Backyard Poultry Keeping [Reprint 2022 ed.] 9781978812680

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BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Backyard Poultry Keeping by John C. Taylor Extension Professor of Poultry Husbandry WITH AN INTRODUCTION

by William

H. Allen

Secretary of Agriculture, State of New Jersey

New Brunswick Rutgers University Press I943

COPYRIGHT,

1 9 4 3 , B Y THE TRUSTEES OF RUTGERS COLLEGE IN NEW

JERSEY

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reprinted without permission except brief passages quoted by a reviewer in a review published in a newspaper or a magazine.

PRINTED IN THE UNITÉD STATES OF AMERICA

5-43

CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS INTRODUCTION

viii ix

i. THE SMALL POULTRY FLOCK What Food to Expect Poultry Nomenclature

3 5 7

n. BREEDS AND VARIETIES Egg Producer General Purpose Breeds Meat Producers Fancy Group

9 10 II 13 14

in. HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT Size of House Building Instructions Portable Houses Poultry House Furnishings Construction of Box Nests Poultry House Management

16 18 20 30 32 34 38

iv. STARTING THE FLOCK Day-old Chicks Started Chicks Ready-to-lay Pullets Brooding Daily Feeding Schedule

41 41 42 42 43 52

v. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG FLOCK Factors Affecting Growth Avoid Crowding

60 60 64

V

vi

CONTENTS

vi. WHAT CHICKENS EAT Nutrients and Their Uses Poultry Feeds

69 69 71

vn. GREEN FOOD FOR POULTRY What Greens to Feed Crops for Summer Feeding Crops for Winter Feeding Sprouting Oats Germinated Oats Feeding Green Food to the Flock

75 75 76 77 78 78 79

viii. FEEDING AND CARE OF LAYING BIRDS What and How to Feed "Fool Proof Method" Feeding Supplements General Management Keep Records

81 82 83 85 87 88

ix. FLOCK HEALTH Ways of Spreading Disease An Ounce of Prevention Sanitation Care of Poultry Manure Vaccination Some Common Poultry Diseases Disease Control x. IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LAYER The Head The Body Pigmentation The Molt How to Select the Layers

89 89 91 92 92 93 93 100 102 102 103 104 104 105

CONTENTS

VÌÌ

XI. MEAT FOR THE TABLE Killing and Dressing Methods of Removing Feathers Care of Eggs

107 109 110 113

xn. CAPONIZING Breeds to Caponize Care Before the Operation Equipment Necessary The Operation Care After the Operation

115 117 117 117 118 120

xiii. INCUBATION Natural Incubation Procedure to Follow in Hatching With Hens Artificial Incubation Operation of an Incubator Eggs for Hatching

123 123 124 125 125 127

xiv. RABBITS AS FOOD How to Start Equipment Needed Feeding Your Rabbits Breeding Handling Rabbits Dressing Rabbits Cooking Rabbit Meat

128 128 129 132 133 134 134 136

COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

A.

B.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES

138 142

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Connecticut Brooder House West Elevation Rear Elevation East View Front View Portable Colony Living House Dropping Pits Ohio Box Nest Construction Day-old Chicks An Easily Constructed Home-made Brooder Home-made Brooder Using Commercial Heating Unit Home-made Trough Feeders for Young Chicks Wire Platforms for Fountains Getting Chicks Out of Doors Early Roosting Avoids Crowding New Jersey Collapsible Summer Shelter An Easily Constructed Out of Doors Hopper Hopper for the Laying Flock A Satisfactory Arrangement for Supplying Water Fresh Poultry and Eggs for Your Table Equipment Required to Perform Properly the Operation of Caponizing A Convenient Coop for Hen and Chicks Home-made, Standard Type Rabbit Hutch

viii

17 22 22 25 25 31 33 36 40 45 47 50 53 56 58 63 67 84 86 108 116 122 131

INTRODUCTION T H E H U M B L E HEN is today appraised by many of us with new respect and growing regard. She and her sisters, established as a backyard flock, seem to offer a means of conserving precious ration points. From such a flock, there will be a regular production of breakfast eggs and, as productive days end, chicken for Sunday. Such is the reasoning of the thousands of city folk and suburbanites who are becoming poultry producers on a small scale under the pressure of war-created food shortages. That the butcher, the baker and the candlestick maker are turning to poultry keeping as an avocation is an encouraging trend. Claude R. Wickard, Secretary of Agriculture, has well said that products of backyard poultry flocks will help win the battle of food production at a time when farmers and commercial poultrymen are being urged to produce more with less. Mr. Wickard wants more backyard poultry flocks where conditions are favorable. His plea has been seconded by other officials of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and by poultry authorities of our State Colleges of Agriculture. Already it is clear that the government's call for more backyard poultry keeping has fallen on responsive minds in town and suburb. Ordinances prohibiting chicken raising have been repealed in many municipalities. Garages that once housed the family car are in many instances now sheltering baby chicks. Mash hoppers, brooders and other such equipment, common to the farm, is making its appearance in suburban backyards. The relative merits ix

X

INTRODUCTION

of Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns are debated on commuter trains and over the dinner table. Alert sales directors of the better department stores were quick to sense the new trend; they advertise with pride their ability to sell you ten chicks or ten thousand, a bag of feed or a ton. Yes, the humble hen is coming into her own. Backyard poultry keeping seems destined to continue and to expand for the duration. To you who have joined the ranks of the backlot poultry keepers, this book by John C. Taylor offers realistic counsel and practical guidance. As Associate Extension Professor of Poultry Husbandry at Rutgers University, the author is well qualified to provide an understanding of the now highly developed science of poultry raising. To this assignment, Professor Taylor has brought a rich background of training and experience. As a member of the Agricultural Extension Service of Rutgers, and earlier at Pennsylvania State College and the University of Connecticut, he has worked with and for commercial poultrymen and farm flock owners in three states. For more than two decades he has been called into consultation on their problems by breeders, hatcherymen, egg producers, and others whose living, in whole or in part, depends upon the efficient production of their poultry. His standing as a poultry authority has brought Professor Taylor into the councils of state, regional and national poultry associations; his writings on the subject have been widely published in farm and trade papers. In Backyard Poultry Keeping, Professor Taylor writes of more than the dozens of eggs and the pounds of meat that might reasonably be expected from a well managed flock. Realistically, he makes the point that there is more to keeping chickens than putting the feed before them

INTRODUCTION

xi

and collecting the eggs. There are problems and pitfalls, to be sure, and the author makes the reader aware of them. He does it constructively, however, by the completeness of the information presented on how to solve problems confronting every poultry keeper, whether he be located in town or in country. In fewer words, Professor Taylor charts a practical course for producing eggs and poultry meat for the family table. The person inexperienced with chickens need have no fear of making a start, provided he has sufficient room, begins with good stock, and gives his birds the proper housing, feed, and attention. Poultry so managed, in the author's opinion, provide an enjoyable hobby as well as the makings for an omelet and fricassee. For those who have or can acquire a liking for chickens, this is very true. Those who don't like chickens should continue to obtain their poultry and eggs from the butcher and grocer. The prospective poultry keeper would do well to study and ponder Professor Taylor's recommendations before becoming too deeply involved in actual production activities. Following this advice is made easy by the logical presentation of the subject at hand, by the emphasis placed on matters of special importance. In poultry keeping—even on a small scale—there is a right way as well as a wrong way (as in everything else) of making a start. Beginning with more chicks than one has capacity for, to cite one common error, can easily lead to heavy mortality from overcrowding and a lowered resistance to disease among any survivors. And, as the author so well emphasizes, there must be control of disease if the venture is to succeed. To repeat, then, here is a book that deserves a full reading on the part of those who now appraise the back-

xii

INTRODUCTION

yard in terms of a small-scale poultry enterprise. There is a close inter-relationship between breeds and egg production, between housing and feeding and flock health. In this book, the reader is fortunate in having presented, with special reference to needs of the small flock owner, the best of methods and practices that have been evolved through scientific research and application on progressive and successful commercial poultry farms. It should be noted, also, that the backyard poultry keeper of today is fortunate in that sturdy and productive stock is available from breeders and hatcherymen, that scientifically balanced rations may be purchased from the local feed dealer, and that necessary equipment can readily be bought from hardware and department stores. In short, conditions were never more auspicious than now for a healthy expansion of backyard poultry keeping. The need is apparent, as is the need for the constructive guidance of those who are now taking care of chickens for the first time. For the uninitiated, as well as for the poultry keeper who seeks to be brought up to date on methods of egg and poultry meat production, this volume will fill a real need. W I L L I A M H . ALLEN

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

CHAPTER I

THE SMALL POULTRY FLOCK FOOD RATIONING and empty shelves in the neighborhood food stores are bringing back the small poultry flock to the backyards of America. These small flocks can add materially to the nation's food supply, but, to avoid disappointing results, there are a number of factors that should be considered before any investment is made in stock or equipment. First to consider is the space available for the flock. The amount of room required will depend on the size of flock and whether it is intended to produce eggs and meat or just eggs. Let us assume, to start, that the fundamental purpose of the flock is the production of fresh eggs. Such a flock would be confined to the coop at all times and thus would not require an outside yard. A flock of ten laying birds (and, by the way, this is the minimum size flock to consider) would require only forty square feet of floor space. A coop seven feet square would readily house such a flock and this small size poultry house could be located in one corner of the backyard and still leave room for a garden. I would not advise attempting to keep chickens in city backyards or in towns where the lot is smaller than fifty feet by one hundred feet. If it is your intention that the flock should provide both 3

4

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

eggs and meat, then you will need a much larger flock and, of course, more room. Such flocks would need in addition to the space for the keeping of ten laying birds, facilities for raising at least twenty-five or more chicks. These chicks make rapid growth and of course require room to grow. For such a flock a house ten feet by twelve feet or twelve feet by twelve feet, and a yard that would provide a minimum of ten square feet for each chicken would be necessary. When deciding the question, "Do we have enough room for a small flock of chickens?" always keep in mind that it is easier to care for a flock and your chances of success are greater if you provide plenty of room. The figures mentioned are for the minimum size flock. What about the neighbors? What is their reaction going to be toward your intended flock of chickens? This is the number two factor to consider. It will be advisable to talk over your plans with your neighbors. Perhaps you will find them entirely agreeable to the idea; in fact, some of them may have been considering the same idea, but didn't think you would react favorably. On the other hand, the Smiths may have visions of your chickens ruining their garden. Or the Joneses, who are in the habit of sleeping late, may find unbearable the thought of a crowing rooster waking them up at four in the morning. Forewarned is forearmed, for you can meet the objections of both the Smiths and the Joneses. It isn't necessary for the laying flock to be outside and the young growing stock can be raised in a covered yard. Then, too, there is no need of having a rooster with the laying flock and the young roosters will make delicious broilers or fryers before they develop voices loud enough to disturb the Joneses. Doubtless you have been the best of friends with

THE SMALL POULTRY FLOCK

5

your neighbors and with a tactful approach your backyard flock of chickens need not destroy that friendship. Be honest, be frank, be considerate—talk over your plans with your neighbors. Back in the gay late 'twenties, many towns and villages passed local ordinances prohibiting the keeping of chickens in the town limits. These ordinances are still on the statute books and present your number three problem to consider. Write or telephone your local officials— the town clerk or the health department—and find out whether or not there is a local ordinance that prohibits the keeping of chickens in backyards. If the answer is yes and you still want your flock of poultry, you should present your case to the town officials. I am of the opinion that most governing bodies will not insist on enforcement of the law, or will take proper action to rescind it for the duration of the war. In presenting your case, be sure to point out the fact that your small poultry flock will be aiding the war effort by producing food. It will also be advisable to have the written approval of your neighbors.

What Food to Expect A survey of the backyard has shown that by making a slight rearrangement of the garden you will have room for your poultry flock. Your neighbors have given you the green light of their approval, possibly with the thought that you will not forget them when the flock is producing fresh eggs or when the young stock has reached broiler age. The town fathers have also taken favorable action, so there is nothing to hold you back from starting.

6

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

Be conservative in starting your flock. Don't plunge into this business of poultry keeping. A backyard flock, started right and properly managed, will pay dividends in the way of food and pleasure. By good management you can make a contribution to the war effort, for every egg or pound of meat produced by your flock means the same amount released for lend-lease, the armed forces and our allies. Perhaps you are wondering what amount of eggs and poultry meat would be produced by the minimum size flock of ten laying birds and the raising of twenty-five chickens a year. Such a flock, figuring conservatively, should produce an egg supply of approximately one hundred and twenty dozens (this figure is based on a forty per cent egg production). From the twenty-five chicks, you can expect approximately five broilers, and these will weigh, let us say, three pounds each, or a total of fifteen pounds. There should be eight roasters averaging around five pounds each, or a total of forty pounds. Of course, the number of roasters will depend on you, and I am assuming that you would not consume these eight birds as broilers but would wait until they reached the roaster weight. In addition to the five broilers and eight roasters, you should have eight pullets that should be saved for replacing the laying flock the second year. This makes a total of twenty-one birds out of the original twenty-five. Yes, the other four died during the growing period, for you will have some mortality during this period. From the original ten laying birds, probably two will die some time during the year. Of the eight left, only four will be worth keeping a second year for production, so you have four old hens for eating, as chicken salad or

THE SMALL POULTRY

FLOCK

7

stewers or soup. These four will average around six pounds, thus making twenty-four more pounds of meat. If you have given your flock good care and have had average success, your score is as follows: Eggs Produced Poultry Meat 5 Broilers 8 Roasters 4 Old hens Total

120 Dozen 15 pounds 40 pounds 24 pounds 79 Pounds

This material return from the small flock has been produced at low cost. You will also have received an intangible return that cannot be measured in dozens of eggs, pounds of meat, or dollars and cents. The intangible return will be the satisfaction, the pleasure, and the relaxation from the strain of a war-torn world obtained while caring for your small backyard flock of poultry.

Poultry Nomenclature Now let us proceed to the business of starting this wartime poultry flock. Following are a few poultry terms and their meanings, which are used in the poultry industry, and which you should know. 1. Day-old chicks. Chicks that have not been fed. 2. Started chicks. Chicks that have been fed and are three to four weeks of age, of both sexes. 3. Started pullets. Same as started chicks, except they are all females. Age when sold is generally eight to twelve weeks. 4. Pullets. Females under a year old.

8

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

5. Ready-to-lay pullets. Females five to six months of age. 6. Cockerels. Males less than a year old. 7. Hens. Females over a year old. 8. Cocks. Males over a year old. 9. Broilers. Usually cockerels ten to twelve weeks old. 10. Roasters. Males up to nine months old. 11. Straight-run chicks. Both male and female chicks of same age. 12. Sexed chicks. Day old males or females, sexes having been separated by physical examination. 13. Crosses. The resulting offspring of crossing two different breeds of poultry. More commonly called crossbred.

CHAPTER

II

BREEDS AND VARIETIES SELECTION OF the breed and variety of poultry for the small flock is a question that should be given considerable thought. Many factors present themselves for discussion before a final decision is made on the kind of poultry to keep. Let us start by asking ourselves a question: W h y do we want to have chickens? Of course in these times, the obvious answer is food. "I want plenty of eggs," says mother. Father speaks up, "If we are going to have chickens let us get big ones, so there will be lots of meat." The children put in a request, "Get those nice red chickens with the small combs." In this family discussion we find three factors to consider in making the final selection of the kind of poultry for the small flock. First is egg production—we want the chickens to produce plenty of eggs. Second is meat production—we want the chickens to be good table chickens at any stage of their life. Third is color, or beauty—we want the chickens to satisfy our artistic taste. Fortunately, there are a large number of different kinds of chickens from which to choose that will meet the desire of mother for plenty of eggs, father's request for lots of meat, and the children's desire for color. Before continuing it is advisable at this point to define two important words that will be used in any discussion 9

10

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

covering the selection of poultry. These words are "breed" and "variety." Breed refers to domestic chickens which possess distinctive characteristics as to shape of body and color of eggs. Variety refers to color of plumage and shape of comb. For practical purposes, all breeds of poultry may be classified into four groups—namely, egg producers, general purpose, meat producers, and fancy group. A brief description of some breeds and varieties that may be classified in one of these four groups will be of help in deciding upon the final selection of the breed and variety for the small flock.

Egg Producer No other breed or variety surpasses in popularity the Single Comb White Leghorn as an economical producer of eggs. The reason for this particular variety being such an outstanding producer of eggs is the fact that it has been especially bred for production for many years. Other varieties of the same breed have not been so extensively bred for egg production, although some breeders have been breeding varieties other than the white for production and claim good results. The White Leghorn lays a white shell egg. The weight of the birds ranges from four to six pounds, the heavier weight being that of old male birds. The size of the breed makes them unsatisfactory for roasters and capons. Young Leghorn cockerels, however, are popular as squab broilers. Such broilers generally weigh about threefourths of a pound to one pound each, and one whole broiler is served per person.

BREEDS AND VARIETIES

11

Other varieties of the Leghorn breed seem to have lost what the white variety has gained. The Brown, Buff and Black varieties are being raised by some breeders who are making progress in improving the egg production ability of these varieties. All varieties of Leghorns have large single combs. Minorca, another breed generally classed in the egg production group, is worthy of mention. There are three varieties of this breed, Black, Buff and White. This breed is noted for its production of large chalk-white eggs. The eggs are larger and whiter than those produced by the Leghorn breed, but in number of eggs produced, the Minorca is far behind the Leghorn. In the past few years, either the Black or White Minorca has been crossed with the White Leghorn. In making this cross it was hoped to secure a bird that would produce large chalk-white eggs like the Minorca and the large number of eggs produced by the White Leghorn. This cross has not proved popular under commercial conditions. If eggs are the primary objective of your backyard flock, you will find the Single Comb White Leghorn admirably qualified for the purpose.

General Purpose Breeds In this group are those breeds and varieties that possess the ability to lay a large number of eggs and also to meet the requirements of good market poultry. General purpose breeds lay brown shell eggs, the shade of which varies from light brown to dark brown. As meat chickens, breeds of this group meet the requirements for broilers, fryers, roasters or capons. Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Is-

12

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

land Reds and New Hampshires are the three popular breeds at the present time. The Plymouth Rock is one of the oldest and most popular breeds in America and has long been recognized as one of the best farm breeds. The outstanding varieties of the breed are the Barred and White. White Plymouth Rocks are, at present, leading the Barred in popularity because, being a white feathered bird, there are no black pin feathers to show when the bird is dressed. At maturity Plymouth Rocks range in weight from six pounds to nine pounds. Rhode Island Reds are popular, due to the large size and uniform brown color of their eggs. They average from one-half to a pound lighter in weight than the Plymouth Rock. The work done at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station with the Rhode Island Red in breeding for increased egg production has been responsible for the breed's popularity with commercial poultrymen. This bird deserves your careful consideration for a place in the backyard flock. New Hampshire is a comparatively new breed when compared with the Plymouth Rock and Rhode Island Red. This breed was developed by the late Professor H. A. Richardson, head of the poultry department of the University of New Hampshire. It was developed from Rhode Island Reds by continuous selection of breeding stock that processed the following characteristics: early maturity, rapid feathering, production of large brown eggs, and good health. Its prominence in the poultry world today is due to the fact that the qualities mentioned have been obtained. This breed would be excellent for the small flock.

BREEDS AND VARIETIES

13

Crosses of the breeds mentioned are proving popular as layers and satisfactory as meat birds. Perhaps the most common mating is the crossing of Barred Plymouth Rock males with either Rhode Island Red or New Hampshire females. The stock produced from this cross will be all Barred and equal in size to their parents. The reciprocal cross of these three breeds—namely, a Rhode Island Red or New Hampshire male mated to the Barred Plymouth Rock female—is also popular. The male and female chicks at time of hatching can be separated by color markings. The males, when matured, are barred and the females are black. These cross-breds are used extensively by commercial broiler growers. Any of the breeds and varieties mentioned in this group, or the crosses, would prove entirely satisfactory for the backyard flock. It should be understood, however, if any cross-bred birds are selected, they should not be used for breeding purposes. The second generation cross would not be satisfactory.

Meat Producers Two breeds deserve mention in this group: the Jersey Giant, both Black and White varieties, and the Light Brahma. Large families interested primarily in obtaining a liberal supply of meat from their backyard flock will find these breeds very satisfactory. The Jersey Giant breed is the larger of the two, its body weight ranging from eight to thirteen pounds. It lays a brown shell egg, although the annual egg production does not equal that of the Leghorn or breeds men-

14

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

tioned in the general purpose group. The eggs produced are large. This breed is not satisfactory for broilers or fryers, due to the fact that it is a large bird and does not flesh out until near the end of the growing period. The breed makes up for this deficiency, however, for it is tops as roasters and capons. The Light Brahma is very definitely a meat breed, its body weight ranging from eight to twelve pounds. Eggs laid by this breed are brown shell and large. The annual egg production is low.

Fancy Group Generally speaking, all breeds and varieties of poultry that are raised as a hobby, wholly for their ornamental or artistic value, fall into this group. The most striking example is a bantam. Larger birds that are found in this group are varieties of the Houdan breed, certain varieties of the Leghorn breed and many others. Breeds of this group would not be satisfactory for the small flock. The artistic desire of any backyard poultryman, I am sure, will find satisfaction in the beauty of any of the breeds and varieties mentioned. In a strictly true sense, all useful, well-kept birds are ornamental. A flock of healthy, active poultry adorns any place suitable for it, and all who see it derive a certain degree of pleasure or satisfaction. The following table gives a few characteristics of some of the breeds and varieties discussed: Group

Egg

Breed

Leghorn Minorca

Cock

6 9

Body Weight Hen Cockerel Pullet Color of Egg

4}/¿ 7Yt

5 7 Vz

4 &A

White White

BREEDS AND Group

Breed

General Purpose

Plymouth Rock Rhode Island Red New Hampshire Jersey Giant Brahma Brahma Bantam Silver Leghorns

Meat Fancy * Ounces.

15

VARIETIES

Body Weight Cock Hen Cockerel Pullet Color of Egg

sy2 1V2 8 6H 1V2 sy2 6J i V/2

6

8 J* 13 12 30* 6

10

»>*

26 *

11 10 26 * 5

5H 8 8 24 * 4

Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown White

CHAPTER

III

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT used for the laying flock must keep the birds comfortable at all times. To provide this essential factor of "comfort" in poultry houses, the building must meet certain requirements, enumerated below. Ventilation: This factor is of first importance as the birds must have an abundance of fresh air at all times. The heavy, moisture-laden air and poisonous gases given off by the birds must be removed and replaced with fresh air. Poultry can stand and needs plenty of fresh air, but this should not be obtained with drafts. Sunlight: There is no other factor that adds to the comfort of a poultry house more than sunlight which helps to prevent disease since it is a very effective germicide. It is also a substitute for vitamin D in the poultry ration. For these reasons the house should face to the south or southeast to obtain the greatest amount of sunlight. Dryness: A dry poultry house is desirable if the health of the fowls is to be preserved. Damp houses favor the development of disease. Locating the house on ground that is well drained or on sloping ground so there is free circulation of air around the house will help in keeping the house dry. Avoid low ground in locating a poultry house. T H E HOUSE

16

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

17

UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT

FIGURE I

Connecticut Brooder House 12' x 12' An ideal house for the small flock

18

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

Cleanliness: Cleanliness is the best preventive of poultry disease. Since birds spend a large percentage of their time in the poultry house, it is here that cleanliness should be practiced. The poultry house should be so constructed that it is easy to clean and disinfect. All interior equipment should be movable, so that it can be easily taken out and cleaned. Enemies: Heavy losses are incurred each year through the ravages of rats, weasels, skunks and dogs. The house should be made proof against such poultry enemies.

Size of House The size of house for the flock will depend on the number of laying birds to be kept. The standard rule for housing laying birds is four square feet of floor space for every mature bird. If it is necessary to build a new house for the flock, do not make it too small. It is better to have a house that is too large than one that is too small. In a large house a portable partition can be used to divide the house into two pens. In the spring the partition can be installed and one pen used for raising chicks and the other to house the layers. Brooder houses, which commercial poultrymen use for raising chicks, will prove very satisfactory for housing the small flock. SIZE AND CAPACITY OF HOUSES

Size 7' x 7' 10' x 12' 12' x 12' 16' x 16' 20' x 20'

Number of Layers 10 25 35 65 100

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

19

Other factors to consider when deciding on size of house are: possible expansion of the laying flock, use of house for raising chicks and possible utility of house when it is no longer used for poultry. The Connecticut twelve by twelve brooder house, illustrated in Figure I, will make an excellent house for the small flock. This house admits an abundance of light, provides protection against storm, and can be adjusted to provide ventilation in any kind of weather. Its construction meets all the requirements of a good house, and for this reason plans and specifications for the construction of the house are listed below through the courtesy of Professor Roy E. Jones of the University of Connecticut, who designed the house. B I L L OF MATERIAL FOR CONNECTICUT 1 2 X 1 2 COLONY BROODER HOUSE

(Sliding glass windows and slot ventilation front) No. Pieces Skids Center support Window sill front Sills and plates Rafters and headers Roosts Studding Window sill trim Window runs Roof trim Wire frame—front Pine for door—square Pine door Pine door—matched Boarding, floor Boarding, roof Boarding, sides

4" x 6" x 2" x 6" x 2" x 6" x 2" x 4" x 2" x 4" x 2" x 4" x 2" x 3" x 1" x 4" x 1" x 1" x 1" x 2" x 1" x 2" x 1" x 5" x 1" x 8" x 1" x 6" x 1" x 6" x 1" x 6" x 1" x 6" x

14' 12' 12' 12' 14' 12' 12' 12' 12' 14' 12' 12' 12' 14' 12' 14' 12'

2 1 1 11 8 7 12 3 4 4 3 2 1 2

Board Feet 56 12 12 88 75 56 72 12 4 10 6 10 8 14 350 250 325

20

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Paper for roof 2 rolls Building paper 150 Square Feet Paint 2 gallons Windows—cellar sash 3-light 10" x 16" 4 sash Windows—barn sash 6-light 10" x 14" 3 sash Wire netting 1" mesh 3' wide 25 feet Nails—wire 15 lbs. 8d 5 lbs. lOd 4 lbs. 20d Nails—finished 2 lbs. 8d Staples 2 lbs. wire Hinges—strap 1 pair 6" Hinges—strap 1 pair 4" Hinges—loose pin butts 3 pairs 2" Hooks—for large and chick doors 4-3" Hook—for summer door 1-6" Pulleys for front windows 3-1" Window cord 25 feet Strap iron for ventilator adjustment 2 feet

Building Instructions Skids—Two 4 " x 6 " x 14'. The house is built on two 4 " x 6 " skids located two feet in from either edge of the building. Whether to run the skids from the front to the back or from end to end should be determined by the prevailing slope of the land where the house will be located. The skids should run opposite to the grade of the land as this will simplify jacking up and leveling the house. The skids are fourteen feet long, allowing one foot projection on either side, a distinct advantage when fastening on to the skids for moving. It is, however, a distinct disadvantage in the rotting out due to weather and in placing wire around the base of the house to keep the young chicks from running under the building. If the house is built without permanent skids placed two feet from either side of the house, the floor joists

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

21

should be 2 " x 6 " rather than 2 " x 4 " . This change of material is necessary because 2" x 4" joists will sag considerably if the house is left supported only at the corners. Floor Joists—Nine 2 " x 4 " x l 2 ' . The floor frame is built on 2 " x 4 " joists spaced two feet apart to centers and spiked securely to the 4 " x 6 " skids with a 2" x 4" running across each end of the floor joists. Floor. The floor boards should be matched, of good quality, and not more than six inches wide. Heavy building paper should be placed between the two floors to prevent draft and to provide some insulation. The first board on the upper layer of the floor at the front of the house should be set in three inches to allow for the pitch of the window sill and so that all boards will break joints. If the floor is boarded the opposite way, the top layer of boards should be cut three inches short at the front to allow for the pitch of the window sill. Both layers of floor boards should be laid the same way and both layers should be securely top nailed with ten-penny nails, all nails going through to the floor joists. With a good quality of lumber, carefully laid and nailed in this manner, the floor boards will stay down and stay smooth. Studding—Twelve 2" x 3" x 12'. Except for the corner posts, door frame and front, all studding is horizontal. Horizontal studding and perpendicular boarding make it possible to slide east and north windows sidewise for opening so that they need not be taken out during the summer. This is a convenience and a protection against breaking. The studding used for the summer and winter roost supports and the studding used for the window runs

BACKYARD P O U L T R Y

FIGURE

West

KEEPING

II

Elevation 2"« 6"

—

t'o-

10'

1 — N ^ V X /o" X

I—

/b'

i

4.

o•

FIGURE

Rear

4

III

Elevation

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

23

should be placed with the three-inch face against the wall or boarding. This avoids leaving a projection on which chickens may roost around the side walls of the house. The roost supports in the east should correspond to those in the west end. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) Plates—Two 2 " x 4 " x 12'. The front plates are supported by the corner posts and the studding between the windows. The rear plate is supported by the corner post and the perpendicular boarding. The back must, of course, be boarded before the rafters can be put in place. (See Fig. 3.) Center Support—One 2 " x 6" x 12'. With this type of construction the 2 " x 6 " center support is necessary in order to keep the roof ridge straight. The center support should be temporarily supported from, the floor, the end rafters put up and the ends boarded before the remaining rafters are put in place. Rafters—Seven 2" x 4 " x 14'. The fourteen-foot rafters are cut to provide a nine-foot rafter for the rear and a five-foot rafter for the front. The rafter pitch is three inches to the foot. The ends of the rafters may be cut to allow an eight-inch overhang front and back. (See Fig. 2.) Siding. The siding should be a good quality of matched lumber not more than six inches wide. The siding should be carefully chosen, free from moisture, nailed as tightly as possible and painted at once. Painting the matching lumber as the siding is put on will help to keep it tight. Roof. The roof should be boarded with a good quality of lumber. The roof boards should be cut to allow an eight-inch overhang at each end. After the ends have been trimmed, a 1" x 2 " finish strip should be nailed flush with the top of the roof on the ends of the roof and across

24

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

the ends of the rafters on the front and back. A good quality of roofing paper should be used. Eighteen-inch blind-nailed paper is advised for the roof. With this type of roofing the first strip of paper is put on and nailed at the bottom and the top. The second strip of paper is then put on and nailed at the top. The bottom of the second strip of paper is then lifted and a special cement spread over the heads of the nails on the selvedge edge of the paper, which is especially prepared for this particular type of application. When this type of roof is completed there are no nails visible. The roofing paper should be turned over the two-inch finish on the end and on the lower edge of the roof all the way around, extending onequarter of an inch below the wood so that there will be no wood exposed, no painting necessary and no opportunity for water to work back on to the woodwork. Windows, End and Back—Foui 3-light 10" x 16" glass. The windows are 3-light 10" x 16" cellar sash, two in the west end and two in the back. The windows slide sidewise and are kept perpendicular, which means that they are easier to protect and keep clean. A piece of one-inch finish, four inches wide, used for the sill, is cut to project one inch outside the boarding and provide a twoinch run for opening. If the window sill is set on a fifteen-degree pitch, or one inch in three, there is no necessity for a window guide at the bottom of the window except across the window opening. The bottom of the window should, of course, be beveled to fit the sill. If a 1" x 1" window guide is used at the top, and the window cut a half-inch short of filling the space, it is possible to slide the window open, lift it up, and pull out the bottom, thus removing the window very easily at any time for washing or any other need. It is much easier to

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

East View

FIGURE V

Front View

25

26

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

clean the house if the window guide at the bottom is no wider than the window opening. The window run on a lower west end window must be cut down to one inch to allow space on the 2 " x 3 " studding for the end of the front roosts and at the same time make it possible for the window to be opened and closed. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) Door. The door is located in the east rather than the west end because there is less cold wind from that direction. Also, if the house is placed to face the east, the windows are on the east, south and west. The forward door post cut 6' 4M" long is set directly under the roof ridge support. The inside width of the door frame is 2' 10" and the inside height is 5' 7". The outside measurements of the door are 3' x 5' 10" high, allowing an inch overlap on the sides and top, a two-inch overlap at the bottom and a four-inch space below. In some ways it may be better to make the door four inches longer and to avoid the necessity for a sill at the bottom. (See Fig. 4.) The door is really a door within a door, built to provide summer ventilation. The outer part of the door is double thickness, breaking joints at the corners for strength. The inner thickness is set in one inch all the way around, thus forming a double jam around the outside of the door and a single jam for the inside door. When the inner door is swung open it should be held in place by a six-inch hook set in the side wall of the house. If the base of the hook is set as far forward as possible, the main door can be opened and closed without touching the open inner door. The hinges are sixinch strap hinges for the main door and four-inch strap hinges for the inner door. The inside of the door should be covered with inch-mesh wire.

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

27

Roosts—Seven 2" x 4" x 12'. The roost which lies flat when in position can be turned over occasionally to prevent sagging. There are no roost notches as it is more convenient to slide the roosts forward and back when cleaning and to provide different spacing for different sized chicks. The five-foot space back of the door will accommodate four roosts very nicely. Windows—Three 6-light 10" x 14". Sliding glass windows in the front of the brooder house present a distinct advantage in that they admit light and are reasonably permanent. The outside measurements of a 6-light 10" x 14" glass barn sash are thirty-four inches wide and thirty-three inches high. The studs forming the window runs are set three feet apart to center, the outside stud being 1' 6" from each front corner. (See Fig. 5.) The window sill should be a finished piece of 2" x 6", twelve feet long, running the length of the front from corner post to corner post. If the floor is boarded from end to end, the top floor layer at the front should start three inches from the front edge. If the floor is boarded from back to front, the top layer of floor boards should be cut three inches short at the front. This allows a pitch of one inch in three for the window sills, which should be securely spiked down and should project two inches beyond the frame or one inch beyond the boarding. The studding between the windows, set three feet apart to centers, should be spiked on top of the window sill. The position of the window run on the studs will depend on the type of outside boarding used. Front Boarding. If the brooder house is painted on the outside, the front boarding should be perpendicular, which means that a piece of 1" x 3" must be placed at the top and bottom of the boarded section to support

28

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

the boarding. This forces the window run to the center of the studs. Should the house be papered all over the outside, the boarding on the front may be horizontal, which would allow the window run to be placed flush with the inside of the front boarding. The front boarding should come down within one inch of the window sill on the outside of the front and be 2' 7 " high with a narrow one-inch sill at the top. This allows an opportunity for a window 2 ' 9 " high to fill the space with a three-inch lap at the bottom when closed, and slide down out of sight, flush with the sill top, when opened. The inside of the window run should be boarded horizontally from the sill up to a point four inches below the top of the upper window sill. The window run and sill should be painted before the inside boarding is put in place. Window Cords and Fasteners. The windows may be raised and lowered by a window cord fastened to the bottom of the center of the window and passed over a one-inch pulley fastened to the plate at the center of the top of the window. This cord may have a short piece of 1" x 1" tied in the end to prevent its going back through the wire screening. When a window is lifted it may be held fast in any position by a special windowcord fastener inside the front inside boarding or a fifteen pound window weight may be used. Double Slot Ventilator. The double slot ventilator consists of the narrow opening one inch wide above the window sills at the bottom of the front of the house, through which the air may come up between the double boarding of the front and enter the house half way up the front, and the four-inch space above the plate, between the rafters, which extends the entire length of the

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

29

house. The slot ventilator opening at the top is adjusted by hinging a piece of 1" x 4" to the top of the plate on the inside; l " x 4 " headers are placed between the rafters four inches back from the plate. This makes it possible to close the slot ventilator entirely by swinging the four-inch slot adjustment boards up to the rafters. The ventilator boards can be kept in any position desired by using a short piece of strap iron such as is used for fastening steam pipes. This type of strap iron, which is filled full of holes, may be placed over a finish nail in the edge of the adjustment board, giving any opening desired. The lower slot ventilator may be closed by locating pieces 1" x 2" in the window run hinged to the inside boarding so that it may be pulled up against the bottom of the window when closed. It is not necessary to provide an adjustment for this opening except in extremely cold weather. Closing the slot ventilator above effectively checks cold air intake. Chick Doors. Chick doors located in each corner of the front are fifteen inches wide and fifteen inches high. If the front is boarded horizontally and papered, the chick doors can slide up and down, flush with the inside of the front boarding. If the front of the house is boarded perpendicularly and painted, the chick doors will have to be set in flush with the inside of the studding in order to allow for a 2 " x 3 " at the bottom of the boarding. The height of the chick door opening from the sill to the bottom of the boarding is fourteen inches. The chick door slides up to open and can be kept open by a hook fastened to the studding above. Wire. Inch-mesh wire should be placed over all openings, including the rear windows, the end windows and

30

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

the front. The wire may be nailed in place on the rear and end windows. On the inside of the front the wire should be nailed on a frame made out of 1" x 2 " material, hinged at the top of the plate to swing in. It will rarely be necessary to move this wire as the windows are operated by a cord which comes through the wire at the top. The wire frame should be wide enough so that the lower part of the frame will be about two inches lower than the window opening, thus avoiding the possibility of shutting out any sunshine. Inch-mesh wire or quarter-inch-mesh wire should be nailed into the slot ventilator opening to prevent sparrows from getting into the house. Quarter-inch-mesh wire may be placed at the lower ventilator opening to avoid any possibility of rats getting into the house. Capacity. This house has a capacity of about thirtyfive hens, if used as a small laying house or as a breeding house. In this case two roosts placed on the higher roost level will be sufficient to carry all the hens the house will accommodate. If this house is built for a small laying house and is not used for brooding, the two rear windows may be left out. Four egg-cases or orange boxes with a four-inch cleat along the bottom of the front may be placed against the wall on the east end in front of the door, for nests.

Portable Houses For one that does not have the time or perhaps the ability to construct a house, there are available portable houses of various sizes and designs, all of which are suitable for the small flock. Figure 6 illustrates a very satisfactory and attractive portable house with a capacity of twelve laying birds.

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

31

E. F. HODGSON COMPANY

FIGURE VI

Portable Colony Living House Capacity. Twelve laying birds

32

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Poultry House Furnishings Dropping boards, roosts, nests, hoppers and water fountains are the only furnishings that need be in the poultry house. Such equipment when properly constructed and arranged, will be easy to clean and will not take up any floor space. The dropping boards should be located along the rear wall of the house. They should be thirty inches high and not over five feet wide. In a small house the width of the dropping board would not exceed four feet. Tongue and groove boards should be used in constructing the dropping boards. This makes it easy to clean. Roost should be 2 " x 3 " or 2 " x 4 " lumber with corners rounded on the 2 " side. The roosts are placed six inches above the dropping board, with the first roost eight to ten inches from the edge of the dropping board and the last roost should be the same distance from the rear wall of the house. Roosts should all be on the same level and placed twelve to thirteen inches apart in center. Eight to ten inches of roost room is allowed for Leghorns and other light breeds, and ten to twelve inches for Plymouth Rocks and other heavy breeds. One and one-half-inch mesh woven sixteen gauge wire or one by two inch welded wire of fourteen gauge is placed under the roost. This keeps the chickens from coming in contact with the poultry droppings. Dropping pits are replacing the dropping boards in many poultry houses. I would recommend their use in the small poultry house. The type of dropping pit shown in Figure 7 is one commonly used throughout the state of Pennsylvania. The size of the pit will depend on the roosting space needed in the house. In the Connecticut

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

33

PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

FIGURE VII

Dropping Pits Easy to build—and great labor savers

34

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

brooder house this type of pit would be approximately four feet wide and twelve feet long with three roosts. When dropping pits are used the chickens are inclined to sit on them during the day to rest. This overcomes the objection that pits take up floor space. The pits also save on litter, for no litter is placed on the floor under the pit. The use of superphosphate spread over the droppings daily adds to and preserves the fertilizer value of the manure. It also keeps down moisture and odors. Only four or five handfuls of superphosphate would be needed daily. There is no definite rule for cleaning the pit, but once a week cleaning is advisable, especially in warm weather. Box nests, designed by the Ohio Experiment Station, are simple in construction and inexpensive. The principal advantages of the box nests are that they furnish darkened nest compartments, which tend to prevent the following: interference of other birds, egg eating, egg breakage, and soiled eggs. They permit a number of layers to occupy the same compartment, a condition which they appear to like.

Construction of Box Nests Box nests are twenty to twenty-four inches wide, fourteen inches high and made in sections four to eight feet long. The nest partitions are eight inches high. Figure 8 shows rear and end views of a top and bottom section. The top section merely rests on the bottom one. The bottom of the nests is made of two one-inch by tenor twelve-inch boards or of three boards, with the center one made removable for easy cleaning. The sides of

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

35

nests to retain litter are six inches wide. The hens enter from the rear to lay, and the eggs are gathered from the front (rear of Fig. 8), which is closed by a board eight inches wide hinged at the bottom. The nests are placed with the rear side eight inches away from the wall or partition, and the sloping top extends beyond the rear of the nests to the wall. The rear entrance runways are two one-inch by two-inch pieces cleated one inch apart with one-inch by two-inch cleats which extend one inch beyond the inner edge of the runway to the side of the nest to support the runway in a horizontal position. The hinges which are attached to the lower side of the runway are attached to the side of the nest so that the bottom of the runway is even with the top edge of the side of the nest and the hinged runway makes a convenient means of closing the nests. The corner posts of the lower section extend twelve to sixteen inches below to serve as legs to support the nest a suitable distance above the floor. Plywood (one-quarter-inch) or pressed wood can be used for the top, bottom, ends, front doors, and backboard of the top section, as indicated in Figure 8. The insert at the lower left corner indicates the amount and dimensions of plywood or pressed wood needed. Plywood or pressed wood makes for lighter weight and ease of construction. The list of framing material and other items needed for the bottom section is: One piece 1 by 6 inches, 12 feet long, for sides and ends One piece 1 by 8 inches, 2 feet long, for partition One piece 1 by 2 inches, 10 feet long, for runway and cleats

36

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

FIGURE VIII

Ohio Box Nest Construction

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

37

One piece 2 by 2 inches, 10 feet long, for corner posts Four 6-inch T hinges Two buttons or screen door hooks and eyes for runway and front door A single tier four feet long, would provide plenty of nesting room for the small flock. Individual nests are fourteen inches square and twelve inches deep. Such nests are built in sections. One such nest is provided for every four laying birds. Feed hoppers for laying birds should provide ample feeding space and should be so constructed as to prevent waste. The general rule is to provide two and onehalf inches of feeding space per bird. Most common type of hoppers used are the trough type, where the sides are set at a ninety-degree angle and the box type with the bottom ten inches wide and the sides six to eight inches high. Such hoppers may be built with legs to keep them off the floor or they can be set right on the floor. If dropping pits are used in the house, it will be necessary to have the hopper on the floor, otherwise the birds will roost on the hopper. For small flocks feed hoppers need not be over four or five feet long. A section of each end may be petitioned to provide a place for oyster shell and grit. Location of the hopper in the house is important. Hoppers should be placed in a well-lighted place and perpendicular to the front of the house. Water fountains should be of such construction as to prevent the birds from spilling the water. There are several commercial water fountains that are very efficient. For small flocks, a twelve or fourteen quart pail is very satisfactory, providing it is placed on a water stand to prevent the birds from upsetting the pail.

38

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Poultry House Management The secret of good housing is to keep the poultry house clean. A clean poultry house means a healthy, contented flock of birds. The poultry house should be white-washed inside once a year, for this will make the interior brighter and help in keeping down disease and parasites. The roosts and dropping boards or pits should be painted with carbolineum, or other coal tar product, to keep the house free from mites. The dropping boards should be cleaned daily, and the pits should be cleaned at least once a week. The floor of the house should be covered with four or more inches of litter. There are many kinds of material that are used for litter. Straw, ground corn cob, chopped cornstalks, leaves, peat moss, sugar cane, or a combination of any of these are satisfactory. Peanut shells and oat hulls are also used successfully. Choice of litter will depend on the local supply. A good material for litter will be light in weight, absorbent, easily broken up and moved about by the hens' scratching. It is a good practice to start with litter about two inches deep on the floor and add to it as the birds break it up. Using this plan of adding litter, commonly called built-up litter, will eliminate frequent replacement. If the litter becomes damp or wet, it should be removed and new litter put in the house. When a built-up litter is used it should not be necessary to clean it out more than three or four times a year. Mash hoppers and water fountains should be kept clean and never be found empty. Empty mash hoppers and water fountains are signs of careless management.

HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

39

Nesting material should be cleaned at least once a month and oftener if necessary. Clean nests mean clean eggs. Wood shavings, straw and hay make good nesting material.

40

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

U . S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE IX

Purchase of day-old chicks is an inexpensive and easy way to start the small flock

CHAPTER

IV

STARTING THE FLOCK HAVING REACHED A DECISION on the breed and variety of poultry you want to have and made plans for the house, the next problem is: How to start the flock? There are three popular ways of starting a flock: buying day-old chicks, purchasing started chicks, and buying ready-tolay pullets. Which one of these three methods you decide on will depend somewhat on the time of year and capital available.

Day-old

Chicks

Without a question of doubt, the buying of chicks is the most popular way to start. Chicks can be purchased at all seasons of the year, being grouped as follows, based on time of hatching: Early hatched—January, February, March. Spring hatched—March, April, May. Late hatched—June, July. Fall hatched—September, October, November. For the small flocks, spring-hatched chicks will prove very satisfactory since a five to six months growing period is required before the chick has reached the period of egg production. Spring hatched chicks will be easier to raise and they will mature in the fall and will be pro41

42

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KEEPING

ducing eggs before the snow falls. Capital investment is low, since day-old chicks cost less than started chicks and ready-to-lay pullets. You will need to purchase three straight-run chicks for each pullet you want in the fall. For example, say you want ten laying birds in your flock, you will need to start with thirty day-old chicks. It works out somewhat as follows: one chick will die, one will be a cockerel, and the third will be the pullet. Luck may be with you and this three for one rule will be off and then you will have more pullets or cockerels. This, of course, is to your advantage, for the extras can be eaten. Commercial poultrymen generally figure forty per cent good pullets for the laying house from the number of straight-run chicks started.

Started Chicks Buying started chicks means you eliminate the brooding stage and, of course, the need of brooding equipment. Started chicks run higher in price than day old. A very important factor in the purchase of started chicks is the question of health. There is a danger that the stock may have been exposed to disease.

Ready-to-lay Pullets This type of stock is only on the market in the early or late fall and the capital investment runs high. You must be a good judge of poultry to be sure of the quality of stock you purchase. The supply is limited for commercial poultrymen do not want to sell their pullets. However, there are some growers that make a specialty of growing pullets for sale. In purchasing pullets, insist

STARTING THE FLOCK

43

on their having been vaccinated against fowl pox and laryngotracheitis. Of course, in purchases of pullets, all brooding and rearing problems are eliminated and eggs should be obtained at least a week after you have purchased the pullets. Personally, if I were to start a small flock, I would make my start with the purchase of straight-run day-old chicks, using the poultrymen's rule of three chicks for every pullet wanted in the fall. Now, having decided to purchase day-old chicks, the next logical question that comes to mind is: Where shall I get them? Buy them near home; you will find a reliable source nearby. There is no need of sending away to distant states for stock. Confine your purchase to within a radius of two hundred miles of your home.

Brooding You can make the brooding of chicks easy work and raise ninety per cent of the chicks placed under the brooder. Brooding chicks is fascinating work. Success depends on having a plan and then working the plan. Five points should be stressed in any brooding plan: 1. Buy pullorum tested chicks. 2. Prepare brooder and equipment. 3. Feed complete ration. 4. Provide clean yards. 5. Good management. Buy pullorum tested chicks. A good race depends upon a good start. You want chicks that will live and develop into pullets that will lay large eggs and many of them. Such chicks are produced from flocks bred for production and tested for pullorum disease, commonly

44

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

called B. W. D.—Bacillary White Diarrhea. What is pullorum disease? I'm going to let Professor Frank Reed, Extension Poultry Specialist of the University of Maine, answer that question. Professor Reed is speaking: "Pullorum disease is caused by an organism known as Salmonella pullorum. It is a highly contagious and fatal disease of chicks under three weeks of age—frequently causing a mortality of over fifty per cent. This disease is transmitted from the infected hen to her chicks through the egg. There is no successful treatment—good management, good care and feeding are ineffective; drugs will not cure it. There are no absolutely definite external symptoms of the disease; a diarrhea may or may not be present. Sudden and heavy mortality in young chicks should lead one to suspect pullorum, although chicks which have been chilled or overheated will sometimes show similar symptoms. Definite diagnosis can be made only by a laboratory examination. "Since treatment of infected chicks is not effective, the control of pullorum is a problem of prevention. It means getting chicks which do not carry the disease and not exposing them to infection. The disease is passed from the hen to the chick through the egg; our control, then, must go back to the adult birds which lay the eggs. Fortunately, poultry pathologists have developed a blood test that will detect pullorum in adult birds, and that has made possible a very simple and effective method of control. In this test, a small sample of blood is drawn from the bird. This sample of blood is brought to a laboratory, and the clear blood serum is separated and mixed with a suspension of the pullorum disease germs. The blood serum from a bird that has the disease will cause a "clumping" of these germs. Serum from a bird

STARTING THE FLOCK

45

FIGURE X

An easily constructed home-made brooder with a capacity of from twenty-five to fifty chicks up to four weeks of age

46

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

which does not have the disease will have no effect on this suspension of germs. In this manner, it is possible to detect the adult birds which carry the disease, and by taking these birds from the flock, to prevent infection in baby chicks. "Start with chicks from pullorum clean or pullorum passed stock. This is almost certain insurance against heavy losses from this disease. Clean chicks should never be brooded along with chicks from untested birds, or allowed to run with untested hens. "Poultrymen will avoid much grief also if they will just remember that such terms as 'Pullorum Tested,' 'Accredited,' 'Certified,' etc., do not necessarily mean the same as 'Pullorum Clean' or 'Pullorum Passed.' 'Pullorum Tested' means only that the birds have been tested; it does not indicate that no infection was found. In fact, it almost always indicates the opposite." When purchasing chicks, insist on chicks from pullorum clean parents. Prepare brooder and equipment. A suitable house or room in which to brood your chicks is, of course, essential for your brooding plan. The house or room used for brooding should meet all the requirements of a good poultry house. If the house that will be used for brooding is not new, it should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before being used for brooding. To do a good job of cleaning, the following steps are required: 1. Scrape floor to remove all accumulated dirt. 2. Sweep ceilings, walls and floors to remove dust and dirt. 3. Wash interior of the house with water under pressure from a garden hose.

STARTING

THE

FLOCK

47

TKUMBULL ELECTRIC MANUFACTURING COMPANY FIGURE

XI

Home-made brooder using commercial heating unit

48

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

4. Clean all brooding equipment (water fountain, feed hopper) if they have been used before, the same as you did the house. 5. When house is thoroughly dry, spray it, using an approved disinfectant. The following are satisfactory: Compound solution of creosol U. S. P. 2 parts to 50 parts water; Crude carbolic acid 2 parts to 50 parts water. Starting with a clean house and equipment, your plan calls for keeping them clean during the brooding period. Too many chicks in a brooder house is one of the major mistakes of brooding. The house used must provide ample room (one half of a square foot of floor space for each chick up to six weeks of age) and also offer a wide range of temperature to suit the varying needs of the chicks. Chicks thrive in a cool room so long as there is a heated brooder to which they can run. Brooders to supply heat to keep the chicks warm are made in many different styles. Heat for the brooder may be supplied by coal, oil, gas or electricity. Each type has its advantages. Electricity is the safest. For the small flock of twenty-five to fifty chicks, a very satisfactory inexpensive home-made brooder is recommended by the Poultry Council of the State College of Washington. This brooder is illustrated by the sketch shown in Figure 10. Here is what the Poultry Council has to say about this home-made brooder. "It consists merely of a box through the cover of which is hung a light bulb, shielded by a pie tin or a tin can open at the bottom. This brooder is for use indoors and should be set directly on the floor. The floor should be covered with litter. Because there is no automatic adjustment of temperature, it will be necessary to watch closely the action of the chicks to see whether they are

49

STARTING THE FLOCK

too warm or too cold. If too warm, the cloth curtain on the front can be lifted up. If too cold, the brooder can be moved to a warmer place, or a larger light bulb used." Figure 11 shows a home-made brooder using a commercial heating unit with forced ventilation. This makes a very efficient brooding unit, automatically supplying adequate heat and clean fresh air under the brooder at all times. You will need a chick guard to place around the brooder—a roll of heavy paper, ten to twelve inches wide. Brooder capacity is based on the area under the hover. Allow seven to ten square inches of floor space for each chick since this will give the chicks plenty of room. Feed equipment should be non-wasting and inexpensive so plenty can be provided to insure the chicks something to eat and to drink at all times. Very satisfactory galvanized trough feeders can be purchased or feeders can be made at home. Paper picnic plates make good feeders the first week. These should be replaced by trough feeders at the end of the week. Figure 12 illustrates types of trough feeders used after the first week and up to eight weeks of age. At eight weeks the feeders are of the same type but larger. All water fountains should be placed on wire platforms so that the water cannot be fouled with litter or droppings. (See Fig. 13.) FEEDERS AND FOUNTAINS FOR FIFTY CHICKS Age 1 to 6 weeks 6 to 12 weeks 12 to 24 weeks

Hoppers No. Length 1 1 2

2 feet 4 feet 4 feet

No. 2 1 1

Fountains Capacity 2 quarts 1 gallon 3 gallons

50

BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

FIGURE XII

Home-made trough feeders for young chk;ks

STARTING THE FLOCK

51

Litter for the floor should be light in weight and low in cost. Almost all commercial litters meet these requirements. Cover the floor with at least three inches of litter. The material used for litter, mentioned in the chapter on housing, would be suitable for the chicks. Feed complete rations. Correctly balanced rations are needed for normal growth. It will be most satisfactory to use a commercially mixed ration to feed the chicks and to follow the feeding directions of the manufacturer. For those who want to buy the ingredients and mix this ration at home, the following mixture and method of feeding will also prove satisfactory: CHICK AND GROWING MASH

20 20 20 20 15

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.

5 lbs. 2 lbs. 1 lb. 1 lb.

yellow corn meal wheat bran flour middlings pulverized oats meat scrap (55% protein) or 10 lbs. meat scrap and 5 lbs. dried skimmilk or dried buttermilk alfalfa leaf meal oyster shell meal or lime stone flour cod liver oil (natural). Cod liver oil may be omitted when chicks have access to green food on range salt CHICK GRAIN

100 lbs. finely cracked yellow corn 100 lbs. cracked wheat 50 lbs. pinhead oats

52

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING GROWING GRAIN

100 lbs. cracked yellow corn 100 lbs. whole wheat DAILY SCHEDULE

First Week Mash—Feed three times a day on picnic plates or egg case flats. Sprinkle lightly with grit. Scratch—Feed twice daily, giving as much as will be cleaned up in ten minutes. Drink—Warm water. Miscellaneous—Solid guard around stove. Temperature ninety degrees at edge of hover. Coat floor with inch of litter. Supply hard grit. One Week to Four Weeks Mash—Feed in open hoppers. Always before chicks. Scratch—Feed twice daily. Heavy night feeding. Start growing grain at end of third week. Drink—Water. Provide plenty of fountain space. Green food—All chicks will eat in twenty minutes. Cut fine. Miscellaneous—Separate cockerels at end of this period. Gradually lower stove temperature to eighty degrees at end of period. Allow plenty of fresh air. Let chicks out on clean ground when two weeks old. Provide two-inch wide roosts when chicks are three weeks old.

STARTING THE FLOCK

53

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

FIGURE XIII

Wire platforms for fountains keep litter dry and water clean

54

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Four Weeks to Eight

Weeks

Mash—Furnish plenty of hopper space. Allow enough to last until the middle of each afternoon. Scratch—Birds should consume as much grain as mash. Feed twice daily with heaviest feeding at night. Drink—Water; cool, never-failing supply. Green food—A daily feeding of some succulent material. Miscellaneous—Clean houses when necessary. Avoid wet areas. Move pullets to shelters at end of this period, provided weather is favorable. Vaccinate pullets with fowl pox virus at time of removal to range. Supply oyster shell and hard grit. Maintain cool brooder houses. Eight Weeks to Maturity Mash—Add fresh mash daily. Check consumption closely as stated above. Scratch—Hopper feed. Endeavor to encourage birds to consume more grain than mash. Drink—Plenty of cool, fresh water. Green food—Supply greens when natural grasses are tough and dried. Miscellaneous—Let pullets out of colony houses at day break to avoid picking troubles. Don't crowd. Supply shell and grit. Clean houses. Provide clean yards. To protect the health of your chicks, they must have clean yards. If you have raised chicks previously, be sure the ground used for the chick yard has been limed heavily and turned over with a gar-

STARTING THE

FLOCK

55

den fork. A good plan would be to provide two yards, one to be used for the chickens and the other for a garden. The following year the yards would be rotated, the one being used for the chickens would be used for the garden and the one used for the garden used for the chickens. This rotation plan would keep the yards clean. Where space is limited the yard must be kept clean during the growing season by liming and spading. Clean yards for the chicks to run on is cheap insurance against intestinal parasites. Size of yards will, of course, depend on the space available. As a guide, try to provide thirty to forty square feet of yard room per bird. Perhaps space is so limited that you cannot have an outside yard. Don't let this discourage you, for good pullets can be raised in confinement. Professor C. S. Piatt, Associate Poultry Husbandman of the New Jersey College of Agriculture, makes the following recommendation on confinement brooding: "If birds are reared in confinement, provide two square feet of floor space per bird from eight weeks to four months of age, and three square feet from that time to maturity. Keep brooder house temperature below sixty-five degrees if possible, but avoid drafts." The secret of success in raising chicks in confinement is giving them plenty of room and fresh air. Good management. There are several factors under this heading that should be included in your brooding plans. Always keep in mind that you must teach the chicks what to do and how to do it. Plan to have all brooding equipment ready for the chicks one week before their arrival. Operate the brooder at least for two days previous to the chicks arrival, since this will insure the temperature being right for the chicks. The usual

56

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

BUTGEBS UNIVERSITY

FIGURE XIV

Getting chicks out of doors by end of first week saves feed and grows good pullets

STARTING THE FLOCK

57

temperature recommendations are given in the following table: BROODER TEMPERATURE

First Second Third Fourth

week—90-95 week—85-90 week—80-85 week—75-80

degrees degrees degrees degrees

More chicks are ruined by high temperature than by low temperature. Heat is generally removed when the chicks are eight to ten weeks old, depending on time of year and weather conditions. Here come your chicks! Lively little balls of down with shining shoe button eyes! Now what should be done? Take them to the brooder; it is all ready, and place them under the hover. Count them as you remove them from the box. Place feed on the picnic plates and water in the fountains. The chick guard previously mentioned is used to keep the chicks close to the brooder and to prevent floor drafts. It also keeps the chicks from wandering too far from the heat. The guard should form a circle around the brooder about fifteen inches away from the edge of the hover. It is gradually moved farther away each day. By the tenth day the guard is pushed back across the corners of the house. Your next problem is to teach the chicks how to eat. This can be done by tapping your finger on the feeders and dipping the beak of a few chicks in the water. If the chicks arrive during the day, feed them about an hour after arrival. If they are delivered late in the afternoon,

58

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KEEPING

TRUMBULL ELECTRIC MANUFACTURING

COMPANY

FIGURE XV

Early roosting avoids crowding. Top of home-made brooder provides roosting space. Slanting roost encourages early roosting.

STABTING THE FLOCK

59

it will be perfectly all right to wait until morning to feed them. Fortunately, chicks soon learn to eat. The first three days after arrival of the chicks you will teach them how to find the heat and how to eat. The second three days the chicks have the run of the house or room. During this time they must be discouraged from crowding in the corners or in sun spots on the floor. You start feeding them from hoppers instead of the plates. This means less work for you. The third three days, start them out-doors. Let them out about noon if the weather is clear. Be sure to see that they go back in the house at the end of half an hour. Figure 14 shows a small yard; note especially the entrance to the house. Some provision should be made so the chicks can easily go back and forth to the house. By the tenth day your chicks should be on their own. They will have learned where to go to get warm, how to eat and drink and to go out doors and come back before they are chilled. To avoid crowding, early roosting should be encouraged. Small perches can be placed near the hover any time after the second week. As soon as chicks have learned to roost, most of the danger of crowding is past. Figure 15 illustrates how the top of a home-made brooder may be used as a place for roost. As the chicks grow, give them more room. Follow the recommendations on floor space given earlier in this chapter. Plenty of room grows good pullets. Enlarge feed hoppers and water fountains so all chicks will have room to eat and drink.

CHAPTER V

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG STOCK You KNOW HOW REFRESHING it is to have a cold drink and a rest in the shade on a hot day in summer. Keep this in mind when taking care of your young stock during the summer. In the preceding chapter we discussed the need for good equipment and the management of chicks up to eight or ten weeks of age or until they no longer need heat. Commercial poultrymen call this the weaning age. From the time the chicks are weaned from the brooder until they are mature is a very important period in their lives. During this period of the chick's life special care and attention should be given to the various factors that affect the chick's growth. Many a healthy, well grown chick is stunted and infected with intestinal parasites during this period by carelessness or neglect on the part of the caretaker. Those that are starting their small flock with started chicks, commence at this stage of management to care for their flock.

Factors Affecting Growth Care of the young stock is simply a problem of supplying the birds with ideal conditions for growth. These "ideal conditions" are the factors that aid in the proper development of the birds. 60

SUMMER M A N A G E M E N T OF YOUNG STOCK

61

1. HOUSING

Young stock cannot grow and develop into healthy, mature birds if the housing conditions are not right. After the chicks no longer need heat the brooder should be removed from the house. This makes more room for the young stock. Heat is no longer needed after the birds are well feathered and the danger of cold weather is passed. During the day all windows and ventilators should be open. At night, after the flock is well feathered and the weather has settled, the windows can be kept open for the balance of the growing period. All that is required of a house during the growing period is to provide an abundance of fresh air at all times, plenty of room, and protection of the stock from enemies and storms. If roosts have not been installed in the house, they should now be put in. Roosts are generally 2" x 3" or 2" x 4" material, placed about two feet off the floor and fourteen inches apart. Allow six inches or more of roost room for each bird. At this time feeding equipment should be changed to larger hoppers and fountains as listed in the table in the preceding chapter. Keeping the house clean is important. If the litter is dirty, damp or has become caked on the floor, it should be replaced with new litter. Sand can be used on the floor in place of more expensive litter for the balance of the growing period. When sand is used the droppings (poultry manure) should be raked up and removed each morning. If you find yourself in need of additional housing space for the growing flock it can readily be provided

62

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by using what commercial growers call "summer shelters/' Professor L. M. Black, poultry specialist of the New Jersey College of Agriculture, developed the small shelter illustrated in Figure 16. This shelter is collapsible, which makes it ideal for the small flock since it can be easily stored during the winter. Here is what Professor Black has to say about the construction of the shelter: "Each part of the shelter is constructed as a separate unit, and, upon completion, the front, sides, and back are fastened together with hooks and eyes. The wire floor with roosts attached is then placed within the shelter and rests upon the six blocks which are fastened to the two sides. This raises the floor six inches off the ground. The roof, which consists of two four by eight feet sheets of a glazed composition board hinged together and reinforced with shingle lath, is then attached and held in a rigid position by a hook and eye fastener on both sides. Shingle lath material is used throughout for the framing except for the roosts, which are of two by two-inch strips, as is also the ride pole which is inserted as an additional support for the roof. Inch mesh poultry netting is used to enclose the sides, while inch and a half mesh wire of sixteen-gauge is used for the floor. "Upon completion, the wooden parts of the shelter should receive an application of wood preservative. The upper surface of the roof should receive two coats of white paint so that heat will not be readily conducted during warm summer days. It is the author's experience that this shelter offers a type of shade which the birds appear to prefer to natural sources." This shelter is six feet square and three feet high at

S U M M E R M A N A G E M E N T OF YOUNG STOCK

63

RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

FIGURE XVI

New Jersey collapsible summer shelter ready to receive growing pullets

64

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

the edge and has space for sixty growing birds. It could be built in a smaller size to accommodate smaller flocks. During the growing period it is important to provide plenty of house room. The rule calls for one square foot of floor space per bird where there is an outside yard. If the stock is to be raised in confinement, provide two square feet of floor space for each bird. Growing poultry must have room to grow.

Avoid Crowding Crowding of young stock during the growing period causes more bad results than any other form of mismanagement. The evil effects of crowding may show in a wide variety of ways, some of which follow: Disease: Crowding reduces the resistance of poultry to disease. It creates conditions favorable for the development of disease, particularly coccidiosis. Poor feathering: Crowding is a contributing cause of poor feathering. Scabby or bare backs, as birds are called that do not feather well, will be avoided by providing plenty of room. Uneven growth: Crowding, coupled with lack of sufficient feeder space, means increased competition for food and water. The weaker chicks do not have a chance to get their share with the result that they grow unevenly and runts develop in the flock. Vices: Cannibalism and feather picking often occur in flocks that are crowded. These vices are seldom found in flocks that have plenty of room. 2. RANGE OR YARD A piece of ground on which no chickens have run for at least a year and on which no poultry manure has been

S U M M E R M A N A G E M E N T O F YOUNG STOCK

65

spread for at least two years or longer is spoken of as "clean range." There are many cases where the range will not meet the above requirements and in such cases careful attention must be given to it during the growing season. The range is one source of coccidiosis and worm infection, but this source of infection can be controlled by proper management. Rotation of the range is probably the best way to keep it clean. By this method the range not being used by the chicks can be cultivated and cropped. A two-year rotation is good, but a three-year rotation is better, as the chicks are kept away from each range for two years. This same system of rotating the range can be used with small yards by fencing the yards. Where space is limited and you can only provide one yard for your poultry flock, special care must be given the yard. In such cases the yard should be spaded or turned over with a garden fork once a week. This weekly spading coupled with an application of lime every two weeks before spading should keep the small yard in good condition. It is necessary to keep the range or yards clean during the growing season. Certain areas will be bare and covered with droppings. These spots will usually be found around the house, feed hoppers and fountains. Cultivation of such spots by spading and moving the feed hoppers and fountains to new locations will lessen the danger of disease. Placing the hoppers and fountains on wire covered frames is a good sanitary practice. Such frames should be large enough so that the birds will be able to stand on them while eating and drinking. Shade is an important factor of good range management. Natural shade of growing plants is the best for it is cooler than any artificial shade because of the evapo-

66

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KEEPING

ration of water from the growing plants. Artificial shade can be provided by cutting bush and laying it on top of a frame which is twelve to eighteen inches off the ground. Bags can be opened and spread on frames in the same manner. The house will also provide shade for the flock, providing all windows and doors are open so that there is a free circulation of air through the house. 3 . S E P A R A T E OLD AND YOUNG STOCK

As a disease control measure, under no conditions should the old and young stock be allowed to use the same yard or range. The old stock should be confined to the laying house. Growing cockerels should be separated from the pullets as soon as they can be distinguished. This gives the pullets more room. The cockerels can be confined to the brooder house until they are used as broilers. 4 . FEEDING

The problem of feeding the young stock is to provide a constant supply of growing mash and grain, supplemented with green feed and water. Young stock cannot develop into healthy, full-grown pullets if the mash hoppers are allowed to be empty, or green feed is fed once in a while, or the water fountains are empty for several hours. A definite system of feeding the young stock should be adopted and nothing allowed to interfere. This will mean that the mash hoppers always have mash in them, green feed is fed regularly once a day, and the water fountains are never empty. Scratch grain can be fed in hoppers, keeping a supply before the birds all the time.

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG STOCK

FIGURE XVII

An easily constructed out of doors hopper that will prevent waste of feed

67

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BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

The out-door hopper shown in Figure 17 is recommended by the College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois. It is easy to build and one would provide feeding space for fifty birds. Partitions could be put in each end making three compartments, the two end compartments used for grain and the center for mash. This hopper would hold two or three days supply of feed. The following table will make it possible for you to check the growth of the young stock during the growing season: NORMAL CHICK GROWTH

Weeks

White Leghorns Weight—Lbs.

American Breeds Weight—Lbs.

4 8 12 16 20 24

.39 1.09 1.71 2.40 2.99 3.38

.43 1.30 2.13 3.04 3.73 4.27

CHAPTER

VI

WHAT CHICKENS EAT I N ORDER TO FEED POULTRY most economically one should have a general knowledge of the fundamental principles of poultry feeding. Food fed to poultry is utilized by the birds first for maintenance, and, secondly, for the production of heat and energy. Food fed for heat and energy is used to maintain body temperature, and also to provide for body activity, such as blood circulation, respiration and locomotion.

Nutrients and Their Uses Foods commonly fed to poultry are composed of several different groups of substances which are called nutrients. The nutrients that are found in poultry feed are: 1. water; 2. minerals; 3. proteins; 4. carbohydrates; 5. fats; 6. vitamins. 1. Water: The bird's body contains about fifty-five per cent of water and the egg about sixty-five per cent. These two facts explain why a constant supply of fresh water is necessary. Water also acts as a carrier of other nutrients to different parts of the body. A further use of water is to regulate body temperature. 2. Minerals: Approximately four per cent of the live weight of a laying hen is mineral. The egg is about ten 69

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per cent mineral. There are ten different minerals required in feeding poultry. These minerals are all supplied in varying degrees by the feeds commonly fed to chickens. With laying birds it is necessary to feed oyster shell to supply calcium for the manufacture of the egg shell. 3. Proteins: These are the nitrogenous compounds of feeds that are necessary for growth, and the repairing of body tissues. About fifty per cent of the dry matter in a hen's body and in the egg is made up of protein. A newly-laid egg contains about thirteen per cent of protein, while the dry matter of the egg contains about fifty per cent. In feeding poultry, the protein is generally obtained from vegetables and animal products (meat scrap and milk products). 4 and 5. Carbohydrates and Fats: These two nutrients are made up of the same elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The fats may contain, in addition to the three elements mentioned, phosphorous and nitrogen. Starch is the most common carbohydrate in poultry rations. It is the principal source of energy in poultry nutrition. Cereal grain used in feeding poultry contain large amounts of starch. Fats are 2.25 times as concentrated as carbohydrates. If not used for energy, they are stored in the body within the cells as fatty tissue. Fats are not easily digested or absorbed, and for this reason carbohydrates are fed as the principal source of energy. Some fat is essential in the ration as a source of fat-soluble vitamins. Fortunately, small amounts of fat are present in feeds commonly fed poultry so no additional fats are needed in the ration.

WHAT CHICKENS EAT

71

6. Vitamins: Vitamins play an important part in poultry feeding as they keep the body in good working order. Vitamin A is sometimes called the growth vitamin as it is essential for growth. A shortage of Vitamin A will stop growth, and in mature birds will cause eye trouble. Green food contains an abundance of Vitamin A, and for this reason should always form part of the ration. Vitamin B is necessary for proper growth and for the proper functioning of the nervous system. This vitamin is found in sufficient quantities in all grains. Vitamin D is necessary for proper bone development. A lack of this vitamin causes leg weakness or rickets in chicks. In laying birds, lack of this vitamin is said to cause poor shell texture. This vitamin is generally supplied by the addition of cod liver oil to the ration. Direct sunlight will supply the birds with a substitute for Vitamin D. Vitamin B2 consists of several factors and the most important from the standpoint of the small flock, is riboflavin. Chickens have a high requirement for this factor.

Poultry Feeds Poultry feeding is based on grain and grain by-products as the main supply of nutrients. These are fed as whole grain (commonly called scratch feed) and mash, which is composed of the grain by-products and protein and mineral supplements. The reason for this is that poultry, by nature, are grain and insect eaters. The grains supply carbohydrates in abundance, but do not supply sufficient proteins, vitamins and some minerals. For this reason it is necessary to supplement the grain ration fed with these nutrients.

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GRAINS AND GRAIN BY-PRODUCTS

Corn: Yellow corn is generally the chief grain fed poultry and may be used in amounts as high as fifty per cent of the total ration. It is very palatable, easily digested, and as a rule reasonable in price. Another important factor in corn feeding is the high Vitamin A content of yellow corn. White corn does not contain Vitamin A. Cracked corn is fed to young stock, but should be changed to whole corn at from twelve to fourteen weeks of age. Wheat: Another popular poultry feed. An excellent feed in conjunction with corn and oats. Oats: Valuable for poultry feeding. They may comprise as much as one-third of the grain ration. Barley: Where barley is favorably priced in relation to other grains, it may well be fed as the principal grain. Kafir and Milo are both satisfactory substitutes for corn. They should be fed in conjunction with feeds of high vitamin A content because they are low in vitamin A. PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS

The common feeds fed to poultry in the mash mixture to furnish protein are meat scrap, fish meal, milk and oil cake meals. Meat Scrap: This is the most common protein supplement. The protein content ranges from forty-five to sixtyfive per cent. A meat scrap containing fifty-five per cent of protein is considered a good meat scrap. The quality of this feed varies considerably so that the palatability and digestibility are often lowered.

WHAT CHICKENS EAT

73

Fish Meal: This is similar to meat scrap except that it is made from fish. The quality of fish meal is much more dependable than meat scrap. An average fish scrap will contain about sixty per cent of protein. Milk: In any form milk is a valuable food. There is little difference in feeding value between fresh, semisolid and dried milk. It is generally agreed that one pound of dry milk is equivalent to three and one-half pounds of semi-solid buttermilk or ten pounds of fresh skimmilk. There is no difference in value between fresh and sour milk but to avoid digestive disorders milk should be fed either sweet or sour. Oil Cake Meals: These meals are protein rich residues from soybean, coconuts, peanuts, etc., which remain after the fats have been extracted. Soybean is the one most commonly used in poultry rations. MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS

Minerals are present in all feed stuffs fed to poultry. Salt and bone meal are the two commonly added to mash mixtures to insure proper mineral balance. Salt: Common salt is usually added to the mash in proportion of one to one and one-half per cent. It aids digestion and stimulates the appetite. Bone Meal: Steamed bone meal is most commonly used to supply the phosphorous needed in poultry rations. Only edible steamed bone meal should be used. Oyster shell, limestone and calcite are the usual sources of calcium. Rations, for best results, contain these two minerals in the ration of calcium to phosphorus, two to one. Calcium is also important for the formation of egg shells.

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When vegetable protein supplements are used to replace animal protein, the mineral supplements must be increased for the vegetable proteins are very low in calcium and phosphorous content. Grit: A supply should be available for the flock at all times. It enables the bird to grind and utilize the feed. Coarse sand or pebbles may be used or any of the commercial grits.

CHAPTER

VII

GREEN FOOD FOR POULTRY T H E FEEDING O F SUCCULENT GBEEN FOOD to poultry should be practiced by all flock owners. Green food furnishes four essentials to a ration: namely, vitamins, minerals, bulk and palatability. Everyone knows how important vitamins are in the diet. Fortunately, most all green crops contain a plentiful supply of vitamins. Vitamins A and Bi are the vitamins most common in green food. Minerals are furnished by green food in a form that can be easily utilized by the birds. The bulk that green food adds to the ration is of particular value in that it prevents constipation and allows free action of the digestive juices upon the food. The last factor, that of palatability, is of great value. The large amount of food a bird must consume to be a profitable producer is possible insofar as it is palatable. Green food adds this deciding factor to the ration.

What Greens to Feed In deciding upon what green food to feed poultry, the following points should be considered: first, the vitamin content of the feed; secondly, the time of year the crop will be fed; and, thirdly, the keeping or storing qualities of the crop. 75

76

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KEEPING

VITAMIN CONTENT OF CROPS

Crop

Tomatoes Cabbage Lettuce Mangels Swiss chard Alfalfa (Green) Kale Carrots

Vitamin B1

A

Bz (Riboflavin)

XX

XX

X

XXX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XXX

XX

XXX

XX

XX

XXX

XXX

XX

X

x indicates a small amount of vitamins, xx indicates a good source of vitamins, xxx indicates excellent source of vitamins. From the above table crops should be selected that provide a good source of vitamins. The palatability of the crop should also be considered for it is a waste of time to grow a crop that the birds will not eat. The time of year the crop will be fed should be considered well in advance of the time the crop is needed. A crop can then be selected that will fit in well with the seasonal work. When the crop is to be used for winter feeding, the keeping qualities of the crop in storage should receive first consideration and, second, the feeding value or vitamin content.

Crops for Summer Feeding During the summer months any succulent green food that is available and is palatable to the birds is satisface tory. In small flocks the summer green food problem is easily solved. Trimmings from vegetable stores and the home garden and lawn will provide a sufficient supply.

GREEN FOOD FOR POULTRY

77

Swiss chard is an excellent crop for late spring and summer feeding. It produces large leaves and stalks that are very tender and are relished by the birds. It is easy to grow and if only the large outer leaves are used, the smaller and medium ones develop for future feeding. Rape is another good crop for summer feeding. If it is not cut below the crown it may be gathered several times during the summer. Rape is not easily damaged by the early frost and this fact makes it also a good crop for early fall feeding. Swiss chard and rape should be fed sparingly to laying flocks as heavy feeding of these two green crops is believed to cause dark colored yolks. Rye is a good crop for early spring feeding. Seeded in the fall, it makes sufficient growth for feeding to the early hatched chicks. Cabbage and lettuce are excellent for summer feeding.

Crops for Winter Feeding Cabbage, mangels and sprouted oats are the three crops commonly used for winter feeding. Cabbage is the first choice as it is relished by the birds and also has a high Vitamin Bi content. It is easily grown and keeps well in storage. Mangels as a succulent crop for winter feeding is not as popular as formerly. This condition is due to the low vitamin content. However, they are very palatable and easily stored. These facts still make them suitable for winter feeding. A small quantity should be planted for late winter feeding. Sprouted oats are very popular for winter feeding. They are generally fed when the sprout is about a half

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inch to an inch long. In this condition they are called germinated oats. A high quality seed oat is necessary if satisfactory results are to be obtained.

Sprouting Oats There are several ways of sprouting oats, and the essentials necessary for success are warmth and moisture. The oats to be sprouted should be good seed oats free from any must or smut. The oats should be placed in a bucket or tub which is half full of water. The water should be as warm as the hand can bear. Allow the oats to soak for four to five hours or overnight. After soaking, drain off the water and place the oats on trays about one inch thick. Each day sprinkle the oats with warm water. In about five days the oats will have developed sprouts about an inch to an inch and a half long and will be suitable for feeding.

Germinated Oats Oats are now commonly fed in the germinated form. This is due to the fact that germinated oats are easier to prepare and to feed. The method used in germinating oats follows: Secure four or five lard or butter tubs which may be purchased from any butcher or grocer. Thoroughly scald the tubs to remove all grease. Bore a hole three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter in the side of the tubs as near to the bottom as possible and cut a wooden plug to fit the hole. This is all the equipment necessary for germinating oats. Fill one tub about three-fourths full of oats and pour warm water over the oats until they are

GREEN FOOD FOR POULTRY

79

covered. The water should be as hot as the hand can stand. Leave the oats soak for four or five hours and then drain off the water by removing the plug. Let the oats stay in the tub until they begin to heat. They should feel warm when your hand is forced down in the tub. A little heat is necessary for quick sprouting but too much will cause the oats to spoil. After the first day change the oats to another tub; this will bring the oats on the bottom to the top. The oats must be given water each day. This is easily done by putting the plug in and filling the tub with warm water until the oats are covered. Allow them to soak for ten minutes and then drain off the water. When the oats commence to sprout they will swell and it will then be necessary to use the other tubs. Following this procedure the oats should be ready for feeding in four or five days. The oats are ready for feeding when they are a mass of roots and sprouts. Germinated oats are generally fed at noon, giving what the birds will clean up in fifteen minutes. The temperature of the room in which oats are sprouted or germinated should be about sixty or seventy degrees.

Feeding Green Food to the Flock It should be a regular practice to feed green food in some form to the entire flock every day in the year. For chick feeding such feeds as chopped lettuce, cabbage, vegetable store trimmings are very good until the chicks are on range. During the spring and early summer if the young stock has a good clover or alfalfa range, it is not necessary to feed other green food. When the young stock is confined to yards a daily feeding of green food should be made.

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In feeding the laying flock the same rule should be followed as with the young stock. Giving the flock what it will clean up in fifteen or twenty minutes will not have any effect on the yolk color.

CHAPTER VIII

FEEDING AND CARE OF LAYING BIRDS IT IS NOW TIME to consider the management of the small flock for maximum egg production. The same principles of good husbandry followed in raising the young stock apply in caring for the mature birds. When the young stock has reached the age of six or seven months, or perhaps a month or two earlier, they will start to lay. At this time the birds should be moved to the laying house and the house used should provide the birds with clean, comfortable living quarters as described in Chapter III. If the house has been used it must receive a thorough cleaning before it will be ready for the laying birds. In Chapter IV, it will be remembered, there is a list of five easy steps for cleaning the house; the backyard poultry raiser should keep the house clean by following a cleaning schedule for removal of droppings and renewing litter and nesting material. Only through exercising real cleanliness in the care of his flock can the poultry raiser be assured of maximum egg production. Laying birds on commercial poultry farms are confined to the house the entire year. Your small flock can be managed this same way. Following such a plan will make it possible for you to clean up the poultry yard and seed it in the fall with a grass mixture. This practice will aid in providing clean yards for the young stock. 81

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What and How to Feed You cannot expect to get eggs from poorly fed birds. Good feeding need not be expensive or complicated. Simple rations regularly fed will produce good results. The scarcity of animal protein feeds, due to war conditions, will make it impossible for most small flock owners to mix or have mixed rations for feeding the flock. Fortunately the many commercial feeds available will prove entirely satisfactory, and will produce good results. There are two generally recognized methods of feeding the laying flock, either of which will give good results. The oldest and no doubt the most popular is the grain and mash method. In this method of feeding, the grain is hand fed morning and night in the litter and the mash is fed in hoppers, a supply being available to the birds at all times. With this method the grain feeding is divided so that approximately one-third of the total daily supply is given at the morning feeding and the remaining two-thirds at the evening feeding. The amount of grain fed will vary with rate of production, time of year, and breed of poultry kept. Grain consumption will be heavier in the winter and during periods of heavy production. More grain will be needed for the general purpose breed than for the breeds classed as egg producers —namely, Leghorns. As a feeding guide, one pound to one and three-quarter pounds of grain per day for ten birds is recommended. At the morning feeding, if grain is found in the litter, having been left from the evening feeding, reduce the amount fed in the morning to force the flock to clean up all grain. This method of feeding to be successful requires ability and good judgment on the part of the one feeding the flock.

FEEDING AND CARE OF LAYING BIRDS

"Fool Proof

83

Method"

Keeping a constant supply of mash and whole or cracked com and oats before the flock at all times is the second popular method of feeding. It is called by various names, such as "cafeteria feeding," "free choice," or "hopper feeding." I call it the "fool proof method" for it leaves it up to the bird to make her own selection, and, furthermore, it reduces the responsibility of the caretaker to a minimum, for his only responsibility is to see that the hoppers contain feed. This method has been used for many years at the Massachusetts State College and Professor G. T. Klein, Extension Poultryman at that institution, says, "Free choice of mash, whole or cracked corn, and oats is the plan of this method of feeding. The mash is fed from one hopper, corn from a second, and oats from the third without an attempt to limit the quantity eaten of any of the three. Hopper requirements are twenty linear feet feeding from both sides for one hundred birds, or about five inches of feeder space per hen. Feed consumption is increased by adding fresh mash frequently, running the hand or fingers through the mash often and placing the hoppers in well-lighted positions. "It has been found that the Massachusetts State College flocks consume on the average, thirty per cent mash, forty per cent whole oats and thirty per cent whole corn. The ration is balanced at about a thirteen per cent protein level with individual birds ranging from eleven to fifteen per cent. Tests show that as the protein content of the mash is increased, the percentage of grain consumed also increases. "This system of feeding is economical of labor and there is a saving in feed cost by virtue of the high per-

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RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

FIGURE XVIII

Hopper for the laying flock can be divided into three sections

FEEDING AND CARE OF LAYING BIRDS

85

centage of grain consumed. It has been successfully used on practically all of the breeds, though it is reported that certain strains do better on limited grain rations. Hopper feeding has not been observed to cause well bred flocks to get too fat." The secret of success with this system is keeping a supply of feed before the birds. Note what Professor Klein had to say about hopper space. For the small flock a six foot hopper, divided into three compartments, similar to the one in Figure 18, would provide sufficient feeding space. This hopper is six feet long, fifteen inches high with the trough constructed of boards eight and one-half by seven and five-eighths inches set at a ninety degree angle. The trough is set two and one-quarter inches from the base of the feeder. The protecting lip is three inches wide. The reel is made of three pieces of stock; a 1" x 3" with two pieces of 1" x 1" nailed to the center. Nails in the ends of the reel are placed in adjustable positions in the end of the feeder.

Feeding

Supplements

The small flock should be fed supplements to the usual mash and grain feed and thus reduce the cost of feeding and also conserve the vital milled feeds. The following supplements should be fed, regardless of the method being used in feeding the flock of layers: 1. Water. Of course it goes without saying that a constant supply of water is more than a supplement; it is a "must" with any method of feeding. All too often the laying flock is without water and under such treatment, egg production is bound to suffer. Figure 19 illustrates a very satisfactory way of supplying water to the

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BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

J. C. ALLEN & SON

FIGURE XIX

A satisfactory arrangement for supplying water to the laying flock

FEEDING AND CARE OF LAYING BIRDS

87

small flock. There is no possibility of the pail being upset and, furthermore, the pail is large enough to provide a constant supply for the day with one filling. 2. Green food. A daily feeding of fresh green food is a valuable addition to any ration. Garden greens, vegetable trimmings, and lawn clippings all make satisfactory green food. In feeding green food it is important not to feed more than the flock will clean up in twenty minutes. It is wise always to feed from a rack to prevent the food from becoming scattered about and withered into uselessness. 3. Table scraps. There need be no food waste when you have a backyard flock of poultry. All table scraps can be fed to the laying flock. Such scraps should be run through the meat chopper or cut up fine and then mixed with a little dry mash. In this condition it can be fed to the flock by placing it on top of the dry mash in the hopper. Do not feed more than your flock will clean up in twenty minutes. Table scraps can be fed at any time during the day. Citrus fruit rinds are not eaten by chickens. Under no conditions throw the table scraps in the poultry yard or on the floor of the poultry house; it makes an unsightly mess and most of it is wasted by such a feeding method. 4. Oyster shell and grit. It is a good practice to provide a supply of this material for the birds which should be fed in open hoppers so that the birds can eat it at will.

General

Management

To obtain the best results, it is advisable to delegate to some member of the family the care of the flock. A daily schedule for caring of the flock can then be de-

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veloped and the birds will not be neglected. The daily schedule should include replenishing the water supply, filling feed hoppers, and egg collecting. Once a week the droppings should be removed and during hot weather this practice should become a daily chore. Nesting material should be kept clean by replacing the old with new whenever it becomes soiled. During the spring and summer there will be birds that want to set, or "go broody" as the commercial poultryman says. Such birds will stay on the nests and cluck when approached. They should be removed when first noticed and confined to a small coop until they have gotten over the desire to set. During this confinement period they should be fed the regular ration. Plenty of fresh air is good for the flock. Keep the windows of the house open. Only during stormy weather and extremely cold days and nights should they be closed.

Keep

Records

You will want to know how your flock is producing so keep a daily egg record. In addition to the number of eggs laid you will want to know the number of birds that die or are eaten at home. Most all feed companies' provide record forms free of charge on which may be kept such records. You can expect about forty to fifty per cent egg production from the flock on the average for the year. There will be seasons of high and low production. Spring will be the period of high production and summer or early fall a period of low production. Mortality in the small flock of mature birds should not be over ten per cent.

CHAPTER IX

FLOCK HEALTH M O R T A L I T Y ON POULTRY F A R M S and at the egg laying tests clearly indicates that poultry disease is a major problem of the poultry industry. Medicinal treatment of sick poultry is rarely beneficial or profitable. The solution to this important industry problem is prevention, and the backyard poultry raiser must be alert to danger signals. Before developing a sound program of prevention it is essential to know the means by which disease is spread. The causative agent of a disease may be passed from the body of an infected individual, in excreta, discharges from affected parts or organs, and by bloodsucking organisms. Once outside the body of the individual the infection may be acquired by susceptible individuals in many ways.

Ways of Spreading Disease Poultry disease does not arise spontaneously. Direct or indirect contact must take place for its transmission. The spread of disease may be due to one or more of the following causes: 1. Shipment of live birds. It is by this means that a tremendous spread of infection takes place. Pullorum disease is an outstanding example. 89

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2. Infected intermediate hosts. Flies and snails are examples of intermediate hosts. The organism causing a disease spends part of its life in the intermediate host. If a chicken eats the intermediate host containing the causative agent, the bird will no doubt contract the disease. Many of the intestinal parasites (worms) are spread by this means. carriers. Spread of disease by this 3. Mechanical means may take place on hands, shoes and clothing of attendants. The use of dirty shipping crates and used feed bags are other mechanical carriers of disease. Wild birds could also b e included as mechanical carriers. 4. Contact. Cohabitation of infected birds with other birds of the flock is one of the most common methods of spreading disease. The constant contamination of the litter and soil by infected birds intensifies this means of spreading disease. 5. Poultry manure. A direct means of spreading disease. 6. Dead birds. The careless disposal of dead birds is a common means of transmission of disease. 7. Water. A contaminated water supply is a possible source of danger. Infectious discharges or parasite eggs which happen to fall in water troughs or pools of water on range readily contaminate the water. 8. Soil. Chickens naturally pick up things from the ground. If allowed to range on infected ground the soil provides another means of spreading disease. The eight ways listed of spreading disease in the poultry flock give a general idea of the problem of disease control. Before proceeding with outlining a preventive program it is advisable to know something about what

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causes disease in poultry. The causative agent of disease may be a virus, bacteria, protozoan or parasite. A virus is the agent or medium for communicating infection. A characteristic of a virus disease is that one attack of the disease renders the individual immune to subsequent infection. All poultrymen know that fowl pox and laryngotracheitis are virus diseases. Bacteria, the causative agent of many poultry diseases, is a microscopic, one-cell plant. Pullorum disease and fowl cholera are two examples of disease caused by bacteria. Protozoans are microscopic, one-cell animals. Common poultry diseases caused by protozoan familiar to all poultrymen are coccidiosis and blackhead. Parasites are animals that live either on or in the body of the bird. Poultry is affected by both external and internal parasites. Lice and mites are common examples of external parasites. Intestinal worms of poultry such as the roundworm and tapeworm are examples of internal parasites.

An Ounce of Prevention Recent research on the treatment for tapeworms showed that of two hundred and twenty-three substances and twenty-seven mixtures tested, only lead arsenate exhibited any promise, and even this in effective doses was too toxic for general use. These findings strengthen the statement made at the beginning of this chapter that medicinal treatment is rarely beneficial. Naturally, it is more important to prevent the disease in the poultry flock than it is to wait for its appearance and then to attempt to treat it.

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"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" should be your slogan for the control of poultry disease. A program of prevention can be divided into two main sections—namely, sanitation and vaccination.

Sanitation In this program of prevention, clean up the poultry house and yard. Lack of cleanliness is one of the major reasons for poultry disease. Rarely do you find a serious disease problem on a clean, well-managed farm. Sanitary methods for the prevention and control of disease involve the following practices: ( 1 ) avoid traffic in live birds; ( 2 ) raise young stock away from adult birds; ( 3 ) rotate the range used for young stock; ( 4 ) avoid the use of used equipment, crates, feed bags, etc.; ( 5 ) provide a screen manure pit for all poultry manure; ( 6 ) burn all dead birds and poultry offal; ( 7 ) last, but no means least, keep poultry buildings and yards clean.

Care of Poultry

Manure

Poultry manure is one of the most valuable fertilizers produced by farm animals since it is especially rich in nitrogen with smaller amounts of phosphoric acid and potash. In a year a hen weighing five pounds will produce over forty pounds of manure, worth at least half a cent per pound. Poultry manure decomposes rapidly with the formation of ammonia. From twenty-five to forty per cent of the organic matter and a higher percentage of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium may be lost by careless handling of the manure. Spreading the manure immediately is to be preferred, but when

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93

this is impossible it should be protected from the weather in boxes, barrels, or, best of all, in a covered concrete manure pit. Each time the dropping boards are cleaned, acid or superphosphate spread over the manure, one part to five parts of manure, combines with the ammonia that is many times lost and helps to make a more balanced fertilizer. The uses of poultry manure are varied. It may be used in place of nitrate of soda around apple trees, or it may be spread on hay land. It is very satisfactory for gardens, especially with the addition of the acid or superphosphate and muriate of potash. It should never be applied directly on plants as it may burn them. An application of three hundred to five hundred pounds of manure per one thousand square feet, thoroughly mixed with the top soil, produces excellent results. C A U T I O N : Never spread poultry manure where poultry is or will be allowed to run because of the danger of disease.

Vaccination The second part of the disease program calls for vaccination of pullets to prevent outbreaks of fowl pox and laryngotracheitis. These two diseases can be prevented by vaccination. Local recommendations vary in different parts of the country on this subject. It is suggested that you consult your County Agricultural Agent or Vocational Agricultural teacher before proceeding with vaccinating your flock.

Some Common Poultry Diseases Coccidiosis: This disease is caused by a microscopic parasite which lives in the walls of the intestinal tract. Both young and old stock may become infected. The

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disease may exist in either an acute or chronic form. Symptoms of the acute form, commonly called cecal coccidiosis, are most frequently noticed in chickens six to twelve weeks of age. The affected birds are droopy and generally have diarrhea, streaked with blood. Heavy mortality is likely to occur around six to ten days after the onset of the symptoms. The chronic type, commonly called intestinal coccidiosis, usually affects the growing birds after twelve weeks of age and pullets after they have been housed. Symptoms are shown over a long period of time and the birds become pale and thin. Since there is no satisfactory medicinal treatment, the practice of cleanliness is the best preventive measure. In case of outbreak, change litter in the house, put in new litter and clean out daily for three days to a week. This cleaning program breaks the life cycle of the organism and prevents re-infection of the birds. Intestinal Parasites: Round worms, tapeworms and pin worms are the three most common intestinal parasites of poultry. These parasites cannot, of course, be seen except by post mortem examination. Sometimes a few round worms may be found in the droppings. Birds infected with intestinal parasites are generally pale, thin and stunted in growth. Birds may be infected with more than one species of these parasites at the same time. Medicinal treatment is only temporarily and partially effective. Sanitation and management practices for preventing infection are your best means for controlling these intestinal parasites. External Parasites: Lice and mites are the two most common external parasites of poultry, and will be discussed separately.

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95

Lice: Lice are one of the most widely distributed parasites of poultry. If preventive methods have not been used, the hens are almost sure to have a few lice. At least eight species are found on poultry and five of them are common. From a practical standpoint, it is not necessary to distinguish the different species. The popular notion that hen lice may be transmitted from poultry to other animals is erroneous. They may possibly pass to some strange host for a short time, but they will not live and breed except upon poultry. The oval eggs or nits of poultry lice are laid on the fluff feathers. Within six to ten days, they hatch into small, pale lice. The louse is a biting insect and lives on dead scales on the hen's body. The biting and digging of the claws irritate the hen, and if large numbers are present loss of sleep may cause a general run-down condition, and, consequently, a loss in egg production. However, the sure test for the presence of lice is to find them on the bird's body. Part the feathers under the wings and under the vent and if lice are present they will be found moving about the exposed skin. Lice and other parasites flourish best in unsanitary conditions, but there must be some source of infestation. Lice are brought to a new place by introducing infested birds. They spread from hen to hen through direct contact of the birds, by crawling from one bird's feathers to the nesting material and then to the next bird that enters the nest, or from mother to chick. Sanitary surroundings help to keep the lice under control. A mixture of equal parts of mercurial ointment (which contains fifty per cent of metallic mercury) and a vaseline makes a very effective remedy for lice. Blue ointment is

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a mixture of sixty-seven per cent of mercurial ointment and thirty-three per cent of vaseline and therefore contains thirty-three and one-third per cent of mercury. To blue ointment add one-half as much vaseline to get the proper strength. Rub a small piece of this ointment (about the size of a pea) among the fluff feathers onto the skin under the vent. One ounce of this ointment is sufficient to treat about seventy-five hens. The greater part of the time spent in treating birds for lice is consumed in catching the birds. This may be reduced and much of the labor saved if the fowls are treated with "Black Leaf 40" after they have gone to roost. This is a very simple and effective remedy and you may apply it from an oil can. About forty-five minutes before the hens go to roost, draw the oil can along the top of each perch. This leaves a very thin line of "Black Leaf 40" which is sufficient for the gassing process. The fumes are liberated by the heat of the hens' bodies and spread through the feathers, gassing the lice. One precaution should be taken: do not apply the "Black Leaf 40" and immediately close the house tight, for the gas may have a bad effect on the hens. No harmful results have ever been observed when the house was ventilated properly for at least two hours after treatment. Red Mites: There are more species of mites than lice, but it is not necessary to distinguish any except the Red Mite. This mite is about one-twenty-ninth of an inch long and after being without food for a short period, is gray; immediately after feeding, when it is full of hen's blood, it is red. The eggs of the mite are laid from early spring until late in the fall. A female lays three or four eggs at regu-

FLOCK HEALTH

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lar intervals throughout the warm months. The eggs hatch in from two to six days, depending upon the weather; the average time is four days. The young can live a long time without food, sometimes even the entire winter. Mites are not active during cold weather, but occasionally may be seen on the warm days in March and November. Red Mites suck the blood from, the body of the hen and large numbers will cause the hen to become weakened from loss of blood and lack of sleep, with a consequent drop in egg production. The mites are long-lived compared with body lice and may lie dormant in their hiding places for several months without food. Instead of remaining on the hens and chickens at all times, the mites hide in the cracks of the henhouse during the daytime, coming out at night to crawl along the roosts onto the hens in large numbers. At the approach of daylight the mites return to their hiding places. These red or gray mites can usually be found between the boards supporting the roosts and the sides of the house. The eggs and cast-off skins of numerous generations can also be. found near these boards. A few mites can often be found in knotholes and cracks in the perches. If neglected for a short time, they infest the cracks and corners in all the nest boxes. They are usually so well hidden during the day that their presence is not noticed by the inexperienced poultryman until they have become very numerous. The mites have to crawl over the roosts to get at the hens. If the roosts are free from cracks and crevices, the mites cannot hide there. Paint over each roost and the boards supporting the roosts, being careful to paint in

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each crack so that the mites will have to crawl over the substance before they can get at the hens. Painting the droppings boards will eliminate another breeding place and will make cleaning easier. The material used must contain a very active agent and should remain effective for a long period of time. Carbolineum, which is a coal-tar product containing carbolic acid and which also acts as a wood-preserver, is effective. One application is sufficient protection for a year. Carbolineum can be purchased at any reliable hardware store. The roosts should be painted early in the morning so that they will have ample time to dry thoroughly before the birds go to roost at night. Avoid getting any carbolineum on fowls or hands; and since it causes burns when wet and might blind the fowls, drive the birds out-doors or into another pen for the day. Old crank case oil diluted with kerosene oil is fairly satisfactory for painting the roost. The crank case oil should be diluted by fifty per cent and a second application applied to the roost at the end of ten days. Fowl Pox: This is a highly infectious disease affecting the head and mouth of all ages of poultry. It is most common in chickens during the fall and winter. The disease usually appears as wartlike nodules on the comb and wattles of the bird and around the eyes. This disease causes a drop in egg production. Death loss varies all the way from a few or none at all to a rather high mortality depending on the virulence of the disease and the vitality of the flock. This disease is controlled by vaccination. The young growing stock are vaccinated after they have reached the age of six or eight weeks. Detailed instructions on how to vaccinate are contained in the instructions that come with the vaccine.

FLOCK

HEALTH

99

Laryngotracheitis: This is also a highly infectious disease affecting the respiratory system of the chicken and it is widely spread throughout the country. The first symptoms are rattling in the throat followed by coughing, gasping and shaking of head in an effort to dislodge the exudate which accumulates about the entrance, to the trachea. Mortality is generally high. Like fowl pox, there is no satisfactory treatment for the disease. Vaccination of the young stock is practiced to control and prevent outbreaks. Complete instructions for vaccination are furnished with the vaccine. Nutritional Diseases: Depriving poultry of range, forced feeding for production and growth, and the use of highly processed feedstuffs are resulting in an increasing number of nutritional diseases that were formerly unknown. These diseases show all stages of severity from abnormal conditions that pass unnoticed to severe illness and death. They are slow in development and are not infectious. The following vitamin chart gives in outline the most common nutritional diseases. The small flock should not be affected by vitamin deficiencies if an adequate supply of fresh green food is fed and the flock has exposure to direct sunlight.

VITAMIN

CHART

Vitamin

Deficiency Produces

Source for Poultry

A

Nutritional Roup, Xerophthalmia, Stunted growth, Faulty egg-production, Low hatchability, Urates in ureters.

Fish, cod liver oil, green grass, alfalfa hay, alfalfa meal, clover hay, green barley, sprouted barley, soybean hay, kale, tomatoes, carrots, yellow corn. Associated with yellow color in plants.

100 Vitamin Bi

G (B2) or Riboflavin D

BACKYARD P O U L T R Y Deßciency

Produces

KEEPING Source for

Poultry

Polyneuritis, Stunted growth, Loss of appetite, Faulty digestion, Faulty feather production, Ruffled feathers.

Grains and their by-products, alfalfa and clover leaves, spinach, cabbage, turnips, tomatoes. Widely distributed in poultry feeds.

Pellagrous-like tion, Curled toes.

condi-

Milk products, lettuce, tomatoes. Fresh and dried alfalfa and other grasses.

Leg weakness (Rickets) Decreased egg production, Thin-shelled eggs, Enlarged parathyroid, Respiratory quotient decreased.

Cod liver oil, other fish oils, sunlight. Commercial vitamin D concentrates.

Cannibalism: This condition is manifested in baby chicks by toe picking; in young stock by feather pulling; and in mature birds by cloaca picking. The cause of this trouble is unknown. Too high temperature, crowding, lack of activity are some of the contributing causes. Chicks that have been picked should be removed from the flock and the part picked should be painted with pine tar or one of the anti-pick compounds. Adult birds that have been picked should be removed from the flock and treated in the same manner.

Disease Control If an outbreak of disease occurs and you are unable to diagnose it or apply the proper method of control, consult a veterinarian who understands poultry diseases. He has the advantage of experience, can see unfavorable conditions as they exist, and can often prevent a. large loss by his timely treatment. It is often impossible to

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make a correct diagnosis without a bacteriological study, but if such cases arise the veterinarian can give immediate attention to preventing a spread of the disease until further study can be made of the trouble.

CHAPTER X

IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LAYER are not good layers. Every flock will have some birds that will lay only a small number of eggs. Such birds should be removed from the flock and used on the table. The selection of the non-layer, or bird out of production, from birds that are laying is comparatively easy, especially if one has had a little practice and is a keen observer. The fundamental object of selection is to separate the very poor layers from the very best layers. Selection is made possible by the changes that take place in certain body characteristics during the laying period. A l l bibds

The Head The head is the indicator of a bird's physical condition. The laying bird has a well-proportioned head, with a bright red, full, soft comb. The eye is bright and prominent. In the poor layer the eye is dull and sunken. Birds that lack the physical capacity of long production have a long, pointed, shallow head (commonly called "crowhead"). When a bird stops laying the comb shrivels up, loses its bright red color, and develops a white scale. A bird with this condition of the comb is out of production. A comb that is warm but lacks the fullness and redness indicates that the bird is about to finish her production. 102

IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LAYER

103

The Body The two bones found just above and on each side of the vent, called the "pelvic bones," are a guide to the laying condition of the bird. When only one finger can be placed between the pelvic bones the bird is considered to be in a non-laying condition. A two or more finger spread between these bones indicates heavy laying. The vent of a laying bird is large, moist, and oval in shape. The vent of the non-layer is dry and small. Quality is a term applied to the condition of a hen's skin, flesh, and bone. A good producer has a soft, velvety skin with no hard fat present. The bones of the high producer are thin and pliable, whereas those of the low producer are hard, coarse, and thick, covered with considerable fat. Quality is best measured at the abdomen. A full, soft, pliable abdomen with thin, pliable pelvic bones is characteristic of a good layer. The ability of a bird to lay a large number of eggs necessitates body capacity sufficient for well-developed digestive and reproductive organs. Body capacity is measured by the width and length of the back, and by the depth of the body from the backbone to the front of the breastbone or keel bone. The importance of body measurements as an index to a bird's laying ability is questioned by some investigators, for it is the general opinion that although high producing birds must have good body capacity, not all birds that have capacity lay well. When measuring body capacity, one should not use the same standard for all birds, but should give due consideration to the variation in size of breeds and strains.

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Pigmentation The fading of yellow pigment, called xanthophyll, from a hen's body is another indication of egg production. This coloring material is taken from the food a bird eats and is deposited by the blood in different parts of the body. When the bird starts to lay, this yellow pigment is diverted to the egg yolk. Bleaching, as the loss of yellow color is commonly called, occurs in the body in a certain order, and pigmentation returns in the same order as it left. The color of the vent will fade to white in about ten days after laying has started. The eye ring will be the next to lose color. Following the eye ring the beak becomes white in about two or three months. The legs or shank will fade after three to six months' production.

The Molt The condition of a hen's plumage is an indication that can be used for selecting high producing hens. A bird that has laid a large number of eggs will have her feathers considerably worn and shredded. The high producing hen is so busy laying and eating that she neglects the appearance of her feathers and will not be clean and trim-looking like the low producer. Molting is the shedding of the old feathers to be replaced by new ones. This process takes place once a year. The time of year when a bird molts is closely associated with the bird's ability as a layer. Experimental evidence shows that a bird that molts late in the year (after September 1) is a good layer. The early molter stops laying early and requires a long time to complete the molt, whereas the good layer molts late and requires less time to complete her molt.

IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LAYER

105

The length of time a hen has been molting can be determined by the number of feathers dropped from the wing. Normally, a bird will lose one feather at a time, but when more than one has been dropped at the same time they are all considered as one feather. The primary feathers are the ones considered. It takes six weeks to lose and replace the primary feather next to the axial feather, the small feather between the primaries and secondaries. It takes two weeks for each of the other nine feathers to be renewed, thus making a total of twenty-four weeks for a complete molt. The rule generally followed in considering the molting condition of the bird is that any bird that shows molting before September first is a low producer. Only birds that start to molt after September first should be kept as a good egg producer.

How to Select the Layers In the actual selection of the birds, all of the characteristics mentioned should be considered before the bird is discarded as a poor layer. One factor alone cannot be used in selection. The easiest and safest way to practice selection is as follows: 1. Start selection during the summer when production falls below fifty per cent. 2. Go over the flock once a month, starting in June or July. 3. Remove all birds that show the following characteristics: (a) small, shriveled-up comb; (b) dry, small, yellow vent; (c) yellow eye ring. If selection is not followed as outlined and is left until fall (September or October) it will be necessary to have

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a broader knowledge of selection since at that time of year one is required to judge a bird on her production possibilities rather than merely to pick out the non-layer from the flock. The following table, listing characteristics for the high producer and the low producer, will be found helpful in selection during the fall: SELECTION

TABLE

Characteristics

High Producer

Comb Vent Eyes Vent and Eye Ring Shanks Pelvic Bone Pelvic to Breastbone Skin

Red, full, velvety Large, moist, white Bright, prominent White White Soft, wide apart Full abdomen Thin, absence of hard fat

Back Body Plumage

Low Producer

Shriveled, pale Dry, yellow Dull, sunken Yellow Yellow Close together, hard Pinched up, hard Thick, underlaid with fat Narrow Broad and long Shallow Deep, front and rear Ragged, worn, late molter Molting or molt completed

CHAPTER XI

MEAT FOR THE TABLE M E A T is an established favorite of American people. In addition to its nutritional contributions, it adds considerably to the palatability of meals. It is "tops" in flavor and favor as well as food value. The small flock can supply your table with the great American favorite in a variety of ways. Broilers are first on the list. These are the young cockerels weighing from one pound and a half to three pounds, alive. Their age will be eight to twelve weeks depending on the weight desired and the breed. Small broilers are generally served one to a person, while the heavier ones serve two, a half to each. Broiler meat is the most tender and deliciously flavored of all poultry meat. Fryers are next on the list. These also are young cockerels weighing usually three to four pounds. The only difference from the broiler is the heavier weight. It takes approximately twelve to fourteen weeks for the bird to reach the weight of fryers. Roasters follow the fryers. Any bird over four pounds and ranging in age from fourteen weeks to six months is classed as a roaster. Fowl, or stewing chicken as they are more commonly called, are the females that have completed a year of egg POULTRY

107

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KEEPING

PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

FIGURE XX

Fresh poultry and eggs for your table

MEAT FOR THE TABLE

109

production or birds that proved to be poor layers. These birds, because of their age, require longer cooking. The weight will range from four pounds and up, depending on breed. Capons are unsexed male birds. The operation is performed about eight weeks of age. Their weight will average over six pounds. They will be seven to nine months old before they are in full flesh.

Killing and Dressing Birds to be killed should be starved for at least twelve hours before killing; water, however, is given to the birds during this time. Withholding feed from the birds will empty the digestive system of solid feed and make the carcass easier to clean. There are two ways of killing: one the good old-fashioned way of using the axe and chopping off the head; the other, by cutting the veins in the neck and then piercing the brain. The second method requires some experience to do a good job. Cutting off the head with a sharp axe or hatchet will be the easier and quicker. T o kill poultry in this manner, hold both legs in one hand, take hold of the long wing feathers (primary feathers) of each wing and pull them back toward the legs and also hold them with the same hand that is holding the legs. This is done to keep the wings from fluttering after the head is cut off. Now place the head on a solid block and stretch the neck. With one stroke of the axe or hatchet, cut off the head, making the cut as near the head as possible. Then hold the carcass over the edge of the block until all blood has drained and the muscle reaction has stopped. The carcass is now ready for the removal of the feathers.

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Methods of Removing

Feathers

Hot-scald and semi-scalding are two methods for removing the feathers. Hot-scalding is the quickest, but the skin will be discolored, while with the semi-scald method the skin will not show any discoloration. If the poultry is to be quickly frozen and placed in a locker plant, you should use the semi-scald method. Professor Paul H. Margolf of the Pennsylvania State College is a recognized authority on the subject of dressing poultry. Here is what he has to say about the hot-scald and semiscalding methods: "Water at a temperature of 150° F to boiling will loosen the feathers sufficiently so they can be rubbed off. The hotter the water the more steam is liberated which penetrates easily to the quills, and loosens the feathers quickly. But steam is likely to over-scald the skin, causing it to tear or have a cooked appearance. Over-scalding is caused by too hot water or keeping the birds immersed too long. Broilers, fryers, and hens in a laying condition have more tender skins, and for these the lower scalding temperatures should be used. The scalding action can be stopped by plunging the scalded birds into cold water as soon as the feathers are loosened. "There are two general temperatures often used for scalding. The younger and the more tender birds scald best with the temperature of 150° to 160° Fahrenheit. These temperatures are approximately attained by mixing four quarts of boiling water and two of cold (assuming the boiling water is 212° and the cold 56° F ) . Some people prefer scalding temperatures of 165° to 175° Fahrenheit, which is attained approximately by mixing three parts of boiling water to one of cold.

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"The hot scald generally is used for birds consumed at home or within two or three days, or before the skin turns red or brown. If the skin is kept moist, the brown spots do not appear so quickly. Fat carcasses retain the natural fresh color for a longer time because the fat forms a coating over the scalded skin. The lower thighs usually turn red first because there is little fat in these muscles and skin. "When dressed poultry is dipped into boiling water, the heat has a tendency to melt the fat and draw it and the yellow pigment to the surface. If these carcasses are then immediately dipped into cold water, it sets the fat and yellow color on the surface and reduces the scald blemishes. "By semi-scalding, the feathers can be removed and the outer layer of skin left on the birds. The water must be kept within the temperature range of 128° to 132° F. The lower temperatures of 128° to 129° are used for young birds and 130° to 132° for the older ones with firmer skins. Water within this temperature range will loosen the feathers, but it is not hot enough to destroy the outer thin skin. The feathers do not loosen as thoroughly as a hot scald and must be pulled in tufts. Larger dipping vessels are necessary in order that the birds can be thoroughly immersed. For average-sized chickens, about three gallons of water should be used in at least a 16-quart vessel." Cooling the carcass after the feathers have been removed adds to the keeping quality and also makes them easier to clean. Good cooling temperature is 35° to 40° which allows the animal heat to escape but is not cold enough to freeze the carcass. A common practice of cooling is to immerse the carcass in cold water for about an hour to remove the animal heat.

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The carcass is now ready for drawing. The following procedure should be used in cleaning roasting chickens or capons: 1. Remove all pin feathers. 2. Singe off the hair-like feathers. A gas jet furnishes a good flame for this purpose since it is smokeless and does not give the meat any taint or odor. After singeing, the carcass should be brushed to remove the charred hair-like feathers. 3. Cut down the outside of the shank below the hock joint and remove the seven large tendons. Slip a nail under the tendons, one at a time, and by giving a steady downward pull, the tendons will be pulled out. 4. Remove the legs at the hock joint. 5. Slit the skin on the back of the neck from the shoulder to the end of the neck. Loosen the skin from the neck and remove the gullet, crop and windpipe. 6. Cut off the neck close to the shoulder, leaving the skin attached to the body. 7. Make a transverse cut across the body between the end of the keel and the vent. This cut should be made at least one and one-half inches above the vent, as this bridge of skin will hold the legs in place and make string unnecessary. Next, insert the forefinger and make a circular cut around the vent, as small as possible. The vent is then pushed into the body cavity and drawn out with the other entrails through the first made cut. If the first two fingers are inserted and the gizzard drawn out first, the intestinal mass is removed most easily. 8. Open the gizzard and remove the inside sac. Heart, liver, and neck make up the other giblets. 9. Remove the oil sac by cutting around and under it. 10. Wash out the inside and put giblets back into the

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body cavity. The legs are stuck through the first cut and out through the vent. The neck skin is lapped over the back and the wings locked across it. When the bird is prepared for the table the same method is used after the stuffing is added. No sewing is necessary. This method gives a compact, well fleshed appearance. Broilers and fryers are generally dressed alike, except that fryers are cut into smaller pieces. The quickest and usually the most satisfactory method of dressing is to split the carcass along the backbone with a pair of game or poultry shears. The backbone can be removed by cutting along both sides from the tail toward the neck so that the backbone and neck can be taken out as one piece. The bird can then be quickly and cleanly eviscerated. Broilers are generally left in halves and fryers are easily sectioned as desired. Stewing or Fricassee Cutting-. After head and legs are removed the cutting proceeds without drawing as the pieces are cut away from the main carcass and the separate process of drawing is unnecessary. The legs are removed and each separated at the joint, dividing into the drumstick and thigh. The wings are removed and the tips cut off. Next the body cavity is cut into below the keel, and a cut is made up through the juncture of the ribs on both sides. The shoulders are severed and the entire breast is removed. The back is cut in half. The breast may be cut into two pieces.

Care of

Eggs

Eggs produced by the flock should be gathered at least once a day (twice would be better, around noon and late in the afternoon) and placed in a cool, place such as a

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refrigerator, cellar or basement. The temperature where the eggs are stored should be as near fifty degrees as possible. Eggs are of highest quality when they are used within a week or ten days. Do not store eggs where they will be near kerosene oil, onions or musty odors, because eggs will absorb the odor. During the spring months more eggs may be produced than can be used by the family. At this time the surplus may be stored in waterglass solution for use during a period of low production. Materials needed for fifteen dozen eggs are: nine quarts of water, three-fourths of a quart of water glass (soluble sodium silicate), one eightgallon earthern or glass jar or several small jars. The water is boiled, allowed to cool and poured into the jar, then the water glass is added. Before storing the eggs test them for soundness of shell by gently tapping them together. Eggs that are soiled, cracked or even slightly checked should not be put into water glass. The eggs are lowered into the solution with a long-handled spoon. Others may be added daily as they are gathered. The earthern jars should be.covered and kept in a cool place, and the eggs may be used as needed. They should be washed to remove the coating which covers the shell. While eggs will keep for a long period in water glass, it is seldom that they are held longer than six or eight months. When eggs preserved in water glass are to be boiled, a small hole should be made in the large end of the shell with a pin in order to allow the air to escape.

CHAPTER

XII

CAPONIZING IN ADDITION TO broilers, fryers, roasters, and stewing chickens that the small poultry flock produces for your table, there may be times when the supply of broilers and fryers is too great to be consumed by the family. Under such conditions the surplus cockerels can be canned for future use or they may be caponized. A capon is a male bird which has had its reproductive organs removed. The capon may be compared to the steer in cattle, the barrow in hogs, or the wether in sheep. The operation is more complex than on these animals, but once mastered is fairly easy. The successful removal of the testicles causes marked changes to take place in the growth, condition, and habits of the bird. Capons grow larger than cockerels of the same breed and retain the softness of flesh which is characteristic of young birds. As they mature, there is a tendency to lay on fat, and it is this fat which upon cooking produces the juiciness which characterizes capon meat. Many prefer capons to turkey at the holiday season because of the better flavor and the absence of dryness associated with the meat of the turkey. After the operation, the cleanly castrated male fails to develop comb and wattles, and the hackle, saddle, and tail feathers grow unusually long and silky. He becomes quiet and docile, rarely, if ever, crowing. 115

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RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

FIGURE XXI

Equipment Required to Perform Properly the Operation of Caponizing A—Caponizing Board B—Fastening Straps C—Knife D—Probe and Tearing Hook E—Spreader F—Remover or Extractor

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Breeds to Caponize The general purpose breeds and meat breeds will be found to be the most satisfactory for caponizing. The general purpose breeds, such as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, and New Hampshires, should develop into seven- to nine-pound capons in eight or nine months. Birds of the meat breeds, such as the Jersey Giants, will probably take a month longer but their weight will run around a pound heavier. Leghorn cockerels also make very satisfactory capons, developing into five or six pound birds.

Care Before the Operation Strong, vigorous cockerels should be selected and the operation should be performed before there is much sign of comb development. Birds from one and one-half to two and one-half pounds in weight or from eight to twelve weeks of age are about the proper size. They should be placed in clean crates without litter and kept in a comfortable place without feed for a period of twelve to twenty-four hours. This starvation period is all important, for the operation is most easily performed on properly starved birds and there is much less bleeding.

Equipment

Necessary

There are many types of holding devices and caponizing tools on the market, and it is a matter of personal choice and training as to which shall be chosen. Figure 21 shows the equipment which will give satisfactory

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results. The caponizing board and holding straps are simple. They make possible the speedy fastening of the birds, and they can be easily adjusted for various sizes of birds and to meet varying conditions of light. The board is made of soft pine one-half inch thick, and is cut eight inches wide and fifteen inches long. A screw eye for fastening the straps is inserted at each end of the board. The straps are of one-half-inch rawhide cut twelve inches long and having a solid metal ring attached by a rivet at one end. The slots as illustrated are placed one and one-half inches apart. The instruments shown have been gathered from several sets. As the most important instrument is the remover, care should be used in its selection. The remover in the illustration is quite popular, and is known as "The Farmer Miles Remover." Its simplicity and smooth construction make it a very desirable instrument. Many other types of instruments sold are quite as desirable as those illustrated. It is also desirable to have a small pan partially filled with lukewarm water. A few drops of a good disinfectant should be added and the instruments placed in this solution after each step in the operation.

The Operation If possible, caponizing should be done on a bright, sunny day. For the convenience of the opetator, choose a sheltered spot where unlimited sunshine is available. Set up a barrel or a couple of egg cases as a table on which to work. A crate containing the cockerels should be close at hand and another empty crate should be provided to receive the cockerels after the operation.

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119

The cockerel should be fastened to the caponizing board by means of the straps, one strap being placed around the wings close to the body, the end drawn through the ring and the strap fastened to the board by means of the slots and the screw eye. The other strap should be placed around the legs above the hock joint and, after the bird is drawn taut, should be fastened in the suitable slot. In securing the bird to the board, the left side should be next to the board and the right side of the bird should face the operator. Since the incision is made between the last two ribs of the bird, pluck a few feathers from this region, thus exposing these ribs. Wet this area with a little of the solution from the pan and soak the surrounding feathers thoroughly so that they are held back out of the operator's way. In making the incision, hold the knife firmly between the thumb and forefinger, allowing only about onefourth inch of the blade to be exposed. Held in this manner, it is hardly possible to cut so deeply that the intestines are injured. With the forefinger of the left hand, locate the last two ribs which lie just in front of the hip joint. Draw the skin back toward the hip and place the knife between the ribs approximately one-half to threequarters of an inch below the backbone. Now make an incision about one inch long by drawing the knife toward you, being careful to follow the curve of the ribs. The spreader should then be inserted and the incision opened as far as possible without tearing the flesh. With the tearing hook, tear the thin membranes which cover the intestines, but carefully avoid hooking the intestines. The upper testicle can then be observed lying just below the front end of the kidney and close to the backbone. In birds of proper size, the testicle will be about the

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size of a grain of wheat and usually deep yellow, although at times the color may be gray or even black. The lower organ lies just underneath the upper and may be seen by raising the upper with the probe. A large artery will be observed running between the two; should this be punctured during the removal of the organs, death will result. With the jaws of the removers slightly open, reach underneath the lower testicle and gently move the instrument upward, allowing the organ to slip between the open jaws. Being sure that the entire organ is within the remover and that no blood vessels have been grasped, slowly pull the instrument out of the body cavity with a twisting motion until the organ is severed from the body. Next, remove the upper testicle in a similar manner. Should difficulty be encountered in attempting to remove both organs from one side, the upper one should be removed and the bird turned over and operated on from the left side. It is essential that the organs be removed intact, for if the wall of the testicle is ruptured and a portion allowed to remain in the body cavity, a "slip" will result. Since a "slip" has neither the good qualities of the capon nor the reproductive qualities of the rooster, it is important that every precaution be taken to avoid it.

Care After the

Operation

After the operation, the birds should be banded, toepunched, or by some other means marked so as to differentiate them from the other birds. They should be confined to a small yard and fed on a moist mash for a few days. After a week or ten days, they may be allowed

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to run with the flock. Some of the birds may bloat during the first week. Such a condition is not serious and may be remedied by simply pricking the skin with a small knife and forcing the air out.

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fPI

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE XXII A convenient

coop for hen and

chicks

CHAPTER

XIII

INCUBATION ALTHOUGH the most common and easiest ways of either starting or replacing the small flock are by the three methods previously mentioned—namely, the purchase of day-old chicks, started chicks or ready-to-lay pullets— there is still a fourth way that some flock owners will find convenient. This is by incubation or hatching eggs produced by the small flock. Replenishing the flock by incubation will depend upon the size of flock and the amount of room available. Another important factor to consider is the neighborhood's attitude toward crowing roosters. Where incubation is practiced with the small flock, it is necessary to have a male bird in the pen to fertilize the eggs. Only one male should be necessary in the small flock, since the common rule is that one male bird will be sufficient to fertilize the eggs produced from a flock of from ten to twenty females. There are two methods of hatching eggs, the natural method and the artificial method.

Natural Incubation The natural method is the most economical when only a small number of eggs are to be set since this method does not require any expenditure for equipment. In gen123

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eral, when less than one hundred chicks are wanted in a season it is sensible to use natural incubation. The natural method of incubation has very definite disadvantages, chief of which is the problem of securing broody hens for setting. No incubation can be done until the hen has indicated her intention of setting by remaining on the nest for two or three days. This means that only a few eggs can be incubated at a time as the hens do not all become broody at once. The result is a great variation in the ages of chicks, a disadvantage. The labor of caring for setting hens could be used more profitably and it takes a lot of time to care for setting hens. Using hens for incubation sometimes causes a heavy loss of valuable eggs as there is no assurance that a broody hen will not leave her nest before the hatch is over.

Procedure to Follow in Hatching With Hens The hen used for hatching should be one of the general purpose breeds such as Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte or Rhode Island Red. These breeds make the best mothers as a rule, and there is less danger of them leaving the nest before the hatch is over. In no case should a Leghorn be used for hatching. The time of setting the hen will depend entirely oil when the hen goes broody. The natural season will be from the middle of April throughout the summer. It is not advisable to set a hen before the middle of April, for any hen that is broody before that time will not continue for the entire hatch. The setting hen should be given a secluded spot so she will not be disturbed by other birds. The nest should be large enough and low enough so that there is no

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danger of the bird breaking the eggs when she gets on and off the nest. A barrel placed on the ground and braced so it will not roll makes an ideal nest for a setting hen. Use oat, straw or hay for nesting material and shape the material so that the eggs will not roll out. Before setting the hen should be treated for lice. This should also be done twice during the. incubation period, and any commercial lice powder can be used for this purpose. In feeding keep a supply of scratch grain, grit and fresh water available for the hen. If any eggs become broken during the hatch the nest should be thoroughly cleaned and the remaining eggs cleaned. Before putting the eggs to be hatched under the hen, move the hen to the new nest at night and place a half dozen china eggs under her. If the hen settles down and stays on the nest a few days it is then safe to give her the hatching eggs to incubate.

Artificial Incubation Almost all incubation of eggs is now done with incubators. Artificial incubation has several advantages over the natural method of incubation. Hatching can be started at any time with incubators and the labor involved is considerably less with incubators than with the hens. Where a large number of chicks are to be hatched, it is the cheaper method.

Operation of an Incubator Very little can be said as to the detail operation of an incubator as conditions under which incubators are operated vary so that it is a matter of time and experi-

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ence to operate an incubator well. Only a few general principles can be stated that apply to mostly all incubators. The first and most important of these general rules is: Follow the directions furnished with the incubator. The room in which the incubator is operated should provide a uniform temperature of about from sixty to sixty-five degrees. A cellar is generally the most satisfactory place for the incubator under farm conditions. Before any incubator is started for hatching it should be thoroughly checked to see if all is in working order. Thermometers should be checked as one or two degrees variation will seriously affect the hatch and the incubator should be operated for three days to a week before the eggs are placed in the machine. This will show up any defects and will thus save the eggs that otherwise would have been lost. Testing and turning the eggs should be followed as suggested in the directions of the manufacturer. In some machines testing the eggs to see if they contain live embryos is done several times and in others only once. Cooling the eggs during the hatch was a common practice in the past, but recent experiments now show that cooling is no longer essential. Cleaning the incubator after the hatch is a very important step in successful incubation. A thorough cleaning each time a hatch is removed reduces the danger of disease to a minimum. All portable parts, such as hatching trays and egg trays should be removed and the down and dust removed. The trays should then be washed in disinfectant. The interior of the incubator should be cleaned in the same manner as the trays. A two per cent solution of creolin or genoleum is a very satisfactory disinfectant. After the hatching season is over the incu-

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bator should be cleaned as described above, and in addition the heating unit should be thoroughly cleaned. PERIOD OF INCUBATION Kind of Poultry

Hen Turkey Duck Duck (Muscovy) Goose Guinea

Days Required

21 28 28 33-35 29-31 26-28

Eggs for Hatching There is an old saying among poultrymen: "Given a good egg, almost any incubator will hatch it." There is a lot of truth in this statement. Unless the hatching eggs are produced by strong, healthy breeders and properly cared for before being placed in an incubator, there is little prospect of a good hatch. It is generally agreed that the care of hatching eggs is probably the most important part of incubation. Following are listed six points that should be closely followed in the care of eggs for hatching. 1. Collect eggs twice a day; three times during cold weather. 2. Hold at a temperature of from fifty-five to sixty degrees. 3. Turn eggs once a day. 4. Do not hold eggs longer than ten days. 5. Save only uniform eggs; size, shape and color to be considered. 6. Set nothing less than a two-ounce egg.

CHAPTER

XIV

RABBITS AS FOOD IN RECENT YEABS there has been a growing interest in the raising of rabbits since these pleasant little fellows are not very difficult to raise and offer an attractive addition to the family's supply of meat. The man who raises a backyard poultry flock often finds the raising of rabbits an agreeable "sideline." Few people are familiar with the food value and delicious flavor of domestic rabbit meat. These animals are clean in habits and the nature of their food makes their meat sweet, tender and of excellent flavor. Delicious young frier rabbits can be produced in from two to three months and will average from three and one-half to four and one-quarter pounds at two months of age. As a rule, the dressed carcass will weigh from fifty to fifty-seven per cent of the live weight, and about seventy-seven per cent of the dressed carcass will be edible. Rabbit meat is all white, wholesome, tender and fine grain. It compares favorably with poultry meat in food value and the cost of production is low.

How to Start The same fundamentals of good poultry husbandry apply to raising rabbits. The family rabbitry need not 128

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be large. Two breeding does, as the females are called, and one buck, the common name for the male rabbit, will be all the adult stock you will need for the production of a generous supply of young frier rabbits. Each adult doe may be bred three or four times a year. The gestation period is from thirty-one to thirty-two days, and while size of litters vary they usually contain six or seven. The young stay with their mother until they are from six to eight weeks of age, at which time they are weaned. Once again, as in selecting for your poultry flock, you have a large number of different breeds and varieties of rabbits from which to choose. Since your interest in raising rabbits is for meat production, confine your choice to such medium or large size breeds as the Flemish Giant, New Zealand, American, French Silver and Chinchilla. If you feel that you may become interested in selling the pelts, it would be advisable to select a white variety since their skins usually bring a higher price on the market. A good way to start your family rabbitry is to purchase young rabbits that have just been weaned. The cost will be lower than if you buy mature rabbits.

Equipment Needed The home of the rabbit, commonly called a hutch, must protect the rabbit from extreme cold, heat, and rain, and the construction or type of hutch will vary, depending on location and climatic conditions. In mild climates a hutch with wire sides and a good roof with plenty of over-hang for protection against rains will be adequate. In cold climates the sides and back of the hutch should be constructed of wood. Each adult rabbit requires an individual hutch. The standard size hutch is

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two and one-half feet deep, two feet high and four feet long for the large breeds. As a rule, hutches are generally constructed in single, double or triple tiers, but the single tier is preferred if space is available. You will find the single tiered hutch easier to keep clean and convenient in caring for the rabbits. The floor of the hutch may be constructed of one-half inch or five-eighths inch mesh hardware cloth, nineteen gauge. Such a floor is self-cleaning. If wire cannot be purchased, a slatted wooden floor will prove satisfactory. When slats are used they should be from one to one and one-half inches wide and from one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick, and should be placed five-eighths of an inch apart. Figure 23 shows a standard type hutch. A manger for feeding hay is usually built in the partition separating each hutch. Under the manger is the feed trough for grain feeding. An individual water crock is used for each hutch. This completes the equipment needed, with the exception of a nest box. A nest box should be placed in the hutch twenty-seven days after mating. The usual size of the nest box is twelve inches deep, sixteen inches long, and twelve inches high. The top should be removable to facilitate cleaning. An entrance door six inches by six inches should be cut in one side of the nest box. An apple box will make a very satisfactory nest box. Another type of nest box is made from a nail keg. One with a thirteen inch head diameter is preferred for medium or large size rabbits. A board one inch by six inches by thirteen inches is placed across the open end. In the bottom of the keg are bored four holes one inch in diameter for ventilation. Provide a generous quantity of clean straw in the nest for the doe to build her nest.

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RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

FIGURE XXIII

Home-made, standard type rabbit hutch for two does and their young

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Feeding Your Rabbits Good quality wholesome food is essential to maintain your rabbits in good health. Rabbits are fed grain, protein supplement, hay, green food, salt, and water. The following grain mixture will be found satisfactory for mature does and bucks and young stock: two parts by weight of whole oats and wheat or barley and one part by weight of soybean meal (pea-sized oil cake or pellet form). For roughage good clover or alfalfa hay should be fed. A daily feeding of fresh green food should be given. A small block of salt should be in each hutch when the above ration is used. The only change necessary in this ration to make it suitable for feeding does with nursing litters is to increase the soybean meal from one to two parts. Be sure there is a constant supply of water always available to the rabbits. Many commercial companies manufacture complete rations in pellet form. These will be found very satisfactory for feeding. It is recommended that you carefully follow the feeding directions given on the package by the company. Green food is the natural food of the rabbit. Cabbage, celery, carrots, trimmings from your garden vegetables, and clover are a few of the many greens relished by rabbits. In feeding fresh green food do not feed in excess; only feed that amount that the rabbits will clean up. Remove any that has been left. The grain mixture should be fed to young stock and mature does and bucks once a day, giving all they will clean up in from twenty to thirty minutes. Does with nursing young should have a constant supply before them all the time.

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A supply of hay should always be available in the manger for the rabbits.

Breeding Young rabbits of the medium size breeds are ready to breed when they reach the age of from seven to nine months. Restlessness on the part of the doe and efforts to join other rabbits in adjoining hutch, or the rubbing of chin on feeders are indications that the doe is ready to be mated. The doe should always be taken to the buck's hutch for service. The doe resents the presence of the buck in her own hutch and may attack and injure the buck if he is placed in her hutch. Mating will take place immediately after the doe is placed with the buck. Mating is completed after the buck falls over on his side and the doe should then be returned to her own hutch. The act of giving birth to young rabbits is called kindling. Twenty-seven days after mating the nest box should be placed in the hutch of the doe. Care should be taken that there is a generous supply of straw in the box for the doe to make her nest. Less food than normally will be consumed by the pregnant doe one or two days before kindling. She should be given green food as it will have a beneficial effect on the digestive system. Most litters are kindled at night. After the doe has kindled, do not disturb her. A day after kindling the nest should be inspected and any dead or deformed young should be removed. If the doe becomes restless or irritable, tempt her with some feed to distract her attention. Some does will disown their young if they are disturbed. Does as a rule are excellent mothers and will nurse their young for six or eight weeks. At this time the milk

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supply will have decreased and the young rabbits will be accustomed to consuming feed. At this age the young rabbits will be known as friers, weighing three and threequarters to four and one-quarter pounds.

Handling Rabbits Contrary to the general practice, rabbits should never be lifted or carried by the ears. This method of handling will injure the rabbit. The proper method of lifting or carrying a mature rabbit is to grasp the fold of skin over the shoulders with your right hand with the back of the rabbit toward you, and then lift the rabbit and place your left hand under the rump to support the weight of the rabbit. Young frier rabbits can be easily carried by grasping with the hand the back of the rabbit at the loin region with the arm toward the tail of the rabbit. This method will prevent bruising the carcass or damaging the pelt.

Dressing Rabbits The easiest and most humane way of killing young rabbits is by dislocating the neck. Director George S. Templeton of the United States Rabbit Experiment Station, gives the following description of slaughtering, skinning, and dressing of rabbits: "In slaughtering a rabbit, the neck is usually dislocated by holding the animal by its hind legs with the left hand and placing the thumb of the right hand on the neck just back of the ears, with the four fingers extended under the chin. Pushing down on the neck with the right hand,

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135

stretching the animal, pressing down with the thumb, and raising its head by a quick movement dislocates the neck, renders the animal unconscious, and prevents struggling. The carcass is then suspended on a hook inserted between the tendon and the bone of the right hind leg just above the hock. The head is removed immediately to permit thorough bleeding so the meat will have a good color. The tail is removed; the free rear leg is removed at the hock joint, and the front feet are cut off; the skin is then cut just below the hock of the suspended leg and opened on the inside of the leg to the root of the tail and the incision continued to the hock of the left leg. The edges of the skin are carefully separated from the carcass, particular effort being made to leave all fat on the carcass as the skin is pulled down over the animal. This not only makes a more attractive meat product but facilitates drying the skin and prevents 'fat burns' on the pelt in drying. When a skin is left entire it is known as a cased skin. Even small cuts lessen the value of the skin. As soon as the skin is removed, it should be placed on a stretcher, secured, and hung up for drying. "After the carcass has been skinned, a slit is made along the median line of the belly, and the entrails are removed, the liver being left in place. The right hind foot is removed by severing at the hock. Particular care should be taken in dressing rabbits not to get hairs on the carcass; they are difficult to remove and give it an unattractive appearance. Rinsing the carcass in cold water facilitates removal of hair and blood and also cleanses the carcass. It is not a good practice to leave the carcass in water more than fifteen minutes; prolonged soaking causes it to absorb water, and the resulting presence of water in the meat is considered an adulteration of the product."

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BACKYARD POULTRY

KEEPING

Cooking Rabbit Meat Like poultry, the young tender rabbits may be fried or roasted, while old rabbits with tough muscles require longer and moist cooking. The Bureau of Home Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture gives the directions and recipes for cooking rabbit meat: "The rabbit should be washed carefully in cold water and patted dry with a clean towel. It may then be cut into eight to ten pieces (if not to be cooked whole). First disjoint the legs, cutting the hind legs into two pieces each if desired, and cut the saddle into four pieces." Fried rabbit—Cut a young tender rabbit in seven pieces, dredge with flour, salt, and pepper. Heat four tablespoons of fat in a frying pan, drop the rabbit into this, and fry slowly thirty to forty-five minutes, depending upon tenderness and age. Serve with cream gravy, using the fat in which the rabbit was fried. Fricassee of rabbit—Dredge the pieces of rabbit with flour, salt, and pepper. Brown in four tablespoons of fat. Change from frying pan to stewpan, cover with boiling water, and cook slowly until tender. Remove meat from broth. Thicken broth with one tablespoon of flour to one cup of broth. Boil vigorously for a minute or two, then add dumplings, cover closely, and allow to steam fifteen to twenty minutes. Pour dumplings and gravy over meat on hot serving platter. Baked rabbit—Split a young tender rabbit in two, cutting along the backbone. Rub with salt and a little pepper, place in a roasting pan, and dredge with flour. Lay strips of bacon across the rabbit. Pour over and around it three cups of white sauce or three cups of cream. Bake one and one-half hours, basting frequently. Serve hot with cream

RABBITS AS FOOD

137

gravy. The liver may be boiled until tender, chopped, and added to the gravy before serving. Rabbit stew with vegetables—Cut the rabbit into pieces, cover with hot water, and simmer until the meat is almost tender. Add four medium-sized potatoes cut in quarters, four large carrots cut in cubes, one mediumsized or two small onions, or other vegetables, if desired, and cook until tender. Salt, season with a few grains of pepper, and add three tablespoons of flour moistened in a little cold water. Stir until the broth surrounding the stew is slightly thickened, and serve at once. This is a good method of cooking an old rabbit. Rabbit pie—Cut a rabbit into pieces, put it into a stew pan, and cover with boiling water. Simmer until very tender. Remove meat from broth and concentrate broth to about one-half. Pick the meat from the bones in as large pieces as possible. Thicken stock with one tablespoon of flour for each cup of broth and pour over meat. Add two teaspoons of salt and one-eighth teaspoon of pepper. Line the sides of a baking dish with crust, add meat mixture, cover with crust, and bake in hot oven thirty minutes. This also is a method of cooking a rabbit that is too tough for frying or baking.

APPENDIX A

COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS Reliable sources of information are often needed by the small poultry flock owner as well as the commercial producer. Your State Agricultural College and Experiment Station or Extension Service is the source to which you should turn for advice. In each case below I have listed the college or experiment station, where to write, and the name of the expert in charge of the poultry department: Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama D. F. King University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona H. Embleton University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas R. M. Smith University of California, Berkeley, California L. W. Taylor University of Colorado, Fort Collins, Colorado H. S. Wilgus, Jr. University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut H. M. Scott University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware A. E. Tomhave 138

APPENDIX A

139

University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida M. R. Mehrhof University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia J. C. Bell University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho C. E. Lampman University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois L. E. Card Purdue University (Indiana), Lafayette, Indiana J. Holmes Martin Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa H. L. Wilcke Kansas State College, Manhattan, Kansas L. F. Payne Kentucky College of Agriculture, Lexington, Kentucky W. M. Insko, Jr. Louisiana State University, University, Louisiana H. J. Davis Maine College of Agriculture, Orono, Maine J. R. Smyth University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland M. A. Jull Massachusetts State College, Amherst, Massachusetts R. T. Parkhurst Michigan State College of Agriculture, E. Lansing, Michigan C. G. Card University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota H. J. Sloan Mississippi State College, State College, Mississippi G. R. Sipe University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri H. Kempster

140

BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING

Montana State College, Bozeman, Montana R. T. Clark University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska F. E. Mussehl University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada C. J. Thornton New Hampshire State College of Agriculture, Durham, N. H. T. B. Charles New Jersey State College of Agriculture, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. W. C. Thompson New Mexico College of Agriculture, State College, New Mexico L. N. Berry New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York J. H. Bruckner North Carolina State College of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. R. S. Dearstyne North Dakota Agricultural College, Fargo, North Dakota F. E. Moore Ohio State College of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio E. L. Dakan Oklahoma A. & M. College, Stillwater, Oklahoma R. B. Thompson Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon H. E. Cosby Pennsylvania State College of Agriculture, State College, Pa. H. C. Knandel

APPENDIX A

141

Rhode Island State College, Kingston, Rhode Island H. O. Stuart Clemson Agricultural College (South Carolina), Clemson, S. C. C. L. Morgan South Dakota State College, Brookings, South Dakota W. E. Poley University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee B. J. McSpadden Agricultural College of Texas, College Station, Texas D. H. Reid Utah Agricultural College, Logan, Utah Byron Alder Vermont State Agricultural College, Burlington, Vermont D. C. Henderson Virginia A. & M. College and Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia L. Bryant ."tate College of Washington, Pullman, Washington J. S. Carver West Virginia College of Agriculture, Morgantown, W. Va. E. A. Livesay University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin J. G. Halpin University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming M. O. North

APPENDIX B

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES POULTRY WHAT IT CONTRIBUTES TO DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENTS

Poultry meat furnishes— Proteins of high biological value Minerals—phosphorus, iron, calcium Vitamins—A D Ascorbic Acid ( C ) Pantothenic Acid Riboflavin (B 2 or G) Thiamin ( B J Liver and Heart furnish—vitamins A, D, Niacin, Pantothenic acid, Riboflavin. Gizzard furnishes—Riboflavin.

142

APPENDIX

143

B

EGGS WHAT T H E Y CONTRIBUTE TO DAILY FOOD

Food Nutrients Protein Calories Calcium Phosphorus Iron Vitamin A Thiamin (Bj) Vitamin D Riboflavin Niacin Pantothenic Acid * For the average adult.

REQUIREMENTS

One Egg Contains

% of Daily Requirements One Egg Supplies *

6.7 grams 70 calories 0.03 grams 0.11 grams 1.55 mg. 200-8001. U. 20-401. U. 10-50 I. U. 100-500 meg. 760 meg. 600-1200 meg.

10% 2-3% 4% 9% 13% 4-16% 3-6% 3-12% 3-7% 3-4% 6-12%

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BACKYARD P O U L T R Y

KEEPING

CLASSIFICATION O F TABLE Dressed Weight

Kind of Bird

POULTRY

Approximate Age

Characteristics

CHICKENS

Broilers

Up to 3 lbs.

8-12 wks.

Sufficiently soft meat to be cooked tender by broiling.

Fryers

3—i

lbs.

14-20 wks.

Sufficiently soft meat to be cooked tender by frying.

Roasters

4 lbs. up

5 - 9 mos.

Soft meated.

Capons (unsexed)

Over 4 lbs.

7-10 mos.

Soft meated tender.

Fowls (hens)

Any weight

Mature 1 yr. up

Contain more connective tissue t h a n roasters, hence are less tender and cost less per pound.

Stags (roosters)

Any weight

Between roaster and cock

Cocks (roosters)

Any weight

Mature

Darkened and toughened.

Young Hen

8-12 lbs.

Usually under 1 yr.

Soft meat, rear tip of breastbone (not hump) still flexible. Smooth skin, sharp claws. N o long hairs.

Young torn (male)

9-22 lbs.

Usually under lyr.

Same as young hen.

Old hen

10-15 lbs. or more.

Mature

Toughened flesh. Hardened breastbone.

Old torn

16-30 lbs.

Mature

Toughened flesh. Hardened breastbone.

and

TURKEYS

APPENDIX SUITABLE

SEED MIXTURES (PER

FOR POULTRY

5 6 4 3 2

RANGES

ACRE)

Poor WellDrained Land or Light Soils

Good WellDrained. Land Lbs. per Acre Timothy Kentucky blue red clover alsike clover white clover

145

B

Lbs. per Acre Timothy red top Kentucky blue Canada blue orchard grass alsike clover white clover

Wet PoorlyDrained Land 3 3 3 3 3 3 2

Lbs. per Acre Timothy red top Kentucky blue orchard grass alsike clover white clover

2 3 4 3 3 2

Seeding rates are given on the acre basis. To determine the amount of seed needed on ranges less than one acre in size, find the number of square feet in the yard and calculate the proportional part of an acre. An acre contains 43,560 square feet. A yard 120' X 120' contains , r 14,000 n< 14,400 square feet or - approximately % acre. Where space for ranges is not available it would be profitable to grow some green crops in an adjoining area. Such crops as Swiss chard, kale or lettuce can be easily grown in the garden.

Crop Kale—Tall Siberian Grand Rapids Lettuce Swiss Chard

Seed for 200 ft. of Row 1 oz. Yi oz. 2 oz.

Seeding Date April 1 April 1 April 1

Ready for Use June 1 June 1 June 1

The above crops should be planted in rows about 2/2 feet apart. The Swiss chard and kale should be thinned so that plants are twelve inches apart in the row.

146

BACKYARD P O U L T R Y

KEEPING

STANDARD EGG PRODUCTION GUIDE Month

Eggs Per

January February March April May June July August September October November December

Bird

9 12 14 16 16 19 18 19 18 17 15 10

DISINFECTANT

WHITEWASH

Hydrated lime Salt Commercial lime-sulphur dip Water

1Y2 2 4 40

pecks pounds gallons gallons

Note: An ounce of alum added to a gallon of lime whitewash lends adhesiveness. A pound of cheap bar soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling water, then added to five gallons of boiling water, and it in turn added to about five gallons of thick whitewash will give it a gloss like oil paint. FEED

REQUIREMENTS

60 lbs. to feed a turkey to market age. 25 lbs. to feed 100 hens daily. 25 lbs. to feed a pullet to laying age.

APPENDIX

147

B

P E R C E N T LOSS O F W E I G H T IN DRESSING

Average Weight of Birds Alive Under 3 lbs. 3 to 4 lbs. 4 to 5 lbs. Over 5 lbs.

Loss Due to Dressing

POULTRY

Loss Due to Draining

Total Loss Dressing and Drawing

13 11 10 7

27 25 22 18

%

%

9.5 10.4

14.65 15.39

24.2 24.7

%

40 36 32 25

TURKEYS

Males—18.2 lbs. Females—11.0 lbs.

A F E W S T A N D A R D B R E E D S AND V A R I E T I E S O F R A B B I T S

Breed

Standard Mature Weight Buck Doe Pounds Pounds

American (Blue & White) 9 Belgian Hare 8 Chinchilla, Amer. Heavyweight 9 Flemish Giants, Steel Grey, Light Grey, Black, White, Blue 13 or over Flemish Giant, Sandy Grey 14 or over New Zealand (Red and White)—seniors only

9-10

Primary Utility Value

10 8

Meat, fur, show Meat andshow

10

Fur and meat Meat, fur, hatters pelts, show

15 or over 16 or over 10-11

Meat, show, fur, hatters pelts Meat, show, fur, hatters pelts