Barley, Malt and Ale in the Neolithic 9781841713526, 9781407326245

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Barley, Malt and Ale in the Neolithic

Merryn Dineley

BAR International Series 1213 2004

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1213 Barley, Malt and Ale in the Neolithic © Merryn Dineley and the Publisher 2004 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841713526 paperback ISBN 9781407326245 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713526 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2004. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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C on ten t s

C on ten t s A b s t rac t , a cknow ledgemen t s L i s to fi lu s t ra t ion s

i

I NTRODUCT ION

v i i

CHAPTER ONE : T he C onve r s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l t s a nd A le

1

1 .T h et e chn ique sa nd b i ochem i s t ry o fb r ew ing a ) Ma l t ing :t h ec on t ro l led g e rm ina t ion o ft h eg r a in b )K i ln ing t h em a l t c )M a sh ing : t h ec onve r s ion o fs t a r che si n to m a l ts u ga r s d )O b ta in ing as wee tw o r tf o rf e rm en ta t ion e )B o i l ing t h ew o r tw i th f l avou r ing sa nd p r e se rva t ive s f )F e rmen ta t ion ;t h ec onve r s ion o fs u ga r si n to a l coho l

2 2 3 4 6 9 9

2 .N ece ssa ry ma te r ia ls a nd e qu ipmen t

1 0

CHAPTER TWO : Add i t ive st oP re se rve a nd F lavou rA le

1 3

1 .A dd i t ive s u sed i n Med ieva l a nd V ik ing t ime s 2 .A rchaeo log ica l e v idence : h e rba l a dd i t ives i np reh is to r ic E u rope

1 3 1 4

CHAPTER THREE : B a r ley i nt h eL evan t ,A nc ien tN ea rE a s ta nd E gyp t

1 9

1 .T he ' b read /beer ' d eba te 2 .H un t ing a nd g a ther ing g roups : N ea rE a s t /Levan ti nt h e 9f ia nd 8t h m i l lenn ia BC 3 .E a r ly g r a in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing i nt h e 7f ia nd 6t h m i l lenn ia BC 4 .E a r ly p o t tery n eo l i th ic c u l tu res i nt h e 6f ia nd 5t h m i l lenn ia BC 5 .F e rmen ta t ion o fb a r ley wo r t i nt h e 4f i a nd 3r d m i l lenn ia BC 6 .B rew ing i nE gyp t i nt h e 31 d a nd 2n d m i l lenn ia BC

1 9 1 9 2 2 2 3 2 5 2 6

CHAPTER FOUR : G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E u rope

2 9

1 .T he t r an s i t ion t oa gr icu l tu re i nE u rope 2 .E u ropean N eo l i th ic : 6t h a nd 5f im i l lenn ia BC 3 .L a te Meso l i th ic a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic : 5f i a nd 4f im i l lenn ia 4 .N eo l i th ic g roups : 4f i a nd 3r d m i l lenn ia BC

2 9 2 9 3 3 3 6

CHAPTER F IVE : T he S tone B u i ld ing so ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

4 1

1 .N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o fO rkney : 4f i a nd 3t d m i l lenn ia BC K nap o f Howa r ,P apa Wes t ray B a rnhouse , ma in land O rkney S ka ra B rae , S ka i l l B ay , ma in land O rkney R inyo , B ig land R ound , R inyo O the rO rcad ian s e t t lemen t s 2 . Women i nN eo l i th ic O rkney

4 1 4 2 4 8 5 1 5 8 6 0 6 0

CHAPTER S IX : T he G rooved Wa re C u l tu re i nN eo l i th ic B r i ta in

6 3

1 .T he t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu re 2 .S u i tab le p o t te ry v es se ls f o ra l e 3 .O rgan ic r e s idues 4 .S u i tab le b u i ld ings 5 .D ur r ing ton Wa l ls 6 .I n terp re t ing N eo l i th ic t imbe rb u i ld ing s 7 .T he G rooved Wa re c u l tu re

6 3 6 3 6 5 6 8 7 0 7 1 7 2

SU M MARY AND D ISCUSS ION

7 5

CONCLUS IONS

7 7

B IBL IOGRAPHY

7 9

A b s t rac t A r lene I s b i s te r , a n a r t is t f r om H a r ray , O rkney , d emon s t ra ted t h e u se o f h aema t i te a s ap igmen t a nd s he a l so i n t roduced me t o t h e a cadem ic w o rk o f D r H i lda E l l i s D av id son . T hank s a r e d ue t o S am D ine ley f o r r e -fo rma t t ing t h e t h e s is f o r p ub l ica t ion a nd f o r h i s w o rk o n s cann ing a nd l a be l l ing t h e i lus t ra t ion s , map s a nd d i ag rams . E ve ry e f for t h a s b een made t o c on tac t t h e p ub l ishe r s a nd a u tho r s f o r c opy r igh tp e rm is s ion t or ep roduce t h e i ri lus t ra t ion s . H a r ry F l e t t , C u ra to r o ft h e C o r r iga l l F a rm Museum , H a r ray , O rkney , g r ew a nd ma l ted B e re b a r ley t h a t w a s u sed i ns ome o f t h e ma sh ing a nd b rew ing e xper imen t s . H e s ha red h i s e xpe r iences a nd h i s p rac t ica l k now ledge o f t r ad i t iona l f l oo r ma l t ing t e chn ique s . F awce t t 's Ma l t s te r s o f C a s t lefo rd , D e rby sh i re a l so p rov ided t r ad i t iona l ly f l oo r ma l ted g ra in f o r t h e e xpe r imen ta l ma sh ing w o rk . T h i s c ompany i so ne o f t h e l a s t r ema in ing t r ad i t iona l f l oo r ma l t s te r s i nt h e B r i t ish I s les . Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ank M r J ame s F awce t t f o r h i s i n te res t i nt h is r e sea r ch a nd f o r s ha r ing h i s i n d ep th k now ledge o f t h e a nc ien t c r af t o f f l oo rm a l t ing .

ABSTRACT T he k eys tone o f t h is t h e s i s i st h a t t h e b iochem ica l l aws t h a t g over n t h e p roce sse s o f ma l t ing , ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion r ema in u nchanged t h roughou t t h e m i l lenn ia . T he refo re , t h e p rac t ica l , s c ience -ba sed e xpe r imen t s a r e a v a l id m ean s o fe xam in ing t h ese p roces ses a nd o fa s se ss ing a n a s semb lage p a t te rn o r ' a rchaeo log ica l s i gna tu re ' f o r g ra in p roce s s ing , ma l t ing a nd b rew ing a c t iv i ty i nt h ep a s t . T h i s r e sea rch b egan b y s t udy ing t h e p robab le t e chn ique s a nd m e thods o f ma l t s te r s a nd b r ewe r s i n t h e B ronze A ge . T he f o cus s oon t u rned t o t h e N eo l i th ic , g i ven t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f c e rea l -ba sed r e s idue s m ixed w i th p o l len o n s he rd s f r om l a rge G rooved Wa re v e sse ls t h a t w e re d a ted t o t h e e a r ly 4t h m i l lenn ium BC , f ound a t ar i tua l a nd c e remon ia l s i te a tB a lfa rg , F if e , S co t land . B a r ley , a s w e l l a s b e ing as ou rce o fc a rbohyd ra te i n t h e d i e t i sa l so ap o ten t ia l s ou rce o f ma l t , ma l t s uga r s a nd a l e i fp roces sed c o r rec t ly . T he b iochem ica l a nd p rac t ica l a spec t s o f p roces s ing g ra in i n to s wee t ma l t s a nd a l e o n ad ome s t ic s ca le a r e d escr ibed i n C hap te r O ne , w i th i lus t ra t ion s o f t h e r e con s t ruc t ive e xpe r imen ta l w o rk u nde r taken i n ma sh ing , mak ing b a r ley ' c akes ' o r b app ir , o b ta in ing t h e s wee t w o r t f r om t h e ma sh a nd f e rmen t ing . I fa l e i st o k eep w e l l t h en h e rba l a dd i t ive s mus t b e a dded t ot h e w or t d ur ing t h e b o i l . H op s a r e c ur ren t ly u sed b u t i n Med ieva l t ime s a nd e a r l ie r , m eadow swee t a nd o the r c ommon h e rb s w ere u sed t op reser ve , e nhance o r f l avou r t h e a l e . T h is a spec to fb r ew ing i si n ves t iga ted i nC hap te r Two . C hap te r T h ree c on s ide r s t h e e a r l ies t g ra in g a there r s a nd p roces so r s o f t h e 9t h m i l lenn ium BC a nd t h e c on sequen t d eve lopmen t o f d ome s t ica t ion , c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce ss ing o f g ra in t h roughou tt h e L evan t ,t h eN ea rE a s t a nd E gyp t . C hap te r F ou r e va lua tes s ome o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o rt h ese p roce sses i nE u rope , f r om t h e eh t ot h e 31 . d m i l lenn ium BC . S pec if ic c u l tura l g roup s a r e c on s ide red , f o r e xamp le , t h e B u lga r ian s e t t lemen t t e l l s o f t h e 6t h a nd 5t h m i l lenn ia BC , t h e w idesp read a g r icu l tu ra l g roup s o f t h e 5t h a nd 4t h m i l lenn ia BC , k nown a s t h e L inea rbandke ram ik a nd t h e TRB o rF unne l B eaker c u l tu re o ft h e 4th a nd 3rd m i l lenn ia BC . T he c oa s ta l E uropean Me so l i th ic c u l tu res o f t h e 5t h a nd 4t h m i l lenn ia BC , k nown a s t h e E r tebo l le a nd E l le rbeck c u l tu res a r ea l so c ons ide red . C hap te r F ive i s a n a na ly s is o f t h e w e l l p reserved s t one b u i ld ing s o ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic t h a t d a te t ot h e z it h a nd 3 `d m i l lenn ia BC a nd C hap te r S ix a s sesses t h e G rooved Wa re c u l tu re o f ma in land B r i ta in a nd t h e p o ten t ia l f o r t r an sfo rm ing g r a in i n to s wee t ma l t s a nd a l e . T he r o le o f w omen a sg ra in c u l t iva to r s a nd p roce sso r s i sa l so c on s ide red .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iw ou ld l i ke t o a cknow ledge a n umbe r o f p eop le w ho h ave b een o f a s s is tance i nt h e p roduc t ion o ft h is t h e s i s . G raham D ine ley , ac ra f t b rewe r o f s ome t wen ty y ea r s ' e xpe r ience , d emon s t ra ted a nd e xp la ined t h e p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f b i ochem ica l t h eo ry i n d ome s t ic ma sh ing a nd b r ew ing p rac t ice . T he a dv ice a nd c ommen t s o fD rD av id C oomb s , my s uperv iso r a t Manche s te r U n ive r s i ty , w ere g r ea t ly a pp rec ia ted . D r S tua r t C ampbe l l , a l so o f Manches te r Un ive r s i ty , r e ad a nd c ommen ted u pon C hap te rT h ree .

1 1

L is to fI lus tra t ions

L is to fi lus tra t ions 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 5 1 . 6 1 . 7

S u i tab le e qu ipmen tt of e rmen t ab a r ley w o r t G rooved Wa re v esse ls f r om S ka ra B rae , O rkney I n s ide t h eg ra in b a rn , C o r r iga l l F a rm Museum , O rkney G round p l an o ft h e 2 00 y ea ro ld b a rn a tC o r r iga l l F a rm Mu seum T he e xcava ted r ema ins o ft h e U -shaped d i tch a tE be rd ingen -Hochdor f , n o r th G e rmany C a rbon ised ma l tf r om E be rd ingen -Hochdo r f S pa rg ing t h ew o r tw i th ag ra in b ag a nd b ucke t

1 1 3 4 5 5 6

1 . 8 1 . 9 1 . 10 1 . 11 1 . 12 1 . 13 1 . 14 1 . 15 1 . 16 1 . 17

E gyp t ian ma l t s te r s , ma she r sa nd b rewe r s P a le c r ushed ma l tm ixed w i th a bundan t w a te ri n as ea led p o t te ry b ow l T he s a ccha r if ica t ion o ft h eb a r ley ma sh R ec tangu la rh ea r th b a sed o nt h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic C rushed ma l ta nd s wee tb a r ley ma sh P u re s wee t ma l t l i qu id i n ac on ta ine ru sed t os t o re t h e b a r ley ma sh S e t t l ing a nd s e t t led wo r t T ab le o ft h eb a s ic e qu ipmen tf o rp roce ss ing g ra in i n to ma l t , s uga r s a nd a l e P o l len a na lys is f r om b eake rf ound a t Nor th Ma ins , S t ra tha l lan , S co t land P o l len a na lys i s f r om b eake rf ound a tA shg rove , F i fe , S co t land

6 7 7 8 8 8 8 1 0 1 1

2 . 1

G round I vy ( G lechmona h ed eracea )

1 5

2 . 2

B og Myr t le ( Myr ica g a le )

1 5

2 . 3 2 . 4 2 . 5 2 . 6

Meadowswee t( F i l ipendu la u lmar ia ) H enbane p lan t( Hyoscyamus n iger ) H enbane f l owe r T he f ood v es se l f r om Nor th m a in s , S t ra tha l lan , S co t land , w i th Meadowswee tf l owe r s

1 6 1 6 1 6 1 7

3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3

K a tz a nd Vo ig t 's t h eo r ie so fb i ocu l tu ra le vo lu t ion Map o ft h e N ea rE a s t a nd L evan tt os how s i tes d i scu ssed i nt h et e x t Wh i te w a re v es se ls f r om p r e -po t te ry s i te s i nt h e N ea rE a s t a nd L evan t

2 0 2 1 2 2

3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 6 3 . 7

P l a s te rs t a tue s f r om A in G ha za l ,J o rdan , c 6500 BC T he t e r raco t ta f i gur ine o f ag odde ss f ound i n ag ra in b in a tç a ta l H üyük , A na to l ia Wooden , s t one a nd p o t te ry v e sse l s f r om ç a ta l H üyük , A na to l ia E a r ly D yna s t ic s e a l i mp re ss ion sd ep ic t ing d r ink ing s c ene s

2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

4 . 1 4 . 2

Map t os how t h e s p read o fa g r icu l tu re f r om t h e F er t i le C rescen t i n to E u rope a nd B r i ta in Map t os how t h e a r ea s i n hab i ted b yt h e E r tebo l le a nd L inea rbandke ram ik c u l tu re s

3 0 3 0

4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9

G round p l an so f House 5 9 ,T e l l O vcho rovo , B u lga r ia C e ram ic ' s ieve ' s herd s f r om L inea rbandke ram ik s i tes L inea rbandke ram ik b ow l ,c up s ,f l in tk n ive s , a r rowheads a nd p o l ished s t one a dze s C ha rac te r is t ic E r te l :0 1 1e p o t te ry Map t os how s i tes o f Sw if te rban tg roup s e t t lemen ts C h rono log ica lc ha r t t os how E u ropean N eo l i th ic c u l tu res D r ink ing v esse l s ,b ak ing p l a t ea nd b ow l f r om TRB o rF unne lb eake rc u l tu re

3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7

4 . 10 4 . 11

As o -ca l led ' f ace p o t ' f r om s ou the rn S cand inav ia Av a r ie ty o fm idd le n eo l i th ic p o t te ry f ound i np a ssage g rave s , s ou thern S cand inav ia

3 8 3 8

4 . 12

S ome o ft h et ypes o fD rouwen B TRB p o t tery f r om w e s t H o l land

3 9

5 . 1 5 . 2

Map t os how t h e O rkney I s land s w i th t h e l o ca t ion o fs i te sd i scussed G round p lan o ft h e b u i ld ing sa tK nap o fH owa r , P apa We s t ray , O rkney

4 1 4 2

5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5

L a rge ,d eep p o t te ry v esse l f r om K nap o fH owa r W ide , s ha l low b ow l f r om K nap o fH owa r T he s ma l le rb u i ld ing ( Hou se 2 )a tK nap o fH owa rs how ing t h ee n t rance

4 3 4 3 4 4

5 . 6 5 . 7 5 . 8 5 . 9 5 . 10

V iew o fH ouse 2f r om b es ide t h ed oo rway , s how ing m idd le a nd r ea rs e c t ion s A rea sc on s t ruc ted a tt h er ea r( l ef t ) o f House 2t h a t may h ave b een u sed f o rs l eep ing o rr e s t ing S to rage p l aces i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e w a l lc on s t ruc t ion a tt h er ea r( r igh t )o fH ouse 2 T he p a s sage l e ad ing f r om H ou se 2i n to House 1t ot h er i gh to ft h e ma in e n t rance t oH ouse 2 T he d i f f e ren t s i zes o fd oo rway s i nH ouse 1a tK nap o fH owa r

4 4 4 5 4 5 4 6 4 6

5 . 11 5 . 12 5 . 13 5 . 14

T he l ow s t one c on s truc t ion o nt h e f l oo ri nH ouse 1 T he g r a in p roce ss ing a r ea a tt h er ea ro fH ou se 1 G round p l an o ft h e s e t t lemen ta tB a rnhouse , O rkney B u i ld ing 2 ,B a rnhouse , s how ing d ra in s i nt h e n or thwes tc or n e ra nd b y t h ee n t rance

4 7 4 7 4 9 5 0

L i s to fI l lu s t ra t ions 5 . 15 5 . 16 5 . 17 5 . 18 5 . 19 5 . 20 5 . 21 5 . 22 5 . 23 5 . 24 5 . 25 5 . 26

G round p l an o ft h es e t t lemen ta tS ka ra B rae , O rkney G rooved w a re p o t te ry v e s se l sf r om S ka ra B rae d i scove red d u r ing C la rke 's e xcava t ion s G round p l an o fH u t 8 ,S ka ra B rae Ag ood v i ew o ft h ek i ln f l ue ,H u t8 G round p l an o fH u t 7s how ing f ur n i sh ing sa sd e sc r ibed b yC h i lde I n s ide H u t7 ,l o ok ing a tP i tP T he p l in th b yt h ed oo r ,i n s ide H u t7 L a rge p o t te ry b ucke tf r om R inyo ,R ou say L oca t ion map o fR inyo ,R ou say G round p l an o fR inyo ,R ou say O ven a nd h ea r th i nC hambe rC ,R inyo ,R ou say O ven b a se f ound u nde rt h ef l oo ro fC hambe rA ,R inyo ,R ou say .

5 1 5 2 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 9 5 9 5 9

6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6

Map o ft h eB r i t i sh I s le s ,I r e land , We s ter nI s le sa nd O rkney s how ing l o ca t ion so fs i te s R econ s t ruc t ion d raw ing so ft wo G rooved Wa re v e sse l sf r om B a lfa rg , S co t land , ( P63 a nd P 64 ) G round p l an o fB a lb r id ie t imbe rh a l l ,S co t land G round p l an o fL i smo re F i e ld s , D e rby sh i re G round p lan so fs e lec ted t imbe rb u i ld ing so fI r e land G round p l an a nd a e r ia lp ho tog raph o fD u r r ing ton Wa l l s ,W i l t sh i re

6 4 6 6 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1

v i

I n t roduc t ion

I NTRODUCT ION " Ou r p r eh i s to r ic f a th e r s may h ave b een s a vage s , b u t t h ey w e re c l eve r a nd o bse r van t o ne s . .t h e a r t a nd p ra c t ice o ft h e b r ewe r a r e f o unded o n e mp i r ica l o b serva t ion . .t h e b r ewe r l e a rn t f r om l o ng e xpe r ience t h e c ond i t ion sn o tt h er e a son s f o r s u cce ss" J ohn T ynda l l ,e x t rac t sf r om h i ss peech o nF e rmen ta t ion G la sgow S c ience L ec tu r e sA ssoc ia t ion O c tobe r 1 9 th 1 876

G ra in i np reh is tor ic d ie t T he p r epa ra t ion a nd c on sump t ion o ff ood a nd d r ink a r e i mpo r tan t a spec t s o f p reh i s to ry t h a t c an p rov ide a v a luab le i n s igh t i n to t h ed a i ly l i ve so fp eop le i np a s ts oc ie t ie s . T he i n t roduc t ion o f t h e c u l t iva t ion o fg ra in i nt h e N ea r E a s t a nd t h e s p r ead o ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l l i f e s ty le a c ro s s E u rope a nd i n to t h eB r i t i sh I s le s w a s ag rea tc hange i nt h el i ve sa nd h ab i t s o f Meso l i th ic p eop le . I ti so ne o ft h e mo s t i mpo r tan t c hange s t oh ave o ccu r r ed i np r eh i s to ry . A f te rm i l lenn ia o fs ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s b a sed o n h un t ing , g a the r ing a nd f i sh ing p eop le b egan t oc u l t iva te a nd t h e r efo re t oh ave c on t ro l o ve r av a r ie ty o f c rop s , i n c lud ing w hea t a nd b a r l ey . T hey a l so b egan t o d ome s t ica te a n ima l s . Much h a s b een w r i t ten o ft h i s s o -ca l led " Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" , t h a t i s , t h e p e r iod o f c hange f r om g a the r ing ,h un t ing a nd f i sh ing t ot h a to ff a rm ing a nd h e rd ing . I tw a s ac hange o fl i f e s ty le t h a t o ccu r red a td i f f e ren t t ime s i n d i f f e ren tp a r t so ft h e w o r ld , b u t w ha tw a s i tt h a tm ade p eop le c hoo se t oc u l t iva te whea ta nd b a r ley ,i np a r t icu la r ? C e rea l g ra in s a r e ama jo r s o u r ce o fc a rbohyd ra te i n t h e h uman d i e t , b e ing u sefu l f o r m ak ing p o r r idge , b read a nd f l ou r . T hey a r e a l so u n ique a s ap o ten t ia l s ou rce o f ma l t a nd m a l t s uga r s t h a t c an b e f e rmen ted i n to b ee r o r a l e . W i th a m in imum o fs imp le e qu ipmen t , s u ch a sc on ta ine r s , w a te r a nd h ea t , i ti sp o s s ib le t ot r i ck t h e b a r ley i n to d i ge s t ing i t se lf i n to s uga r s . T h i s a s pec t o fg ra in p roce s s ing h a s b een o ve r looked i n much o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e r e la t ing t o t h e t r an s i t ion f r om Me so l i th ic t oN eo l i th ic . B r ew ing i n t h e 2 1s t c en tu r y h a s b ecome a g loba l , m u l t i -m i l l ion p ound t e chno log ica l b u s ine s s , w i th l a rge b r ewe r ie s p roduc ing b i l l ion s o f g a l lon s o f b ee r a nnua l ly . Many o ft h e se l a rge b r ewe r ie s w ho s e n ame s a r e s o f am i l ia r t o day s uch a s B a ss , Wo r th ing ton , Y ounge r a nd G u innes s h ave o n ly b e en i n e x i s tence s i n ce t h e m idd le o f t h e 1 8t h C en tu ry . P r io rt ot h i s q u i te r e cen t i n du s t r ia l i sa t ion ma l t , b ee r a nd a l e w e r em anufa c tu r ed e i the rd ome s t ica l ly o rl o ca l ly o n a s ma l l s ca le . T he t e chn ique s o f b rew ing s ma l l a moun t s o f b ee r f r om ma l ted g r a in h ave b ecome l a r ge ly n eg lec ted a nd t h e

man o nce l i ve b y b ee r a l one? ' a nd t h i s d eba te s t i l l c on t inue s t o day . S o lomon K a tz ( 1 986 , 1 991 ) h a s c o ined t h e p h ra se ` b io cu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion ' a nd h e a r gue s f o r t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e t r an sf e rence o f s pec ia l i sed f ood p roce s s ing t e chn ique s t o s ub sequen t g ene ra t ion s . C e r ta in p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s , s uch a s b r ew ing , b ecome e n sh r ined i n r i tua l . B r ian H ayden ( 1996 ) a g ree s w i th K a tz a nd V o ig t t h a t g r a in w a s f i r s t d ome s t ica ted t op roduce a l e f o r c on sump t ion a tf e a s t s a nd a to the r s pec ia l o cca s ion s . H oweve r , h e n o te s t h e d if i cu l ty o f f i nd ing d i rec t a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o r e a r ly f a rm ing t e chn ique s a nd s uch g ra in p roce s s ing a c t iv i ty a sb r ew ing ( Hayden 1 990 ) . Mo s t r e cen t ly A lexande r J o f f e ( 1998 :297 ) h a s p ropo sed " t he p roduc t ion , e xchange a nd c on sump t ion o f a l coho l ic b eve rage s f o rm as i gn if ican t e l emen t a nd r egu la r i ty i n t h e e me rgence o f c omp lex , h i e ra rch ica l ly o rgan i sed s oc ie t ie s , a l ong w i th t h e r e s t ruc tu r ing o f l a bou r a nd g ende r r e la t ion s ." A l though t h e se a r gumen t s a r e i n t h e c on tex t o f e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e s i n t h e N ea r E a s t , t h e L evan t a nd E gyp t , t h ey a r e e qua l ly a s r e levan t t o g ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing a c ro s s E u rope a nd i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic .

s k i l l o fd ome s t ic b r ew ing i sn o l onge r ap a r to f mo s tp eop le s ' d a i ly e xpe r ien ce . T h is t h e s i s , b a sed u pon t h e b iochem i s t ry o f m a l t ing a nd b r ew ing a nd u pon s ma l l sca le d ome s t ic b r ew ing m e thods ( L ine 1 980 ) p ropo se s t h a t Me so l i th ic c u l tu re s w e re i n te re s ted i nm ak ing p a r t icu la r p roduc t s f r om t h e g ra in , t h a t i s ,s wee t m a l t sa nd a l e a nd t h a tt h i s w a s ama jo rf a c to ri nt h e d ec i s ion t os e le c t ive ly c u l t iva te g ra in .

T he ' bread o r b eer ' d eba te R ober t B ra idwood o f t h e O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago ( 1 953 ) f i r s t p o sed t h e q ue s t ion ' D id

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B rew ing i nh i s tory a nd p reh is tory B o th t h em anuf a c tu re a nd t h ec on sump t ion o f aw ide r ange o f a l coho l ic b eve rage s a r e u nde r s tood t o h ave b een i mpo r tan ta spec t so fs oc ia l ,e conom ic , r e l ig ious a nd r i tua l l i f e i nI r on A ge E u rope ( D ie t le r 1 989 ) , i nV ik ing c u l tu re s a nd i n e a r ly m ed ieva l E u rope ( Woo lf & E ld r idge 1 994 , D av id son 1 998 ) . D r ink ing h or n s a nd a h uge b ronze c au ld ron t h a t c on ta ined t h er emnan t so fm ead w a sf ound i n ar i ch ' p r ince ly ' g r ave a tH ochdo r f , G e rmany , d a ted t ot h e 1g m i l lenn ium BC ( B ie l e ta l 1 985 V o l 1 : 147 ) . A l a rge q uan t i ty o f c a rbon i sed m a l t , a cc iden ta l ly b ur n t a si tw a s b e ing k i lned , w a s f o und a t E be rd ingen -Hochdo r f ( S t ika 1 996 :81) . Ma l t i st h e p r ima ry i n g red ien tf o rb ee ro ra l e . T he e a r l ie s t w r i t ten r e f e r en ce s t oa l e b e ing m ade i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s c an b ef ound i nt h e V indo landa t a b le t s ,d a ted t ot h ee a r ly 1s tm i l lenn ium AD . R oman s o ld ie r sr e co rded t h e i r p u r cha se s o fb a r ley a l e m ade b y t h e l o ca l t r ibe s . P l iny r e f e r s t ot h e G a l l ic t r ibe s o fN o r ther n E u rope mak ing " i n tox ica t ing d r ink s f r om c o rn s t eeped i nw a te r . . . tha t a r e c apab le o fb e ing k ep t u n t i l t h ey h ave a t ta ined ac on s ide rab le a ge" ( P l iny X IV C h 2 9 ) . T he r e a r e a l so many r e f e rence s t o t h e manufa c tu r e a nd c on sump t ion o f a l e a nd m ead i nt h e my th s , l e gend s a nd s ka ld ic v e r se o ft h e V ik ing A ge i nn o r ther nE u rope . A le a nd m ead w e re c on sumed o n many o cca s ion s , f o r e xamp le a tr e l ig iou s f e a s t s a nd f e s t iva l s , a tf une ra l s , i n d r ink ing c ompe t i t ion s a nd b efo r e t h e m en d epa r ted t os ea i n t h e s p r ing ( Gay r e 1 948 :45 , D av id son 1 988 :11 ,12 ) . Women w e r e u sua l ly r e spon s ib le f o r t h e m anufac tu r e o f a l coho l ic d r ink s i n t h e s oc ie t ie s c i ted a bove a nd t h e r e w e re c l o se a s so c ia t ion s b e tween t h e c on sump t ion o fa l e a nd t h e w o r sh ip o f d e i t ie s ( D ie t le r 1 990 :392 , J o f f e 1 998 :299 , D av id son 1 998 :138 ) . A le i s manu f a c tu red f r om ma l t , w i th h e rb s a dded f o r f l avou r a nd p r e se rva t ion . Mead i sf e rmen ted h oney a nd w a te rw i th s im i la rf l avou r ing sa nd p r e serva t ive s a st h o se u sed i n t h e b r ew ing o f a l e , s u ch a s Meadow swee t ( F i l ipendu la u lma r ia ) . H oney w a s f r equen t ly a dded t ot h e ma l ta nd s oi ti s d i f f icu l t t ob e c l ea r a st ot h e p rec i se n a tu re o f t h e ' a le ' a nd ' mead ' r e f e r red t oi na nc ien tt e x t s , my th sa nd l e gend s . T he r e i sc onv inc ing e v idence f o rt h e manuf a c tu r e o f

I n t roduc t ion o fN eo l i th ic g ra in p roce s s ing t e chn ique st a ke t h i sa pp roa ch . B rew ing i s " one o f t h e o l de s t b io techno log ica l p roce s se s o fa l l" ( K re t sc lune r 1 996 ) r equ i r ing s k i l l a sw e l l a s s pec ia l i sed k now ledge . E ach s t age o f t h e p roce s s r e qu i re s v e ry s pec if ic a nd d i f f e ren t c ond i t ion s . I n p reh i s to ry , t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o fg ra in i n to m a l t s a nd a l e w a s v e ry l i k e ly t o h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t s oc ia l , s ymbo l ic a nd e conom ic a c t iv i ty , a s w e l l a s b e ing as pec ia l ised a nd s k i l led c r a f t t h a t w a s p a s sed o n f r om o ne g ene ra t ion t o t h e n ex t . Ma l t ing , ma sh ing a nd b r ew ing h ave a g r ea t p o ten t ia l f o r a pp r en t ice sh ip s , f o r t h e c r ea t ion o f s o c ia l h i e ra r ch ie s a nd s t a tu s a nd f o r t h e p o s se s s ion o f s e c r e t o r s pec ia l i sed k now ledge . T he se g ra in p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s may a l so h ave b een e x t r eme ly s i gn if ican t i nt e rm s o fb o th r i tua l a nd s o c ia l b ehav iou r . A nd r ew S he r ra t t h a s i n ves t iga ted a nd d i scu s sed t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s t h a t d rug s , s uch a s c annab i s a nd o p ium p oppy s e ed s , w e r e c on sumed i n t h e N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s , p e rhap s a sr i tua lo rs pec ia l i s ta c t iv i t ie s ( She r ra t t 1 991 , 1 995 ) . A le i sa l so a n i n tox ican t a nd ag rea t d ea l o fe v iden ce e x i s t s f o r i t s manufa c tu r e a nd c on sump t ion d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic . T he re i sa l so s ome t e n ta t ive e v idence f o rt h ea l e t oh ave b een e nhanced , a tt im e s , w i th p sychoac t ive d r ug s s uch a sH enbane a nd D ead ly N igh t shade a l though t h e r ei ss ome c on ten t ion a nd d eba te s u r round ing t h is i s sue ( Long e ta l1 999 ) . Whe the r o r n o t a l coho l ic b r ew s w e r e e nhanced w i th s uch a dd i t ive s i s d i f f icu l tt op rov e .

b o th a l e a nd mead d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge i nE u rope a nd i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s . O rgan ic r e s idue s w i th in a b eake r a ccompany ing af ema le b u r ia l i n as t one l ined c i s t a tN o r th Ma in s , S t ra tha l lan , F i f e , w e r e a na ly sed a nd f ound t oc on s i s t o fc e r ea l r e s idue s a nd Meadow swee tp o l len . T hey w e r ed a ted t oc 1540 BC ( Ba r c lay e ta l1 983 ) . T he e xcava to r s i n te rp r e ted t h i s a s b e ing t h e p robab le r ema in s o f af e rmen ted c e r ea l b a sed d r ink . A tA shg rove ,F i f e , S co t land , ab eake rc on ta in ing s i gn i f ican t q uan t i t ie s o f L ime F lowe r ( T i l ia c orda ta ) a nd Meadowswee t p o l len w a s d i scove red , a ga in i n as t one l ined c i s t a ccompany ing ab u r ia l ( D ick son 1 978 ) . T he c on ten t s o f t h e b eake rw e re p robab ly m ead r a the rt h an a l e . V e s se l s made o fb i r ch b a rk h ave b een f ound a tE g tved a nd a to t he r D an i sh b og b u r ia ls i te s . A na ly s i s o ft h ec on ten t s i n d ica te st h e" deb r i s o fw hea t g r a in s , l e ave so fb og m y r t le ( Myr ica g a le )a nd f r u i t s o f c r anbe r ry" ( D ick son 1 978 :111) . B og my r t le w a s a n a dd i t ive u sed r e gu la r ly a s ap r e se rva t ive i nt h e manuf a c tu r eo f a l e p r io r t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o fh op s i nt h e l a te M idd le A ge s ( Vend l1 994 , B enne t t 1 996 ) .

N eo l i th ic B r i ta in I n r e cen t y ea r s o rgan ic r e s idue s t h a t m igh t i n d ica te t h e m anu fac tu re o f a l coho l ic d r ink s h ave b een f ound o n N eo l i th ic p o t te ry a s semb lage s a t r i tua l a nd d ome s t ic s i te s w i th in t h eB r i t i sh I s le s .R e s idue so ns he rd so fG r im s ton -Ly le s p o t te ry a nd G rooved Wa r e f r om p i t s a t Ma ch r ie Moo r , A r ran , w e r e a na ly sed a nd f ound t o c on ta in c e r ea l p o l len t o ge the r w i th m ac ro p l an t r ema in s . T he se w e r e i n te rp re ted a s t h e p robab le r ema in so f am ead type d r ink ( Hagger ty 1 991 :91) . C e rea l b a sed r e s idue s w e re f ound o n s he rd s o fl a rge G rooved Wa r e v e s se l s t h a t h ad b een b u r ied i np i t s s i tua ted c l o se b y ar e c tangu la r t imbe r s t ruc tu r e a t aN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge c e remon ia l s i te a t B a lf a rg /Ba lb i rn ie , T ay s ide . P o l len f r om p l an t si n c lud ing Meadow swee t , H enbane ,D ead ly N igh t shade , C abbage a nd Mu s ta rd s w e r e n o ted i n t h e se r e s idue s , a n i n te re s t ing m ix tu r e o f a dd i t ive s p e rhap s i n d ica t ing s ome k i nd o f f e rmen ted m ead /a le t y pe b r ew w i th s pec ia l p roper t ie s ( Mof fa t t i n B a r c lay e t a l 1 993 ) . A t t h e N eo l i th ic v i l lage a tB a rnhou se , O rkney , b a r ley r e s idue s h ave b een i d en t if ied o n s ome o ft h e G rooved Wa re v e s se l s ( J one s 2 000 ) . S c ien t if ic a na ly s i s , s p ec i f ica l ly G a s C h roma tog raphy a nd Ma s s S pec t rome t ry , h a s i n d ica ted t h e p re sence o f ' un iden t if ied s uga r s ' w i th in t h e f a b r ic o f s ome o f t h e se v e s se l s . T he se s uga r sm igh tb em a l to se . T hou sand so fc ha r r ed c e rea lg ra in sw e r e f ound a tt h e s i te o f al a rge t imbe r h a l l a tB a lb r id ie , K inca rd ine , d a ted t o t h e e a r ly 4 t h m i l lenn ium BC ( Fa i rwea the r & R a l s ton 1 993 ) . C ha r red g ra in w a s a l so f ound a t t h e s i te o f ar e c tangu la r t imbe r b u i ld ing a t L i smo r e F i e ld s , B ux ton ( Ga r ton 1 987 ) .

Ma l t ing a nd b rew ing i np reh i s tory

T he se f i nd sa nd t h ec e rea lb a sed r e s idue sd e sc r ibed a bove a r e a ni n d ica t ion o fg ra in p roce s s ing ,p e rhap sf o rt h e manu f ac tu re o f ma l t s a nd a l e , d u r ing t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s . T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tg ra in p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie sd u r ing t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic o f t h e B r i t i sh I s le s i n c luded m a l t ing , m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed a nd f u r the r i n ve s t iga ted . I an H odde r ( 1997 :695 ) h a s a r gued f o r a d e s tab i l i sa t ion o f ' t aken -fo r -g ran ted ' a s sump t ion s i n t h e

I n o rd e r t o r e cogn i se t he e x tan t a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o r m a l t ing , ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion i ti sh e lp fu l t o u nde r s tand t h e b a s ic s o f t h e b ioch em i s t ry a s w e l l a s t h e m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s o f g r a in p ro ce s s ing f o r m a l t s uga r s a nd a l e . C hap te r O ne e xam ine s t h e s pec if i c c r a f t s k i l l s o ft h e ma l t s te r a nd t h e b r ewe r . C hap te r Two e xam ine s s ome o ft h e t r ad i t iona l a nd a nc ien t u se o f h e rba l a dd i t ives t ha t p r e se rve , f l avou ro rs t r eng then t h e a l e . T he a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o r ma l t ing , m a sh ing a nd b r ew ing a c t iv i ty i nt h e L evan t , i nt h e N ea rE a s t a nd i nE gyp t i sa s se s sed i nC hap te r T h r ee . C hap te r F ou ra s se s se s t h i se v idence w i th r e spec tt ot h e E u ropean e a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd C hap te r F ive e xam ine s t h e s t one b u i ld ing s o f N eo l i th ic O rkn ey i n t e rm s o f g ra in s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s . C hap te r S ix i n ve s t iga te s w he the r t h e G rooved Wa re C u l tu r e o f ma in land B r i ta in h ad a s u i tab le m a te r ia l c u l tu r e t o mak e ma l t a nd a l e f r om t h e b a r ley g ra in t h a t t h ey g r ew . R e sea r ch f o r t h i s t h es is i n i t ia l ly b egan w i th t h e B ronze A ge o ft h e B r i t i sh I s le s . T he o r ig ina l i n ten t ion w a s t o i nve s t iga te t h e m anuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique s o f B ronze A ge b r ewe r s . H oweve r , b a r ley h a s b een c u l t iva ted i nB r i ta in s i nce t h e e a r ly 4f i m i l lenn ium BC ( A shmo r e 1 996 ) . T he f o cu s o f r e sea r ch s oon t ur n ed t ot h e N eo l i th ic o f t h e B r i t i sh I s le s . I n o rde r t o p l a ce B r i t i sh N eo l i th ic g ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing t e chn ique s i n to c on tex t i tw a sn ece ssa ry t ol o ok a t t h e e a r l ie s t d eve lopmen t o f c e rea l c u l t iva t ion i n t h e N ea r E a s t , t h e L evan t a nd E u rope . T he r em i t o f t h i s t h e s i s h a s c hanged c on s id e rab ly a si th a sd eve loped . T he N eo l i th ic e x tend s f r om t h e 9t h/ 8t h m i l lenn ia BC

i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l d a ta a nd f o rt h e n eed t ol ook a tm a te r ia l c u l tu r e a s semb lage s a s ac omp le te w ho le . T h i s mu l t id isc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch a nd t h e s ub sequen t i n te rp r e ta t ion

i nt h e L evan t a nd N ea rE a s t t ot h e 4 `1/ 3r d m i l lenn ia BC i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s . T h i s t h e s i s c ove r s aw ide g eog raph ica l a r ea a nd a n e x ten s ive t i me sca le . I th a sn o t b een p o s s ib le t oi n ve s t iga te

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I n t roduc t ion e ve ry a r ea i n d e ta i l . T he refo re s e lec t ive s i te s h ave b een c ho sen f o r a na lys i s . T h i s i sa n i n i t ia l i n ve s t iga t ion i n to t h e p os s ib i l i t ie s f o r ma l t ing , ma sh ing a nd b r ew ing d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic .

i x

C hap ter 1—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le f e rmen ta t ion b y c hem ica l r e ac t ion ( Conan t 1 952 :22 ) . H is

CHAPTER ONE

i n nova t ive r e sea rch w a s c on t inued b y J ohn T ynda l l ( 1820 1 893 ) w ho , when a dd re ss ing t h e G la sgow S c ience L ec tu re s A s soc ia t ion i n 1 876 , p o in ted o u t t h a t " un t i l t h e p r e sen t y ea r

T he C onvers ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le A l though

p eop le

h ave

b een

mak ing

f e rmen ted

n o t ho rough a nd s c ien t if i c a ccoun t w a s e ve r g i ven o f t h e a genc ie s wh ich c ome i n to p l ay i nt h e manufac tu re o fb ee r , o r

a l coho l ic d r ink s f o rm i l lenn ia , i tw a s o n ly i nt h e 1 9 th C en tury

t h e c ond i t ion s n ece ssa ry t oi t s h ea l th , a nd o ft h e ma lad ie s a nd v i c i ss i tude st o wh ich i ti ss ub jec t" ( Conan t 1 952 :37 ) . T ynda l l o b served b rewe r s ' g enera l p rac t ice o f

t h a t t h e s c ien t if ic e xp lana t ion s f o r ma l t ing , ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion w e re d i scove red . Y ea s t c e l ls , r e spon s ib le f o rt h e " en igma o ff e rmen ta t ion" ( McGee 1 984 :426 ) , w e re f i r s t s e en u nde r t h e m icroscope i n t h e m id 1 830 s . Two s c ien t i s t s , s epa ra te ly , o b served t h e i n d iv idua l y ea s t c e l ls s p l i t t ing u nde r

a lways e xc lud ing t h e a i r d ur ing t h e f e rmen ta t ion p roce ss . T hey u sed c l o sed b a r re l s o r k ep t al i d o r o the r s u i tab le c ove r

T our h ad r epo r ted h i s o b se rva t ion s ay ea re a r l ie r , i n 1 836 . I n t h e 1 850 s L ou i s P a s teu r ( 1 822 -1895 ) w a s a sked

o n t h e f e rmen ta t ion b ucke t . H e k new t h a t b ee r w or t c ou ld f e rmen t n a tu ra l ly i nc on ta c t w i th ' c ommon a i r ' , b u t t h a t t h e p roduc t o f t h i s k ind o f f e rmen ta t ion w a s u sua l ly s ou r , e x t reme ly u np lea san t a nd d i sag reeab le t o d r ink . H is

b y aL i l le b r ewery t o i n ve s t iga te t h e r e a son s f o r t h e s po i l ing

e xpe r imen t s , b a sed o n t h is k now ledge f r om h i s o b serva t ion s ,

o f w ine a nd b ee r , as e r ious p rob lem t h a t w a s c o s t ing t h e c ompany many t hou sand s o f p ound s . T he s c ience o f M ic rob io logy w a s ad eve lopmen t o f h i s g roundb reak ing

s howed t h a t o n ly u nde r a nae rob ic c ond i t ion s , d oes t h e y ea s t p l an t " decompo se t h e s uga ro ft h e s o lu t ion i nw h ich i tg rows ,

i n ves t iga t ion s i n to t h e c au ses o f f e rmen ta t ion a nd d i sea se . P a s teu r a r gued t h a t y ea s t w a s al i v ing o rgan i sm t h a t c au sed

p roduc t s o f t h e d ecompo s i t ion ( Tynda l l i nC onan t 1 952 :41) .

t h e m ic ro scope : T heodo r S chwa lm p ub l i shed h i s f i nd ings o f t h e " new c e l l t h eo ry" i n 1 837 a nd C ha r les C a igna rd d e l a

p roduce h ea t , b rea the f o r th c a rbon ic g a s a nd o ne o ft h e l i qu id

R im d iame te r : 4 2cm /1 7i n che s H e igh t : Vo lume :

i s o u r f am i l ia r a l coho l"

2 6cm /1 0i n ches 2 8cm /1 i n ches

4 5cm /1 8 i n che s 4 5 l i t re s /1 0g a l lon s

1 l i t r es /2 . 5 g a l lons

F igure 1 . 1 S imp le e qu ipmen t c an b e u sed t of ermen t s wee t b ar ley w or t . T he w or t i sf ermen ted i n ab rew ing b ucke t w i th a l i d a nd a s ma l ler b ucke t i su sed f or t h e t r ansf erence o fl i qu id s . Al i d k eep s t h e a i rborne c on tam inan t s o u t o ft h e b rew a nd a l so c r ea tes t h en eces sary a naerob ic c ond i t ions f or a l coho l ic f ermen ta t ion ( a f ter L ine 1 980 :164 ) . S ca le 1 : 10

4

re r ir

R im d iame te r : 5 8cm /2 3 i n ches H e igh t : 5 5cm /2 2 i n ches Vo lume :

3 6c m /1 4 i n ches 3 6c m /1 4 i n che s 3 2 l i t res /7g a l lon s

15 l i t re s /2 5 g a l lons

F igure 1 . 2 A pprox ima te d imens ions a nd v o lume s o fG rooved Ware v es se l s r epresen ted b y s herd sf ound a t t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a t S kara B rae , S andw ick , O rkney ( af ter C larke 1 9766 ) . S ca le 1 : 10

1

C hap ter 1—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le a nd l i d sc r ea te t h en ece s sa ry a nae rob ic c ond i t ion s .

A nae rob ic c ond i t ion s a r e s imp le f o r t h e d ome s t ic b r ewe r t oa ch ieve : b ee r o ra l e c an b e s u cce s sfu l ly f e rmen ted i n ab ucke t w i th a l i d . T he c a rbon d i ox ide e xha led b y t h e y ea s t p l an t i sh e ld , i n c oncen t ra t ion , a s al a ye r a bove t h e f e rmen t ing w o r t , t h u s c r ea t ing s u i tab le c ond i t ion s f o r

1 .T he t e chn ique sa nd b iochem i s try o fb rew ing T he c r a f t o fb r ew ing i sd i c ta ted b y t h eb iochem i s t ry . T he p roce s s ing r equ i red t oc onve r tg ra in i n to a l e i sa c tua l ly a s equence o f t h r ee b i ochem ica l r e ac t ion s , e a ch r equ i r ing i t s o wn q u i te s pec if ic c ond i t ion s . Ma l t ing r e nde r s t h e g ra in f r iab le a nd much e a s ie r t og r ind . When ma shed , t h e m a l ted g ra in p roduce s s wee t ' c ake s ' o r as wee t b a r ley ma sh a nd a ma l t l i qu id t h a t a r e r i ch i nB -v i tam in s a nd a n e xce l len t f ood s ou r ce . Mo re s wee tl i qu id ( wo r t ) c an b e w a shed ( s pa rged )o u t o f t h e b a r ley m a sh , b o i led u p w i th h e rb s a s f l avou r ing s o r p re se rva t ive sa nd f e rmen ted t op roduce a na l coho l ic l i quo r . T h i s s e c t ion e xam ine s i nd e ta i l h ow t h e s wee t m a l t s a nd a l e a r e made f r om b a r ley g ra in a nd w ha t c ond i t ion s a nd ma te r ia l e qu ipmen t a r e n eeded t o a ch ieve t h i s . H i s to r ica l d e sc r ip t ion s o f p roce s se s a r e r e levan t , s i nce t h e t e chn ique s a r e b a sed o nt h e s ame u nchang ing b iochem i s t ry s i nce e a r l ie s t t ime s . T he r e a r e s ome a r chaeo log ica l e xamp les f r om l a te r p reh i s to ry t h a t i lu s t ra te t h e b a s ic m e thod s e mp loyed . P ra c t ica l e xpe r imen t s i n ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion , u s ing a pp rop r ia te e qu ipmen t , w e re c a r r ied o u t i no rde r t op rope r ly a s se s s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t e a r ly N eo l i th i c c u l tu r e s w e r e c onve r t ing g ra in i n to m a l t sa nd a l e .

a l coho l ic f e rmen ta t ion . Al i d a l so p reven t s d u s t p a r t ic le s a nd b ac te r ia f r om i n f ec t ing t h eb r ew ( f igu r e 1 . 1 ) . V e ry l a rge b ucke t shaped G rooved Wa re p o t te ry v e s se l s w e re f ound a t S ka ra B rae . T he s h e rd s o f o ne p o t i n d ica ted t h a t i tm igh th ave m ea su red 2f e e ti nd i ame te ra nd 2 f e e t i nd ep th , t h e refo re h av ing av o lume o fa bou t 3 0 g a l lon s ( f igu re 1 . 2 ) . T h i s w ou ld h ave b een a s u i tab le v e s se l f o r t h e f e rmen ta t ion o f ab a r ley w o r t ,p rov ided t h a t al i d w a s u sed t o c r ea te t h e a nae rob ic c ond i t ion s n ece s sa ry f o r a n a l coho l ic f e rmen ta t ion . C i r cu la r s t one p o t l i d s , s u i tab le i n s i ze a nd s hape , w e re f ound a tS ka ra B rae , O rkney . P a s teu r 's e xpe r imen t s i n to t h e c au se s o fd i sea se a nd f e rmen ta t ion p rov ided as c ien t if ic e xp lana t ion o ft h en ece s s i ty f o r c l ean l ine s s a nd m e t icu lou s h yg iene d u r ing t h e b r ew ing p roce s s . M ic ro scope s r e vea led t h e p r e sence o f b ac te r ia a nd m ic robes t h a tc ou ld b e a i rbor n e i nd u s t a nd t h a tw e re c apab le o fs po i l ing b ee r a nd o t he rf ood s tuf f s , s u ch a sm i lk a nd m ea t . B y u s ing d u s t -f ree c hambe r sh ed emon s t ra ted t h ee x i s tence o f w ha t h e t e rmed " t he f e rmen t s o f d i sea se ," m ic robe s w h ich s ou r t h e b r ew a nd i n f ec t f ood ( Pa s teu r 1 879 ) . C lean l ine s s o f a l le qu ipmen ti so fp a ramoun ti mpo r tance i nb r ew ing . T ynda l l e xp la ined w hy a n a l coho l ic f e rmen ta t ion c ou ld o n ly t a ke p l a ce w hen a nae rob ic c ond i t ion sw e re p r e sen t . T he se i d ea s o f h yg iene a nd m ic rob io logy a r e n ow a ccep ted b u t w hen p re sen ted t o t h e s c ien t if ic c ommun i ty o f t h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry ,t h ey w e re c on ten t iou s a nd c on t rove r s ia l c oncep t s . T he s c ien t if ic c ommun i ty o ft h e t ime b e l ieved t h a t b ac te r ia a nd m ic roo rgan i sm s w e r e t h e r e su l t o f ' s pon taneou s g ene ra t ion ' . T ynda l lm ade ac onv inc ing c a se f o rt h e t h en n ew a nd r e vo lu t iona ry h ypo the s i s t h a t f e rmen ta t ion w a s t h e r e su l t o ft h e a c t iv i ty o fm ic ro -o rgan i sm s r a the r t h an as pon taneou s , my s te r iou s a nd a lmo s t mag ica l p roce s s , a sh ad b een b e l ieved p r ev ious ly . T he manuf ac tu r e o fa n a l coho l ic d r ink f r om g ra in i s as pec ia l i sed c r a f t t h a t r e qu i re s k now ledge , e xpe r ience a nd s k i l l . J u l ian T homa s d e sc r ibe s r i tua l a s b e ing " a f o rm o f h uman a c t ion w h ich may i n vo lve ar ange o ff o rm so fm a te r ia l c u l tu re" ( Thoma s 1 996 :8 ) . T he c onve r s ion o ft h e b a r ley g ra in

a ) Ma l t ing : t he c on tro l led g erm ina t ion o fg ra in . U np roce s sed b a r ley i s u n su i tab le f o r b r ew ing b ecau se i tc on ta in so n ly s t a r ch ,w h ich c anno tb ef e rmen ted . I n o rde rt om ake a l coho l ,t h i s s t a r ch mu s t b e f i r s tc onve r ted i n to s uga r s w h ich c an t h en b e f e rmen ted . T h i s p roce s s b eg in s w i th t h e g e rm ina t ion o f t h e b a r ley g ra in ( L ine 1 980 :118 ) . G ra in i s s t eeped i n w a te r f o r s eve ra l d ay s t o t r igge r t h e g row th m echan i sm . T he w a te r mu s t b e c hanged r e gu la r ly i n o rde rt op r even t s po i lage o ft h e g ra in a nd t op rov ide o xygen . As imp le a nd e f f ec t ive m e thod o fd o ing t h i si st op u tt h eg ra in i n as a ck a nd l e ave i ti n as t ream f o rt wo o rt h r ee d ay s ( F le t t , H . p e r s c omm ) . I f as t r eam i sn o t a va i lab le a nd t h e g ra in i st o b e s t eeped i n av e s se l , t h en t h e w a te r mu s t b e c hanged d a i ly t om a in ta in t h e f r e shne s s o ft h e g ra in . Af t e r t h i s , t h e g ra in i s s p read o u t i n al a ye r4 -6 i n che s d eep o n t h e ma l t ing f l oo ra nd r e gu la r ly r aked ,t ur ned a nd t e nded . I t mu s tb ek ep t i n aw a rm , d a rk e nv i ronmen t s o t h a t t h e g ra in p roduce s ar oo t le t a nd a s hoo t ,k nown t o ge the ra st h ea c ro sp i r e , a nd a st h eg ra in g row s t h es t a r ch i sc onve r ted i n to m a l tf l ou r . T he se c hange s a r e t r igge red b y e nzyme s , mo lecu le s t h a t l i v ing c e l l s u se t o t r an sfo rm o the r mo lecu le s ( McGee 1 984 :426 ) . T he e nzyma t ic p roce s s i s ac omp lex o ne . T he re a r e m any d i f f e r en t e nzyme s t h a t a r e a c t iva ted b y g e rm ina t ion a nd w h ich c a r ry o u t s pec if i c f unc t ion s w i th in t h e g ra in , f o r e xamp le , c y ta se , p ro teo la se a nd a my la se . ( L ine 1 980 :119 ) . Ma l t s te r s t oday c on t ro l t h e m a l t ing p roce s s w i th p r ec i s ion , a l low ing t h e s e ed l ing t og row u n t i l t h ea c ro sp i r e i sa bou tt wo t h i rd s t h e l e ng th o f t h e g ra in . C u r ren t t e chn ique s i n vo lve s p r ead ing " a s i x i n ch l a ye r o f b a r ley o n t h e f l oo r o f al a rge r oom , w he r e i tc an b e e a s i ly r aked t o k eep i ta e ra ted a nd mo i s tb u tn o tw e t" ( McGee 1 984 :471) . A nc ien t ma l t ing t e chn ique s w e r e e xa c t ly t h e s ame ,

i n to ma l t s a nd a l e i ss uch a n a c t iv i ty . I tr e qu i r e s as pec if i c o f a c t iv i t ie s t h a t l e nd s i t se lf t oT homa s ' d ef in i t ion o f r i tua l . B rew ing i s a n i mpo r tan t a spec t o f h i s to ry a nd p r eh i s to ry a nd i ti so ne t h a t c an b e d e sc r ibed a ccu ra te ly a sa d ome s t ic r i tua la c t iv i ty . I t i s e s sen t ia l t o u nde r s tand t h e m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s o ft h e p reh i s to r ic ma l t s te r a nd b r ewe r , f o r s o l o ng s h rouded i n my s te ry a nd s e c recy , s o t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t o r e cogn i se a nd i n te rp re t w ha t i s l e f t i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . F o r e xamp le , aq uer n o r r ubb ing s t one i s u sua l ly i n te rp r e ted a s at oo lo n ly u sed f o rg r ind ing g ra in i n to f l ou rt o make b read . I ti se qua l ly e f f ic ien t a s at o o l f o r c r ush ing a nd

‘ s equence

c r a ck ing t h e ma l ted g ra in f o rt h e b e t te rr e lea se o f ma l t s uga r s w hen ma sh ing . A t h r e sh ing o r m a l t ing f l oo r c an b e made o f l e ve l c l ay o re a r th w i th in ab u i ld ing , w i th f r equen t r epa i r b e ing a n

w i th t h e b a r ley g ra in b e ing s p r ead o u t o n a ma l t ing f l oo r , p r ef e rab ly w i th in a d im ly l i t b u i ld ing t h a t w ou ld p rov ide s he l te r f r om t h e e l emen t s a nd p ro tec t ion f r om b i rd s a nd a n ima l s . T he g ra in w a s w a te red a nd r aked a tr egu la ri n te rva l s

i n d ica t ion o f i tb e ing u sed a s ag ra in p r epa ra t ion s u r f a ce . L a rge v e s se l s a r e r equ i r ed t oc on ta in t h e w o r t a s i tf e rmen t s

2

C hap ter 1—The C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le t o p r even t t h e g ra in f r om d ry ing o u t o r mou ld s f r om d eve lop ing o n g ra in t h a t b ecame t o o w e t . C lo se o b serva t ion a nd c a r e o f t h e g ra in 's g row th a r e e s sen t ia l a tt h i s s t age . I n t h e ' Hymn t oN inka s i ' ,a na nc ien tS ume r ian h ymn o fp ra i se t o t h e G odde s s o f B r ew ing t h a t i s d a ted t o t h e m id 2n d m i l lenn ium BC , m en t ion i s made o fw a te r ing t h e ma l t a nd o f t h e ' n ob le d ogs ' g ua rd ing t h ep rec iou s ma l ta nd k eep ing a way ' e ven t h ep o ten ta te s ' ( Ka tz & May tag 1 991 :29 ) . A cco rd ing t o d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e 96 1 c en tu ry AD , I r e land , m a l t t a ke s b e tween 1 2 a nd 1 5 d ays t op roduce . T he p roce s s i n vo lves 2 4h ou r so fs t eep ing , 3 6h ou r sd ra in ing , f ou r a nd a h a lf d ay s u nde r c ove r a nd t h r ee d ay s l y ing e xpo sed u n t i l " i t i sh eaped u p i n p i le s , t h en r aked o r c ombed i n to r i dge s b e fo r e b e ing f i na l ly d r ied i n ak i ln" ( Comey 1 996 :21) .

c r u shed ma l tp u rcha sed f r om ab r ew ing s upp l ie r sw a su sed . I n l a te r e xpe r imen t s , i tw a s p o s s ib le t o u se B e r e Ma l t t h a t h ad b een g rown o n O rkney a nd m a l ted b y H a r ry F l e t t a t t h e C o r r iga l l F a rm Mu seum ( f igu re 1 . 3 ) . B e re b a r ley i sn ow o n ly g rown i n af ew f i e ld s i nS co t land a nd O rkney , a l though i ti s s l ow ly r e -ga in ing i t s p opu la r i ty . T he B e r e b a r ley g ra in w a s ma l ted i n ab a rn o n a n e a r th ma l t ing f l oo r t h a t i so ve r 2 00 y ea r s o ld a nd , a cco rd ing t o H a r ry F le t t , i n n eed o f s ome r epa i ra nd a t ten t ion . T he s u r face w a s b roken a nd i tn eeded t o b es moo the rt oa l low f o rr ak ing a nd t ur n ing t h e ma l t . T he g ra in b arn a tt he C orr iga l lF arm Museum ,O rkney T he g ra in b a rn a tt h e C o r r iga l l F a rm Mu seum i sa s t one b u i ld ing w i th a f l ag s tone a nd t u r f r oof . I tw a s b u i l t

V a r ia t ion so ccu ra cco rd ing t ol o ca lc l ima te a nd s ea son . Am a l t ing f l oo r i s al e ve l s u r f a ce t h a t may b e made o fb ea ten e a r th , c l ay , p l a s te r , s t one o rw ood . S he l te rf r om t h e e l emen t s a nd p ro tec t ion f r om d ome s t ic a nd w i ld a n ima l s a r e e s sen t ia l s i nce t h e m a l t i sa n a t t ra c t ive f ood s ou r ce . O ve r y ea r so fu s e ,t h ef l oo rw ou ld r equ i re r e pa i r ,b e ing r e -p la s te r ed i f made o fp l a s te r , o r t h e a dd i t ion o fn ew ly p acked l a ye r s o f e a r th o rc l ay ,i ft ha tw a si t so r ig ina lb a se .

a r ound 2 00 y ea r s a go a nd i ss t i l l u sed t oday . I ti s ab u i ld ing w i th m any f unc t ion s i n c lud ing t h e s t o rage a nd r e pa i ro ft o o l s a nd f a rm e qu ipmen t a s w e l l a s t h e t h re sh ing , w innow ing ,

b )K i ln ing t he ma l t I fg ra in i sa l lowed t og row u nchecked t h en t h es t a r ch w i l l b e u sed u p , s ot h eg ra in mu s tb ed r ied o u to rk i lned . T h i s t e rm ina t e s g e rm ina t ion a nd d r ie s t h e m a l t s o t h a t i tc an b e s t o red u n t i l n eeded ( L ine 1 980 :120 ) . D ry ma l t k eep s w e l l . Ma l ted g r a in i s e a s ie r t o g r ind t h an u nma l ted . F o r t h e m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion e xpe r imen t s , d e sc r ibed b e low , p a le

r e a ro ft h e b a rn ( f igu r e 1 . 4 ) . T he k i ln h a s ad ry ing a r ea a bove a nd t ot h e r i gh t o fi t ,n o t d i rec t ly a bove t h e f l ame s a nd h ea t , a cce s s ib le b y t wo s t one s t ep s b u i l t i nt h e w a l l a nd j u s t v i s ib le i nt h e p ho tog raph . T he ma l ted g ra in i ss p read o u t o n h ay o r s t raw t h a ti sl a id o ve rs ome c h icken w i re . I td r ie sg en t ly i nt h e w a rm a i r f low f r om t h ek i ln .

ma l t ing ,k i ln ing a nd s t o rage o fg r a in . T he g ra in c ou ld b e w innowed b e tween t h e t wo o ppo s ing d oorway s , m ak ing u se o ft h e t h rough d ra f t c r ea ted b y t h e w ind ( Ha r ry F l e t t p e r s c omm ) . T he g ra in i st h re shed , w innowed a nd t h en m a l ted o n t h e e a r th f l oo r b efo re b e ing s p read o u t t od ry i nt h e k i ln ing a r ea t h a t i sc on s t ruc ted a tt h e

F igur e1 . 3 I n s id e t h e g ra in b arn a tt h e C or r iga l l F arm Mu seum , Har ray , O rkney . B ere b ar ley u sed i ne xper imen ta l m a sh ing w ork w a s m a l ted o n t h i sf l oor b yH ar ry F le t t , ac ura tor o ft h e m u seum . T he 2 00 y ear o ld m a l t ing f l oor i sm ad e o fb ea t en e ar th . T he g ra in d ry ing f ac i l i t ie s c an b e s een a tt h ef ar e nd o ft h e b arn w i th t h e k i ln o n t h e l ef ta nd t h e g ra in d ry ing a rea a cce s sed b y s t one s t ep s ,t ot h er i gh t .

3

C hap ter 1—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A l e

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F igure 1 . 4 R ough g round p lan o ft h e2 00 y ear o ld g ra in b arn a tt h e C or ng a lF arm Mu seum , Harray , O rkney ( no td rawn t os ca le ) . a ch ieve a f i na l t empe ra tu r e o f b e tween 6 5 a nd 6 7 d eg r ee s C en t ig rade . T empe ra tu re i sc r i t ica l a tt h i s p o in t . I ft h e w a te r i st o o h o t t h e s t a r ch c onver t ing e nzyme s w i l l b e k i l led . T oo c oo l at empe ra tu re a nd t h e e nzyme s w i l l n o t r e -a c t iva te o p t ima l ly . F rom I r on Age t ime so nwa rd s m a sh t un s c on s t r uc ted o f w ooden s t ave s h ave b een u sed . Once t h e t e chno logy o f m ak ing s t ave -bu i l t c on ta ine r s h ad b een m a s te red i tw a s p o s s ib le t o mak e v e ry l a rge b ucke t s a nd b a r re l s . P r io rt ot h i s , w ooden v e s se l s h ad t o b e c a rved o u t o f s o l id w ood , t h u s l im i t ing t h e p o ten t ia l s i ze ( Ea rwood 1 993 ) . A n i n te r e s t ing m e thod o f p u t t ing h o t s t one s i n to w ooden ma sh t u n s c on t inues t oday , a s i n t h e m anufac tu re o f S t e inb ier o r S tonebee r ( K r e t schme r 1 998 ) . T he h o t s t one s h ea t u p t h e b a r ley ma sh s l ow ly a nd s a ccha r if ica t ion t a ke s b e tween 3a nd 5h ou r s , p rov ided t h a t t h e t empe ra tu re n eve rb ecome s t o oh o t t ok i l lo f ft h ee nzyme s . S l avom i l V end l( 1994 ) d e sc r ibe s a r cha ic p rac t i ce so f m a sh ing b a r ley ma l t t h a t h ave b een p r e se rved i nE u rope u n t i l r e cen t t ime s : " . . . t h e t e chn ique o fb rew ing i nw ooden v e s se l s w i th t h e a i do ff i r e -hea ted s t one s i s ar e l ic t ,n o ta na bbe r ra t ion ( Mau r iz io 1 927 :26 )" ( Vend l1 994 ) . I nC a r in th ia , t h is c en tu ry , s t one s w e r eh ea ted i n af i re o fc he r ry w ood ( t oa dd f l avou rt o t h e l i qu id ) a nd w a te r w i th m a l t w a s h ea ted i nt h is w ay u n t i l i t c a rame l i sed ( Hop f a nd W iege lmann 1 976 :532 ) ." ( Vend l 1 994 :310 ) . S uch a n a c t iv i ty w ou ld l e ave f ew a r chaeo log ica l t r a ce s , r equ i r ing o n ly a w ooden v e sse l , af i re , s t one s , w a te r a nd m a l ted b a r ley . Ma l t ing a nd t h en ma sh ing b a r ley a nd o t he r g ra in s t o e x t ra c t t h e s uga r s , u s ing e i the r w ooden o r p o t te ry b ow l s , w a s p robab ly o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t g ra in p roce s s ing t e chn ique sp ra c t iced i np r eh i s to ry . D u r ing ma sh ing , t h e e nzyme s a c t a s ac a ta ly s t t o b r ing a bou t ac hem ica l r e a c t ion t h a t r e duce s t h e r ema in ing g ra in s t a r ch t o f e rmen tab le s uga r s . D ia s ta se c onve r t s t h e s t a r ch i n to a m ix tu r e o f s uga r s g rouped a s d ex t r in s a nd m a l to se , w i th t h e d ex t r in s b e ing l e ss f e rmen tab le . D ia s ta se i s a c tua l ly ag roup ing o ft wo s epa ra te e nzyme s : a l pha a nd b e ta a my la se . E nzyme s r e spond t ot h e t empe ra tu r e a nd a c id i ty o f t h e ma sh d if e r en t ly .

I ron A ge ma l t ing E v idence f o r I r on A ge ma l t ing h a s b een f ound a t E be rd ingen -Hochdo r f i ns ou thwe s t G e rmany , w he r e r ema in s o f ab r ewe ry d a ted t o b e tween 6 00 a nd 4 00 BC h ave b een e xcava ted ( S t ika 1 996 :81 ) . H e r e , ma l ted g ra in w a sd r ied o n a l a t t ice o fs t ick s l a id o ve rp i t s w i th f i r e s b e ing l i tb enea th , t h e g ra in d ry ing g en t ly i n t h e h o t a i r ( f igu r e s 1 . 5 ,1 .6 ) . T he u nu sua l p re se rva t ion o f " weak ly b u t e ven ly g e rm ina ted c ha r r ed b a r ley g ra in s , e nough t o i n d ica te m a l t ing ," w e r e d i scove red i n 6l o ng U shaped d i tche s t h a t w e r e 5 -6m l o ng , 0 . 6m w ide a nd 1 md eep . Wooden b oa rd s s uppo r ted t h e s i de s o f t h e t r enche s . F i re s l i ta tt h e e nd s o ft h e t r en che s a lowed t h e m a l t t ob e g en t ly d r ied a f t e r g e rm ina t ion . I ta ppea r s t h a t t h e f i re b ecame o u to fc on t ro l a nd b ur n tt h ee n t i r ec on ten t s o f t h e t r ench . A cco rd ing t ot h e e xcava to r t h e g e rm ina t ion w a s d e l ibe ra te a nd c on t ro l led , t h e g ra in h ad b een t h r e shed a nd c l eaned p r io r t o g e rm ina t ion a nd a l l t h e e v idence p o in t s t o m a l t ing a nd d ry ing o ft h e m a l t , an ece s sa ry p recu r so r t oa l e p roduc t ion . Z o s imu s , w r i t ing i nt h e l a te 3 "I o r e a r ly 4t h c en tu ry AD , e xp la ined t h a t i nh o t d ry c l ima te s ma l t c an b e d r ied i n t h e s un , p rov ided t h a t i ti sp ro tec ted f r om b e ing e a ten b y b i rd s ( Luca s 1 962 :14 ) , h ence t h e g ua rd ian sh ip o ft h e m a l ted g r a in b y d og s i nt h e H ymn t o N inka s i a s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r . T rad i t iona l ma l t d ry ing m e thod s i nS co t land , p e rhap s d a t ing b a ck i n to p r eh i s to ry , i n c lude r o l l ing h o t s t one s i n t h e g e rm ina ted b a r ley o rd ry ing ma l t o n h o t f l a t s t one s b y af i re . ( S .E .A . ) . D r ied ma l ted g ra in i sf r iab le a nd c on ta in s s t a r ch , m a l tf l ou r , ma l to se a nd d o rman ts t a rch -conve r t ing e nzyme s . c ) Ma sh ing : t he c onver s ion o fs t arche si n to ma l ts ugar s . C ru sh ing t h e m a l t p r io r t o m a sh ing i sc r uc ia l . T h i s a l low st h ee nzyme st oi n te rm ing le w i th t h e s t a r chy e ndo spe rm a nd t h e r e i s ab e t te r c onve r s ion o f s t a r ch t o ma l t s uga r s d u r ing t h e ma sh .T h i sc r u sh ing n a tu ra l ly p roduce sm a l tf l ou r . T he c r u shed m a l ted g ra in i sm a shed s o t h a t a l l t h e s t a r che s a r e c onve r ted i n to s uga r s , ap roce s s k nown a s s a ccha r if ica t ion . Moder na nd med ieva lt e chn ique so fm a sh ing i n vo lve ' s t r ik ing ' t h e m a l t w i th h o t , a lmo s t b o i l ing w a t e r t o 4

C hap t er I—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le F igur e1 . 5 T he e xcava ted r ema in s o f t h e U -shaped d i tch a t E berd ingen -Hochdor f , N . G ermany , w h ich w a s u sed f or d r y ing t h e m a l t . I tw a s5 -6m l o ng , 0 .6m w id ea nd 1m d eep w i th w ood en b oard s t o s uppor t t h e w a l l s . W i th in t h e p i t w as a s t ruc ture o f d r ied m ud b r ick s a nd a w ood en f rame , w h ich m ay h ave b een c overed w i th t e x t i le s o r r e ed s . T he m a l t w as s pread o u t o n t h i s a nd d r ied i nw arm a i r g enera ted b y af i re a to ne e nd o ft h ep i t .A na cc iden tp robab ly c au sed t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h i s k i ln ing p i t w h ich c on ta ined b urned m ud b r ick s , c harcoa l a nd c harred g ra in . ( S t ika 1 996 :66 ) F igure 1 . 6 C a rbon i sed m a l t f rom t h e p i t a t E berd ingen -Hochdo r f . T he r ema ins o ft h e b urned w ood en l a t t ice s uppor t a re v i s ib le a mong t h em a l t ed g ra ins . ( S t ika 1 996 :67 ) A lpha a my la se c onve r t s s t a r ch i n to d ex t r in s a nd i st o le ran t o f h i ghe r t empe ra tu re s t h an b e ta a my la se , w h ich c onve r t s t h e d ex t r ins i n to m a l to se ( L ine 1 980 :125 /6 ) . Ma sh ing i sc omp lex i nt e rm s o fe nzyme a c t iv i ty b u t i ti sv ery s imp le t od o . E gyp t ian a nd S ume r ian b r ewe r s made b app i r , ak i nd o ff l a t b a r ley ' c ake ' o r' b read ' ( Samue l 1 995 ) . T h e s l ow r i s ing t empe ra tu r e a c t iva t e s t h e e nzyme s , w h ich c onve r t a l t h e r ema in ing g ra in s t a r ch i n to s uga r s w i th in t h e f i r s tf ew h ou r s .B app ir s t o re e x t reme ly w e l l ,i fk ep td ry . Ma sh ing e xper imen ts I n t h e f i r s t e xpe r imen t s Iu sed F awce t t 's p a le c r u shed m a l ted b a r ley , p u r cha sed f r om a h ome b rewe r s ' s upp l ier s . I n l a te r e xpe r imen t s Iu s ed B e re ma l t t h a t w a s g rown a nd f l oo r ma l ted b y H a r ry F l e t t , c u ra to r o f t h e C o r r igan F a rm Mu seum , H a r ray , O rkney . T he c r ushed a nd m a l ted b a r ley w a s m ixed w i th c op iou s a moun t s o fw a te r i na w a te rp roo f ed p o t te ry b ow l a nd h ea t ed g en t ly i n t h e w a rm a s he s o f af i r e ( f igu re 1 . 9 ) . T he b ow l s t h a t w e re u sed h ad b een p roo f ed w i th b ee swax , w h ich s e a l s t h e p o rou s f ab r ic o f t h ep o ta nd m ake si tw a te r t igh t . G r ea t c a re w a s n eeded t o e n su re t h a t t h e e nzyme s w e r e n o t k i l led . T h is i n vo lved c on s tan t o b se rva t ion o f t h e m a sh a nd t h e r e gu la r mon i to r ing o f i t s t empe ra tu re . T he t empe ra tu r e o f t h e ma sh w a s c he cked u s ing a b r ew ing t h e rmome te r a nd a l so c heck ing b y t o uch . T he c o r rec t ' f ee l ' f o r t h e t empe ra tu re f o rb e s t s a ccha r if ica t ion w a s s oon l e a rn t , a nd t h e r e w a s n o n eed f o r at h e rmome te r . T he o p t imum t empe ra tu r e f o r t h e e nzyme s t oc onve r t s t a r ch i n to s uga r s i s b e tween 6 5 a nd 6 7d eg ree sC en t ig rad e( L ine 1 980 ) . P a le c r u shed ma l t a nd w a t e rw e r ec omb ined t o make af a i r ly s t i f fm ix tu re f o r t h e b a r ley ' c ake s ' . T he se w e r e t h en p l a ced o n ah o t f l a t s t one t o c ook . T hey n eeded t o b e k ep t mo i s t , a s t h ey d r ied o u t q u ick ly a nd t h e e nzyme s r equ i r e m o i s tu re t o w o rk . I t w a s a l so n ece s sa ry t o k eep t h e f i r e b ur n ing f a i r ly f i e r ce ly , t o p rov ide a c on s tan t s upp ly o f h o t a she s t ok eep t h e ma sh t empe ra tu r e c o r r ec t a nd t h e f l a t s t one h o t . A t t ime s , t h e ma sh b ecame t o o h o t a nd h ad t ob e t a ken

o u t o ft h e f i re . I ts oon b ecame a ppa ren t t h a t t h e h ea r th w a s a l i t t le t oo s ma l l f o r ma sh ing i nt h i s w ay ( f igu re s 1 . 10 , 1 . 11) . N eve r the le s s , t h e ma sh s wee tened a s t h e g en t le h ea t ing p rog r e s sed . A f te r a bou t a n h ou r t h e s a ccha r if ica t ion c ou ld b e s e en , s me l t a nd t a s ted i nt h e b ow l m a sh , t h e m ix tu re t ur n ing b rown a nd s ome o ft h e m a l t b ecom ing c a rame l i sed a nd b u rn t o n to t h e s i de o ft h ep o t te ry b ow l . T he l i qu id w a s t a s ted r e gu la r ly . I tb egan t o t a s te s wee t a f t e r a bou t a n h ou r a nd i tb ecame i n c rea s ing ly d a rke r , s wee te r a nd s t i ck ie r a s t h e ma sh ing p rog r e ssed . T he b a r ley ' c ake s ' w e r e much s l owe r t os a ccha r i f y , a si tw a s d i ff icu l t t o m a in ta in ah i gh t empe ra tu re o ft h e s t one w i thou to ve r -hea t ing t h eb a r ley m a sh i nt h eb ow l . I n s ub sequen t e xpe r imen t s , al a rge r h ea r th m ade e n t i re ly w i th f l a t s t one s w a s c on s t ruc ted , b a sed o n t ho se f ound a tN eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o n O rkney ( f igu re 1 . 11) . T h i s w a s af a r mo r e f unc t iona l h ea r th t h an t h e e a r l ie r o ne u sed . I t w a s much e a s ie rt or un af i r e a nd t oc ook a tt h e s ame t ime i n ah ea r th o ft h is s i ze . T he c ook ing a r ea w a s f a r e nough a way f r om t h e a r ea w he r e t h e f i re w a s a l lowed t ob l aze , p rov id ing h o t a she s b u t , c r i t ica l ly , n o to ve rhea t ing t h e ma sh . T he s t ones b y t h e b l az ing f i r e b ecame v e ry h o t , r a d ia t ing h ea t w hen t h e f i re h ad b een r unn ing f o r s ome h ou r s . T hey p roved t o b e e xce l len t f o r m ak ing b a r ley ' c ake s ' . I tw a s n o t d i f f icu l t t o i mag ine t h e p o ten t ia l h ea t ing c apa c i ty b y r ad ia t ion o f t h e se s t one s s hou ld af i r e b e k ep t g o ing i nt h e h ea r th o ve r s e ve ra l w eek s , m on th s o r y ea r s , a s w a s t h e c a se a t S ka ra B ra e i n N eo l i th ic t ime s . G iven t h a t a bou t f i ve p ound s o f b a r ley m a sh w e r e n eeded t om ake t h et wo g a l lon so fw o r tf o rl a te rf e rmen t ing ,i t w a s n o t p ra c t ica l t o ma sh t h e se l a rge a moun t s o ve r a n o pen f i r e . A s ap rac t ica l e xped ien t , Iu sed t h e d ome s t ic o ven . T he p a le c r u shed ma l t w a s m ixed w i th w a te r a nd p l aced i nc up c ake t r ay s i n av e ry , v e ry l ow o ven f o r s eve ra l h ou r s . T h i s g ua ran teed a s l ow r i s ing t empe ra tu r e f o r ag ood c onve r s ion b y t h e e nzyme s o f g ra in s t a r che s i n to s uga r s . T he re w a s a s wee t a nd p owe r fu l a r oma w hen t h e c o r rec t t empe ra tu r e f o r s a ccha r if i ca t ion h ad b een r e ached , t h e s ame a roma a s n o ted

5

C hap t er 1—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le b o t tom o f t h e b ucke t , a nd f u r the r c a r e fu l p ou r ing e l im ina ted much o f t h i s c ha f f f r om t h e w or t u n t i l ac l ea r l i qu id w a s o b ta ined f o rf e rmen ta t ion . S yphon s may b ep rac t ica l s o lu t ion , p l a s t ic o ne s b e ing u sed i n my e xpe r imen t s . I n ap r eh i s to r ic c on tex t , r e ed s m igh t f unc t ion w e l l . H o le s a nd s p igo t s a tt h e b a se o f v e s se l s w ou ld a l so w o rk v e ry w e l l b u t t h e r e w ou ld p robab ly b e al o to fs p i l lage o ft h e wo r t . McGee ( 1984 :474 ) n o te s t h a t " f u l ly 8 5% o f t h e c a rbohyd ra te i nm a l t w a s s t a r ch wh i le i nt h e l i qu id w o r t 7 0% i s n ow i n t h e f o rm o f v a r iou s s uga r s : s ma l l a moun t s o f g l uco se , f r uc to se , s ome 3 suga rr emnan t s o fs t a rch a nd a bou t 4 0% ma l to se , o r t wo -g luco se mo lecu le s" . T he w o r t i sv e ry s t icky i n deed , a nd t h e p ho tog raph s g i ve as l igh t i nd ica t ion o f t h e s t icky m e s s t h a t a lway s a ccompan ie s t h e h and l ing o r t r an sf e r r ing o f t h e w o r t f r om o ne v e s se l t oa no the r . V e s se l s

w hen ma sh ing o ve rt h eo pen f i r e a nd w hen t h e b a r ley ma l t i s ' s t ruck ' w i th h o tw a te ru s ing moder nw e t ma sh ing t e chn ique s . Af te r o ven m a sh ing , t h e r e su l t w a s ad a rk b rown , s ome t ime s c a rame l i sed a nd c r i sp m ix o f b a r ley h u sk s a nd ma l t s uga r s ( f igu re 1 . 12 ) . B ecau se t h e t empe ra tu r e w a s mo r e p rec i se ly c on t ro l led , t h e c onve r s ion w a s e xce l len t , w i th s t rong c a rame l f l avou r s a nd s ome b ur n t g ra in s . T he m ix tu r e t a s ted v e ry s wee ta nd w a se x t reme ly s t icky t oh and le . T he ma sh w a s s t o red i n e ve ry l a rge , d eep v e s se l a va i lab le i n t h e h ou se a nd i tw a s k ep t c ove red t o a vo id c on tam ina t ion w h i l s t t h e l a te r b a t che s w e re b e ing made . I t t ook s eve ra ld ay so fo ven m a sh ing t op roduce t h ef i ve p ound s o f ma sh n eeded f o rt wo g a l lon s o fw o r t . When t h e ma sh w a s l e f tt os t and , i tw a sn o t iced t h a t aq uan t i ty o fp u r e ma l t l i qu id , v e ry d a rk b rown i nc o lou ra nd t a s t ing v e ry s wee t ,h ad f i l te r ed t h rough t h eb a r ley h u sk st ot h eb o t tom o ft h ec on ta ine r( f igu re 1 . 13 ) . T h i s ma l t l i qu id w a s s wee ta nd d e l ic iou s . I ti s au sefu l a nd n u t r i t iou s e nd p roduc to fm a l t ed a nd m a shed g ra in a nd i t

a nd e qu ipmen t r e qu i re c on s tan t w a sh ing . A cce ss t o an ea rby w a te r s upp ly a nd t od ra in s i sc ruc ia l f o r p roce ss ing g r a in i n t h i s w ay .

c on ta in se a s i ly d i ges t ib le B -v i tam in s . P ho tog raph s h ave b een i n c luded o f t h e ma sh ing e xpe r imen t s t h a t Id id i n1 998 . O ne o ft h e p a r t icu la r a im s o f i n c lud ing t h e se c o lou r p ho tog raph s i s t o d emon s t ra te t h e d rama t ic c hange f r om ap a le , w h i t e ,s t a rchy m ix tu re o fm a l ted b a r ley a nd w a te r t o a d a rk b rown , s wee t ta s t ing a nd c a rame l i sed m a shed b a r ley m ix tu r e w i th ma l t l i qu id . T h i s t r an sfo rma t ion i se a s i ly a ch ieved o ve r t h e g en t le w a rm th o f h o ta she so r , a l ter na t ive ly , i n al ow o ven . A s an ov ice a tt h i s I s t rugg led t o ma in ta in t h e f i r e , t op rov ide s uff ic ien t h o t a she s a nd t o mon i to rt h e t empe ra tu r e o ft h e b a r ley ma sh , a l l a tt h e s ame t ime . I n t h e p a s t , g ra in p roce s s ing w ou ld p robab ly n o t h ave b een as o l i ta ry t a sk . I n my e xpe r imen t s i tb ecame c l ea r t h a t a ny a t temp t t o m ake l a rge a moun t s o f b a r ley m a sh , s uff ic ien t f o r s eve ra l g a l lon s o f a l e t o b e p roduced , w ou ld h ave i n vo lved a g roup o f p eop le w o rk ing t o ge the r . I n t h e e xpe r imen t s , a pp rox ima te ly f i ve p ound s o f ma l ted b a r ley w a s ma shed t o p roduce a bou t t wo g a l lon s o f s wee t w o r t f o r f e rmen ta t ion . T he p roce s st o ok s e ve ra ld ay s . T he n ex t s e c t ion e xp la in s h ow t h e s wee t l i qu id w o r t i se x t ra c ted f r om t h e ma sh ,l e av ing ' s pen tg ra in ' , w h ich i su sed a sa n ima lf odde r .

Ma l t s uga rs a re w ashed o u t o ft he mash a nd t he w o r t c an b e s yphoned i n to ac l ean v esse l

H o t w a te r i s t r ick led t h rough b a r ley mash t ha t i s h e ld i n ag ra in b ag

F igure 1 .7 S parg ing t h e w or t u s ing ag ra in b ag , ab uck e t , at a b le a nd a s yphon . T he w or t i s c o l lec t ed a nd t h en a l lowed t o s e t t le b ef ore t h en ex ts t age .

d ) Ob ta in ing as wee tw or tf o rf e rmen ta t ion I ti se a sy t or i n se o u t m o r e o f t h e s wee t a nd s t icky ma l t l i qu id f r om t h e b a r ley m a sh , ap rac t ice k nown i n t h e b r ew ing t r ade a s s pa rg ing , w i th t h e p roduc t b e ing t h e w o r t ( f igu r e 1 . 14 ) . H o t w a te r i s u sed s i nce " suga r , w hen i n s o lu t ion , w i l l f l ow much mo r e e a s i ly a nd r e ad i ly w hen i ti s h o t . S wee t w o r t i sn o e xcep t ion , a nd t h e w ho le t h eo ry o f s pa rg ing i sb a sed o n t h i s p r in c ip le . . . the h u sk s a c t a s af i l te r ." ( L ine , 1 980 :14 1f f ) . U sua l ly , t h e a moun t o f w a te r u sed t o s pa rge i s a pp rox ima te ly e qua l t o t h e d e s i r ed g a l lonage o f b ee r . I n my e xpe r imen t s , h o t w a te r w a s t r i ck led t h rough t h e m a sh u s ing ab a ske t s ieve o ve r al a rge c on ta ine r . T h i s i s t h e m e thod d ep ic ted i n E gyp t ian b r ew ing s c ene s o f t h e 3 "I m i l lenn ium BC ( f igu r e 1 . 8 ) . T he m e thod w o rked w e l l , b u t w a s av e ry s l ow a nd e x t reme ly s t i cky a nd m e s sy b u s ine s s . Moder n m e thod s a nd e qu ipmen t w e r e u sed , s pec if i ca l ly a g ra in b ag , t wo p l a s t ic b ucke t s a nd a p l a s t ic s yphon t ube

F igur e1 . 8 E gyp t ian m a l t s t er s , masher s a nd b rewe r s c 1500 BC f rom a p a in t ing o n t h e w a l l o f aT heban t omb . T he p roce s se s o f r ak ing t h e m a l t , m ak ing b app ir , s parg ing a nd f ermen ta t ion c an b es een ( S inger 1 980 :f i gure 1 80 ) .

( f igu r e 1 . 7 ) . Two g a l lon so fs wee tw o r tw a st h u so b ta ined . T he g ra in a nd c ha f f e ven tua l ly s e t t led o u t t o t h e

6

C hap t e r 1— T he C onve r s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le

Ma sh ing e xper imen t su s ing c ru shed m a l ted b ar ley

F igure 1 . 9 P a l ec ru shed m a l t ed b ar l ey w a sm ixed w i th a bundan tw a t e ri n ab ow lt h a th ad b een w a t e rproof ed w i th b ee swax . T he b ow lw a s t h en p laced i nt h eh o ta she so fa no pen f i r e . I n i t ia l ly , a tt h i ss t age , t h el i qu id w a so paque a nd w h i t e , s how ing i tt ob es t ar chy a t t h i ss t age p r ior t ot h em a sh ing . T he m a l t ed b ar ley w a sv e r yp a l eb rown i nc o lou r .

F igure 1 . 10 A s t h e m a l t a nd w a t er g en t ly h ea t s u p t h e e nzyme s w i th in t h e g ra in r e -ac t iva t e a nd c on t inue t h e c onve r s ion o fs t ar ch i n to s ugar s . S ac char i f i ca t ion i si n d ica ted b y t h ed arken ing o ft h eb ar l ey m a sh a nd a tt h i s s t age t h e re i s ap owe rf u la roma t h a t i s s t rong a nd s wee t . T he m a sh c hange s i nc o lou r a nd i tg radua l ly b ecome s d ark b rown a nd t a s t e s s wee t a f t e r 1 5 -30 m inu t e s . S ome o ft h em a l tb ecome s c arbon i sed . T he m ix tur e t h a th ad b een p laced o n t h e h o ts t one n eed ed t ob ec on s tan t ly w e tf or t h e s a cchar if i ca t ion t oo ccur .

7

C hap te r I— T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A l e

F igure 1 . 11

F igure 1 . 12

T he l a rge r r e c tangu lar h ear th b ased o n O rcad ian N eo l i th ic h ear ths e xcava ted a tS kara B rae a nd R inyo .

T hree b ow l s , o ne c on ta in ing c rushed m a l ted b ar ley a nd t wo w i th s wee tb ar ley m ash , s how ing t h ec on t ras ti nc o lour .

F igure 1 . 13 P ure , s wee tm a l tl i qu id h as f i l tered t h rough t h em ash a nd h u sk s t oc o l lec ta tt h eb o t tom o ft h e v e s se l u sed f or t emporary s t orage o ft h e b ar ley m a sh . T h i s m a l t l i qu id i sh igh ly n u t r i t ious , b e ing r i ch i nB -V i tam ins . I tc an b e u sed i ns eve ra l w ay s . I fa dd ed t om i lk i t m ake s ad e l ic iou s m a l ted m i lk d r ink ,j u s tl i ke H or l ick s . I tc an h ea dded t oo t he rf ood so r d i she s a s as wee tener . T he m a sh c an a l so b e s parged u s ing h o t w a ter t oe x t rac t m ore m a l ts ugar s ( t he w or t ) t h a tc an b ef e rmen ted i n to a l e . F igure 1 . 14 More w or tc an b ec o l lec ted b ys parg ing t h em ash w i th h o t w a ter . T h i s i n vo lve s r unn ing h o t w a ter s l ow l y t h rough t h e m a sh a nd c o l lec t ing t h e r un of i n ab ucke t . T h i s i l u s t ra t ion s how s t h e w or t w hen f i r s t e x t rac ted a nd a f t er o ne h our , h av ing b een l ef tt os e t t le . T he c l oud y m ix ture s e t t le s o u t , l e av ing ac l ear s wee tm a l tl i qu id ( wor t )a tt h et o p a nd c haf fa nd o ther b i t s a t t h e b o t tom o f t h e v e s se l . A f ter s e t t l ing t h e w or t c an b e t r ansf er red i n to a c l ean v e sse l , t h en b o i led w i th t h e d e s ired a dd i t ive sf or f l avour a nd p re se rva t ion a nd t h en , f i na l ly , i ti sf e rmen ted . T h i s i sa n e x t reme ly s t icky a nd m e s sy b us ine s s . A l l e qu ipmen t m u s t b e w a shed t op reven t c on tam ina t ion o fs ub sequen t b rew s . C lean l ine ss o fe qu ipmen ti sc ruc ia l .

C hap ter 1—The C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le e )B o i l ing t he wor tw i th f l avour ing sa nd p re serva t ive s . B o i l ing t h e w o r t k i l l s t h e e nzyme s t h a t a r e s t i l l a c t ive a nd w h ich , i fl e f t u nchecked , w i l l s po i l t h e a l e ( L ine 1 980 :157 ) . I ta l so s t e r i l i se s t h e w o r t a nd i tp rec ip i ta te s o u t p ro te in s t h a t a f f ec t t h e f l avou r a nd s t o rage o ft h e b ee ro ra l e . H e rb s t h a ta r e a dded t ot h e b o i l c an e i the ra dd f l avou r t ot h e b rew a nd o rt h ey c an a c ta s ap r e se rva t ive .H op s ,c u l t iva ted i n E u rope s i nce t h e e i gh th o rn in th c en tu r ie s AD , p e r fo rm b o th t h ese f un c t ion sb u ti np r eh i s to r ic t ime so t he rh e rb sw e re u sed , s uch a s B og My r t le , G round I vy a nd Meadow swee t ( Mabey 1 996 :64 ,317 ) . A spec t so ft h eu se ,t h ep u rpo se s a nd p rope r t ie s o f as e lec t ion o f h e rba l a dd i t ive s t o a l e o t he r t h an h op s i s e xam ined i nC hap te r Two . Meadow swee t p o l len w a s f ound i n s i gn if ican t q uan t i t ie s i nt h e r e s idue s o ft h e S t ra tha l lan B eake r a nd t ho se f ound i nt h e A shg rove B eake r ( Ba r c lay e ta l 1 983 , D ick son 1 978 )a nd s oi tw a sd ec ided t ou se t h i sp a r t icu la rf l owe ra sa n a dd i t ive i n t h e se b r ew ing e xpe r imen t s ( f igu re s 1 . 16 ,1 .17 ) . Meadow swee t r equ i r e s b oggy a nd d amp c ond i t ion s t ot h r ive a nd i ti sf r equen t ly f ound g row ing a l ong d i tche s , b yl a ke s a nd s t ream s a nd i nw e t m eadow land . Meadow swee t f l owe rhead s w e re g a the red o nO rkney , w he re i tg row sp rofu se ly , a nd w e r e d r ied f o r u se i n t h e se e xpe r imen t s . S ome w a s g a the red a t L och H a r ray , c l o se b y t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a tB a rnhou se a nd t h e S t one s o f S t enne s s . T he m eadow swee t w a s av e ry w e l l e s tab l i shed p lan t t h e re , w i th t h ick , t o ugh , w oody s t em s t ha t r equ i red c u t t ing w i th ak n if e . C a r e w a s t a ken n o tt ot a ke t oo much m eadow swee t f r om a ny o ne a r ea a nd s o i tw a s g a the r ed ,i ns ma l l a moun t s , a t an umbe ro fd i f f e r en t l o ca t ion s o n ma in land O rkney . I tp ropaga te s b y t h e r oo t s y s tem ; t h e d i f f e r en t f l owe rhead s b e ing p a r t o f t h e s ame p l an t . P i ck ing t h e f l owe r s d oe s n o t p r even t t h e p l an t f r om t h r iv ing ( f igu r e 2 . 3 ) . I n o rde r t o p rope r ly a s se s s i t s f l avou r ing q ua l i t ie s , t wo s epa ra te b rews w e r e made f r om ab a tch o f m a l t l i qu id o b ta in ed b yo ven ma sh ing a nd s pa rg ing . I no ne b r ew o fa bou t a g a l lon , a f i f th o f a n o unce o f d r ied m eadow swee t f l owe rhead s w a s a dded d u r ing t h e b o i l . As e cond b r ew , a l so o fa bou t ag a l lon w a s b o i led b u t n o h e rb s a ta l l w e r e a dded . B o th w e r e f e rmen ted i n g l a s s d em i john s w i th f e rmen ta t ion l o ck s a nd , w hen f e rmen ta t ion w a s c omp le te , w e r e s t o r ed i n p la s t ic b o t t le s a s ap ra c t ica l e xped ien t , a l though f e rmen ta t ion i np o t te ry v e s se l s w i th as u i tab le l i d i s ap o s s ib i l i ty a nd w i l l b ed one i nf u tu re e xpe r imen t s . I ti se s sen t ia lt os ea lt h ep o rou sf a b r ic o ft h ep o tw i th e i the r b ee swax o r f a t s t o p r even t t h e c on ten t s l e ach ing o u t t h rough t h e w a l l s o f t h e v e s se l d u r ing f e rmen ta t ion . E xpe r imen t si nt h is a r ea a r eo ngo ing . Af t e r o ne w eek , t h e b r ew w i thou t a ny d r ied meadow swee t f l owe r s a dded t o t h e b o i l h ad b ecome s ou r , v e ry n a s ty a nd u nd r inkab le . T he b r ew t h a t h ad b een b o i led w i th a dded m eadow swee t f l owe r s r ema ined f r e sh e nough t o d r ink f o rs e ve ra l mon th s a f te rwa rd s .

f o r b rew ing may h ave b een c u l t iva ted a nd k ep t ' a l ive ' i n p reh i s to ry . Y ea s t c an s u rv ive , i n ad r ied s t a te , o n t h e s u r f a ce o f p o t te ry v e s se l s . F o r e xamp le , i n E gyp t , s uch r e s idue s d a t ing t o t h e 2n d m i l lenn ium BC h ave b een f ound a nd e xam ined u s ing a s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scop e ( Samue l 1 995 ,1996 ) . I ti s mo s t u n l ike ly t h a t s uch r e s idue s h ave s u rv ived i nN o r ther n E u rope a nd t h e B r i t i sh I s le s a s t h ey h ave i nt h e d ry c l ima te o fE gyp t . T he a dd i t ion o fs wee tw o r tt o ap o tw i th y ea s t r e s idue s d r ied o n t oi t s i n ter na l s u r f ace w ou ld h ave t h e e f f ec t o f a c t iva t ing t h e y ea s t a nd f e rmen ta t ion w ou ld t h en b eg in , a s i f b y mag ic . Y ea s t r equ i re s at empe ra tu re o f b e tween 5 5 -70 d eg r ee s F ah renhe i t , b u t i tm e tabo l i se s b e s t a t a r ound 6 0 d eg ree s . T he y ea s t a c t ion s p l i t s t h e s uga r i n to a l coho l a nd c a rbon d iox ide g a s . ( L ine 1 980 :164 ) . A nae rob ic c ond i t ion s a r e n ece s sa ry f o r a l coho l ic f e rmen ta t ion , t h e a l coho l b e ing a ' wa s te p roduc t ' o ft h e y ea s t , w h ich i sf o r ced t os u rv ive b yu s ing t h es uga r sa s as ou r ce o fe ne rgy : C6H1 2 06 G luco se

›

2 C 2H5OH A lcoho l

+

2 CO , C a rbon D iox ide

+ E ne rgy H ea t

E ne rgy i s ab y -p roduc t o f t h e b i ochem ica l p roce s s . T he f e rmen t ing wo r t a ppea r s t o b o i l a nd c r ea te s i t s o wn w a rm th i nt h e a b sence o f af i re . A l though t h e b i ochem i s t ry o f y ea s ta c t iv i ty i s an ew d i scove ry , i t se f f ec t sa r ec l ea r ly v i s ib le . A t f i r s t , t h e b ubb le s o fc a rbon d i ox ide r i se u p s l ow ly , b u t a s t h e y ea s t a c t ion i n c rea se s o ve r t ime , t h e m ix tu r e a ppea r s t o b o i l . A cco rd ing t o D av id L ine " a f te r 1 2 -24 h ou r s t h e y ea s t c rop c an l o ok q u i te f r igh ten ing . L ong m e r ingue l ike t e n ta c le s o f y ea s t r e a ch o u t f r om t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e b rew , s ome r e ach ing 6 -8" i n l e ng th . T he c on ten t s o f t h e d u s tb in l o ok mo r e l i ke aQ ua te rma s s e xpe r imen t t h an b ee r i nt h e mak ing" ( L ine 1 980 :163 ) . T h is s ub s ide s a f te r 8h ou r s a nd o ve r t h e n ex t 3 -4 d ay s t h e f e rmen ta t ion q u ie ten s d own a nd i sl e s s s pec tacu la r . T he s i ze o f t h e f e rmen ta t ion v e s se l u sed d epend s u pon t h e a moun t o fw o r tt ob e f e rmen ted . T he e xpe r imen t s i n m a sh ing a nd s pa rg ing p roduced s ma l l v o lume s o f w o r t , t h e r efo r e o ne g a l lon d em i john s h ad t ob e u sed , t oge the r w i th a i r lock s . L a rge r q uan t i t ie s o f w o r t c ou ld b e e a s i ly f e rmen ted i n b ucke t s w i th l i d s ( f igu re 1 . 1) . T he m eadow swee t a l e o b ta ined f r om t h e se e xpe r imen t s w a s ac l ea r , d a rk r e dd i sh b rown i nc o lou r , w i th af l avou r o f m eadow swee t . V e ry f ew a dve r se c ommen t sh ave b een r e ce ived f r om t h et a s te r s . Meadowswee t A le h a s b een m ade f o r t h e Manche s te r Un ive r s i ty A r chaeo logy S oc ie ty t o s amp le i n D ecembe r 1 997 a nd s ome w a s m ade f o rt h e N eo l i th ic S tud ie s G roup Mee t ing i n Ma r ch 1 998 . S ome i ss t i l l k eep ing w e l l , i n p l a s t ic b o t t le s i n ac oo lc e l la r . T o l e ave t h e a l ei nc on ta c tw i th t h e y ea s ty s ed imen t w ou ld s oon t a in t i t , s o , w hen f e rmen ta t ion i sf i n i shed , t h e a l e mu s t b e e i the r s yphoned o f f o r c a refu l ly p ou red i n to a c l ean v e s se l f o r c on sump t ion o r s t o rage . T h i s p roces s i sr e f e r red t o a s ' r ack ing o f f ' t h e a l e . P la s t ic s yphon t ube s w e r eu sed t os yphon t h ea l e made a sp a r t o f t h i s r e sea r ch i n to c l ean p l a s t ic b o t t le s . A s n o ted e a r l ie r , r e ed s w ou ld p robab ly w o rk e ff i c ien t ly a s s yphon t ub e s , b u t e xpe r imen t s i nt h is h ave n o ty e tb een t r i ed . T he r e s idue s t h a t a ccumu la te a t t h e b o t tom o f f e rmen t ing v e s se l s d i f f e r f r om b a r ley ma sh r e s idue s , k nown

f )F ermen ta t ion : t he c onver s ion o fs ugar si n to a l coho l . T he re a r e s eve ra l w ay s t h a t y ea s t c an b e i n t roduced t ot h e w o r t . W i ld y ea s t s e x i s t i nt h e a i r , a s n o ted b y P a s teu r a nd T ynda l l . I n B e lg ium t oday , i amb ic b ee r s a r e f e rmen ted u s ing w i ld y ea s t s a l one , ar e l ic t p e rhap s o fa nc ien t p ra c t ice s . A l ter na t ive ly , ay ea s tc u l tu re c an b e k ep ta l ive a nd u sed w hen n eeded ,a s moder nb r ewe r ie s d ot o day . S u i tab le y ea s tc u l tu re s

9

C hap t er 1—T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A l e a s ' s pen t g ra in ' o r f r om r e s idue s r e su l t ing f r om s pa rg ing t h e w o r t , i nt h a t t h ey a l so c on ta in p o l len a nd m ac ro p l an t d eb r i s f r om t h e h e rb s a dded a s f l avou r ing s o r p r e ser va t ive s d u r ing t h e b o i l . T he r efo r e , o rgan ic r e s idue s t h a t a r e d e sc r ibed a s ' b a r ley m a sh w i th a dded h e rb s o r f l avou r ing s ' p robab ly r ep r e sen t t h e r e s idue s o f a f e rmen ted d r ink , e i the r manu f ac tu r ed o rs t o red i nt h a tv e s se l . O nce t h e s uga r s h ave b een w a shed o u t , l i t t le w ou ld r ema in o ft h e ' s pen t ' b a r ley ma sh . I t make s a n e xce l len t f e ed f o r b o th c a t t le a nd p ig s a nd i ti sn o t aw a s te p roduc t t h a t w ou ld r ema in i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

2 .N ece s sary ma ter ia ls a nd e qu ipmen t B a r ley a nd w hea t a r e v e r sa t i le c r op s t h a t c an b e p roce s sed i n s eve ra l w ay s t o make f l ou r , b read , p o r r idge , m a l t s a nd a l e . Mo s t o f t h e l i t e ra tu r e a s sume s g ra in t o b e a s ou r ce o fc a rbohyd ra te i nt h e d i e t a nd t h a t i tw a s g rown a sa s t ap le f ood f o r i t s f l ou r , p o r r idge a nd b r eadmak ing p o ten t ia l . T he f a c t t h a t g ra in c an e a s i ly a nd w i th a m in imum o f e qu ipmen t a l so b e p roce s sed t oe x t ra c t s wee t ma l t s h a s b een o ve r looked . G ra in w a s p robab ly p roce s sed i n av a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren tw ay si np r eh i s to ry . T h i s r e sea r ch c oncen t ra te s s pec if ica l ly u pon t h e p o ten t ia l i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic f o r t h e m anuf ac tu re o f s wee t

ma l t s a nd a l e f r om b a r ley a nd w hea t . T he b a s ic r equ i remen t s f o r ma l t a nd a l e p roduc t ion a r e g ra in , w a te r , l a rge v e s se l s , f u e l a nd y ea s t , i ft h e ma l t i st o b e f e rmen ted . A l l t ype s o f g ra in s c an b e u sed s uch a sw hea t , b a r ley , o a t s a nd r ye ( Vend l 1 994 :307 ) . S l avom i l V en c l 's a na ly s i s o f t h e b a s ic r equ i remen t s f o r b rew ing c an b e e xpanded u pon i nt h e l i gh t o f e v idence f r om t h i s c hap te r . A ma l t ing f l oo r , made s imp ly f r om e a r th , c l ay , w ood o r s t one i s n eeded . S he l te r a nd p ro tec t ion f r om t h ee l emen t s a nd f r om b i rd sa nd b ea s t s ,i nt h e f o rm o f ar oo f ed a nd e nc lo sed s t ruc tu r e , i s a no the r v e ry i mpo r tan t f a c to r . H ea r th s , o ven s o r k i ln s a r e n ece s sa ry f o r d ry ing o u ta nd f o r ma sh ing t h e ma l ted g ra in ( f igu r e 1 . 15 ) . A cce s s t o an ea rby w a te r s upp ly i s e s sen t ia l f o r w a sh ing t h e u sed s t icky p o t te ry v es se l s a nd a l so f o r s pa rg ing , i n w h ich t h e s uga r s a r e w a shed o u t o f t h e m a shed b a r ley u s ing h ea ted w a te r . C lean l ine s s i sc ruc ia l t o b r ew ing a nd a s t rong s ou r ce f o r r i tua l b ehav iou r . S u i tab le p o t te ry i s r e qu i red , b o th l a rge a nd s ma l l v e s se l s f o r s t o rage , f o r f e rmen ta t ion a nd f o rd r ink ing f r om . W i thou t d oub t o ne o f t h e mo s t c r uc ia l a spec t s o f b r ew ing i st h e s k i l l a nd k now ledge o f b o th t h e ma l t s te r a nd t h e b r ewe r i np roce s s ing t h e g ra in c o r rec t ly i no rde r t om ake as ucce s sfu lb r ew .

G ra in

Mo s tg ra in sa r e s u i tab le , f o re xamp le , w hea t , b a r ley o rr y e .

A' n ai l ing f l oor

Smoo th , l e ve l f l oo ro fb ea ten e a r th , c l ay , p l a s te r , w ood o rs t one .

Ab arn

T he ma l t ing f l oo r s hou ld b e s i tua ted i n ad a rk , w e l l -ven t i la ted b u i ld ing t o m a in ta in a n e ven t empe ra tu re a nd t op ro tec tt h e g e rm ina t ing g ra in ( t he m a l t )f r om t h ee l emen t s ,b i rd sa nd b ea s t s .

Wa ter

Ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion r equ i re c op iou s a moun t s o f w a te r . A l l e qu ipmen t n eed s t o b e k ep t s c rupu lou s ly c l ean t oa vo id c on tam ina t ion o ft h ep roduc t .

D ra ins

U sefu lf o rt r an spo r t ing w a s te w a te ro u to ft h eb u i ld ing .

K i ln , o ven o r h ear th

T od ry t h e ma l ta nd t o ma sh t h e ma l ted g ra in .

C on ta iner s

T o ma sh t h e m a l ted g ra in , t of e rmen t t h e m a sh a nd t os t o r e t h e p roduc t s . T hey m ay b e p o t te ry o r w ood . I fw ooden ,h o ts t one sa r en ece s sa ry t oh ea tt h em a sh .

C over f o rv e s se l

T op rov ide a nae rob ic c ond i t ion sf o rt h ef e rmen ta nd t oe xc lude a i rbor n ec on tam ina t ion .

S i eve s

F o rt h e s epa ra t ion o ft h ew o r tf r om t h em a sh .

Y ea s t

N eeded t os t a r tt h ef e rmen t . C an b ec u l t iva ted i n ap o tb u t w i l l s u rv ive , d r ied , o n t h e i n ter na l s u r f a ce s o ft h ef e rmen ta t ion v e s se lo ro n ah aze lw and , u sed t os t i rt h eb r ew .

Know ledge a nd s k i l l , p rac t ice ,e xper ience

W i th t h e a bove e qu ipmen t a nd i n g r ed ien t s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o make a l e f r om g ra in . T he s k i l l e x i s t s i n k now ing t h er i gh tw ay t od oi t .

F igure 1 . 15 T ab l e s how ing t h e b a s ic e qu ipmen t r equ i red f or p roce s s ing g ra in i n to m a l t , m a l t s ugar s a nd a l e . K now ledge , s k i l l , p rac t ice a nd e xper ience a re i mpo r tan tf ac tor s , b e ing a si mpor tan ta st h em a t er ia l sa nd e qu ipmen t .

1 0

C hap te r 1-T he C onver s ion o fG ra in i n to Ma l ta nd A le

S amp le 1 S c rap ing f r om p o t

S amp le 2 B la ck g r ea sy d epo s i t

TREES P ine ( P inus )

0 . 2

B i rch ( Be tu la )

0 . 2

0 . 2

O ak ( Quercu s )

0 . 4

0 . 2

H aze l ( Cory lus )

3 . 2

1 . 0

A lde r( A lnus )

1 . 1

0 . 2

HERBS H ea the r( E r icaceae )

0 . 2

R ibwo r t( P lan tago L anceo la ta )

0 . 7

0 . 3

G ra s se s ( Gram ineae )

8 . 1

4 . 0

H aw tho rn ( Ro sacaea )

0 . 2

1 . 2

S edge s ( Cyperacaea )

0 . 2

F lax ( L inum U s i ta t i s s imum ) C ruc if e rae

0 . 2

B u t te r cup ( Ranuncu laceae )

0 . 4

0 . 9

2 . 7

3 . 7 7 4 .1

C ompo s i tae

6 6 .6 8 . 1

Meadow swee t( F i l ipendu la ) c fF i l ipendu la

8 . 0

1 . 4

0 . 3

P o lypod ium

0 . 4

0 . 5

Mono lee tp s i la te type

2 . 9

0 . 7

C e rea l s ( Cerea l ea ) FERNS

MOSSES S phagnum

0 . 4

I nde te rm ina te

2 . 7

4 . 9

F igur e 1 . 16 P o l len a na ly s i s o fo rgan ic ' b lack g reasy ' d epo s i ta nd s c rap ing f rom i n s id e t h eB ron ze A ge f ood v es se l ( SF 17 )f ound a tN or th Ma in s , S t ra tha l lan , S co t land . T here a re r e la t ive ly h i gh v a lue s o fm eadow swee tp o l len a nd t h i s i nd ica te s i t s d e l ibera t e r a ther t han a cc id en ta la dd i t ion t ot h ec on ten t so ft h ep o t( Barc lay e ta l1 983 ) .

Sma l lL eaved L ime ( T i l ia c orda ta )

5 3 . 7

S cab iou s( Scab io sa )

0 . 2

Meadow swee t( F i l ipendu la u lmar ia )

1 5 . 1

G ra s se s ( Gram ineae )

0 . 2

H ea the r( Ca l luna ) R ibwo r tP lan ta in ( P lan tago L anceo la ta )

7 . 7

W i l low ( Sa l ix )

0 . 2

7 . 1

B eech ( Fagus )

0 . 2

M in t( Lab ia tae )

5 . 1

O ak ( Quercu s )

0 . 2

A lde r( A lnus )

2 . 8

S phagnum

+

H o l ly ( I lex )

2 . 2

C e rea l s

+

D a i sy ( Compo s i tae )

1 . 2

P ine ( P inus )

+

H aze l ( Cory lu s )

1 . 1

B u t te rcup ( Ranuncu laceae ) P o lypody F e rn ( Po lypod ium )

0 . 8

B i r ch ( Be tu la ) H oney suck le ( Lon icera )

+ +

0 . 8

R ed S hank ( Po lygonum )

+

F er n s( F i l ica le s )

0 . 5

P e r s ica r ia

+=F ound O nS cann ing S l ide F igur e 1 . 17 P o l len a na ly s i s o fA sh g rove B eaker f rom S co t land , w i th v er y h i gh v a lue s o f l i me . H ea ther a nd m eadow swee t p o l l en w ere i d en t i f ied i ns ma l ler q uan t i t ie s( D ick son 1 978 ) . T he c on t en t so ft h i sp o tm ay h ave b een m ead ( f ermen ted h oney ) r a ther t h an a l e .

1

C hap ter 2—Add i t ives u sed t oP reserve ,F lavour a nd E nhance A le

CHAPTER TWO Add i t ive s u sed E nhance A le

t o

P re serve ,

F lavour

a )G round I vy I n m ed ieva l t ime s a nd e a r l ie r t h e l e ave s o f G round

a nd

I vy , a l so k nown a s A le -Hoof , w e re c ommon ly u sed i n a l e

P r io rt ot h e i n t roduc t ion o fH op s ( Humu lus l u pu lus )

mak ing ( f igu re 2 . 1) . T he n a tu ra l h ab i ta t o f t h is h erb i s i n w ood land a nd b enea th h edge row s , a s i tg rows b es t i np a r t ia l s hade . I tw a s ac ommon ly c u l t iva ted h e rb i nd omes t ic g a rden s

i n l a te m ed ieva l t ime s aw ide v a r ie ty o f a dd i t ives h ave b een u sed b y b r ewe r st op reserve , f l avou r , s t reng then o rc l a r ify a l e .

a nd i nt ho se o fw ay s ide i n n s ( Gender s 1 971 :174 ) . N icho la s C u lpeppe r ( 1616 -1654 ) , t h e a s t ro loge r -

B og Myr t le ( Myr ica h ederacea ) , Mugwor t

p hys ic ian , n o ted t h a t t h a t G round I vy c ou ld c l a r ify ac l oudy

1 .A dd i t ive su sed i n Med ieva la nd V ik ing t ime s

g a le ) , G round I vy ( G lechmona ( Ar temes ia v u lgar is ) a nd a l so

a l e ' i n an igh t , t h a t i tw i l l b e f i t te r t o b e d rank t h e n ex t mor n ing ; o r i fa ny d r ink b e t h ick w i th r emov ing o r a ny o the r

Meadow swee t ( F i l ipendu la u lmar ia ) w e re a mong t h e mo s t p opu la r a nd t h e mos t c ommon ly u sed h e rb s b y m ed ieva l b rewe r s a nd a l ew ives ( McGee 1 984 :466 ; D av id son 1 998 :154 ,

a cc iden t , i tw i l l d o t h e l i ke i n af ew h ou r s . ' T he h erb i s' s ha rp

G ende r s 1 971 :174 ) . Hop s w e re i n t roduced i nE u rope a round

a nd b i t te r t o t h e t a s te ' a nd i th a s s eve ra l h ea l ing p rope r t ies , f o r e xamp le , a n i n fu s ion ` e a se th a l l g r ip ing p a in s , w indy a nd

t h e 9t hc en tu ry AD a nd i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s i nt h e 1 4t h c en tu ry . H op s w ere n o t f a vou rab ly r e ce ived a t f i r s t b y t h e

c ho le r ic h umou r s i n t h e s t omach , s p leen o r b e l ly ' a nd a d ecoc t ion o f i t l i e lpe th w ound s . . .u lce r s . . .scab s , w ea ls a nd

p opu lace o ft h e B r i t ish I s le s . A le a nd b ee rw e re c on s ide red t o

o the r b r eak ing s o u t i n a ny p a r t o f t h e b ody ' ( Cu lpeppe r 's

b e s e pa ra te d r ink s , a l e b e ing t h e t r ad i t iona l d r ink made w i th l o ca l h e rb s a nd b eer b e ing made w i th i mpo r ted h op s . T he manu f ac tu r e r so fb o th d r inks ma in ta ined t h e i rs epa ra te G u i lds

C omp le te H e rba l ) . b ) B og Myr t le B og My r t le i s as ma l l s h rub t ha tg rows p ro l if ica l ly i n

f o r s ome t ime u n t i l e ven tua l ly , b y t h e 1 6t h c en tury , b ee r b ecame t h e p redom inan t d r ink . H op g rowe r s f r om t h e c on t inen t s e t t led i n K en t d u r ing t h e 1 5t h a nd 1 6t h c en tur ies , f ound ing t h e n ow t h r iv ing Hop b us ine s st h e r e ( McGee 1 984 ) . I n m ed ieva l a nd a nc ien t t ime s h e rb s w ou ld h ave

b og s , w e t h ea th l a nd s , f en s a nd moo r s ( f igu r e 2 . 2 ) . I t i s

b een a dded t ot h e wor t d u r ing t h e b o i l a s l e aves , a s f r esh o r d r ied f l owe rhead s o r a s w ho le p lan t s i ft h e i r f unc t ion w a s a s

s u i tab le e nv i ronmen t st h roughou tt h e w ho le o fB r i t ish I s le s . T he s h rub " em i t s ar e s inous , b a lsam ic f r ag rance , e spec ia l ly when i nf l owe r . . . , a nd t h e w ho le p l an t i ss t i l l u sed i nb r ew ing a nd c ook ing . . . . b e ing a dded t oh ome made b ee rb y

c ur ren t ly f ound m a in ly i n S co t land , N or th Wa les a nd n o r thwes t E ng land ( Ro se 1 991 :234 ) b u t i n p r eh is to r ic a nd e a r ly h i s to r ic t ime s i tc ou ld p robab ly h ave b een f ound i n

f l avou r ing o r a s p reserva t ive a gen t s . I ft h e c l a r if ica t ion o f a c l oudy a l e w a s r equ i red , t h en t h ey w ou ld b e a dded t o t h e

m ix ing t h e l e afy b r anche s w i th t h e h o t l i qu id i n t h e e a r ly

f e rmen ted a l e . T he c u l t iva t ion a nd g a the r ing o fh e rb s a nd t h e k now ledge o fh e rba l p rope r t ies , e i the r m ed ic ina l o r c u l ina ry ,

s t age s o f b ee r mak ing" ( Mabey 1 996 :70 ) . T he l e aves o f t h e p l an t a nd t h e s t em a r e c ove red i n a r oma t ic g l and s , t h a t " r e lea se ar e f resh ing r e s inou s s c en t w hen h and led" ( Gende r s

w e re o f g r ea t i mpor tance i n p reh is to r ic a nd e a r ly h i s tor ic t ime s . T he h e rb g a rden w a s a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o f h ouse a nd h ome . I tp rov ided p lan t s u sefu l f o r c ook ing p u rpo ses a s w e l l a s p l an t s t ou s e a s r emed ies f o r i lne s se s a nd t h e h ea l ing o f w ound s ( Dav id son 1 998 :154 f ) . I ti sd i ff icu l t t o make ac l ea r

1 971 :129 ) . c ) Mugwor t Mugwor t

d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e d omes t ic , c u l ina ry , m ed ic ina l , r i tua l a nd f u nc t iona l u se o fh e rb s i nt h ep a s t . H e rba l r emed ies c an b e p ower fu l a nd p o ten t , e ven

i s a no the r

a r oma t ic

h e rb

t h a t

w a s

f r equen t ly u sed a s f l avou r ing o r m ed ic ina l a dd i t ive i n d omes t ic b rew ing i n m ed ieva l t ime s a nd e a r l ier ( Gende r s

r i sk -f r ee c u res a nd t h e k now ledge o ft h e i r c o r rec t u sage w a s a nd s t i l l i s ac omp lex s k i l l . H e rba l r emed ies a r e b ecom ing

1 971 :200 ; D av id son 1 998 :154 ) . I tw a s c on s idered t o b e a ` women 's h e rb ' b e ing u sefu l i n c h i ldb ir th . A cco rd ing t o C u lpeppe r i th ad t h e e f f ec t o fh a s ten ing t h e d e l ivery a nd a l so

i n c rea s ing ly p opu la r i nt h e l a te 2 0t h c en tury . T he D epa r tmen t

h e lp ing t o e xpe l t h e a f te rb ir th . I tw a s u sed e x tens ive ly i n

o f C omp lemen ta ry Med ic ines a t E xe te r U n ive r s i ty , l e d b y P rof e s so rE dza rd E rn s t , i sc ur ren t ly u nde r tak ing r e sea rch i n to t h e i rc l in ica le f f icacy . I n V ik ing a nd Med ieva l t imes b r ew ing w a s o ne o f

h ome m ed ic ines , b e ing v a lued i n many p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld a nd i th a s b een s ugges ted ( A rm s t rong 1 943 , q uo ted i n D av id son

f a ta l , i ft a ken i n co r rec t ly o r i ne xces s . T hey a r e c er ta in ly n o t

1 996 :154 ) t ha t i t c ou ld h ave b een o ne o f t h e e a r l ies t d e l ibe ra te ly c u l t iva ted h e rb s .

t h e d ome s t ic r e spon s ib i l i t ie s o f w omen ( Dav idson 1 998 :138f t ) a nd i t wou ld b e f a i r t o a s sume t h a t t h is w a s

d ) Meadowswee t Meadow swee t i s at a l l a r oma t ic p l an t t h a t t h r ives i n

p robab ly a l so t h e c a se i n p reh is to ry . I tw a s c us toma ry f o r women t o b r ew a l e a t h ome u n t i l t h e m idd le o f t h e 1 7t h c en tu ry AD , w hen t h e p rocess b ecame i n du s t r ia l ised . Ma l t ing a nd b r ew ing b egan t o b e p rac t ised o n al a rge s ca le w hen t h e

d amp a nd b oggy p l ace s , b y r i ve r s , i n ma r sh land , i n meadows a nd i n d i tche s . I tw a s r egu la r ly u sed i n h i s to r ica l t imes t o f l avou r a nd p reserve m ead , h ence i t s n ame , ad e r iva t ive o f

v e ry f i r s t b r ewer ies w e re e s tab l i shed . B rew ing a l e d ome s t ica l ly w a s al a bou r i n ten s ive b u s ines s i n vo lv ing much

' mead -swee t ' ( Mabey 1 996 :181) . A s d escr ibed i n C hap te r O ne , t h e d r ied f l owe rhead s o f t h i s h erb w e re u sed t o f l avou r

h a rd w o rk . I tp rov ided women w i th a n i n come a nd a l e w a s

a nd s ucces sfu l ly p r eserve t h e a l et h a t w a s m ade a sp a r to ft h i s

o f ten s o ld o n b y a l ew ives a nd b r ews te r s o ft h e M idd le A ges

r e sea rch . S t r ic t ly s peak ing , ' a le ' s hou ld r e f e r t o f e rmen ted

( Benne t t 1 986 , 1 996 ) .

b a r ley w or t a nd ' mead ' t o f e rmen ted h oney a nd w a te r . H oweve r , a l coho l ic b eve rages " we re o f ten b r ewed w i th b o th h oney a nd ma l t , a nd t h e l i t e ra tu r e r e f er s t ot h e se v a r ious ly a s m ead , a l eo rh oney a l e" ( Ra t sch 1 994 :280 ) . 1 3

C hap t er 2—A dd i t ive su sed t oP reserve ,F lavour a nd E nhance A le Meadow swee t w a s a l so u sed a s as t rew ing p l an t , h av ing a ' p r e t ty , s ha rp s c en t ' t h a t ' f a r e xce l s a l l o the r s t rew ing h e rb s ,t od eck u p h ou se s ,t os t rew i nc hambe r s , h a l l s a nd b anque t ing h ou se s ' ( Gende r s 1 971 :87 ) . C u lpeppe rn o te s t h a t a n i n fu s ion o ft h e f l owe r s i s' g ood f o r a l l f e ve r s . . .and a g ood w ound h e rb , w he the r t a ken i nwa rd ly o r e x ter na l ly a pp l ied ' ( Cu lpeppe r 's Moder n H e rba l , F ou l sham e d i t ion : 2 30 ) . T h i s i s d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t m eadow swee t c on ta in s s a l icy l ic a c id ,w h ich r educe sp a in a nd f e ve r . I t i s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t h e rb s u se fu l t o t h e b r ewe r a s f l avou r ing s a nd p re se rva t ive sa l so h ave m ed ic ina lp rope r t ie s . I na nc ien tt ime s , w omen w e r e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion , g a the r ing a nd p repa ra t ion o fh e rb st h a t w e re u sed f o rm any a spec t so fh ome m ed ic ine , h ea l ing a nd n u r s ing o f t h e s i ck a nd d u r ing p regnancy a nd c h i ldb i r th . Women w e r e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e g ene ra l m anagemen t o f h ouse a nd h ome , i n c lud ing p l an t c u l t iva t ion a nd f ood p r epa ra t ion ( Dav id son 1 998 :138 ,154 ) . O ne o ft h e p u rpo se s o ft h e p r ev iou s c hap te r w a s t o d emon s t ra te t h e p o ten t ia l f o r a' d ome s t ic r i tua l ' a spec t t ot h e c r a f to fb r ew ing ,t h a ti s ,t h e n ece s sa ry a nd e s sen t ia l s equence o f s pec if ic a c t ion s a nd p roces se s w h ich mu s t b e a dhe red t o . W i th t h e c u s toma ry a dd i t ion o f av a r ie ty o fh e rb s t ot h e a l e , h e rb s t h a tm ay h ave am ed ic ina l o rp sychoac t ive e f f ec t , t h e re i s a dded a f u r the r d imen s ion t o t h i s r i tua l a c t iv i ty . W i se w omen a nd h ea le r s i n a n t iqu i ty a nd p r eh i s to ry h ad t h e s pec ia l i sed h e rba l k now ledge a nd t h e s k i l l s o fh e rb u sage t o h e lp a nd t oh ea lp eop le w i th in t h e i rc ommun i ty .

t h e r oo t , w h ich l o ok s l i ke a p a r sn ip , i sh i gh ly p o isonou s . T he r e i sn o a n t ido te . C u lpeppe r a dv ise s t h a t : ' The h e rb mu s t n eve r b e t a k en i n ter na l ly , i t i s a l toge the r a n o u twa rd m ed ic ine . ' T he l e ave s c ou ld b e a pp l ied e x ter n a l ly t o r e l ieve h eada che o r l o ca l s we l l ing . T he ' o i l a nd j u ice o ft h e h e rb o r s e ed ' c ou ld b e u sed a s e a rd rop s -' good f o r d ea fne s s , n o i se a nd w o rm s i nt h e e a r s . ' Ad ecoc t ion o ft h eh e rb o rs e ed ' k i l l s l i ce i nm an o r b ea s t . ' A cco rd ing t o C u lpeppe r ' t he f ume o f t h e d r ied h e rb , s t a lk s a nd s e ed s , b ur n ed , q u ick ly h ea l s s we l l ing s ,c h i lb la in so rk ibe si nt h eh and sa nd f e e t ,b yh o ld ing t h em i n t h e f ume s t h e reof . ' G e ra rd ( 1 595 ) n o te s t ha t t h e f ume so fH enbane s e ed s , w hen i nha led , w e r ea ne f f ec t ive c u r e f o r t oo tha che . B o th G e ra rd a nd C u lpeppe r w ro te o fc ommon med ica lp ra c t ice s o ft h e l a te 1 6t h a nd e a r ly 1 7t h c en tu ry . P l iny a s soc ia ted H enbane w i th d ea th a nd w ro te t h a t i tw a s u sed i n f une ra l m ea l s a nd w a s s c a t te red o ve r t omb s ( Lehane 1 977 :146 ) . I t mu s t b e l i ke ly t h a t t h e r e w a s k now ledge o f t h e se a nd many o the rh e rba lr emed ie si np r eh i s to r ic t ime s .

2 . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence : h erba l a dd i t ives i n p reh is tor ic E urope T he r e i s i n te re s t ing a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t h a t i n d ica te s t h e p robab le u se o f H enbane a s a n a dd i t ive t o a l e d u r ing t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC . At o ta l o f 1 5 H enbane s e ed s w e r e f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th c ha r red a nd m a l ted b a r ley g ra in s a tt h e L a te H a l l s ta t t /Ea r ly L a T ene s i t e a tE be rd ingen H ochdo r f , w h ich i ss i tua ted 1 5km n o r thwe s t o fS tu t tga r t a nd h a s b een d a ted t oc 500 BC . T he s i te w a s i n te rp re ted b y t h e e xcava to r a s b e ing a b r ewe ry a s w e l l a s b e ing a s e t t lemen t w i th s pec ia l s t a tu s . T he d i scove r ie s a t t h i s s i te a r e mo s t u nu sua l a nd " t he e x t rao rd ina ry n a tu re o f b ee r a nd m ead p roduc t ion a t E be rd ingen -Hochdo r f s hou ld b e s t re s sed" ( S t ika 1 996 :88 ) . I ti sc l ea r f r om f i nd s a tt h e r i ch g r ave , c l o se b y t h e b r ewe ry a t H ochdo r f , t h a t a l e a nd /o r m ead w e re b e ing manuf a c tu red a nd c on sumed i nv e ry l a rge q uan t i t ie s i nI r on A ge E u rope , a l though n o t a lway s w i th H enbane a s a n a dd i t ive . Ah uge b ronze c au ld ron c apab le o fc on ta in ing 5 00 l i t re s o f l i qu id w a s f ound i n ar i ch b u r ia l ( B ie l e ta l 1 985 ) . A n 8 10 mm l a ye ro fs ed imen t a tt h e b o t tom o ft h e c au ld ron h ad " a p o l len c on ten t s o g rea t t h a t t h e h on ey , t h e s ou r ce o f t h e p o l len , w ou ld h ave s uf f iced t op roduce a n a l coho l ic d r ink -m ead" ( i b id : 1 47 ) . T he e f f ec t s o fH enbane a l e a r e v i v id ly d e sc r ibed b y t h e Mus l im t r ave l le ra nd w r i te rI bn F ad lan , a nA rab e xpe r t i n r e l ig iou s l aw ( Ra t sch 1 994 :279 ) . I n9 2 1 AD h eh ad b een s en t b y t h e C a l iph o f B aghdad t o i n s t ruc t t h e p eop le o f t h e n o r ther n B u lga r s i n t h e I s lam ic f a i th . I n h i s w r i t ings , h e d e sc r ibe s t h e f une ra l c e remony o f aV ik ing c h ief ta in o f t h e R u s , who w e r e S cand inav ian m e rchan t a dven tu re r s w ho r e gu la r ly v i s i ted R u s s ia t ot r ade i nf u r s a nd s l ave s . T he c h ie f h ad d i ed a tB u lga r , a n i mpo r tan t t r ad ing c en t r e o n t h e b ank s o f t h e V o lga a nd f une ra l r i t e s t ook p l a ce t h e r e f o r h im , a cco rd ing t oV ik ing t r ad i t ion s . S pec ia l ly b r ewed H enbane a l e w a s d runk d ay a nd n i gh tb yt h ep a r t ic ipan t su n t i lt h ey b ecame d emen ted a nd s ome e ven d rank t h em se lve s t od ea th ( Ra t sch 1 994 :285 ) . T h i s a l e w a s c a l led ` n ab id ' a nd w a s a n i n t r in s ic p a r t o fV ik ing f une ra l r i te s , t o ge the r w i th h uman a nd a n ima l s a c r if i ce ( Dav id son 1 998 :164 -166 ) .

e )H enbane P l an t s w i th m ed ic ina l , a r oma t ic a nd p sychoa c t ive p rope r t ie s , s u ch a sH enbane ( Hyo sycamu s n i ger ) a nd D ead ly N igh t shade ( A t ropa b e l ladonna ) w e re a tc e r ta in t ime s a dded t oa l e o rm ead ( Ra t sch 1 994 :285 ) . H enbane ( f igu re s 2 . 4 , 2 . 5 ) . a nd D ead ly N igh t shade a r e h igh ly p o i sonou s p l an t s o f t h e S o lanaca e f am i ly . T hey h ave l o ng b een u sed f o r m ed ic ina l a nd r i tua l h a l luc inogen ic p u rpo se s . H enbane c on ta in s t r opane a l ka lo id s , s p ec if ica l ly h yo scyam ine , h yo sc ine a nd a t rop ine . Moder nm ed ic ine s t i l l u se s d e r iva t ive s o fH enbane f o r t r ave l s i ckne s s a nd a t rop ine i s au sefu l d rug i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f P a rk in son 's d i sea se . H yo scyam ine i s" a p owe r fu l h a l luc inogen . . w h ich g i ve s t h e s en sa t ion o f f l y ing t h rough t h e a i r . . . , a mong m any o the r e f f ec t s" ( Deve reux 1 997 :98 ) . H enbane i s ap l an t w e l l k nown f o r i t s a b i l i ty , w hen i n ge s ted i n l im i ted a moun t s , t o i n duce d e lu s ion so ff l y ing . D emen ted m en ta l s t a te s ,c on fu s ion a nd h a l luc ina t ion sa r ea l so e f f ec t sp roduced b yt h ep l an tw hen i n ge s ted . H enbane h ad d eve loped s t rong a s soc ia t ion s w i th m ag ic a nd w i tchc ra f t p ra c t ice s b y t h e e a r ly M idd le A ge s i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s a nd i n E u rope ( She r ra t t 1 996 :14 ) . I t i s p o s s ib le t o a ch ieve t h e se h a l luc inogen ic e f f ec t s b y i n ha l ing t h e s mok e g i ven o f f w hen t h e s e ed s a r e b ur n t , b y r ubb ing o in tmen t c on ta in ing e x t ra c t o f H enbane o n t h e s k in o r b y d r ink ing a l e w i th H enbane a dded t o t h e b r ew ( Lehane 1 977 :184 ) . S ome t ime s h e rb s a r e a dded d u r ing t h e f e rmen ta t ion r a the r t h an t h e b o i l b ecau se t h e i r a l ka lo id s a r e a l coho l s o lub le r a the rt h an w a te rs o lub le . H enbane h a s ap owe r f u l , p ungen t a r oma d e sc r ibed a s ' av e ry h eavy , i l ,o f f en s ive s me l l ' b y C u lpeppe r , w ho w a s w r i t ing i n t h e m id 1 7t h c en tu ry ( Cu lp eppe r :184 ) . Mo r e r e cen t ly i ti sd e sc r ibed a s t h e ' u np lea san t , s i ck ly , f e t id s me l l o fd ead r a t s ' ( Gende r s 1 971 :151) . T he w ho le p l an t , i n c lud ing

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C hap te r 2—A dd i t ive s u sed t oP re serve , F lavour a nd E nhance A le

F igure 2 . 1 T he p ic ture ( l ef t ) s how s G round I v y , ap lan tc ommon ly k nown a s ' a le -hoof ( G lechmona h ed eracea ) . I t i s f ound g row ing i nw ood s , i nh edgerow s a nd o n d amp , r ough g round . I tw as u sed i na nc ien t t i me sf or h erba l i n f us ions a nd a s ab i t ter ing a gen t f br a l e ( Mabey 1 996 :317 ) .

F igure 2 , 2 T he p ic ture b e low s how s B og My r t le ( Myr ica g a le ) g row ing i n d amp h ea th land o n H ar t land Moor , D or se t . I ti s as hrub o ft h e w e t a c id h ea th /and a nd m oor s o f S co t land , N or th W a le s a nd N or thwe s t E ng land . T he w ho le p lan t i su sed i n b rew ing , b e ing a dded t ot h eb o i la s af l avour ing a nd a s ap re serva t ive ( Mabey 1 996 :70 ) .

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C hap ter 2—A dd i t ive su sed t oP re serve , F lavour a nd E nhance A le

F igure 2 . 3 Meadow swee t ( F i l ipendu la u lmar ia ) i nf l ower . I tt h r ive si nd amp r i ver s ide m eadow s a nd m os t o t he r d amp a nd b oggy p lace s , s uch a s d i tche s a nd t h es hore s o fl a ke s . I tw as m uch u sed i nh i s tor ica l t i me s t of l avour a nd t o p re serve m ead , h ence i t s n ame , w h ich i sd er ived f rom ' mead swee t ' . T he p lan tf l owe r s i nJ u ly a nd A ugu s t . T he f l owe r s h ave ar i ch a nd p owerf u l s cen t , m ak ing i t e xce l len t a s a ' s t rew ing p lan t ' . I tp ropaga te s b y i t s r oo ts y s tem , w h ich s pread s a l ong t h e d i t che s . I ti s at o ugh a nd h ardy p lan t t h a t i s f ound i n a bundance i n S co t land a nd O rkney ( Mabey 1 996 ) .

F igure 2 . 4 H enbane ( H yoscyamu s n iger ) h a s g rey -g reen l e ave s d ense ly c ove red w i th s t icky h a ir s . T he f l ower s a re p a le y e l low w i th p urp le v e ins . I tg row s i n s and y p lace s , b y t h e s ea a nd s ome t ime s o n d i s turbed c ha lk l a nd s . T h i s p lan t ( l ef t ) w a s f ound g row ing a t L u lwor th , D or se t . T he h a l luc ina to ry a nd p o i sonous p roper t ie s o f t h ep lan tw ere w e l lk nown i nm ed ieva lt i me s ( Mabey 1 996 :301 ) F igure 2 . 5 T he H enbane f l ower ( Mabey 1 996 ) .

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C hap ter 2—A dd i t ive s u sed t oP re serve , F lavour a nd E nhance A le

F igure 2 . 6 T he f ood v e s se lf rom N or th Ma in s , S t ra tha l lan , w i th m eadow swee tf l ower s . T race s o fm eadow swee tp o l len w ere f ound i nt h i s v e s se l t oge the rw i th c e rea lp o l len a nd c e rea l -ba sed r e s idue s . T he v e s se lw as d i scove red i n as t one l ined B ronze A ge c i s t t h a t c on ta ined af ema le b ur ia l( Barc lay e ta l1 983 , C larke , C ow ie a nd F oxon 1 985 :202 ) .

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C hap t e r 2—A dd i t ive su sed t oP re ser ve , F lavour a nd E nhance A l e A t t i me s , t h e h e rba l a dd i t ive s u s ed i ns u ch ' s pec ia l b r ew s ' m u s t h ave b een a s i mpo r tan t o r p e rhap s e ven m o r e i mpo r tan t t h an t h e a l e i t se lf , g i ven t h e i r " ha l luc inog en ic , a ph rod is iac o rp sy choac t ive p rope r t ie s" ( Ra t sch 1 994 : 2 79 ) . S eve ra l c r u shed H enbane s e ed s w e r e r e cen t ly f o und i n t h e s ame c on t ex t a s a n o rgan ic r e s idue d e s c r ibed a s " a l ump o fc a rbon ised p o r r idge" ( She r r a t t 1 996 :14 ) a dher ing t o as h e rd f r om av e ry l a rge G rooved Wa r e v e s se l . T he p o t te ry h ad b een d e l ibe r a te ly d epo s i ted i n ap i tb y aN eo l i th ic t imbe r m o r tu a ry e nc lo su r ea tt h e r i tu a l s i t ea tB a lf a rg /Ba lb i rn ie , F i f e , S co t land . I tc ou ld e i the r i n d ica te am ed ic ina l u s e o ft h e s e ed ( Ba r c lay e ta l1 993 ) o ri tc ou ld i n d ica t e t h e r i tua l p r ac t ice o f a dd ing H enbane t oa l e . T he c e r ea l r e s idu e s a r e d e sc r ibed a s b e ing " r i tua l ly c ha rged m a te r ia l" a nd a r e i n te rp r e ted a s ' p o r r idge ' ( i b id 1 993 :109 ) . T h ey a r e m uch mo r e l i ke ly t ob e t h e r ema in s o fs ed imen t s l e f t b y t h e f e rmen ta t ion o f ab a r ley w o r t i n to a l e . T he H enbane s e ed s w ou ld h ave b een a dded t o t h e b r ew d u r ing t h e b o i l ing s t age i no r d e r t om ake i tm o r e p o ten t w i th a dd ed h a l luc ina to ry e f f ec t s . T h i s p o s s ib le i n te rp r e ta t ion i s d i scu s sed i n m o r e d e ta i l i n C hap t e r S i x , w he r et h ep r ac t ica l i t ie sa nd p o s s ib i l i t ie so ft h em anuf ac tu r eo f m a l t s a nd a l e d u r ing t h e B r i t ish e a r ly N eo l i th ic a r e s umma r i sed a nd a s se s sed . H enbane a l e , i fc on sumed i ns ma l l a moun t s , w ou ld h ave v e ry o bv iou s i n tox ica t ing a nd h a l lu c inogen ic e f f ec t s . I f c on sumed i n l a rge q uan t i t ie s i tw ou ld i n duce d emen t ia , h a l luc ina t ion s a nd u l t ima te ly d ea th . S u ch p o t en t ia l ly d ange rou s a dd i t ive s a sH enbane w e r e p r obab ly n o t r e gu la r ly a dd ed t oa l e o rt a k en o n ar e gu la r b a s is , b u t w e r e ap a r t o f s p ec ia l r i tua l e ven t s o n ly . S he r r a t t ( 1 99 1 , 1995 , 1996 ) a r gue s f o r t h e r i t ua l o r m ed ic ina l c on sump t ion o f an umbe r o f n a r co t ic s ub s tance s d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge a nd t h e N eo l i th ic , s u ch a s t h e o p ium p oppy ( Papave r s omn if e rum ) , H enbane ( H yo scyamu s n i ge r ) a nd t h e h emp p l an t ( Cannab i s s a t iva ) . H e c i te s t h e d i scove r ie s o f o p ium p oppy s e ed s a t t h e N eo l i th ic l a ke v i l lage s , N eucha ta l , S w i tze r land a nd a l so a t L inea rbandke ram ik s i t e s i nt h e R h ine land . H e a r gue s t h a t t h e u s e o fp sychoac t ive s ub s tance s i np r eh is to ry i s" f undamen ta l t o t h e n a tu r e o f s o c ia l i ty a nd a n a c t iv e e l emen t i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f r e l ig iou s e xpe r ience , g ende r c a t ego r ie s a nd t h e r i tua l s o f s o c ia l l i f e" ( She r ra t t 1 995 :34 ) . F rom t h e e v id en ce a tB a lf a rg /Ba lb irn ie i ta ppea r s t h a t s u ch a c t iv i t ie s a nd r i tua l so ccu r r ed d u r ing t h eB r i t i sh N eo l i th ic . I t i s g ene r a l ly a c cep t ed t h a t r i tua l a nd s o c ia l a c t iv i t ie s t h a t i n c luded " f ea s t ing , f r om d ome s t ic c e leb r a t ion t oc ommuna l o cca s ion s , r e qu ir ing t h e l a rge s c a le s l augh t e ro r s a c r if i ce o f a n ima l s a nd t h e b r ew ing o f d r ink s" ( She r r a t t 1 99 1 :51) w e r e as i gn if ican ta s pec to fB ronze A ge l i f e ,b o th i n E u rope a nd i nt h e B r i t ish I s le s ( Bu rge s s & S hennan 1 976 ) . T h is i ss uppo r ted b y t h e a na ly s i s o f c e r ea l -ba sed r e s idue s f r om t h e S t r a tha l lan B eake r , r a d ioca rbon d a ted t oc 1540+ / -60 B C ( f igu r e 2 . 6 ) . T he f o od v e s se l o r b eake r a c compan ied a f ema le b u r ia l i n as t on e l ined c i s ta tN o r th Ma in s , S t r a tha l lan , F i f e . Am ix tu r e o fc e r ea l r e s idue s a nd Meadow swee t p o l len w i th in t h e b eake r w a s i n te rp r e ted b y t h e e xcava to r s a sb e ing t h e p robab le r emnan t s o f f e rmen ted c e r ea l -ba sed d r ink , n ame ly a l e( Ba r c lay e ta l , 1 983 ) . Ab eake r t h a t w a s f o und i n as t one l ined a nd c l ay s e a led c i s t g r ave d a t ed t o t h e m idd le B ronze A ge a t A shg rove , F i f e , S co t land , ( D ick son 1 978 ) c on ta ined p l an t d eb r is a nd p o l len f r om i mma tu r e m eadow swee t ( F i l ipendu la

1 8

u lmar ia ) f l owe r s a nd f r om f l owe r s o ft h e s ma l l l e aved l i me t r ee ( T i l ia c orda ta ) , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e b eake r h ad c on ta ined m ead . V e s s e l sm ad eo fb i r ch b a rk c on ta in ing t h er e s idue so fa m ead o ra l et y pe d r ink h ave b een f o und a tE g tved , D enma rk , a nd a to t he r D an ish B ronze A ge b og b u r ia l s i te s ( Thom sen 1 929 , r e ft oi n D ick son 1 978 ) . T he c on ten t s o f o ne v e s se l , d e sc r ibed a s a' b ir ch b a rk b ucke t ' b y P r of e s so r G r am i nt h e l a t e 1 920 s , c on ta ined " d eb r i s o fw hea t g r a in s , l e av e s o fb og m y r t le a nd f r u i t so fc r anbe r ry" ( D ick son 1 978 :111) . T he r e i s , t h en , s i gn if ican t a nd c onv inc ing e v id ence f o rt h e c on sump t ion o fa l e a nd m ead d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge . T he se a l coho l ic d r ink s w e r e p robab ly m ade b y t h e w omen w ho w e r e t h e p r inc ipa l g a the r e r s , c u l t iva to r s a nd f o od p ro ce s so r sw i th in t h ec ommun i ty . A rgum en t sh ave b een m ad e f o r B ronz e A ge " ma le d r ink ing c u l t s" ( Bu rge s s & S h ennan 1 976 ) b u t t h e r e i sn o r e a l a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h is . T he S t r a tha l lan B eake r , f o r e xamp le , w a s f ound i nt h e c i s t g r av e o f af ema le . B eake r s h ave b een f o und a c company ing b o th m a le s a nd f ema le s , i n d ica t ing t h ep r obab le c on sump t ion o fa l coho l ic d r ink s b y b o th g ende r s . Women m ay h ave b een t h e m a l t s te r s , t h e b r ewe r s a nd t h e a l e m anuf ac tu r e r s . I ts e em s v e ry u n l ike ly t h a t t h ey d i d n o t c on sume t h ep rodu c tt h a tt h ey s oc a r ef u l ly a nd s k i l lf u l ly m ade . A le m ad e p r io r t o t h e i n t rodu c t ion o f h op s w a s a v e ry d i f f e r en t d r ink c ompa r ed w i th t h e g a seou s , c a rbona ted b ee r t h a t w e a r e n ow a c cu s tomed t o , e ven t h ough i ti s f u ndamen ta l ly t h e s ame p roduc ta nd i sm ad e a c co rd ing t ot h e s ame u nchang ing b i o chem ica l l aw s . T h e v a r iou s h e rba l a dd i t ive s w ou ld m ak e t h e a l e t a s te q u i t e u n l ike h opped b ee r . A le w a s af l a t , n o t af i zzy , c a rbona t ed d r ink . C a rbon isa t ion w a s a n i n ven t ion o f t h e m id 2 0t h c en tu ry a nd i t w a s i n t roduced i n to B r i ta in i nt h e 1 940 s b y Ame r ican s e rv icemen d u r ing t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r . T he u s e o f H op s a s ap r e se r v a t ive a nd f l avou r ing w a s f i r s t p r omo ted b y t h e C hr is t ian m onk s o ft h e M ed ieva l p e r iod a nd , a l though p opu la r i n E u rop e f r om t h e 8t h o r 9t h c en tu r ie s AD , h op sw e r en o tu s ed t h roughou tt h e B r i t ish I s le s u n t i l t h e 1 5t ho r 1 6t h c en tu ry ( Ra t sch 1 994 ) . T he u s e o fh e rb s i n a l e , p a r t icu la r ly H enbane , h ad c l o s e a s soc ia t ion s w i th p agan ism a nd w i th w i t chc r af t p r a c t ices a nd w ou ld u nd e r s tandab ly h ave b een ap r ac t ice t h a t t h e C hu r ch g r ea t ly w an ted t od i scou r age . T he m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o ft h e N eo l i th ic i sv e ry s im i la r t ot h a to ft h e B ronze A ge . A tb o th p e r iod so fp r eh i s to ry t h e r e w e r e b u i ld ing s s u i tab le f o rg r a in s t o r age a nd p roce s s ing , a nd s u i tab le l a rge p o t t e ry v e s se ls f o r f o od a nd d r ink s t o r age a nd f o r m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion p u rpo s e s . T he e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e s g r ew b a r ley a nd w hea t f o rt h ep r oduc t st h a tc ou ld b e m ad e f r om t h em , n o t o n ly t h e f l ou r a nd b r ead b u t a l so t h e s wee tm a l t sa nd t h e a l e . I nE gyp t a nd S y r ia d u r ing t h e 4t ha nd 3 "1m i l lenn ia B C , a l e a nd o t he r a l coho l ic b eve rage s w e r e a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o fr i t ua l , d ome s t ic , c omm e r c ia l a nd e conom ic l i f e . T he n ex t c hap t e r e xam ine s t h e f i r s t c e r ea l a nd g r a in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing a c t iv i ty i nt h e L evan t a nd i nt h e N ea rE a s t . I ta s se s s e st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h e se e a r ly N eo l i th ic g r oup s w e r e p r oce s s ing t h e w i ld b a r ley a nd w hea t i n to s wee t m a l t sa nd a l ea nd c u l t iva t ing g r a in d e l ib e r a t e ly a s as ou r ce o f s we e tne s s .

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t

CHAPTER THREE B ar ley i n t he L evan t , A nc ien t N ear E a s t a nd E gyp t 1 .T he ' b read o rb eer ' d eba te T he q ues t ion w he the r b a r ley a nd o the r c e rea l g ra in s w e re c u l t iva ted f o r t h e manufac tu r e o f b r ead o r o f b ee r h a s b een a no ngo ing d eba te s i nce 1 953 . R ober tB ra idwood o ft h e O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f C h icago a sked w he the r " t he d i scove ry t h a t am a sh o f f e rmen ted g ra in y i e lded a p a la tab le a nd n u t r i t iou s b eve rage a c ted a s ag r ea t e r s t imu lan t t owa rd t h e e xper imen ta l s e lec t ion a nd b reed ing o f t h e c e rea l s t h an t h e d i scove ry o f f l ou r a nd b r eadmak ing?" ( B ra idwood 1 953 :515 ) . H e w a s a t t ra c ted t ot h e i d ea t h a t t h e manuf ac tu r e o f b ee r o r a l e w a s t h e ma in mo t iva t ion b eh ind e a r ly g ra in d ome s t ica t ion a nd h e i n v i ted t h e o p in ion s o f o t he r a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s i n a n ow f amou s s ympo s ium t h a tw a sp ub l i shed i n Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t . J ona thon S aue r a g reed w i th B ra idwood 's i d ea t h a t " t h i r s t r a the rt h an h unge r may h ave b een t h e s t imu lu s b eh ind t h e o r ig in o f s ma l l g ra in a g r icu l tu r e" ( i b id :516 ) . H an s H e lba ek s t rong ly d i sag reed , p o in t ing o u t t h a t c a rbon i sed r a the rt h an m a l ted g ra in h ad b een f ound a tJ a rmo i n te rp r e t ing t h i s a s t h e b ak ing o f b read . P au l Mange l sdo r f n o ted t h a t

i mp rove s t h e B -v i tam in c on ten t o f t h e m ix tu re . . . . t h e reby p e rm i t t ing t h e a b so rp t ion o f mo re e s sen t ia l m ine ra l s s uch a s c a lc ium" ( Ka tz a nd V o ig t , 1 986 :30 ) . I ns ho r t ,t h i s mean s t h a t p roce ssed g ra in c on ta in s d i ge s t ib le B -v i tam in s . I t i s mo r e n u t r i t iou st h an u np roce ssed g ra in . I np r eh i s to ry , p eop le w e re n o t a wa re o ft h e c omp lex b i ochem i s t ry t h a t i sn ece s sa ry f o r t h e i mp roved n u t r i t iona l v a lue o f c e rea l s . B u t t h ey d i d o b se rve t h a t ma l t ing ( pa r t ia l g e rm ina t ion a nd s ub sequen t d ry ing ) m ade t h e g ra in t a s te s wee te r a nd m ake i t mo r e p a la tab le . Ma l t ing h a s t h e a dvan tage o f m ak ing t h e g ra in f r iab le a nd t h e refo re much e a s ie r t o c r u sh o r g r ind u p . A s e xp la ined i n C hap te r O ne c r u shed m a l ted g ra in , w hen g en t ly h ea t ed i n ab ow l o r o ven w i th c op iou s a moun t s o f w a te r , w i l l a lway s p roduce as wee t b a r ley m a sh w i th m a l t l i qu id b ecau se o ft h e e nzyme a c t iv i ty . U nma l ted g ra in c an o n ly p roduce as t a r chy p o r r idge o rg rue l . H av ing ma shed t h e ma l t , i ti sb u t af ew s t ep s f r om t h e f i r s t , p e rhap s a cc iden ta l , f e rmen ta t ion o f t h e s wee t ma l t l i qu id b y w i ld a i rbo rne y ea s t s t o t h e s u cce s sfu l c on t ro l a nd m anagemen t o ft h e w ho le ma l t ing , m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion p roce s s . O b se rva t ion , s k i l l a nd p rac t ice a r ea l lt ha t i sr equ i r ed t o l e a rn h ow t o manage t h e se p roce s se s . K now ledge o f t h e c omp lex b i ochem i s t ry i sn o t n ece s sa ry . A le h a s b een made s ucce s sfu l ly f r om t h e g ra in f o r m i l lenn ia , l ong b efo re t h e c omp lex i t ie s o f t h e b iochem i s t ry w e r e u nde r s tood a nd e xp la ined b y s c ien t i s t s . K a tz a nd V o ig t 's t h eo r ie s o f ` b io cu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion ' a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f ' c u is ine ' c en t re o n t h e w ay s t h a t p eop le p roce s s f ood s i n t h e se h i gh ly c omp lex w ay s t o " t ran sfo rm ma rg ina l ly n u t r i t iou s a nd o u t r igh tt ox ic s ub s tance s i n to h i gh q ua l i ty f ood s" ( Ka tz & V o ig t 1 986 :25 ) ( f igu re 3 . 1 ) .

c e r ea l s w e r e t h e o n ly c a rbohyd ra te f ur n i sh ing f ood s ou r ce a va i lab le t o e a r ly N eo l i th ic p eop le . H e f e l t i tt o b e h i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t" t he f ounda t ion o f We s t er nC iv i l i sa t ion w a s l a id b y a n i l f ed p eop le l i v ing i n a s t a te o f i n tox ica t ion" ( i b id :520 ) . L eo Oppenhe im b e l ieved t h a t t h e q ue s t f o r f ood , s t o rage a nd t h e d i f f e ren t p roce s s ing t e chn ique s o f t h a t f ood w e re i n s t rumen ta l i n t h e d i scove ry o f b o th b read a nd a l e ( i b id : 5 2 1 ) . T h is s eem st ob e ar e a sonab le c omp rom i se o ft h e s eve ra l a r gumen t s a nd i ti st h e mo s t l i ke ly e xp lana t ion . T h e p robab i l i ty i st ha t b read , ma l t , a nd s ub sequen t ly a l e w e r e

F ood p roce s s ing t e chn ique s a r e l e a rn t b y o ne g ene ra t ion a nd p a ssed o n t o , p e rhap s e ven i mp roved u pon b y t h e n ex t g ene ra t ion . K a tz make s t h e p o in t t h a t " t h i s i n fo rma t ion t r an sf e r r equ i re s s t ab i l i ty . I n a l l p robab i l i ty , my th s , s t o r ie s a nd l e gend s , s ome o f w h ich a r e w oven i n to r i tua l p rac t ice s , a l l p l ay ac r i t ica l r o le i nt h e p roce s s o fs t ab i l i s ing t h e c on ten t o ft r ad i t ion s t h a t a r e p a ssed f r om o ne g ene ra t ion t ot h e n ex t , a s w e l l a st h e s oc ia l c on tex t t h rough w h ich t h ey f l ow . O nce s t ab i l i ty h a s b een a ch ieved , t h e t r ia l a nd e r ro r p roce s s t h a t

made i nt h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic N ea rE a s t . Z oha ry a nd H op f p o in t o u t " when c ha r r ed s l ow ly a nd m i ld ly , w ood , s e ed , n u t s , a nd s ome t ime s e ven f l e shy f r u i t s o r w ho le e a r s o f c e rea l s c an s t i l l r e ta in mo s t o f t h e i r mo rpho log ica l a nd a na tom ica l f e a tu re s" ( i b id :4 ) . S uch f e a tu r e s a r e p rese rved " w i th a s ton i sh ing c l a r i ty" . A t h i gh t empe ra tu r e s c a rbon i sa t ion c au se s c e r ta in " cha ra c te r i s t ic d efo rma t ion s" o fg ra in , s uch a ss h r inkage i nt h e l e ng th o ft h e k e rne l , ' p u f f ing ' o f t h e k er n e l a r ound t h e c i rcumf e rence a nd /o r c r a ck ing o ft h e g ra in ( i b id : 4 ) . T he refo re i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t o e xam ine t h e i n ter na l s t ruc tu re o f a n c ien t

mu s t o r ig ina l ly h ave l e d t o t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e s pec if ic t r ad i t ion s i sn o l o nge r n ece s sa ry" ( Ka tz & V o ig t , 1 986 :25 ) . T he mo s t c r uc ia l a nd i mpo r tan tr i tua l s a nd t r ad i t ion s r e la te t o t h e a cqu i s i t ion , p roce s s ing t e chn ique s a nd c on sump t ion o f f ood ( i b id : 2 5 ) . T he c onve r s ion a nd t r an sfo rma t ion o f b a r ley g ra in i n to ma l t s a nd a l e i s as e t o f a c t iv i t ie s t h a t v e ry e a s i ly l e nd s i t se lf t ot h e a cqu i s i t ion o fc omp lex r i tua l p r ac t ice s a nd t ot h e t r an sf e r o f t h e se p rac t ice s t h rough t h e g ene ra t ion s . T he m anuf a c tu r e o f ma l t a nd a l e f r om t h eg r a in c omp r ise s as e to f t r ad i t ion s , r i tua l s , s k i l l s a nd k now ledge t h a t c ou ld a ccu ra te ly b ed e sc r ibed a s ad ome s t ic r i tua la c t iv i ty .

c a rbon i sed g r a in u s ing s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy t ot r y t o a s cer ta in t h e l e ve l o fh ea t t ow h ich i tw a s s ub jec ted . Ma l t ing r equ i r e s v e ry g en t le w a rm th . A r cha eo log ica l e v idence o f w e l l -p re se rved c ha r red g ra in m igh tb ei n d ica t ive o f ma l tb ur n t a cc iden ta l ly d u r ing k i ln ing . T he d eba te g ene ra ted b y B ra idwood 's s ympo s ium s t i l l c on t inue s 5 0 y ea r s l a te r . S o lomon K a tz a nd Ma ry V o ig t ( 1986 ) h ave p o in ted o u t t h e d i e ta ry d i sadvan tage s o f u np roce s sed w hea t a nd b a r ley . U np roce s sed g ra in s a r e n o t

2 . Hun t ing a nd g a ther ing g roup s i n t he N ear E a s ta nd L evan t : 9t h/ 8t h m i l lenn ia BC Moder n s pec ie s o f s i x rowed b a r ley ( Hord eum v u lgare s ub sp p o ly s t ichum ) h ave b een d eve loped a nd s e lec t ive ly b r ed b y a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s o ve r m i l lenn ia f r om i t s w i ld a nce s to r , t h e w i ld t wo rowed b a r ley ( Hord eum v u lgare s ub sp . s pon taneum ) . W i ld b a r ley i s an a tu ra l p l an to ft h e a r ea k nown

n u t r i t iou s . C e r ea l g ra in sa r e made u pm a in ly o fc a rbohyd ra te s w i th o n ly 1 3 -20% p ro te in a nd v e ry l ow a moun t s o f f a t s , B v i tam in s , m ine ra ls a nd l y s ine . L y s in e i sa n e s sen t ia l a m ino a c id t h a te nab le s t h e h uman b ody t op roce s s t h e o t he r a m ino a c id s o f t h e g ra in i n to p ro te in s . A s y ea s t g row s i n a l e a nd b read i t" p roduce s ar i ch s ou r ce o f l y s ine , s i gn if ican t ly

1 9

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E as ta nd E gyp t

P LAN T

E vo lu t ion

> O the r

/

' O rgan isms

B iocu l tu ra i E vo lu t ion

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CU IS INE

GENET IC 32

CU IS INE

T rans fo rma t ions " RA W " Cooked REC IPE VAR IETY

P LANT VAR IETY

H EAT ING , F REEZ ING , F ERMENTAT ION (Y EASTS , MOULDS , B ACTER IA ) SOAK ING , S PROUT ING , P EEL ING , D RY ING , MASH ING , S P IC ING , CHEM ICAL , COMB INAT IONS W ITH OTHER P LANT F OODS

COMB INAT IONS ORDER R ITUALS P RESENTAT ION T IM ING E T IQUETTE F EASTS F ASTS

F igure 3 . 1 K a t za nd V o ig t 's t h eor ie s o fb i ocu l tura le vo lu t ion a nd c u i s ine a re b es te xp la ined b yt h ed iagrams r eproduced h ere . P lan t d ef enses a re e ven tua l ly o vercome b ye vo lu t ion b u tt h i s i s as l ow p roces s . Humans c an ` u n lock ' t h ese d ef ense sb ya c omb ina t ion o fc u l tura la nd b i o log ica la dap ta t ions , b yc rea t ing as e to ft r ad i t ions a nd r i tua lf ood p repara t ion t e chn ique s t h a t i s ab iocu l tura lp henomenon t e rmed ' c u i s ine ' b yK a t za nd V o ig t . C u i s ine i sd ef ined a st h e t r ansf orma t ion o fr aw o r mod if i ed p lan t s o rp lan tp roduc t s i n to c ooked o rc u l tura l ly mod if ied f ood s ( Ka t za nd V o ig t1 986 :24 ) . a s t h e ' F e r t i le C rescen t ' . T h is i n c lude s t h e moder n c oun t r ies

p r im i t ive w i ld w hea t" ( Ha r lan 1 967 :197 ) . H e c onduc ted h a rves t ing e xpe r imen t s , c o l lec t ing t he w i ld g r a in b y h and a nd

o f I s rae l , J o rdan , s ou ther n T u rkey , I r aq , K u rd is tan a nd s ou thwes t I r an . B a r ley g rows p ro l if ica l ly i n t h e J o rdon R if t

a l so u s ing af l in t s i ck le . Wi th t h e f l in t s i ck le h e g a the red 2 . 45

V a l ley a nd t h e T igr is /Euph ra tes b a s in a nd s po rad ica l ly i nt h e

k g o f g ra in w i th in a n h ou r a nd h e e s t ima ted t h a t , i n at h ree w eek p e r iod , e nough g ra in t ol a s t af am i ly f o r ay ea rc ou ld b e

A egean r e g ion , a r ound t h e Med i te r ranean c oa s t , c en t ra l A s ia a nd A fghan is tan ( Zoha ry a nd H opf 1 988 :58 ) . An umber o f s i tes w e re o ccup ied d u r ing t h e 9t h a nd 8t h m i l lenn ia BC i nt h e L evan t , t h e a r ea n ow k nown a sS yr ia , J o rdon a nd I s rae l , f o r e xamp le T e l l A bu H u reyra a nd Mu reyb i t , b o th i nn or th S y r ia a nd T e l l A swad , n ea r moder n

g a the red e a s i ly a nd q u ick ly . Unprocessed g r a in i sn o t ag ood

D ama scu s ( i b id :60 ) . S i ck le b l ades h ave b een f ound i n t h e e a r l ies t l e ve l s a t t h ese s i te s . S ome w e re e ven made f r om

b e ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic h un te r g a there r s o n t h e o ne h and a nd t h e N eo l i th ic a g r icu l tu ra l s oc ie t ies o n t h e o the r" ( Be lf e r -

b aked c l ay . W i ld g ra in s e ed s w e re s t o red i np i t s . T he n a t ive

C ohen 1 995 :9 ) . T hese p eop le l i ved a n omad ic l i f e . T hey

s pec ies o f w hea t

g a the red w i ld f ood s , h un ted b i rd s a nd a n ima ls , f i shed a nd moved a r ound t h e a r ea s ea sona l ly i n o rde r t oe xp lo i t aw ide

a nd

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n u t r i t iona l f ood s ou r ce a nd s o i th ad t ob e p r oces sed i ns ome w ay . T he

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i s

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s e en

a s

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t r an s i t iona l p ha se b e tween t wo c u l tu ra l s e quences , t h e se

w e re g a the red b y h un te r -

g a ther ing g roups , k nown a s t h e N a tuf ian c u l tu re ( Ka tz & V o ig t 1 986 :32 ) . J ack H a r lan , v i s i t ing a n a r ea b y t h e

v a r ie ty o f n a tu ra l f ood r e sou rces , amongs t w h ich w e r e w i ld b a r ley ( Hordeum s pon taneum i ) a nd e i nkom o f t wo v a r ie t ie s

K a racadag Moun ta in i nt h e p rov ince o fD iya rbak i r , s ou thea s t T u rkey , d u r ing t h e 1 960 s h a s d escr ibed " va s t s ea s o f

( t r i t ium b oeo t icum v a r a eg i l ipo ides a nd v a r t h audor ) w h ich 2 0

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t g r ew a bundan t ly i n t h e a r ea ( Tho rpe 1 996 :6 ) . T he ma te r ia l r ema in s o f t h e e a r ly N a tuf ian c u l tu re p recede t h e e a r l ie s t f ood -p roduc ing g roups o ft h e N eo l i th ic N ea rE a s t a nd L evan t ( By rd & Moynahan 1 995 ) . T he c u l tu re c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo o r t h ree d eve lopmen ta l s t age s , b a sed u pon t e chno log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ic c r i te r ia ( Be lf e r -Cohen 1 995 ) . I ti sn o t c l ea r w hen t h e N a tuf ian p eop le f i r s t l e a rned h ow t o c onve r t g ra in i n to ma l t s uga r s . T hey w e re e i the r g a the r ing w i ld g ra in s o r b eg inn ing t oc u l t iva te t h em b y c 8500 BC ( Ma ise l s 1 990 ) . I ti s l i ke ly t h a tt h ey w e re mak ing s eve ra lp roduc t sa nd t h a t ma l t ing w a s a n e a r ly d i scovery . A l low ing t h e g ra in t o g row a l i t t le

l o ad s o n t h e h ead . S ke le ta l e v idence i nd ica tes t h a t g ra in w a s r e gu la r ly p ounded i n p es t le s a nd mo r ta r s o r c ru shed u s ing q ue rn s . A cco rd ing t o T heya Mo l leson , t h e i n t roduc t ion o f p o t tery t e chno logy c 6000 BC c o inc ided w i th a n i n c rea se i n t h en umbe r s o fd en ta lc a r ie s a nd d ecay i nt h et e e th o ft h e Abu H u rey ra p eop le . S he a t t r ibu te s t h i s t o" a g r ea te r empha s is o n c ooked c e rea l s made i n to b r ead a nd p o r r idge . . .s t icky f oods t h a t a dhe re t o t h e t e e th a nd p rov ide t h e m ed ium f o r t h e g row th o fb ac ter ia t h a tc au se c a r ie s" ( i b id : 6 4 ) . S im i la r ly h igh l e ve ls o f p e r iodon ta l d i sea se a nd d en ta l c a r ie s h ave a ppa ren t ly b een n o ted a t t h e N a tuf ian s i te o f N aha l O ren

b efo re g r ind ing o r c ru sh ing w i th mo r ta r s make s i t a much e a s ier t a sk . T h is i s b ecause e nzyme s a c t iva ted d ur ing t h e

( Sm i th , P . 1 989 , 1 991 ,n o ted i nT ho rpe 1 996 :6 ) .

g erm ina t ion p roce ss b reak d own t h e h usk o f t h e g ra in a nd

T oday s uga r s a r e aw e l l -known c ause o f c a r ies a nd d ecay . P e rhap s t h e se p eop le h ad d i scove red t h e

make t h e s t a rchy e ndo spe rm f r iab le . T h is p rocess n a tu ra l ly p roduces m a l tf l our .

d en ta l

T e l l Abu Hureyra , n or thern S yr ia

d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted e a r l ie r ma l ted b a r ley , w hen h ea ted g en t ly w i th w a te r , a lway s p roduces n o t ab l and , s t a rchy g rue l

p rocesses o f ma l t ing a nd ma sh ing t h e g ra in a nd t h e manufac tu re o f ma l t s uga r s . A s s hown i n t h e e xpe r imen t s

T e l l A bu Hu rey ra i ss i tua ted i n n or thern S yr ia , b y t h e E uph ra te s , a bou t 4 0 k i lome t re s f r om Mu reyb i t . T he s ke le ta l r ema in so f 1 62 i n d iv idua ls w e re f ound ( Moo re 1 979 ) . T hese h uman r ema in s s pan 3 000 y ea r s o f t h e s i te 's o ccupa t ion a nd h ave b een a na lysed b y T heya Mo l leson a tt h e

o r p o r r idge , b u t a n e x t reme ly s wee t a nd s t icky b a r ley ma sh , t o ge the rw i th l i qu id ma l t s uga r s . Ma l t i sn u t r i t iou s a nd i ti s a n e xce l len t s ou rce o f e a s i ly d iges t ib le B -v i tam in s . T he a dd i t ion o f B -V i tam in s t o t h e d i e t w ou ld h ave i mp roved t h e h ea l th a nd p robab ly t h e l i f e e xpec tancy o fa l i n hab i tan t s ,b o th a du l t sa nd c h i ld ren a l ike .

N a tura l H is to ry Mu seum ( Mo l le son 1 994 ) . A c t iv i t ies t h a t w e re r egu la r ly c a r r ied o u t b y t h e i n hab i tan t s h ave l e f t t h e i r ma rk s o n t h e b ones . Mo l leson d i scove red t h a t b one s o f t h e u pper s p ine w e re d efo rmed , i nd ica t ing t h e c a r ry ing o f h eavy

• Qa ta l H üyük

KONYA P LA IN K e rma R as S ham ra

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F igure 3 . 2 R ough m ap o ft h eL evan ta nd N ear E as t ,s how ing N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s i tes t h a ta re d i scus sed i nt h e t e x t .

2 1

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t

3 .E ar ly g ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing i nt he 7t h/ 6t h m i l lenn ia BC C u l t iva ted v a r ie t ie s o fb o th b a r ley a nd e mme rw hea t h ave b een f ound d u r ing e xcava t ion s a t a ce ram ic N eo l i th ic s i te s o ft h e l a te 8t h a nd e a r ly 71 m i l lenn ia BC , f o re xamp le a t T e l l A swad , J a rmo , J e r icho a nd A l i K o sh ( Zoha ry & H opf 1 988 :60 ) . T he s e ed s d i f f e r f r om t h e i r w i ld c oun te rpa r t s , s ugge s t ing t h e b eg inn ing o f d e l ibe ra te a nd s e lec t ive c u l t iva t ion a nd d ome s t ica t ion . T he p r e sence o f g r ind ing s t one s a tt h e se s e t t lemen t s i nd ica te st h a t g ra in p roce s s ing w a s a n a c t iv i ty . I t i s n o t c l ea r w ha t e nd p roduc t w a s b e ing manuf ac tu red . Ma l t i s ap o ss ib le a nd l i ke ly c and ida te , s i nce q uer n s a nd g r ind ing s t one s a r e a su se fu l f o r c ru sh ing ma l t a s t h ey w ou ld b ef o rg r ind ing u nma l ted g ra in i n to f l ou r . I t h a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t" t he e ven tt h a t ' p r imed t h ep ump ' a nd l e d p eop le t oi n ve s t e ne rgy i nt h e c o l lec t ion a nd p ropaga t ion o f w i ld w h ea t a nd b a r ley w a s t h e d i scove ry o f n ew f ood p roce s s ing t e chn ique s -t h e s p rou t ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion o f t h e se g ra in s" ( Ka tz a nd V o ig t 1 986 :27 ) . Ma l t ing a nd ma sh ing r equ i r e o n ly ama l t ing f l oo r , ah ea r th ,o ven o rk i ln , h o ts t one s a nd c on ta ine r s . F e rmen ta t ion o ft h e w o r to n ly r e qu i re s al a rge c on ta ine rw i th as u i tab le c ove rt ok eep a i rbor n e c on tam inan t s o u to ft h ef e rmen t .Y ea s ta nd a cce s st o aw a te rs upp ly a r e a l so n ece s sa ry . A f ew s ma l l c e ram ic v e s se l s w e re f ound i n e a r ly l e ve l s a t Mu r eyb i td a t ing t oc 8000 BC ,n ame ly t wo c up s w i th f l a t b o t tom s , ac y l ind r ica l v a se a nd a s ma l l o va l b ow l , t oge the r w i th c l ay -baked f ema le f i gu r ine s a nd a r tef ac t s d e sc r ibed a s " ba ton s" ( Ma i se l s 1 993 :85 ) . Ma i se l s c on s ide r s t h e se t ob e g enu ine c e ram ic s a nd t h ey a r e t h e e a r l ie s t s o f a r f ound i nt h eN ea rE a s t . T he r e h ave b een af ew f i nd so f Wh i te Wa re , o r V a i se l le B lanche . T h i s i s ap recu r so r t oc l ay -f i red p o t te ry a nd i sd e sc r ibed a s " a c ompo s i te o f l ime . . .and s a l ty g r ey a she s . V e s se l s , o f ten o f al a rge s i ze , w e r e b u i l t u p i n c o i l s r ound a b a ske t . . .and w hen d r ied a nd f i r ed t h i s Wh i te Wa r e t ur n s i n to ah a rd w h i te m a te r ia l r e semb l ing l ime s tone" ( Me l la r t 1 975 :62 ) . A l though Wh i te Wa re i sn o tp o t te ry i nt h e t r ue s en se o ft h ew o rd ,i tw ou ld p robab ly h ave f unc t ioned i na s im i la rw ay t op o t te ry v e s se l s ( f igu r e 3 . 3 ) . Wh i te Wa r e i sd a ted t ob e tween t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 7 "1m i l lenn ium BC a nd t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e Oh m i l lenn ium BC . R ema in s o f Wh i te Wa r e h ave b een f ound a tA in G haza l i ne a s ter n Amman ( Ro l lef son 1 983 ,1984 , 1 986 ) ,a tT e l lS uka s i nS y r ia ( R i i s &T h rane 1 974 :26 ) , a tT e l l R amad I , c l o se b y Moun t H e rmon , S y r ia , ( d e C on ten son 1 971 :278 ) a nd a t B yb lo s ,o nt h eL ebane se c oa s t( Me l laa r t 1 975 ) ( f igu re 3 . 2 ) . A s w e l l a s t h e m anu f ac tu r ed Wh i te Wa r e v e s se l s d esc r ibed a bove , p r e -po t te ry c u l tu r e s a l so made v e sse l s a nd c on ta ine r s f r om s t one . A t B e idha , ap re p o t te ry N eo l i th ic v i l lage d a ted f r om c 7000 BC a nd s i tua ted h i gh i n t h e moun ta in s s ou th o f t h e D ead S ea , t h e p eop le u sed s t one b ow l s , t r ough sa nd mo r ta r s , w i th b a ske t sc oa ted w i th b i tumen a nd l ime p l a s te ra l so s e rv ing a sc on ta ine r s ( Ma ise l s 1 993 :87 ) . S uch v e s se l s w ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r t h e c on ta inmen t o fl i qu id p roduc t s f r om g ra in p roce s s ing , f o r e xamp le t h e m a l t s uga r s a nd t h e a l e . S t ra in s o fw i ld b a r ley w e r e c u l t iva ted a nd a cce s s t o ar e l iab le w a te r s upp ly w ou ld n o t h ave b een a p rob lem s i nce t h e s e t t lemen t i s s i tua ted c l o se b y t h e s p r ing o f D ibad iba ,i n Wad iG ha rab ( i b id :79 ) . A t A l i K o sh , d a ted f r om c 7200 BC , t h e e v idence p o in t s t o ac ommun i ty t h a t c u l t iva ted g ra in a nd a l so g a the r ed 2 2

t h e w i ld s t ra in s o fw hea t a nd b a r ley . W i ld g ame w a s h un ted . T he f l oo r s o f t h e h ouse s w e re made o f s t amped mud , o f t en s u r f aced w i th a l a ye r o f c l ean c l ay a nd t h en s ome t ime s o ve r topped w i th r e ed s . T he r e i se v idence o f r egu la r r e pa i r a nd m a in tenan ce o ff l oo rs u r f a ce s . T he i n hab i tan t s b u i l t d omed m ud b r ick o ven s , t h ey m ade s t one mo r ta r s a nd u sed " s tone b ow l sm ade o fl ime s tone o r ma rb le . . .mo s t l i ke ly f o r t h e g rue l ." ( Ma i se ls 1 993 :10 1) . T he p roduc ti s mo r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een n o t ' g rue l ' b u t l i qu id m a l t s uga r s . T he mud a nd c l ay f l oo r s w ou ld h ave b een s u i tab le a s m a l t ing f l oo r s f o r s p read ing o u t t h e g ra in a s i t b egan t og row . T he s t one mo r ta r s c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r c r u sh ing t h e m a l t a nd t h e s t one v e s se l s f o r ma sh ing t h e ma l ted g ra in . A t t h i s e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i t e , t h ey h ad a l t h e n ece s sa ry e qu ipmen ta nd ma t e r ia l c u l tu r et op roce s s t h eg r a in t h a tt h ey h a rve s ted i n to as wee tb a r ley m a sh a nd ma l tl i qu id .

L

. =

F igur e3 . 3 Wh i t e w are v e s se l s f rom p r e p o t tery N eo l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e L evan t . V es se l sa -d f rom L abwe , e -g f rom T e l l Naha ' aF aour a nd f fr om T e l lR amad ( Me l laar t1 975 :6 4 ) . N os ca le . Me l laar td e scr ibe st h ev es se l sa s ' l arge ' . A in Ghaza l ,J ordan A in G haza l i s al a rge e a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t i n J o rdan . C on tempo ra ry w i th J e r icho , i ti ss i tua ted b y as p r ing t h a t f l ow s t h roughou t t h e y ea r s o i tw a s ap e rmanen t s i te . E a r l ie s t r ad ioca rbon d a te s o b ta ined f r om A in G haza l a r e c 7250 BC ( Ro l lef son 1 986 :45 ) , when t h e s e t t lemen t w a s b e tween 4 a nd 5h ec ta r e s i na r ea . B y c 6500 BC , t h e s i te h ad d eve loped t o 1 2 .5 h ec ta r e s ( 3 1 a c r e s ) a nd w a s s i tua ted o n b o th s i de so ft h eZ a rqa R ive r( Ma ise l s 1 993 :92 ) . E xcava t ion s h ave r e vea led " a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s , f l in t t oo l s , s t one b race le t f r agmen t s , s t on e b ow l s , a n ima l f i gu r ine s , b on e t o o l s , h uman b u r ia l s , d ome s t ica ted p l an t r ema in s ( i nc lud ing w hea t ,f i g ,p ea a nd l e n t i l ) ,g r ind ing s t one s , or namen t s , s he l l s , p l a s te red v e sse l s , o ne o bs id ian t o o l a nd w ha t h ave b een d e s igna ted ' wh i te o b jec t s" ( Ka f a f i 1 986 :51 ) . Wh i te Wa re o b jec t s f r om A in Ghaza l w e re e xam ined b y X r a y f l uo r e scence a nd w e re d i scove red t oh ave b een m ade o fa c ha lky l ime s tone m a te r ia l c on ta in ing c a lc i te a nd w e re c a rved o r o the rw i se f o rmed b y h and . B a sa l t p e s t le s a nd g r inde r s / cru she r s w e re a l so f ound , a s w e l l a s l ime s tone

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E as ta nd E gyp t T hese s t a tues a r e s t r ik ing ( f igu re 3 . 4 ) . T hey a r e d esc r ibed a s b e ing " qu i te d i f f e ren t f r om t h e u sua l p r egnan t w oman f e cund i ty b lob s , u sua l ly h ead le ss a nd l e g le ss , f ound i n

q ue r n s a nd l a rge " s tone b ow l" t ype mor ta r s ,u sed f o rc r u sh ing a nd g r ind ing . P o t te ry t e chno logy w a s b eg inn ing t o d eve lop a nd o ve r t wen ty f i red s he rd s o fv e sse l s " f rom s e cu re ly d a ted m id 7f i t m i l lenn ium l o ca t ion s w e re l o ca ted i n t h e f i r s t f ou r s ea son s" ( Ma i se ls 1 993 :93 ) . T he p r esence o fr e d -pa in ted a nd b ur n ished p l a s te red

s o many N eo l i th ic c on tex t s" ( Ma ise l s 1 993 :94 ) . F ema le f i gur ine s , s o d i spa rag ing ly d e scr ibed b y Ma ise ls , a r e r ep resen ted a t A in Ghaza l a nd many o the r e a r ly N eo l i th ic

f l oo r s a tA in G haza l a nd o f s im i la r p a in ted p l a s te r f l oo r s i n

s i tes o ft h e N ea rE a s t ,L evan ta nd C en t ra l E u rope .

J e r icho ( Hodde r 1 990 :35 ) m igh t b e e v idence o f as pec ia l ly made ma l t ing f l oo r b u t t h is i sv e ry d i f f icu l t t op rove w i thou t a na lyz ing g r a in s f r om t h a t c on tex t f o r s i gn s o f p a r t ia l

i n accu ra te . F ema le f i gu r ine s a r e much mo re t h an j u s t ' f ecund i ty b l ob s ' . S ome f r om C en t ra l E u rope a r ec a rved f r om

Ma ise l 's

d e scr ip t ion

s e em s

t o

b e

u nfa i r

a nd

ma rb le ; o the r s f r om i v ory a nd b one a nd s ome f r om t h e 6t h a nd 5t h m i l lenn ia BC h ave b een made f r om b aked t e r raco t ta w i th

g erm ina t ion . Ma l t ing f l oo r s c ou ld l ook l i ke a ny o the r p l a s te red f l oo rs u r face t h a t may b e f ound i nd omes t ic o rr i tua l b u i ld ing s . I ta ppea r s t h a t t h e i n hab i tan ts o f A in Ghaza l may

c e rea l g ra in i mp res s ion s d eco ra t ing t h e t o r so ( G imbu ta s 1 982 :154 -160 ,204 ) . T he l e ve l o f a r t is t ic a nd t e chno log ica l s k i l l i s i mp res s ive . A w ide v a r ie ty o f b eau t ifu l ly

h ave h ad a dequa te f a c i l i t ies f o r ma l t ing a nd ma sh ing g ra in : t h ey h ad s u i tab le f l oo r s u r faces w i th in s ubs tan t ia l b u i ld ing s , v es se l s , c on ta ine r s ,c rush ing s t ones a nd o ven so rk i ln s .

manufac tu red f i gur ines d ep ic t ing ma le , f ema le a nd a n ima l e n t i t ie s a r e f ound o n mo s t s i te s o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic

O fg r ea t i n te res t t ot h e e xcava to r s , i n deed , au n ique f i nd , w e r e t h e u nu sua l s t a tue s a nd f i gu r ine s t h a t h ad b een d e l ibe ra te ly b ur ied t oge the ri n ap i td ug i n to t h er ema in so fa n

t h roughou t E u rope ( G imbu ta s 1 982 ) . T he i r e x is tence d emon s t ra tes t h a t r i tua l a c t iv i ty a nd s p i r i tua l b e l ief s w e r e v ery i mpo r tan t a spec t s o f l i f e t o t h e se e a r ly a gr icu l tu ra l p eop le . S ome r i tua ls may h ave b een r e la ted t o t h e s ow ing ,

a bandoned h ouse ( Ro l lef son 1 983 , 1 986 , 1 987 , 1 989 ) . T he 1 0 l a rge s t s t a tues w e re 8 0 -90 c m h i gh a nd h ad b een made b y t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ar e ed a nd t w ig ' s ke le ton ' , b ound w i th u p

c u l t iva t ion , h arve s t ing a nd p roces s ing o f g ra in a nd o the r c rop s .

w i th t w ine a nd c ove red w i th p l a s te r ( Ro l lef son 1 983 :32 ) . T he s t a tue s h ad p e r sona l d e ta i ls , s uch a s n oses , f i nge r s , t o e s , e a r s a nd e ye s a nd t h ey a r e i n d ica t ive o f " soph is t ica ted a r t a nd a r i tua l a nd s o c ia lc omp lex i ty" (Ro l lef son 1 986 :45 ) .

T e l l R amad I T h i s s i te d a tes f r om t h e l a te 7t h m i l lenn ium BC ( Ma ise ls 1 993 :76 ) . T he h ouse s a t T e l l R amad w e re a dobe h u t s w i th h ea r th s a nd l a rge b a s in s , p e rhaps u sed f o r g ra in p roce ss ing . T he p re sence o f q uern s , g r inder s , a nd w ooden s t o rage b in s a r e i nd ica t ive o f a n " ag r icu l tu ra l r e g ime" , a l though h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd f ow l ing p robab ly r ema ined i mpo r tan t s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s f o r t h e p eop le t h e re a t t h i s t ime ( i b id : 7 5 ) . Wh i te

Wa re

w a s

f ound

a t

t h is

a nd

o t he r

c on tempo ra ry s i tes ( f igu re 3 . 2 ) . T h is u nbaked c o i l w a re w a s made o f am ix tu re o f l ime s tone a nd s a l ty g ra s s a she s . T he m ix tu re w a s s of t e nough t of a sh ion a nd c on s t ruc t c o i led p o t s a nd b ecame a sh a rd a sc emen t w hen d r ied i nt h e s un . F i r ing i n ak i ln w a s n o t n ecessa ry ( de C on tenson 1 971 :282 ,3 ) . N o c omp le te Wh i te Wa re v esse l s o ro b jec t s h ave b een f ound a nd t h e f r agmen t s s o f a re xcava ted i n d ica te t h a t p l a t te r s , d eep a nd t h ick w a l led b ow ls o f v a r iou s s i ze s , p endan t s , c y l inde r s a nd a n th ropomo rph ic f i gur ines w e re b e ing made f r om t h is ma te r ia l . B a r ley w a s g rown f r om t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o f t h e s e t t lemen t

a t T e l l

R amad ,

b e ing

made

i n to

' p o r r idge ' ,

a cco rd ing t ot h e e xcava to r s ( i b id : 2 79 ) . I ti sj u s t a sl i ke ly t h a t t h e g r a in w a s ma l ted a nd ma shed u s ing Wh i te Wa re v e sse l s a nd s t one b ow ls .

4 . E ar ly p o t tery m i l lenn ia BC

N eo l i th ic

c u l ture s :

6 t h /5 t h

Ca ta l Hüyük , Konya P la in , Ana to l ia V a ta l H üyük i s aw e l l -known n eo l i th ic s i te o n t h e Konya P la in i n Ana to l ia . I ti s al a rge s e t t lemen t t e l l t h a t c ove r s 3 2 a c res a nd i tw a s o ccup ied b e tween c 6250 BC u n t i l c 5400 BC ( Me l laa r t 1 975 :98 ) . T he re i st h e e v idence a tc a ta l

F igure 3 . 4 P las ter s t a tues f rom A in Ghaza l , J ordan , c 6500 BC . T he l a rger f i gure i s 8 4cm h i gh .

H üyük o f many f e a tu res n eces sa ry f o r ma l t ing a nd ma sh ing

T hese s t a tues i nd ica te t h e

t h e g r a in , s uch a s , p l a s te red f l oo r s , o ven s , k i ln s w i th d omed

c omp lex i ty , s oph i s t ica t ion a nd t e chn ica l s k i l l s o f t h i s e ar ly N eo l i th ic c ommun i ty ( Co l lon 1 995 f i gure 2 1) .

c hambe r s , g ra in b i ns a nd v e sse ls o f p o t tery , s t one a nd w ood ( Me l laa r t 1 967 :62 ) . Me l laa r tl i s ted " . . . c o i led b a ske ts , w i th o r

2 3

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t F igur e3 .5 : T he t e r raco t ta f i gur ine o f ag odd es s , a ppar en t ly g i v ing b i r th a nd r e s t ing h er h and s o n t wo l e opard s . I t w as d i scovered i n ag ra in s t orage b i nf rom l e ve l I a t C a ta l Hüyük , T urkey . T he f i gur ine i s1 .8cm h i gh . F ema l e f i gur ine s h ave b een f ound a t Ha f i ar , A in G ha za l , T e l l R amad a nd many o t her N eo l i th ic s i tes .

f ound i na t ag r ea t many o t he r s i te s i nA na to l ia , f o r e xamp le . a tH aO la r . T he s ymbo l ism w i th in t h e r i t ua l a r ea s a t V a ta l H üyük i sc omp lex a nd p owe r fu l , w i th w omen a ppea r ing t o h ave c on t ro l o ve r w i ld c r ea tu r e s , s u ch a s l e opa rd s a nd l i on s ( Hodde r 1 990 :55 ) . T he i mage s o n t h e w a l l s c ou ld d ep ic t h un t ing d e i t ie s . T he f ema le d e i t ie s r e p r e sen ted a sf i gu r ine s a t V a ta l H üyük a nd a to the r s im i la r ly d a ted s i te s a r e p owe r fu l i mage s ( f igu re 3 . 5 ) . H i lda E l l i s D av id son s e e s t h em a s e mbody ing r e p roduc t ive p owe r , f e r t i l i ty a nd t h e d ome s t ica t ion o ft h e w i ld ( Dav id son 1 998 :53 ,138 ) . S he n o te s t h a t , f r om l a te r p r eh i s to ry a nd d ocumen ted i ne a r ly h i s to ry , t h e re a r e m any p owe r fu l f ema le d e i t ie s s t rong ly a s soc ia ted w i th f e r t i l i ty a nd w i th t h e s ow ing , c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce s s ing o fg ra in c rop s . F o r e xamp le , i nE gyp t , I s i s w a s t h e d e i ty t h a t p r e s ided o ve r b r ead , b ee r , g r een w hea t , b a r ley a nd a l so f l ax . S he w a s r epu ted t oh ave t a ugh t t h e p eop le h ow t og row t h e i r c rop sa nd make t h e i rb r ead a nd b ee r . T he c onnec t ion b e tween b read a nd a l ei se mpha s i sed i n a' Hymn t o H a tho r ' , a no the r E gyp t ian G odde s s w ho i s s ome t ime s i d en t if ied w i th I s i s . S he i sa dd r e s sed a s "M i s t re s s o fB read , w ho m ade B ee r ." D eme te r , t h e G r eek g odde s s , w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ow ing o fg ra in a nd h e rp r inc ipa l f e s t iva l t o ok p l ace b efo r e t h ef i r s tp lough ing o ft h e s e a son .

w i thou t c ove r s , l e a the r b ag s , w ooden v e s se l s a nd b oxe s w i th l i d s o f v a r iou s s hape s , af ew l u xu ry v e s se l s i n s t one a nd p o t te ry" ( Me l laa r t 1 975 :104 ) . S ome o f t h e p o t te ry v e s se l s w e re d eep , r ound b a sed a nd c ou ld b e d e sc r ibed a s t ag s haped ' ( f igu re 3 . 6 ) . P o t te ry w a s f ound i nt h e e a r l ie s t l e ve l s , w i th p l a in b ow l f o rm s p redom ina t ing . L id s h ave n o t b een f ound b u t Me l laa r ts ugge s t st h a tw ood ,t e x t i le so rl e a the r may h ave b een u sed a nd t i ed o n to t h e l u g s o f v e s se l s ( i b id 1 975 :105 ) .B a s ic e qu ipmen ts uch a st h i sw ou ld h ave p rov ided s u i tab le a nae rob ic c ond i t ion sf o r ma sh ing o rf e rmen ta t ion . O ven s a nd k i ln s a r e u sua l ly i n te rp re ted a s b e ing n ece s sa ry f o r b read mak ing a nd b ak ing b u t t h ey a r e a l so s u i tab le e qu ipmen t f o r d ry ing ma l t . Me l laa r t i n te rp re ted t h e ' h uge o ven s ' , d i scove r ed i n L eve l s I V a nd V . a s ab ake ry . T he g ra in b i n s , made o fd r ied c l ay , w e r e a bou t o ne m e t r e i n h e igh t a nd w e r e f ound i np a i r s o r i nr ows . T hey w e re f i l led f r om t h e t o p a nd e mp t ied f r om t h e b o t tom , v i a as ma l l h o le m ade a tt h e b a se o ft h e b in s o t h a t t h e o lde s t g ra in w a s u sed u pf i r s t . T ha t t h e g ra in may h ave b een r ega rded a s as pec ia l , s a c red a nd i mpor tan t c rop i s p e rhap s s ugge s ted b y t h e d i scove ry o f af ema le f i gu r ine made o ft e r ra co t ta ( f igu re 3 . 5 ) . T h i s h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f af e r t i l i ty g odde s s a nd i tw a s f ound w i th in o ne o ft h e g r a in s t o rage b i n s i nL eve l I( Dav id son 1 998 :53 ) . S uch ' g odde s s ' f i gu r ine s a r e

2 4

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t

F igure3 . 6 Wooden ( 5 -8 ) , s t one ( 4 ) a nd p o t tery ( 1 3 ) v e s se l sf rom C a ta l H i iy i ik , A na to l ia , f rom l e ve l s I , I I , 1 V . T he p o t t ery v e s se l s a ppear t o b e s u i tab le f or p roce s s ing b ar ley m a sh a nd l i qu id s . T he f unc t ion o f t h e s t one o b jec t ( 4 ) i s u nc lear . T he w ood en v e s se l s a re s u i tab le f or t h e c on sump t ion o ffo od a nd d r ink ( a f ter C lark e , J .G .D . 1 977 :f i gure 2 7 ,p7 1) ) . N os ca le . s uch a n i mpo r tan t a r ea o f t h e e nc lave i n d ica te s t h a t t h e se p roduc t s w e re b e ing m anuf ac tu red a nd d i s t r ibu ted a l ong w i th o t he r f ood s tu f f s a nd p o s s ib ly t r an spo r ted t oa nd t r aded w i th p eop le i n t h e l ow land s ( Bad le r , q uo ted i n J of f e 1 998 :304 ) . J o f f ep o in t s o u tt h a tt h ed i scove ry o fa no the rs i te w i th s im i la r c e ram ic a s semb lage s a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu r e s a tH abuba K ab i ra S ou th o n t h e b end o ft h e E uph ra te s p e rhap s i n d ica te s " pa ra l le lr ed i s t r ibu t ive m echan i sm s" ( J of f e 1 998 :304 ) .

A n ima l s acr if ice a nd r i tua la c t iv i t ie s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p l ough ing o f t h e l a nd , t h e s ow ing o f g ra in a nd t h e h a rve s t a nd t h e se r i tua l s a r e c onn ec ted w i th t h e c u l t o f D eme te r ( i b id :54f ) . I ti sp robab le t h a t r i tua l s s uch a s t h e se h ad t h e i ro r ig in si nt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd t h ey a r ea s soc ia ted w i th t h e e a r l ie s t c u l t iva to r s . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f V a ta l H üyük , whe r e s a c red a nd r i tua l s pace s , i mage s o f d e i t ie s a nd e l abo ra te w a l l p a in t ing s h ave b een u ncove red ( Me l laa r t 1 967 :77 )s eem st os uppo r tt h i si d ea . C e r emony a nd r i tua l a c t iv i ty w e re c l ea r ly v e ry i mpo r tan tt ot h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic p eop le o nt h e K onya P la in . I t s e em s v e ry l i ke ly t h a t ma l t a nd a l e w e r e b e ing made a tt h i s t ime , p e rhap s r i tua l ly a nd a s a s pec ia l p roduc t . T he a s soc ia t ion o f ap owe r fu l f ema le d e i ty w i th g ra in s t o rage i s t h e refo r e ac r ed ib le c oncep ti nt h i se a r ly N eo l i th ic c on tex t .

B rew ing i n Mesopo tam ia B y t h e l a te 4t h/ e a r ly 3r d m i l lenn ia BC ma l t ing , m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion w e r e b e ing p ra c t i sed o n al a rge s c a le i n Me sopo tam ia . A pp rox ima te ly 4 0% o f t h e b a r ley h a rve s ted w a s b e ing u sed f o r ma l t ing a nd b r ew ing p u rpo se s ( Co r ran 1 975 :15 ) . C y l inde r s ea l s , e v idence o f t h e h i gh ly o rgan i sed a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem o f t h e U ruk c u l tu r e , h ave b een f ound w i th i lu s t ra t ion s d ep ic t ing t h e c on sump t ion o fa n a l coho l ic d r ink , p r e sumab ly e i the r w ine o r a l e , b e ing d runk f r om l a rge v e s se l st h rough s t raw s ( f igu r e 3 . 7 ) . E v idence f o r t h e l a rge sca le p roduc t ion o f b r ead , ma l t a nd a l e h a s b een f ound a tt h e rim i l lenn ium s i te o fA bu S a lab ikh i ns ou ther nI r aq , al a rge s e t t lemen t c omp lex . S o f a r 2 9 f i re i n s ta l la t ion s f r om A r ea E h ave b een e xcava ted , i n c lud ing s eve ra l l annu r s ' o r b read o ven s , c l ay l i ned o pen h ea r th s a nd o ne e xamp le o f at wo s t o rey o ven ( C rawfo rd 1 981 :105 ) w h ich c ou ld p robab ly h ave f unc t ioned f o r d ry ing m a l t . F u r the r r e sea r ch c l ea r ly n eed s t o b e d one i n to t h e d i f f e ren ce si nk i ln o ro ven d e s ign a nd t h e i rs pec if i cf unc t ion . T he r e i se v idence f o rt h ec en t ra l i sed s t o rage o fg ra in i n s pec ia l ly c on s t ruc ted b u i ld ing s d u r ing t h e 3r d m i l lenn ium BC i nN o r ther n Me sopo tam ia . An umbe ro fs i te s w i th s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing f a c i l i t ie s f o r a moun t s o f g ra in i n q uan t i t ie s " we l l b eyond t h a t n eeded t o s uppo r t t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion" ( I rv ing 1 999 :43 ) h ave b een l o ca ted a nd e xcava ted i n t h e m idd le K habu r V a l ley , n o r thea s t S y r ia ( f igu re 3 . 2 ) . T he se s i te s , n ame ly T e l l A t i j , K e rma , T e l l a l -Raqa ' i , B de r i a nd T e l l

5 .F ermen ta t ion o f b ar ley w or t i n to a l e : 4t h/ 3r d m i l lenn ia BC God in T epe ,Z agro s Moun ta ins T h e e a r l ies t c hem ica l e v idence s o f a rd i scove r ed f o r t h e manu f a c tu r e o f a l e h a s b een f ound a tt h e s i te o f G od in T epe , a n Un ik s i te o f t h e l a te 4t h m i l lenn ium BC . T he s e t t lemen t a ppea r s t o h ave b een a t r ad ing c en t r e a nd i ti s l o ca ted i n t h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s o f moder n I r an ( J of f e 1 998 :303 ) . A n o rgan ic r e s idue i n s ide a d oub le h and led j ug , f ound i nR oom 1 8 o f t h e O va l E nc lo su re o n t h e c i tade l o f God in T epe , w a s a na ly sed a nd i d en t i f ied a s ` b ee r s tone ' o r c a lc ium o xa la te . T h is i s as ub s tance t h a ta lway s s e t t le so u to n t h e i n ter n a l s u r f ace s o fv e s se l s t h a t a r e r e gu la r ly u sed f o rt h e f e rmen ta t ion o rs t o rage o fb a r ley w o r t( McGover n 1 992 ) . R e s idue s o ft a r ta r ic a c id w e r e f ound i no the rv e s se l s t ha th ad b een s t oppe r ed a nd w e re f ound l y ing o nt h e i rs i de si n t h e s ame r o om , i nd ica t ing t ha t t h ey p robab ly h ad c on ta ined w ine r a th e r t h an a l e . A cco rd ing t o o ne o f t h e e xcava to r s , V i rg in ia B ad le r , t h e p r e sence o fw in e a nd b ee r c on ta ine r s i n 2 5

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t Z iyadeh , a r e c l u s te r ed a l ong t h e b ank s o f t h e K habu r R ive r a nd a r ed a ted t ot h em id t ol a te N inev i te V p e r iod . A t T e l l A t i j s i x s em i -vau l ted s t ruc tu re s w i th p l a s te red i n te r io r sw e r ei n te rp re ted a sg ra in s i lo s . S to rage j a r s w e re p l a s te r l i ned , p e rhap s t o a i d t h e p r e se rva t ion o f t h e c on ten t s . A s ugge s t ion t h a t c an b e m ade i n t h e l i gh t o f e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n C hap te r O ne i s t h a t t h i s p l a s te r l i n ing o f p o t te ry j a r s w a s t o f a c i l i ta te t h e c on ta inmen t o f a l i qu id p roduc t , s uch a s w o r t o r a l e . A t T e l l a l -Raqa ' i t h e e x is tence o f s i lo s , mud b r ick p l a t fo rm s , o ven s a nd p o t te ry s he rd s s ugge s t s p roce s s ing o ft h e g ra in , p robab ly b y ma l t ing a nd k i ln ing . T he d om inan tg ra in g rown i nt h i s r e g ion w a sb a r ley . I t may h ave b een g rown a sa n a n ima l f odde rc rop t of e ed t h e h e rd s o ft h e r i ch a nd p owe r fu l e l i te g roup s ( I rv ing 1 999 :44 ) , b u t i ti sa l so t h e f undamen ta l i n g r ed ien t f o r t h e manuf ac tu r e o fs wee tm a l t sa nd a l e .I th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tt h ee x ten to f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive d eve lopmen t i nt h em idd le K habu r V a l ley i n d ica te s i n c rea sed s oc ia l c omp lex i ty a nd t h e r i se o f e l i te a nd p owe r fu l i n d iv idua l s o r g roup s w ho h ad c on t ro l o ve rt h e t r ade a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l p roduce ( i b id ) . C lea r ly , t h e K habu r V a l ley w a s a n i mpo r tan t t r ade r ou te f o r t h e e xchange o f g ood s a nd p roduc t s d e s t ined f o r b o th t h e s ou th a nd t h e n o r th u s ing r i ve r t r an spo r t . O ne o f t h e se p roduc t s may h ave b een a l e . B o th t h e manufa c tu r e a nd t h e c on sump t ion o f a l e a nd w ine w e r e o f s i gn i f ican t s o c ia l , r e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic i mpor tance t oS ume r ian c u l tu r e . A lexande r J o f f e ( 1998 ) s e e s t h e m anuf ac tu r e , e xchange a nd c on sump t ion o f a l coho l a s f o rm ing " a s i gn if i can t e l emen t . . in t h e e me rgence o f c omp lex , h i e ra r ch ica l ly o rgan i sed s oc ie t ie s ." H i s d e ta i led a na ly s i s , b a sed o n M icha e l D ie t le r 's mode l ( 1990 ) , c oncen t ra te s o n t h e s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l a spec t s o f t h e c on sump t ion o fa l coho l r a the rt h an o n t h e p r ac t ica l i t ie s o f i t s manuf a c tu r e . F rom t h e a va i lab le e v idence i ts e em s t h a t b ee r a nd w ine w e r eb e ing m anu f a c tu red a nd c on sumed o n ah uge s ca le d ur ing t h e U ba id a nd U ruk p e r iod s . P o t te ry w a s b e ing ma s s p roduced a nd l a rge p ub l ic b u i ld ing s w e r e b e ing c on s t ruc ted , b o th a dm in i s t ra t ive a nd r e l ig iou s ( i b id :303 ) . A lcoho l ic b eve rage s h ad b ecome a n i mpo r tan t a nd i n teg ra l p a r t o f t h e e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou s s y s tem s , w i th c omp lex r ed i s t r ibu t ion s y s tem s a nd c en t r e s o f ma s s p roduc t ion . N ume rou s a dm in i s t ra t ive t e x t s r e co rd b r ew ing a s ac r a f ta c t iv i ty a nd t h e r ed i s t r ibu t ion a nd t r ade i n b ee r . D r ink ing s c ene s a ppea r o n s ea l s ,o f ten i nc e remon ia l o rc e leb ra to ry s i tua t ion s . T he R oya l S tanda rd o f U r , d a ted t o c 2600 BC a nd f ound i n g rave n umbe r 7 79 o f t h e R oya l C eme te ry , d ep ic t s f e a s t ing a nd c e leb ra t ion s a f te r am i l i ta ry v i c to ry . A n ima l s a r e d ep ic ted b e ing b rough t e i the r f o r s l augh te r o r a s b oo ty a nd g ra in i s b e ing c a r r ied , a ppa ren t ly a s i mpo r tan t a nd v a luab le a c ommod i ty a st h ea n ima l s w e r e . T he S ume r ian s b r ewed e i gh t t ype s o f a l e f r om b a r ley , e i gh t f r om w hea t a nd t h r ee f r om m ixed t ype s o fg ra in ( Vend 1 994 :308 ) . B o th t h e S ume r ian s a nd t h e E gyp t ian s m a shed t h em a l ted b a r ley b ym ak ing s o -ca l led ' b ee rb r ead ' o r b app i r . C o r ran ( 1975 :17 ) a r gue s t h a t " w i th t h e mak ing o f b ee rb r ead ,t h ep roce sse so fb ak ing a nd b r ew ing h ave b ecome l i nked t oge the r" . A cco rd ing t oa nno ta t ion sr e f e r r ing t ob app i r a nd a l e i n t h e S ume r ian a nd A kkad ian d i c t iona r ie s , b app i r w a s , h oweve r , o n ly e a ten d u r ing t ime s o ff am ine o rn ece s s i ty

2 6

( Ka tz & May tag 1 991 :27 ) . T he g ra in w a s b e ing m a shed a s b app ir a nd t h en s t o red a s ar aw ma te r ia l f o r t h e p u rpo se o f mak ing a l e n o t a sb r ead f o rd a i ly c on sump t ion . C er ta in ly , b y t h e e a r ly 3r d M i l lenn ium BC , a' d r ink ing c u l tu re ' w a s w e l l e s tab l ished i nt h eN ea rE a s ta nd L evan t . I n 1 990 S o lomon K a tz a nd F r i tz May tag r ep roduced aS ume r ian s ty le a l e b a sed o n t he m e thod s d e sc r ibed i nt h e H ymn t oN inka s i a nd w o rk ing i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h eA ncho r B rew ing C ompany o f S an F ranc isco . A f ew mod if ica t ion s w e r e made f o r l e ga l r e a son s a nd a l so b e cau se t h ey w e r e u n su r e t h a t t h e m ix w ou ld c on ta in e nough s uga r s f o r f e rmen ta t ion . H oney w a s a dded i n s tead o fd a te st ot h e b app ir a nd ma l t e x t ra c t w a s a dded t ot h e ma sh t a nk . N eve r the le s s , i n s p i te o ft h e se c hange s ,t h ey p roved t ha tt h ea nc ien tt e chn ique s w o rked a nd t h e r e su l tan t a l e w a s d e sc r ibed a s h av ing " t he s moo thne ss a nd e f f e rve scence o f c hampagne a nd a s l igh t a r oma o fd a te s" ( Ka tz & May tag 1 991 :33 ) . T he m a sh ing e xpe r imen t s u nde r taken a s p a r t o ft h i s r e sea r ch i n d ica te t h a t t h e i r f e a r s o f i n adequa te a moun t s o f g ra in s uga r s f o r f e rmen ta t ion w e re c omp le te ly u n founded . W i th t h e c o r rec t e qu ipmen t , c ond i t ion s a nd t empe ra tu r e s a nd t h e s pec ia l ised k now ledge o f t h e c r a f t s o f ma l t ing a nd m a sh ing i ti sp o s s ib le t o make awor t w i th av e ry h i gh s uga r c on ten tf r om t h eb a r ley g ra in a l one .

It i %

• IM ir • 1 1 1 1 1 1

d l i f i l t t ia lt m i ßenor J an e 4 1r -a M IN II

I

F igure 3 .7 E ar ly D yna s t ic s ea l i mpres s ions d ep ic t ing d r ink ing s c ene s . S t raw s , p resumab ly m ad e f rom r eed s , a r e u sed t o a vo id d r ink ing t h e c haf fa nd s ed imen t s ( af t er S i nger 1 980 , Am ie t 1 980 ) .

6 .B rew ing i nE gyp t :

3rdi 2 n d

m i l lenn ia BC

A le w a s as t ap le i t em o f d i e t i nE gyp t f r om t h e 3r d m i l lenn ium BC o nwa rd s , ad r ink f o r b o th t h e p oo r a nd t h e w ea l thy . I tw a s d r unk o n ad a i ly b a s i s a nd i tw a s a l so b r ewed f o r s t a te o cca s ion s a nd f e s t iva l s , b e ing a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o f o f f e r ing s t o g od s a nd g oddes se s ( Luca s 1 962 :12 -16 , D av id son 1 998 :138 ) . A le w a s o fc on s ide rab le e conom ic a nd s oc ia l i mpo r tance . F requen t ly i t w a s ap a r t o f w age s o r p aymen t f o r w o rk d one o r s e rv ice s r ende r ed . T he v i l lage s o f Ama rna a nd D e i r e l Med ina p rov ide e xce l len t e v idence f o r l a rge sca le b r eadmak ing a nd b r ew ing d u r ing t h e 2r ° m i l lenn ium BC ( Samue l s 1 996 ) . D ue t ot h e d ry c l ima te o fE gyp to r gan ic r e s idue s a r e p e r f ec t ly p re se rved o n p o t te ry . B udd ing y ea s t c e l l s a nd e ven s i gn s o fe nzym e a t tack o n s t a r ch g ranu le s d u r ing g e rm ina t ion c an b e s e en u s ing s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope s ( Samue l 1 995 ) . R e s idue s o n E igh teen th D yna s ty E gyp t ian p o t te ry

C hap ter 3—B ar ley i nt h eL evan t ,N ear E a s ta nd E gyp t w e re f i r s t n o t iced i n 1 928 b y D r J .G ru s s , w ho o b se rved s t a rch g r a in s , y ea s t c e l ls , mou ld s a nd b ac te r ia u nde r a m ic ro scop e a nd c onc luded t h a t t h i s y ea s t w a s e i the r d e l ibe ra t e ly o r a cc iden ta l ly c u l t iva ted b y t h e E gyp t ian s ( Luca s 1 962 :16 ) . T echn ique s o f g ra in p roce s s ing a r e i lu s t ra ted i n s c ene s t h a t d eco ra te E gyp t ian t omb s ( s ee f i gu re 1 . 8 ) . S ta tue t te s a nd mode ls w e re s ome t ime s p l a ced i n t omb s i n o rde rt or e -c r ea te a l l n ece ssa ry p rov i s ion s f o rt h ed ecea sed i n t h e a f te r l i f e ( Samue l 1 996 :3 ) . D e lwen S amue l o fC amb r idge Un ive r s i ty h a s r e cen t ly t e s ted t h e se a nc ien t g ra in p roce s s ing t e chn iqu e s i n c o l labo ra t ion w i th t h e E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty a nd S co t t i sh a nd N ewca s t le B rewe r ie s . Ar e -c rea ted E gyp t ian b ee r w a s made a nd i t w a s a p t ly n amed ` Tu tenkhamun ' ( Samue l 1 996 ) . I tw a s , a ppa r en t ly , s wee t a nd g ood t od r ink . I ft h e m anuf a c tu re a nd c on sump t ion o f a l e w a s o f s uch g rea ti mpo r tance t oS ume r ian a nd E gyp t ian B ronze A ge c u l tu res , a s i ss ugge s ted b y J of f e ( 1 998 , t h en w ha t o f i t s s i gn if ican ce i n aN eo l i th ic a nd E u ropean c on tex t? T he n ex t t h ree c hap t e r s e va lua te t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r t h e p roce s s ing o f b a r ley g r a in i n to s wee t ma l t s a nd a l e i n N eo l i th ic E u rope , d u r ing t h e O r cad ian N eo l i th ic a nd i n t h e N eo l i th ic B r i t i sh I s le s . A si th a sb een s of a r ,t h ee mpha s i si so nt h e a s se s smen t o ft h e p r a c t ica l a spec t s o ft h e ma te r ia l c u l tu r e , b u i ld ing s a nd e qu ipmen tn ece s sa ry f o rt h i sk ind o fa c t iv i ty ( s ee f i gu re 1 . 15 ) . T he c on sump t ion o f a l e h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f s eve ra l a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s ( Bu rge s s a nd S he rman 1 976 ; D ie t le r 1 989 ,1996 ; H ayden 1 996 ; J of f e 1 998 ) . T h e i n ten t ion o f t h e n ex t t h ree c hap te r s i s t o c oncen t ra t e o n a s se ss ing t h e e x tan t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e r i tua l , p e rhap s e ven m ag ica l a c t iv i ty o f t h e manu fac tu r eo fm a l t , ma l ts uga r sa nd a l ef r om t h eg ra in .

2 7

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope A s w e l l a s h av ing r i tua l s i gn if icance , a l coho l ic d r ink s w e re a l so a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l e conomy , b e ing p a id a s at r ibu te t ot h e e l i te a nd p ower fu l a s

CHAPTER FOUR G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope .

w e l l a s b e ing p a r t o f a' wage s ' s y s tem i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o f

1 .T he t r ans i t ion t oa gr icu l ture i nE urope

l a rge monumen t s a nd t omb s . C ompe t i t ive f e a s t ing b e tween r i va l e l i te a nd p ower fu l g roups w i th in s oc ie ty a l so s e em s t o h ave o ccu r red ( J of f e 1 998 :297 ) . T he c oncep t o f ' c ompe t i t ive

T he i n t roduc t ion o fg ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd p roce ss ing i n to

E u rope

i s

a n

e no rmous

a nd

c omp lex

a r ea

f o r

f e a s t ing ' h a s r e cen t ly b een i n t roduced t o t h e d i scu s s ion o f c u l tura le vo lu t ion i nE u rope . B r ian H ayden s ugges t s t h a t" one o f t h e b es t c and ida tes f o r ap reh is to r ic c ompe t i t ive f e a s t ing

i n ves t iga t ion . Much h a s b een w r i t ten a bou t t h e p a r t icu la r r e a son s f o r t h e Meso l i th ic /Neo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i n E u rope . T he re a r e many t h eo r ie s a nd a s se ssmen t s o f t h e r e a son s f o r t h e t r ans i t ion f r om ah un t ing ,g a the r ing a nd f i sh ing l i f es ty le t o

s y s tem i st h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic" ( Hayden 1 996 :141) . T he re w e re f e a s t ing s i te s a t c au sewayed e nc lo su res a nd a t mega l i th ic t omb s i te s , a sw e l la se v idence f o rc omp lex t r ad ing

a n a g r icu l tu ra l ly b ased o ne . A rchaeo log ica l d eba te h a s b een , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h eo re t ica l , a nd h a s u sed a n th ropo log ica l

s y s tem s , e xchange n e two rk s a nd h i gh s t a tu s i n d iv idua ls w i th in n eo l i th ic s oc ie ty . S pec ia l c e ram ic v esse ls w e re u sed a t f e a s t s ( f igu res 4 . 9 , 4 . 10 , 4 . 11) . I ti sv e ry l i ke ly t h a t s pec ia l f oods a nd d r ink s , f o re xamp le a l e o rm ead , w e re c on sumed a t

a nd e t hnog raph ic a na lys is t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p a s t ( T i l ley 1 996 :25 ) . T h is c hap te r w i l l i n ve s t iga te p rac t ica l a spec t s o f e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu res i nE u rope a nd a s se s s t h ev iab i l i ty a nd p o ten t ia lo ft h e i r ma ter ia l c u l tu re f o rm a l ta nd a l ep roduc t ion . I a n H odder ( 1990 ) p ropo sed t h e c oncep t o f ` domus '

t h e se a nd a to the rr i tua lo rs oc ia lo cca s ion s . N o t a l l f e a s t s n eed t ob e c ompe t i t ive o rr i tua l i s t ic i n

w h ich f o cu se s u pon t h e i mpor tance o f h ea r th a nd h ome a nd u pon t h e c on t ro l o r d omes t ica t ion o f t h e w i ld i n t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T he d ef in i t ion o f ` domus ' i sb e s t s umma r ised i nh i s o wn wo rd s a s " p rac t ica l a c t iv i t ie s c a r r ied o u t i n t h e h ouse ,

n a tu re . F ea s t ing c an b e ac e leb ra to ry e ven t , c r ea t ing s oc ia l b onds b e tween i n d iv idua l s a nd g roup s . I tc an i n vo lve ' w o rk p a r ty f e a s t s ' , t h a t i s , f e a s t ing a s ap aymen t o r r ewa rd f o r t h e c o l lec t ive a ccomp l ishmen t o f at a sk b y t h e c ommun i ty .

f ood p repa ra t ion a nd t h e s u s ta in ing o f l i f e . B u t i ti sa l so a n a b s t rac t t e rm . S econda ry , s ymbo l ic c onno ta t ion s a r e g iven t o t h e p rac t ica l a c t iv i t ie s , l e ad ing t o t h e h ou se a s af o cu s f o r

Monumen ta l c on s t ruc t ion s i n vo lv ing c ommuna l e f fo r t a r e a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f t h e e a r ly a nd l a te r N eo l i th ic i n E u rope a nd t h e B r i t ish I s le s . S uch w o rk may h ave b een r ewa rded b y t h ep rov i s ion o f af e a s tt ot h e w o rkfo rce ( D ie t le r 1 996 :104 ) . I n t h e l i gh t o f t h e e v idence p r esen ted s o f a r i nt h is

s ymbo l ic e l abo ra t ion a nd t h e u se o ft h e h ouse a s am e tapho r f o r s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s t ra teg ie s a nd r e la t ion s o f p owe r" ( Hodder 1 990 :44 ) . C h r i s topher T i l ley ( 1996 ) h a s i n te rp re ted t h e N eo l i th ic i n e t hnog raph ic t e rm s . H e r e f e r s t o f ood a s " a

t h es is , i ti sh igh ly i mp robab le t h a t e a r ly a nd l a te r N eo l i th ic g roup s o fE u rope w e re c u l t iva t ing b a r ley a nd w hea t o n ly f o r t h e i r p o r r idge o r b r ead -mak ing p o ten t ia l . I t i s e ven mo re u n l ike ly t h a t t h e se w e re t h e s pec ia l f ood s t h a t p eop le c on sumed a t f e a s t s . I th a s b een p ropo sed t ha t a l e d i d n o t

h i gh ly s ymbo l ic med ium . I t s p roduc t ion , c on sump t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i sn ever j u s t ap rac t ica l a nd t e chno log ica l ma t te r b u t i sl o aded w i th s ymbo l ism a nd h edged a r ound b y p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l r e la t ions . A c t s o fe a t ing , s ha r ing , f ood p repa ra t ion a nd c on sump t ion mus t , i n t h e N eo l i th ic a s i n o u r o wn a nd o t her s oc ie t ie s h ave f o rmed a b a s ic m ed ium f o r s oc iab i l i ty

b ecome ap a r t o f l i f e i nE u rope a nd B r i ta in u n t i l t h e B ronze Age ( Bu rge ss a nd S hennan 1 976 ) . A nd r ew S her ra t t h a s s ugges ted t h a t " pu re b ee r s d id n o t a ppea r u n t i l t h e I r on A ge" a l though h e a cknow ledge s t h a t s t imu lan t so fo the rk ind s , s uch

a nd f o r r i tua l p rac t ice" ( T i l ley 1 996 :111) . T he c on t r ibu t ion made b y w omen t ot h e se f undamen ta l a nd i mpor tan t a r ea s o f l i f e , s uch a s f ood p roduc t ion , n ur tur ing b ab ies a nd c h i ld ren

a sc annab is , h enbane a nd o p ium p oppy s e ed s , may h ave b een ap a r t o fN eo l i th ic r i tua l a c t iv i ty ( Sher ra t t 1 995 :25 ) . A lcoho l i s ad rug t h a t a l te r s t h e mood a nd c on sc iousne ss o fp eop le . I t i sa l so as t imu lan t . I ti se a sy t o manuf ac tu re ,p rov ided o ne h a s k now ledge o ft h e s pec ia l p roce s ses n eces sa ry .

a nd o t he rd omes t ic a c t iv i t ie s i ss i gn if ican t . I ts e em s t ha t , a t l a s t , t h e f o cu s o f a r chaeo log ica l t h ough t a nd i n te rp re ta t ion i st u rn ing a way f r om c oncep t s o f

p roce ss ing ,

T he i n ten t ion o f t h i s c hap te r i st o s how t h a t e a r ly N eo l i th ic g roup s o f E u rope h ad t h e n ecessa ry a nd r e qu i red ma ter ia l c u l tu re t o c onver t t h e w hea t a nd b a r ley g ra in t h a t

c on sump t ion a nd t h er i tua l s o fd a i ly l i f e . T he N eo l i th ic i n vo lves t h e i n t roduc t ion o f n ew

t h ey g r ew i n to ma l t a nd a l e , b a sed u pon t h e e xpe r imen ta l g ra in p roces s ing a sd esc r ibed i nC hap te rO ne . T he p ropo sa l i s

t e chno log ie s s uch a st h e i n t roduc t ion o fc e ram ics t e chno logy ,

t h a t t h e manufac tu re o f ma l t a nd a l e w a s a ma jo r d r iv ing

d ea th a nd a n o b se ss ion w i th b u r ia l r i t e s a nd r i tua l s . A rchaeo log ica l t hough t i sn ow t u rn ing t owa rds mo re p rac t ica l a spec t s

s u ch

a s

f ood

p roduc t ion ,

f ood

f o r ce b eh ind t h ec hange f r om ah un t ing a nd g a ther ing l i f e s ty le

w h ich t r an s fo rmed f ood p repa ra t ion m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s . A t t h e s ame t ime , g ra in p roduc t s w e r e a n i mpo r tan t a nd n ew

t o t h a t o f g ra in c u l t iva t ion w i th in E u rope . T he a t t rac t ion o f g ra in c u l t iva t ion l a y i n ad es i re f o rt h e p roduc t s t h a t c ou ld b e

a dd i t ion t o t h e d i e t i n e a r ly N eo l i th ic E u rope . A s w e l l a s p rov id ing c a rbohydra tes i nt h e f o rm o ff l ou ra nd b r ead , g ra in

manuf ac tu red f r om t h eg ra in r a the rt h an i nt h e a cqu is i t ion o fa n ew l i f es ty le o ff a rm ing .

i s t h e p r ima ry i ng red ien t f o r ma l t a nd a l e . A s h a s b een d i scu s sed i ne a r l ie rc hap te r s , a l e w a sa ni mpo r tan tc ommod i ty i n r i tua l , s o c ia l a nd e conom ic t e rms i n t h e c on tex t o f

2 .E uropean N eo l i th ic : 6t h 1 51 h m i l lenn ia BC

Me sopo tam ian , S ume r ian a nd E gyp t ian c u l tu re s o f t h e N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge . A lcoho l ic d r ink s t h a t p roduced

E u rope , w hen t h e l i f e s ty le o f t h e i n d igenous Meso l i th ic

T he Oh a nd 5t h m i l lenn ia w e re at r ans i t iona l p e r iod i n p opu la t ion w a s i n f luenced a nd c hanged b y n ew i d ea s o fg ra in

i n tox ica ted s t a tes w e re s i gn if i can t a spec t s o f r i tua l b e l ief s y s tems , r i tua l p rac t ice a nd r i tua l b ehav iou r i n t h ese e a r ly

p roce ss ing . C e rea ls a r e n o t an a t ive E u ropean p lan t . T hey w e re i n t roduced f r om t h e N ea r E a s t a nd Ana to l ia , whe re t h ey g row i nt h e w i ld ( Zoha ry & H opf 1 988 :13 ) .

c omp lex s o c ie t ies . F o re xamp le , t h e S umer ian s h ad ag oddes s o fb rew ing n amed N inka s i .

2 9

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

L inear P o t tery C u l ture

T he e x ten to ff a rm ing t o 8 000 B C

jt o 6 000 B C

t o 7 000 B C

t o 5 000 B C

F er t i le C re scen t

F igure 4 . 1 Map t h a ts how s t h e s pread o fa gr icu l ture f rom t h e F er t i le C rescen t i n to C en t ra la nd N or thern E urope , b a sed o n r ad iocarbon d a tes ( Sherra t t1 980 ) .

F igure4 .2 Map t h a t s how s t h e a reas i n hab i ted b y t h e Meso l i th ic E r tebo l le lE l lerbeck g roups ( 1 ) a nd t h e L inearbandkeram ik e a r ly a gr icu l tura lg roups ( 2 ) i nt h e 5t ha nd 6t hm i l lenn ia BC ( T i l ley 1 996 ) .

3 0

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

F igure 4 . 3 G round p lans o f Hou se 5 9 a t T e l l O vchorovo i n n or theas t B u lgar ia , s how ing c hanges m ade t o t h e h ouse o ver t h e y ear s a nd t h e a reas f or t h e d if eren t g ra in p rocess ing a c t iv i t ies ( af ter B a i ley 1 996 : 1 51) . ( a ) T he f i r s t h ouse h ad n o h ear th , n o c l ay p la tf orm a nd t wo w ork a reas . ( b ) A f ter 4 0 y ear s t h e h ouse w as r ebu i l t w i th r oom d i v i s ions , p erhaps e ven a s econd s t orey , ah ear th b y t h e e as t w a l l , ac l ay p la tf orm a ga ins t t h e n or th w a l l a nd a g ra in s i lo . T h is h ouse b urned d own . ( c ) T he h ouse w a s r ebu i l t w i th t wo r ooms , ag ra in s i lo , ah ear th a nd a c l ay p la tf orm . ( d ) G ra in p rocess ing c on t inued a round t h e h ear th a rea w here many g r ind ing s t one s a nd p o t te ry v e sse l s w i th v o lumes b e tween 1 0 ,500 c w ere f ound .

5 00cc

a nd

TE XTILE PR OCESSIN G

AG RICULTU R AL

PR OCESSIN G

D I G GI N G

7

CH OPPI N G

IOm

s ma l l a moun t so f ma l t o ra l e i s at a sk mo re e a s i ly a ch ieved b y

I n E urope , t h e re w a s n o t as i ng le ' Meso l i th ic ' o r

ag roup o fp eop le r a the rt han b ya n i n d iv idua l .

' Neo l i th ic ' w ay o f l i f e , b u t r a the r " a d i ve r se s e t o f l i f es ty le s a nd p ra c t ice s" ( T i l ley 1 996 :70 ) . S ome Me so l i th ic g roup s , f o r e xamp le t h e E r tebo l le /E l le rbeck c u l tu res o f t h e Nor ther n

E v idence f o r c o l lec t ive g ra in p roces s ing h a s b een f ound i nN o r thea s t B u lga r ia a tT e l l O vcho rovo , as e t t lemen t t e l l a lmo s t 5m h igh a nd 1 00m i nd i ame te r , s i tua ted a bou t 1 00

E u ropean c oa s t , ma in ta ined t h e i r h un t ing a nd g a the r ing l i f es ty le s f o r o ve r a m i l lenn ium , l i v ing a l ongs ide w e l l e s tab l ished

a gr icu l tu ra l

c ommun i t ies ,

n ame ly ,

km w es t f r om t h e s ho res o ft h e B lack S ea . R ad ioca rbon d a tes f r om t h e e a r ly 5t h m i l lenn ium BC h ave b een o b ta ined ( Ba i ley

t h e

L inea rbandke ram ik c u l tu re w ho l i ved a l ong t h e r i ve r v a l ley s o fc en t ra lE u rope ( f igu res 4 . 1 ,4 .2 ) .

1 997 :142 ,149 ) . T he re a r e many s uch s e t t lemen t t e l ls i n B u lga r ia b u t o n ly a f ew h ave b een e xcava ted s o f a r . T hose t h a t h ave b een e xcava ted r evea l t h e r ema ins o f c omp lex

Nor theas t B u lgar ia : T e l l Ovchorovo . Af t e r t h e g ra in h a s b een s own , c u l t iva ted , h a rves ted

d we l l ings . S ome may h ave b een t wo -s to reyed b u i ld ings w i th mu l t ip le e n t rances a nd may h ave h ad u p t o 5r oom s t h a t w e re

a nd s t or ed i th a s t ob e p roces sed f o rc on sump t ion . D u r ing t h e

" f u l l o f f ur n i tu re , c onvey ing a s en se o f c omfor t a nd d ome s t ic i ty" ( Chapman 1 991 :158 ) . Mo s t o f t h e b u i ld ings

e xper imen t s d escr ibed i n C hap te r O ne i tq u ick ly b ecame a ppa r en t t h a t t h is i sh a rd , s k i l led a nd l a bou r in ten s ive w o rk .

s e em t oh ave b een d we l l ings b u t i ns ome " f igu r ine s a nd c u l t

Wa te r a nd w ood h ave t o b e f e tched . H eavy s t o rage o r c ook ing p o t s n eed t o b e l i f ted a nd e qu ipmen t h a s t o b e

v e sse ls w e re f ound wh ich w e re u sed i n s ome f o rm o f d omes t ic r i tua l" ( i b id :158 ) . R i tua l i t em s a s soc ia ted w i th t h is c u l tu re i n c lude a n th ropomorph ic f i gu r ines o f ma le s , f ema le s

w a shed a nd c l eaned o n a r e gu la r b a s is t o a vo id c on tam ina t ion . I ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t om a in ta in ac a refu l a nd c l o se w a tch o n t h e g ra in i na l l s t age s . E ven mak ing r e la t ive ly

a nd a n ima l s , a r tefac t s i n scr ibed w i th r i tua l d es ign s a nd d eco ra ted p o t te ry v esse ls . T h is w a s a n e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l 3 1

C hap t er 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope s oc ie ty w i th ac omp lex s oc ia la nd r i tua l s t ruc tu re t h a ta ppea r s t oh ave b een ,i n many w ays , s im i la rt oe a r ly N eo l i th ic p o t te ry c u l tu re so ft h eN ea rE a s t . H ou se 5 9a tT e l l Ovcho rovo i so ne o f 12 h ou se so n t h e s e t t lemen t t e l l . I tw a s e xcava ted b e tween 1 971 a nd 1 973 ( Todo rova 1 976a , T odo rova e ta l1 983 ) . Two p r inc ipa l wo rk a r ea s w e re d ef ined w i th in t h e h ou se ( f igu re 4 . 3 ) . O ne a r ea w a sf o rt e x t i le p roduc ing a c t iv i t ie sa nd t h eo the rw a sf o rg ra in p r epa ra t ion a nd p roce ss ing ( Ba i ley 1 996 :144 ) . A s w e l l a s a l a rge g ra in s i lo t h a t w a s s i tua ted b e tween t h e ma in r oom a nd t h e d oo rway t h e re w e re g r ind ing s t one s , p o t te ry s he rd s , a n o ven , ah ear th a nd a n i n te re s t ing r a i sed c l ay p l a tfo rm . G ra in p roce s s ing w a s a n i n c rea s ing ly i mpo r tan t a c t iv i ty o ve r t ime w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a nd D oug la s B a i ley ( 1996 ) h a s i n te rp re ted t h e h ou se a s " a w o rk s t a t ion f o r t h e s t o rage , p a r ch ing a nd g r ind ing" o fc e rea lg ra in s . Wha t e xa c t ly i sm ean t b y t h i s d e sc r ip t ion o f g ra in p roce s s ing? I ft h eg ra in w a s m ade w e tb efo re b e ing ' p a r ched ' a nd t h en ' g round ' t h en i tmay h ave b egun t og e rm ina te a nd , i f s o , t h e n ece s sa ry e nzyme s t h a tc onve r t s t a r ch i n to s uga r s w i l l h ave b een a c t iva ted w i th in e a ch g ra in . T he n ece s sa ry mo rpho log ica l a nd p hy s io log ica l c hange s f o r ma l t ing h ave o ccu r red . B a i ley n o te s" r ed is t r ibu t ion m ay h ave o ccu r r ed o na s e t t lemen t w ide b a s i s w i th m any d if e r en t i n d iv idua l s b r ing ing t h e i r s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o fg ra in t ob e p roce s sed i nt h e h ou se b e fo r e s t o r ing t h e g ra in i n t h e i r o wn h ou se s" ( i b id : 1 50 ) . G iven t h e l im i ted n umbe ro fp roduc t s t h a t c an b e made f r om b a r ley o r w hea t , n ame ly f l ou r , b r ead , p o r r idge , ma l ted g ra in o r a l e , w ha t i s t h e e v idence f o r ma l t a nd a l e manuf ac tu re i n H ou se 5 9? P o t te ry s h e rd s w e re f ound w i th p o ten t ia l v o lume s o f v e sse l s r ang ing f r om 5 00 cc ( a bou t a p in t ) i ne a r ly l e ve l st o 1 0 ,500 cc ( 2g a l lon s ) i nt h e l a te rl e ve l s o f H ouse 5 9 . Mo s t o f t h e p o t s w e r e l e s s t h an a l i t re i n c apac i ty a nd w ou ld h ave b een s u i tab le a s v e s se l s f o r c on sump t ion .T he r ew a so n ly o ne v e ry l a rge v e sse l , 1 0 ,500 c i n v o lume . T h i s p o t te ry a s semb lage i sc on s i s ten t w i th w ha t m igh t b e e xpec ted f o r t h e manuf a c tu re o f a l e . O ne s i ng le l a rge v e s se l i sa l l t h a t i sn eeded f o r t h e f e rmen ta t ion o f a s wee t w o r t a nd m any s ma l le r v e s se l s a r e u sefu l f o r c on sump t ion o ft h ee nd p roduc t . B a i ley c onc lude s t h a t t h e h ou se p robab ly h ad a s pec ia l f unc t ion a s a g ra in p roce s s ing c en t re f o r t h e c ommun i ty r a the r t h an f unc t ion ing a s ah ou se o r d we l l ing . T h i s k ind o f b ehav iou r a nd a c t iv i ty c ompa r e s w e l l w i th t h e c en t ra l g ra in s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing c en t re s t h a t a r e e v iden t i n t h e K habu r V a l ley d u r ing t h e 3 "1 m i l lenn ium BC , a s d e scr ibed i nt h e p rev ious c hap te r . T he p ro ce s s d esc r ibed b y B a i ley a s ' p a rch ing ' w a sp robab ly t h ed ry ing o u to rk i ln ing o f p a r t ia l ly g e rm ina ted g ra in ( ma l t ) . S ome o ft h e p o t te ry v e s se l s w e r e q u i te l a rge a nd , a l though t h e re i sn o o rgan ic r e s idue

o t he rs i gn if ican tr i ve r s a nd t h e i rt r ibu ta r ie st h roughou tc en t ra l E u rope ( Eh r enbu rg 1 992 :90 ) . T he L inea rbandk e ram ik c u l tu r e f l ou r i shed b e tween c 5500 BC a nd 4 800 BC . P r e s t ige a r tefac t s , s uch a s s pondy lu s s he l l s f r om G reece ( Ha l s tead 1 993 : 6 07 ) a nd a xe s o fb a sa l t a nd o fa mph ibo l i te , h ave b een f ound a tL inea rbandke ram ik s i t e s a nd s uch f i nd s i nd ica te l o ng d i s tance t r ave l , c ommun ica t ion s , t r ade a nd e xchange b e tween t h e se e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s a nd o the r c u l tu re s ( Tho rpe 1 996 :33 ) . T he k now ledge o f g ra in p roce ss ing t e chn ique s w ou ld h ave b een p a s sed o n t h rough t h e se f a r reach ing t r ade a nd e xchange n e two rk s . On e v i ew o f t h e i r c u l tu r e i s e xp re s sed b y P e te r B oguck i ( 1988 ) . H e p ropo se s t h a t t h ey w e r e p r ima r i ly c a t t le h e rde r s , o ne o f t h e ma in r e a son s f o r t h i s l i f e s ty le b e ing t h e p roduc t ion o f m i lk a nd m ea t . Sma l l v e s se l s w i th n a r row s pou t s h ave b een f ound i nc h i ld ren s ' g rave so ft h i sp e r iod t h a t m igh t p e rhap s i n d ica te t h e f e ed ing o f c ow 's m i lk t o i n f an t s ( Vend l1 994 :302 ) . T he p roce s s ing o fm i lk p roduc t si sp e rhap s i n d ica ted b y t h e c e ram ic s i eve p o t te ry ( f igu r e 4 . 4 ) . S h e rd s o f t h i sk ind o fp o t te ry ,g ene ra l ly i n te rp r e ted a sb e ing t h er ema in s o fs i eve s , p re s se s o rs t ra ine r s o fs ome k i nd , h ave b een f ound a tm any L inea rbandke ram ik s i te s( Boguck i 1 988 :89 ) . A s w e l l a s b e ing h e rde r s , t h e L inea rbandke ram ik a l so c u l t iva ted a w ide r ange o f c rop s i n c lud ing p u l se s a nd g ra in s uch a s e i nkho rn , e mme r w hea t a nd b a r ley f o r p roce s s ing a nd c on sump t ion . B o th p u l se s a nd c e r ea l g ra in s r equ i r e a bundan t w a te r f o r t h e i r p r epa ra t ion . T he f i ne ly p a in ted a nd d eco ra ted l a rge p o t te ry b ow l s a nd s ma l l d r ink ing c up s a r e g ene ra l ly u nde r s tood t o s how " t he i mpor tance o f c on sum ing f ood a nd d r ink i nt h ec on tex to ff e a s t ing" ( Tho rpe 1 996 :32 ) . T h i s f i ne ly made p o t te ry m ay h ave b een u sed f o r t h e manuf a c tu r e a nd c on sump t ion o f ap r es t ig iou s l i qu id , p robab ly a l e . C a rbon i sed g ra in s a r e f r equen t ly f ound a tt h e se e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i t e s ( Boguck i 1 988 ) . T h ey c ou ld p e rhap s i n d ica te t h e a c c iden ta l o ve r k i ln ing o f m a l t o r t h ey m ay i n d ica te t h e a c c iden ta l b ur n ing o f t h e w ood en b u i ld ing u sed t o make , s t o re o rp roce s sm a l t . e l k • a

e v idence y e t a va i lab le t o c onf i rm t h a t t h ey w e r e u sed f o r s t o rage a nd f e rmen ta t ion o fb a r ley w o r t , Ib e l ieve t h a t t h i s i s o ne o ft h e i r mo s tl i ke ly f unc t ion s . T he L inearbandkeram ik T he r e i sw ide sp r ead e v idence o f m ixed a g r icu l tu r e d u r ing t h e 6 `1 a nd 5t h m i l lenn ia BC i n E u rop e . S i te s o f t h e L inea rbandke ram ik , ar ema rkab ly h omogenou sc u l tu ra l g roup w ho c on s t ruc ted l a rge , e l abo ra te l o nghou se s , g rew s eve ra l v a r ie t ie s o f c rop s , k ep t c a t t le , s heep a nd p ig s a nd w ho a l so m ade f i ne d eco ra ted p o t te ry ( f igu re 4 . 4 ) h ave b een f ound a l ong t h e f e r t i le r i ve r v a l ley s o f t h e D anube , t h e R h ine a nd

F igure 4 . 4 C eram ic ' s i eve ' s herd s f rom L inearband keram ik s i te s i n C en t ra l E urope . a ,b , & ef rom B r ze sc K u jaw sk i , P o land ; c f rom Mur r , G ermany ; d f rom D i t z ingen -Schock ingen , G ermany . ( Boguck i1 988 ) .N os ca le .

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C hap t er 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope F igure 4 . 5 L inearbandkeram ik p o t tery b ow l a nd c up s , f l in t k n ive s , a r rowhead s a nd p o l i shed s t one a d ze s . T he p o t t ery i sf i ne ly mad e , d eco ra t ed w i th i n c i sed l i ne s . I tw a su sed a tc eremon ia l f ea s t s , p erhaps f or c on ta in ing a nd c on sum ing a l e . T he se p o t sa re i nc o l lec t ion s a t R he in i sche s L and e smu seum , B onn . ( Ehrenburg 1 992 ) .

a nd v a lue a s ac rop o ri tmay s imp ly h ave b een mo re p ra c t ica l

I nm y v iew , i ti s av e ry s t rong p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s ome o f t h e g r a in p roce s s ing t a k ing p l a ce w i th in t h i s e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu re w a s t h e manu fa c tu r e o f ma l t a nd a l e . Wa te r w ou ld h ave b een a cce s sed f r om l o ca l s p r ing s , s t ream s a nd r i ve r s o r e ven s pec ia l ly c on s t ruc ted w e l l s . S eve ra l w e l l s d a t ing t o t h e m id Oh m i l lenn ium BC h ave b een f ound a ta n umbe r o f L inea rbandke ram ik s i t e s , f o r e xamp le , a t Mohe ln ice , Mos t , R em sdo r f , Z ip f endo r f a nd E rke lenz K uckhoven ( Vend l1 994 :300 ) . Weed s a nd w hea t c haf f r e p resen t ing g r a in p roce s s ing w a s te h ave b een f ound i n r ubb ish p i t sa t an umbe ro fs e t t lemen ts i te s ( Tho rpe 1 996 :35 ) . T he c u l t iva t ion o fg ra in a nd t h e manuf ac tu re o f ma l t a nd a l e s e em t oh ave b een a n i mpor tan t e l emen t i nt h e i r s ub s i s tence a nd l i f es ty le . T he f i ne e l abo ra te l onghou se s t h a t t h ey b u i l t a ppea r t oh ave b een u sed a s d we l l ing s a nd s h e l te r f o r b o th h uman s a nd a n ima l s . T hey may a l so h ave f un c t ioned a sg ra in s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing c en t re s . T he se l o nghou se s w e r e t h e f o cu s o f L inea rbandke ram ik s o c ie ty a nd t h e re w a s c on s ide rab le v a r ie ty i nb o th s i ze a nd i nd e s ign . S om e l onghou se s w e r e u p t o 8m e t re s i nw id th a nd u pt o4 5 m e t r e si nl e ng th ,o the r sw e r e much s ma l le rb u i ld ing s ( Tho rpe 1 996 :34 ) . Un fo r tuna te ly , f l oo r s u r fa ce s h ave n o t b een p re se rved s i nce m any o ft h e se s e t t lemen t so rv i l lage s a r e s i tua ted o n l o e s s s o i l s , g ood a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd t h a t h a s b een h eav i ly p l oughed i n moder n t ime s . T h i s a dd s e no rmou s ly t o t h e p rob lem o f i n te rp r e t ing t h i s c u l tu ra l g roup , s i nce h ea r th a nd f l oo re v id ence h ave b een c omp le te ly d e s t royed . P o s tho le e v idence , h oweve r , i n d ica te s t h e i n te rna l d i v i s ion o f t h e h ou se s i n to d i s t inc ta r ea s whe re d i f f e r en ta c t iv i t ie st o ok p la ce . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e re w e re s i gn if ican t f unc t iona l d i f f e r en ce s b e tween t h eb u i ld ing s . S om e o f t h e se s t ruc tu r e s c an b e i n te rp r e ted a s " c lubhou se s" o ra s " ce remon ia l h ou se s" ( Soud sky i nT ho rpe 1 996 :35 ) . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ha t " p r ima ry p roce s s ing" o ft h e g ra in w a s c a r r ied o u t i ns ome o ft h e l o nghou se s . Ma l t ing , a p r ima ry p roce s s i nt h e c onve r s ion o fg r a in i n to m a l t s a nd a l e w a s p robab ly t h e a c t iv i ty c once rned h e r e . Modde rman p ropo se s t h a t t h e g ra in d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on t ro l may h ave b een i nt h e h and s o f ap r ie s t o r o t he rc ommun i ty l e ade r w ho c on t ro l led a c en t ra l g rana ry f o r t h e v i l lage ( i n M i t fo rd e d , p 275) . C en t r a l c on t ro l o f g ra in m igh t r e f lec t i t s i mpo r tance 3 3

t os t o r et h eg ra in c o l lec t ive ly . A n ick C ouda r t ( 1987 ,1991) h a s i n te rp re ted t h e L inea rbandke ram ik a s h av ing b een a l a rge ly e ga l i t ar ian s oc ie ty b u t w i th e l emen t s o f s t a tu s d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f i n d iv idua l s w i th in t h e g roup a s aw ho le . S he i n te rp re t s t h e g ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd i t s s ub sequen t s t o rage a nd p roce s s ing a s b e ing a c o l lec t ive a c t iv i ty a mong e x tended f am i ly g roup s . E h renbu rg ( 1992 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t i n L inea rbandke ram ik b u r ia l s q uer n s a r e f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th o n ly f ema le b u r ia l sa nd n o tw i th m a le s . S he c on c lude st h a tw omen " wou ld a lmo s tc e r ta in ly h ave b een r e spon s ib le f o r mo s t , i fn o ta l l ,t h e a g r icu l tu ra l w o rk" ( Eh r enbu rg 1 992 :90 ) . T h i s w ou ld i n c lude t h e c ook ing o f f ood a nd t h e p r epa ra t ion a nd p roce s s ing o f g ra in a s w e l l a s t e nd ing c r op s i n t h e f i e ld a nd h a rve s t ing t h em . T he re a r e m any p rob lem s i nt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e L inea rbandke ram ik c u l tu r e n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h ich i st h e l a ck o f w e l l -p r ese rved f l oo r a nd h ea r th e v idence . T h i s m ake s a c omp le te u nde r s tand ing o f t h i s e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e d i ff icu l t . I ns p i te o ft h i s d i ff i cu l ty i ts e em s c l ea rt h a tt h ey h ad a n a dequa te ma te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd t h e n ece s sa ry r e qu i remen t s f o r t h e p roce s s ing o f g ra in b y m a l t ing , m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion . T he se a c t iv i t ie s w e re v e ry l i ke ly t oh ave b een c a r r ied o u t b y w omen i n t h e c ommun i ty w ho w e r e t h e p r ima ry c r op p roduce r sa nd p roce s so r s .

3 . L a te Meso l i th ic a nd E ar ly N eo l i th ic : 5t h i4 t h m i l lenn ia BC E r tebo l le a nd E l lerbeck c u l ture s : N . E urope ,S . Sweden : A t t h e s ame t ime t h a t t h e e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s d e sc r ibed a bove b ecame e s tab l i shed t h e re w e r e o the r E u ropean g roup s t h a t ma in ta ined t h e Me so l i th ic l i f e s ty le . F i sh ing , g a the r ing a nd h un t ing w e r e t h e i r m a in s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s . T he se g roup s , w ho se s e t t lemen t r ema in s h ave b een d i scove r ed a l ong t h e c oa s t l in e o f D enma rk , i n s ou ther n S weden a nd i n n o r ther n G e rmany a s w e l la sb y s eve ra li n land l a ke s , a r er e f e r red t oa st h eE r te l :0 1 1e o r E l le rbeck c u l tu re s a nd t h ey a r e b e l ieved t oh ave l i ved i n p e rmanen ts e t t led c ommun i t ie s( Boguck i 1 988 :108 ) .

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

F igure 4 .6 C harac ter is t ic f orm so fE r tebo l le p o t te ry . T he c on ta iner sh ave p o in t ed b a se sa nd a re n o td rawn t os ca le ( l ef tf rom Mu l le r1 918 a nd r i gh tB urenhu l t1 982 ) . T he s ha l low b ow li s ab l ubber l amp ( a f t er T i l ley 1 996 f i g s1 . 14 ,1 .31) A nde r s F i sche r ( 1981 ) i nves t iga ted t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f D anub ian s ha f t h o le a xe s made b y L inea rbandke ra rn ik g roup s . H e b e l ieve st h a tc on tac ta nd t r ade mu s th ave o ccu r red s i nce s ome o f t h e se a xe s h ave a l so b een f ound i n l a te E r te l : K / 3 1 1e c on tex t s . T he refo re , t r ade i np e r i shab le g ood s s uch a s f u r s a nd f ood s tu f f s p robab ly a l so o ccu r red b e tween t h e se g roup s . T he Me so l i th ic c ommun i t ie s c on t inued t h e i r f i sh ing , h un t ing a nd g a the r ing l i f e s ty le f o r a lmo s t am i l lenn ium a l ong s ide t h e w e l l e s tab l i shed Nor ther n L inea rbandke ram ik g roup s ( f igu r e 4 . 2 ) . T he E r tebo l le a nd E l le rbeck c u l tu re s " we re n o t s t a rv ing f o rage r s w a i t ing t ob e e n l igh tened b y t h e a ppea rance o f f ood p roduc t ion" ( Boguck i 1 987 :48 ) . T hey w e re c omp lex s o c ia l g roup s l i v ing s ucce s sf u l ly b y f i sh ing , f o rag ing a nd h un t ing ,a sw e l la sb yt r ad ing w i th o the rg roup s . When t h e t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu r e o ccu r red i tw a s a s w if t p roce s s , t a k ing p l a ce o ve r j u s t af ew g ene ra t ion s ( B lankho lm 1 987 :156 ) . R ea son s f o rt h i s s udden t r an s i t ion a r e s t i l l u nc lea r a nd t h ey a r e much d eba ted . R ow ley C onwy 's ( 1984 ) mode l o f t h e e ven tua l a ccep tan ce o f a g r icu l tu re b ecau se o f as e a sona ld ec l ine i n ma r ine r e sou rce s ,s pec if ica l ly t h e o y s te r , i sq ue s t ioned b y B lankho lm . H e p o in t s o u t t h a t o n ly t h e c oa s ta l g roup s w e re d ependen t u pon t h e o y s te r a sa f ood r e sou rce a nd h e c onc lude s , " t he r e i ss t i l l al o ng w ay t o g o b efo r e w e may a dequa te ly o u t l ine a nd e xp la in t h e t r an s i t ion t o f a rm ing i n S ou ther n S cand inav ia ." ( B lankho lm 1 987 :161) . T roe l s Sm i th ( 1967 )b e l ieve st h eE r tebo l le may h ave b een ' s em i a g ra r ian ' b u t t h i s i sn o t a n i d ea t h a t h a s r e ce ived m uch s uppo r t u n t i l r e cen t ly . A s i ng le g ra in o f c e rea l p o l len t y pe w a s f ound i n al e ve l d a ted t o5 200 BC a tF a rup s Mo s s ,

3 4

a n E r te l ' s / sae s i te i n t h e Y s tad a r ea o f S can ia ( Tho rpe 1 996 :75 ) . T h i s i sm in ima l e v idence f r om w h ich t oi n te rp re t a n a g r icu l tu ra l l i f e s ty le f o r t h e E r tebo l le . A t T rundho lm , i n N o r th We s t Z ea land ( Ko l s t rop 1 988 ) , p r e e lm d ec l ine w hea t t ype p o l len , t h e p o l len o f p l an tago l a n ceo la ta ( a w eed o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th c e rea l c u l t iva t ion ) a nd ab a r ley o r l a rge g ra s s t y pe o fg ra in h ave b een f ound . T he se f i nd s c an b e i n te rp r e ted i ns e ve ra l w ay s . T he r e may h ave b een a" con s is ten t o r l ow l e ve l p r e sence o f c e r ea l c u l t iva t ion i n t h e l a te r E r tebo l le" ( Tho rpe1996 : 7 5 ) o r t h e p o l len may h ave b een n a tu ra l ly t r an spo r ted t h e r e ,p e rhap sb yt h e w ind . Af i na lp o s s ib i l i ty t h a t c anno tb e i gno red i st h a tt h e se f i nd s a r eg r a s s p o l len a nd t h ey h ave b een m i s iden t if ied . E r te l : 10 1 1e p o t te ry f i r s t a ppea r s i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a round 4 600 BC ( Tho rpe 1 996 : 7 1 ) . Sma l l d i sh e s t h a t a r e t h ough t t o h ave b een u sed a s b l ubbe r l amp s a nd l a rge s t o rage o r c ook ing j a r s w i th p o in ted b a se s h ave b een f o und ( f igu r e 4 .6 ) . T he a na ly s i s o fr e s idue s o fc ha r red f ood r ema in s o n t h i s p o t te ry h a s p roduced s ome e x t r eme ly i n t e r e s t ing r e su l t s . N o ts u rp r i s ing ly , h e r r ing a nd c od b ones a sw e l la sf i sh s c a le s h ave b een i d en t if ied . S ign if ican t q uan t i t ie s o f l a nd b a sed i n g red ien t s , p re sumab ly f r u i t s , v ege tab le s a nd s e ed s , w e r eb e ing c o l lec t ed a nd c ooked . T he mo s t i n te re s t ing r e s idue a na ly s i s w a s o ne o ft h e v e s se l s f r om T yb r ind V ig t h a t a ppea red t oh ave c on ta ined " a f e rmen ted p o r r idge w i th i ng red ien t s t h a t i n c luded h a ze lnu t s a nd p o s s ib ly b l ood ( A r rhen iu s &L iden 1 988 )" ( Tho rpe 1 996 : 7 1) . T he s ub s tance t h a t w a s a na lysed m ay b e t h e r ema in s o f t h e s l udgy r e s idue t h a t a ccumu la te s a tt h e b o t tom o fv e s se l s u sed t of e rmen tw o r t . P o r r idge i s as t a r chy c a rbohyd ra t et h a t

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

F igur e4 .7 T he l o ca t ion o ft h e s i tes o ft h e S w if t erban t g roup , a t t h e c onf luence o ft h e R h ine a nd Maa s r i ver s , C en t ra l E urope ( a f ter B arke r1 985 ,T horpe 1 996 :53 ) c anno t b e f e rmen ted ( s ee C hap te r O ne ) . T he b lood i s a n i n te re s t ing i n te rp re ta t ion a nd t h e r e s idue s n eed t ob e f u r the r a na ly sed f o r c l a r if ica t ion . A s im i la r i n te re s t ing a na ly s i s o f c ha r red r e s idue s h a s b een d e sc r ib ed a s a" h igh ly n u t r i t iou s p o r r idge c on s i s t ing o fm ixed w i ld s e ed s , h aze lnu t s ,e gg -wh i te a nd p o s s ib ly b lood t h a t h ad b een a l lowed t o f e rmen t ( A r rhenn iu s 1 984 )" ( T i l ley 1 996 :25 ) . T h i s w a s f ound o n a p o t te ry v e s se l f r om t h e E r te l* le s i t e a tL odde sbu rg , w e s te rn S kane . A ga in , t h i s r e s idue p robab ly r ep re sen t s b rew ing s l udge o r s e d imen t s . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f ' e gg w h i te ' o r ' a lbumen ' w i th in t h em ix tu re i sp ar t icu la r ly i n te r e s t ing . T he se a r e b y -p rodu c t so f ma sh ing ,t h ef ou rm a jo rs o lub le p ro te in so f b a r ley p roduc t s b e ing a l bumen , g l obu l in , g l iad in a nd l u te l in o f wh ich t h ef i r s tt wo p r edom ina te ( L ine 1 980 : 1 29 ) . T h e se i n te re s t ing a na ly se so fr e s idue sf r om E r te l* le p o t te ry w i th s im i la r m ix tu re s o fp roce s sed g ra in i n d ica te t h a t t h e E r te l* le c ou ld h ave b een m a sh ing o rf e rmen t ing g ra in . I f s o , t h ey a ppea r t o h ave b een m ak ing v e ry u nu sua l a nd e x t reme ly i n t e res t ing b r ew s . T he a ppa ren ta dd i t ion o f' b lood ' a nd h aze lnu t s i si n t r igu ing . W i thou t a c ce s s t ot h e d e ta i l s , t h e o r ig ina l e x cava t ion r epor t a nd r e s idue a na ly se s , i t i s i mpo s s ib le t oc ommen t f u r the r o n t h e se f i nd s , e xcep t t on o te t h a ta l bumen i so ne o ft h ep r ima ry s o lub le p ro te in si n ab a r ley ma sh . I t i s c l ea r t h a t much f u r th e r r e sea r ch i n to t h e se i n te re s t ing r e s idues a nd i n to t h e l i f e s ty le o f t h e E r teb0 1 1e i s r equ i r ed . H ow d id t h e E r teb0 1 1e o b ta in t h e g ra in? D id t h ey c u l t iva te i t ,d i d t hey o b ta in i tb y g if te xchange o rb yt r ad ing? I ti si mpo s s ib le t ob e s u r e . J ennbe r t ( 1 988 , q uo ted i nT ho rpe 1 996 :91) b e l ieve s t h a t t h e g ra in m ay h ave b een i mpo r ted , e i the r a s w ho le g ra in t o b e p ro ce s sed o r a s t h e f i n i shed 3 5

p roduc t , n ame ly , a s f l ou r , p o r r idge , a nd b r ead o r a s m anu fa c tu red a l coho l ic d r ink s . T he r e s idue s f ound o n E r tebo l le p o t s s e em s t o s ugge s t t h e i mpo r ta t ion , t r ade o r e xchange o ft h e w ho le g ra in f r om n ea rby a g r icu l tu ra l g roup s a nd t h e s ub sequen tp roce s s ing o fi ti n to a n i n te r e s t ing k ind o f f e rmen ted d r ink b yt h e E r teb0 1 1e t h em se lve s . Sw if terban ta nd Hazendonk ; I j se l , Ho l land T he c onf luence o ft h e R h ine a nd Maa s r i ve r s o n t h e N o r th E u ropean p l a in f o rm s a n u nu sua l e s tua r ine e nv i ronmen t , w i th l ow land f o re s t a nd r i ve rr e sou r ce s b u t a l so e x ten s ive ma r she s , t i da l f l a t s a nd p ea t b ogs . H e r e t h e re i s g ood p r e se rva t ion o f p l an t m a te r ia l a t Me so l i th ic /ea r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s i nt h e a r ea ( Boguck i 1 988 : 1 58 ) . O ve r5 0 s i te s h ave s o f a r b een l o ca ted i nt h e S w if te rban t s and d une s a r ea ( f igu re 4 . 7 ) . E a r ly c u l tu r e s w e r e a ce ram ic u n t i l c 4700 BC w hen S -p rof i le p o t s w i th p o in ted b a se s , s im i la rt ot h o se made b yt h e E r teb0 1 1e g roup s , b eg in t oa ppea ri nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( Tho rpe 1 996 :53 ) . A t l a te r s i te s d a t ing t oc 4300 BC o nwa rd s t h e f a una l a s semb lage i n c lude s t h e b one s o f d ome s t ica ted c a t t le a nd p ig s a sw e l l a sw i ld b i rd s , g ame a nd f i sh , i n d ica t ing a c hange t o am ixed a gr icu l tu ra l l i f e s ty le . P lan t r ema in s w e r e a bundan t , h av ing b een w e l l p r e se rved i n t h e w e te nv i ronmen t , a nd t h e re i se v idence o fa pp le s , b e r r ie s , n aked b a r ley a nd w hea t a s b e ing p a r t o f t h e i r d i e t . C e r ea l c ha f f , i n c lud ing i n temode s a sw e l l a sg ra in , h ave b een f ound , i n d ica t ing t h e l o ca l c u l t iva t ion o ft h e g ra in a nd , t h e r efo re , t h e l o ca lp roce s s ing a nd c on sump t ion o fi t sp roduc t s . F u r the r i n land , a t H azendonk , a t s i te s d a t ing t o c 4200 BC d ome s t ica ted c a t t le w e re b e ing k ep t . T he se s i te s m ay h ave b een " i n te rm i t ten t ly i n hab i ted a nd s u r rounded

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

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F igure 4 .8 C hrono log ica lc har tt h a tg i ves s ome i nd ica t ion o ft h e c omp lex i ty o ft h e Meso l i th ic /Neo l i th ic t r ans i t ion i nn or thern E urope a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o fl a ter N eo l i th ic g roups . F ormu la ted b y P e ter B oguck i ( 1987 ) t h e n ames o fm a jor a r chaeo log ica l c u l tures a re i nc ap i ta ls w h i le s ma l ler c u l tura lg roups a re i nl ower c ase ( af ter B oguck i 1 987 :16 ) b y p ea t b og" ( Bakke r 1 979 :120 ) . B ecause o f w e t c ond i t ion s

4 .N eo l i th ic g roups : 4t h /3 rd m i l lenn ia BC

l a rge amoun t s o fc a rbon ised g ra in a sw e l l a sc e rea l c ha f fh ave b een p rese rved , t oge the r w i th p l a in b ow l p o t te ry . A t

W i th in E u rope t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic c u l tures , s u ch a s t h e L inea rbandke ram ik a ppea r t oh ave b roken u p a r ound t h e

H azendonk -1 l a rge a moun t s o f c a rbon ised g ra in s a s w e l l a s

m id 4t h m i l lenn ium a nd d eve loped i n to r e g iona l c u l tu res w h ich a r e n ow r e f er red t o a s t h e TRB o r F unne l B eake r ,

c ha f f a nd i n ter nodes w e re r e cove red . C o r r ie B ake ls ( 1998 ) b e l ieves t h e who le a r ea t o h ave b een f a r t oo w e t d u r ing t h e

L engya l , R o ssen a nd M iche lsbe rg c u l tu r e s ( f igu re 4 . 8 ) .

N eo l i th ic f o r c e rea l c u l t iva t ion t o h ave b een p rac t ica l . S he p ropo se s t h a t t h e p opu la t ion w e re i mpor t ing t h e g ra in f r om

S eve ra l S can ian s i tes h ave b een e x cava ted ( J ennber t 1 985 ) w he re " l aye r s c on ta in ing a m ix tu re o f E r tebo l le a nd

a g r icu l tu ra l g roup s i no the r a r ea s . L ouwe Koo i jman s h a s a l so

TRB p o t tery" h ave b een f ound . J ennber ta r gues f o rs e t t lemen t a nd c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e E r tebo l le a nd t h e TRB w i th a

a pp l ied t h is i n te rp re ta t ion t o t h e Sw if te rban t g roup s ( i n T horpe 1 996 :55 ) .

g radua l c hange i n l i f es ty le f r om n omad ic h un ter /ga the re r t o

T he p r esence o fc e rea l c haf fa nd c a rbon ised g ra in i s

s e t t led a gr icu l tu ra l . Whe the r t h e re wa s ar a p id o r ag r adua l

p o ten t ia l e v idence f o r t h e p roce ss ing o f g ra in b y ma l t ing ,

c hange i nl i f es ty le i sc u r ren t ly t h e s ub jec t o f" hea ted d eba te"

ma sh ing a nd p robab ly f e rmen ta t ion a sw e l l . Sma l l a moun t so f

( T i l ley 1 996 :70 ) . C h r is tophe r T i l ley d e sc r ibes t h e p roce s s a s " con t inua l s t ruc tu ra t ion" , i n w h ich t h e o l d a nd t h e n ew

g ra in wou ld h ave b een i mpor ted a nd p roces sed a nd i ti s p o s s ib le t o f e rmen t ag a l lon o f w o r t s uccessfu l ly . I ti sa s y e t

b ecome f u sed t o ge the r , w i th ag radua l a l te ra t ion i nt h en a tu re ,

u nc lea r w hen t h ese g roup s b egan t oc u l t iva te t h e i r o wn c rop s o r whe the r t h ey w e re t r ad ing w i th l o ca l a gr icu l tu ra l g roup s . Z e i le r ( 1991 , i n T ho rpe ) s ugge s t s e xpor t s o f f i sh , f u r s a nd

s c a le a nd e mpha s is o f a c t iv i t ies . T he g a ther ing o f w i ld r e sou r ces wou ld h ave c on t inued a s b efo r e a nd t h e c u l t iva t ion o fg ra in b egan o n as ma l l s ca le a tf i r s t , i n ten s ify ing o ve rt ime . T he n ew c e r ea l p roduc t s a nd m ea t f r om n ew ly d ome s t ica ted

s k in s i n r e turn f o r t h e g ra in . I t s e ems u n l ike ly t h a t t h e Sw if te rban t a nd H azendonk g roup s made o n ly f l ou r , p o r r idge

a n ima l s h ad ah i gh p re s t ige a nd s ymbo l ic v a lue d ue t ot h e i r

a nd u n leavened b r ead f r om t h i s i mpo r ted g ra in . T he a t t rac t ion o f mak ing s wee t ma l t s a s w e l l a s mak ing a l e f o r d r ink ing a t

e xo t ic n a ture . T hey w ou ld h ave b een c on sumed a t f e a s t s , c e leb ra t ion so ro the re ven t s ( T i l ley 1 996 :109 ) .

f e a s t s i s amuch mo re l i ke ly i n te rp re ta t ion .

3 6

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

F igur e4 . 9 D r ink ing v e s se l s , ab ak ing p la te a nd ab ow lo ft h e ' Funne lB eaker ' o r ` TRB ' c u l ture . T hey a re n o td rawn t os ca le ( a f t er T i l ley 1 996 :1 07 ,s ource B urunhu l t1 982 ) A r tef ac t s t h a ta r et y p ica l o ft h i s e r ai n c lude f l in t s i ck le b l ade s w i th s i ck le g l o s s , f l in t h amme r s t one s a nd t r apezo ida l a r rowhead s t h a t a r e f ound i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s . S add le q uer n s a nd g r ind s tone s a r e a l so f ound a s w e l l a s f l in t c h i se l s a nd

' Funne l B eaker ' o r ' FRB ' c u l ture T h e ' FRB ' o r ' Funne l B eak e r C u l tu r e ' i su sed a s a " common d enom ina to r n ame f o r an umbe r o f c u l tu ra l ly r e la ted a g r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ion s w h ich i n hab i ted n o r th a nd C en t ra l E u rope b e tween 3 600 /3300 a nd 2 150 BC" ( Bakke r 1 979 :11 ) .I tw a s av e ry w ide sp read c u l tu ra l g roup . S i te s h ave b een f ound a l ong t h e n o r ther n c oa s t s i nC en t ra l E u rope a nd a l so i nS ou ther n S cand inav ia . A s i su sua l i na r chaeo logy , t h e n ame o f t h e g roup h a s c ome f r om t h e s t y le o f p o t te ry t h a t t h ey m ade . T h is i n c lude s e l abo ra t e ly d eco ra ted c up s a nd b eake r s , p l a in b ow l s a nd f l a t c e ram ic s , p e rhap s u sed a s b ak ing p l a t e s o r a s l i d s f o r v e s se l s ( f igu r e 4 . 9 ) . F unne l b eake r s c l ea r ly f unc t ion a s d r ink ing v e s se l s a nd , g i ven t h e a g r icu l tu r a lc on tex tf r om wh ich t h ey c ame ,t h ey w e r eu sed f o r

a xe s o ff i ne q ua l i ty a nd v a r ie ty i ns hape a nd s t y le . S haf t -ho le " ba t t le a xe s" a nd d oub le a xe s a r e mo re r a re ly f ound a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn i n d ica te st h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so ft h e i rf unc t ion a s s t a tu s o b jec t s . L e s s t han s i x ty o ft h e se h ad b een f ound u p t ot h el a te 1 970 s( Bakke r 1 979 :76 ,108 ) . O ne s i te t h a tg i ve s s ome i n d ica t ion o ft h ec omp lex i ty a nd t h e s i ze o f TRB s e t t lemen t s i s a t H indby Mo s s , i n s ou ther n S cand inav ia . A t t h i s m idd le N eo l i th ic s i te , 2 83 k i log ram s o f p o t te ry s he rd s w e r e f ound r e p re sen t ing 1 049 d eco ra ted a nd 5 81 u ndeco ra ted p o t s , a sw e l l a s2 2 ,000 p i ece s o f f l in t , o ve r 2 00 a r rowhead s , 6 , 000 f l in t c o re s , 1 42 b l ade k n ive s , mo re t h an 2 00 f l in t a xe s , 3 4 g round s t one a xe s a nd 7 b a t t le a xe s ( T i l ley 1 996 :170 ) . T h i s w a s al a rge s e t t lemen t , c ove r ing 2 0 ,000 s qua r em e t r e s . T he re w a s a n e xp lo s ion o f p o t te ry s t y le s i n t h e m idd le N eo l i th ic . A l l p o in t t o t h e manu fac tu r e a nd c on sump t ion o f al i qu id p roduc t . T he r e w e re d r ink ing c up s , f unne l b eake r s a nd aw ide v a r ie ty o fb ow l s hape s , b o th o pen a nd p eda s ta l led ( f igu re s 4 . 10 ,4 .11) . P o t te ry f ound i nf une ra ry c on tex t s i ns ou ther n S cand inav ia , s u ch a si np a s sage g r ave s , s ur v ive s b e t te r t h an t ha t a t s e t t lemen t s i te s a nd a ppea r s t o h ave t a ken d i f f e r en t f o rm s f r om t h a t f ound a t s e t t lemen t s , w i th e l abo ra te d e s ign s a nd s t y le s s uch a s t h e p eda s ta l led b ow l s , o pen b ow l s , c e ram ic s poon s a nd b r immed b eake r s ( T i l ley 1 996 :255 ,257 ) . A l l p o t te ry i sh i gh ly d eco ra ted w i th e l abo ra te p a t ter n s , p e rhap s r e f lec t ing t h e i r u se i nf e a s t ing a s s pec ia lv e s se l so fc on sump t ion . F o rt h e mo s t p a r t t h e d e s ign s a r e a b s t rac t c on s i s t ing o f l i ne s a nd p a t ter n s , b u t t h e re i st h e i n te r e s t ing a nd n o tab le e xcep t ion o f t h e s o -ca l led ' f a ce ' p o t s . T hese a r e f ound i n D enma rk a nd a r e a t t r ibu ted t ot h em idd le N eo l i th ic I Ia nd I V ( Ebbe son 1 978a , T i l ley 1 996 :273 ) . T he c up s s e em t o h ave

m i lk ,w a te ro ra l e . R i tua l , c e r emony a nd f e a s t ing w e re v e ry i mpo r tan t a spec t s o ft h e e a r ly a nd l a te N eo l i th ic . T h i s i se v idenced b y t h e c on s t ru c t ion o f h uge c ommuna l monumen t s f r om t imbe r a nd s t on e , f o re xamp le t h e l ong m ound s a nd d o lmen s ( T i l ley 1 996 :112 ) . E v idence o f v o t ive o f f e r ing s o f p o t te ry v e s se l s , p robab ly c on ta in ing f ood a nd d r ink , i sf r equen t ly f ound a t e n t rance s t ot h e t omb s . F ea s t s t oc e leb ra te t h e c omp le t ion o f c ommuna lc on s t ruc t ion sa r ea l so as t rong p o s s ib i l i ty . T RB p o t te ry i s f ound o n s e t t lemen t s i te s ,

a t

c au sewayed e nc losu re sa nd m ega l i th ic g rave s o rh unebedden , a s t h e se s t ruc tu re s a r e k nown o n t h e c on t inen t , o ve r aw ide a r ea o f E u rope . Du r ing t h e 4t h m i l l enn ium BC c au sewayed e nc lo su r e s a nd s e t t lemen t s b eg in t o a ppea r i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd , a s d o e a r then l ong b a r row s a nd m ega l i th s ( Wh i t t le 1 985 :186 -9 ) . A s w e l l a s t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f l a rge , i mp r es s ive t omb s a nd monumen t s , t h e p ra c t ice o f a g r icu l tu r e b ecame a" dom inan t c oncer n " o fm idd le a nd l a te r TRB g roup s o f t h e 3 "i m i l lenn ium BC , w i th i n c rea s ing ly e l abo ra t ec e r am ic f o rm s , i n ten s if ica t ion o fe xchange n e two rk s a nd v o t ive d epos i t ion s a tc au sewayed e nc lo su r e s a nd a tt h e l a rge a nd e l abo ra te m ega l i th ic t omb s ( T i l ley 1 996 :119 ) . 3 7

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope b een d eco ra ted w i th r e cogn izab le r ep re sen ta t ion s o f e ye s , e yeb row s a nd n o se s , w i th t h e h and le s ome t ime s b e ing i n co rpo ra ted a st h en o se f e a tu r e . T h i si n te rp r e ta t ion i so pen t o d eba te . T he p e rcep t ion o f a' f ace ' i sp e rhap s as ub jec t ive o ne . T he s i gn if i can ce i so f t h e se p o t s i sn o t a ta l l c l ea r a nd j u s t o ve r ah und r ed h ave b een f ound t od a te .

F igure 4 . 10 As o -ca l led ' f ace p o t ' , w here t h e h and le m igh t r epre sen t a n o se . O ther s im i lar ly d ecora ted p o t s h ave n o h and le s . S ome h ave ` ow l l ike ' e ye s . T h i s e xamp le i sf rom t h e S torega rd en p a s sage g rave i n We s tern S kane , s ou thern S cand inav ia ( T i l ley 1 996 :f i gure 6 . 27 ,n os ca le ) .

F igure 4 . 11 M idd le N eo l i th ic p o t ter y v es se l s f ound i n p a s sage g rave s , s ou thern S cand inav ia , i n c lud ing p edas ta l led b ow l s , d r ink ing c up s , d eep b ow l s a nd v ase s . T h i s c o l lec t ion w a s i nG i l lhog p a s sage g rave ,S kane ( T i l ley 1 996 :f i gure 6 .7 ,n os ca le ) . P o t te ry h a s b een d i scove red i n b u i ld ing s t h a t h ave b een i n te rp re ted a sb e ing ' c u l t h ou se s ' o r ' s pec ia l b u i ld ing s ' . T he se a r e u sua l ly s i tua ted c l o se b y m ega l i th ic t omb s . A t T u s t rup , D enma rk , t h e re i se v idence f o r o ne o ft h e se h ou se s m ea su r ing a pp rox ima te ly 6m e t re sb y 5m e t re s . Two d o lmen s a nd ap a s sage g rave f o rmed a s em i c i r cu la r a r c a r ound t h e

3 8

b u i ld ing a nd t h e se w e r e s i tua ted a bou t5 0m e t re s a way ( T i l ley 1 996 :278 ) . A t o ta l o f 2 8 p o t s c omp r i s ing 1 0 p ede s ta l led b ow l s t o ge the r w i th a s so r ted b eake r s , b ow l s a nd c l ay s poon s w e r e d i scove red w i th in t h e h ou se , wh ich h ad b een d e s t royed b y af i re , h ence t h e s u rv iva l i ns i tu o f t h e r i tua l e qu ipmen t . T he se b u i ld ing s h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s c u l t b u i ld ing s o r t emp le s ( Becke r 1 973 ) s i nce t h e re a r e n o t r a ce s o f h uman r ema in s w i th in t h em , y e tt h ey a r e f r equen t ly s i tua ted c l o se b y m ega l i th ic t omb s , d o lmen s o rp a s sage g r ave s . R i tua l f e a s t ing a ppea r s t o h ave b een a p robab le a c t iv i ty w i th in t h e se a ppa r en t ly s pec ia lb u i ld ing s . Emme r w hea t ( T r i t icum d icoccum ) a ppea r s mo s t i n t h e a r chaeo log i ca l r e co rd a ts e t t lemen t s i t e s , t h e mo s t l i ke ly p l a ce f o r t h e m anuf ac tu re o f a l l k ind s o f g ra in p roduc t s . B a r ley a nd e i n ld io rn a ppea r i n much s ma l le r q uan t i t ie s . T h i s m igh t b e b ecau se o ne o f t h e p roduc t s o f ma l t a nd a l e p roduc t ion i st h e s o -ca l led ' s pen t g ra in ' . T h i s i sl e f t a f te rt h e s wee t m a l t l i qu id h a s b een w a shed o u t o f t h e b a r ley m a sh . S pen t g ra in i sa n e xce l len t a n ima l f e ed f o rr um inan t a n ima l s , s uch a sc a t t le . I ti sn o t a' wa s te p roduc t ' a nd i ti sn o tl i ke ly t o h ave b een t h rown a way . T h i s wou ld b e a p l au s ib le e xp lana t ion f o rt h es ma l ln umbe ro fb a r ley g r a in s f ound i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . B a r ley w a s ma l t ed , t h e ma l t s uga r s e x t ra c ted f o r i mmed ia te c on sump t ion o rf e rmen ta t ion a nd t h e s pen tg ra in w ou ld h ave b een f e dt ot h ec a t t le . L a rge s ha l low b ow l s a nd d eep b u cke t s a r e s u i tab le v e s se l s f o r ma sh ing t h e ma l t a nd f o r f e rmen t ing wo r t i n to a l e ( s ee C hap te r O ne ) . T he se s t y le s o fp o t t e ry v e s se ls a ppea r i n a bundance i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e TRB We s t c u l tu re . Aw ide v a r ie ty o fp o t te ry s t y le s h ave b een f o und i n t h e D u tch Hunebedd en a nd a ts e t t lemen t s i t e s o f t h e We s t H o l land TRB o f t h e 3r d m i l lenn ium BC ( Bakke r 1 979 ) . M idd le TRB p o t t e ry s t y le s i n c lude c o l la r ed j ug s , f unne l b eake r s , l u gged b eake r s , h and led c up s , b uck e t s a nd av a r ie ty o f b ow l s hape s . S uch p o t te ry s t y les i nd ica t e t h e manuf a c tu r e a nd t h ec on sump t ion o f al i qu id p roduc t . A n i n te r e s t ing f e a tu re o f t h i s p e r iod i n E u ropean p reh i s to ry a r e t h e d epo s i t s o f " l a rge c a che s o fu p t os e ve ra l k i log ram s o fc a rbon i sed g ra in , o f ten i nl a rge v e sse l s . . . tha ta r e d i f f icu l tt oi n te rp r e t . . .and d on o t a ppea rt oh ave b een c a sua l ly d i sca rded" ( Boguck i 1 988 :129 ) . T he se a ppa ren t ly d e l ibe ra te d epo s i t ion s o f c a rbon i sed g ra in h ave b een f o und a ts i te s o f t h e 4t h m i l lenn ium L engye l c u l tu re i n n o r ther n P o land , s pec if ica l ly , a tR adz ie jow a nd O pa tow ice . T hey h ave b een i n te rp r e ted a sr i tua l o f f e r ings a nd B oguck i h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e s t o r ed g ra in " wa s s l ow ly c a rbon i sed t h rough t h e h ea t g ene ra ted b y i t sr o t t ing i nt h e v e s se l" ( Bogu ck i 1 988 :134 ) . A b ur n ing w ooden b u i ld ing w ou ld b e amo r e l i ke ly e xp lana t ion t oc a rbon i se g r a in s t o r ed i np o t te ry v e s se l s . C a rbon i sed g r a in t h a t i sd i scove r ed i n ap i t c ou ld i n d ica te t h a tk i ln ing t h e m a l t h ad g one w rong ,a nd t h e c a rbon i sa t ion o ccu r red a s ar e su l to f a n a cc iden ta l f i r e , a sa tt h e h on A ge ma l t ing a nd b r ewe ry s i te a tE be rd ingen -Hochdo r f ( f igu re s 1 . 5 ,1 .6 ) . I n c on c lu s ion t h e TRB c u l tu r e h ad t h e n ece s sa ry ma te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd p o t te ry v e s se l s f o rc onve r t ing t h e i rg r a in i n to ma l t a nd a l e . T hey h ad s u i tab le b u i ld ing s a t s e t t lemen t s i te s f o r ma l t ing , a l though p o s tho le e v iden ce o n i t s o wn i s o f ten v e ry d i f f icu l t t o i n te rp r e t . J u l ian T homa s ( 1 988 ) d esc r ibe s a" new N eo l i th ic" o n t h e C on t in en t d u r ing t h e 4t h m i l lenn ium BC , w i th g rea te r c omp lex i ty i n d ome s t i c a nd r i tua lb ehav iou r .

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope

4• I

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V

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1

1

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„

1

4

F igur e4 . 12 T hese a r e s ome o ft h eD rouwen B T RB p o t tery f rom g rave s i nw e s tH o l land , d a ted t ob e tween c 3300 BC a nd c 2100 BC . T hey h ave b een c a t egor i zed a ccord ing t od eco ra t ive s t y le ( a f t er B akker 1 979 :65 ) . S ca le i s1 : 3 . T he s hape i sm ore i mpor tan t t h an t h e d eco ra t ion w hen a s se s s ing t h e p o s s ib le f unc t ion o f av e s se l . H ere t h ere a re v e s se l s t h a t a re s u i tab l ef or m a sh ing m a l t , f ermen t ing w o r t a nd c onsum ing t h e f i n i shed p roduc t . T he b ow l w ou ld b e s u i tab le f or m ash ing o r i tc ou ld b e au sef u l b o i l ing /e vapo ra t ion d i sh . T he b ucke tw ou ld h o ld a bou t 2o r 3g a l lons o fl i qu id f or s t o rage o rf or f ermen ta t ion . I th as l u gs t o s ecure ac ov e ro rl i d . T he c ups a re c l ea r ly f or t h ec onsump t ion o f al i qu id p roduc t ,p robab ly m ead o ra l e .

3 9

C hap ter 4—G ra in i nN eo l i th ic E urope T he d eve lopmen t o f monumen ta l i ty , t h e b u i ld ing o f l a rge e a r thwo rk s a nd c en t ra l p l ace s , s uch a s c au sewayed e nc lo su re s , m ega l i th s a nd t omb s a r e a l l f e a tu re s o f t h i s c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t . T he e v idence f o r f e a s t ing a nd r i tua l i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e se s i te s i sa bundan t a l though t h e c on tex t o f t h e f e a s t ing i sn o t a lway s c l ea r . S ome may h ave i n vo lved p ub l ic f e s t iva l s a nd c e leb ra t ion s , t h e re w ou ld a l so h ave b een p r iva te r i tua l s , c e remon ie s a nd f ea s t s a nd s ome may h ave i n c luded ' wo rk p a r ty f e a s t ing ' , w i th t h e c on sump t ion o fm ea t a nd a l e f o r t h e c ommun i ty w o rk fo rce i n vo lved i n monumen t c on s t ruc t ion . T he e v iden ce p re sen ted i n t h i s c hap te r f o r t h e manuf a c tu re o f b o th ma l t s a nd a l e d u r ing t h e m idd le N eo l i th ic i n E u rope i s c onv inc ing . T he re w a s t r ade , c ommun ica t ion a nd e xchange w i th o the r c u l tu r e s t h a t h ad a l ready l e a rn t t h e t e chn ique s o f c u l t iva t ing c e rea l s a nd p roce s s ing t h em i n to aw ide r ange o fp roduc t s , i n c lud ing a l e . S u i tab le p o t te ry v e s se l s a nd l i d s w e re a va i lab le , w ide b ow l s f o r t h e ma sh a nd d eep b ucke t s f o r t h e f e rmen t o f af ew g a l lon s . S u i tab le b u i ld ing s w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le , b u t u nfo r tuna te ly , w ooden b u i ld ing s l e ave f ew r ema in s , f l oo r s u r f ace s a r e o f ten d e s t royed a nd a r e h a rd t o f i nd . T he s u rv iv ing a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rt h em anuf a c tu re o f ma l t a nd a l e i nt h e N eo l i th ic i s much b e t te ro n t h e O rkney I s land s , S co t land , w he r e t h e b u i ld ing s w e re c on s t ruc ted f r om s t one . Un s tan p o t te ry i sb ow l shaped , s im i la rt ot h e D rouwen b ow l s a bove a nd G rooved Wa re i sd eep , l a rge a nd b ucke t s ty le , a l so a sa bove . T he e v idence f o r t h e m a l t ing , ma sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion a ts e t t lemen t s i te s o f t h e O r cad ian N eo l i th ic i s t h es ub jec to ft h en ex tc hap te r .

4 0

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ings o ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic

CHAPTER F IVE T he S tone B u i ld ing s o f t he O rcad ian N eo l i th ic

1 9t h c en tu ry , a f te r ap a r t icu la r ly s eve re s t o rm . T he v i l lage w a s i n i t ia l ly i n ves t iga ted b y F l inde r s P e t r ie ( 1867 ) . G o rdon

1 . N eo l i th ic

r e vea led t h e t r ue a n t iqu i ty o f t h e s i te ( C la rke 1 976 ) . T he v i l lage w a s N eo l i th ic a nd h ad b een i nhab i ted b e tween c 3000

s e t t lemen t s

o f

O rkney :

C h i lde

c on t inued

e xcava t ing

a nd

r e co rd ing

t h e

v i l lage

b e tween 1 927 a nd 1 929 ( Ch i lde 1 930 ) . B o th a r chaeo log is ts t h ough t i t w a s a ' P ic t ish ' v i l lage b u t r a d ioca rbon d a te s o b ta ined i n t h e 1 970 s d ur ing D av id C la rke 's e xcava t ion s

4t h/ 3r d

m i l lenn ia BC

BC a nd c 2000BC . T he s i te o fR inyo , o nt h e i s land o fR ousay a tB ig land R ound , i sn ow c omp le te ly h idden u nde r t h e g ra ss . U n le ss n ew e xcava t ion s a r e u nde r taken , a l l t h a tr ema in s f o rs t udy a r e t h e g round p lan s t ha t w e re d rawn u p d ur ing C h i lde 's

T he mo s t c omp le te a nd t h e b e s t p r eserved d omes t ic b u i ld ing s d a t ing t o t h e N eo l i th ic i n t h e w ho le o f n or ther n E u rope a r e t o b e f ound o n t h e O rkney I s land s , a t K nap o f H owa r , B a rnhouse a nd S ka ra B rae . H e re t h e h ou se s w e re c on s t ruc ted o f s t one r a the r t han t imbe r . A t a l l t h ree s i te s b a r ley a nd w hea t w e re b e ing c u l t iva ted a nd p roce ssed d ur ing

i n ves t iga t ions

a nd

t h e

p ho tog raph s

t a ken

d u r ing

t h e

e xcava t ion s ( Ch i lde a nd G ran t 1 938 , 1 946 ) .

t h e4 `h m i l lenn ium BC . K nap o f H owa r , o n t h e r emo te n o r ther n i s land o f

O the r O r cad ian N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ts t ha t h ave b een e xcava ted b u t h ave n o t y e t b een f u l ly p ub l ished i n c lude t h e

P apa We s t ray i st h eo ldes t s t and ing h ou se i nn o r ther nE u rope . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing i nd ica te s t ha t t h e h ouse h a s a

e x ten s ive s i te a tL ink s o f N o l t land , Wes t ray , a nd o the r f a s t e r od ing c oa s ta l s i tes a tP oo l , T of t s N e ss a nd S tove B ay o n

c h rono log ica lr ange f r om c 3800 BC u n t i l c 2800 BC , a l though t h e a c tua l l e ng th o fh ab i ta t ion may h ave b een f o ro n ly a r ound 5 00 y ea r s ( R i tch ie 1 983 :57 ) . O the rs e t t lemen t s i te so nO rkney a r e n o t a s w e l l p rese rved . B a rnhou se ( R icha rds 1 992 ) i s s i tua ted c l o se b y t h e S tones o fS t enne s s a nd i th a s b een d a ted t ot h e m id 4 t h m i l lenn ium BC . O n ly t h e w a l l f oo t ing s r ema in

S anday ( f igu re 5 . 1) . Two e a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s i tes o n m a in land O rkney h ave r e cen t ly b een e xcava ted ( R icha rd s f o r thcom ing ) . T hese a r e s i tua ted c l o se b y t h e t omb o n C uween H i l l a nd a tS toneha l l , af ew m i les w e s t o f K i rkwa l l , b yt h e S t romness r oad . T he b u i ld ing r ema in s a tK nap o f H owa r a nd S ka ra B rae a r e u n ique . T hese a nd o the r O r cad ian N eo l i th ic

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F igure 5 . 2 G round p lan o ft h eb u i ld ing sa tK nap o f Howar ,P apa W e s t ray , O rkney ( R i tch ie 1 985 : 47 ,f i gure 3 ) . f i sh ing , b o th o n sho re a nd o f f sho re , a nd p ra c t i sed a n ima l h u sband ry . T hey c u l t iva ted a nd p roce s sed g r a in a s w e l l ( R i tch ie 1 985 :22 ) . T he p o t te ry a s semb lage c on s i s ted mo s t ly o f w ide , s ha l low , h i gh ly d eco ra ted b ow l s k nown a s U n s tan Wa re ( f igu re 5 . 4 ) . S he rd s f r om d eep , f l a t -ba sed s t o rage v e s se l s w e r e a l so f ound ( f igu re 5 . 3 ) . U n s tan b ow l s w ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r ma sh ing t h e ma l t a nd t h e d eep v e s se l s w ou ld b e i d ea l f o r t h e f e rmen ta t ion o f w o r t , i fc ove r ed . Q uan t i t ie s o f g ra in p roce s sed w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een s ma l l . H av ing v i s i ted a nd s t ud ied t h e b u i ld ing s a tK nap o f H owa r , i ts e em s t h a t t h e s ma l le r b u i ld ing ( r ef e r r ed t o a s H ou se 2 i n R i tch ie 1 983 ) w ou ld h ave f unc t ioned w e l l f o r f ood p r epa ra t ion , c ook ing , s t o rage , e a t ing a nd s l eep ing ( f igu r e s 5 . 5 -5 .8 ) . T he b u i ld ing h a s b een s epa ra ted i n to t h ree d i s t inc t a r ea s u s ing u p r igh t s t one s l ab s s e t i n to t h e g round . T he r e m ay h ave b een s c reen s m ade f r om o rgan ic m a te r ia l s a s w e l l . S eve ra l c upboa rd s a nd s t o rage p l aces w e re b u i l t i n to t h e w a l l s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e i n ne rmo s t , r e a r p a r t o f t h e b u i ld ing ( f igu re 5 . 7 ,5 .8 ) . I n t h i s r e a r s e c t ion t h e re a r e a l so s u i tab le p l a ce s t o make s a f e a nd u nd i s tu rbed s l eep ing p l a ce s

K nap o fH owar ,P apa We s tray A cco rd ing t or ad ioca rbon d a te st h eo lde s ts e t t lemen t s of a r d i scove red o n t h e O rkney I s land s i sa tK nap o fH owa r o n P apa We s t ray , o ne o f t h e mo s t n o r the r ly i s land s o f t h e O rkney g roup . H e re , ad we l l ing h ou se a nd w o rk shop , b o th s t one b u i l t a nd c onnec ted b y a n a r row p a s sage , w e r e d i scove red a nd i n i t ia l ly i n ves t iga ted i nt h e 1 930 s ( T ra i l ! & K i rkne s s 1 936 ) . D e ta i led e xcava t ion s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t b y A nna R i tch ie i nt h e e a r ly 1 970 s w hen r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om b e tween c 3800 a nd 2 800 BC w e re o b ta ined ( R i tch ie 1 983 ) . H ou se 1 ,t h e l a rge r o ft h e t wo c onnec ted b u i ld ing s , i so f ten r e f e r red t oa sb e ing t h e d we l l ing h ou se w h i le H ou se 2 ,t h e s ma l le r b u i ld ing , h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s aw o rk shop a nd s t o rage a r ea ( f igu r e 5 . 2 ) . T he r e a l i ty p robab ly w a s t h a t b o th b u i ld ing sh ad s eve ra lf unc t ion s , a cco rd ing t ot h et ime o f y ea ra nd t h en ece s sa ry a c t iv i t ie su nde r taken . A cco rd ing t ot h e e xcava ted e v idence o f aw ide v a r ie ty o f f i sh b one s , c a t t le , s heep a nd p ig b one s a nd c a rbon i sed g ra in f ound i n t h e e x ten s ive m idden t h a t s u r rounded t h e b u i ld ings , t h e p eop le w ho l i ved o n P apa We s t ray 5 000 y ea r s a go w e r e a dep t a t 4 2

C hap ter 5—The S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic f o r b ab ie s , i n f an t s a nd s ma l l c h i ld ren . T he re i se nough f l oo r s pa ce f o rt wo a du l t st ol i ed own i nt h i sa r ea a sw e l l . T he h ea r th i ss t one k e rbed a nd c en t ra l ly l o ca ted , a p ra c t ica l a r ea f o r f ood p repa ra t ion . Aq uer n w a s l o ca ted i n t h i s s e c t ion o ft h eb u i ld ing . I nt h e f r on te n t rance a r ea t h e re i s a n a r row p a s sageway t h a t c onnec t s t h e t wo b u i ld ing s t oge th e r . A cce s s t h rough t h i s p a s sage w a s c on t ro l led b y a d oo r w i th in t h i s , t h e s ma l le r b u i ld ing o f t h e t wo . O n e xcava t ion , t h e c onnec t ing p a s sage w a s f ound t o h ave b een d e l ibe r a te ly b locked w i th s t one s ( R i tch ie 1 985 :27 ) . R ea son s f o rt h i sa r ea sy e tu nc lea r . T he l a rge r b u i ld ing ( r e f e r red t o a s H ouse 1 i n R i tch ie 1 985 ) i sd iv ided i n to t wo s epa ra te a r ea s , a n o pen h ea r th b e ing l o ca ted i nt h e r e a r s e c t ion , t o ge the r w i th av e ry l a rge q uer n . T h i s w a s a ppa r en t ly s t i l l s i tua ted i n t h e p l a ce w he r e i th ad o nce b een r egu la r ly u sed ( f igu r e 5 . 12 ) . It h ink t h a t t h i s l a rge r b u i ld ing i ss u i tab le t o h ave f unc t ioned a s a b a rn f o r a n ima l s a nd a b u i ld ing f o r g ra in s t o rage a nd p repa r a t ion . T h e f r on t a r ea w a s d i v ided f r om t h e b ack w i th u p r igh t s t one s l ab s a nd h a s av e ry l ow s t one c on s t ruc t ion , d e sc r ibed a s a' b ench ' o r ' p la t fo rm ' . I ti st oo l ow t o b e c omf o r tab le t o s i t o n a nd i ti s r em in i scen t o f t h e f l oo r c on s t ruc t ion o f c a t t le s t a l l s a tt h e a n ima l b a rn a t C o r r iga l l F a rm Mu seum , H a r ray , O rkney . T he re w a s ap aved s t one f l oo r ( n ow c ove red b y g rave l ) i n t h e f r on t a r ea . A n ima l s c ou ld h ave b een k ep t a nd t e nded t o h e re a nd t h e h a rve s ted g ra in c ou ld h ave b een s t o red , ma l ted a nd f u r the rp roce s sed a t t h er e a ro ft h eb u i ld ing . T he l a rge u p r igh ts l ab s a nd p o s tho le s d i v id ing t h e b u i ld ing w ou ld h ave b een a n e f f ec t ive b a r r ie r , k eep ing t h e a n ima l s a way f r om t h e g ra in s t o rage a nd p repa ra t ion a r ea . T he r e a r e t wo e n t rance s o r d oo rway s i n to H ouse 1 ( f igu r e 5 . 10 ) . O ne l e ad s i nf r om t h e o u t s ide a nd t h e o t he r i s a n e n t ran ce f r om t h e p a s sage c onnec ted t o t h e s ma l le r b u i ld ing . T he ma in d oo rway i n to H ou se 1 i s q u i te s i gn if ican t ly l a rge r t h an t h e d oo rway l e ad ing i n f r om t h e p a s sage . C ou ld t h i s h ave b een ad e l ibe ra te d e s ign f e a tu r e? I t w ou ld m ean t h a t l a rge a n ima l s c ou ld e n te r t h e b a rn t h rough t h e m a in d oo r b u t c ou ld n o t g a in a c ce s s i n to t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea v i a t h e s ma l le r d oo rway a nd n a r row c onnec t ing p a s sageway . My i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing s t h a t m ake u p t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic f a rm s tead a tK nap o fH owa r i st h a t H ou se 1 may h ave b een t h e b a rn , b e ing d i v ided i n to ag r a in s t o rage a nd p r oce s s ing a r ea a tt h e r e a r a nd a n a n ima l s he l te r a tt h e f r on t ( f igu r e s 5 . 11 ,5 .12 ) . H ou se 2 i s t h e l i v ing , c ook ing , s l eep ing a nd g ene ra lw o rk ing a nd s t o rage s pa ce . T he d e s ign o ft h i s b u i ld ing i su n l ik e t h o se a tS ka ra B ra e a nd R inyo . T h i s h a s c on t r ibu ted t o ab e l ief t h a t t h e re w e r e t wo d i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l g roup s o n O rkney d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic . T he re w e r e t h e p eop le w ho u sed U n s tan Wa r e p o t t e ry , l i ke t h a tp redom inan t ly f ound a tK nap o fH owa r , a nd t ho se w ho u sed G rooved Wa r e , a s a t S ka ra B ra e a nd B amhou se . T h i s d iv i s ion o ft h e O r cad ian N eo l i th ic i n to t wo s epa ra te c u l tu res i sq ue s t ionab le a nd h a s b een d eba ted ( s ee S ha rp ie s & S he r idan 1 992 ) . I ti sn o t v i ab le t o d i v ide t h e O r cad ian N eo l i th ic i n t h i s w ay . B o th p o t te ry s t y le s a r e r ep r e sen ted a t Knap o f H owa r . S he rd s o f l a rge f l a t -ba sed v e s s e l s w e r e f ound t h e r e a nd , t h ough n o t s t r ic t ly G rooved Wa r e , t h ey a r e s im i la r i n s i ze , s hape a nd p robab ly a l so

4 3

f unc t ion . B o th U n s tan a nd G rooved Wa r e h ave b een f ound a t N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s i te s , P oo l a nd S tove B ay , o n t h e i s land o f S anday ( Bond 1 995 ) . T he p o ten t ia l f unc t ion o f t h e t wo p o t te ry s t y le s i sd i f f e r en t . W ide , s ha l low b ow l s w ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r av a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing t h e b o i l ing o r e vapo ra t ion o f l i qu id s a nd ma sh ing t h e ma l t . D eep , l a rge b ucke t s haped v e s se l s w ou ld b e u se fu l f o r s t o rage a nd , w i th t h ea dd i t ion o f al i d , f o rf e rmen ta t ion o fw o r t . A tP oo l , S anday ,t h er ema in so f1 4h ou se sh ave b een f ound t o ge the r w i th s he rd s r ep re sen t ing a lmo s t 2 000 p o t te ry v e s se l s . U n s tan Wa re p redom ina ted i nt h e l owe r l e ve l s w h i le G rooved w a r e p redom ina ted i n l a te r l e ve ls . P e rhap s t h e e mpha s i s o nt h e d i f f e ren t g ra in p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s c hanged , w i th mo re ma l t / suga r e x t ra c t ion i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd a g r ea te r a moun t o f f e rmen ta t ion i n t h e l a te r N eo l i th ic a s t h e a moun t s o f b a r ley c u l t iva ted b y t h e i n hab i tan t s i n c r ea sed i n q uan t i ty a nd t h e i rt e chn ique s i mp roved . T he r e i sc l ea r ly much mo r e r e sea r ch n eeded i n to t h e p o ten t ia l f unc t ion s o f p o t te ry v e s se l si nt h eN eo l i th ic .

F igur e5 . 3 L arge , d eep p o t tery v e s se l f rom K nap o f H owar ( a l ter A shmore 19 :46 ,f i gure 2 1) . R im d i ame ter i sa pprox ima te ly o ne f oo t .

Nee F igure 5 . 4 W id e , s ha l low b ow l f rom K nap o f Howar ( a f ter A shmore 1 996 :46 ,f i gure 2 1) . R im d iame ter i sa pprox ima te ly o ne f oo t .

T he f o l low ing p ho tog raph s o ft h e b u i ld ing s a tK nap o f H owa r , P apa We s t ray , i lu s t ra te a spec t s o f t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion sd i scu s sed a bove .

C hap t er 5—The S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 . 5 T he s ma l ler b u i ld ing ( Hou se 2 ) a tK nap o f Howar , P apa We s t ray , O rkney , s how ing t h e e n t rance , u pr igh t s l ab s d i v id ing t h e f ron ta nd m idd le s ec t ions o ft h e b u i ld ing , t h e c en t ra ls t one k erbed h ear th a nd m a in f ood p repara t ion a rea w i th aq uern s t one o nt h e l e f to ft h ep ic ture .

F igure 5 .6 V iew o f House 2f rom b e s id e t h e d oorway , s how ing t h e m idd le a nd r ear s ec t ion s o ft h e b u i ld ing . T he r ear o ft h eh ou se w ou ld b e t h em o s ts en s ib le a rea t ou se a s as l eep ing o rr e s t ing a rea , b e ing t h ep lace w her e o ne w ou ld b e l e as td i s turbed .

4 4

C hap ter 5—T he S t one B u i ld ing so ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igur e5 . 7 T h i sp i c ture s how s t h e a rea s c on s t ruc ted a tt h e r ear ( l ef t ) o fH ou se 2 t h a t m ay h ave b een u s ed f or s l eep ing o r r e s t ing . T here a re n i che si nt h eb ack w a l l ,p erhap sf or b ab ie sa nd s ma l lc h i ld ren ,a s w e l la s t wo s paces b e s id e t h e u pr igh td i v id ing s l ab s t ha t a re l a rge e nough f or a du l t st ol i ed own i n .

F igu re 5 . 8 S t orage p lace sr a ther t h an s l eep ing a r eas h ave b een i n corpora ted i nt h e w a l lc ons t ruc t ion a tt h e r ear ( r igh t ) o fH ouse 2 .

4 5

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 .9 T he p a ssage l e ad ing f rom Hou se 2 i n to House 1 ,t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e m a in e n t rance t o Hou se 2 . T he p a s sage i sp aved w i th f l ags tone sa nd t h ere m ay h ave b een ad oor o n t h i ss i d e . T he h e igh to ft h ed oorway i sa bou to ne m e t re .

F igur e5 . 10 T h i sp ic ture s how st h ed if eren ts i ze so fd oorway si n Hou se 1a tK nap o f Howar ,P apa W e s t ray . T he s ma l l er d oor ( r igh t ) l e ad s t ot h e p as sage i n to House 2 a nd i sa bou t o ne m e t re h i gh . T he m a in e n t rance t o House 1 i ss i gn if ican t ly l a rge r , p erhap s t o a l low a cce s s t ol a rge a n ima l s . T he f l oor w a s o r ig ina l ly p aved w i th f l ags tone s . T h i s s ec t ion o fb u i ld ing a ppear s t ob e m o r e s u i tab le f o rk eep ing a n ima l st han f or p eop le t ol i ve i n . 4 6

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igur e5 . 11 T he l ow s t one c ons t ruc t ion o n t h ef l oo ri nH ou se 1 ,f ac ing t h ep as sage b e tween t h e t wo b u i ld ings . I ta ppear s t ob e t h ef oo t ing s o fa n a n ima l s t a l l w i th a n u pr igh t s l ab d i v id ing i ti n to t wo u nequa l a rea s . I t may h ave b een u sed a s a n a r ea f or m i lk ing o r f eed ing t h ea n ima l s .

F igure 5 . 12 T he g ra in p roce s s ing a rea a t t h e r ear o fH ou se 1 ,K nap o f Howar . T here i s av e ry l a rge q uern s t one a nd s t one r ubber , p robab ly s t i l li ns i tu . T here a r ef oo t ing sf o rp o s tho le sa nd u pr igh ts l ab st ha t , w i th t h ea dd i t ion o f ac en t ra lw ood en g a te , w ou ld b ee f ec t ive i nk eep ing t h ea n ima l si nt h ef ron ts e c t ion ,w e l la way f rom t h eg ra in p roce s s ing a rea . House 1i sm uch l a rger t h an Hou se 2 . 4 7

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic B arnhouse , ma in land O rkney E xcava t ion s a t B ar nhou se F a rm , ma in land O rkney u nde r tak en b y C o l in R icha rd s a nd a t e am f r om G la sgow Un ive r s i ty h ave r evea led al a rge , mu l t i -pha se G rooved Wa re s e t t lemen t ( R icha rd s 1 992 ) . H e re , o n ly h a lf am i le f r om t h e S tone s o f S t enne s s , t h e r e w a s av i l lage o f a bou t 1 5 h ou se s . T he v i l lage i sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h e s t one c i r c le , t h a t i s , t h e m id 4t h m i l lenn ium BC . Many l a rge G rooved Wa re v e s se l s , s ome s t i l l i n ta c t , w e r e d i scove r ed i n s i tu w he r e t h e v i l lage r s h ad u sed t h em . T he c on tex t o f t h i s G rooved Wa r e p o t te ry m ay a l low t h e f unc t ion o f t h e p o t te ry t o b e a s se s sed . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e b u i ld ing s a t B a rnhou se h ave n o t b een p r e se rved a sw e l l a st ho se a tK nap o fH owa r a nd S ka ra B ra e b ecau se t h es i te h a sb een p l oughed w i th ma ch ine ry . B u i ld ing 8 T h i s i st h e l a rge s t N eo l i th ic b u i ld ing y e t e xcava ted o n m a in land O rkney . I ti sa l so t h e mo s t u nu sua l . I th a s b een i n te rp r e ted a s at emp le b y t h e e xcava to r , C o hn R icha rd s ( 1992 ) . O the ri n te rp re ta t ion sa g r ee t h a tt h i sb u i ld ing p robab ly h ad as pec ia l f unc t ion t h a t w a s mo re t od o w i th r i tua l a c t iv i ty t h an h ab i ta t ion a nd e ve ryday d ome s t ic l i f e ( Ba rc lay , D a rv i l l , T opp ing , 1 996 ) . I ti s ar ough ly s qua re b u i ld ing a nd h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s " cen t ra l ly p o s i t ioned o n as ub -c i r cu la r c l ay p l a tfo rm e nc lo sed b y as t one w a l l" ( Ba r c lay 1 996 : 6 8 ) . T he w a l l s w e r e s ub s tan t ia l ly c on s t ruc ted , t h e o u te r w a l l b e ing 1 . 5 m e t r e s t h ick a nd t h e i n ne r w a l l b e ing 3 m e t re s t h ick . T he f l oo ra r ea o ft h e ' i nne rs an c tum ' i sr ough ly 6 0s qua re m e t r e s . I tm ay b e p o s s ib le t o i n te rp r e t t h e a r ea o f c l ay f l oo r ing b e tween i n ne ra nd o u te rw a l l s a sb e ing s u i tab le f o ra m a l t ing f l oo r : i tf u lf i l s t h e n ece s sa ry c r i te r ia b u t , a tp r e sen t , s uch as ugge s t ion c an o n ly b e as uppo s i t ion p end ing f u r the r s c ien t i f ic i n ve s t iga t ion s o f g ra in f ound t h e r e . T he r e a r e t wo h ea r th s w i th in t h e o u te r a r ea , b o th b y t h e d ra in . T h i s a r ea m igh t b e u sefu l f o rp roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s s uch a s ma sh ing , a n a c t iv i ty t h a tr equ i re sa cce s st of i r e ,w a te ra nd d ra inage . W i th in B u i ld ing 8t h e f oo t ings f o r as t one ' d r e s se r ' w e r e f ound ,e ven t hough t h e s u r f ace f e a tu re so ft h e w ho le s i te h ave b een b ad ly d amaged b y p l ough ing o ve r t h e y ea r s . Two h ea r th s w e r e a l so l o ca ted d u r ing e xcava t ion s , o ne c en t ra l ly p l a ced a nd t h e o the r a ppa r en t ly p l a ced i nt h e e n t rance t ot h e b u i ld ing . B u i ld ing 8h a sb een s or e con s t ruc ted t h a to ne h a s t o a c tua l ly l e ap o r s t ep o ve r t h e h ea r th i n o rde r t o e n te r t h e b u i ld ing . R icha rd s a r gue s t h a t s uch u nu sua l a spec t s i n d ica te t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s , i n a l l p robab i l i ty , c on s t ruc ted w i th r i tua l a c t iv i ty i n m ind a nd h e b e l ieve s t h a t t h e se r i tua l s i n vo lved t h eu se o ff i r ea nd w a te r( R icha rd s 1 992 ) .T he se t wo e l emen t s a r e o f g r ea t s i gn i f icance i n t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o f g ra in i n to ma l t , ma l ts uga r sa nd a l e . C ou ld t h i sh ave b een o ne o ft h er i tua la c t iv i t ie su nde r taken i nt h i sb u i ld ing? E xcava t ion s a t B a rnhou se h ave u ncove red s eve ra l d ra in s . I n B u i ld ing 8t h e d ra in r un s u nde r t h e " d re s se r" a nd u nde rb o th i n ter na la nd e x ter na l w a l l s . I tc ou ld h ave s e r ved t o c hanne l w a s te l i qu id s o u t s ide t h e b u i ld ing . D ra in s h ave b een f ound a tS ka ra B ra e , R inyo a nd a to the r r e cen t ly d i scove red a nd e xcava ted N eo l i th ic s i te s , f o r e xamp le , C uween H i l l a nd a t S toneha l l ( R icha rd s f o r thcom ing ) . C lea r ly t h e O r cad ian N eo l i th ic p eop le p l anned , d e s igned a nd c on s t ruc ted t h e i r s e t t lemen t s ,h ou se sa nd o t he rb u i ld ings w i th i n teg ra ld ra inage s y s tem s . Why d id t h ey d o t h i s a nd wha t w a s t h e f un c t ion o f t h e d r a inage s y s tem s oc a r efu l ly p l anned a nd b u i l ta ts om any

4 8

s e t t lemen t s? P ra c t ica l e xpe r imen t s h ave s hown t h a t ma l t ing , m a sh ing a nd f e rmen ta t ion r equ i r e a cce ss t oa nd t h e u se o fa l o t o f w a te r . Wa s te l i qu id s , s uch a s t h e w a sh ing s f r om p o t s , h ave t o b e d i spo sed o f . T he n ece s s i ty f o r w a sh ing o u t a nd c l ean ing t h e u sed s t icky v e s se l s a nd e qu ipmen t f r om m a l t s uga r m anuf a c tu r e i s ama jo r a nd e s sen t ia l p a r t o ft h e w ho le p ro ce s s o fb r ew ing . I ft h e v e s se l s a nd c on ta ine r s a r e n o t k ep t s c rupu lou s ly c l ean t h en s ub sequen t a t temp t s t o make a l e i n t h a t v e s se l w i l l f a i l a nd t h e a l e w i l l b e s ou r a nd u nd r inkab le . C lean l ine s so fe qu ipmen ti sc r uc ia lf o rs ucce s sfu lb r ew ing . T he p r e sence o fd ra in s a ts o many o ft h e se O rcad ian N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ts i te s i s an ece ssa ry f e a tu r ef o rb rew ing t o h ave t a ken p l a ce t h e re . F o ra ny b r ewe r ,e ven t oday , t h ed ra in s a r e e s sen t ia l a nd n ece s sa ry . T hey a r e a n i mpo r tan t a nd a s i gn if ican t f e a tu r e a s av i s i t t o a ny b r ewe ry , l a rge o r s ma l l , w i l ld emon s t ra te . B u i ld ing 2 H e r e , e v idence w a s f ound f o rt h e r emova l o fb a r ley h u sk s , p a r t icu la r ly a r ound t h e e a s ter nh ea r th ( J one s 2 000 ) . I t i st h e o n ly b u i ld ing t h a t w a s i nu se t h roughou t t h e l i f e o ft h e s e t t lemen t . O the r h ou se s w e r e r ebu i l t , a l te r ed o r a bandoned o ve rt h e y ea r s ( R icha rd s 1 992 ) . T he c on s tan t u se o fB u i ld ing 2m igh t r e f lec t i t s s pec ia l f unc t ion a nd i mpo r tance a s t h e g ra in p roce s s ing c en t re f o r t h e w ho le v i l lage . U p r igh t s l ab s w e r eu sed t os epa ra te d i f f e ren tw o rk ing o rl i v ing a r ea s . T he r e w e re t wo l a rge s t one -ke rbed h ea r th s . R i tua l a c t iv i ty w i th in B u i ld ing 2i sh i n ted a tw i th t h e f ema le b u r ia l i n ac i s t , p o s i t ioned a lmo s t i nt h e c en t re o ft h e b u i ld ing b y t h e o u te r h ea r th a nd s o p l aced t h a t a nyone w ho e n te r ed c ou ld n o t a vo id s t epp ing o n a nd o ve r i t . P a tr ick A shmo r e h a s s ugges ted a ' c u l t u se ' o f t h e b u i ld ing , i nt e rm s o f t h e h i gh q ua l i ty s t one t oo l , ma ce h ead a nd c a rved s t one b a l l p roduc t ion t h a t t ook p l ace t h e r e ( A shmo r e 1 996 :50 ) . A s ub s tan t ia l s t one -bu i l t d ra in r un s o u t o ft h e b u i ld ing , f r om t h e n o r th c or n e r . Mo s t o f t h e b u i ld ing s a tB a rnhou se h ad s t one d ra in s t h a t f e d i n to L och H a r ray , af r e shwa te r l o ch ( A shmo r e 1 996 :49 ) . D ra in sa r ee s sen t ia l f o rw e tg ra in p roce s s ing . T he v i l lage w a s aw e l l -o rgan ised c ommun i ty . T he r e w a s ac en t ra l o u tdoo r w o rkp la ce f o r mak ing f l in t a nd s t one t o o l s , f o r t h e m anuf a c tu re o f c e ram ic s a nd f o r s k in a nd h i de p r epa ra t ion ( f igu r e 5 . 13 ) . T he se a r e e s sen t ia l a c t iv i t ie s t h a t c ou ld b e e a s i ly d one o u t o f d oo r s , w ea the r c ond i t ion s p e rm i t t ing . G ra in p roce s s ing , h oweve r , w ou ld h ave t o h ave t a ken p l a ce w i th in a b u i ld ing , t o a f fo rd t h e m a l t s u i tab le p ro tec t ion f r om t h ee l emen t sa nd f r om a n ima l sa nd b i rd s . W i th i t s l o ca t ion i nt h e h ear t o f t h e r i tua l c en t r e o f O rkney , c l o se b y t h e t wo s t one c i r c les a nd w i th in s i gh t o ft h e c hambe r ed t omb o f Mae s H owe , B a rnhou se a s as e t t lemen t a ppea r s t o e ncompa s s b o th r i tua l a nd d ome s t ic a spec t s o f N eo l i th ic l i f e . S u i tab le e qu ipmen t a nd c ond i t ion s f o r ma l t ing , m a sh ing a nd b r ew ing c an c e r ta in ly b e f ound t h e r e . T he r e w e r e l a rge G rooved Wa r e v es se ls , e v idence f o r g ra in p roce s s ing a c t iv i ty i n B u i ld ing 2 a nd a c omp lex a nd a ppa r en t ly p l anned d ra inage s y s tem t o s e rve t h e w ho le s e t t lemen t . A l lt h e se a r ee l emen t sr e la ted t oa nd n ece s sa ry f o r t h er i tua lo fb r ew ing . T he G rooved Wa r e p o t te ry h a s b een a na ly sed u s ing t h e s c ien t i f ic a na ly t ica l t e chn ique o f G a s C h roma tog raphy a nd Ma s sS pec t rome t ry ( J one s 1 999 , 2 002 ) .

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F igure 5 . 13 G round p lan o ft h es e t t l emen ta tB arnhou se , O rkney ,s how ing t h ec en t ra lw ork ing a r ea , t h ed ra ins f rom B u i ld ing s8 , 2a nd o t her b u i ld ing s( Bew ley 1 994 :58 ,c our te sy o fR ichard s ) . T he d ra in l e ad ing f rom t h en or th c o rner o fB u i ld ing 2i sn o ts hown o n t h i sp lan a l though t h ed ra in f rom t h ee n t rance i ss hown . 4 9

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F igure 5 . 14 B u i ld ing 2 ,B arnhouse , O rkney , s how ing t h ed ra in sf rom t h e n or thwe s tc orner o ft h e b u i ld ing a nd b y t h e e n t rance . D ra in sa re a n e s sen t ia l r equ iremen tf or b rew ing . T h i s b u i ld ing w a s p robab ly u sed f or w e t g ra in p roce ss ing a c t iv i ty a nd a l so f or t h e m anuf ac ture o fs pec ia ls t one o b j ec t s . Af ema le s ke le ton w a sf ound w i th in t h ec i s t . ( a f ter B ew ley 1 994 :58 ) . e s sen t ia l B -v i tam in s f r om t h em a l ta nd c a lc ium f r om t h e m i lk . T he r i tua l o fg ra in p roce s s ing a tB a rnhou se i n vo lved n o t o n ly b r ew ing b u t a l so t h e m a l t ing a nd ma sh ing o fg ra in i n to ma l t s uga r s , t h u s p roduc ing a n u t r i t iou s a nd v a luab le d i e ta ry s upp lemen tf o ra l l , a du l t s a nd c h i ld ren a l ike . A t B a rnhou se , D r J one s ' r e sea r ch r e vea led t h a t t h e m ed ium s i zed G rooved Wa r e v e s se l s h ad c on ta ined e i the r m i lk o r m ea t . I fv e s se l s h ad b een s ea led p r io r t o u se w i th a n ima l f a t s o r b u t te r t h en t h e se r e su l t s m igh t p e rhap s b e i n d ica t ive o ft h i s t r ea tmen t . T he s t ronge s te v idence f o rb a r ley a ppa ren t ly c ame f r om t h e s ma l le s t a nd t h e l a rge s t v e s se l s . T he se a r e i n te rp re ted a sb e ing t h e s e rv ing a nd s t o rage v e s se l s r e spec t ive ly , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce t h e l a rge s t v es se l s w e re i n s t a t ic l o ca t ion s ( J one s ,p e r sc omm ) . T he re i s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l a rge v e s se l s a t B a rnhou se w e r eu sed f o rt h e f e rmen ta t ion o fb a r ley w o r t . T he w e igh t o f al a rge G rooved Wa r ev e s se l f i l led w i th f e rmen t ing l i qu id w ou ld m ake i ti mpo s s ib le t o move , h ence t h e i r s t a t ic l o ca t ion . L iqu id s c an b e t r an sf e r r ed f r om o ne v e s se l t o a no the rb y s i phon ing ,u s ing r e ed so rb yu s ing s ma l le rv e s se l s .

U s ing t h i s m e thod o rgan ic s a nd l i p id s c an b e e x t rac ted f r om t h e f a b r ic o fa nc ien t c e ram ic v e s se l s a nd d i f f e r en t c l a s se s o f f ood c an b e i d en t if ied b y t h e i r d i f f e r en t c h roma tog raph ic s i gna tu re s . I n i t ia l a na ly s i s h a s r e vea led t h a t t h e G rooved Wa r e v e s se l s a t B a rnhouse w e re a s soc ia ted w i th b a r ley , ' un iden t if ied s uga r s ' , c a t t le m i lk a nd c a t t le m ea t . T he r e w a s a l so e v idence t h a t t h e s uga r s may h ave b een a s soc ia ted o r m ixed w i th m i lk i ns ome w ay ( J one sp e r sc omm ) . T he p r esence o f s uga r s c ou ld b e a n i n d ica t ion o f ma sh ing , t h a t i s ,t h e e x t rac t ion o fm a l ts uga r s a nd ma l t l i qu id f r om t h e b a r ley g ra in . H oweve r , i th a s t ob e a l so c on s ide red t h a tt h e se s uga r s may p e rhap sb ed e r ived f r om m i lk p roduc t s , a l though t h i s i s u n l ike ly . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f m ix ing m a l t s uga r s w i th m i lk i s a n i n te r e s t ing p ropo s i t ion . M ix ing t h e ma l t e x t ra c t w i th m i lk w ou ld h ave m ade a n u t r i t iou s d r ink , v e ry l i k e m a l ted m i lk d r ink s t h a t a r e p opu la r t oday , s u ch a s H o r l ick s . T h i s w ou ld h ave b een aw e lcome d r ink i nt h e c o ld o fa n O rkney w in te ra nd p robab ly a pp r ec ia ted mo re t h an a l e . I tw ou ld h ave made a n e xce l len t a nd n u t r i t iou s d r ink f o r e ve ryone , i n c lud ing c h i ld ren a nd i n f an t s , p rov id ing t h em w i th

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F igur e5 . 15 G round p lan o fS kara B rae ,S ka i l lB ay , O rkney ( Ch i lde 1 931) . T he d ra in sa re s hown a sd o t ted l i ne sb enea th a nd o u t s id e Hu t4 a nd o u t s id e Hu t s 3a nd 1 . Dur ing C h i ld e 's e xcava t ions g reen s l udge w as d i scovered i nt h ed ra ins a nd w i th in P i t Pa nd P en D i n Hu t 7( s ee f i gure 5 . 19 ) . T here w a s al a rge a moun to fi tb e s id e Wa l l Q , i nt h e a rea o u t s id e Hu t s4 ,5 , 9a nd 1 0 . T wo f ema le s ke le ton sw ere f ound b ur ied i n ac i s tb enea th Hu t7 . S to rage o f t h e b a r ley g r a in a t o the r s t age s o f p roce s s ing a s w e l l a s t h e s t o rage o f o t he r f ood s tuf f s c ou ld a l so b e f u nc t ion s o ft h e se l a rge s t a t ic G rooved Wa r e v e s se l s . A cco rd ing t oD rJ one s ' r e sea r ch , t h e b e s te v idence f o rb a r ley c ame f r om t h e c omp le te m ed ium s i zed G rooved Wa r e p o t t h a t w a s d i scove red s unk i n t h e g r ound u p t o i t s r im i n B u i ld ing 8 .C ou ld t h i s h ave b een a ' mu s t p o t ' , t h a t i s , ap o t ma in ta in ing ay ea s t c u l tu re? S to rage v e s se l s t h a t a r e s e t i n to t h e g round h ave a s t eady t empe ra tu r e a nd w ou ld b e p e r f ec t f o r t h e m a in tenance o f ay ea s t c u l tu r e . A l l t h e e l emen t s n ece s sa ry f o r ma l t ing a nd b r ew ing a r e t o b e f ound a t B a rnhou se . T he r e w e r ef l oo r s s u i tab le f o r ma l t ing , s t one b u i l t d ra in s , s u i tab le p o t te ry v e s se l s a nd s u i tab le b u i ld ing s , a sw e l l a s t h e e v idence f o r t h e ' r emova l o f h u sk s ' i n B u i ld ing 2 ( J one s 1 999 ) . S kara B rae , ma in land O rkney A v io len t s t o rm i n t h e 1 850 s r e vea led m idden s a t S ka i l l B ay t h a t w e r e 1 5 t o 1 6 f e e t d eep a nd c on ta ined a r tef a c t so fs t one a nd b one . T he d i scove re r s , Mr Wa t ta nd M r F a r r e r , b egan i n i t ia l i n ve s t iga t ion s a nd d i scove red t h a t t h e s t on e b u i ld ing s h ad a l so b een p r e se rved b enea th t h e s a nd

5 1

d une s . G eo rge P e t r ie b egan e xcava t ion s i n t h e 1 860 s a nd p ub l i shed t h e f i r s t p l an s o ft h e b u i ld ing s , n ow k nown a sH u t s 1a nd 3 ( Pe t r ie 1 867 ) . H e d i scove r ed ad ra in l e ad ing o u t t o s ea f r om ar e c tangu la rc e l l ( A ) a t ta ched t ot h e s eawa rd s i de o f H u t 1( i b id :205 ) . T h i s p a r to fH u t 1h a s s i n ce b een d e s t royed b y t h e s e a b u t i ti si n c luded i nC h i lde 's g round p l an ( f igu r e 5 . 15 ) . A r tef a c t s f ound a tS ka ra B rae i n c luded aq ua r tz c e l t , w ha le r i bb one s , w h ich m ay h ave b een u sed f o rr oof s uppor t s , c a rved s t one b a l l s , s eve ra l c i r cu la r s t one p o t l i d s a nd s he rd s f r om v e ry l a rge p o t te ry v e s se ls . P e t r ie w a s i mp r e s sed w i th t h e " con s ide rab le c on s t ruc t ive s k i l l" o f t h e b u i lde r s o f t h i s a nc ien ts e t t lemen t( 1 867 :217 ) . P rope r ly r e co rded e xcava t ion sd i dn o tb eg in u n t i lt h e m id 1 920 s , b y w h ich t ime s t o rm s h ad w a shed a way much o f t h e r ema in s o f H u t 3a nd a l so t h e d ra in a nd t h e r e c tangu la r c e l l o u t s ide H u t 1 ,d i scove r ed b y P e t r ie . V e re Go rdon C h i lde w a s c a l led i nt os upe rv i se t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing s a nd t oi n ve s t iga te a nd e xcava te t h i s mo s tu nu sua l s i te . D u r ing 1 925 a nd 1 926 t h e s e aw a l lw a sc on s t ruc ted t op ro tec tt h e s i te f r om f u r the rd amage a nd d e s t ruc t ion .

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ing so ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 . 16 G rooved w are p o t ter yv e s se l sf rom S kara B rae d i scovered d ur ing C larke 's e xcava t ions i nt h e 1 970 s ( af ter C la rk e 1 976 ) . S ca le I :5 T he l a rge s t v e s se l c ou ld h ave h e ld u p t oa bou t 3 0 g a l lon s o fl i qu id . C ircu lar s t one p o t l i d s w e re f ound a tS ka ra B rae a nd w ou ld p rov id es u i tab le a naerob ic c ond i t ion sf or f ermen ta t ion o fb ar ley w or t . S ee C hap ter O ne f or d e ta i l s . 5 2

C hap t er 5—The S t one B u i ld ing s o ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic E xcava t ion s a tS ka ra B ra e b egan i n1 927 , when M r . J .W i l son P a te r son s uperv i sed w o rk , a nd c on t inued t h rough 1 928 a nd 1 929 u nde r t h e s upe rv i s ion o f G o rdon C h i lde . D e ta i led g round p l an s a nd s e c t ion s o fS ka ra B rae w e re d rawn b y Mr . J .H ou s ton o ft h e O f f ice o f Wo rk s , E d inbu rgh . T he se a r e i n va luab le i n u nde r s tand ing t h e s t ra t if ica t ion a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t b u i ld ing s . T he g round p l an s a nd , i np a r t icu la r , t h e many s e c t ion s d rawn o f S ka ra B rae m e r i tc l o se s t udy ,a sd ot h ed e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s ( Ch i lde &P a te r son 1 929 , C h i lde 1 930 ) . C h i lde a nd P a te r son 's w o rk w a s much mo r et h an as imp le c on se rva t ion e xe rc i se . A t temp t s w e re made t o a s se s s " s t ra t ig raph ica l v a r ia t ion" ( Ch i lde 1 929 :239 ) , t o p l o t f i nd s a nd r e co rd a ccu ra te ly t h e s e t t lemen t t h a t t h ey w e r e i n ve s t iga t ing . A t t ime s i tw a s ac on fu s ion o fw a l l s a nd m idden ma te r ia l a nd i t w a s a l lv e ry d i f f icu l tt oi n te rp re t . S eve ra ll e ve l so fo ccupa t ion w e r e r evea led b y i n i t ia l i n ve s t iga t ion s u nde r t h e s uperv i s ion o f G o rdon C h i lde a nd P a te r son a nd mo re r e cen t ly b y D av id C la rke 's e xcava t ion s i n t h e 1 970 s ( Ch i lde 1 931 ; C la rke 1 976b ) . F u l l d e ta i l s o f C la rke 's e x cava t ion s a r e n o t y e t a va i lab le , a l though s umma ry a ccoun t s h ave b een p ub l i shed ( 1976a ,b ) . C la rke 's e xcava t ion sp rov ided o rgan ic ma ter ia lf o r r a d ioca rbon d a t ing . C a rbon i sed g ra in w a s f ound i n t h e m idden s . D a te s f o r t h e f i r s t p e r iod o fo ccupa t ion r ange f r om 3 380 -2 585 c a l BC , a nd f o r t h e s e cond p e r iod f r om 2 585 1 975 c a l BC ( MacSween 1 992 : 2 68 ) . C h i lde d e sc r ibed h i s i mp r e s s ion s o f " ha s ty a bandonmen t" a nd t h e e v idence o f l a te r d i f f e r en t a nd i n te r spe r sed u se o ft h e s e t t lemen t . W i th n o a ppa ren t t r a ce o f h o s t i le a c t iv i ty , i ti s mo s t l i ke ly t h a t t h e s e t t lemen t w a s o ve rwhe lmed p e r iod ica l ly b y v i o len t s t o rm s ( Ch i lde 1 931 :61 ) . C h i lde i n te rp re ted f ou rr e -occupa t ion l e ve l s i nH u t 7 , w i th l a ye r s o f s and a nd d ee r b one s i n t h e u ppe r l e ve l s i n d ica t ing t h ec on t inued u se o ft h es i te a f te rt h et e r r ib le s t o rm w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave k i l led t h e c a t t le a nd d e s t royed t h e c r op so ft h ee a r ly i nhab i tan t s . H u t 7w a s f i l led w i th s and a nd , a sC h i lde d ug d own , h e d i scove red as qua r e s t one h ea r th a ta d ep th o f 5f e e tf r om t h er oof l e ve l a nd s eve ra l f e e t a bove t h e f l oo r . T h i s h ad b een c on s t ruc ted u pon w indb lown s and . R ed d ee r b one s w e re f ound b o th a bove a nd b e low t h i s h ea r th

l a rge i ndeed , w i th r im d i ame te r s u p t o 2f e e t a nd m ea su r ing u p t o 2 f e e t d eep ( f igu re 5 . 16 ) . C i rcu la r p o t l i d s w e r e f a sh ioned f r om s t one t o f i t t h e se p o t te ry v e s se l s , s ome o f w h ich c ou ld h o ld u p t o3 0 g a l lon s o fl i qu id . S uch l a rge p o t s w e re made f o r ap u rpo se b ys k i lfu lp o t te r sa nd t h ey mu s th ave b een c l amp f i r ed o u t s ide t h e b u i ld ing s . T he p o t s a r e t o ol a rge a nd t o o w ide t oh ave b een moved i nt h rough t h e d oo r s o ft h e h u t s a nd i ti s mo s t l i ke ly t h a t t h ey w e re p l a ced i n to t h e h u t s u s ing a cce s s t h rough t h e r oo f a nd w e re t h en l ef t i ns i tu . T he mo s t l i ke ly f unc t ion f o r t h e se h uge p o t te ry v e s se l s w ou ld b e a ss t o rage v e sse l so rf o rt h ef e rmen ta t ion o fb a r ley w o r t . T he n ew V i s i to r C en t re a tS ka ra B rae ( c on s t ruc ted 1 999 ) l i s t s ' b ee r ' a s b e ing a mong s t t h e b eve rage s l i ke ly t o h ave b een c on sumed b y t h e e a r ly i n hab i tan t s a tS k a ra B rae b u t n o s ugge s t ion s a r e p re sen ted a s t o t h e t e chn ique s a nd m e thod s u sed t o manuf ac tu r e i t . C la rk e a nd Magu i r e ( 1 989 ;22 ) h ave a l so s ugge s ted t h a t ' b ee r s ' may h ave b een m ade , a l though t h ey s e em t ob e h in t ing t h a ti tw ou ld n o th ave b een ' p rope r b ee r ' b u t a n i n f e r io r p roduc t . I ti st r ue t h a t i t w ou ld n o t h ave b een ab r igh t , f i zzy , c a rbona ted b ee r a s w e k now i tt oday . I n s tead , i tw ou ld h ave b een f a i r ly c l ea r , f l a t , u nca rbona ted a l e t h a t w a s f l avou red a nd p re se rved w i th Meadow swee t o ro the rl o ca l h e rb s a nd mad e i n as im i la rw ay

( Ch i lde 1 929 :249 ) . T h e e a r ly i n hab i tan t s g r ew b a r ley a nd w hea t , k ep t d ome s t ic c a t t le a nd p i g s a nd w e re s k i l led s ea f a re r s , h av ing a r r ived b y s e at ot h eO rkney I s land sa ts ome t ime i nt h e e a r ly 4t h m i l lenn ium BC ( R i tch ie 1 985 :2 1 ) , p r e sumab ly b r ing ing w i th t h em c a t t le , g ra in a nd t h e k now ledge a nd r i tua l so fg ra in p roces s ing t e chn ique s . T he i r s k i l l s i nc r a f t s a r e i nd ica ted b y t h e f i ne , e l abo ra te t o o l s a nd p o t te ry t h a t w e re made t h e re . E xce l len te ng inee r ing a nd p l ann ing s k i l l s a r e d emon s t ra ted i n t h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h eb u i ld ing sa nd t h ed ra inage s y s tem . T en b u i ld ing s h ave b een u n cove r ed , w i th e v idence o f r ebu i ld ing a nd r e fu rb i shmen t t o a l l e xcep t H u t 7 ,w h ich s t and s o n t h e n a tu ra l c l ay ( Ch i lde 1 929 :251 ) a nd w h ich w a s i n u se t h roughou t t h e l i f e o f t h e s e t t lemen t . T he f u rn i sh ing s i n a l l h u t s i n d ica te o rgan i sed a nd s t ruc tu r ed l i v ing . Mo s t h u t s h ave s t one ' d r e s se r s ' a nd ' b ed s ' a nd s ome h ave s t one l ined a nd c l ay s e a led b oxe s b u i l t i n to t h e f l oo r . N o t a l l t h e h u t i n te r io r s a r e i d en t ica l . T he i n ter na l f u rn i sh ing s o ft h e h u t s a r e v a r iab le i nd es ign a nd t h e refo r e t h e h u t s v a r ied i nf unc t ion a nd u sage a l so ( Ba r c lay 1 996 :67 ) . S ome o ft h ep o t te ry v e s se l s a tS ka ra B ra e w e re v e ry

5 3

a st h a td e sc r ibed i nC hap te rO ne . T h i s a l e w a s n o t a n i n f e r io r p roduc t . I t i s a t r ad i t iona l a l e , a s h a s b een made a nd c on sumed o ve r m i l lenn ia a nd o ne t h a t c an s t i l l b e made t o day w i th t h e r i gh t k now ledge a nd s k i l l , s u i tab le i n g r ed ien t s a nd b a s ic e qu ipmen t . H enbane w a s a ppa ren t ly a no the r h e rb t h a t w a s u sed b yt h e i n hab i tan t so fS ka ra B rae . P e rhap s i tw a s u sed f o r t o o thache , a s i ss ugge s ted a tt h e V i s i to r C en t r e . P e rhap s i t w a s ar i tua l a dd i t ive t oa l e , a sd i scu s sed e a r l ie rw i th r e f e rence t ot h eB a lfa rg r e s idue s . Hu t8 ,S kara B rae T he e xcava ted c on ten t s i n c luded n ume rou s c h ip s a nd c o re s o f c he r t , ma s se s o f c l ay , p i le s o f h ea t c r a cked s t one s , p o t s a nd l i d s , s t one s a nd p ounde r s a nd s t one k n ive s ( Ch i lde & P a te r son 1 929 ) . L a rge G rooved Wa r ev e s se l ss t ood i nt h e H u t a nd i nt h e p o r ch , w h ich w a s al a te ra dd i t ion t ot h e b u i ld ing . An i n ter na l w a l l , t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r w hen e n te r ing , w a s a l so a dded a t al a te r d a te t ot h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l b u i ld ing ( Ch i lde & P a te r son 1 929 :174 ) . T he b u i ld ing h a s n o ' b ed ' c ompa r tmen t s a nd n o ' d re sse r ' b u t i t d oe sh ave n ume rou s s he lve s ,a mb r ie s a nd f oo t ing so f ak i ln . A tt h en o r th e nd o ft h eh u t ,t h e re a r et h er ema in so fa s t ruc tu re d e sc r ibed a s" . . . ab u i l t w a l l p ro jec t s a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h e h u t 's e a s tw a l l , b u ti sn o tp rope r ly b onded i nt h e r ew i th . A f te r 2f e e t i tt ur n s n o r th a ga in , b u t i t s l i ne i sc on t inued b y a w a l l o f t h in s l ab s s e t o n e dge . B eyond t h i s p a r t i t ion l i e s a c omp lex s t ruc tu r e , w h ich , a sM rP a te r son c l eve r ly p o in t s o u t , b ea r s ac l o se r e semb lance t o ak i ln . O n t h e o t he r t h r ee s i de s t h i s a nnex i s b ounded b y b i g f l ag s tone s s e t o n e dge , t h e c o rne r sb e ing r ounded o f fw i th c ou r se so fd ry ma son ry . T he r e i s ag ap b e tween t h e s l ab s f o rm ing t h e r e a r ( no r the rn ) w a l l a nd as im i la rg ap f l anked b y a no the rp a i ro fs l ab s s e to ne dge i nt h e o u te r w a l l . B e tween t h e t wo p a i r s t h e g ap i st r ave r sed b y al ow w a l l s uppor t ing al i n te l s l ab . Mr P a te r son i n te rp re t s t h i s a s ak i ln f l ue . ." ( Ch i lde a nd P a te r son 1 929 :176 ) . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion i si n va luab le a sa ne yew i tne s s a ccoun t . P a te r son 's i n te rp re ta t ion o fi ta s ak i ln i s

C hap ter 5—The S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic

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F igure 5 . 17 G round p lan o fH u t8 ,S kara B rae . F ive l a rge G rooved Ware v e sse l sw ere f ound w i th in t h i s b u i ld ing . O ne w as s i tua t ed i nt h ep orch , o ne w a s i na na l cove a nd t h e o t her t h ree v e s se l s w ere i nt h e m a in p a r to ft h e b u i ld ing . C h i ld e r epor ted t h a t t h ere w a s a n a rea o ff l in ta nd c her t t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e h ear th . T h i sa rea w a sp robab ly u sed f or t o o lm anuf ac ture a nd r epa i r . T he p orch a ppear s t oh ave b een a dd ed a t al a te r d a te t ot h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e m a in b u i ld ing . T he o ppo s ing d oorway a nd k i ln f l ue w ou ld h ave p rov ided a t h rough d raf tf or w innow ing t h e h ar ve s ted g ra in . S tone s l ab s o n t h ef l oor a nd o t her s urv iv ing p ar t s o ft h e k i ln c an b e s een b y t h e n or th -f ac ing a per ture i nt h ew a l l . T h i s a per ture m ay h ave b een s pec ia l ly d e s igned a nd b u i l tt o' c a tch ' t h e w ind . Many h ea t - c racked s t one s w ere f ound b yt h ek i ln ( a f t er C h i ld e 1 931 , t r aced f rom t h eg roundp lan a nd e n larged ) .

5 4

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ing so ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic o ft h e f u rn i sh ing s . I tw a s ar oo f suppo r t ing p i l la rt h a tc r u shed " av e ry l a rge p o t w i th ad eco ra ted r im" t h a th ad b een s t and ing b y t h e h ea r th when t h e r oof f e l l i n ( Ch i lde a nd P a te r son

s uppo r ted b y t h e d i scove ry o f o ven o r k i ln b a se s a t t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t o fR inyo , o n R ou say , ( f igu re 5 . 27 ) . T he n ece s sa ry m a te r ia l s , e qu ipmen t a nd c ond i t ion s f o r ma l t ing g ra in a nd d ry ing ma l t c an a l l b e f ound w i th in H u t 8a tS ka ra B rae . T he f l oo ri sp o ten t ia l ly s u i tab le f o r ma l t ing . T he re w e re s t one p ounde r s f o r c ra ck ing t h e ma l t , l a rge v e s se l s w i th l i d s f o r s t o rage a nd a k i ln i n wh ich t o d ry t h e ma l t . I n many r e spec t s H u t 8h a s s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e b a rn a tt h e C o r r iga l l F a rm Mu seum ( f igu re 1 . 3 ) w he r et h e B e r eB a r ley w a s ma l ted f o rt h e b r ew ing e xpe r imen t s t h a tw e r eu nde r taken a s ap a r to f t h i s t h e s i s . A t C o r r iga l l , t h e w innow ing a r ea i s l o ca ted b e tween t wo o ppo s ing d oo rway s , u s ing t h e w ind t h a t i s c hanne led t h rough t o s epa ra te t h e g ra in f r om t h e c ha f f b y t h row ing i ti n to t h e a i r . T he g ra in ,b e ing h eav ie r , d rop s t ot h e f l oo r w h i le t h e l i gh te r c ha f f i sb lown a way , o u t o f t h e b a rn ( F le t t , p e r s c omm ) . T he p e r son p e r fo rm ing t h e t a sk o f w innow ing c an d o s o i n aw a rm , d ry p l a ce a nd g ood u se i s made o ft h ew ind i nw e tw ea the r . I ti sp ra c t ica la nd e xped ien t . H u t 8h a s t h e i n te re s t ing f e a tu re i nt h e n o r th -f a c ing w a l l , d e sc r ibed a bove a nd i n te rp re ted a s ak i ln f l ue b y P a te r son . T h i s w ou ld w o rk a s as t r eam l ined a pe r tu r e , w h ich w ou ld g a the rt h e n o r th w ind a nd v en tt h e s ou th ( f igu re 5 . 18 ) . W i th t h i sa pe r tu re o pen t o an or th w ind a nd w i th t h es ou the r ly d oo r /po r ch o pen , t h e t h rough d ra f t w ou ld c r ea te s u i tab le w innow ing c ond i t ion s , s im i la r t o t h a t a tt h e C o r r iga l F a rm g ra in b a rn .T he p o r ch ,a dded t oH u t 8a t al a te rd a te ,i n d ica te s al a te r mod if ica t ion , p e rhap s b ecau se o ft h e s t rong w ind s o n O rkney . T he b u i l t i nw a l l , a ga in a dded a t al a te r d a te , m igh t h ave b een d one t o c r ea te a r e la t ive ly d r augh t f r ee a r ea i n w h ich t os i t , m ak ing a nd m end ing t o o l s . Ab u i ld ing s uch a s H u t 8a tS ka ra B rae whe r e t oo l s a r e m ade a nd r e pa i red a nd w he r e t h e g ra in may b e s t o red , w innowed , ma l ted a nd d r ied i n ak i ln s hou ld p e rhap s n o tb e c a l led a' wo rk shop ' b u tr a the r as t o rage a r ea a nd g ra in b a rn .

1 929 :259 ) . A r te f ac t s f ound w i th in t h e h u t i n c lude s ma l l w ha lebone c up s c on ta in ing h aema t i te p i gmen t , s t one mo r ta r s , v a r iou s ' c ook ing p o t s ' a nd s eve ra l l a rge G rooved Wa re v e s se l s . P en D c on ta ined t h e s ku l lo fa no x ( f igu re 5 . 19 ) . T he f ounda t ion b u r ia l s o ft wo o l d w omen w e r e f ound u nde rnea th P en Y a nd i n sc r ibed ma rk s w e re n o ted o nt h ef r on to ft h e s l ab o ft h i s P en ( Ch ide a nd P a te r son 1 929 :252 -258 ) . S o f a rt h e se i n sc r ibed m a rk s a r e n o t u nde r s tood n o r h ave t h ey b een i n te rp r e ted . H u t 7i st h e mo s tl ow ly ing o fa l t h eh u t sa nd C h i lde v i v id ly d e sc r ibed t h e l owe s t f l oo r l e ve l s i nt h i s h u t a sb e ing as l imy ma s s , h av ing v e ry m uch t h e c on s i s tency o f 6 6 *e a

b l an cmange . I tc on s i s ted o f s a tu ra ted s and m e rg ing i n to t h e r ed c l ay o f t h e f l oo r , a nd c on ta in ing , i ns u spen s ion , b roken b one s , l o s t a r tef ac t s a nd a l l s o r t s o fr e fu se . I n t h i s g l u t inou s ma s s amu l t i tude o f l a rge s t one s , mo s t ly b roken , w e r e l y ing a bou t i n d i so rde r , f o rm ing u n s tab le a nd s l ippe ry i s land s o n w h ich o ne w a s g l ad t os t and a sr e fuge s f r om t h e s u r round ing mo ra s s" ( i b id : 2 50 ) . C h i lde i n te rp re ted t h i s a s e v idence t h a t t h e i n hab i tan t s h ad l i ved i nf i l thy a nd s qua l id c ond i t ion s , b u t i tw a s o n ly t h i s o ne h u t t h a t w a s d e sc r ibed a s " chao t ic a nd d i sgu s t ing" a nd " a mo ra s s o f f i l th" ( i b id : 2 59 ) . F lood ing c ou ld b e t h e c au se o fs uch c ond i t ion s , g i ven t h e l ow l e ve l o f t h e h u t c ompa red w i th t h e r e s t o f t h e s e t t lemen t . A no the r e xp lana t ion m igh tb et h a tt h e h u t w a s u s ed o ve r al o ng p e r iod o ft ime f o rt h ec on sump t ion o fa l e . Al a rge h igh ly d eco ra ted p o th ad s t ood b yt h ec en t ra l h ea r th . I tw a s a ppa ren t ly s ma shed b y t h e f a l l ing p i l la r w hen t h e r oo fc o l lap sed . Af e rmen t ing w o r tn eed s t ob ek ep t w a rm . H ad t h i s p o t b een f u l l o f f e rmen t ing w or t w hen i tw a s s ma shed , w h ich i s l i ke ly g i ven i t s p o s i t ion b y t h e w a rm h ea r th , t h en t h e f l oo r w ou ld h ave b een f l ooded w i th s wee t s t icky w o r t o r t h e f e rmen ted a l e . I fr e ed s h ad b een o n t h e f l oo r d u r ing t h e l i f e t ime o f t h e h u t , t h en t h e s p i l t a l e a nd r e ed s m ix tu re w ou ld d ecay a s ad i sgu s t ing m e s s , w i th l o s t i t em si ns u spen s ion ,e xa c t ly a sd e sc r ibed b y C h i lde . A f i n i shed a nd f e rmen ted a l e w ou ld n eed t o b e t r an sf e r red f r om o ne v e s se l t o ac l ean o n e f o r s t o rage . O ne w ay o f d o ing t h i s i st o u se g rav i ty a nd , p e rhap s , r e ed t u be s ( f igu r e 1 . 16 ) . T he p o t w ou ld n eed t os t and o n t h e ' d re s se r ' o r p e rhap s o n t h e s t one p l in th a nd t h e a l e c ou ld t h en b e s yphoned i n to as u i tab le v e s se l s t and ing o nt h e g round . R eed s w e r ea va i lab le o nN eo l i th ic O rkney a nd w ou ld p robab ly w o rk a s s yphon t u bes . A l ter na t ive m e thod s c ou ld i n c lude h o le s i n t h e p o t s o r p ou r ing t h e a l e f r om o ne v e s se l i n to a no the r , a t o ugh , h eavy a nd d i f f icu l t t a sk , o r u s ing s ma l le r v e s se l s t o t r an s f e r t h e l i qu id . T he t r an sf e rence o fw o r t o r a l e f r om o ne v e s se l t oa no the r i s am e s sy b u s ine s s . A cc iden t s o f ten o ccu r a nd t h e s t icky f e rmen ted a l e i sn ea r ly a lway s s p i l t o n t h e f l oo r . T h i s m igh t e xp la in t h e d i sgu s t ing s t a te o ft h e f l oo r a nd t h e l a ck o f ac ompa rab le m e s s o n f l oo r s o f o the r h u t s . A l though a l l b r ew ing e qu ipmen t n eed s t o b e k ep t s c rupu lou s ly c l ean , t h e c on sump t ion o f t h e f i n i sh ed p roduc t c an b em e s sy . U n ique t ot h i s h u t a nd s i tua ted t ot h e l e f to ft h e d oo r i s al a rge s t one -bu i l tp l in th , w i th a na r ea b efo re i te nc lo sed b y s t on e s l ab s . T h i sw ou ld b e s u i tab le f o rt h et r an sf e ro fl i qu id s

F igure 5 . 18 Ag ood v i ew o ft h ek i ln f l ue ,o nt h es eaward s i d eo f Hu t8 . Hu t7 ,S kara B rae S t and ing o n t h e n a tu ra l s and , H u t 7w a s a ppa r en t ly i n u se t h roughou t t h e l i f e o f t h e s e t t lemen t . T he i n te r io r i s w e l lf ur n i shed . T he re i s as t one ' d re s se r ' , t h ree f l oo rb oxe so f s t on e s l ab s s ea led w i th c l ay , ` b ox b ed s ' o r ' p en s ' a s C h i lde r e f e r red t ot h em a nd ac en t ra l h ea r th w i th as t one s e a t b e s ide i t .T he r e i s as t one -bu i l t p l in th t ot h e l ef t o f t h e d oo r w hen e n te r ing t h a t h a s a n a r ea o f f l oo r s pace e nc lo sed b y s l ab s i n f r on to fi t .T he l ong s l ab t ot h e s i de o ft h eh ea r th w a sn o tp a r t 5 5

C hap ter 5—The S tone B u i ld ings o ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic

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Ch i lde 's d escr ip t ions o fc on ten ts o f Hu t7 D —P en c on ta in ing a no x s ku l l a nd g r een s l udgy d epo s i t s . T u sk p endan t s , ab one s c apu la a nd p in s w e re b es ide t h ep en . —Sma l l w ha lebone c up made f r om t h ev e r teb ra o f aw ha le . F—L i t t le s t one mo r ta rw i th r ema in so f ac e ram ic p o tb e s ide i t . G —S tone ' d re sse r . ' T he t o p s he lf w a s emp ty ; aG rooved Wa re p o tw a so nt h em idd le s he lf . H —C en t ra l s t one k e rbed h ea r th . —A s t one s ea tb y t h e f i re . K —C e l l i nw h ich al a rge G rooved Wa re p o tw a sf ound a nd ac ache o fb one b ead sa nd p endan t s . N —S tone b u i l tp l in th , w i th a na r ea ( 0 ) i nf r on te nc lo sed b y s t one s l ab s , s e to ne dge . P —C i rcu la rp i t s u r rounded b y s t ones . P i tw a s 1f t4 in d eep a nd t i l led w i th g r een s l udge . Ap i ece o fH aema t i te w a s f ound a tt h e b o t tom o ft h ep i t . V , W, X —T h ree s l a te o rs t one l i ned p i t s , 1f t7 i nt ol f t9 i nd eep , c l ay s e a led . Two h ad o x r i bs i na nd t h e o t he rw a s emp ty . A G rooved w a re p o t s t ood n ea rby . Y —P en w h ich a cco rd ing t oC h i lde w a s v ery f i l thy w i th ah uge q ua r tz i te p ebb le a nd al a rge G rooved w a re p o t . Ad oub le f ema le f ounda t ion b ur ia l w a s b enea th t h e s t one s l ab w i th in t h e p en . Z —P en , s l a te f l oo red , w i th t wo l a rge c ook ing p o t sc on ta in ing a n ima lb one s . A lso ab a s in made o fc e taceou s b one , as t one mo r ta ra nd as ma l lc up made f r om awha le v e r teb ra u sed t oh o ld r ed p igmen t made f r om g round H aema t i te . F igure 5 . 19 G round p lan o fH u t 7 ,S kara B rae , s how ing t h e l o ca t ion o fi n terna lf urn i sh ings ( Ch i lde 1 929 :253 -260 ) . T he l o ng s t one s l ab b y t h ef i re w as p robab ly a r oof s uppor tw h ich c rushed a l a rge , o rna te ly d ecora ted G rooved Ware b ucke t t ha th ad b een s t and ing b y t h ef i re a nd w h ich may h ave c on ta ined f ermen t ing w or t o r af ermen ted a l e . T he c i s t c on ta ined t h e b one s o ft wo e l d er ly w omen ,p erhaps af ounda t ion b ur ia l . T h is i mage i st r aced f rom f i gure 5 . 15 ( Ch i ld e 1 931) .

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C hap ter 5—The S t one B u i ld ing so ft h e O rcad ian N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 . 20 T he p l in th b e s id et h ed oor i n Hu t 7w i th s t one s l ab s i nf ron t .

F igure 5 . 21 I n s id e Hu t7 ,l o ok ing t h rough t h ed oorway t oward sP i tP .

b y s yphon , t h e s p i l lage b e ing c on ta ined w i th in t h e a r ea b u i l t b efo re i t( f igu re 5 . 20 ) . A s ma l l ` amb ry ' o r k eep ing p l a ce , a bou tt h es i ze o f as i ng le s t one , i sb u i l t i n to i t s f r on t f a ce , t h e p u rpo se o f w h ich i sn o t c l ea r . W i thou t mo re e v idence i ti s d i f f icu l t t o c l ea r ly a t t r ibu te e i the r a mundane o r as pec ia l r i tua la c t iv i ty t ot h i sp l in th . A t v a r iou s t ime s i n h i s d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e e xcava t ion s , C h i lde r e f e r s t o a" g r een s l ime" o r " g reen s ewage c l ay" t h a th e n o ted t ob e i n mo s to ft h e d ra in s . A t t h e b a se o f Wa l l Q t h i s g r een s l ime r e a ched a d ep th o f u p t o a bou t 2 0 i n che s ( Ch i lde 1 930 :34 ,4 1 ) . H e i n te rp re ted i ta s b e ing t h e p robab le r ema in s o f h uman s ewage , t h e m a in f unc t ion i nh i so p in ion f o rt h ed ra inage s y s tem . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e re h a s b een n o s c ien t if ic a na ly s i s o f t h i s s ub s tance , n o r , a ppa r en t ly , h ave r e cen t e xcava t ion s c ome a c ro s s i ti na ny o f t h e d ra inage s y s tem s o f t h e mo r e r e cen t ly d i scove red N eo l i th ic s i te s a nd d ome s t ic s t ruc tu r e s o n O rkney ( R icha rd s p e r sc omm ) . T he re a r e n o d ra in s a t ta ched t o H u t 7a nd y e t t h i s ' c u r iou sg r een s ub s tance ' w a sf ound w i th in t h e H u ti nP i tP ,a c i r cu la r s t one l ined s ump a tt h e f oo t o ft h e ' d r e s se r ' . I tw a s a l so f ound i nt h e b a se o fP en D ( f igu r e 5 . 21 ) . B o th o ft h e se g r een d epo s i t s w en t t h rough t h e c l ay f l oo r a nd i n to t h e u nde r ly ing s and ( Ch i lde 1 929 :259 ) . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t

A ny g ra in p roce s s ing t h a t t ook p l a ce w i th in t h ese h u t s w ou ld p roduce t h e w a sh ing s o fu sed p o t te ry . B r ew ing o r g ra in p roce s s ing r e s idue s , w a s te l i qu id a nd s uga r s w ou ld w a sh i n to t h e d ra in s a nd d ecompo se , p e rhap s c r ea t ing t h e g r een s l ime f ound i ns o many p l ace s a tb o th S ka ra B ra e a nd R inyo b y G o rdon C h i lde . F u tu re e xcava t ion s a t N eo l i th ic O r cad ian s i te s s hou ld l o ok o u tf o ra ny o ft h i s g r een s ub s tance s ot ha t i tc an b e p rope r ly a na ly sed . T he d ra in s a tS ka ra B rae p r e sen t ac on fu s ing p i c tu re b u t o ne t h a t m e r i t s much f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion t h an t h i sb r ief a na ly s i s . H u t 5m ay p o s s ib ly h ave b een u sed f o r t h e w e t p roce s s ing o fb a r ley m a sh , n ame ly , o b ta in ing as wee tw or to r m a l t l i qu id b y s pa rg ing t h e b a r ley m a sh w i th h o t w a te r . T he h u t i sf ur n i shed w i th f l oo r b oxes , b ox ' b ed s ' a nd a c en t ra l h ea r th . T he f l oo r b oxe s w ou ld f unc t ion w e l l a s k e t t le s o r w a te r h ea te r s . Any w a te r s t o red i n s ide t h em c ou ld b e e a s i ly

C h i lde 's i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e g r een ma te r ia l a s d ecayed s ewage i n t h e d ra in s i s c o r rec t . I f s o , t h en w ha t w a s h app en ing a tt h e ' d re s se r ' i nH u t7 ,t oa low at h ick d epo s i to f t h i s s ub s tance t ol e ach t h rough t h ec l ay f l oo ri n to t h e s and? A mo r e p l au s ib le e xp lana t ion i st h a t t h e g r een s l ime r e p r e sen t s d ecayed s uga rr e s idue sf r om s p i l t w o r to ra l ew i th in H u t7 . Hu t 4a nd Hu t5 ,S kara B rae T h ick d epo s i t s o f t h e " g r een s l ime" o r " g reen s ewage c l ay" , a sd e sc r ibed b y Ch id e , w e re f ound b yw a l l ' Q ' c l o se t o H u t s 4 , 5 , 9 a nd 1 0 ( f igu r e 5 . 15 ) a ppa ren t ly r ep r esen t ing s ome k ind o fd i scha rge f r om t h o se c e l l s ( Ch i lde &P a te r son 1 929 :253 ,259 ) . D ra in s r un u nde rb o th t h e se h u t s , a ppa ren t ly c onnec t ing c e l l 2o fH u t 5a nd c e l l 1o fH u t 4a nd c on t inu ing t owa rd s t h e c e l l o f a n e a r l ie r H u t 4 . T he re i sa h uge ' s ump ' b enea th H u t 5 ,t h e p r ec i se f unc t ion o fw h ich i s n o t a ta l c l ea r . Ano the r d ra in ( D ra in E ) r un s f r om H u t 5 , u nder t h e ma in p a ssage a nd o u tt os e a( f igu re 5 . 15 ) . 5 7

h ea ted u p w i th h o t s t one s a nd s ub sequen t ly u sed f o r ma sh ing o r o the r p u rpo se s . Many h u t s a tS ka ra B rae h ave t h e se f l oo r b oxe s , u sua l ly r e f e r r ed t o a s ' l impe t b oxe s ' , t h a t i s , f o r t h e l i ve s t o rage o f l impe t s t o u se a s f ood o r f i sh ing b a i t . T h i s d oe s n o t s e em al i ke ly f unc t ion . L impe t s w ou ld s oon b ecome v e ry s me l ly . T hey r e qu i re s ea w a te r a nd r e gu la r d a i ly t i da l c hange s i no rde r t os u rv ive . A mo re s u i tab le f unc t ion f o r t h e b oxe sw ou ld b e a s' k e t t le s ' f o r as upp ly o fh o to rw a rm w a te r . I nH u t7 ,o xr i b s w e r ef ound i nt wo o ft h ef l oo rb oxe s ( Ch i lde 1 929 :253 ) , s ot h ey c ou ld a l so b eu sed f o rc ook ing m ea t . H u t 4h a s i n ter na l s t ruc tu ra l s im i la r i t ie s t oa na n ima l b a rn , w i th v e r t ica l s l ab s s e t i n to t h e g round t o d e l inea te s pa ce s . T he se a r e a bou t t h e r i gh t s i ze f o r a n ima l s t a l l s . T he i n ter na l f ur n i sh ing s o f H u t 4a r e u n l ike t h e o the r h u t s a nd m e r i t much f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion . H ow b i g w e re t h e c a t t le a t S ka ra B rae a nd w ou ld t h ey h ave f i t ted t h rough t h e e n t rance p a s sage i n to H u t 4 ? T he se i s sue s a r e n o t d i r ec t ly r e la ted t o t h e manufa c tu r e o f m a l t a nd a l e a nd w i l l b e t h e s ub jec t o f f u tu re r e sea r ch , t o ge the r w i th a d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f t h e p robab le f unc t ion s o fH u t s 1a nd 2 ,w h ich a r e mo r ed ome s t ic i nc ha ra c te rt h an a ny o ft h eh u t sd i scu s sed s of a r . I n s umma ry , t h e a r ch i tec t s , b u i lde r s a nd i n hab i tan t s o fS ka ra B ra eh ad ac l ea rd e s ign i nm ind w hen t h ey a r r ived i n t h e i rb oa t s a tt h e O rkney I s land s a nd b egan b u i ld ing t h e h u t s f o r t h e i r c ommun i ty . S ka ra B rae h a s s eve ra l l e ve l s o f c on s t ruc t ion a nd d eve lopmen t w i th in i t .I n m any r e spec t s i t

C hap ter 5—T he S tone B u i ld ings o ft h eO rcad ian N eo l i th ic c ou ld b ed e sc r ibed a s as e t t lemen tt e l l , a l be i to n as ma l l s c a le , t h a t i s s im i la r t o t ho se i n t h e N ea r E a s t . S ka ra B rae h a s c omp lex l e ve l s a nd t h e r e a r e c onfu s ing i n te r re la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e b u i ld ing s . T he i n hab i tan t s h e r e c r ea ted a nd c on t inua l ly mod if ied ap ra c t ica la nd f unc t iona ll i v ing s pa ce . T hey n eeded s omewhe re s a f e a nd s u i tab le t o r a i se t h e i r c h i ld r en , t os t o re , t oc ook a nd t op r epa r e t h e i r f ood , t o p roce s st h e i rg ra in i n to ma l ta nd a l e , t os t a l lt h e i ra n ima l s a nd t o p rov ide s he l te r a nd w a rm th f o r a l i n b o th s umme r a nd w in te r . T he N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a t S ka ra B rae c ou ld b e u nde r s tood a s b e ing v e ry l i k e a t r ad i t iona l c r o f t ing c ommun i ty , w i th d i f f e ren t a c t iv i t ie s b e ing p u r sued d epend ing o n t h e t ime o f y ea r , t h e p r eva i l ing w ea the r c ond i t ion s a nd many o the rp ra c t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s . Mak ing s wee t m a l t s a nd a l ew a so n ly ap a r to f ac omp lex l i f e s ty le . R inyo , B ig land R ound ,R ousay T h e s e t t lemen t a tR inyo , o n R ou say w a s e xcava ted b y G o rdon C h i lde i n t h e l a te 1 930 s a nd t h e e a r ly 1 940 s ( Ch i lde 1 938 , 1 946 -8 ) . T he w a l l s o f t h e b u i ld ing s d i d n o t s u rv ive a sw e l l a sa tS ka ra B ra e a nd K nap o fH owa r a nd t h e v i l lage i s n ow o ve rg rown . N o th ing r ema in s v i s ib le a bove g round t oday . C h i lde t ook m any p ho tog raph s a nd a ccu ra te p l an s a nd d raw ing s w e r e a l so m ade . T he se a r e n ow t h e m a in m ean s o fi n ve s t iga t ion a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h i s s i te , u n le s s i t i sr e -excava ted i n t h e f u tu r e . A cco rd ing t o C h i lde , ( 1938 ) t h e re w e re a tl e a s t 7h ou se s a nd 2ma jo rp ha se s o fr ebu i ld ing . C h i lde e xcava ted 4 o f t h e ' c hambe r s ' a nd t h ough t t h a t t h e v i l lage m ay h ave b een s i gn if ican t ly l a rge r t h an S ka ra B ra e ( f igu r e 5 . 19 ) . G rooved Wa re p o t te ry w a s u sed a tt h i s s e t t lemen t , w i th l a rge f l a t b a sed v e s se l s t h a t w e re c ompa rab le i ns i ze t o t h o se a tS ka ra B rae a nd s im i la r t ot ho se a tK nap o f H owa r . S tone p o t l i d s m ea su r ing u p t o 2 2 i n che s i nd i ame te r w e r e a l so f ound . C h i lde n o ted t h a t h un t ing e qu ipmen t a nd f i sh ing t a ck le w e r e " no tab ly a b sen t" f r om t h e s i t e , a l though i ti s p o s s ib le t h a tt h ea c id s o i l may h ave d e s t royed s uch b one t o o l s a nd i mp lemen t s . S tone d ra in s , s ome l i ned w i th h aze l b a rk , w e r e f ound a t R inyo . A l so o f i n te r e s t t o g r a in p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s ma l t ing a nd m a sh ing a r e t h e many o ven s a nd h ea r th s t h a t C h i lde a nd h i s t e am u ncove r ed d u r ing e xcava t ion s . Ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge o ven a nd h ea r th w a s f ound i nC hambe r Ca nd ac l ay o ven b a se w a sf ound u nde rt h ef l oo r o fC hambe r A( f igu re s5 . 25 , 5 . 26 ) . A l l t h e n ece s s i t ie s f o r m ak ing a l e f r om t h e g ra in a r e e v iden t a tR inyo . T he r e a r e s t one ' d r e s se r s ' , h ea r th s , s u i tab le p o t te ry v e s se l s a nd a d ra inage s y s tem w i th e v idence o f t h e g r een s l udgy d epo s i t s ( Ch i lde 1 946 -8 :24 ) . Many s t one b oxe s a r e s e t i n to t h e g round t h a t , a s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r , c ou ld h ave p rov ided h o t w a te r f o r a mu l t i tude o f p u rpo se s . T he i mme r s ion o f f i r e -hea ted s t one s w ou ld s u f f ice f o r t h i s . I t w ou ld s e em t h a t l i f e a t R inyo w a s v e ry l i ke t h a t a t S ka ra B ra e . I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a tR ou say ,o fa l lt h eO rkney I s land s , h a s t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o f s t a l led a nd c hambe red t omb s , i n t o ta l , 1 5 . Wa s t h e s e t t lemen t a tR inyo t h e o n ly o ne o n t h e i s land , o r a r e t h e re mo re y e t t o b e d i scove r ed? D id t h e s e t t lemen t h ave a s pec ia l s i gn if i cance , p e rhap s t o d o w i th b u r ia l a nd mo r tua ry p ra c t ice s? T he s i te m e r i t s f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion .

F igure 5 . 22 A' l arge 'p o t t ery b ucke tf rom R inyo ( a f te rC h i ld e 1 938 :24 ) .

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