAF] [Interactions with other particles BOQ] . [Photon-nucleus reactions BOQGO]

. . . Orbital spin . . . . . . . .

KV M M92 D MB MO

BOR2SAR

BOQ GOR LF M N NFU R NX P

Q QFT S U UNR

. . . . . .

. . . .

Cosmic rays-nucleus reactions . Scattering Gamma radiation-nucleus reactions Photon-nucleus reactions

* For nuclear-electron capture, see Beta decay BOF KT.

Hadron-nucleus reactions . Scattering . Meson-nucleus reactions . Nucleon-nuclear reactions . . Special reactions . . . Transfer reaction * Nucléons are exchanged between target nucleus and the projectile nucleus. * See also Linear energy transfer, BNL K

URD RF W WFUR X XFU R YO BOR

. . . Few nucleons-nuclear reactions . . . Neutron-nucleus reactions . . . . Capture Neutron radiative capture . . Hyperon-nucleus reactions . . . Hyperon capture . Nucleus-nucleus reactions Nuclear reactions (general) * Reactions between nucleus Si bombarding particles. * The instructions at BNB for the subdivision of any given particle are amended here; see second note at BO above. * Class here (BOR) general works on all nuclear reactions, including spontaneous ones. For spontaneous reactions alone, see BOF J. * Reactions in which roles are specified are dealt with in classes BOS/BOX (see the instructions preceding BOS). * See also radiation and wave phenomena (BOF/BOG) for constituents of reactions

Interactions by energy expenditure . Superhigh energy reactions Basic interactions . Nuclear exchange forces Interactions with other particles * This class (BOQ) takes general studies of the interactions betweeen a particle and a nucleus, without specification of the role(s) played by each. * Reactions in which roles are specified are dealt with in classes BOR/BOX * Add (retroactively) to BOQ letters B/X following BN; eg Hyperon-nudeus reactions BOQ X. * Add (retroactively) to BOQ Y letters O/Q following B; eg Nucleus-nucleus reactions BOQ YO.

. High energy photon reactions . . Photodisintegration Lepton-nucleus reactions . Muon-nucleus reactions . . Capture . Hyperon-nucleus reactions . Electron-nucleus reactions

. . . . . .

* Most of the literature relates to its application in spectroscopy, etc (see B7MOO).

. . . . Double nuclear magnetic resonance Internuclear nuclear magnetic resonance, INDOR Overhausen effect . . . . Quadruple resonance (nuclear) . Lepton number . Baryon number . Charm . Strangeness

. . . . . . .

BOR 2M 2SA 2SAG 2SAK 2SAR

. . . . . .

Mathematics . Group theory (nuclear reactions) . . G-matrix . . K-matric . . R-matrix Theory & models

91

BOR8VL

Nuclear reactions (general)

BOVHD

Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atomic Si nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions Si forms BOAF] [Nuclear reactions general BOR] . [Theory Si models]

BOR 8VL BB BB9 2D

. . . . .

. Optical model Energy . Nuclear reaction energy, Q, Q. factor, Q-value . . Energy distribution

PN

Q QT R S V

. . . .

. . . .

* For spontaneous decay, see BOF K.

. . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

BOS T V W YR BOT

* For entoergic and exoergic nuclear reactions, see Collisions BOF SM.

. . Artificial nuclear reactions . . Chain reactions * For cascade reactions, see Excitation BOF IV.

Knock-on nuclear reactions Cyclic nuclear reactions Rearrangement processes (nuclear reactions) Exchange reactions

BOT HD HE HH

T U V W X

* For transfer reaction, see BOQ UNR.

. . Direct nuclear interactions . . .

X8V

* Between target amd interacting particles.

. . Natural nuclear reactions

. . . W

* Add to BOS letters T / Y following BOT; eg

. . . Mass-energy relation . By general characteristics

. . . PR

By emitted radiation or particle . Gamma rays (emitted particles) . Proton (emitted particle) . Neutron (emitted particle) . Nuclear fragments (emissions) By projectile, incident radiation or particle . Nuclides as projectiles

. . . . . . . . BCJ

[Particles BM] [Atomic Si nuclear physics together BNY] [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions Si forms BOAF] [Nuclear reactions by roles played] [By product nucleus BOS] . (Magnesium product nucleus BOSJC]

* See also capture reactions BOF UR

. . . Jackson model Nuclear reactions by roles played

XGO

* Reactions in which roles are specified observe the following citation order (which YQU S can also be seen in the inverted filing order BOU of the arrays concerned): * (1) By target nuclide (2) By incident Sc emitted particle or radiation combined (3) By projectile, incident particle (4) By BOU V particle emitted (5) By product nucleus. For example: Lithium as target, proton as projectile, with He4 as product BOV HLT VSH H.

. By product

BOS

. . . . BOS HD HJ HJF T HL JC

. . . . . . .

nucleus

* Add to BOS letters D / R following BOX; eg

. Deuteron (product nucleus) . Helium-4 (product nucleus) . . Scattering . . . Alpha particle-nucleus ... scattering . Lithium (product nucleus) . Magnesium (product nucleus)

Y

. . . . . . . . . .

. Deuteron (projectile) . Triton (projectile) . Alpha particle (projectile in . nuclear reactions) Incident particles/radiation . Gamma rays (incident radiation) . Meson (projectile) . Proton (projectile) . Neutron (projectile) . Other particles

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

BOVDDRN GB

* Add to BOT X letters B/Y following BN; * Add to BOT Y letters 0 / Q following B;eg

. . Photon projectile, photonuclear . . reactions, photo. . disintegration . . Heavy ion projectile By incident & emitted radiation/particle combined * Add to BOU letters B/Y following BOT; eg

. Proton (incident & emitted particle combined) . . . . .

. . . . .

* For an example, see under chlorine as target, bombarded by protons with the emission of € protons Si 4 neutrons, and production of magnesium 28: BOV KLU VSW SJC.

By target nucleus . Targets (nuclear bombardment) . .

HD

92

* Add to BOT letters D / R following BOX; eg

. . . . .

. . . . .

* Add to BOV letters D/H following BOX; eg

Radioactive nuclei By mass number . Nuclei with mass numbers 1-5 By element . Deuteron (target nucleus)

BOVHE

Nuclei [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions it forms BOAF] [Nuclear reactions by roles played] [By target nucleus] . [Targets nuclear bombardment BOUY] . . [By element] . . . [Deuteron target nucleus BOVHD]

. . Triton (target nucleus) . . Helium (target nucleus), He4 . . (target nucleus), alpha . . particles(target nuclei) HI . . He3 (target nucleus) HL . . Lithium (target nucleus) HLT V . . . Bombarded by protons HLT VSH H He4 product HLT VSH HBH L Mass defect . . . Other nuclides

BOVHE HH

. . . . . . .

. . . . IU JK KL KLU V KLU VSW KLU VSW SJC NCF P

Q R S

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

* Add to BOV letters I/N following C in Chemistry, except for thorium, uranium ti plutonium (which are separately notated); eg

. . . . Beryllium (target nucleus) . . . . Carbon (target nucleus) . . . . Chlorine (target nucleus) Bombarded by & emitting protons Emitting neutrons also With production of magnesium . . . Neptunium (target nucleus) . . . Thorium (target nucleus) . . . Uranium (target nucleus) . . . Plutonium (target nucleus) . . . Trans-uranium nuclides (target . . . nuclei)

BOXB7QY

[Nuclei BO] [Nuclear reactions by roles played] [By mode of energy release] [Fission BOW] . [By product particle] . . [Fission output BOWS] . . . [Fission fragments BOWSYR]

. By projectile . . Neutrons . . Photon TXG 0 . . . Photofission, nuclear photoeffect . . . By particle emitted TXG OST . . . . Gamma fission reactions TXG OSV . . . . Proton fission reactions, .... photoproton reactions TXG OSW . . . . Neutron fission reactions, .... .. photoneutron reactions TYQ US . . Heavy ion UY . By target VP . . Thorium . . Uranium VQ VR . . Plutonium

BOW TW

BOX B

* Nuclear reaction between two light atomic nuclei to form a single heavier nucleus of greater binding energy (usually helium) with the loss of mass producing nuclear energy. * Add to BOX B letters A / V following BO, with the adjustments indicated; eg B3R

By mode of energy . Fission . . . . . •

BOW 3W 8VL BB FK S. SV

sw SW9BG SWT SWV SYR

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . •

. Fission reactors . Theory & models . . Liquid drop model fission . Energy . Spontaneous fission . By product particle . . Fission output . . . Protons (fission products) . . . Neutrons (fission products) Number of neutrons Prompt neutrons Delayed neutrons . . . . Fission fragments

. . . . . . . .

* For particular types of plasmas, see BOX B8V. * Add to BOX B73 letters K / P following BRV 73; eg Excitation BOX B73 M.

. Acceleration of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B7Q Y

* For plasma confinement, see BOX B7R.

. . Plasmas (nuclear fusion) . . . .

B7Q

* For plasmas, see BOX B73.

. Fusion reactors . Production . .

release

* Disintegration of heavy nuclei into two or more lighter ones, with a loss of mass. Usually the result of the impact of a neutron. * Add to BOW letters A/V following BO; eg

. Materials . .

BSW

B73 BOW

Nuclear fusion, thermonuclear reactions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* This amends the notation at BM (where particle acceleration is BM7 T) in order to accommodate the vocabulary of plasma techniques below. The details from BM7 are available here if required (see Add instructions below). * For acceleration of plasmas, see B0XB73P. * Add to BOX B7Q letters A/Q following BM7 T; * Add to BOX B7Q S letters T / X following BM7 T (for types of accelerators); * Add to BOX B7Q letters U/V following BM7 (for more types of accelerators).

. Special techniques . . Thermonuclear systems (techniques)

93

B0XB7R

Nuclei

BOXGG

Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions & forms BOAF] [Nuclear reactions by roles played] [By mode of energy release] [Nuclear fusion BOXB] [Special techniques] [Thermonuclear systems techniques BOXB7QY]

BOX B7R B7RR

Plasma containment, confinement . Properties, parameters . . Lawson criterion . . . . . .

B7RS B7R T B7RU B7RX B7S B7S S B7S T B7S U B7S V B7T

. . . . . . . . . . . .

B7U B7U 3YB B7U 3YD B7V B7V R B7V T B7V U B7V V B7V W B7W C B7W E B7W G B7W K B7W L B7W N B7W P B7W R B7W T

B8D N

94

Plasma systems Collisionless plasmas . . . . Other investigative methods * Normal retroactive synthesis is resumed here after its interruption at BOX B8. * Add to BOX B8Y numbers 7W/9 following B if applicable.

BSH J BSH L BTH B BTH C BTH D BTH E

* Configuration of magnetic field for containment.

. . Linear field confinement, . . axial field confinement . . . Magnetic bottles . . . . Magnetic mirrors . . Pinch effect (general) . . . Poloidal field confinement . . . Toroidal field confinement . . . . Zeta pinch . . . . Theta pinch . . . . Tokamak stellarator . . Cusp systems . . Baseball coils . Radiofrequency confinement . Non-magnetic confinement . Inertial confinement Rotating plasma systems Plasma injection systems Thermal systems (nuclear fusion) Fusion energy extraction Plasma reactions * Normal retroactive synthesis is interrupted here to allow this special expansion of concepts relevant to plasma techniques. It is resumed at BOX B8Y. * Add to BOX B8 letters A/X following BRV; eg

B8B

BOX B8V L B8Y

* Product of particle density and containment time.

. Containment time . Confinement temperature . Plasma density Electrostatic cofinement Magnetic lines . Internally generated magnetic . lines . Externally generated . magnetic lines . Open magnetic lines . Closed magnetic lines Magnetic wells

. . . .

[Particles BM] [Nuclei BO] [Energy interactions & forms BOAF] . . . [Nuclear fusion BOXB] . . . . [Special techniques] [Plasma reactions] [Rotating plasmas BOXB8DN]

. Flow of plasmas . . Rotation . . . Rotating plasmas

. . . . Nuclear reactions, types of fusion By product nucleus Helium (fusion product) Lithium (fusion product) By projectile Hydrogen fusion projectiles Hydrogen-1 (fusion projectile) Deuteron, hydrogen-2 (fusion projectile) Triton, hydrogen-3 (fusion projectile) Types of nuclei * See second note under BO. * For Nuclides, see BPV

. By other

D

. . . . DDR H DDR J

. . . .

. . Stable nuclei . . Unstable, radioactive nuclei . . .

DDR DDR DDR DDR

DLD FP FQ FT

K L M N

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

* See also compound nuclear processes BOR X

. . Daughter products . . Fissile nuclei . . Fissionable nuclei . . Radioactive series, nuclear series, . . nuclear decay series, radioactive . . decay series . Low energy nuclei By various characteristics . Isotopes (nuclei) . Active nuclei . . Hypernuclei

. . . . . . . . . . . . GA GB GC GD GG

panicles

* Add (retroactively) to BOX D letters A/X following BN if applicable. * Add (retroactively) to BOX E letters 0 / Q following B if applicable.

* Extremely unstable particles produced when a lambda particle replaces a neutron in a nucleus.

By mass number . Mass number nuclei . Nuclei with mass numbers 1-5 . . Few-nucleon systems . Nuclei with mass numbers 6-19 . Nuclei with mass numbers 20-38

BOXGJ

Types of nuclei [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atomic & nuclear physics together BNY] . [Nuclei BO] . . [Types of nuclei] . . . [By mass number] . . . . [Nuclei with mass numbers 20-38 BOXGG]

BPBDN

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atomic & molecular & ion physics together BOY] . [Basic interactions BOYNV] . . [Weak interactions BOYPL]

BOY PLB G . . . Van der Waals forces BOX GJ GL GN GQ GS GV GW HB HD

. . . . . . .

. . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... ...

Nuclei Nuclei Nuclei Nuclei Nuclei Nuclei

with mass numbers with mass numbers with mass numbers with mass numbers with mass numbers with mass numbers more Superheavy nuclei . . . By element . . . . Hydrogen nucleus Deuterons, deutons

39-58 59-89 90-149 150-189 190-219 220 or

* For deuterons as product nuclei, see BOS HD; as targets, see BOV HD.

Atoms (physics), atomic physics, single atoms (physicsa o f )

BP

* Structure, processes and properties of the atom regarded as a whole. For the atom as a constituent of molecular reactions, see Chemistry (Class C). * Add to BP as instructed in the notes under BNB. BP8 MF BP9 D DK BPB B

HEQ YO

HEX F T HH .... HHRDC HI HIQ YO HJ HL

* Add to BOX letters I / Q following C Chemistry, except for thorium, uranium & plutonium, which are notated separately;

Q R BOY

Beryllium nucleus Magnesium nucleus Carbon nucleus Chlorine nucleus Thorium nucleus Uranium nucleus Plutonium nucleus Atomic & molecular & ion physics (together)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Narrowly, the energy state of a particular electron in orbit around the central nucleus of an atom. More broadly, the possible energy value of an electron or nuclear particle. 41 Strictly, the state can be considered separately from the level, although they are usually treated as synonymous. If state is distinguished from level, use BPB E Quantum states. * For energy levels of particular particles, see the particle; eg Molecules - Charge transfer state BQB EW; for energy bands, see condensed matter BTX BF.

. . . Processes

&

properties

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

D9D J DFP DJ DK

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. Energy level width . Polarization . Electron density of state . Fermi level, Fermi energy

DL DM

.... ....

* For degeneracy, see degenerate level BPB EQ. * Add to BPB D numbers Sc letters 2/G following B; eg

* Probability of locating electrons in a level.

eg

IU JC JK KL P

* For atomic energy, see Nuclear energy BOB B.

. . Energy levels (atoms), electron energy . . states (atoms) . . . . . . . . . . . .

* A lambda particle can replace the neutron in a nucleus to form a very unstable hypernucleus.

Hypertriton Helium nucleus, alpha-particles Cosmic ray alpha particles Helium-3 nucleus Interactions with other particles Helium-3-nucleus interactions Helium-4 nucleus . . . . Lithium nucleus . . . . Other nuclei, by element

Quantum field theory Size . Atomic radii Energy

. . D

Interactions with other particles Deuteron-nucleus interaction Cosmic ray deuterons Tritons Interactions with other particles Triton-nucleus interaction Hypernuclei

HDQ YO HDRDC HE

. . . .

Electron correlations Population inversion * When higher energy state has more electrons than a lower state. * For pumping, see Lasers (techniques) B6K SFI O.

DN

....

Transitions * See also radioactivity BOF K

* Add to BOY letters A/Y following BP so far as applicable; eg BOY BD NV PL

. Energy levels . Basic interactions . . Weak interactions

95

BPBDN8MF

Atoms (physics)

BPQYV

[Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atoms physics BP] [Energy B P B B ] . [Energy levels atoms BPBD] . . [Processes ic properties] . . . [Transitions BPBDN]

BPB DN8 M F DQ

. . . . Sum rules, quantized electron . . . . transition . . . Isomerism

. . Structure

DT8MT DU DUL

. . . . .

E EG

. . . Stationary state . . . Ground state

DT

. . Orbitals, electron configuration . . (atoms) . . . Principal quantum number . . . Electron shells (atoms) . . . Larmor orbit, Larmor precession

. . Types of energy states . . . .

. . . Excited state . . . . Doubly excited states (atoms) Auger effect. Auger ionization

EKN EKE EKS EKT EM

. . . . . . . .

EM2 M9N EP EQ EQP ER ES ET

EU EW

. . . . . .

BPFE

E9D J HL IN

IXP P S

* See also atomic orbitals, B P B D T

EK EKL EKM

. . .

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atoms physics BP] [Radiation B P E Y ] . [Spectra]

* Loss of energy on ionization.

Atomic metastable state Atomic resonant state Flashback resonance . . . Metastable state . . Bound state . . . Mathematics Bethe-Salpeter equations . . Unbound state . . Degenerate level . . . Degeneracy . . Fine state, atomic fine structure . . Hyperfine state . . . Isotope shift

96

* See condensed matter B T X B F

. Force . . Atomic force, interatomic potential Statics . Atomic mass, atomic weight . . . .

JM BPD N BPE Y

. . . Atomic spectral line breadth . Atomic fluorescence . Excitation . . . .

* For excited state (energy levels), see B P B EK.

. . . .

* For collisions between two specified particles, see particle interractions BPQ.

. . Electron impact excitation (atoms) . Polarization . Collision

B P J BH JC BPK J JFC

Magnetic field Magnetic moment Ionizing radiation . Ionization Quantum properties . Electric moment Basic interactions . Weak interactions . . Van der Waals forces

* See BPM MP

BPM MP BPN V BPP L LBG

Interactions with other

. . . Multiplets . . . . Atomic triplet state . . Energy bands

* For mass as quantum number, see B P M H; for isotopes, see B P W .

. . Relative abundance Rotation Radiation . Spectra

* For atomic energy level transitions, see B P B DN; for hyperfine structure, see B P B ES.

. . Atomic inelastic collisions . Atomic beams Electric field . Polarizability Atomic charge . Electric moment

. . Types of energy levels special to a . . particle, etc.

. . .

G BPC H J

. . . . . . . . .

SM BPG B BPH IBH IBH F P K KO

* Two unpaired electrons.

F

. . Atomic spectra

BPQ P PFI N PFS PFT PRF PRF F T YP YV

. . . . . . .

particles

* For molecule-atom interactions, see BQQ YP; for ion-atom interaction, see BQU QYP. * Add to BPQ letters B / Y following BN; * Add to B P Q Y letters O/Q following B ; eg

Electron-atom interaction . Excitation . Collision . Scattering Positron-atom interaction . Positron-atom scattering Atom-atom interaction

Parts of atoms

* For electrons, see BNP; for nucleons, see BNU; for nucleus, see BO.

BPRB

Atoms (physics) Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Atoms physics BP] [Parts of atoms BPQYV]

BPRB BR

Types of atoms . By properties other than quantum properties . . Exotic atoms . . . . . . . . .

CB DRC H

. . . . . .

By quantum property . Symmetry groups (atoms) By aggregation . Atomic clusters By charge . Charged atoms

. . . HW LR LS N

Q s

. . . . . . . . .

* See Ions BQU

. Neutral atoms, uncharged atoms By mass . Medium-heavy atoms . Heavy atoms By other particles . Muonic atoms . Hadronic atoms . . Mesic atoms By individual element

. . . . BPU HB HBR HW HH BPV

. . . .

* Add to BPU letters I / Q following C Chemistry (but notation is provisional); eg

. Hydrogen atom . . Hydrogen neutral atom . Helium atom Nuclides, nuclear species

. . . . . . BPV 2HU R S BPW

. . . . . .

* Unstable atoms in which electrons are replaced by another negative particle. * See also Positronium BNP RFT

. . . . . .

* Atoms characterized by their atomic number, mass number and the constitution of their nucleus.

Graphs . Segre charts Types . Mirror nuclides . Wigner nuclides . Isotopes, isotopic nuclides

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* Two or more nuclides which have identical nuclear charge (atomic number) but differ in nuclear mass.

. . . . BPW 73P 73Q 73R 73S BPX

Operations Isotope separation Electrolytic separation (isotope) Gas diffusion separation (isotopes) Centrifugation (isotopes) . . . . Radioisotopes, radioactive isotopes, .... radioactive nuclides, .... radionuclides * For nuclear decay series, see BOX FS.

BPXR

Stable isotopes

BQCH

[Particles BM] [Atoms physics BP] . [Types of atoms] . . [Nuclides BPV] • • • [Types] . . . . [Isotopes BPW] [Stable isotopes BPXR]

BPX S T BPY

. . . . Fissionable nuclides . . . . Fissile nuclides . . . Individual nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Specified by mass number as follows: * Add to BPY letters A / W following BOX G; eg BPY A Nuclides with mass numbers 1-5.

Molecules, molecular physics, single molecules

BQ

* See also Stereochemistry C * Add to BQ as instructed in the notes under BNB. BQ9D DS JV

. Size . . Molecular volume . Configuration

BQB D

. Energy levels, energy states . . Electronic structure

* Use BQB DV

. . . DQ

. . . . . . . . . . . . DQM DT

* For valency, see Chemistry C

. . . Isomerism

. . . . .

DT7 5 DT7 5A

* Having the same atomic and mass numbers but with different energy states. * For stereoisomerism, see Stereochemistry C

. . . Molecular rotational isomerism, ... molecular internal rotation . . Molecular orbitals, wave function . . (molecules . . . Calculation Molecular orbital calculation Specific calculations * Arrange A/Z; eg NDO calculation BQB DT7 5N.

DV DW

EKT ER ES EX IM BQCD F

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . Molecular configurations . . Molecular orientation, molecular . . alignment . . Types of energy stales . . . Molecular metastable state . . Fine structure . . Hyperfine structure . . Special types of energy level . . . Charge transfer state . Molecular moment . Internal forces . . Bond energy . Energy loss

. . . FH

. . . . . . . . H

* See also Spin BQM K

. . . Stopping power * Energy loss per molecule normal to the motion of the particle travelling a distance.

. Statics . . Mass

97

BQCJ

Molecules

BQUQ

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Molecules BQ] [Statics BQCH] . [Mass]

[Physics B] [Matter BLY] [Particles BM] [Molecules BQ] . [Types of molecules] . . [Diatomic molecules BQTD]

BQC J BQD N

BQT E G M

. . Molecular weight Rotation * For internal rotation, see BQB DQM.

NX v VBD BQF E E9D J IN IQ IR IXP j M o p s SM SR T TJL BQG B BQH K BQJ KS BQM BQMK

BQN v BQP L LBG

BQQ w WFRU

WFT YP YQ

. Libration Vibration . Energy states . . Molecular vibronic states Spectra . Breadth . . Molecular spectral line breadth Excitation . Dexcitation . . Internal conversion (molecules) . . . Non-radiative transition . Electron impact excitation Decay . Dissociation (molecules) . . . .

* Breakdown of molecules into smaller molecules or atoms.

Refraction Resonance Polarization . Molecular polarizability Collision . Molecular inelastic collision . Energy transfer collision (molecular) Scattering . Molecular elastic scattering Beams . Molecular beams Charge Magnetism( . Molecular magnetic susceptibility Quantum number properties . Spin Basic interactions . Weak interactions . . Van der Waals forces (molecular) Interactions with other particles * For chemical reactions see Chemistry (Class C) * Add to BQQ letters B / X following BN; * Add to BQQY letters O / Q following B; eg

. Neutron-molecule interaction . . Coupling . . Scattering . Atom-molecule interaction . Molecule-molecule interaction . Ion-molecule interactions * See Ion physics BQU QYQ

BQT D

98

Types of molecules . Diatomic molecules

MBD

Polyatomic molecules Conjugated molecules Macromolecules . Energy states . . Macromolecular energy state Ions, ion physics

BQU

* Electrically charged atoms, molecules or groups of atoms or molecules. * Add to BQU as instructed in the notes under BNB.

BQU AG

Thermodynamics

* See also Ion temperature BQU GV

BD

Energy levels

CH CJ CJ9 2H

Statics Mass . Change of mass ions Density . Ion concentration Velocity Ion mobility Oscillation

For ionised state, see BKJ FC.

CLM DC DU

* See also ion optics BQU F

Radiation, wave motion * For ionization, see BKJ

F FG FGT FGU FIN

Ion optics Emission . Secondary ionic emission . Thermionic ionic emission Excitation * See also Metastable ions BQU TIU

FJ FS

Decay . Dissociation (ions) Collision * See also Recoil ions BQU TS

FT FUF GB GV HIB H HK HL HP L

Scattering . Diffusion . Beams . . Ion beams Temperature Electric fields Charge Potential Current . Ionization current Ion optics * Use BQU F.

Interactions with other particles * Add to BQU Q letters B / Y following BN; * Add to BQU QY letters O / Q following B: eg

BQUQYP

Ions [Physics B] [Matter BLY] . [Particles BM] . . [Ions BQU] . . . [Interactions with other particles BQUQ]

BQU QYP QYQ QYQ FS

RHU RHV RHW RHY

. . . . Atom-ion interaction . . . . Molecule-ion interaction Molecule-ion collisions . . . Types of ions . . . . By charge Cations, positive ions Anions .negative ions Ion pairs, paired ions Stripped atoms * Ionized atoms from which at least one electron has been removed.

RI RJ S SQY 0 T

. . . . Magnetic ions . . . . Complex ions . . . . Heavy ions Interactions with other particles Heavy ion-nucleus interaction . . . . By origin * Add to BQU T letters A / Y following BF * Add to BUQ U letters A / F following

BRBJW

[Phy sics B] [Vacuum physics BQX]

Bulk matter physics, substances (bulk matter), macrophysics

BR

* Physics of aggregates of molecules (including plasmas). BR3 6 B BR4 BR6 2 9 BR7 6 BR8 B BR9 D DEK DEL G J JV

Q

QG

QJ

BG; eg

TIU TS UH BQV F BQW

Excitation Metastable ions Collision Recoil ions Electrolytic ions . . . . Free ions . . . . By element

BRA F

Metal ions Hydrogen ion Vacuum physics

Practical physics . Equipment & materials . . Instrumentation . Investigative techniques . Physical methods . Measurement Theoretical physics General properties . Spatial dimensions . Isotropy . Anisotropy . Systems characteristics . . Structure . . . Shape, configuration . . Control systems . . . Open loop systems . . . Closed loop systems, feedback control . . . systems Energy interactions & forms

. . . . G

T

T2M 9L T2N 9N V X

. . . . . . . . . .

* In the sense, somewhat narrower than that at BAG, of the transfer of energy to, from and between macroscopic bodies. * For thermal properties of bulk matter, see BRG P.

. . . Transport processes & properties . . . . .

* See also Vacuum techniques B6Q X

* Add to BR letters A / L following B amplified as indicated below.

. . Thermodynamics . . . . .

* Add to BQW letters I / Q following C Chemistry; eg BQW HA HB BQX

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

* Most of the literature refers to these properties in particular energy forms or states of matter, q.v. This class takes only general works on transport properties in bulk matter. * For mass transfer, see BAX.

....

Equations Bolzmann equation, transport equation . . . . Diffusion general . . . . Mass transfer * See also Heat transfer BRG Q

BRB BRB G IM J JBH JP

• JQ

JW

. . . .

. Mechanics . . Forces . . . Moments . . . Pressure Pressure field Low pressure physics High pressure physics . . . . External forces

99

BRBK

Periodic motion

BRF

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Mechanics BRB] [Forces BRBG] . [External forces BRBJW]

BRB K

. . Deformation . . . . .

KL L P T BRC B CC H L N P S X BRD A C D E

. . . . . . . . . .

BRE

BRE 72 72B 72D 72E 73D

* For works on deformation in bulk matter in general; most of the literature concerns the solid state and the detailed schedule is given at BVB K. * Add to BR letters BK/CB following BV; eg

. . . . . . BRE VV

. . . Stress/strain relations . . . . Stress Shear . . . Strain . . . Elasticity . . . . Viscoelasticity Statics . Density . Equilibrium . Stability Motion Dynamics . Kinematics . . Velocity . . Acceleration . Kinetics . . . .

E8EK S TB

[Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions ti forms BRAF] [Mechanics BRB] [Dynamics BRCX] [Periodic motion BRDS] [Mechanical vibration ii oscillation BRE] . [Types of vibrations)

WJ WL

WM WN WP WPQ WPR WR WS

. Theory . . Kinetic theory Periodic motion . Harmonics . Mechanical vibration & oscillation, . sonics

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

XG XH XL

XM

* The term Sonics is sometimes used for sound waves narrowly, in which case use BRG H. * Add to BRE A letters A/DS following B; * Add to BRE letters B / Y following BE; eg

100

. . . . . . .

. . Longitudinal vibration . . . Axial vibration . By degree of freedom . By internal/external origin . . Free vibration, natural frequency . . Forced vibration . By origin as to action

XN XNG XNH XNJ XNK XNN XP XPM XPN XPP XS XSP XT

* Arrange A/Z (eg blowing, plucking).

. . By origin as to body . . . Vibrating bodies . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . Operations . . . . Control Hysteresis Damping Isolation damping . . . . Generation, reproduction

. . . Properties & processes . . . . Harmonics Nodes Anharmonics . . . . Frequency Mode . . . Types of vibrations

. By property . By direction/transience & . waveform . . Linear vibration, non-sinusoidal . . vibration . . Non-linear vibration, sinusoidal .. vibration, angular . . vibration, circular vibration . . . Random vibration Chatter . . . Rotational vibration . . . . Critical speed . . . . Hunting . . . Transverse vibration . . . . Shear vibration

. . .

* As an operation in investigation. * For synthesis of sound, see BRG H73 N B BH BQ D DD

. . . . . . . . .

* See also S waves (seismology) DG WU WV XC

* For special elements & attributes of flow, see Fluids BSG E.

. . . . . .

* For vibration in a particular state of matter, see latter; eg BTE Vibration & oscillation in gases.

vibrating

* For acoustic phenomena in particular types of materials, see BRG J.

. . . . By solid medium Linear bodies (vibration) Strings Rods Straight rods Curved rods Tuning forks Two-dimensional bodies (vibration) Membranes (vibration) Diaphragms (vibration) Plates (vibration) Three-dimensional bodies (vibration) Pendulums . . . . By specific medium * Arrange A / Z (eg bells, foghorns).

BRF

Waves

BRFD

Acoustics [Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Mechanics BRB] [Dynamics BRCX] [Periodic motion BRDS] [Waves BRF]

BRF D YG YR YS

. . . . . .

YU BRG H

[Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Mechanics BRB] [Dynamics BRCX] [Periodic motion BRDS] [Acoustics BRGH] [Properties & processes] . [Velocity BRGHDT]

* Division of waves is parallel with BRG HFB that of vibrations and oscillations (see HFB K notes at BE and BF). For bulk HFC matter, some amplification may be HFD made here by adding letters following BRE. HFEN * Add to BRF letters A/Y following HFE 0 BRE so far as is necessary; eg HFEP HFE Q Properties

. Frequency Types . Standing waves . Transverse waves . . Shear waves

. . . . . . . .

* See also S waves (seismology) DG

. . Longitudinal wave Acoustics, sound waves, sonics (sound) * For acoustic phenomena in a particular medium (gas, liquid, solid, etc.) see medium.

H36 H72 N H72 P H72 Q H73

. . . . . .

Practical & experimental . Analysis of sound . . Qualitative analysis of sound . . Quantitative analysis of . . sound . Generation of sound

. . . . . . H73D

H73L

. . . . . . . .

* Purely acoustic studies; most of the literature will go under sound recording & reproduction in Technology Class U.

. . . By causative . . . .

H73LB H73M

* See also Types of sound by source BRG I

HFE S HFN HFN R HFN S HFO

action

* Arrange A/Z; eg

. . . . Blowing . . . . By specific

H9D E HBJ HDT

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . .

Amplitude . Loudness, volume (sound), . subjective intensity (sound) Reflection . Reverberation (acoustics) . . Albedo (acoustics) Resonance

. . . .

. . . .

-* Subjective difference in tone associated with two closely similar frequencies being heard together. * See also Interference BRG HFR

* For magnetic resonance, see BRG HJF 0 .

. . Dissonance, consonance

HFR HFXX HFY G

. . . .

. . .

HGP HH

HJ HJF 0 HL HM

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . .

. Magnetism . . Magnetic resonance (acoustics) . Acoustooptics, acoustic optics Relations with particle physics

* Effect of electrical phenomena on sound. * See also Acoustoelectric effects BVIUGH

* Add to BRG HM letters M / Q if applicable.

Types of sound . Noise (acoustics) . . . .

HP HQ

forms

* For Acoustooptics, see BRL GH

. . Thermal acoustics . . Electroacoustics

. . . .

HN

* See also Noise BRG HN

Interference Pulses Standing waves Interactions with other energy

. .

body

. . Synthesis of sound . Sensing & detection . Acoustic spectroscopy Theory Properties & processes . Directionality . Pressure . Velocity

Harmonics . Quality of sound, timbre Propagation, transmission Frequency Special acoustic attributes . Pitch . . Octaves . Tone . . Beats

HFO S

* Arrange A/Z (eg bells, foghorns). H7SN H74 J H7M H8B

. . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . Reproduction of sound . . . .

BRGHQ

* Subjective category of sounds which are undesired by the (human) recipient.

. . Reduction of noise . . . Insulation of sound . . . .

* Most of the literature goes in technology.

101

BRGHR

Acoustics

BRGQK

Dynamics BRCX] [Periodic motion BRDS] [Acoustics BRGH] [Types of sound] [Noise acoustics BRGHN] . [Reduction of noi3e BRG HP] . . [Insulation of sound BRGHQ]

BRG HR HS

. Ambient noise . Cavitation noise . .

* For sonic boom, see BTM GHT.

HW

. White noise

I

By source

. .

* Aperiodic sound. * Alternative (not recommended) for libraries wishing to keep together all acoustic studies. * Add to BRG I numbers & letters 3/9,A/Z from the whole classification; eg physics of music BRG IWV.

J

By

medium * Alternative (not recommended) for libraries wishing to keep together acoustic studies in all media (see note at head of this class). * Add to BRG J letters R/W following B; eg acoustic properties of solids BRG JV.

By

frequency

K

. Acoustic spectrum

K9LR

. . Linear

K9M L M

. . Non-linear . Infrasound . Audible sound . .

N 0

BRG P P93 P94F P94 K P94 Q PAG

Thermal properties of bulk matter . Environmental

conditions

. . Processes

properties

. . . .

. Constant volume, isochoric, isometric . Constant pressure, isobaric . Constant temperature, isothermal Thermodynamics

. . . . . . .

PAQ C PAQ R PAT

Carnot cycle Rankine cycle . . . Transport processes

PBB PCN PCNP PDE

, . . .

* Arrange A/Z; eg

. . . .

* For heat transfer, see BRG Q.

Energy Equilibrium . Balancing Kinetic energy

. . . .

* For temperature, see BRG V; for combustion, see Chemistry C.

. Relations

PM

. . . .

* For phonons, see solid state BVG 08N.

Q

6 64 7 8R 8S 8V

&

processes

* For latent heat, see Phase transormation BRN S.

. . . Measurement . . . . Calorimetry Calorimeters Calorimetric units Bomb calorimetry Continuous flow calorimetry Microcalorimetry . . . Heat capacity, thermal capacity . . . . Specific heat capacity . . Heat transfer, heat exchange . . . . .

QK

physics

thermal properties

. . Heat, quantity of heat . . . . . .

PQ7 PQ7 PQ7 PQ7 PQ7 PQ7 PR PS

with particle

* Add to BRG PM letters M / Q following B if applicable.

. Special PQ

102

&

. . Reversible . . Irreversible . . Adiabatic. . Isothermal . . Isentropic . . Cycles . . . Named cycles

PAP D PAP E PAP Q PAP T PAP V PAP Y PAQ

* Usually assumed; see note at BRG HN.

. High-frequency sound, ultrasonics . . Extremely high frequency sound . . .

[Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions Si forms BRAF] [Mechanics BRB] . . . . [Types of sound] [By frequency] [High-frequency sound BRGN] [Extremely high frequency sound BRGO]

. . . . . . . . . .

* Includes heat Si mass transfer together; for mass transfer alone, see transport processes BRAX; * See also Chemical engineering V * Add to BRG QA letters A / J following B.

. . . Radiation

BRGQL

Thermal properties of bulk matter [Thermal properties of bulk matter BRGP] [Special thermal properties & processes] [Heat transfer BRGQ] . [By resulting temperature] . . [Heat loss BRGT] . . . [Evaporative cooling BRGTU] . . . . [Boiling heat transfer BRGTVS]

Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Thermal properties of bulk matter BRGP] [Special thermal properties & processes] [Heat transfer BRGQ] [Radiation BRGQK]

* See BRG R

BRG QL QL2 QK QL7 6 QL7 64 QLM QLP QM

Heat flux, transmission (heat flux), heat flow . Heat transfer coefficient . Measurement . . Heat flow meters . Direct flow (heat) . Counter flow (heat) Thermal cycling By

process

QR QT

. . . . . . . .

QV

. Convection

QN

QN2 QK QNT QP

Conduction of heat . Coefficient of thermal . conduction . . Thermal conductance . Thermal conductivity . Diffusion of heat Heat resistance, resistivity Thermal transpiration, thermal effusion * See Gases BTM GQT

• . . . . . R

. Thermal radiation, heat radiation . . . .

RS RT RTS RU

* Heat transfer in a fluid by the movement of the fluid itself; see Fluids BSM GQV.

* Add to BRG R letters K/L following B so far as applicable.

. . Black body radiation Thermal emission . Emissivity Thermal absorption

* For black body radiation, see BRG RS.

By resulting T

. . . . TEX TSH TSJ TT TTS TTV TTX TTY TU TV TVS

temperature

. Heat loss, cooling . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* For supercooling, see change of state BRN P94 T.

Radiation . Radiation cooling Thermoelectric cooling Magnetic cooling Phase change cooling . Linde cooling Film cooling Expansion cooling Sweat cooling Evaporative cooling . Tranpiration cooling . Boiling heat transfer

BRGV78M

. . . Ablation cooling . . . Sublimation cooling . . . Other forms of cooling

BRG TW TX TY

. . . . . . . . . .

* For superheating, see change of state BRNP94W.

. . . Radiation . . . Conduction Temperature

UEY UQN V

V72 V72 V72 V72 V72 V72 V72 V72

* Arrange A/Z.

. . Heat gain, heating

U

4 4AC 4GA 4V 4W 4X 4Y

V76 V76 4 V76 47A V76 47A H V76 5C V76 5D V76 5E

. . . . . . . . . . . .

* Property of an object which determines the direction of heat flow when in thermal contact with another body. * Add to BRG VA letters A/Q folowing B if applicable.

Control . Thermostats . . Electrical thermostats . . Thermistors . . Gas thermostats . . Cryostats . Pneumatic temperature control . Other control methods Measurement . Thermometry . . Thermometers . . . Testing & correcting Hypsometers . . . . Electric thermometers Resistance electric thermometers Special types * Arrange A/Z; eg thermistor.

V76 V76 V76 V76 V76 V76 V76

5G 5H SJ 5K 5M 5N 5P

V76 5R V76 5S V76 5T

V78L V78LT V78M

.... .... .... .... .... ....

. . . .

Thermocouples ( thermometers) Thermopiles Gas thermometers Vapour pressure thermometers Mercury thermometers Beckmann thermometer Other liquid expansion thermometers Solid expansion thermometers Bimetallic thermometers Other solid expansion thermometers * Arrange A/Z; eg quartz thermometers BRG U76 5TQ

. Temperature scales . . Thermodynamic temperature, . . absolute temperature scales . . . Kelvin scale

103

BRGV78MR

Thermal properties of bulk matter

BRL3U

[Bulk m a t t e r physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Thermal properties of bulk m a t t e r B R G P ] . [Special thermal properties ti processes] . . [Temperature BRGV] . . . [Measurement] . . . . [Temperature scales BRGV78L] [Thermodynamic t e m p e r a t u r e BRGV78LT] [Kelvin scale BRGV78M]

BRG V78 M R V78 N V78 0 V78 P V7M V7N SL

.

V7T V7V V92 H VJ9 2J VJ9 4R

.

VN VR

VS VSR VSX VW

. . . . . . .

Relative temperature scales, practical temperature scales Celsius scale, Centigrade scale Fahrenheit scale . . . . . Reaumur scale Spectral methods (thermometry) Colour thermometry, thermocolour methods Acoustic methods (thermometry) Calorimetric thermometry . . . Temperature variations Temperature gradients Adiabatic conditions . . Types of temperature . . . Inversion temperature . . . Normal temperature, room ... temperature, ambient ... temperature . . . Critical temperature Minimum temperature Maximum temperature . . . Low temperatures (general) * For cryogenics, see

VX

....

High temperatures (general) * For high t e m p e r a t u r e physics, see BRG X.

W W76

wx X X76 X76T X76U X76 V X76 W X76X Y

. . . . . . . . .

Thermal regimes . Low temperature physics, cryogenics . . Measurement . . . Cryometry . . Absolute zero temperature, zero . . temperature . High temperature physics (general) . . Measurement . . . Pyrometry Resistance pyrometry Radiation pyrometry, total radiation pyrometry Optical pyrometry Heat radiation pyrometry Light radiation pyrometry

Electrical & magnetic properties * T h e detailed schedule for this class is given under solid s t a t e BVG Y. * A d d t o B R letters H / K following BV; eg

BRH U BRJ

104

. Conducting systems (electrical) . Magnetic properties

[Physics B] [Bulk m a t t e r physics BR) [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Electrical Si magnetic properties BRGY] [Magnetic properties B R J ]

BRJ FO BRK BRKM U BRL

. Magnetic resonance Electromagnetic radiation E-m waves by frequency & wavelength . Radiofrequency waves . Microwaves . Optical properties of bulk matter, optics (bulk matter) . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

* Most of the literature refers to visible light (BRL V), details for which are taken from the general class for optical properties of bulk m a t t e r (BRL 2 / B R L Q). * An alternative (not recommended) is to confound visible light with optics in general and use BRL 2 / B R L Q for optics in general and visible light.

3R 3RQ V 3RQX 3TF

. . Practical & experimental optics . . . Materials & equipment . . . . Undesired effects Aberration (optics) . . . . Operations on materials & . . . . equipment Testing & monitoring . . . . Properties Special to optical materials Reflectivity (equipment properties) . . . . Materials Optical film Coatings Optical fibres

3TG 3TP 3U

Optical glass Light sensitive materials . . . . Equipment & plant

B R L 36 3B 3B3 71

3BK

3ML

* For fibre optics, see B6L F C T .

* Equipment serving particular processes, etc. goes with t h e process. But although some of t h e devices below primarily perform a particular operation in optics, (eg mirrors reflect) they may a p p e a r in many different contexts and are therefore treated as general accesories. * When used in a particular process, wave-length, etc. see latter; eg Absorption - Filters BRL FL4 UF. Filters BK * When t r e a t e d as a component in a containing i n s t r u m e n t , see latter; eg microscope mirrors B R L 7J4 WM. * For light sources, see Production BRL 73; see also Physical optics BRL F

BRL4

Optical properties of bulk matter [Energy interactions Si forms BRAF] [Electrical Si magnetic properties BRGY] [E-m waves by frequency Si wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Practical Si experimental optics BRL36] [Materials Si equipment BRL3B] [Equipment Si plant BRL3U]

BRL 4 45

Optical instruments . Optical components * Use BRL 4U/X.

. . Special 4UF

. . . . . 4UF P 4UF S 4UH

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

4UY 4V 4V3 71 4V3 7IK 4V3 7IL 4V3 7IM 4V3 7IN 4V3 7IP 4V3 7IQ 4V3 7IR 4V3 7IS

. . . . . .

* For filters controlling particular processes, etc, see latter - eg Absorption - Filters BRL F L 4 U F .

* See also Phosphors BRLFH3TP

. . . Fluorescent screens . . Rangefinders (optical . . instruments) . . Lenses & prisms . . (together) . . . Lenses Aberrations Image error (lenses) Aperture error Sperical aberration Coma (lenses) Curvature of field Astigmatism (lenses) Distortion (lenses) Chromatic aberration, chromatism Properties

4V3 JM 4V3 JN 4V3 JP

4V3 JR

[Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Special to optics] [Lenses Si prisms together BRL4UY] [Lenses BRL4V] . [Parts] . . [Surfaces lenses BRL4V3NB] . . . [Bloomed surfaces BRL4V3NC]

BRL 4V3NE 4V3 NH 4V3 NI

optics

. . . . Spatial filters . . . . Spectral filters . . . Luminescence devices . . . . . . . .

4UH L 4UR

to

. . . Optical filters, light . . . filters

Principal focus Principal focal plane Focal length, refractivity of lens system Field of view, visual field, image field

BRL4WT

. . Apertures . . Stops (optical equipment), diaphragms . . . Iris diaphragms . Types

4VC 4VD

. . . 4VD L 4VE

lenses

* Hypothetical, infinitely thin lens.

. . . Cylindrical lenses . . Thick lenses (general) . . .

4VF 4VG 4VH 4VI 4VJ 4VK 4VL 4VM 4VN 4VO 4VQ 4VR 4VS 4VT 4VU

of

. . Eyepieces, oculars . . Thin lenses (general), astigmatic lenses

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Real lens, as distinct from infinitely thin lens.

Achromatic lenses Apochromatic lenses Contact lenses Helical lenses Quadruple lenses Spherical lenses Aspherical lenses Gas lenses Zoom lenses Refracting prisms Converging lenses Diverging lenses Complex lens systems Geodesic lenses, integrated optics Other forms of lens

. . .

* Arrange A/Z; eg tone plates BL5 VXZ.

4WB

Prisms

4WC

. Beam splitters

4WD

. Nicol prisms

4WF 4WG 4WM 4WN 4WP 4WQ 4WS

Reflectors Gratings Mirrors . Schmidt corrector, Schmidt plates . Plane mirrors . Spherical mirrors, curved mirrors Polarizers

4WT

. Piles (optics)

* See also Lenses Si prisms (together) BRL 4UY . .

* Arrangement of 3 prisms. * See also Polarizers BRL 4WS

* See also Nicol prisms BRL 4WD

Parts 4V3NB 4V3 NC

Surfaces (lenses) Bloomed surfaces, coated surfaces (lenses), blooming

105

BRL4WU

Optical properties of bulk matter

BRLEYBBI

[Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Practical & experimental optics BRL36] [Materials & equipment BRL3B] . . [Optical instruments BRL4] . . . [Optical components BRL45] [Lenses & prisms together BRL4UY] [Polarizers BRL4WS] [Piles optics BRL4WT]

BRL 4WU 4WY 4WY 4WY 4WY 4WY 4WY 4X

C D F H I K

Kerr cells Collimators, finders Autocollimators Focusing instruments Optical scanners Flying spot scanners Isolators (light) . . . Components special to a type of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BRL 7IF V 7IX 7J 7M 8M

72

. . . . . . . . . . . . 73 73K 74G 74T 74V 76

7A 71 7IC N 7IC P 7ID 7IE 7IE G

instruments

* For control of specific properties, etc. see the latter; eg Luminance - Control B R L L R 7 2..

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

Production . Light sources Detecting & indicating Recording . Scanning Measurement

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. Testing & evaluation . Imaging . . Optical transfer function . . . Phase transfer function . . Beam handling . . . Focusing, beam focusing Beam trapping, optical self-focusing

* Measurement of particular phenomena goes with the phenomenon; eg Diffractometers B R L F Q 7 64. * For Photometry, see BRL L76.

* See also Thermal blooming BRL FCL R 7IE 7IF 7IF 7IF 7IF

106

H H S T

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

9M

Self-trapping Resolution Modulation Scanning Projection

* For Non-linear optics, see BRL 9M; for Coherent optics see BRL PF; for Lasers ii Masers, see B6K QM.

Non-linear systems . Non-linear optics (general) . . . . . . . .

* For instruments serving a particular purpose, see latter; eg Magnification - Microscopy BL7J.

Investigative techniques in optics . Physical methods . By operations on the phenomena . . Control . . . Optical control

62 69

Collimation Magnification Microscopy . . . Spectroscopy . Quantum optics

....

. . . . . .

optics

* See particle optics imaging (BM7 I) for example.

. . . Types of optical

S

[Bulk matter physics BR] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Practical & experimental optics BRL36] . [Investigative techniques in optics BRL62) . . [By operations on the phenomena] . . . [Imaging BRL7I] . . . . [Beam handling BRL7ID] [Projection BRL7IFT]

. . . . . . . .

* Studies electro-optical effects of very intense light beams and how the light interacts with and is propagated through matter. * See also specific properties, processes, etc. treated as non-linear systems; e.g. Optical phase conjugation BRL FEY; Stimulated scattering BRL FTM. * See also Quantum optics BRL 8M

9NP . Adaptive optics AF Energy interactions & forms BB . Energy BB9 2D . . Distribution of energy BB9 2DM . . . Spectral distribution of energy BB92DN BB92DP DA EXJ EYB BF

. . . (optics) . . . . Equal energy spectrum Relative spectral distribution, spectral density . Kinematics . . Velocity . . Transients . . Radiant flux . . . . . .

EYB BI

* For luminous flux, see Luminosity BRL LBB F.

. . Radiant intensity . . . Radiance . . Wave motion

BRLF

Physical optics (bulk matter) Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Electrical Si magnetic properties BRGY] [E-m waves by frequency Si wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions Si forms BRLAF] [Kinematics BRLDA] [Wave motion]

BRL F

Physical optics (bulk matter), electromagnetic optics (bulk matter) * Light as electromagnetic waves; for geometrical optics, see Rays BRL GC.

FC

Propagation, transmission

* For optical fibres, see Optical techniques BRL 3TF.

FC2 QK

FC4 FC4 UF FCD C FCI FCL

FCL S F CM FD FD7T FD7U FDM FE FE7 3

FH3 T P

Instruments . Filters Velocity of propagations Transmissivity Amplification * For laser techniques, see B6K S

. . Thermal blooming . . (nonlinear optics) . . Parametric oscillation . . amplification Attenuation Frequency . Conversion (optical frequency) . . Optical harmonic . . generation . Mixing frequency (nonlinear optics) Spectra . Production * For diffraction gratings, see BRLFQ4PW.

Phase . Optical phase conjugation Coherence

FGQ FGQ S

. Transients . . Optical coherent transients Emission . Exitance, emittance . . Luminous exitance . . Radiant excitance, radiant . . emittance . Incandescence . . Candoluminescence

. . Materials . . . Phosphors

of

. . . Fluorescence . . . . . . . .

luminescence

* Luminescence ceases on removal of energy source.

. . . Phosphorescence . . By method

of

excitation

. . . Triboluminescence . . . .

* By friction.

. . . .

* Optical aspects only.

FHP H FHQ FHQ R FHR FHRT FHR U FHS FHS W FHT C FHT E

. . . Sonoluminescence . . . Thermoluminescence . . . . Radiothermoluminescence . . . Electroluminescence . . . . Galvanoluminescence . . . . Cathodoluminescence . . . Photoluminescence . . . . Radiophotoluminescence . . . Chemiluminescence . . . Bioluminescence

FHV FI FIJ E FIJ G FIJ H

Wavetrain Transparence . Transparent bodies behaviour . Self-induced transparence . Non-transparence

FIK FIL

Translucence Opacity

FIM FL

Visibility Absorption . Filters . . Absorption filters . Dichroism

. .

* For shadows, see BRL FTH.

* Reciprocal of transmittance BRL FC2 QK.

FL4 UF FLQ

* For coherent light, see BRL PF.

FFC F FG FGK FGO FGP

* Emission resulting from non-thermal processes. * For luminosity, see BRL L.

. . By duration FHL

FHP B

. . . . .

. Luminescence . . . . . .

FHN

. . . .

FEX FEY FF

BRL FH

. . . . .

. . . . FCLR

[Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions Si forms BRLAF] [Kinematics BRLDA] [W ave motion] [Emission BRLFG] . [Incandescence BRLFGQ] . . [Candoluminescence BRLFGQS]

. Coefficients . . Transmittance optics,

transmission coefficient * See also Opacity BRL FIL

BRLFM9BI

. . . . FLR FLT FLX FM FM4 FM4 UR FM9 BI

* Selective absorption by crystals in one plane and not another.

. . Pleochroism . . .

* Colour effects of dichroism.

. . .

* See also Schlieren device B6L FQ

. Trichroism Refraction & reflection (together) . Refraction . . Instrumentation . . Rangefinders . . Refractive index

107

BRLFM9BIP

Optical properties of bulk matter

BRLFUP

[Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions ¿c forms BRLAF] [Kinematics BRLDA] [W ive motion] [Refraction Si reflection together BRLFLX] . [Refraction BRLFM] . . [Refractive index BRLFM9BI]

B R L FM9 B I P FMJ

. . . Becke line . . Double refraction, birefringence, . . photoelastic effect . . . . . .

* See also Double refraction techniques B6LKMJ

. . . By medium

FML FN FN4 FN4 UF FNL FNL 3R FNL 3 T F FNM FNM R FNQ

. . . . Circular birefringence . . . . Elliptical birefringence . . . . Stress birefringence, mechanical .... birefringence, photoelasticity . . . Extraordinary rays . Reflection . . Instrumentation . . . Reflection filters . . Total internal reflection . . . Materials . . . . Optical fibres . . Surface reflection . . . Fresnel reflection Images (optics)

FNQ FNQ FNQ FNQ FNQ FNQ FNQ FNQ FNR FNS FNS

. . . . . . . . . . .

FMJM FMJ N FMJ P

371 4 4L 4SS 4TU 62 73P 73R

T

. . .

. . Plane of polarity . . Degree of polarization . . . Depolarization

FP73LE FP73LG FP7 3LJ FP7 3LK FP7 3M FP7 3MN FP7 3MP

. . . . . . .

. . By source

. . Irregular crystals . . Quartz . . Other crystals . . Amorphous substances . . Wave surfaces of refraction . . . Single-sheet surfaces . . . Double-sheet surface

. . Effects of particular media, structures . . . Ray axes, optic axes (polarization) . Measurement

. Properties

. Types of . . . .

FPS FPT FPU FPV FQ FQ4 FQ4 FWG FQ4 FWH FR

polarization

* For birefringence, see Double refraction BRL FMJ.

. . Plane polarization . . Circular polarization . . Elliptical polarization . . Chromatic polarization Diffraction . Instrumentation . . Diffraction gratings . . . Echelon gratings, echelles Interference * For holography, see B7K.

FR4 FR4 V FRL FRN FRO FT

. Instrumentation . . Interferometers . . Interference filters . Interference fringes . Interference patterns . . Inclusion pattern interference . . . Labradorescence Scattering

. Types of scattering by particle

. . . . FTH FTM

. . . .

FTN FTO FTP FTP W FTQ FTR FTS

. . . . . . .

* For laser techniques, see B6K S.

Brillouin scattering Mie scattering Raman scattering . Coherent antiStokes Raman . scattering Rayleigh scattering Tyndall effect

. Types of scattering special to a particle . . . .

FUF FUP

* See note under Types of scattering at BFT. * Add to B R L F T letters J / M following B M F T if required.

. Shadows . Stimulated scattering (general) . .

* For Kerr effect, see B R L J P .

. . . Rotatory power (polarization) . . . Optical activity

108

FPQ B FPQ D FPQ E

* For holography, see B7K.

Polarization . Production . . Rotation of plane of polarization

FP73DR FP73DV

FP7 3MR

FP7 64T

. . Polarimetry . . . Polarimeters, polariscopes . . . . Instrumental outputs Polaroids

B R L FP7 6 F P 7 64

* See also imaging as a technique, B7I

Aberrations Instrumentation . Converters (images) . Detectors (images) . Intensifiers (images) Investigative techniques . Image processing & restoration . Reduction (images) Real images Virtual images Stereoscopic images

. .

FP FP7 3 FP7 3D

[E-m waves by frequency & wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions Si forms BRLAF] [Kinematics BRLDA] [Wave motion] [Polarization B R L F P ] . [Measurement]

* For example, Coulomb scattering BNG F T S .

Diffusion Dispersion

BRLFUP4

Optical properties of bulk matter Blectrical & magnetic properties BRGY] |E-m waves by frequency it wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions & forms BRLAF] [Kinematics BRLDA] . [Wave motion] . . [Dispersion BRLFUP]

. . .

GC

GH

Interactions with other energy forms . Acoustooptics, acoustic optics

GN

. . Sonoluminescence

FWR FWS FYN

. . Instrumentation . . . Dispersion prisms . Types of light motion . . Spherical waves . . Cylindrical waves . . Solitons . . Rays . . . Geometrical optics (bulk matter) * See also Optical instruments BRL 4

* See also Brillouin scattering BRL FTN . . . GP H IU J JM JN JP JQ JS JT M

BRL KY L

Special optical properties . Optical illusions . Luminosity . . . . . .

L76 L76 4 L78 Q

. . . .

Thermooptics Electrooptics . Stark effect . Magneto-optical effects . . Named effects . . . Couton-Mouton effect (magneto... optics) . . . Faraday effect . . . Kerr effect, magneto-optical effect Pockels effect . . . . Voigt e f f e c t (magneto-optics) . . . . Zeeman effect (magneto-optics) . Relations with particles * Add to BRL M letters LX/Q following B if applicable.

& processes

* Attribute of light sources which give visual sensation of brightness. * See also Luminescence BRL FH

. Measurement . . Photometry (light) . . . Photometers . . . Physical photometry * Measurement by physical receptors, radiometers, etc.

L78 R

....

Visual photometry, subjective photometry * Evaluation by visual effect in the eye of the observer.

* Produced by high-frequency sound waves.

. . . . . . . . .

. . . .

[Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Electrical h magnetic properties BRGYj [E-m waves by frequency It wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] [Energy interactions & forms BRLAF] [Interactions with other energy forms] . [Relations with particles BRLM]

* For optical rotation, see BRL FP7 3D.

. . . . . . . .

BRL FUP 4 FUP 4V

BRLML

LBB F LBB G LBB I

LBB 177 LFH R LM LN LR LT M M76 M78 Q M78R M8B M8V

. . . . . .

. Radiant flux . . Luminous flux, light flux . . . Illuminance, light flux density, ... illumination density . . . Luminous intensity, light ... intensity, candlepower Units Candela . . . Electroluminescence . . Radiant quantities . . Luminous quantities . . Luminance, brightness . . Shade . Colour . . Measurement . . . Colorimetry . . . . Spectral methods (colour) . . . . Comparison method (colour), .... empirical method (colour) . . Theory . . . By specific theorists . . . .

MFD

. . . . . . . . MFN MFN N MH ML

* A/Z by name; eg Goethe.

. . Frequency . . . Physical colour . . . .

. . . . . . .

*For physiological colour, see BRL MV.

Reflection . Surface colour Electrochromism Luminosity . Brightness Special chromatic

properties

109

BRLMM

Special optical properties & processes

BRLPP

Electrical & magnetic properties BRGY] [E-m waves by frequency Si wavelength] [Optical properties of bulk m a t t e r BRL] [Energy interactions Si forms BRLAF] [Special optical properties Si processes] [Colour BRLM] [Special chromatic properties]

BRLMM

. Chromaticity . . . . .

MM7 6 MM7 6T MM7 6V MN MNP MNR MP MQ MR

. . . . .

* Objective description of the colour BRL NMJ quality of a visual stimulus NMK irrespective of its luminance. Chromaticity Si luminance together NML completely specify a colour stimulus. NMM

. . Measurement . . Chromaticity coordinates . . Tristimulus values . Colour diagrams . . Two-dimensional colour . . representation . . Three-dimensional colour . . representation . Chrominance . Saturation (colour), chroma Composition of colours * For shade, see luminosity BRL LT.

MU MV

NC NE

NF NFN NFP NH NJ

. . . . . .

* F o r physical colour, see wavelength BRL M F D .

. Hue Primary colours . Colour equations . Operations . . Mixing colours (operation) . . . Additive mixing (colours)

NMB

....

Blue group Specific colours

NMS NMT NMV

.... ....

Indigo Violet group Specific colours

NP

. . Colour systems, chromatic systems

* Eg yellowish green, pure green.

* Eg ice blue, turquoise.

* Eg bluish violet, purple. . . . . . . . . . NPQ NPS NQ NR NS NT

. . . . .

. . . . .

White Grey Black Red group . Specific colours * E g carmine, pink.

. . Objective colour systems . . Subjective colour systems . . Monochromatic systems . . Dichromatic systems . . Trichromatic systems . . . Physiological chromatic systems Named systems * Arrange A / Z ; eg Abney, OSA.

OB OC OD OE

. Equivalent colours . By wavelength . . Colour groups * For physical colour, see BRL M F D

. . . . . .

* Representation of colours in terms of a specific set of coordinates (eg wavelength, luminosity).

* See also physiological colour BRL MV; equivalent colours BRL NK

NV NW NX

. . . .

110

NMQ NMR

. . . . Subtractive mixing .... (colours) Colour filter transmission Pigment mixing . Secondary colours . Complementary colour, compensatory colour

. . . . . . NMD NME NMF NMG NMH

* Eg reddish yellow, cream.

Green group Specific colours

NU

* Giving white when mixed.

* Eg reddish orange, brown.

Yellow group Specific colours ....

* Eg mixing coloured lights as in TV.

. . NK

. . . . Orange group Specific colours

NMN NMP

Types of colours . Colourlessness . Physiological colour . . . .

MW NB NB2M

[Optical properties of bulk m a t t e r BRL] [Energy interactions Si forms BRLAF] [Special optical properties Si processes] . [Colour BRLM] . . [Types of colours] . . . [By wavelength] . . . . [Red group BRLNMG] [Specific colours BRLNMH]

. . . Tetrachromatic systems . . . Thermochromatic systems . . . Photochromatic systems Other special optical properties . Optical bistability . Optical multistability . Optical switching (non-linear optics) . Optical properties of substances (general) Types of light by property * Add to BRL P letters C / Y following BF; * Add to BRL P Q letters A / D following BG; eg

PF

. Coherent light . .

P F F CK PM PN PP

. . . .

* F o r lasers, see B6K KS.

. Light modulation Refracted light Reflected light Polarized light

BRLPWC

Optical properties of bulk matter [Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] [Electrical & magnetic properties BRGY] . [E-m waves by frequency Se wavelength] . . [Optical properties of bulk matter BRL] . . . [Energy interactions Se forms BRLAF] . . . . [Types of light by property] [Polarized light BRLPP]

BRL PWC PWD PX PYH QB QN QP U UFE UN UR V

Isotropic light Anisotropic light Light pulses Continuous light waves Beams light . . . . By source Natural light Artificial light . . . . By frequency & wavelength Infrared radiation Spectra Near infrared radiation Far infrared radiation Light, visible light

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [Energy interactions & forms BRAF] . [Particle physics of bulk matter BRM] . . [Nuclear physics of bulk matter BRMO]

States of matter, physical phases (states of matter), systems of bulk matter, forms of matter, phases

BRN

* new file bu2.sch 27.6.97; 3.7.97; 22.7.97; 14.8.97 20.8.97; 12.11.97; 29.6.98; 31.7.98; 12.8.98; 27.8.98 * For the effects of these on chemical behaviour, see Chemistry C. BRN 9HH

X

XN XP XQ XT

. . . . .

. . Ultraviolet radiation . . . Long wave ultraviolet radiation . . . Vacuum ultraviolet radiation, far ... ultraviolet radiation . . X-rays, Roentgen rays

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . Grenz rays, Infra-Roentgen rays . . . . Continuous X-rays, Bremsstrahlung Cosmic ray X-rays . . Gamma radiation . . . . . .

YU YV

* Penetrating electro-magnetic radiation, usually generated by accelerating electrons to bombard a solid body, or by inner shell transition of atoms.

* High energy photons, especially as emitted by a nucleus in a transition between two energy levels.

. . . Non-solar gamma radiation . . H-alpha radiation, alpha radiation . . .

* See Nuclear reactions BOF KR

BRM

Particle physics of bulk matter, high energy physics of bulk matter

BRM O

. Nuclear physics of bulk matter

* Add to BRM letters M / Q following B; eg

. Processes . . Change of state of system . . .

P

* Use BRN P.

. . Change of state, thermodynamic . . changes of state, phase changes . . . . . . . . . . . .

* See notes at BRL. W WN WV

BRNP94S

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Process by which a substance changes from one state to another without a change in temperature; accompanied by change in volume and in degree of randomness in the internal structure. * Note that 'phase' is also used to represent a particular chemical substance in a mixture, or a particular crystal structure in a mixture of such structures. If these meanings arise in this class, the array (Systems by number of components) is provided, at BRR N. Here, 'phase' means a state of matter.

. . . Mathematics . . . . Equations Named equations P2M 9NB Boyle-GayLussac equation P2M 9NC Clapeyron equation P2M 9NV Van der Waals equation . . . Conditions, parameters, influences P94 BC . . . . Degrees of freedom P94 C . . . . Critical point P94 E . . . . Volume P94 F Constant volume P94 G Decreasing volume P94 H Increasing volume P94 J . . . . Pressure P94JC Critical pressure P94 K Constant pressure P94 L Decreasing pressure P94M Increasing pressure P94 N Other pressure conditions

P2M 9L

* Add to BRN P94 N letters P / S following BSB J if applicable. P94 0 P94 P P94 PC P94 Q P94R P94 S

. . . . Velocity . . . . Thermal conditions Critical temperature Constant temperature Adiabatic change of state Decreasing temperature Cooling (change of state)

111

BRNP94T

States of matter

BRQOBB

States of matter BRN] [Processes] [Change of state BRNP] [Conditions] . [Thermal conditions BRNP94P] . . [Decreasing temperature] . . . [Cooling change of state BRNP94S]

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Processes] . [Change of state BRNP] • • [Types of change by states involved BRO]

Subsystems, . . . .

* For heat loss in general, see BRG T.

. . . . Supercooling . . Increasing temperature P94 V . . . Heating (change of state)

BRN P94 T

. . . . P94 W P94 Y P95 P96 P97 R

* For heat gain in general, see BRG XJ.

. . . . Superheating . Electro-magnetic conditions . . Electrical conditions . . Magnetic conditions . . Radiation conditions Phase transformations, phase transitions * For transitions in a particular state of matter, see the latter. * For order-disorder transformations, see solid solutions BVU SNR.

R94 E S

. Critical points . . Critical state, transition points . Latent heat, specific latent heat . . . .

T TP TR TT TY U

. . . .

. . . . .

Phase equilibrium . Phase diagrams, constitution diagrams . Phase rule . Triple point, three-phase equilibrium Commensurate-incommensurate transformation . Allotropic transformation . .

V BRO

* Quantity of heat absorbed or released in thermal phase transformation. Change of internal energy of a physical system without change of temperature. * See also Thermochemistry C

* For allotropes, see Chemistry C

. Isothermal transformations Types of change by states involved * This class is used only when qualifying a particular state of matter. * See the states of matter involved. In the case of two different states, the denser one is cited first; eg both liquid into solid and solid into liquid go under solids (see BVO L). Note that the same citation order applies to mixed states of matter (dispersions); see note at BRT.

BRP W BRQ BRQ 36 6LF Q 6LF QR 6LF R

. . . . . . . .

Impurities (states of matter) Surfaces . Practical & experimental . . Diffraction techniques . . . Low energy electron diffraction . . Interferometry . . . Surface interferometry . Properties & processes

. . . 9J 9JV BB

* For surface chemistry, see Physical chemistry C

. . . Structure . . . . Profile, contours Microtopography of surfaces . . . Energy . . . . Surface activity, surface energy * For surface tension, see BRQ BLX.

Potential energy Potential barrier, potential hill Quantum effects BBQ 8 0 Tunnelling BBQ T Adhesion BBQ X Sorption physics BBR Absorption BBS Adsorption . . . Tension BLX . . . . Surface tension BLXM Wetting BLX P Angle of contact CA . . . Friction

BBP BBQ

. . . . EY FGK FNH FNI FNJ FNK H HWB HWJ L LFG 0 LFG P M

* Add to BRQ M letters M / Q following B.

. . Interfaces . . .

OBB

* See Solids - Surfaces BVQ CA

. . . Radiation properties . . . . Exitance . . . . Reflectance Specular reflectance Diffuse reflectivity Total relectivity . . . Electromagnetic properties . . . . Resistance . . . . Resistivity . . . Optical properties . . . . Luminous exitance . . . . Radiant exitance, radiant emittance . . . Relations to particle physics . . . .

0

112

parts

* Each subsystem may be divided in the same way as a system. See Add instructions at BRR.

* Surface separating two physical phases.

. . . Energy . . . . Interfacial energy . . . . Surface tension

BRQOBLX

Subsystems

BRTY

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics [States of matter [Systems by . [Mixtures

[Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Subsystems] . [Surfaces BRQ] . . [Interfaces BRQO] . . . [Energy] . . . . [Surface tension]

BRR S

. . Solutions . . .

Interfacial surface tension

BRQ OBL X

U V

* For skin friction, see aerodynamic drag BTB TKP. OT OU P

Q R RR RT RU RV RW sc SG T TBJ

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

* General studies only, covering solid & liquids films & fluid molecular layers.

. Thin films . . Formation . . . Unctuosity, oiliness . . Molecular films . . . Monomolecular layers (films) . . Plateau figures . . Minimum surfaces, soap bubbles . Thick films . Coatings . Membranes, porous media . . Pressure

. . . . TO BRR

X

Systems

by simplifying

assumptions

* Use only when the system is distinguishable from the properties qualifying the state of matter. * Add to BRR letters D / F following AYK; eg perfect gases BTR D.

. Ideal medium, perfect medium Systems by number of components

BRS N NRO NRS

T TRO TU TV TW TX TY BRT

BRT HBH HDE HDF HDG HDH

* See note at BRT for citation order between the states involved in a mixture, etc.

* Physical studies only; for solutions (critical mixtures) see physical chemistry, C

. Heterogeneous systems, inhomogeneous systems, multiple phase systems . . Mixtures . . Anomalous systems . . Binary systems (bulk matters) . . Ternary systems (bulk matter) . . Quaternary systems (bulk matter) . . Five phases or more [ . . Disperse systems, mixed states of matter, . . dispersions . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* A system of particles dispersed and suspended in a solid, liquid or gas. * Physical considerations only; most of the literature goes in physical chemistry. If in doubt, prefer physical chemistry. * Mixtures, solutions, colloid dispersion, etc. of one state in another state go under the denser state; eg gases in liquids go under liquids. * Use -U to introduce states dispersed in a system; eg BVU G Solids - Dispersions in Gas in solid.

. . . . . .

. . . Electro-magnetic field . . . . Electrokinetic effect Streaming potential Sedimentation potential Electrophoresis * For electrosmosis, see Membranes BRQ TO.

U

. . . Suspensions . . . .

V

Y

* See fluids BST U

. . . Colloids . . . . .

. Single component systems . Mixtures (general) . . . .

. Homogeneous systems, single phase systems . . Mixtures . . . Solutions (general) . . . . . . . .

* Phases other than those represented by states of matter. See note at BRN P. N 0

* See homogeneous systems BRS NRS

. . Two component systems . . Three component systems . . Four component systems . . Five or more component systems Systems by number of phases * Phase here means a state of matter, not a chemical substance or crystal structure. * For Allotropic systems, see Class C Chemistry.

* For osmotic pressure, see Liquids BUB JSO

. . . . Electrosmosis, electroendosmosis Systems by state of matter * Systems defined by particular physical properties (eg isotropic, low pressure, electrically conducting) are treated as indistinguishable from the state of matter qualified by the property; so dense liquids (say) are classified as Liquids - Density BUC L. * Each system may be divided as follows (where hyphen represents the dasmark of the system): * Add to - letters A/L following B; * Add to - M letters M / Q following B; * Add to - letters N / T following BR; eg Homogeneous systems - Mixtures BRS NRO. * Add to - U letters RU/V following BR for states dispersed in the medium (see note and example at BRT).

BRRD

w

. . Contact surfaces . . Free surfaces . . Types by materials interfacing Films (states of matter), surface films

BR] BRN] number of components] general BRRO]

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

* Consist of ultramicroscopic particles, intermediate between those of a true solute and those of a suspension. Most substances can be brought to the colloidal state by suitable technique.

. . . Composite materials

113

BRU

States of matter

BRV73WG

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Systems by number of phases] . [Heterogeneous systems B R S T ] . . [Disperse systems BRT] . . . [Composite materials B R T Y ]

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Displaying the distribution throughout one material of another material in fine particle form.

Systems

by particular

[Physics B] [Bulk matter physics BR] [States of matter BRN] [Systems by particular state of matter] [Plasmas