Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 4: East Asia 0226467694, 9780226467696

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IN IN THE THE MAKING MAKING OF OF EUROPE EUROPE

IN T THE MAKING OF EUROPE IN HE M A K I N G OF EUROPE DONALD F. F. LACH LACH and and EDWIN EDWIN J.J. VAN DONALD VAN KLEY KLEY VOLUME VOLUME

ill HI A A Century of Century of Advance Advance BOOK BOOK FOUR: FOUR: EAST EAST ASIA ASIA

THE THE

UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY

OF OF

CHICAGO CHICAGO

CHICAGO AND AND LONDON LONDON CHICAGO

PRESS PRESS

THE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY Of OF CHICAGO CHICAGO PRESS, PRESS, CHICAGO CHICAGO 60637 60637 THE The Press, Ltd., The University University of of Chicago Chicago Press, Ltd., London London

© 1993 1993 by by The The University University of of Chicago Chicago © All rights reserved. All rights reserved. Published Published 1993 1993 Paperback edition edition 1998 1998 Paperback Printed in in the the United States of of America America Printed United States 98 98 5 54 4 33 22 Library of of Congress Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data Library for volume (Revised for 3) (Revised volume 3) Lach, Donald Donald F. F. (Donald (Donald Frederick), Frederick), 1917— Lach, 1917Asia making of Asia in in the the making of Europe. Europe. Vol. - b y Donald Donald F.F. Lach Lach and and Edwin Edwin J.J. Van Van Kley. Kley. Vol. 33 -by Includes Includes bibliographies bibliographies and and indexes. indexes. Contents: v. v. I. 1. The The century century of of discovery. discovery. 2.V.2.v.— Contents: v. 2. A century of of wonder. Book I. 1. The The visual visual arts. arts. v. 2. A century wonder. Book Book 2. 2. The The literary literary arts. arts. Book 3. The The scholarly scholarly disBook Book 3. disciplines. 3. 3. v.-v. v.—v. 3. century of of advance. advance. Book Book 1. ciplines. 3. A A century I. Trade, literature. Book South Asia. Asia. Trade, missions, missions, literature. Book 2. 2. South Book 3. 3. Southeast Southeast Asia. Asia. Book Book 4. 4. East East Asia. Asia. 44 v. v. Book 1. Europe-Civilization-Oriental Europe—Civilization—Oriental influences. influences. I. 2. Asia-History. Asia—History. 3. 3. Asia-Discovery Asia—Discovery and and exploration. exploration. 2. I. Van Kley, Edwin II. Title. Title. Edwin J. II. I. Van Kley, CB203.L32 303.48'2405'0903 64-19848 L 32 CB203· 303.48'2405'0903 64-19848 ISBN 0-226-46765-1 0-226-46765-1 ISBN ISBN 0-226-46767-8 0-226-46767-8 ISBN ISBN 0-226-46768-6 0-226-46768-6 ISBN ISBN 0-226-46769-4 ISBN 0-226-46769-4

(v. (v. (v. (v. (v. (v. (v. (v.

3. bk. bk. 3. 3. hk. bk. 3. 3. bk. bk. 3. 3. bk. bk. 3.

1) I) 2) 2) 3) 3) 4) 4)

This publication publication has been supported supported by by aa grant grant This has been from National Endowment Endowment for from the the National for the the Humanities, Humanities, an independent independent federal federal agency. agency. an @ The The paper paper used used in in this this publication publication meets meets the the minimum minimum @ requirements of of the the American American National National Standard Standard for requirements for Information Paper for Information Sciences-Permanence Sciences—Permanence of of Paper for Printed Printed Library Materials, Materials, ANSI ANSI Z39.48-1992. Z39.48 —1992. Library

Contents Contents BOOK BOOK FOUR FOUR (PART III CONTINUED)

(PART HI CONTINUED)

List of Abbreviations List of Abbreviations Note to Illustrations Note to Illustrations List of Illustrations List of Illustrations List of Maps List of Maps

Xl

xi Xlll

xiii

XVll

xvii

XXIX

xxix

Chapter XX: CHINA: THE LATE MING DYNASTY 1. Jesuit Jesuit Letterbooks, Letterbooks, Ethnohistories, Ethnohistories, and and Travelogues I. Travelogues Geography, Names Geography, Climate, Climate, and and Names 3. 3. Government Government and and Administration Administration 4. 4. Economic Economic Life Life 5. 5. Society Society and and Customs Customs 6. Intellectual Intellectual Life Life 6. 7. Religion Religion and and Philosophy Philosophy 7. 2. 2.

Chapter XXI: CHINA: THE EARLY CH'ING DYNASTY I. The 1. The Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest The Post-Conquest Literature The Post-Conquest Literature 3. The The Land Land and and Its Its People People 3. 4. Government Government and and Administration Administration 4. 5. Intellectual Intellectual Life Life 5. 6. Religion Religion and and Philosophy Philosophy 6. 2. 2.

[v] [v]

1563

1564 15 64 1571 1571 15 79 1579 1593 1593 1619 1619 1634 16 34 1648 1648

1662 1663 166 3 1676 1676 1687 1687 1707 170 7 1717 I7I7 1731 1731

Contents Contents Chapter XXII: XXII: CHINA'S PERIPHERY Chapter

1754 1754

1. I.

Inner Asia Asia Inner A. A. Manchuria, Manchuria, Inner Inner Mongolia, Mongolia, and and Eastern Eastern Siberia Siberia B. B. Mongolia Mongolia and and Central Central Asia Asia 2. 2. Tibet Tibet 3. 3. Korea Korea 4. 4. Formosa Formosa (Taiwan) (Taiwan) Chapter XXIII: XXIII: JAPAN JAPAN Chapter

1755 1755 1759 1759 1767 1767 1773 1773 1783 1783 1797 1797 I 828

1. Missionary Missionary Reports Reports to to 1650 1650 I. 2. 2. English English and and Dutch Dutch Descriptions Descriptions before before 1650 1650 3. Post-1650 Post-1650 Reports Reports 3. EPILOGUE: A A COMPOSITE COMPOSITE PICTURE PICTURE Chapter XXIV: XXIV: EPILOGUE: Chapter

1829 1848 1873 1889

General Bibliography Bibliography General Reference Reference Materials Materials Source Source Materials Materials Jesuit Letterbooks Letterbooks Jesuit

1919 1932 1983

Chapter Bibliographies Bibliographies Chapter

2000 2000

Cumulative Cumulative Index Index

xxxi XXXI

(Contents of of other other books books inin Volume VolumeIII) HI) (Contents BOOK ONE ONE BOOK

PART II

The Continuing Continuing Expansion in the the East The Expansion in East Introduction Introduction

33

Chapter I: I: EMPIRE EMPIRE AND AND TRADE TRADE Chapter

I. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5. 6. 6.

The The Iberian Iberian Maritime Maritime Empire Empire of of the the East East Iberia's Iberia's Shrinking Shrinking Trade Trade The Dutch Dutch Empire Empire The Jan Jan Company's Company's Trade Trade The English English East East India India Company Company The The The Lesser Lesser Companies Companies

[vi] VI

55

10 10

25 25 40 40 62 62 73 73 88 88

Contents Contents 7. European-Asian European-Asian Economic Economic Relations Relations at at Century's Century's End End 7· Appendix: Spice Prices Prices and and Quantities Quantities in in the Seventeenth Appendix: Spice the Seventeenth Century Century Chapter Chapter II: II: THE CHRISTIAN MISSION

105 lO5 118 lI8 130 130

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3· 4. 4· 5. 5·

The The Friars Friars of of the the "Padroado" "Padroado" The The "Padroado" "Padroado" Jesuits Jesuits in in South South Asia Asia The "Padroado" "Padroado" Jesuits Jesuits in in East East Asia Asia The The The Spanish Spanish "Patronato" "Patronato" of of the the East East "Propaganda Fide" Fide" (1622), (1622), "Missions "Missions Etrangeres" Etrangeres" (1664), "Propaganda (1664), and the the Jesuits Jesuits and 6. The The Protestant Protestant Missions Missions 6. Appendix: The The Archbishops Archbishops of of Goa Goa in in the the Seventeenth Seventeenth Appendix: Century Century PART

135 135 145 145 168 168 200 200

222 222 269 269 298 298

II II

The Printed Word The Printed Word Introduction Introduction

301 301

Chapter Chapter III: III: THE THE IBERIAN IBERIAN LITERATURE LITERATURE 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3· 4. 4·

306 306

Exploration, Exploration, Conquest, Conquest, and and Mission Mission Stations Stations A Nervous Era of of Peace, Peace, 1609-21 1609-21 A Nervous Era Imperial Breakdown Breakdown in in Europe Europe and and Asia, Asia, 1621 1621-41 Imperial -41 The Restoration Restoration Era, Era, 1641 1641-1700 The - 1700 Chapter IV: IV: THE THE ITALIAN ITALIAN LITERATURE LITERATURE Chapter

307 307 326 32 6 335 335 348 34 8

67 3367

1. The The Jesuit Jesuit Letters Letters to to Mid-Century Mid-Century 1. 2. New Horizons and and Old Old Polemics Polemics 2. New Horizons Chapter V: V: THE FRENCH LITERATURE LITERATURE Chapter THE FRENCH

368 368 379 379 390 390

1. The The Jesuit Jesuit Letters Letters and and the the Pre-Company Pre-Company Voyages Voyages 1. 2. The The Paris Paris Society Society of of Foreign Foreign Missions Missions and and the the French French East East 2. India Company Company India 3. Siam Siam and and China China 3· Chapter VI: THE NETHERLANDISH LITERATURE Chapter VI: THE NETHERLANDISH LITERATURE 1. 1. Early Early Voyages Voyages to to the the East East Indies, Indies, 1597-1625 1597-1625 2. Penetrations Penetrations beyond beyond the the East East Indies Indies to to 1645 1645 2.

[vii] [vii]

391 39 1 407 407 420 420 435 435

437 437 450 450

Contents Contents Voortgangh" (1645) 3. Isaac Isaac Commelin's Commelin's "Begin "Begin ende ende Voortgangh" (1645) 3· 4. New New Horizons Horizons and and Dimensions, Dimensions, 1646-71 1646-71 4· 5. Fin Fin de de siecle: siecle: Decline Decline 5· Chapter VII: THE GERMAN AND AND DANISH LITERATURE LITERATURE

461 461 473 473 493 493

09 5509

1. Jesuit Jesuit Letterbooks Letterbooks and and Relations Relations to to Mid-Century Mid-Century I. 2. Travel Mid-Century 2. Travel Collections Collections to to Mid-Century 3. A A Limited Limited Revival, Revival, 1650-1700 1650-1700 3· Chapter VIII: Chapter VIII: THE ENGLISH LITERATURE

510 510 515 515 525 525 547 547

1. The The First First Generation, Generation, 16001600-1626 1. 1626 2. 2. The The Turbulent Turbulent Middle Middle Years, Years, 1630-80 1630-80 1700 3. A A Late Late Harvest, Harvest, 16801680-1700 3·

549 549 569 569 576 576

BOOK TWO BOOK TWO III PART III

The European Imagesofof Asia The European Images Asia Introduction Introduction

601 601

Chapter Chapter IX: IX: THE MUGHUL EMPIRE BEFORE AURANGZIB 1. 1.

The The English English and and Dutch Dutch Profile: Profile: First First Generation Generation

2. The The Mughul Mughul Court Court to to 1618 1618 2.

3. Gujarat Gujarat Unveiled Unveiled 3· 4. Shah Jahan (r. 16271627-58) and His His Empire Empire Shah Jahan (r. 58) and 4· Jahan and 5. Shah Shah Jahan and His His Sons Sons 5· Chapter X: X: THE EMPIRE OF OF AURANGZIB Chapter AURANGZIB

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3· 4. 4· 5. 5· 6. 6. 7. 7·

The The Court, Court, the the Nobility, Nobility, and and the the Army Army The The Provinces Provinces Surat Surat Bombay Bombay and and the the Portuguese Portuguese Ports Ports The Deccan Wars, Rajputs, Rajputs, and and Sivaji Sivaji The Deccan Wars, Religious Religious Beliefs Beliefs and and Practices Practices Economy Economy and and Society Society Chapter XI: FROM GOA G O A TO TO CAPE CAPE COMORIN COMORIN

1. 1. Goa, Goa, the the Metropole Metropole 2. 2. Bijapur Bijapur

603 603 604 60 4 629 629 644 644 672 672 696 696 706 706 709 709 728 728 739 739 756 75 6 763 763 779 779 799 799 838 83 8

840 840 855 855 [viii] [ viii ]

Contents Contents 3. Kanara Kanara 3· Malabar the Portuguese 4. and the Portuguese 4· Malabar and Malabar and the Dutch 5. Malabar and the Dutch 5·

863 863 874 874 910 910

Chapter XII: SOUTH ASIA Chapter XII: INSULAR INSULAR SOUTH ASIA

933 933

1. The Maldive and and Laccadive The Maldive Laccadive Archipelagoes Archipelagoes I. 2. Ceylon 2. Ceylon A. Sources Sources A. The Land B. The Land and and Its Its Products Products B. Government and Society C. Government and Society C. Chapter XIII: XIII: COROMANDEL COROMANDEL Chapter 1. I. 2. 2. 3. 3· 4. 4·

934 934 945 945 946 946 958 95 8 970 970 998 99 8

The Jesuit Enterprises The Jesuit Enterprises The Advent Advent of of the the Dutch Dutch and and English English The Hinduism Hinduism at at Pulicat Pulicat (Tamilnadu) (Tamilnadu) The Downfall Downfall of of Two Two Empires: Empires: Vijayanagar and Golconda Golconda The Vijayanagar and Appendix: Castes of of South South Asia Asia in in the Seventeenth Appendix: The The Castes the Seventeenth Authors) Century (According (According to Century to European European Authors)

1001 1001 1017 1017 1029 1029 1057 1057 1102 II 02

BOOK BOOK THREE THREE (PART (PART 1II HI CONTINUED) CONTINUED)

Chapter XIV: CONTINENTAL SOUTHEAST SOUTHEAST ASIA: ASIA: MALAYA, MALAYA, Chapter XIV: CONTINENTAL PEGU, ARAKAN, CAMBODIA, AND LAOS PEGU, ARAKAN, CAMBODIA, AND LAOS

II I I II II

1. Malaya Malaya I. Pegu Pegu and and Arakan Arakan 3. Cambodia Cambodia and and Laos Laos 3.

1113 III3 II 22 1122 1146 II 46

2. 2.

Chapter XV: SIAM Chapter XV: SIAM

1. I. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5.

1168 II68

Iberian and and Dutch Dutch Accounts Iberian Accounts Narai (r. (r. 1656-88) 1656-88) and and the French Narai the French The The Physical Physical Environment Environment State Administration State Service Service and and Administration Society, Culture, Culture, and and Buddhism Buddhism Society, Chapter XVI: Chapter XVI:VIETNAM VIETNAM

1169 II 69 1185 II85 1197 II97 I2II 1211 1222 1222 1248

I. 1.

First Notices First Notices The Nguyen and the Christians The Nguyen and the Christians 3. Tongking Tongking under under the the Trinh 3. Trinh

1250 1250 1266 1266 1276 1276

2. 2.

[ixl [ix]

Contents Contents Chapter Chapter XVII: XVII: INSULINDIA: THE WESTERN ARCHIPELAGO

1. Java Java I. A. A. Development Development of of the the Literature Literature B. Geography and the B. Geography and the Landscape Landscape C. C. Batavia, Batavia, the the Metropole Metropole and and Its Its Hinterland Hinterland D. Character, Customs, Society, D. Character, Customs, Society, and and Culture Culture E. E. Political Political Life Life F. F. Economics Economics and and Trade Trade 2. 2. Bali Bali 3. 3. Sumatra Sumatra A. Placement, A. Placement, Climate, Climate, and and Products Products B. Acheh and B. Acheh and Other Other Towns Towns C. C. Populace, Populace, Customs, Customs, and and Beliefs Beliefs D. D. Economy Economy and and Polity Polity 4. 4. Borneo Borneo Chapter Chapter XVIII: XVIII: INSULINDIA: THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO AND THE AUSTRAL LANDS

1. The The Moluccas Moluccas I. Amboina (Ambon) Amboina (Ambon) 3. 3. The The Bandas Bandas 4. Celebes Celebes 4. 5. 5. The The Lesser Lesser Sundas Sundas 6. 6. Insular Insular Southeast Southeast Asia's Asia's Eastern Eastern and and Southern Southern Periphery: Periphery: New Guinea, the Pacific New Guinea, the Pacific Islands, Islands, and and Australia Australia A. Neighboring Islands A. New New Guinea Guinea and and Neighboring Islands B. New Zealand B. Australia Australia and and New Zealand 2. 2.

THE PHILIPPINES PHILIPPINES AND AND THE THE MARIANAS MARIANAS Chapter XIX: XIX: THE Chapter (LADRONES)

1. I.

"Indios" (Filipinos) (Filipinos) and and Spaniards Spaniards "Indios" Deeper Penetrations Penetrations Deeper 3. and Jolo Jolo 3. Mindanao Mindanao and 4. Guam Guam and and the the Marianas Marianas (Ladrones) (Ladrones) 4.

2. 2.

[xl

1300 1300 1302 1302 1302 1302 1306 1306 1313 1313 1329 1329 1341 1341 1348 1348 1356 1356 60 1360 13 62 1362 13 66 1366 13 1369 1369 1374 1374 1384 84 13 1396 1396

1397 1397 1416 1416 1427 1427 1436 1436 1455 1455 1466 1466 1467 67 14 1476 1476 14911 149

1493 1493 1511 1511 15311 153 1544 1544

Abbreviations Abbreviations AHSI AHSI

Archivum Iesu Archivum Historicum Historicum Societatis Societatis Iesu

Annales. Annales. E.S.C. E.S.C.

Annales: societes,civilisations; civilisations; revue trimestrielle Annales: Economies, Economies, societes, revue trimestrielle

Asia Asia

Earlier Earlier volumes volumes of of this this work: work: D. D. Lach, Lach, Asia Asia in in the the Making Making of Europe, II (Chicago, (Chicago, 1965-77) 1965—77) of Europe, Vols. Vols. II and and II

BR BR

Blair, (eds.), The The Blair, Emma Emma H., H., and and Robertson, Robertson, James James A. A. (eds.), Philippine 1493-1898 (55 Cleveland, 1903-9) 1903-9) Islands, 1493-1898 (55 vols., vols., Cleveland, Philippine Islands,

BTLV BTLV

Bijdragen tot Bijdragen totdedetaal-, taal-,landland-enenvolkenkunde volkenkundevan vanNederlandschNederlandschIndie Indie

BV BV

(ed.)], Begin Begin ende ende voortgangh voortganghvan vandede [Commelin, Isaac Isaac (ed.)], [Commelin,

CV CV

VereenighdeNederlantsche Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Vereenighde Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie .. .. . . ([Amsterdam], ([Amsterdam], 1646). 1646). (First (First edition edition Compagnie published 1645. Facsimile Facsimile edition edition published published in in published 1645. Amsterdam, 1969. 1969. The The facsimile facsimile edition edition has has volumes volumes Amsterdam, numbered I,I, II, II, III, III, and and IV, IV, corresponding corresponding to to vols. vols. la, la, Ib, numbered Ib, Ha, and and lIb lib of of the the 1646 1646 edition.) edition.) I1a, [Churchill, Awnsham Awnsham and and John John (eds.)], (eds.)], A Collection of of [Churchill, A Collection

Voyagesand andTravels, Travels,Some SomeNow Now First FirstPrinted Printedfrom fromOriginal Original Voyages Manuscripts .. .. . . (4 (4 vols.; vols.; London, London, 1704) 1704) Manuscripts

"HS" "HS"

"Works Issued Issued by by the the Hakluyt Hakluyt Society" Society" "Works

JRAS JRAS

Journal of of the the Royal Royal Asiatic Asiatic Society Society Journal

[xi] [xi]

Abbreviations Abbreviations NR NR

L'Honore Naber, Naber, Samuel L'Honore Samuel Pierre Pierre (ed.), (ed.), Reisebeschreibungen Reisebeschreibungen von deutschen deutschenBeamten Beamtenund undKriegsleuten KriegsleutenimimDienst Dienstder der von Niederldndischen West-und undOst-Indischen Ost-IndischenKompagnien, Kompagnien, Niederliindischen West1602-17Q7 (The (The Hague, Hague, 1930-32) 1930-32) 1602-1797

NZM NZM

Neue Neue Zeitschriji ZeitschriJt fur fur Missionswissenschaji Missionswissenschafi

PP PP

Purchas, Samuel, Hakluytus Posthumus, Posthumus, or Purchas, Samuel, Hakluytus or Purchas PurchasHis His Pilgrimes: . . . (20 (20 vols.; vols.; Glasgow, Glasgow, 1905-7. 1905-7. Originally Originally Pilgrimes: ... published 1625.) published 1625.)

SCPFMR SCPFMR

Sacrae CongregationisdedePropaganda Propaganda Fide Memoria Rerum Sacrae Congregationis Fide Memoria Rerum (Freiburg, 1971) 1971) (Freiburg,

Streit Streit

R. Bibliotheca Missionum R. Streit, Streit, Bibliotheca Missionum (30 (30vols.; vols.; Munster Minister and and Aachen, 1916-75) 1916-75) Aachen,

TernauxTernauxCompans Compans

H. Ternaux-Compans, Ternaux-Compans, Bibliotheque asiatiqueetetafricaine ajricaine H. Bibliotheque asiatique (Amsterdam, 1968; 1968; reprint of Paris, Paris, 1841-42 1841— 42 ed.) ed.) (Amsterdam, reprint of

TR TR

Thevenot, Relations de Thevenot, Melchisedech, Melchisedech, Relations de divers divers voyages voyagescurieux curieux qui qui n'ont n}ont point point este estepubliees, publiees, ou ouqui quiont onteste estetraduites traduitesd'Hacluyt, d'Hacluyt, de Purchas d'autresvoyageurs voyageursanglo anglois, hollandois, portugais, de Purchas &&d'autres is, hollandois, portugais, allemandsyespagnols; espagnols;et et quelques Persans, Arabes, et autres allemands, dede quelques Persans, Arabes, et autres auteurs orientaux orientaux(4 (4vols.; vols.; Paris, Paris, 1663 1663—96) auteurs -96)

"WLV" "WLV

"Werken uitgegeven uitgegeven door door de de Linschoten Linschoten Vereeniging" Vereeniging" "Werken

ZMR ZMR

Zeitschrift fur Missionswissenschajiund undReligionswissenschafi Religionswissenschaji ZeitschriJt fur Missionswissenschafi

[xii] [xii]

A Note Note to to the the Illustrations A Illustrations

Study the illustrations illustrations of published in Study of of the of Asia Asia published in seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Europe Europe shows that artists and and illustrators illustrators tried in most most cases depict reality reality shows that the the artists tried in cases to to depict when sources, such such as as sketches sketches from from the in the or the when they they had had the the sources, the men men in the field field or the portable objects objects brought to Europe—plants, animals, costumes, costumes, paintings, brought to Europe-plants, animals, paintings, portable porcelains, and and so so on. on. Many of the engravings based on sketches sketches and and paintpaintporcelains, Many of the engravings based on ings are are convincing their reality, reality, such such as as the depiction of of the ings convincing in in their the depiction the Potala Potala palace palace in Lhasa Lhasa (pI. (pi. 384), 384), the of the "Old Viceroy" of Kwangtung Kwangtung (pi. in the portrait portrait of the "Old Viceroy" of (pI. 323), and and the of Siamese Siamese and and Chinese Chinese boats. number of of Asian 323), the drawings drawings of boats. A A number Asian objects—Chinese scroll scroll paintings, paintings, aa Buddhist Buddhist prayer objects-Chinese prayer wheel, wheel, and and small small anianimals—appeared in European European engravings engravings and and paintings paintings for for the first time. mals-appeared in the first time. Asians, like like the Siamese emissaries emissaries to to France, France, were sketched from from life life in in EuEuAsians, the Siamese were sketched rope and and their engraved. rope their portraits portraits engraved. When sources were lacking, the gaps in When sources were lacking, the the illustrators illustrators and and artists artists filled filled in in the gaps in their knowledge by following following literary literary texts, or by by producing producing imaginary imaginary detheir knowledge by texts, or depictions, including including maps. maps. The The illustrations illustrations of of Japan, Japan, for for example, example, are far pictions, are far more fantastic fantastic than than those those depicting depicting other other places, perhaps because Japan so more places, perhaps because Japan so stringently limited intercourse intercourse over the century. century. Printing-house Printing-house stringently limited over much much of of the engravers frequently frequently "borrowed" "borrowed" illustrations illustrations from from earlier earlier editions editions and engravers and often "improved" "improved" upon adding their their own own touches which had had the upon them them by by adding touches which the often effect of of Europeanizing Europeanizing them. them. effect Illustrations were If the the Illustrations were "translated" "translated" along along with with texts texts in in various various ways. ways. If publisher of publisher of aa translation translation had had close close relations relations with with the the original original publisher publisher or or printer he might might borrow the original original copperplate copperplate engravings engravings or or have have the the printer he borrow the original publisher publisher pull from the the original original plates bound with original pull prints prints from plates to to be be bound with the the translated pages. pages. Engraved Engraved captions could be rubbed out plate and translated captions could be rubbed out of of the the plate and redone in the the new language, although although many many printers did not do new language, printers did not bother bother to to do redone in [xiii] [ xiii 1

A Illustrations A Note Note to to the the Illustrations so. printers, new so. Lacking Lacking the the cooperation cooperation of of the the original original printers, new engravings engravings could could still be be made from aa print. print. The The simplest simplest method method was was to to place place the print face face still made from the print down on on the the varnished and waxed waxed copper copper plate plate to be engraved engraved and and then then to down varnished and to be to rub the the back of the the print print causing causing the the ink from the the print adhere to to the rub back of ink from print to to adhere the waxed surface surface of of the the plate. The resulting image was was then then used to engrave, engrave, or waxed plate. The resulting image used to or etch with nitric acid, acid, the and being reversed it it would would print print exetch with nitric the new new plate, plate, and being reversed exactly as original version version printed. If the engraver wanted wanted to avoid damagdamagactly as the the original printed. If the engraver to avoid ing the the print, which he he might might well well need need to finish the engraving, he ing print, however, however, which to finish the engraving, he would use use aa thin thin sheet sheet of of paper dusted with with black black lead or black black chalk chalk to to would paper dusted lead or transfer the the image image from from the the print to the the new copper plate. He might further transfer print to new copper plate. He might further protect by putting oiled paper on top of it while he he traced the picprotect the the print print by putting oiled paper on top of it while traced the picture. This This procedure procedure worked worked whether whether the print was face down down or or face face up up ture. the print was face against the the plate. In fact fact it it was was easier easier to to trace trace the the picture picture if if the the print were against plate. In print were face up, up, in in which which case case the the new new plate would be be etched etched in in reverse reverse of of the the origiorigiface plate would nal plate. For aa seventeenth-century seventeenth-century description description of of the the ways in which which new nal plate. For ways in new plates could be be etched etched from from prints see William Faithorne, The The Art Art of ofGraveGraveplates could prints see William Faithorne, ing and andEtching Etching (New York,1970), 1970), 41-44 (first edition, London,1662). 1662). ing (New York, pp.pp. 41-44 (first edition, London, See also also Coolie Verner, "Copperplate "Copperplate Printing," Printing," in in David David Woodward Woodward (ed.), See Coolie Verner, (ed.), Five CenturiesofofMap MapPrinting Printing (Chicago,1975), 1975), have included Five Centuries (Chicago, p. p. 53.53. WeWe have included a a number of of illustrations that were were "borrowed" "borrowed" by by one one printer another: number illustrations that printer from from another: see, for for example, example, plates plates II3 113 and and 114; 114; II7, 117, II8, 118, 121; 121; 174; 174; 312 312 and 313; 412 see, and 313; 412 and 413; 419-21. and 413; 419-21. Most of illustrations were Most of the the following following illustrations were taken taken from from seventeenth-century seventeenth-century books held in in the the Department Department of of Special Special Collections Collections in in the the Regenstein Regenstein Libooks held Library at the the University of Chicago. Chicago. Others Others have have been obtained from from librarlibrarbrary at University of been obtained ies and and archives archives in in Europe Europe and and the the United United States, States, which have kindly kindly granted granted ies which have us to reproduce reproduce them. them. Wherever Wherever possible, efforts are are made made in in the the us permission permission to possible, efforts captions to to analyze analyze the the illustrations illustrations and and to to provide collateral inforinforcaptions provide relevant relevant collateral mation whenever whenever such such was was available. mation available. Almost Almost all all of of the the four four hundred hundred or or so so illustrations illustrations were were reproduced reproduced from from the photographs photographs taken taken (or (or retaken) retaken) by by Alma Alma Lach, Lach, an an inveterate inveterate photographotograthe pher pher and and cookbook cookbook author. author. We We were were also also aided aided and and abetted abetted by by the the personnel personnel of the the Special Special Collections Collections department-especially department—especially the Robert RosenRosenof the late late Robert thai, Daniel Daniel Meyer, Meyer, and and Kim Coventry—in locating locating the the illustrations illustrations and and in thal, Kim Coventry-in in preparing them them for for photography. Harrie A. Vanderstappen, propropreparing photography. Father Father Harrie A. Vanderstappen, fessor emeritus emeritus of of Far Eastern art art at at the the University University of of Chicago Chicago and and aa man fessor Far Eastern man endowed with with marvelous marvelous sight sight and and insight, insight, helped to analyze the illustraillustraendowed helped us us to analyze the tions relating to East East Asia. C. M. of the the Department of South South Asian tions relating to Asia. C. M. Nairn Naim of Department of Asian Languages at at the the University of Chicago Chicago likewise likewise contributed contributed generously generously of of Languages University of his skills, particularly with reference to the Mughul seals (pis. 117, 118, and his skills, particularly with reference to the Mughul seals (pIs. 117, I 18, and 121) here here depicted. depicted. The The China China illustrations illustrations have have benefited from the the contricontri121) benefited from butions of Ma Tai-loi and Tai Wen-pai of the East Asian Collection of the the butions of Ma Tai-Ioi and Tai Wen-pai of the East Asian Collection of Regenstein Library and of Zhijia Shen who generously gave freely of her Regenstein Library and of Zhijia Shen who generously gave freely of her time and and knowledge. knowledge. The The captions captions for for the the Japan Japan illustrations illustrations have have been been imimtime [xiv] [xiv]

A A Note Note to to the the Illustrations Illustrations

proved proved by by the the gracious gracious efforts efforts of of Yoko Yoko Kuki Kuki of of the the East East Asian Asian Collection Collection of of the Regenstein Library. Tetsuo Tetsuo Najita of Chicago's Chicago's History History Department Department lent lent the Regenstein Library. Najita of hand in in the the preparation preparation of of the the caption caption for for pI. pi. 432. 432. Ann Ann Adams Adams and and Francis Francis aa hand Dowley of of Chicago's Chicago's Art Department helped helped us us to to analyze analyze some some of of the the enenDowley Art Department gravings, by Dutch gravings, especially especially those those prepared prepared by Dutch illustrators. illustrators. To we express gratitude for To all all of of these these generous generous scholars scholars we express our our sincere sincere gratitude for their their contributions contributions to to the the illustration illustration program. program.

xv ] [xv]

Illustrations Illustrations BOOK BOOK ONE ONE FOLLOWING PAGE 338 FOLLOWING PAGE 338

1. I.

2. 2.

3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5. 6. 6. 7. 7. 8. 8. 9. 9. 10. 10. I11. I.

12. 12.

13. 13. 14. 14. 15. 15. 16. 16. 17. 17. 18. 18. 19. 19.

20. 20.

21. 21.

22. 22.

23. 23.

Mid-seventeenth-century map map of of Asia Asia Mid-seventeenth-century Willem map of Willem Blaeu's Blaeu's map of Asia Asia Map Asia, 1681 Map of of the the Mughul Mughul Empire, Empire, from from Dapper's Dapper's Asia, 1681 South and and Southeast Southeast Asia, Asia, from from Johan Johan Blaeu's Blaeu's Atlas major, 1662 1662 South Atlas major, Ceylon and and the the Maldives, Maldives, from from Sanson Sanson d'Abbeville's d'Abbeville's UAsie, 1652 Ceylon L'Asie, 1652 Continental 1688 Continental Southeast Southeast Asia, Asia, from from Morden's Morden's Geography Geography Rectified, Rectified, 1688 Course the Menam, Du royaume royaume de Course of of the Menam, from from La La Loubere's Loubere's Du deSiam, Siarn, 1691 1691 Malacca Dampier's Voyages, Malacca and and its its environs, environs, from from Dampier's Voyages, 1700 1700 The Atlas major major The Moluccas, Moluccas, from from Blaeu's Blaeu's Atlas Asia Asia from from Bay Bay of of Bengal Bengal to to the the Marianas, Marianas, from from Thevenot's Thevenot's Relations, Relations, 1666 1666 Japan and Atlas major major Japan and Korea, Korea, from from Blaeu's Blaeu's Atlas Harbor of of Surat Surat Harbor Dutch Dutch factory factory at at Surat Surat Market at Goa Goa Market at English fort fort at at Bombay Bombay English Harbor Harbor and and wharf wharf of of Arakan Arakan Batavia, ca. ca. 1655 1655 Batavia, Amboina Amboina and and its its inhabitants inhabitants Dutch factory factory at at Banda Banda Dutch Tidore Tidore and and its its fort fort Dutch Dutch envoys envoys in in Cambodia Cambodia Fort Zeelandia Zeelandia in in Taiwan Taiwan Fort Dutch ambassadors ambassadors in in Peking, Peking, 1656 1656 Dutch [xvii] [ xvii ]

Illustrations Illustrations 24. 24. 25. 25. 26. 26. 27. 27. 28. 28. 29. 29. 30. 30. 331. I. 32. 32. 33. 33. 34. 34. 35. 35. 36. 36. 37. 37. 38. 38. 39. 39. 40. 40. 41. 41. 42. 42. 43. 43. 44. 44. 45. 45. 46. 46. 47. 47. 48. 48. 49. 49. 50. 50. 51. 51. 52. 52. 53. 53. 54. 54. 55. 55. 56. 56. 57. 57. 58. 58. 59. 59. 60. 60. 61. 61. 62. 62. 63. 63. 64. 64. 65. 65.

Macao Macao Canton Canton Dutch factory factory at Hirado Dutch at Hirado Dutch Dutch factory factory on on Deshima Deshima Palanquins Palanquins Merchants of Bantam Bantam Merchants of Man and woman woman of of Goa Goa Man and Chinese merchant merchant couple couple Chinese Dutch fleet before Bantam 1596 Dutch fleet before Bantam in in 1596 Thee (tea), (tea), or or cha, cha, bush bush Thee King banquet for the Dutch, King of of Ternate's Ternate's banquet for the Dutch, 1601 1601 Coins of of Siam Siam Coins 1601 Malay-Latin vocabulary 1601 Malay-Latin vocabulary 16722 Oriental-Italian Oriental-Italian vocabulary vocabulary 167 Warehouse and Warehouse and shipyard shipyard of of Dutch Dutch East East India India Company Company in in Amsterdam Amsterdam Old Old East East India India House House in in London London East India India House House in in Amsterdam Amsterdam East East Indian birds birds Ea.st Indian Japanese converts converts suspended suspended head down Japanese head down Execution of of three converts Execution three Japanese Japanese converts A Japanese Japanese crucifixion crucifixion A Preparation for for an an execution execution by suspension Preparation by suspension Persecution of of Christians Christians in in Japan Japan Persecution Christians being burned alive Christians being burned alive Suspension of of aa Christian Christian Suspension Torture of Christians Christians at at Arima Arima Torture of Portrait of Adam Schall Portrait of Johann Johann Adam Schall as as court court mandarin mandarin Miraculous Apostle at Miraculous cross cross of of Thomas Thomas the the Apostle at Mylapore Mylapore Portrait Portrait of of Matteo Matteo Ricci Ricci and and his his convert convert Paul Paul Portrait of Nicolas Trigault Portrait of Nicolas Trigault Frontispiece, Gian Gian Filippo Filippo de de Marini, Marini, Delle 1663 Frontispiece, Delle missioni, missioni, 1663 Title Trigault, Christiana Title page, page, Trigault, Christiana expeditione, expeditione, 1615 1615 Title page, Trigault, Christianis Christianis triumphis, triumphis, 1623 1623 Title page, Trigault, Title page, Luis de Guzman, Historia de las 1601 Title page, Luis de Guzman, Historia de las missiones, missiones, 1601 Title page, Declaration Given by the Chinese Emperour Kam Hi Hi ininthe the Title page, Declaration Given by the Chinese Emperour Kam Year Year 1700 1700 Title page, 1601 Title page, Nicolas Nicolas Pimenta, Pimenta, Epistola, Epistola, 1601 Title page, page, Johann Johann Adam Adam Schall, Schall, Historica relatio,1672 1672 Title Historica re/atio, Title page, Trigault, Title page, Trigault, Vita Vita Gasparis Gasparis Barzaei, Barzaei, 1610 1610 Title page and page from Innocentia Title page and another another page from Antonio Antonio de de Gouvea, Gouvea, Innocentia victrix, 1671 1671 victrix, Portrait of Philippus Philippus Baldaeus Baldaeus Portrait of Portrait of of Wouter Schouten Portrait Wouter Schouten Portrait of Johann Johann Nieuhof Nieuhof Portrait of [ xviii ] [xviii]

Illustrations Illustrations 66. 66. 67. 67. 68. 68. 69. 69. 70. 70. 71. 71. 72. 72. 73. 73. 74. 74. 75. 75. 76. 76. 77. 77. 78. 78. 79. 79. 80. 80. 81. 81. 82. 82. 83. 83. 84. 84. 85. 85. 86. 86. 87. 87. 88. 88. 89. 89.

90. 90. 91. 91. 92. 92. 93. 93.

94. 94. 95. 95. 96. 96. 97. 97. 98. 98. 99. 99. 100. 100. 101. 101. 102. 102.

Portrait Portrait of of Alvarez Alvarez Semedo Semedo Portrait of of Jean Jean de de Thevenot Thevenot Portrait Frontispiece, Olfert Olfert Dapper, Dapper, Asia, 1681 Frontispiece, Asia, 1681 Frontispiece, Johann Johann Nieuhof, Nieuhof, Gesandtschafft, Gesandtschaffi, 1666 1666 Frontispiece, Frontispiece, J. T. andj. De Bry, Bry, India India orientalis, orientalis, 1601 1601 Frontispiece, J. T. and J. 1.I. De Frontispiece, Johann Johann von von der der Behr, Behr, Diarium, 1669 Frontispiece, Diarium, 1669 Title page page of of Regni Regni Chinensis Chinensis descriptio, descriptio, with withChinese Chineselandscape landscape Title painting, 1639 1639 painting, Title page, page, Edward Edward Terry, Terry, Voyage Voyage totoEast EastIndia, India, 1655 1655 Title Title page, Johan van van Twist, Twist, Generale Generale beschrijvinge beschrijvingevan vanIndien, Indien,1648 1648 Title page, Johan Title page, Johan Albrecht Albrecht von Mandelslo, Ein Schreiben, 1645 1645 Title page, Johan von Mandelslo, Bin Schreiben, Title page, page, Philippe Philippe de de Sainte-Trinite, Sainte-Trinite, Orientalische Orientalische Reisebeschreibung, Reisebeschreibung, Title 1671 16 71 Frontispiece, ibid. Frontispiece, ibid. Title page, Giuseppe di di Santa Santa Maria Maria Sebastiani, Sebastiani, Seconde Secondespeditione, speditione, Title page, Giuseppe 6 72 11672 Title page, page, Giovanni Giovanni Filippo Filippo Marini, Marini, Historia, Historia, 1665 1665 Title Title page, page, Louis Louis Le Le Compte, Compte, Memoirs and Observations, Observations, 1697 1697 Title Memoirs and Title Title page, page, Robert Robert Knox, Knox, Historical Historical Relation RelationoJthe of theIsland Islandceylon, ceylon,1681 1681 Title cewen Title page, page, Adam Adam Olearius, Olearius, Offt Oft begehrte begehrteBeschreibung Beschreibungderder cewen orientalischenReise, Reise,1647 1647 orientalischen Title page, page, Bernhard Bernhard Varen, Varen, Descriptio Descriptio Regni RegniJaponiae Jap oniaeetetSiam, Siam,1673 1673 Title Title page, Simon Title page, Simon de de La La Loubere, Loubere, Du Du royaume royaume de de Siam, Siam, 1691 1691 Title page, page, Gabriel Gabriel Dellon, Dellon, History of the Inquisition Inquisition at at Goa, Goa, 1688 1688 Title History ojthe Title Title page, page, Athanasius Athanasius Kircher, Kircher, China China illustrata, illustrata, 1667 1667 Portrait of of Athanasius Athanasius Kircher Kircher Portrait Title page, page, Johann Johann Jacob Jacob Saar, Saar, Ost-Indianische Ost-Indianischejit.nJzehen-jiihrige funfzehen-jahrige KriegsKriegsTitle Dienste, 1672 Dienste, 1672 Title page, page, Abbe Abbe Carre, Carre, Voyage Voyage des desIndes IndesOrientales, Orientales,1699 1699 Title Title page, Pietro Della Delia Valle, Valle, Travels, Travels, 1665 1665 Title page, Pietro Title page, page, Johann Johann von von der der Behr, Behr, Diarium, oder Tage-Buch, Tage-Buch, 1668 1668 Title Diarium, oder Title Title page, page, Gotthard Gotthard Arthus, Arthus, Historia Historia Indiae Indiae Orientalis, Orientalis, 1668 1668 Title page, David Haex, Haex, Dictionarium Malaico-Latinum etet LatinoLatinoTitle page, David Dictionarium Malaico-Latinum Malaicum, 1631 Malaicum, 1631 Title page, page, Nicolaas Witsen, Noord Noord en en Oost Oost Tartarye, Tartarye, 1692 1692 Title Nicolaas Witsen, Title page, page, Thomas Thomas Herbert, Herbert, Some Some Yeares Yeares Travels, Travels,1638 1638 Title Title page, page, A. A. and andj. Churchill, Collection Collection oJ of Voyages Voyagesand andTravels, Travels,1744 1744 Title J. Churchill, Frontispiece, Arnoldus Montanus, Montanus, Die Gesantschaftenanandie dieKeiser Keiservan van Frontispiece, Arnoldus Die Gesantschajten Japan, 1669 Japan, 1669 Title Premier livre, Title page, page, Willem Willem Lodewyckszoon, Lodewyckszoon, Premier livre, 1609 1609 Malay-Latin phrases phrases from from Haex's Haex's Dictionarium Malay-Latin Dictionarium Malay-Latin (ibid.) Malay-Latin wordlist wordlist {ibid.) German-Malay German-Malay wordlist wordlist from from Dapper's Dapper's Beschreibung, Beschreibung,1681 1681 Portrait of Edward Edward Terry Terry Portrait of [xix] [xix]

Illustrations Illustrations 103. 103.

Portrait of of Giovanni Giovanni Francesco Francesco Gemelli Gemelli Careri Careri Portrait Portrait of of Sir Sir Thomas Thomas Roe Roe Portrait 105. Portrait Portrait ofJoris of Joris van van Spilbergen Spilbergen 105. 106. Portrait Portrait of of Ove Ove Gjedde Gjedde 106. 104. 104.

BOOK TWO BOOK TWO FOLLOWING FOLLOWING PAGE PAGE 756 756

Introduction: The The Mughul Mughul Empire Empire on on European European Printed Printed Maps Maps Introduction: 107. Map Map of of the the Mughul Mughul Empire, Empire, from from Terry's Terry's Voyage, Voyage, 1655 1655 107. 108. 108. Map Map of of the the Mughul Mughul Empire, Empire, from from Sanson Sanson d'Abbeville's d'Abbeville's L'Asie, UAsie, 1652 1652 109. Map Map of of the the Mughul Mughul Empire, Empire, from from Blaeu's Blaeu's Asia major,1662 1662 109. Asia major, n o . Map Map of of the Mughul Empire, Empire, from Thevenot's 110. the Mughul from Melchisedech Melchisedech Thevenot's in. III.

Relations, 1663 Relations, 1663

Map of of Kashmir, from Bernier's Bernier's Voyages, Voyages,1723 1723 Map Kashmir, from 112. Portrait Portrait of of Akbar Akbar 112. Indian paintings of Jahangir, Khurram, and and slave I113. 13. Indian paintings of Jahangir, Khurram, slave 114. The The same same Mughul in aa French translation 114. Mughul miniatures miniatures in French translation 115. Prince Salim, Salim, or or Jahangir Jahangir II 5. Prince 116. Nur Nur Mahal, Mahal, Jahangir's empress II6. Jahangir's empress 117. Seal of Jahangir, from from Purchas Purchas II7. Seal ofJahangir, 118. Seal of Jahangir, by engraver II8. Seal ofJahangir, by aa French French engraver 119. 120, 121. 121. Portrait, seal of Jahangir II9, 120, Portrait, standard, standard, and and seal ofJahangir 122. Aurangzib in camp camp 122. Aurangzib in 123. Mughul court at Agra 123. Mughul court at Agra 124. Surat 124. Woman Woman and and man man of of Surat 125. Court "Great Mogul" Lahore 125. Court and and throne throne of of "Great Mogul" at at Lahore 126. Wrestlers Surat 126. Wrestlers of of Surat 127. 127. Fakirs Fakirs under under aa banyan banyan tree tree 128. Means Sind 128. Means of of transport transport in in Sind 129. Elements Sanskrit 129. Elements of of Sanskrit 130. Hook-swinging 130. Hook-swinging 131. 13 I. Yogi Yogi austerities austerities 132. Festival Hossein 132. Festival of of Hassan Hassan and and Hossein 133. Creator 133. Brahma, Brahma, the the Creator Introduction Introduction to to seventeenth-century seventeenth-century printed printed maps maps of of South South India India 134. 134. Map Map of of South South India India 135. 135. Map Map of of places places in in India India 136. periphery 136. South South India India and and its its periphery 137. malabaricus, 137. Frontispiece, Frontispiece, Hendrik Hendrik Adriaan Adriaan van van Rheede, Rheede, Hortus Hortus indicus indicus malabaricus, 1678 16 7 8 138. medica, I3 8. Frontispiece, Frontispiece, Willem Willem Piso, Piso, De De Indiae Indiae utriusque utriusque re re naturali naturali et et medica, 1658 165 8

[xx] [xx]

Illustrations Illustrations 139. 139. 140. 140. 141. 141. 142. 142. 143. 143. 144. 144. 145. 145. 146. 146. 147. 147. 148. 148. 149. 149. 150. 150. I151. 5I. 152. 152. 153. 153. 154. 154. 155. 155. I156. 56. 157. 157. 158. 158. 159. 159. 160. 160. 161. 161. 162. 162. 163. 163. 164. 164. 165. 165. 166. 166. 167. 167. 168. 168. 169. 169. 170. 170. 171. 171. 172. 172. 173. 173. 174. 174. 175. 175. 176. 176. 177. 177. 178. 178. 179. 179. 180. 180. 181. 181. 182. 182.

Malabar (Tamil) (Tamil) alphabet alphabet Malabar Malabar vowels vowels Malabar Malabar cyphers cyphers Malabar Letter from from Brahmans Brahmans of of Malabar Malabar in in the Malayalam language language Letter the Malayalam Letter of of Emanuel Emanuel Carneiro Carneiro in in Malayalam Malayalam Letter Letter Letter of of "Itti "Itti Achudem" Achudem" in in Malayalam Malayalam Portrait of of John John Fryer Fryer Portrait Title page, Fryer, A New New Account, Account, 1698 Title page, Fryer, A 1698 Specimen of of "Malabar" "Malabar" script script Specimen The Zamorin's Zamorin's palace palace at at Calicut Calicut The The Zamorin Zamorin and and his palace The his palace "Ixora" (Siva) (Siva) "Ixora" Ganesha, son son of of Siva Siva Ganesha, Ten avatars avatars of of Vishnu Vishnu Ten "Nareen," first first avatar avatar according according to to Kircher Kircher "Nareen," "Ramchandra," the the Embodiment Embodiment of of Righteousness Righteousness "Ramchandra," "Narseng," the the Man-Lion avatar "Narseng," Man-Lion avatar The The goddess goddess "Bhavani," "Bhavani," the the ninth ninth avatar avatar The horse avatar The horse avatar Vishnu: the fish fish incarnation, incarnation, from from Baldaeus Baldaeus Vishnu: the The tortoise tortoise incarnation incarnation The Boar incarnation Boar incarnation Man-Lion incarnation incarnation Man-Lion The Dwarf, Dwarf, or or fifth fifth avatar avatar The Rama-with-the-Ax Rama-with-the-Ax Ravana in in Lanka: theEmbodiment Embodiment of ofRighteousness Righteousness Ravana Lanka: Ramachandra, Ramachandra, the Eighth avatar: avatar: Krishna Krishna Eighth Buddha Buddha as as ninth ninth avatar avatar Kalki, or or tenth tenth avatar avatar Kalki, Frontispiece, Afgoderye der Frontispiece, Baldaeus, Baldaeus, Afgoderye der Oost-Indische Oost-Indischeheydenen, heydenen,1672 1672 Portrait tot Drakestein Portrait of of Hendrik Hendrik Adriaan Adriaan van van Rheede Rheede tot Drakestein The Indian Indian tamarind tamarind and and papaya papaya The Arabian asmine Arabian jjasmine Snake-charmer of of Malabar Malabar Snake-charmer Learning to write the alphabet in in the the sand sand Learning to write the alphabet Map of Ceylon, ca. 1602 Map of Ceylon, ca. 1602 Map ofJaffna of Jaffna and and adjacent adjacent islands islands Map Map of Kandy on Ceylon Map of Kandy on Ceylon Map of of the the Maldives Maldives and and Ceylon Ceylon Map Spilbergen and and the the king king of of Kandy Kandy Spilbergen City of Kandy in 1602 City of Kandy in 1602 Arms and the king Arms and seal seal of of the king of of Ceylon Ceylon The king of The god god of of the the king of "Matecalo" "Matecalo" on on Ceylon Ceylon Raja Raja Sinha Sinha (Lion-King) (Lion-King) ofKandy of Kandy [[xxi] xxi]

Illustrations Illustrations 183. 183.

184. 184. 185. 185.

186. 186.

187. 187. 188. 188.

189. 189.

190. 190. 191. 191.

192. 192. 193. 193.

194. 194. 195. 195. 196. 196.

197. 197. 198. 198.

199. 199.

200. 200. 201. 201.

202. 202. 203. 203.

204. 204.

205. 205.

206. 206. 207. 207. 208. 208.

Noble Noble of of Kandy Kandy Cinnamon harvesting harvesting in in Ceylon Ceylon Cinnamon Butter making making in in Ceylon Ceylon Butter Sinhalese preparing for Sinhalese preparing for rice rice planting planting On smoothing smoothing their their fields fields On Treading out out the the rice rice Treading Treading out out the the rice rice indoors indoors Treading Execution by by elephant elephant Execution Cremation in in Ceylon Ceylon Cremation Drinking custom custom in in Ceylon Ceylon Drinking Sinhalese Sinhalese pond pond fishing fishing Wild man man of of Ceylon Ceylon Wild Talipot parasol parasol of of Ceylon Ceylon Talipot Title Title page, page, Abraham Abraham Roger, Roger, De De open-deure open-deuretot tothet hetverborgen verborgenheydendom, heydendom, 1651 16 51 Frontispiece, Roger, Roger, French French translation, translation, 1670 1670 Frontispiece, Title page, page, Daniel Daniel Havart, Havart, Op Op en en Ondergangh Ondergangh van vanCormandel, Cormandel,1693 1693 Title Hook-hanging Hook-hanging Brahman austerities austerities Brahman Sepulchre of of the the kings kings and and princes princes of of Golconda Golconda Sepulchre Portrait Portrait of of Sultan Sultan Muhammed Muhammed Qutb Qutb Portrait Portrait of of Sultan Sultan Abdullah Abdullah Qutb Qutb Shah Shah Portrait of of Sultan Sultan Abu'l Abu'l Hasan Hasan Portrait Persian Persian miniature miniature portrait portrait of of Abu'l Abu'l Hasan Hasan Portrait Portrait of of Akkana Akkana of of Golconda Golconda Sultan Sultan Abu'l Abu'l Hasan Hasan visits visits the the Dutch Dutch church church at at Masulipatam Masulipatam Laurens Laurens Pit Pit and and the the sultan sultan BOOK BOOK THREE THREE FOLLOWING FOLLOWING PAGE PAGE 1380 I380

209. 209.

210. 210. 2211. I I.

212. 212. 213. 213.

214. 214. 215. 215.

216. 216.

217. 217.

218. 218.

219. 219.

220. 220.

French map map of of Siam, Siam, 1691 1691 French King Narai of King Narai of Siam Siam on on the the royal royal elephant elephant Imperial Imperial three-tiered three-tiered vase vase of of gold gold filigree filigree Crocodile of of Siam: Siam: anatomical anatomical description description Crocodile Title page, page, Observations Observationsphysiques physiquesetetmathematiques, mathematiques,1688 1688 Title Mandarin's Mandarin's "balon" "balon" (galley) (galley) Noblemen's "ballon" Noblemen's "ballon" Water-pipe Water-pipe smoked smoked by by the the Moors Moors of of Siam Siam Siamese rhythmic rhythmic musical musical instruments instruments Siamese Siamese Siamese song song in in Western Western notation notation Siamese Siamese alphabets, alphabets, Pali Pali alphabets, alphabets, Siamese Siamese numbers numbers Buddhist Buddhist monastery monastery in in Siam Siam

[ xxii ]] [xxii

Illustrations Illustrations 221. 221. 222. 222. 223. 223. 224. 224. 225. 225. 226. 226. 227. 227. 228. 228. 229. 229. 230. 230. 231. 23 I. 232. 232. 233. 233. 234. 234. 235. 235. 236. 236. 237. 237. 238. 238. 239. 239. 240. 240. 241. 241. 242. 242. 243. 243. 244. 244. 245. 245. 246. 246. 247. 247. 248. 248. 249. 249. 250. 250. 251. 251. 252. 252. 253. 253. 254. 254. 255. 255. 256. 256. 257. 257. 258. 258. 259. 259. 260. 260. 261. 261. 262. 262.

Siamese images images of of the the Buddha Buddha Siamese The three Siamese The three Siamese envoys envoys to to France, France, 1686 1686 Second Siamese Siamese emissary emissary Second Third Siamese Siamese emissary emissary Third Reception of Reception of the the Siamese Siamese emissaries emissaries by by Louis Louis XIV XIV Title page, Histoire la revolution de Siam, Siam, 1691 1691 Title page, Histoire de de la revolution de Title page, Abbe de Choisy, Journal Journal du deSiam, Siam, 1687 1687 Title page, Abbe de Choisy, du voyage voyage de Title page, Pierre Joseph Joseph D'Orleans, D'Orleans, Histoire . . . de de la la revolution, Title page, Pierre Histoire ... revolution, 1692 1692 Title page, Relation de Title page, Alexandre Alexandre de de Chaumont, Chaumont, Relation de l'ambassade, Vambassade,1686 1686 Audience hall of the of Siam Siam Audience hall of the king king of Illustrative plate of of 1693 1693 showing showing maps of Ayut'ia Ayut'ia and and Bangkok, Bangkok, Illustrative plate maps of Siamese plough, insect, Siamese trees, trees, plough, insect, and and golden golden imperial imperial vase vase Map of of India extra Gangem Map India extra Gangem Insulindia: Western Western archipelago archipelago Insulindia: Map of of Borneo, Borneo, 1601 1601 Map Map of of the the Moluccas, Moluccas, 1688 1688 Map Map of of the the Moluccas, Moluccas, from from Blaeu's major, 1662 1662 Map Blaeu's Atlas Atlas major, Map of of Banda, Banda, 1609 1609 Map Dutch map map of of Vietnam Vietnam and and Hainan Island, ca. ca. 1660 Dutch Hainan Island, 1660 Frontispiece, coninckrycken Cambodia Louwen, Frontispiece, Vremde Vremde reyse reyse inde inde coninckrycken Cambodiaende ende Louwen, 1669 1669 Daniel map of king Daniel Tavernier's Tavernier's map of Tong Tongking Map recording recording the gradual uncovering of the the Austral lands Map the gradual uncovering of Austral lands Map of the Philippines and the Ladrones Map of the Philippines and the Ladrones Mrauk-u, Arakan, in Mrauk-u, royal royal capital capital of of Arakan, in 1660 1660 Procession of the queen of of Patani Patani Procession of the queen Royal palace of Tub Tuban Royal palace of an French-Malay-Javan 1609 French-Malay-Javan vocabulary, vocabulary, 1609 Makassar soldiers with blowpipes Makassar soldiers with blowpipes Sketch of of Bantam Bantam Sketch Foreign merchants at Bantam Bantam Foreign merchants at Javanese of of Bantam Bantam on on the the way way to market Javanese to market Principal Chinese Chinese merchants at Bantam Bantam Principal merchants at Muslim legate from from Mecca Mecca with governor of of Bantam Bantam Muslim legate with govemor Chinese shrine shrine in in Bantam Bantam Chinese King of Bali in royal royal chariot chariot drawn drawn by by white white oxen oxen King of Bali in Gentleman the move Gentleman of of Bali Bali on on the move Sumatran chief chief and and his his people people Sumatran Javanese gong gong orchestra orchestra Javanese Javanese dancers Javanese dancers Takraw, Malay Malay football football Takraw, Javanese cockfight Javanese cockfight Mosque of Japara in in Java Java Mosque ofJapara Harbor Harbor of of Gamulamo Gamulamo in in Ternate Ternate

[ xxiii ] [xxiii]

Illustrations Illustrations 263. 263. 264. 264. 265. 265. 266. 266. 267. 267. 268. 268. 269. 269. 270. 270. 271. 271. 272. 272. 273. 273. 274. 274. 275. 275. 276. 276. 277. 277. 278. 278. 279. 279. 280. 280. 281. 281. 282. 282.

The "Tygers "Tygers Graft," Graft," aa canal canal street street of of Batavia Batavia The Batavia: betel betel and and pynang pynang garden garden Batavia: Batavia: Fort Fort Ryswick Ryswick Batavia: Soldier Soldier of of the the imperial imperial guard guard in in Tongking Tongking Mandarin of of Tongking Tongking Mandarin Fishing Fishing at at Ternate Ternate Indian Indian salamander salamander or or gecko gecko A strange strange bat, or the the flying flying fox fox A bat, or The melon melon tree, tree, or or the the papaya The papaya Close-up of of the the durian durian fruit fruit Close-up The Javanese Javanese rhinoceros rhinoceros The The dodo dodo The Animals of of the Indian Ocean Ocean islands islands Animals the Indian Emu, Emu, or or cassowary cassowary The Orang-Utan Orang-Utan The Durians, Durians, banyan, banyan, and and bamboo bamboo Title page, Antonio de de Morga, Morga, Sucesos Sucesosdedelas lasIslas IslasFilipinas, Filipinas, 1609 Title page, Antonio 1609 Market at Market at Bantam Bantam Title page, Christophoro Borri, Borri, Cochin-China, Cochin-China, 1633 1633 Title page, Christophoro Title Title page, page, Vremde Vremde geschiedenissen geschiedenisseninindedekoninckrijcken koninckrijckenvan vanCambodia Cambodiaenen Louwen-lant, Louwen-lant, 1669 1669 283. Title Title page, Sebastian Manrique, Manrique, Itinerario de las las missiones, missiones, 1653 1653 283. page, Sebastian Itinerario de BOOK FOUR BOOK FOUR

FOLLOWING PAGE PAGE 1730 I73O FOLLOWING

284. 284. 285. 285. 286. 286. 287. 287. 288. 288. 289. 289. 290. 290. 291. 291. 292. 292. 293. 293. 294. 294. 295. 295. 296. 296. 297. 297. 298. 298. 299. 299. 300. 300.

Purchas' Purchas' map map of of China China Map of of China China and and its its eastern eastern periphery Map periphery (1652) (1652) Martini's map Martini's map of of China China and and its its periphery periphery Map of China China dated dated 1654 1654 Map of Map of 1655 Map of China China dated dated 1655 Couplet's map map of of China China Couplet's Kircher's map map of of China China Kircher's Nieuhof's map Nieuhof's map of of China China Map of Dutch Dutch embassy embassy from from Canton Canton to Peking Map with with route route of to Peking Route of Dutch Dutch ambassadors ambassadors in in China China Route of Frontispiece, Blaeu, Atlas major,Vol. Vol.XX Frontispiece, Blaeu, Atlas major, Frontispiece, Martini, Novus atlas Frontispiece, Martini, Novus atlassinensis sinensis Title page, Kircher, Chine Chine illustree illustree Title page, Kircher, Title page, Blaeu, Atlas major, Title page, Blaeu, Atlas major,Vol. Vol.XX Portrait, Johann Johann Nieuhof Nieuhof Portrait, Mysterious flying flying bridge of Shensi Shensi Mysterious bridge of The Great Great wall wall myth myth The [ xxiv ] [xxiv]

Illustrations Illustrations 301. Mountains Mountains of of the the Five Five Horses' Horses' Heads Heads 301. 302. Map of Metropolitan Metropolitan Peking Peking 302. Map of 303. Peking Peking with with Great Great Wall Wall in in the the distance distance 303. 304. City City plan of Peking Peking 304. plan of 305. Imperial Imperial city city at at Peking Peking 305. 306. Imperial Imperial throne in Peking Peking 306. throne in 307. Observatory Observatory at at Peking Peking 307. 308. Tartar Tartar Gate Gate in in the the Great Great Wall Wall near Hsi-ning 308. near Hsi-ning 309. Confucius Confucius in in the Imperial Academy Academy 309. the Imperial Johann Schall Schall in Mandarin dress dress 3310. IO. Johann in Mandarin Shun-chih, the the first first Manchu Manchu emperor emperor 3311. I I. Shun-chih, 312. Portrait Portrait of of the the K'ang-hsi K'ang-hsi emperor emperor published published 1697 312. 1697 313. the K'ang-hsi K' ang-hsi emperor I7IO 313. Portrait Portrait of of the emperor published published 1710 314. Reception Reception of of emissaries emissaries at at the the imperial imperial court court 314. 315. Mughul Mughul envoys envoys to to Peking Peking 315. 316. 317. Two Two Chinese Chinese noble ladies 316,317. noble ladies 318. Nanking Province 318. Nanking Province 319. Vista Vista of of Nanking Nanking 319. 320. Street Street in in Nanking, Nanking, 1656 ]20. 1656 321. Porcelain Porcelain Pagoda Pagoda of Nanking ]21. of Nanking 322. Banquet Banquet in in honor honor of of Dutch Dutch emissaries emissaries ]22. 323. Portrait Portrait of of "Old "Old Viceroy" Viceroy" of of K Kwangtung 323. wangtung 324. Xaocheu, or Sucheu Sucheu ]24. Xaocheu, or 325. Chinese Chinese map map of of Chekiang Chekiang Province Province ]25. 326. "Nangan" "Nangan" (Nan-an) (Nan-an) in Kiangsi Province Province ]26. in Kiangsi ]27. Different types 327. Different types of of Chinese Chinese vessels vessels 328. Floating Floating village village ]28. ]29. Yangtze town 329. "Tonglou" "Tonglou" (Dong-liu), (Dong-liu), aa Yangtze town 330. Dragon Dragon boat boat 330. 331. Dutch Dutch Fort Fort Zeelandia Zeelandia on on Taiwan Taiwan 331. 332. Macao Macao 332. 333. 333. Celestial, Celestial, terrestrial, terrestrial, and and infernal infernal gods gods of of the the Chinese Chinese 334. Temple Temple of of "Sang-Won-Hab" "Sang-Won-Hab" 334. Chinese idols idols 3335. 3 5· Chinese 336. Various Various types types of of Chinese Chinese priests priests 336. 337. Chinese Chinese priests or monks monks 337. priests or 338. Chinese Chinese temple temple and and pagoda pagoda 338. 339. Chinese Chinese sepulchre sepulchre 339. 340. Chinese Chinese costumes costumes 340. 341. Chinese ladies 341. Chinese ladies 342. "Porcelain" "Porcelain" couple couple 342. 343. Title page, Magalhaes, 343· Title page, Magalhaes, History History 344. Magalaes' Magalaes' Chinese Chinese commentary commentary on on Confucius Confucius 344. 345. Title Title page, Confucius Sinarum 345. page, Confocius Sinarum philosophus philosophus [xxv ] [xxv]

Illustrations Illustrations 346. 346. Title Title page, page, Martini, Martini, Decas Decas prima, prima, official official Jesuit Jesuit version version 347. Title Title page, page, Martini, Martini, Decas Decas prima, prima, Blaeu Blaeu version version 347. 348. 348. Martini's Martini's hexagrams hexagrams of of the the II Ching, Ching, published published 1658 1658 349. The The sixty-four sixty-four hexagrams, hexagrams, from from Confocius Confucius Sinarum Sinarum philosophus, 1687 349. philosophus, 1687 350. "Letters" "Letters" invented invented by by Fu-hsi, Fu-hsi, the the first first emperor emperor 350. 351. Examples Examples of of the the Chinese Chinese writing writing system system 351. 352. Attempt Attempt to to alphabetize alphabetize Chinese Chinese 352. 353. Sample Sample page page from from Chinese-French Chinese-French dictionary dictionary 353. 354. Title Title page, Couplet, Tabula Tabula chronologia chronologia 354. page, Couplet, 355. Chung Chung yung, or Doctrine of the the Mean Mean yung, or Doctrine of 355. 356. 357, 357, 358. 358. Parts Parts of of the the body, body, pulses, pulses, and and acu-points acu-points in in Chinese Chinese 356, medicine medicine 359. Title Title page, Boym, Clavis Clavis medica 359. page, Boym, medica 360. 360. Draag Draag Zetel, Zetel, or or palanquin palanquin 36 I. Chinese 361. Chinese farmers farmers 362. 362. Ruffian Ruffian and and his his prize prize 363. Chinese Chinese actors actors in in costume costume 363. 364. Popular Popular performers performers 364. 365. The The mango mango 365. 366. 366. The The phoenix phoenix and and the the "forest "forest chicken" chicken" 367. Cormorant, Cormorant, or or fishing fishing bird bird 367. 368. 368. Chinese Chinese fruit fruit trees: trees: persimmon, persimmon, custard, custard, and and aa nameless nameless fruit fruit 369. 369. Chinese Chinese fruit fruit trees: trees: cinnamon, cinnamon, durian, durian, and and banana banana 370. "Giambo" "Giambo" and and litchi litchi trees trees and and fruit fruit 370. 371. Title Title page, page, Palafox, Palafox, History History of of the the Conquest Conquest of of China China by by the the Tartars Tartars 371. 372. 372. Map Map of of Great Great Tartary Tartary from from the the Volga Volga to to the the Strait Strait of of "Iessu" "Iessu" (Yezo) (Yezo) 373. Neuville, Relation Relation de 373. Title Title page, page, Foy Foy de de la la Neuville, de Muscovie Muscovie 374. Emissary Emissary of of the the Lamas Lamas 374. 375. Kalmuks Kalmuks and and their their habitations habitations 375. 376. Tanguts Tanguts 376. 377. Emissaries Emissaries from from South South Tartary Tartary to to Peking Peking 377. 378. Costume Costume of of aa Tartar Tartar archer archer 378. 379. Costume Costume of of aa Tungusic Tungusic warrior warrior 379. 380. Tartar Tartar cavalier cavalier and and Tartar woman 380. Tartar woman 381. Tartar Tartar (Manchu) (Manchu) women women 381. 382. 382. Tartar Tartar (Manchu) (Manchu) men men 383. Woman Woman in in the the dress dress of of northern northern Tartary Tartary 383. 384. The ThePotala 384. Potala 385. The The Dalai Dalai Lama Lama and and "Han," "Han," revered revered king king of of Tangut Tangut 385. 386. 386. The The idol idol "Manipe" "Manipe" in in Lhasa Lhasa "Pagodes," deity deity of of the the Indians, Indians, with with "Manipe" "Manipe" 3387. 87· "Pagodes," 3388. 88. Title History Title page, page, Semedo, Semedo, History 389. Title Title page, page, Baudier, Baudier, Histoire 389. Histoire 390. Map Map of of Japan Japan 390.

[ xxvi ] [xxvi]

Illustrations Illustrations 391, 391, 393. 393. 394. 394. 395. 395. 396. 396. 397. 397. 398. 398. 399. 399. 400. 400. 401. 401. 402. 402. 403. 403. 404. 404. 405. 405. 406. 406. 407. 407. 408. 408. 409. 409. 410. 410. 41 I. 411. 412. 412. 413. 413. 414. 414. 415. 415. 416. 416. 417. 417. 418. 418. 419. 419. 420. 420. 421. 421. 422. 422. 423. 423. 424. 424. 425. 425. 426. 426. 427. 427. 428. 428. 429. 429. 430. 430. 431. 431. 432. 432.

392. 392.

Title page page and and frontispiece, frontispiece, Montanus, Montanus, Ambassades Title Ambassades Miyako (Kyoto) (Kyoto) Miyako Title page, Varen, regniJaponiae Japoniae Title page, Varen, Descriptio Descriptio regni Imperial palace palace at at Miyako Miyako Imperial Daibutsu temple temple and and its its idol idol Daibutsu Buddhist temple temple of of aa thousand images Buddhist thousand images Idol at at "Dubo" "Dubo" near near Miyako Miyako Idol Rich carriage of of aa lady-in-waiting lady-in-waiting Rich carriage Edo (Tokyo) (Tokyo) Edo The The Tokaido Tokaido (road (road from from Osaka Osaka to to Edo) Edo) Shogun's castle at Edo Shogun's castle at Edo Part of the shogunal castle castle Part of the shogunal Shogunal Shogunal audience audience in in Japan Japan Sepulchre at at Nikko, Nikko, grave grave ofTokugawa of Tokugawa Ieyasu Ieyasu Sepulchre Temple the Golden Temple of of the Golden Amida Amida in in Edo Edo Shaka Shaka (Buddha) (Buddha) in in an an Edo Edo temple temple Japanese Buddhist priest Japanese Buddhist priest Bonze preaching Bonze preaching Japanese with three three heads Buddha Amida Japanese god god with heads and and Buddha Amida Wandering Wandering Buddhist Buddhist priests priests Temple Temple of of "Vaccata" "Vaccata" in in Kyushu Kyushu Temple of of "Vaccata" "Vaccata" in in Kyushu, Kyushu, in in reverse reverse image image Temple Temple of of Kannon Kannon in in Osaka Osaka Temple Chateau Chateau and and pleasure pleasure house house near near Fisen Fisen (Hizen) (Hizen) Japanese cross cross Japanese Costumes of of Japanese women in in Edo Edo Costumes Japanese women Dress women of Dress of of women of quality quality Urban costume of of "Suringa" "Suringa" (Suruga) (Suruga) Urban costume Daimyo and wife wife Daimyo and Japanese clothing clothing Japanese Noble Noble Japanese Japanese woman woman and and her her entourage entourage Japanese men of of substance substance Japanese men Seppuku—ritual suicide suicide in in Japan Japan Seppuku-ritual "Faisena," aa Japanese Japanese pleasure pleasure yacht yacht or or flyboat flyboat "Faisena," Japanese emblems emblems and and decorations decorations Japanese Japanese writing instruments Japanese writing instruments Two Two types types of of "Tzudtzinsic" "Tzudtzinsic" trees trees Japanese prostitutes prostitutes of of aa pleasure quarter Japanese pleasure quarter Wandering players Wandering players Japanese fisherman fisherman and and wife wife Japanese Japanese charter charter of of privileges privileges granted granted the the English the "Emperour "Emperour Japanese English by by the of Japan, Japan,"" 1613 1613 of 433- Japanese Japanese beggars beggars of of the road the road 433. [xxvii] xxvii ]

Maps Maps BOOK ONE BOOK ONE

i. I.

Principal Asia Principal centers centers of of European European activity activity in in Asia

following page page following 99

BOOK TWO TWO BOOK

2. The The Mughul Mughul Empire Empire and and South South India India 2. 3. Eastern Eastern Gujarat Gujarat 3· the west west coast 4. West Deccan Deccan and and the coast of of India India from from 4· West Gujarat to to the the Goa Goa area area Gujarat 5. From From Goa Goa to to Cape Cape Comorin Comorin (around (around 1680) 1680) 5· 6. 6. Insular Insular South South Asia Asia ca. ca. 1680 1680 7. Southeastern Southeastern India India ca. ca. 1670 1670 7·

601 601 642 642 642 642 838 838 838 838 8388 83

BOOK THREE BOOK THREE

8. 8. 9. 9· 10. 10. 11. II.

Continental Continental Southeast Southeast Asia Asia Insulindia: the western western archipelago Insulindia: the archipelago Insulindia: Insulindia: the the eastern eastern archipelago archipelago Australia, New Guinea, Australia, New Guinea, and and the the surrounding surrounding islands islands

mi 1111 1301 130I 1397 1397 1467 1467

BOOK FOUR FOUR BOOK

and its periphery 12. China China and its periphery 12. 13. Tokugawa Tokugawa Japan Japan 13·

1563 1563 1829 1829

[xxix] [ xxix

CHAPTER XX XX CHAPTER

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty Dynasty China: The The Late

The The Ming Ming (I368-I644) (1368-1644) was was aa native, native, or or Han, Han, Chinese Chinese dynasty dynasty which which stood stood chronologically between foreign Mongol Mongol (Yiian, (Yuan, I280-I368) 1280-1368) and and ManManchronologically between the the foreign chu (Ch'ing, (Ch'ing, I6441644-1912) dynasties. The twenty-first of of the official dynaschu I9I2) dynasties. The twenty-first the official dynasties, Ming had had reached reached its its apogee the time Europeans became became ties, the the Ming apogee by by the time the the Europeans active in in the the mid-sixteenth mid-sixteenth century century off off China's China's southeastern southeastern coast. coast. In In its its last active last hundred years the Ming Ming dynasty dynasty declined declined precipitously, precipitously, particularly particularly after after hundred years the 1620. The The empire's empire's foreign foreign trade, especially its its silver silver imports, imports, was was cut cut seI620. trade, especially severely the worldwide depression of of r620 1620 to to I660. 1660. Internally Internally it it verely by by the worldwide trading trading depression suffered from from inflation, inflation, extreme in the and droughts, droughts, suffered extreme cold cold weather weather in the north, north, and floods, and and famines famines in in the the south. south. Under Under these these severe severe conditions conditions the the empire's empire's floods, population fell fell off off abruptly abruptly and and the the rich rich became became richer richer and and the the poor more population poor more impoverished. As As class class lines lines and and economic economic divisions divisions sharpened, sharpened, unrest unrest and impoverished. and criticism of of the government grew grew apace. apace. At At Peking, Ming capital capital since criticism the government Peking, the the Ming since 1421, and and at second capital, capital, an an underpaid underpaid officialdom I42I, at Nanking, Nanking, its its second officialdom became became more lethargic lethargic and and restive. more restive. The last last two two Ming Ming emperors emperors supported supported an an elaborate elaborate court court hierarchy hierarchy The eunuchs, who who were were masters masters of of the the harem harem and and the the dominated by by aa horde of eunuchs, dominated horde of powerful arm arm of of the emperors in in managing managing the and the powerful the emperors the palace palace bureaucracy bureaucracy and the imperial treasury. As their influence and and numbers the eunuchs arimperial treasury. As their influence numbers mounted, mounted, the eunuchs arrogated broad police the emperor rogated broad police powers powers to to themselves themselves while while isolating isolating the emperor from from important important affairs affairs of of state. state. Strategically Strategically located located between between the the ministries ministries and throne, the palace transmitted the memorials and the the throne, the eunuchs eunuchs of of the the palace transmitted the memorials to to the the emperor Under these these conditions emperor and and drafted drafted the the imperial imperial responses. responses. Under conditions corrupcorruption and factionalism tore tore the the bureaucracy apart and and public services coltion and factionalism bureaucracy apart public services collapsed. Distressed Distressed by deterioration of of the the dynasty, dynasty, conscientious conscientious lapsed. by the the deterioration bureaucrats, literati, literati, and and soldiers soldiers organized organized into into groups groups demanding demanding reform. reform. bureaucrats,

[1563]

----

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22

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty

Some disillusioned disillusioned and and disgruntled disgruntled officials officials and military leaders leaders collaboSome and military collaborated with who had begun around to attack rated with the the Manchus Manchus who had begun around 1620 1620 to attack the the northern northern marches of of the the empire. empire. By By 1644 1644 the the last last of of the the Ming Ming emperors emperors had commarches had committed by the mitted suicide suicide and and the the Forbidden Forbidden City City was was occupied occupied by the Ch'ing Ch'ing dynasts.' dynasts.1 The Manchu rulers, rulers, insecure in their their legitimacy their control The new new Manchu insecure in legitimacy and and in in their control over over Chinese Chinese society, society, instituted instituted aa literary literary censorship censorship that that lasted lasted until until the the end end of the the eighteenth eighteenth century. century. The The Ming shih,ororthe theofficial officialhistory historyof ofthe theMing Ming of Ming shih dynasty, first first appeared appeared in only in in 1739. 1739. Study Study ofMing of Ming history history by by critidynasty, in print print only critical cal scholars scholars remained remained suspect suspect as as surreptitious surreptitious criticism criticism of of the the Ch'ing Ch'ing until until prethe nineteenth century. the nineteenth century. As As aa consequence, consequence, prudent prudent Chinese Chinese scholars scholars preferred the end of the nineteenth century century to themselves to to ferred until until near near the end of the nineteenth to confine confine themselves study of of the Confucian classics classics or or to to the the history history of of earlier earlier dynasties. dynasties. The study the Confucian The Ch'ing rulers, rulers, perhaps of their their foreign foreign origin, inclined even Ch'ing perhaps because because of origin, were were inclined even more than the the Ming Ming to to encourage encourage Confucian studies. Late Late in in the Ch'ing dymore than Confucian studies. the Ch'ing dynasty, scholars scholars finally finally began began the systematic collection collection of of Ming Ming documents documents nasty, the systematic and the reconstruction Ming history. history. It It was was not middle years and the reconstruction of of Ming not until until the the middle years of of the century that Chinese and and foreign foreign scholars scholars were able to the twentieth twentieth century that Chinese were able to produce the Ming sources. produce aa rounded rounded history history of of the Ming from from domestic domestic and and alien alien sources. For study of of the the second second half half of of the the Ming Ming dynasty, dynasty, the the European European accounts accounts For the the study neatly supplement the the Chinese Chinese documents, documents, particularly particularly because the obserobserneatly supplement because the vations of missionaries and merchants contain contain descriptions descriptions vations of the the European European missionaries and merchants and comments comments on on everyday everyday matters for granted granted by the Chinese Chinese and matters taken taken for by the 2 writers. writers! Unlike India, Unlike India, China China was was aa single single integrated integrated state state and, and, although although massive massive in in size size and and complexity, complexity, permitted permitted much much more more generalization generalization on on the the part part of of seventeenth-century observers India. Throughout Throughout the the century, seventeenth-century observers than than did did India. century, the the Jesuits provided the overwhelming overwhelming bulk bulk of of information information about about China, China, in Jesuits provided the in contrast to to India India where where there there was among the the Europeans contrast was greater greater variety variety among Europeans who who visited there. The Jesuit Jesuit reports, reports, although although voluminous voluminous and and detailed, detailed, are are also also visited there. The somewhat more more repetitious repetitious than than the the more more variegated variegated European European reports reports of somewhat of India. Consequently, Consequently, although although by by the the end end of of the the century century China China was was probaprobaIndia. bly better known to to European readers than than any other part part of Asia, the the image bly better known European readers any other of Asia, image of the seventeenth-century be dedeof China China that that emerges emerges from from the seventeenth-century reports reports can can be scribed in in somewhat somewhat less less space space than than that of the several parts parts of of India. India. scribed that of the several J

11

JESUIT LETTERBOOKS, ETHNOHISTORIES, AND TRAVELOGUES JESUIT LETTERBOOKS, ETHNOHISTORIES, AND TRAVELOGUES

Europe's store the Europe's store of of information information about about China China increased increased very very rapidly rapidly during during the first half of the seventeenth century. The Jesuit Jesuit missionaries, missionaries, by by the the turn turn of first half of the seventeenth century. The of 'Based Wakeman, Jr., Enterprise (2 18. 'Based on on F. F. Wakeman, Jr., The The Great Great Enterprise (2vols.; vols.; Berkeley, Berkeley, 1985), 1985), I,I, 11-18. 2 'Based Ming Dynasty Based on on A. A. Chan, Chan, S.j., S.J., The The Glory Glory and and Fall Fall of of the the Ming Dynasty (Norman, (Norman, Okla., Okla., 1982), 1982), pp. pp. xvi-xxiii. xvi-xxiii.

[1564]

Jesuit Letterbooks, Ethnohistories,and andTravelogues Travelogues Jesuit Letterbooks, Ethnohistories, the century century securely securely ensconced ensconced in in Peking, Peking, continued continued to to provide provide the the most most the perceptive as as well well as as the the most most numerous numerous reports. reports. Their Their letters letters were were regureguperceptive larly published, published, and and reports reports from from China China occupied occupied aa large large and and growing growing place place larly in them. Some were were widely distributed. Niccolo Niccolo Longobardo's Longobardo's Breve Breverelarelain them. Some widely distributed. tione della Cina, firstfirst published in 1601, for example, waswas translated tionedel del regno regno della Cina, published in 1601, for example, translated into was regularly into French, French, Latin, Latin, and and German, German, was regularly cited cited in in other other descriptions descriptions of of China, and and included included in in collections collections of of Jesuit Jesuit letters. letters.33 Longobardo's Longobardo's letter letter China, optimistically describes describes the the state state of of the Jesuit mission mission in in China, China, translates translates aa optimistically the Jesuit letter from from aa Chinese Chinese convert, convert, "Thaiso," "Thaiso," to to Matteo Matteo Ricci, Ricci, and and lists lists ten ten charcharletter acteristics of of China China that that he he thinks thinks will will facilitate facilitate the the spread spread of of the the gospel. gospel. acteristics Some description description accompanies accompanies the characteristics, most of it it laudatory. laudatory. Some the ten ten characteristics, most of Equally of Equally popular popular and and far far more more perceptive perceptive is is Diego Diego de de Pantoja's Pantoja's letter letter of 1602, first first published published as as the the Relacion Relation de de la la entrade entradededealgunos algunospadres padresde de Com1602, la la Com4 4 Pantoja's pania Iesusenenla laChina China 1605. Pantoja's account is far adulatory pania dede Iesus in in 1605. account is far lessless adulatory ofof China than than Longobardo's Longobardo's or or than than Juan Juan Gonzales Gonzales de de Mendoza's Mendoza's sixteenthsixteenthChina century account;' account;5 for for example, example, he he lashes lashes out out sharply sharply against against the immorality century the immorality and covetousness covetousness of of the the emperor, emperor, the the eunuchs, eunuchs, and and the the military. military. He He gives gives and good detail detail on on the the gifts gifts presented presented by by the the Jesuits-clocks, Jesuits—clocks, books, books, maps, maps, and and good oil paintings-and wonder they produced among oil paintings—and of of the the wonder they produced among the the Chinese. Chinese. He He asserts is asserts repeatedly repeatedly that that the the Cathay Cathay of of Marco Marco Polo Polo is is the the same same as as China. China. He He is disdainful of of the the Chinese Chinese ignorance ignorance of of the disdainful the outside outside world, world, of of their their architecarchitecture, of of their their mathematics, mathematics, and and of of their their religions. religions. Like Like Ricci Ricci and and other other EuroEuroture, peans, he he is is impressed impressed by China's size, size, teeming population, immense immense cities, peans, by China's teeming population, cities, low food food prices, prices, high high standards standards of of civility, civility, and and moralleaming. moral learning. low China Fernao Guerreiro's Guerreiro's China also also figures figures prominently prominently in in the the five five volumes volumes of of Femio Relafam (1603-11) which waswas based on on a very large collection of of Relagamannual annual (1603-11) which based a very large collection Jesuit missionary missionary letters." letters.6 A Jesuit A similar similar work, work, which which drew drew from from Guerreiro's Guerreiro's compilation as as well well as as from from other other Jesuit Jesuit publications publications and and letters, letters, was was pubpubcompilation lished in in Bordeaux Bordeaux by by Pierre Pierre Du Du Jarric Jarric between between 1608 1608 and and 1614. 1614.77 Together Together lished these the origin these works works provide provide aa comprehensive comprehensive account account of of the origin and and progress progress of of the Jesuit Jesuit mission mission in in China China along along with substantial amount amount of of descriptive descriptive the with aa substantial material. material. Jesuit Jesuit authors authors also also published published several several major major descriptions descriptions of of China China during during the which were were probably the first first half half of of the the seventeenth seventeenth century century which probably even even more more ininfluential in in shaping shaping Europe's Europe's image image of of China China than than were their letterbooks. letterbooks. fluential were their The most most important important of of these, these, Nicolas Trigault's De De christiana Christiana expeditione The Nicolas Trigault's expeditione apudSinas Sinas(1615), (1615),Alvarez AlvarezSemedo's Semedo'sImperio Imperio de China la China (1642), Martino apud de la (1642), andand Martino Martini's Novus atlas (1655), provided European readers with more Martini's Novus atlassinensis sinensis (1655), provided European readers with more 3 See above, above, pp. pp. 371-72. 371-72. 'See 4 4See See above, above, pp. pp. 319-20, 319-20, for for bibliographic bibliographic details. details. 5 For Mendoza's Mendoza's account account see see Asia, Asia, I, I, 742-94. 742-94. 'For 6 ·See See above, above, pp. pp. 315-18, 315-18, for for details. details. 7 des choses chosesplusplus memorable memorable advenues tant ez e z Indes Indes Orientales Orientales (3 vols.). v o l s . ) . For F o r details d e t a i l s see see 7Histoire Histoire des advenues tant .. .... (3 above, p. 396. p. 396. above,

[1565]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty

comprehensive and and better better organized organized information information about about China China than than ever comprehensive ever before.8 before." Trigault's Mendoza's in Trigault's and and Semedo's Semedo's works works resemble resemble Mendoza's in format. format. Each Each concontains aa long tains long comprehensive comprehensive description description of of China China divided divided into into topical topical sections sections such products," "mechanical such as as "names, "names, location, location, and and size," size," "fertility "fertility and and products," "mechanical arts," arts," "the "the liberal liberal arts," arts," "sciences "sciences and and academic academic degrees," degrees," "administration," "administration," "customs," and and so so forth. forth. Part Part two two of of each each work work is is aa history history of of the the Christian Christian "customs," mission in in China China from from its its beginnings. beginnings. Trigault Trigault brings brings the the story story down down to to the the mission death of of Matteo Matteo Ricci Ricci in in 1610; 1610; Semedo Semedo to to 1638. 1638. Much Much of of the the history of the the death history of mission told by by Trigault have been mission as as told Trigault and and Semedo Semedo would would have been familiar familiar to to readers readers of of the the Annual Annual Letters. Letters. Stories Stories are are retold, retold, and and many many of of the the same same events events or or incidents are are reported. reported. incidents The description of Atlas is The general general description of China China in in Martini's Martini s Atlas is similar similar to to that that of of Trigault Trigault and and Semedo, Semedo, but but much much shorter. shorter. It It is is followed followed not not by by aa history history of of the the mission mission but but by by aa detailed detailed description description of of China's China's provinces, provinces, each each accompanied accompanied by aa provincial map. These These and and the the accompanying accompanying descriptions eliminated by provincial map. descriptions eliminated several erroneous erroneous notions notions about about internal internal geography geography and and clarified clarified Europe's Europe's several cartographical image image of of China. China. The The maps maps were were not not superseded superseded during during the the cartographical remainder these general remainder of of the the century. century. While While better better organized, organized, these general descriptions descriptions produced aa more produced more static static image imageof ofChina China than than that that based based on on the the more more haphazard haphazard reports reports of of events events and and characteristics characteristics contained contained in in the the Jesuit Jesuit letters. letters. Readers Readers who Mendoza's sixteenth-century who depended depended on on the the ethnohistories ethnohistories and and on on Mendoza's sixteenth-century description would would probably probably see see China China as as relatively relatively changeless changeless and and seemingly seemingly description devoid events. devoid ofliving of living dynamic dynamic leaders leaders and and changing changing events. The image of China China projected projected through through both both the ethnohistories and and the The image of the ethnohistories the Jesuit letters letters becomes becomes progressively progressively more more adulatory. adulatory. Trigault Trigault and and Pantoja, Pantoja, Jesuit while while they they admired admired much much that that they they found found in in China, China, also also described described many many aspects judged to to be inferior to pracaspects of of Chinese Chinese life life which which they they judged be inferior to European European practice. philosophical attainments, tice. For For all all his his admiration admiration for for Chinese Chinese philosophical attainments, Trigault Trigault remained convinced of of Europe's Europe's scientific scientific and and technological technological superiority. superiority. remained convinced Nor did he he excessively excessively praise praise the the natural natural morality of the the Chinese. Chinese. In In his his hisNor did morality of history of of the the mission mission one one meets meets "imposters" "imposters" from from all all ranks ranks of of society, society, and and he tory he frequently deplores deplores the the blind blind superstitions superstitions of of the the heathen heathen Chinese. Chinese. Semedo Semedo frequently was somewhat somewhat more more laudatory. laudatory. He He finds, finds, for for example, example, that the Chinese Chinese are are was that the naturally humility, virginity, naturally inclined inclined to to virtue-especially virtue—especially to to humility, virginity, chastity, chastity, and and filial piety-and piety—and he he berates berates Europeans Europeans who who consider consider the the Chinese Chinese to to be be barbarfilial barians.9 Semedo, Semedo, writing writing shortly shortly before before 1642, 1642, was concerned to to defend defend the the barians." was concerned Jesuits' position and practice in Jesuits' position and practice in China China against against competition competition and and criticism criticism from rival rival orders-a orders—a concern concern which which had had arisen arisen since since Trigault Trigault and and Pantoja Pantoja from 8 For bibliographic bibliographic details details on on these these three three works works see see above, above, pp. pp. 512-13, 512-13, 349, 349, 479-82. 479-82. Note Note 'For especially the the discrepancies discrepancies between between the the modern modern English English translation translation of of Trigault's Trigault's classic classic by by especially Louis Gallagher Gallagher and and the the Latin Latin and and Italian Italian originals; originals; see see above, above, p. p. 512, 512, n. 34. See See our our pIs. pis. 55, Louis n. 34. 55, 295, and and 388. 388. For For portraits portraits of of Trigault Trigault and and Semedo, Semedo, see see our our pis. 53 and and 66. 66. 295, pIs. 53 The History History of of the the Great Great and and Renowned Renowned Monarchy Monarchy of of China China (London, (London, 1655), 1655), p. p. 26. 26. •9 The

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Jesuit andTravelogues Travelogues Jesuit Letterbooks, Letterbooks, Ethnohislories, Ethnohistories, and wrote. It shows shows up up most most clearly clearly in in part part two of Semedo's Semedo's book, book, where wrote. It two of where he he tends to to exaggerate exaggerate the the success success of of the the mission mission and and to to defend defend the Jesuit policy policy tends the Jesuit of cultural cultural accommodation accommodation by by extolling extolling the the sincerity sincerity and and constancy constancy of of ChiChiof nese Christians Christians during during the persecutions. Rites considerations nese the persecutions. Rites Controversy Controversy considerations show up up even even more more clearly clearly in in Martini's Martini's description. description. Whether Whether because because of of this show this or because he relied relied more more heavily heavily than than the the others others on on Chinese Chinese sources, sources, he or because he he appears to to be be more more enthusiastic enthusiastic about about China China and and occasionally occasionally to to idealize idealize and appears and exaggerate Chinese Chinese virtues. Still, in in contrast contrast to some later later Jesuit Jesuit writings, exaggerate virtues. Still, to some writings, none of these these descriptions descriptions appears appears to to be be seriously seriously distorted distorted by by the the developdevelopnone of ing polemic in Europe Europe and and Asia Asia over over Jesuit Jesuit practices in China. China. ing polemic in practices in Less important important and and for for the the most most part secondary descriptions descriptions of of China China Less part secondary were produced by by Don Francisco de Herrera Maldonado in 162 by were produced Don Francisco de Herrera Maldonado in 1621I 1O and and by Michel descripMichel Baudier Baudier in in 1624. 1624.1! Maldonado's Maldonado's is is another another comprehensive comprehensive description based on tion based on Jesuit Jesuit letters, letters, on on Trigault, Trigault, and and on on sixteenth-century sixteenth-century authors authors such Bernardino de such as as Gaspar Gaspar da da Cruz, Cruz, Martin Martin de de Rada, Rada, Bernardino de Escalante, Escalante, and and Mendoza. he describes Mendoza. What What he describes is is available available elsewhere elsewhere in in firsthand firsthand accounts. accounts. His Epitome, His Epitome,however, however,isisimportant importantasasthe theearliest earliestprinted printeddescription descriptionofofthe the death and and burial ceremonies of of the the empress empress dowager dowager and and for for his his large large bibdeath burial ceremonies bibliography of of books on China China and and Asia." Asia.12 Semedo Semedo also also describes describes the the death death liography books on of the the empress-the empress—the Wan-li emperor's mother-but mother—but his his account account appeared appeared of Wan-li emperor's later. later. Baudier's Baudier's description description of of China China also also is is entirely entirely based based on on other other printed printed accounts. He He claims claims to have learned learned much much from from hearing accounts. to have hearing Trigault Trigault tell tell Louis Louis XIII about about China in 1616, 1616, but his descriptions descriptions seem seem to to be almost entirely entirely XIII China in but his be almost based on on Mendoza. Baudier is is less less critical critical and and more more enthusiastic enthusiastic about about based Mendoza. Baudier China than either Mendoza Mendoza or or Trigault. Trigault. China than either Although not not published published until until 1663, 1663, the the volume devoted to to China China in Although volume devoted in Daniello mission is Daniello Bartoli's Bartoli's official official history history of of the the Jesuit Jesuit mission is essentially essentially an an ethethnohistory of of the the Ming Ming dynasty.'3 dynasty.13 All nohistory All of of Bartoli's Bartoli's descriptions, descriptions, even even his his exextensive account account of of Chinese Chinese government, government, relate relate to to the the Ming Ming period. tensive period. We We can can find only only two brief and and vague references to Manchu Conquest. Conquest.l4'4 The The find two brief vague references to the the Manchu one, for for example, example, refers refers to it as as the the "last "last inundation inundation of of Tartars Tartars when when she she one, to it [China] [China] stood stood in in great great part part at at the the mercy mercy of of aa vile vile traitor." traitor." I,1S Bartoli's Bartoli's La La Cina Cina appears appears to to follow follow Trigault Trigault more more closely closely than than any any other other source, source, although although parts of of the volume obviously come from from the of other other Jesuit Jesuit writers; parts the volume obviously come the works works of writers; he he he cites cites Rho, Rho, Ruggiero, Ruggiero, Schall, Schall, and and Martini. Martini. Most Most likely likely some some of of what what he reports came from from the the many many unpublished unpublished letters letters and and official official Jesuit Jesuit docudocureports came 10

II

lo 10Epitome Epitome historial 35. for historialdel delreyno reynodedelalaChina China (Madrid). (Madrid). See Seeabove, above, pp. pp. 334334-35, for bibliographical bibliographical details. details. lI Histoire de de la la four cour du du roy toy de de lala Chine Chine (Paris). (Paris). See See above. above, P.402, p. 402, for for bibliographical bibliographical details. details. "Histoire 12 "On On the the mistake mistake in in his his dating dating of of the the empress' empress' death death see see below, below, p. p. 1627. 1627. 13 "Dell' Dell' istoria istoria della dellaCompagnia CompagniadedeGesu; Gesu;lalaCina Cina (Rome, (Rome, 1663). 1663). For F ° r bibliographic bibliographic details details see see the Seicento Seicento above, p. p. 381. 381. On On Bartoli's Bartoli's work work see].). see J.J. Renaldo, Daniello Bartoli. Bartoli. A of the above, Renaldo, Daniello A Letterato Letterato of (Naples, 1979); 1979); and and Bartoli, Bartoli, La La Cina, Cina, ed. ed. Bice Garavelli Mortara Mortara (Milan, (Milan, 1975), 1975), pp. 1-22. (Naples, Bice Garavelli pp. 1-22. Mortara (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 13), 13), pp. pp. 33 33 and and 217. "I4 Mortara 217. l5 ·s Ibid., p. Ibid., p. 217. 21 7.

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China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty ments Bartoli's work ments at at his his disposal. disposal. This This makes makes Bartoli's work somewhat somewhat more more important important as aa source source of of information information about about China China than than if were merely compilation as if it it were merely aa compilation from already published accounts. Rites Controversy considerations considerations also from already published accounts. Rites Controversy also affect Bartoli's description more seriously than than they they did did Trigault's Trigault's or or Seaffect Bartoli's description more seriously Semedo's. His His admiration admiration for for China China is is less less restrained, restrained, he he treats treats Confucianism Confucianism medo's. as an an ethical ethical system system compatible compatible with with Christianity, Christianity, and and he he explicitly explicitly argues argues as the Jesuit Jesuit case case for for cultural cultural accommodation accommodation and and for for the the use use of of traditional traditional ChiChithe nese terms terms for for God. God.l616 nese The chapters chapters on on China China in in Faria Faria yy Sousa's Sousa's Asia publishedinin The Asia portuguesa, portuguesa, published 1666, 1666, also also form form an an ethnohistory ethnohistory of of the the Ming. Ming. They They are are in in fact fact aa condensacondensation Faria had tion of of Semedo's Semedo's description description which which Faria had earlier earlier translated translated from from the the Portuguese.1717 His His history history of of the the Portuguese Portuguese in in Asia Asia ends ends in in 1640, 1640, and and no no Portuguese. books on China China published published after after Semedo's Semedo's are are mentioned mentioned in in his bibliography. books on his bibliography. Far Far less less perceptive perceptive than than the the information information about about China China from from Jesuit Jesuit sources sources were the were the the reports reports of of European European merchants merchants and and seamen seamen who who encountered encountered the Chinese East Indies Indies or China coast. missionaries, Chinese in in the the East or along along the the China coast. Unlike Unlike the the missionaries, the authors of of the travelogues usually usually knew no Chinese and nothnoththe authors the travelogues knew no Chinese language language and ing of Confucian Confucian ethics ethics or or Buddhist theology, saw saw only only the the haziest outlines ing of Buddhist theology, haziest outlines of the the empire's empire's grand grand political political edifice, edifice, and and had no notion notion of of how how it was supsupof had no it was posed to to work. work. They They usually usually displayed displayed little little admiration admiration for for the the inhabitants inhabitants posed of the the Celestial Celestial Empire, Empire, whom whom they tended to describe as as avaricious, avaricious, crafty, crafty, of they tended to describe and deceitful deceitful at at best. best. Their Their general general lack lack of of appreciation appreciation for for China China and and the and the Chinese no no doubt doubt partly resulted from from their their unfamiliarity with Chinese Chinese lanlanChinese partly resulted unfamiliarity with guage and and culture. culture. They They were were frequently frequently describing describing phenomena phenomena which which they they guage did not not understand understand and and crudely crudely evaluating what they they saw, saw, as travelers often often did evaluating what as travelers do still, still, by by the the standards standards of of their their own own land land and and people. people. On On the the other other hand, hand, do their lack lack of of appreciation appreciation also also may may have have been been engendered engendered by by the the kind kind of their of Chinese they they encountered. encountered. They They usually usually met met merchants merchants and and sailors, sailors, often often Chinese the dregs dregs of of Chinese Chinese society. society. Of Of the the officials officials they they generally generally met met only only the the the lowest echelons. echelons. Quite Quite often often these these people people indeed indeed were were avaricious, avaricious, did did lie lie and lowest and cheat, and and were simply not not very very good good examples examples of of Confucian Confucian morality. morality. The The cheat, were simply crude idolatry idolatry of of the Chinese frequently frequently depicted depicted by by European European travelers crude the Chinese travelers was was probably fairly accurate accurate picture of the the religious beliefs of of the people with with probably aa fairly picture of religious beliefs the people whom they they came came in in contact-Chinese contact—Chinese who who themselves themselves did did not not understand understand whom the subtleties subtleties of of Confucian Confucian ethics ethics or or Buddhist Buddhist theology. theology. Consequently, Consequently, dedethe spite their travelogues contributed contributed an an important important dimension dimension to to spite their flaws, flaws, the the travelogues Europe's image image of of China. China. They They added added the the shadows shadows to to the the frequently frequently overoverEurope's idealized picture by the the Jesuits. Jesuits. They They frequently frequently described described the the lower lower idealized picture painted painted by strata of of Chinese Chinese society-if society—if not not peasants, peasants, at at least merchants—people strata least merchants-people i6 Ibid., pp. 152-55,225-3 152-55, 225-38. Ibid., pp. 8. 17 See above, above, pp. 354-55. The descriptive chapters chapters of of Asia areinin Vol. Vol. II; II;see seeJohn John '7See pp. 354-55. The descriptive Asia portuguesa portuguesa are PortugueseAsia Asia(3(3vols.; vols.;London, London, 1695), 1695),II,H,448-99. 448-99.Volume VolumeIII IIIcontains contains Stevens (trans.), (trans.), The The Portuguese Stevens some chapters chapters on on the the history history of of the the Jesuit Jesuit mission mission in in China, China, also also condensed condensed from from Semedo, Semedo, op. Op. some 78-91, 174-80. 174-80. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. cit. pp. 78-91, 16

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Jesuit Ethnohistories,and andTravelogues Travelogues Jesuit Letterbooks, Letterbooks, Ethnohistories, largely largely absent absent from from the the Jesuit Jesuit accounts. accounts. They They also also provided provided some some very very useful the travelers useful materials materials on on provincial provincial government government in in action. action. Many Many of of the travelers confronted the Chinese bureaucracy at the the local local level, level, negotiated negotiated with with local local confronted the Chinese bureaucracy at and provincial provincial officials, officials, and and waited long for for responses from higher officials and waited long responses from higher officials or from from Peking. Some described described formal formal receptions by provincial provincial officials. officials. or Peking. Some receptions by Finally, the the travel travel accounts accounts also also introduced introduced European readers to to the overseas Finally, European readers the overseas Chinese communities communities and and thus conveyed another another dimension dimension of of the Chinese thus conveyed the prepredominance of of China China in in Asia. dominance Asia. Bartolome is lasislas Malucas (1609), Bartolome Leonardo Leonardo de de Argensola's Argensola's Conquista Conquistadedelaslas Malucas (1609), for for example, example, includes includes aa considerable considerable discussion discussion of of China China and and the the overseas overseas Chinese. worried about ChiChinese.18,. The The Spanish Spanish in in Manila Manila continually continually worried about possible possible Chinese intervention the 1603 nese intervention in in the the Moluccas, Moluccas, and and after after the 1603 rebellion rebellion and and massacre massacre of reprisals. Argensola of the the Chinese Chinese in in Manila, Manila, they they feared feared imperial imperial reprisals. Argensola includes includes an exchange exchange of of letters letters between Spanish governor governor in in Manila Manila and and aa an between the the Spanish Fukienese whom he he called Fukienese official official whom called the the "Visitor "Visitor of of Chincheo" Chincheo" (Chang-chou) (Chang-chou) concerning the rebellion.'9 concerning the rebellion.19 Implicit Implicit in in Argensola's Argensola's discussion discussion is is an an appreciaappreciation of of the the size, size, extent, extent, and and influence influence of of the the Chinese Chinese overseas overseas community community in in tion Southeast the Spaniards' what they Southeast Asia Asia and and the Spaniards' fear fear of of what they mistakenly mistakenly saw saw as as aa close between the the overseas their homeland. close relationship relationship between overseas Chinese Chinese and and their homeland. ArgenArgensola but this this seems sola also also includes includes some some general general description description of of China, China, but seems to to come come primarily sources.20 primarily from from Mendoza Mendoza and and his his other other sixteenth-century sixteenth-century Spanish Spanish sources. Jean Mocquet Jean Mocquet never never traveled traveled to to China, China, but but he he apparently apparently met met Chinese Chinese merchants there. merchants in in Goa Goa and and heard heard stories stories about about China China from from the the Portuguese Portuguese there. His very popular Voyages, Voyages,first firstpublished publishedinin1617, 1617,contains containssome somedescripdescripHis very popular 21 Mocquet's tions of of Chinese Chinese people. people.21 Mocquet's opinion opinion of of them them was was not not very favortions very favorable. He He describes describes them as clever, clever, greedy, greedy, and and superb superb cheats. cheats.22 As As an able. them as an example he he tells the story story of of aa Portuguese Portuguese in in Canton Canton who who bought bought aa roast example tells the roast duck only only to to find find its its skin skin stuffed stuffed with with paper paper and and wood wood when when he he attempted attempted duck to eat eat it. it.23 Still, Still, he reports that the Portuguese in Goa Goa prefer prefer Chinese Chinese serto he reports that the Portuguese in servants because because of of their their loyalty loyalty and and industry." industry.24 Mocquet Mocquet claims claims to to have have visited vants visited and eaten eaten with with Chinese Chinese in in Goa. Goa. Their Their houses houses are are sumptuous, sumptuous, he he reports, reports, but but and they they are are gluttons gluttons and and eat eat "with "with ill ill grace." grace." They They eat eat much much rice rice and and little little bread, and and they they eat eat dog dog flesh. Mocquet also also describes describes how how they they use flesh. Mocquet use bread, chopsticks.25'5 chopsticks. Sir A Relation Relation ofofSome Travaile, first first published in in Sir Thomas Thomas Herbert's Herbert's A SomeYeares Yeares Travaile, published 20

22

2)

^Conquista de de las las islas islas Malucas Malucas (Madrid, (Madrid, 1609). 1609). See See above, above, pp. 310-12, for for bibliographical bibliographical "Conquista pp. 310-12, details and and for for aa discussion discussion of of Argensola's work. details Argensola's work. 19 Argensola, Argensola, 0p. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 18), 18), pp. pp. 336-40. 336-40. An An abridged abridged translation translation of of these these letters letters isis included included in PP, PP, XII, XII, 218-22. 218-22. in 20 '0 Argensola, op. pp. 158-62. Argensola, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 18), 18), pp. 158-62. 21 See above, above, pp. pp. 397-98, 397-98, for for bibliography. bibliography. "See 22 " Voyages (Rouen, 1665), p. p. 341. VoyagesenenAfrique, Afrique,Asie, Asie,Indes IndesOrientales, Orientates,&&Occidentales Occidentales (Rouen, 1665), 341. 2,24llIbid., Ibid., pp. pp. 340-41. 340-41. '. Ibid., Ibid., pp.. 342. 342. 25 346-47. 25 Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 346-47.

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China: China: The The Late Late Ming Ming Dynasty Dynasty I6]4, 1634, contains contains some some remarks remarks about about China China although although he he had had never never been been there. there. Herbert was was impressed impressed by by the the reports of the the size, size, wealth, wealth, and and power of the the Herbert reports of power of empire. He He mentions mentions the the Great Great Wall, Wall, printing, and gunpowder gunpowder as as major major empire. printing, and Chinese But the and Chinese achievements. achievements. But the 'Chinese Chinese themselves themselves he he says says are are "subtle "subtle and cowardly," worship worship idols, idols, have very spare spare beards, are inveterate inveterate gamblers, gamblers, cowardly," have very beards, are and and are are "given "given to to Epicureanism."·6 Epicureanism."26 Seyger van Rechteren never visited China, China, but his Journael Journael(I635) (1635)contains contains but his Seyger van Rechteren never visited rather large large description description which which shows shows no no dependence dependence on on the the standard standard Jesuit Jesuit aa rather literature. He He claims claims to to have have culled culled his information from from shipboard shipboard converconverliterature. his information sations with with some some Dutch Dutch officials officials who who had had been been imprisoned in China China for for sations imprisoned in 27 More five years. years.27 More likely likely he he took took it it from from the the official official papers to the the five papers relating relating to Reijersen expedition expedition to to the the Pescadores Pescadores in in I622-24. 1622-24. In In any any case, case, his his is is aa sailReijersen sailors' and and merchants' view of of the the Middle Middle Kingdom, Kingdom, from from the coastal periphperiphors' merchants' view the coastal ery rather rather than than from from the the capital. capital. Van Van Rechteren, Rechteren, too, too, admires admires the the empire empire for for ery its wealth wealth and and power, power, but but he he regards regards it it with hostility—a land land whose whose pagan pagan its with hostility-a and superstitious superstitious people people are are clever clever and and dishonest dishonest and and despise despise all all foreigners. foreigners. and Compared with Jesuit descriptions, descriptions, Van Van Rechteren's Rechteren's is is superficial superficial and and in Compared with Jesuit in places misleading. misleading. His His account account of of imperial imperial government, government, for for example, example, is places is confused and and inadequate. inadequate. He He says says nothing nothing about about the the scholarly scholarly attainments attainments confused of the the officials officials nor, nor, for for that that matter, matter, about about learning learning and and education education at at all. all. ConConof fucius is is not not mentioned. mentioned. Furthermore, Furthermore, he makes some some geographical geographical blunblunfucius he makes ders as, as, for for example, example, when when he describes the the Chiu-Iung Chiu-lung River River at at Chang-chou Chang-chou ders he describes as "the "the largest largest and and the the most most famous famous for for navigation and commerce commerce in in the the as navigation and whole empire of China."'8 China."28 On On the the other other hand, hand, even even Van Rechteren's error error whole empire of Van Rechteren's regarding the Chiu-Iung Chiu-lung River River illustrates illustrates the the impressive commercial acregarding the impressive commercial activity of of the the Chang-chou Chang-chou district, district, and and his his detailed detailed descriptions descriptions of of the tivity the proprovincial governor's formal reception reception of of aa foreigner foreigner and and of of the the difficulties difficulties vincial governor's formal encountered by by foreigners foreigners in in dealing dealing with with local local or or provincial officials are encountered provincial officials are useful additions to to Europe's Europe's image image of of China's China's periphery, where the the ideals ideals of of useful additions periphery, where the imperial imperial system system were were most most seriously seriously compromised. compromised. Much Much more more inforinforthe mation of of this this sort sort is is included included in in the the detailed detailed account account of of the the Reijersen Reijersen expeexpemation dition appended appended to Rechteren's Journael waspublished publishedininthe theBegin Begin dition to Van Van Rechteren's Journael asasititwas 29 endevoortgangh voortgangh in 1646.News News about Reijersen expedition estabende in I646.'9 about the the Reijersen expedition andand the the establishment of of the the Dutch Dutch fort fort on on Formosa had been been reported reported earlier earlier in in Nicolaes Nicolaes lishment Formosa had van Wassenaer's Wassenaer's Amsterdam newsheet.3030 van Amsterdam newsheet. The Begin endevoortgangh voortgangh contains other descriptions of China The Begin ende also also contains other descriptions of China and and 26 A Relation Relation of of Some Some Yeares YearesTravaile, Travaile,Begunne BegunneAnno Anno1626 1626... . . (London, . (London,1634), 1634),pp. pp.206-7. 206-7.For F°r >Ii A bibliographical details details and and aa discussion discussion of of Herbert's Herbert's book book see see above, above, pp. 571-72. bibliographical pp. 571-72. 27 '7 Van reyse ende Van Rechteren, Rechteren, "Journael "Journael ghehouden ghehouden op op de dereyse ende weder-komste weder-komste van van Oost-Indien Oost-Indien.... . . ," ," BV, lib, lib, p. bibliographic details details see see above, above, pp. pp. 453453-55. BV, p. 41. 41. For For bibliographic 55. 28 Van Rechteren, Rechteren, loe. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 27), 27), p. p. 44. 44. "Van 29 Ibid., pp. pp. 45-53. 45-53. On On the the Reijersen Reijersen expedition expedition see see above, above, pp. pp. 52, 52, 453-54. 453-54. '9 Ibid., 3 verhael alder alder ghedenck-weerdichste ghedenck-weerdichstegeschiedenisse geschiedenisse . (Amsterdam, 1621-32), 3 °Historisch Historisch verhael .... .(Amsterdam, 1621-32), IV IV (Oct., 1623),31-32; 1623), 31-32; VII (June, 1624),63-70; 1624), 63-70; XI (June, 1626), 1626), 94a-96b. 94a~96b. VII (June, XI (June, (Oct., 0

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Geography, Climate, Climate, and and Names Names Geography, the Chinese. The The Dutch Dutch travelers travelers whose accounts are are included included in frethe Chinese. whose accounts in it it frequently describe the overseas overseas Chinese Chinese whom whom they Java and other quently describe the they met met in in Java and other itself, or or at at least least its its coastal coastal places in in Southeast Southeast Asia. Asia. Descriptions Descriptions of of China China itself, places regions, are are included included in in the of Cornelis Cornelis Matelief, Matelief, Roelof Roelof RoelofRoelofregions, the journals journals of szoon, and and Wybrand Wybrand van van Warwijck. Warwijck. Roelofszoon Roelofszoon describes describes the the misadvenmisadvenszoon, tures of Jacob Neck's seamen seamen off Macao in in 1601. 1601.3131 Van Van Warwijck's Warwick's tures of Jacob van van Neck's off Macao journal contains an an interesting interesting description description of of his his negotiations negotiations with journal contains with local local Chinese officials officials in in the Pescadores in in 1604.32 1604.32 Matelief, Matelief, too, tried to to negotiate negotiate Chinese the Pescadores too, tried trade in 1607 1607 with with Chinese Chinese officials officials at at Nan-ao and at at Lan-tao Lan-tao islands islands on on the the trade in Nan-ao and Kwangtung coast. His His account account as as published in the endevoortgangh voortgangh K wangtung coast. published in the Begin Begin ende con-contains some very very perceptive description of of the the negotiations negotiations and and of of the the people, tains some perceptive description people, villages, and temples temples he he visited visited on on the the islands. islands. The The editor, editor, Isaac Commelin, villages, and Isaac Commelin, appended aa much larger description description of of China China to to Matelief's Matelief s account account taken taken appended much larger from Pierre Pierre d' d'Avity's estats,empires, empires, et principautez du monde, from Avity's Les Les estats, et principautez du monde, whichwhich in in turn was condensation of of Mendoza. Mendoza.3313 turn was aa condensation Willem Ysbrantszoon Ysbrantszoon Bontekoe's Bontekoe's immensely immensely popular wasalso also Willem popular Journael Journael was' first published in 1646, 1646, and and it, it, too, contains descriptions descriptions of of the the Chinese Chinese and first published in too, contains and of their ships the Fukien Fukien of their ships and and villages villages which which Bontekoe Bontekoe encountered encountered along along the 34 coast when he he commanded the Reijersen's Reijersen's warships. warships.3' To coast in in 1622 1622 when commanded one one of of the To Bontekoe, also, the the Chinese Chinese were were aa sinister sinister and and dangerous dangerous folk. folk. He He found found Bontekoe, also, little about admire. Fewer Fewer references references to China are found in in Vincent Vincent little about them them to to admire. to China are found 35 35 He Le Blanc's popular Les voyagesfameux, voyages fameux,first firstpublished publishedinin1648. 1648. Heseems seems Le Blanc's popular Les less hostile to the the Chinese Chinese than than some some of of the the other other travelers, although he, travelers, although he, less hostile to too, reports reports that the Chinese Chinese in in Bantam Bantam worship worship the the devil. He marvels marvels at at the too, that the devil. He the arrogance of of the the Chinese Chinese who who reportedly reportedly presume their empire empire to to be be at at the the presume their arrogance center of of the the earth. earth.3636 center

22 GEOGRAPHY, AND NAMES GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, CLIMATE, AND NAMES

Europe's knowledge of China's geography Europe's knowledge of China's geography improved improved considerably considerably during during the first half half of of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits who the first the seventeenth century, primarily primarily because because the Jesuits who wrote the descriptions during during those those years years were were no confined to wrote the major major descriptions no longer longer confined to the south south coast, coast, but but traveled traveled all all over over China China along along its its roads, roads, rivers, and cathe rivers, and canals, and lived lived in in the capital as as well as in in provincial provincial towns towns and and villages. villages. FurFurnals, and the capital well as ,.31 See -64. See above, above, pp. pp. 463 463-64. 32 See above, above, p. p. 466. 466. "See 33 "For For aa discussion discussion of of the the Begin Begin ende endevoortgangh, voortgangh,itsitscontents, contents,and anditsitsvarious variouseditions editionssee seeabove. above, pp. 461-73. 61 -73PP·4 34 See above, pp. 474-75. 474-75. "See above. pp. 35 See above. above, pp. 406-7, for for details details on on Le Blanc. "See pp. 406-7. Le Blanc. 36 Le Blanc, The World World Surveyed Surveyed.. .. . . (London. (London, 1660). 1660), pp. pp. 99. 99, 162. 162. ,6Le Blanc. The

[[1571] 1571 ]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty thermore, they they had had access access to and were were able able to to read read Chinese Chinese descriptions descriptions of thermore, to and of the empire empire which augmented their their personal observations and and provided the which augmented personal observations provided aa inlarger them.3737 Their larger context context for for them. Their accounts, accounts, therefore, therefore, contain contain geographic geographic information about about the the northern as well well as as the the south, south, the the interior interior as formation northern provinces provinces as as well as the coast; coast; about about the the capital, capital, other and small small towns well as the other great great inland inland cities, cities, and towns and villages; and peripheral areas By and villages; and about about peripheral areas such such as as Tibet Tibet and and Mongolia. Mongolia. By 1655, with the the publication Atlas, Europe's ge1655, with publication of of Martini's Martini s Atlas, Europe's image image of of Chinese Chinese geography was was quite complete, not not to be appreciably appreciably altered altered during during the next ography quite complete, to be the next two centuries. centuries. two All European All European observers observers during during the the first first half half of of the the seventeenth seventeenth century century seem awed awed by by China's vast size population. Trigault in 1615 China's vast size and and population. Trigault in 1615 quoted quoted aa seem 1579 Chinese Chinese "Description "Description of of the Chinese Empire": Empire": 1579 the Chinese "In regal provinces provinces [metropolitan provinces]"In the the Chinese Chinese Empire Empire there there are are two two regal [metropolitan provinces]— Nankin, the southern southern kingdom, kingdom, and and Pekin, Pekin, the the northern northern kingdom. kingdom. Besides Besides these Nankin, the these two there provinces. These fifteen provinces"—which provinces" -which might might very two there are are thirteen thirteen other other provinces. These fifteen very well be called called kingdoms—"are further divided divided into into one one hundred fifty-eight departdepartwell be kingdoms-"are further hundred fifty-eight ments or or small small provinces," provinces," which which the the Chinese Chinese call call Fu Fu and and most of which which contain contain ments most of twelve to fifteen fifteen large large cities, cities, besides smaller towns, fortresses, villages, villages, and and farms. farms. besides smaller towns, fortresses, twelve to "In these these regions regions two two hundred forty seven seven large large cities cities are are designated designated by the title, "In hundred forty by the title, [chou],although althoughforforthe themost mostpart partthese theseare aredifferentiated differentiatedfrom fromother otherlarge large Cheu [chou], Cheu cities by their dignity dignity and and importance size. Then Then there are eleven eleven by their their size. there are cities by their importance rather rather than than by hundred and fifty-two fifty-two common common cities cities which which are are called called Hien [hsien]."3* Hien [hsien]."" hundred and

Pantoja already in in 1605 1605 had had referred to the the same same Chinese Chinese publication publication and Pantoja already referred to and regarding size of of China's and cities, cities, added added helplessly: helplessly: "to "to beberegarding the the size China's provinces provinces and lieve their their greatness greatness it is necessary to see see them." them." 3939 Most Most of of Trigault's Trigault's sucnecessary to suclieve it is cessors repeat repeat or or summarize summarize his description of of the fifteen provinces and their their cessors his description the fifteen provinces and subdivisions with variations. Many Many writers provinces, subdivisions with minor minor variations. writers name name the the provinces, sometimes dividing dividing them into northern and southern southern groups. groups. Semedo Semedo inthem into northern and insometimes 40 cludes aa brief description of of each each province. Martini's provincial provincial descripdescripcludes brief description province. 40 Martini's tions are, of course, the (See pis. 318.) For each of of course, the. most most detailed. detailed. (See pIs. 286, 286, 302, 302, 318.) For each of tions are, 37

The Jesuits Jesuits probably probably used used the the imperially imperially compiled compiledtreatise treatiseon onadministrative administrativegeography, geography, l7The the late Ch'uan-shu. Cj Cf Ho Ho Ping-ti, Ping-ti, Studies Studies on on the the Population of China China (Cambridge, (Cambridge, Fu-i Ch'uan-shu. Population of the late Ming Ming Fu-i Mass., 1959), 1959), chaps, ii, vi. Mass., chaps. ii, vi. 38 ,sL.). (trans.), China Sixteenth Century: of Matthew Matthew Ricci: Ricci: L. J. Gallagher, Gallagher, S.). S.J. (trans.), China in in the the Sixteenth Century: TheJoumals The Journals of 1583-1610 (New York, York, 1953), 1953), p. p. 9. 9. Gallagher's Gallagher's work work isis aa translation translation of of Trigault's Trigault's De De Christiana Christiana 1383-1610 (New . . . ex ex P. . . commentariis. commentariis. For Forthe thedifferences differences between between Gallagher's Gallagher's expeditione ... P. Matthaei Matthaei Ricci Ricci .. expeditione of Trigault's Trigault's De expeditione and and Ricci's Ricci's original original journals, see above, 511 —12. translation of translation De expeditione journals, see above, pp. Pp.5II-I2. Trigault's "Description "Description of of the the Chinese Chinese Empire" Empire" is likely the the Kuang-yu t}u ("Map of the the Trigault's is most most likely Kuang-yu t'u ("Map of Chu Ssu-pen Ssu-pen in in 1312. 1312. See See Walter Walter Fuchs, The "Mongol Broad World") World") originally originally compiled compiled by Fuchs, The "Mongol Broad by Chu )} Chu Ssu-pen the Kuang-yu t'u ("Monumenta ("Monumenta Serica," Serica," Monograph VIII; Peiping, Peiping, Atlas Atlas" of ofChu Ssu-pen and and the Kuang-yu t'u Monograph VIII; 1946). According to Fuchs, p. II, 11, the the Kuang-yu fu also also formed formed the the foundation foundation for for Martini's Martini's Fuchs, p. Kuang-yu t'u 1946). According to See Min-sun Min-sun Chen, Chen, "Geographical "Geographical Works Works by by Jesuits in Chinese, Chinese, 1584-1672" 1584-1672" (M.A. Atlas. Atlas. See Jesuits in (M.A. diss., University University of of Chicago, Chicago, 1959), 1959), pp. pp. 1-7, 1-7, esp. esp. nn. nn. 5, 5, 12. 12. For examples of of the the maps diss., For examples maps see see our pIs. pis. 286 and 325. 325. our 286 and 39 Pantoja, "A "A Letter Letter of of Father Father Diego de Pantoja Pantoja ... . . . ," ," PP, XII, 364. 364. "Pantoja, Diego de PP, XII, 40 9), pp. 8-22. 4·Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), pp. 8-22. [[1572] 1572 ]

Geography, Geography, Climate, Climate, and and Names Names the Atlas contains map, aa the fifteen fifteen provinces provinces his his Atlas contains aa double-spread, double-spread, folio-sized folio-sized map, description the province's province's location borders, its description of of the location and and borders, its climate, climate, population, population, Marand and tax tax revenues. revenues. Following Following the the general general description description of of each each province, province, Martini describes major cities names the and tini describes each each of of its its major cities (fo) (fu) and and names the towns, towns, districts, districts, and the province for fortified places subordinate it. Both fortified places subordinate to to it. Both for for the province generally generally and and for each he describes the rivers, mountains, roads, tzchfufo he describes the rivers, mountains, roads, and and bridges, bridges, as as well well as as the the unique features the landscape, unique features of of the landscape, its its fertility, fertility, products, products, and and something something of of its its history. provincial descriptions history. These These provincial descriptions range range from from six six to to twelve twelve folio-sized folio-sized to the would have have been been difficult to find compages as pages as additions additions to the maps. maps. It It would difficult to find comparably parably detailed detailed descriptions descriptions of of many many parts parts of of Europe Europe during during the the sevenseventeenth teenth century. century. What vast What amazed amazed seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Europeans Europeans even even more more than than China's China's vast size was its No one it. size was its awesomely awesomely dense dense population. population. No one failed failed to to comment comment on on it. There were so will hardly believe," There were so many many large large cities. cities. "For "For your your Worship Worship will hardly believe," writes his journey journey to writes Pantoja Pantoja about about his to Peking, Peking, "that "that wee wee spent spent two two or or three three houres ling still folhoures in in say sayling still by by the the walls walls of of one one Citie. Citie. After After which which there there still still folhe lowed lowed many many Townes Townes and and Villages, Villages, one one within within sight sight of of another." another."414' Peking, Peking, he reports, had reports, had 200,000 200,000 houses-more houses—more populous populous than than any any four four major major European European cities After having years, Semedo cities combined. combined.4242 After having lived lived in in China China for for twenty-two twenty-two years, Semedo claimed be still by the throngs of people as he had claimed to to be still as as amazed amazed by the throngs of people as when when he had first first arrived. that China populated and arrived.4343 Martini Martini writes writes that China was was so so heavily heavily populated and so so intenintensively that he sively cultivated cultivated that he often often thought thought ofit, of it, surrounded surrounded as as itit was was by by the the Great Great Wall Wall and and the the seas, seas, as as one oneenormous enormous city.44 city.44Several Severalof ofthe theJesuits Jesuits made made estimates estimates of the population based on the tax tax rolls rolls of the empire. number of men of the population based on the of the empire. The The number of men registered is is well over 58,000,000. 58,000,000. Trigault Trigault says says 58,550,801; 58,550,801; Semedo Semedo says registered well over says 58,055,180.4l Martini, writing writing shortly registration, records 58.055.180.45 Martini, shortly after after aa new new registration, records 58,914,284.46 writers point point out, tax58.914,284.46 But But these these figures, figures, as as the the writers out, included included only only taxpayers; royal relatives, relatives, government payers; they they did did not not include include women, women, children, children, royal government officials, acofficials, soldiers, soldiers, eunuchs, eunuchs, and and priests-an priests—an almost almost innumerable innumerable host, host, according cording to to Martini. Martini. Estimates Estimates of of China's China's real real population population based based on on these these figfigures went as as high high as as 200,000,000. 200,000,000.4747 ures went Most Most early early seventeenth-century seventeenth-century writers writers describe describe China China as as being being almost almost square talked about 550 square in in shape. shape. Longobardo, Longobardo, in in 1602, 1602, talked about its its "diameter" "diameter" of of 550 leagues: to north and leagues: 550 550 leagues leagues from from south south to north (from (from 19° 190 to to 50° 500 north north latitude) latitude) and 41

Pantoja, loc. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 364. 364. Pantoja, Ibid., p. hierarchy does Ibid., p. 365. 365. Note Note that that being being called called aa city city in in the the administrative administrative hierarchy does not not necesneceshierarchy accurately. township outside the walled sarily in the the economic economic hierarchy accurately. A A township outside the walled sarily indicate indicate position position in be economically economically much more important important than than the the latter latter if if it it were were located located at at the "city" might might be "city" much more the junction of rivers or of of important important roads. roads. junction of rivers or 43 op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 3. 4J Semedo, Semedo, op. 3. 44 44 Novus Novus atlas atlas sinensis, sinensis,Vol. Vol. XI XI ofJohan ofjohan Blaeu, Blaeu, Le Legrand grandatlas atlas(Amsterdam, (Amsterdam, 1663), 1663),p.p.6.6. 45 Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 9; 9; Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 3; 3; those two 45 Trigault those two figures are are so so similar similar that that one one suspects suspects the the difference difference is is simply simply aa typographical typographical error. error. figures 46 460p. 6. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 6. 47 Cf. Ho, Ho, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 37), 37), pp. 3-23 and and 277. 277. Ho Ho estimates estimates the population of of China China to to 47 Ibid. Ibid. Cj pp. 3-23 the population have reached reached 150,000,000 150,000,000 by by 1600. have 1600. 4'

42

42

[[1573] 1573 ]

China: Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Late Ming Dynasty 48

Most subsequent subsequent writers writers disagree disagree with with about the the same same from east to west. 48 Most about from east to west. Longobardo about about the the location location of of China's China's northern northern border. Pantoja conconLongobardo border. Pantoja 0 tends that that Peking Peking was was at at 40° 400 north north and and the the wall wall not not further further north north than than 42 tends 42°.. 0 0 49 He in the loHe also also thought thought Hainan Hainan Island Island in the south south was was at at 17° 17 or or 18°.49 18 . Trigault Trigault lo0 cates China China between 190 and and 42° 420 north north latitude latitude and and between between II2° 1120 and and 132 cates between 19° 132° 50 longitude. places the has nothing longitude. so Semedo Semedo places the northern northern frontier frontier at at 43° 43° and and has nothing to to say places Peking say about about longitude. longitude.51s, Martini Martini places Peking at at 39°59' 39°59' and and the the northern northern fronfrontier at at 42°." 420.52 He locates the the southern southern tip tip of of Hainan Hainan Island, Island, taken by most most He locates taken by tier European writers writers to to be be China's China's southern southern extremity, extremity, at at 18°. 180. From From east east to European to west China China spans spans thirty thirty degrees, degrees, according according to to Martini,'3 Martini,53 and and his his maps maps show show west Ningpo, the the eastern eastern extremity, extremity, at at about about 152°, 1520, which which would would place place the the westwestNingpo, 0 ern frontier frontier at at about about 122°-considerably 122 —considerably different different from from Trigault's Trigault's estimate, estimate, ern and from from modern modern maps maps which which locate locate the the eastern eastern tip tip of of Chekiang Chekiang Province Province at and at 1220 and and western western Kansu about 94°. 940. Martini's Martini's latitudinal latitudinal calculations, calculations, howhow122° Kansu at at about ever, are are very very close close to to those those shown shown on on modern modern maps. maps. He He also also includes includes aa ever, table of of longitudes longitudes and and latitudes latitudes for for each each of of the the cities cities and and towns towns mentioned mentioned table in the the Atlas. For these these tables tables he he calculated calculated longitude longitude in in degrees degrees east east or or west in Atlas. For west of Peking, Peking, whose whose longitude longitude he he took took as as his his base base meridian." meridian.54 of China also also enjoys enjoys naturally naturally protected frontiers, which which most most writers writers deChina protected frontiers, describe in in very very similar similar terms. terms. To To the the east east and and south south lies lies aa sea sea whose whose treachtreachscribe erous erous coastline coastline protects protects China's China's maritime maritime approaches; approaches; in in the the west, west, high high mountains separate separate China China from from the the rest rest of of Asia, Asia, and and in in the the north north and and northnorthmountains west lie lie inhospitable inhospitable deserts deserts and and the the Great Great Wall, Wall, built built to to protect the empire empire west protect the 55 where nature's nature's barriers barriers seemed seemed inadequate. Several writers writers describe describe the the where inadequate. 55 Several various lands lands on on China's China's frontiers; frontiers; none so thoroughly thoroughly as as Martini, Martini, whose whose various none so Atlas contains fairly fairly detailed detailed descriptions descriptions of of Manchuria, Manchuria, Hokkaido, MonAtlas contains Hokkaido, Mongolia, Chinese Chinese Turkestan, Turkestan, Tibet, Tibet, Laos, Laos, northern northern Cambodia, Cambodia, and and Vietnam. Vietnam.5656 golia, Most report that in Most European European writers writers report that China China lies lies in in the the temperate temperate zone zone and and in general enjoys enjoys aa temperate temperate climate, climate, but but with with much much more more variation variation than than one one general 4 *Noupeaux aduis du du grand grand royaume royaume de de la la Chine, Chine, ... . . . (Paris, (Paris, 1602), 1602), pp. pp. 99 - 1IO. 0. .8 Nouveaux advis 49 Pantoja, loe. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), pp. pp. 361-62. 361-62. ··Pantoja, 50 ,oGallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. pp. 7-8. 7 - 8 . For For some some early early seventeenth-century seventeenth-century maps maps of of China 288. China see see pIs. pis. 284 284 and and 288. 51 Op. cit. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 1. 1. For For the the maps accompanying Semedo's Semedo's book book see see our our pis. and "Op. cit. (n. maps accompanying pis. 287 287 and 288. 288. $2 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), pp. 2, 4. "Op. 44), pp. 2, 4. "Ibid., "Ibid., p. p. 2. 2. 54 54 Ibid., - 32. On Ibid.,pp. pp. 213 213-32. On the the calculation calculation oflatitude of latitude and and longitude longitude in in Martini's Martini's Atlas Atlas see seeDavid David E. E. Mungello, Curious Curious Land: Land: Jesuit and the the Origins Origins of of Sinology (Stuttgart, 1985), 1985), Jesuit Accommodation Accommodation and Sinology (Stuttgart, MungeIlo, pp. 122-23. See See also also pis. 286, 290, 290, and and 291 291 for for Martini's Martini s general general map map of of China China and and other other maps maps pp. 122-23. pIs. 286, based on based on it. it. 55 For example, example, see see Pantoja, Pantoja, loc. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 364; 364; Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 9; 9; "For Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 2 - 3 . Cj Cf. A. Waldron, "The "The Great Great Wall Wall Myth: Myth: Its Its Origins and Role Role Martini, 44), pp. pp. 2-3. A. Waldron, Origins and Yale Journal Journal of of Criticism, Criticism, Vol. Vol. II, II, No. No. 11 (1988), (1988), PP.76-77. pp. 76-77. See See pIs. pis. 300 300 in Modern Modern China," China," Yale in and 289. and 289. 56 Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. «), 44), pp. 23-33. 23-33. On On China's China's periphery periphery see see below, below, chap. chap. xxii. xxii. '"Martini,

[ 1574] 1574]

Geography, Geography, Climate, Climate, and and Names Names would 42°0 north north latitude. would expect expect to to find find between between 18° i8° and and 42 latitude. Semedo, Semedo, for for exexample, winters are very cold north latitude; latitude; ample, complains complains that that Peking Peking winters are very cold for for 40° 400 north rivers 57 Marrivers and and lakes lakes freeze freeze over over and and people people use use stoves stoves to to heat heat their their homes. homes.57 Martini, tini, too, too, thinks thinks Peking Peking surprisingly surprisingly cold. cold. Rivers Rivers are are frozen frozen over over for for four four months months at at aa stretch, stretch, with with ice ice thick thick enough enough to to support support chariots chariots and and horses. horses. On the the other other hand, hand, some some Thaws do do not not set set in in before the month month of of March. Thaws before the March.5858 On parts of China China lie lie in in the torrid zone; zone; Fukien Fukien he he describes describes as as warm, warm, but but parts of the torrid healthy; it never never snows snows in in Kwangtung, Kwangtung, where trees are are green green all all year, year, healthy; it where the the trees while Kwangsi Kwangsi and and Yunnan Yunnan are are usually very hot. hot.5959 In In his his description description of of while usually very Hangchow he he tells tells of of the the prodigiously strong tides tides which occur each each year year Hangchow prodigiously strong which occur on the the eighteenth eighteenth of of October. October. The The whole whole city city turns turns out out to to watch watch them. them. on Martini reports reports that that tides tides are are always always strong strong in in the the Ch'ien Ch'ien T'ang T'ang River River and and Martini speculates that that the unusually strong strong October October tide was related related to to the the transitransispeculates the unusually tide was tion from from autumn autumn to winter, during during which which the the sea sea took took on on aa more more sinister sinister tion to winter, 60 aspect.60 aspect. A more more spectacular spectacular development development in in Europe's Europe's geographic geographic knowledge knowledge was was A the convincing identification identification of of China with Marco Marco Polo's Polo's Cathay. Martin de de the convincing China with Cathay. Martin Rada Rada in in the the late late sixteenth sixteenth century century had had already already suggested suggested that that China China and and CaCa61 The thay but two thay were were but two names names for for the the same same place. place.61 The Jesuit Jesuit missionaries missionaries who who got got inside inside the the empire empire soon soon became became convinced convinced that that Marco Marco Polo Polo had had really really visited Pantoja, after visited China. China. Pantoja, after talking talking with with central central Asian Asian merchants merchants in in Peking, Peking, was certain certain of of the identity: was the identity: Wee Wee asked asked these these men men certaine certaine questions: questions: and and one one was was this this of of Catayo, Catayo, enquiring enquiring of of them, How they called this Kingdome them, How they called this Kingdome of of China China in in their their Countrey? Countrey? They They answered, answered, Catayo, and and that that in in all all the the Countries Countries of of Mogor, Mogor, Persia, and other other parts, it had none Catayo, Persia, and parts, it had none other name, name, and and that that they they knew knew none other Kingdome Kingdome that that was was called called so. so. Wee Wee asked other none other asked have said, said, them how they they called called this this Citie Citie of of Paquin? They said said Cambalu, Cambalu, which, as II have Paquin? They which, as them how 62 is that our men men set set down down for for the the head head Citie Citie of of Catayo. is that which which our Catayo. 62

A controversy A controversy developed developed between between the the missionaries missionaries in in China China and and those those at at the the court of of the the Mughul Mughul emperor emperor (Akbar); (Akbar); the latter still still insisted insisted that Cathay court the latter that Cathay or aa region China. The Jesuits, concerned concerned about was was an an empire empire or region distinct distinct from from China. The Jesuits, about the large large number of Christians Christians supposedly supposedly living living in in Cathay, Cathay, finally finally arranged arranged the number of an expedition expedition to to settle settle the question. In In 1603 1603 aa lay lay brother of the the society, society, an the question. brother of S7 '70p. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 20-2I. 20-21. 58 "Op. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), pp. pp. 34-35. 34-35. China China was was in in aa cold cold cycle cycle and and the the seventeenth seventeenth was was the the coldest coldest century times. See Bulletin of the century in in modern modern times. See Shen Shen Wen-hsiung, Wen-hsiung, "Changes "Changes in in China's China's Climate," Climate," Bulletin of the r an Society,LV LV(1974), (1974),1350; 35°;and dWakeman, Wakeman,op. op.cit. cit.(n. (n.I),1),I,I,7.7.For ForMartini's Martini's American American Meteorological Meteorological Society, map ofPei of Pei Chih-li Chih-li (Peking (Peking metropolitan metropolitan province) province) see see pI. pi. 302. map 302. "9Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), pp. pp. 148-61, 148-61, 174, 174, and and 191. 191. '·Op. 6o ""Op. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 137. 137. The The autumn autumn bore bore on on the the Ch'ien Ch'ien T'ang T'ang was was one one of of Hangchow's Hangchow's celebrated sights. sights. See, See, for for example, example, the the Sung Sung dynasty dynasty painter painter Li Li Sung's Sung's well-known "The well-known "The celebrated Hangchow Bore Bore in in Moonlight" Moonlight" (ca. (ca. 1210) 1210).. Hangchow •61, See See Asia, Asia, I,I, 752. 752. 62 ·'Pantoja, (n. 39), p. 363. 363. Pantoja, loc. loc. cit. cit. (n. 39), p.

[[1575] 1575 ]

China: The The Late Late Ming Dynasty China: Ming Dynasty Bento Bento de de Goes, Goes, was was sent sent from from Delhi Delhi over over the the caravan caravan routes routes to to Cambaluc, Cambaluc, the Marco Polo's Cathay. Trigault Trigault records records the the story story of of Brother Brother the capital capital of of Marco Polo s Cathay. Bento's travels; travels; how how he he journeyed with Saracen Saracen caravans caravans headed headed for for CamCamBento's journeyed with 6 , Goes baluc, baluc, finally finally arriving arriving at at Su-chou Su-chou in in western western Shensi Shensi late late in in 1605. 1605.63 Goes died died in Su-chou, Su-chou, but but not not before before he he had had exchanged exchanged letters letters with with Matteo in Matteo Ricci Ricci in in Peking and and had had become become convinced convinced that that the the Cambaluc Cambaluc towards towards which which he he was Peking was traveling and and the the Peking Peking in in which which Ricci Ricci lived lived were were one one and and the the same same place traveling place 6, and and that that Cathay Cathay was was simply simply the the Saracen Saracen name name for for China. China.64 Despite Despite Trigault's Trigault s convincing convincing discussion, discussion, many many Europeans Europeans were were still still not not persuaded persuaded that that China China and and Cathay Cathay were were identical. identical. Purchas, Purchas, for for example, example, who who in 1625 1625 published published both both Pantoja's Pantoja's letter letter and and large large parts parts of of Trigault's Trigault's book, book, in was still still inclined inclined "to "to believe believe some some greater greater Prince Prince or or Can Can with with his his Cambalu Cambalu was or Court Court in in the the more more Northerly Northerly parts parts of of Asia, Asia, than than the the Jesuits Jesuits could could learne learne or of; which which the the China China jealousie, admitting no no entercourse entercourse of of Strangers, Strangers, and and of; jealousie, admitting the many many quarrelling quarrelling Tartar Tartar Princes Princes in in the the way way have have concealed concealed from from us us hithhiththe 65 erto. Perhaps erto.""65 Perhaps the the main main difficulty difficulty was was the the reputed reputed existence existence oflarge of large numnumbers of of Christians Christians in Cathay, whereas whereas no no Christian Christian community community had had been bers in Cathay, been found found in in China. China. Trigault Trigault tries tries to to show show that that there there had had been been Christians Christians in in China at at an an earlier earlier date, date, and and that that traces traces of of their their existence existence can can still still be be found. found.6666 China He also also suggests suggests that that the the reports reports concerning concerning the the large large numbers, numbers, mostly mostly He originating with with Muslim Muslim observers, observers, might might have have been been exaggerated exaggerated or or that that originating these observers observers might might have have confused confused Chinese Chinese Buddhism Buddhism with with Christianity. Christianity.67 these 67 A letter letter of of Gaspar Gaspar Luis Luis published published in in aa 1628 1628 Jesuit Jesuit letterbook letterbook brought brought new new A evidence for for the the early early presence of Christianity Christianity in in China China with with his his description description evidence presence of 68 The of the the Nestorian Nestorian monument monument found found in in Sian. Sian.68 The monument monument was was again again deof described by Semedo.69 Since Marco Marco Polo Polo had had visited visited China China during during the the Mongol Mongol scribed by Semedo. 69 Since dynasty, it it was was also also possible that China China had had acquired acquired the the name name Cathay Cathay from from dynasty, possible that some contiguous contiguous land land during during the the period period in in which which the the Great Great Khan Khan had had ruled ruled some all of of these these lands. all lands. Such doubts doubts were were prevalent enough to to induce induce Martini Martini to to treat treat the the probprobSuch prevalent enough lem lem at at length length in in his his Atlas Atlas and and to to offer offer still still more more evidence evidence for for the the identificaidentification Blaeu Atlas Atlas major tion of of Cathay Cathay with with China. China. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, the the Blaeu major volume volume which which includes includes Martini's Martini's Atlas Atlas also also contains contains the the description description of of aa separate separate "Kingdom "Kingdom of of Cathay." Cathay." Martini Martini contends contends that that Cathay Cathay was was simply simply aa Mongol Mongol 63 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. 499-521. Goes' Goes'journey first reported reported in in 1603 1603 by by ·'Gallagher pp. 499-521. journey was was first Guerreiro. Artur Viegas Relafiio annual quequefizerdm fizeram os os padres da Companhia de de Guerreiro. See See Artur Viegas (ed.), (ed.), Relacdo annualdas dascoisas coisas padres da Companhia Jesus Jesus nas nas suas suasmissoes missoes... . . .(3 (3vols.; vols.;Coimbra, Coimbra,1930-42), 1930-42),I, I,285-314 285-314(Pt. (Pt.II,II,ch.ch.ii).ii). 64 _4 Actually Actually Cathay Cathay is is aa Mongol Mongol designation designation for for China, China, but but Saracen Saracen traders traders who who came came to to China China by by the the overland overland route route still still used used the the term term in in the the seventeenth seventeenth century century.. 6 •,>PP, PP, XII, XII,478. 478. 66 ·'Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38). 38), pp. pp. 106-14 106-14.. •67, Ibid., Ibid., p. 500. 68 68 Advis Advis certain, d'une d}une plus plus ample ample descourverte du royaume royaume de Catai', Catai, ... . . . & de l'antiquite Vantiquite de la la foy Joy chrestienne letter ofFran~ois chrestienne dans la Chine Chine . .... . . (Paris, 1628), 1628), pp. p p . 12-28. 1 2 - 2 8 . Bound B o u n d with w i t h the letter of Franqois Godin Godin (or Francisco Godinho) G o d i n h o ) from from Tibet. Tibet. 69 "Op. Op. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. p p . 157-65. 157-65.

[[1576] 1576 ]

Geography, Geography, Climate, Climate, and and Names Names name was name for for the the six six northern northern provinces, provinces, while while Marco Marco Polo's Polo's "Mangin" "Mangin" was their contheir name name for for the the southern southern provinces.7" provinces.70 He He repeats repeats Trigault Trigault or or Ricci's Ricci's conversations of versations with with Muslim Muslim merchants merchants in in Peking, Peking, and and he he retells retells the the story story of 7 ' Tartars, Bento Bento de de Goes' Goes' travels. travels.71 Tartars, he he reports, reports, still still called called Peking Peking "Cambalu," "Cambalu," and he he observes observes that that Polo's Polo's description description of of "Cambalu" "Cambalu" fits fits the the Peking and Peking he he knows.727' In In many many other other places places Martini Martini compares compares Polo's Polo's descriptions descriptions with with knows. his observations, observations, usually usually attesting attesting to to the the general general accuracy accuracy of of Polo's Polo's story. story. his For example, example, Polo's Polo's "Quiang" "Quiang" was was the the Yangtze, Yangtze, his his "Singui" "Singui" was was Soochow, Soochow, For his "Quinsai" "Quinsai" was was Hangchow, Hangchow, his his "Fugui" "Fugui" was was Foochow, Foochow, which which name name he his he applied to to the the whole of Fukien Fukien province, province, and and his his "Zarte" "Zarte"—not Chinese applied whole of -not aa Chinese name, according according to to Martini-was Martini—was Chang-chou, Chang-chou, in in which which were were found found many many name, vestiges vestiges of of Christianity. Christianity.7373 The The most most intriguing intriguing proof proof for for the the identity identity of of Cathay Cathay and and China China was was that that presented 1667), in presented by by the the Dutch Dutch orientalist, orientalist, Jacob Jacob Golius Golius (1596(1596-1667), in an an "Addita"Addita74 mentum" Atlas. 7' Golius mentum" to to Martini's Martini's Atlas. Golius had hadlong long been been interested interested in inChina China and and had had entertained entertained the the same same doubts doubts concerning concerning the the identification identification of of China China with with Cathay Cathay as as did did many many other other European European scholars. scholars. Often Often he he had had come come across across refreferences to to Cathay Cathay in in his his study study of of Persian Persian literature. literature. He He had had in in his his possession possession erences astronomical astronomical tables tables written written by by the the thirteenth-century thirteenth-century Persian Persian philosopher, philosopher, Nasirodin, which way in which the the Cathayans Nasirodin, which described described the the way in which Cathayans kept kept time-the time—the divisions coldivisions of of the the year year down down to to the the divisions divisions of of the the day. day. Golius Golius had had also also collected in lected aa few few Chinese Chinese books, books, but but could could not not read read them. them. When When he he learned learned in 1654 that that Father Father Martini, Martini, who who reputedly reputedly knew knew Chinese Chinese well, well, would would be 1654 be passpassing through through Leyden, Ley den, Golius Golius hurried hurried to to meet meet him. him. His His primary primary concern concern was was to to ing establish definitely definitely whether China was indeed Cathay Cathay or or whether whether some some other other establish whether China was indeed people to to the the north north had had given given their their name name to to China China during during Mongol Mongol times. people times. Upon meeting meeting Martini, Martini, Golius Golius began began to to recite recite the the names of the the twelve twelve hours hours Upon names of into which which Nasirodin Nasirodin had had said said the the Cathayans Cathayans divided divided the the day. day. He He pronounced pronounced into the first first three three names names and and Martini Martini easily easily completed completed the the list. list. Next Next he he tried tried the the the twenty-four parts into which which Nasirodin Nasirodin had had said said the the people people of of Cathay Cathay ditwenty-four parts into divided the the year, year, and and again again Martini Martini finished. finished. Golius Golius was was convinced. convinced. He He knew knew vided not aa word word of of Chinese Chinese and and Martini Martini knew knew no no Persian; Persian; still still they they were were obviously obviously not talking about about the the same same people. The people people of of Cathay Cathay whose whose divisions divisions of of time time talking people. The Golius had had learned learned from from Nasirodin Nasirodin were were obviously obviously Chinese, Chinese, who who still still told told Golius time in in the same way. way. Some Some time time after after their their first meeting in in Leyden, Leyden, time the s'ame first brief brief meeting Martini and and Golius Golius talked talked at at greater greater length length in in Antwerp Antwerp and and amassed amassed still still Martini more convincing convincing prooffor proof for the the identification identification of of China China with with Cathay. Cathay. After After the more the publication of of Martini's Martini's Atlas with Golius' Golius' "Additamentum," "Additamentum," most most EuroEuropublication Atlas with pean scholars scholars seem seem to to have have been been convinced convinced of of the the identification. identification. pean 7

°Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 53. 7"Op. 53. 71

Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 35-36. 35-36. Ibid., p. 37. p . 37. 73 7JIbid., 152. Ibid.y pp. pp. II5-16, 115-16, 122, 122, 133-35, 133-35, 140, 140, 147, 147, 152. 74 74 Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. i-xvi, 2)2. i-xvi, following following p. p. 232. 7' 72 7' Ibid.,

[[1577] 1577]

China: Late Ming China: The The Late Ming Dynasty Dynasty The grew, The problem problem of of whether whether or or not not China China was was the the same same place place as as Cathay Cathay grew, in part, out of of the the great great variety variety of of names names commonly commonly assigned assigned to to the empire. in part, out the empire. prefaced their Trigault Trigault and and most most subsequent subsequent writers writers prefaced their descriptions descriptions of of China China with the names was known. Ptolemy, said Triwith aa discussion discussion of of the names by by which which it it was known. Ptolemy, said Trigault, had called times it it was was also known as the land land gault, had called it it "Sina," "Sina," and and in in ancient ancient times also known as the of people on of the the "Hippophagi" "Hippophagi" and and as as "Serica "Serica regio." regio." The The people on China's China's borders borders all gave gave different different names names to to the the empire; empire; those those living living in in Indochina, Indochina, the the East all East Indies, and and India, India, for for example, example, called called it it "China" "China" or or "Cina"-the "Cina"—the PorPorIndies, tuguese learned it it here-and here—and the the people to the the west called it it "Cathay," "Cathay," just tuguese learned people to west called just as they they did did in in Marco Marco Polo's Polo's time. Most European European reporters reporters went on to to list list as time. Most went on other names names by which China was known known to to her her neighbors-names neighbors—names unknown unknown other by which China was to the the Chinese Chinese themselves. themselves. One One reason reason for for all all this this confusion confusion was Chito was the the Chinese custom custom of of changing changing the empire's name name with with each each new new dynasty. dynasty. Thus Thus in nese the empire's in the first first half of the the seventeenth seventeenth century century the the empire empire was was known known to to its inhabithe half of its inhabitants as as the the empire empire of of Ta Ta Ming. Ming. Formerly Formerly it it had had been known as as "Than" "Than" tants been known (T'ang), "Yu" "Yu" (Yii) (Yii),, "Hia" "Hia" (Hsia), (Hsia), "Sciam" "Sciam" (Shang), (Shang), "Cheu" "Cheu" (Chou), (Chou), and (T'ang), and Han, following Trigault's Trigault's list. list.7575 Martini Martini added added the "C'in" (Ch'in), (Ch'in), from from Han, following the "C'in" which he thought thought derived derived the the name, China, the "Ijue" (Yiian), (Yuan), and and the which he name, China, the "Ijue" the "C'ing" (Ch'ing), (Ch'ing), the the title title of of the the new new Manchu Manchu dynasty.7 dynasty.766 The The ancient ancient ChiChi"C'ing" nese tradition of referring referring to to their their land land as as Chung-kuo Chung-kuo or or Chung-hua, Chung-hua, the nese tradition of the Middle Kingdom Kingdom or or Garden, Garden, was was also also known known to to most most European European writers. writers. In Middle In illustration Trigault Trigault describes describes the the disbelief disbelief evidenced evidenced by by the Chinese when when illustration the Chinese they first first saw saw Ricci's map showing showing China China at at its its eastern eastern edge edge rather rather they Ricci's world world map than at at the the center. center.7777 The The story story was was repeated again and and again again during during the the rethan repeated again remainder of of the the century. century. mainder The information and The general general geographic geographic information and the the name name issue issue contained contained in in the the seventeenth-century deseventeenth-century European European reports reports unfortunately unfortunately overshadow overshadow the the detailed have obobtailed feel feel for for the the Chinese Chinese landscape landscape which which European European readers readers could could have tained Included are descriptions of hundreds of tained from from them. them. Included are vivid vivid descriptions of hundreds of Chinese Chinese villages and written about villages and cities-scores cities—scores written about Peking Peking alone; alone; of of the the sights sights along along the roads, roads, rivers, rivers, and and canals canals over over which the Jesuits Jesuits traveled; traveled; of of majestic majestic the which the mountains in in the the west, west, terraced terraced hillsides, hillsides, verdant verdant paddies, and the the dusty dusty mountains paddies, and loess plateau; of and loess plateau; of the the coves coves and and inlets inlets along along the the coast coast visited visited by by Dutch Dutch and English merchant ships. were treated treated to English merchant ships. In In short, short, European European readers readers were to thouthousands impressions of Middle Kingdom's landscape while while they they sands of of specific specific impressions of the the Middle Kingdom's landscape read about read about Reijersen's Reijersen's raids raids along along the the Fukien Fukien coast, coast, Bento Bento de de Goes' Goes' long long trek trek from journeys between between PePefrom Agra Agra to to Su-chou, Su-chou, and and the the missionaries' missionaries' many many journeys king their widely in king and and their widely separated separated outposts. outposts. The The provincial provincial descriptions descriptions in Martini's are likewise likewise packed details about about specific specific mountains, Martini's Atlas Atlas are packed with with details mountains, valleys, streams, streams, roads, roads, and and villages. valleys, villages. 75 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 6. 6. "Gallagher 76 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), p. 2. "Op. 44), p. 2. 77 "Gallagher p. 7. 7. Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p.

[1578]

Government Administration Government and and Administration 33 GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION GOVERNMENT AND AND ADMINISTRATION

No aspect aspect of of Chinese Chinese society society was was so so uniformly uniformly admired admired by by seventeenthNo seventeenthcentury Europeans Europeans as as its its government government and and administration. administration. Already Already in in the the century sixteenth century century Mendoza Mendoza had had suggested suggested that that China China was was the the best-governed best-governed sixteenth land on on earth. earth. Thereafter Thereafter no no one one essayed essayed to to describe describe China China without without devotdevotland ing ing an an almost almost disproportionately disproportionately large large share share of of space space to to government government and and adadministration. ministration. Consequently Consequently seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Europeans Europeans accumulated accumulated voluminous voluminous and and reasonably reasonably accurate accurate notes notes on on Chinese Chinese government. government. Most Most of of this Europeans this information information originated, originated, as as might might be be expected, expected, with with those those Europeans who who had had lived lived in in China China for for long long periods periods of of time—the time-the Jesuit Jesuit missionaries. missionaries. Their Their descriptions descriptions found found their their way way into into the the works works of of many many other other writers writers and and were were also also supplemented supplemented by by the the observations observations of of merchants merchants and and seamen. seamen. The pinnacle pinnacle of of Chinese Chinese government government is is the the emperor, emperor, and and his his absolute absolute The power elaborate but power apparently apparently fascinates fascinates European European writers, writers, who who indulge indulge in in elaborate but fairly imposing ruler. almost fairly accurate accurate characterizations characterizations of of this this imposing ruler. For For example, example, almost all discuss the and titles. is all European European writers writers discuss the emperors emperor's various various names names and titles. He He is called, they T'ien-tzu, Son Son of of Heaven, called, they report, report, T'ien-tzu, Heaven, because because he he has has received received his his throne He is or throne by by the the Mandate Mandate of of Heaven. Heaven. He is also also commonly commonly called called Huang-ti Huang-ti or Yellow Emperor, after after the the third third sage sage emperor emperor of of Chinese Chinese legend. legend. Martini Martini Yellow Emperor, compares the the Chinese Chinese emperor's use of of Huang-ti theRoman Romanuse useof ofCaeCaecompares emperor's use Huang-ti totothe sar.7*The Thesuccession successionofofChinese Chineseemperors emperorswas wasfrom fromfathers fatherstotosons, sons,al-alsar.'s though Trigault reports some ancient ancient sage sage emperors emperors had had given though Trigault reports that that some given the the 79 throne Semedo declares declares that that if if the son, the the first first throne to to others. others.'9 Semedo the empress empress has has no no son, son born born to to any any of of the the emperor's emperor's concubines concubines becomes becomes the the heir. heir. The The ememson peror, he he asserts, asserts, is is not not free free to to change change the the succession, succession, and and he he describes describes the peror, the Wan-li (r. (r. 1573-1620) 1573-1620) emperor's emperor's unsuccessful attempt to do so so as as proof. proof.8080 Wan-li unsuccessful attempt to do Semedo lists lists thirteen thirteen actions actions taken taken by by aa new emperor upon upon his accession. Semedo new emperor his accession. Among them, them, he receives aa new new name name and and also also designates designates aa name name for for the Among he receives the period of of his his reign reign (reign (reign title). title). Time Time is is counted counted from from the the New New Year's Year's Day Day period following his his accession, accession, and and new new money money is is coined coined in in his his name. name. The The new new following emperor also also makes makes offerings offerings on on the the altars altars to to Heaven Heaven and and to to Earth, Earth, gives gives emperor generous alms alms to to the the poor, poor, and and sets sets many many prisoners prisoners free. free. All All officials officials in in the the generous empire come come to to the the court court to to pledge pledge allegiance allegiance to to the the new new monarch, monarch, where where empire they are are lavishly lavishly entertained entertained at at the the emperor's emperor's expense. expense. All All the the former former emthey em-

(I f)

1% Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. IS. 15. The The character character huang huang (t ( %))as asused used in in Huang-ti Huang-ti ( &. >&is) aishomophone a homophone "Op. of huang huang ((." ^ ),), meaning meaning yellow. yellow. Huang-ti Huang-ti(.1 (J^ ,. •£))means means simply simply August August One One or oremperor. emperor. of 79 79Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 42. 42. ~ 8o 8°Semedo, 14. See Ray Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 113113-14. See also also Pantoja, Pantoja, 10e. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), pp. pp. 388-89. 388-89. Cj Cf. Ray Huang, Huang, 1587, 1587, A A Year Year of of No No Significance: Significance: The The Ming Ming Dynasty Dynasty in in Decline Decline (New (New Haven: Haven: 1981), 1981), 106, on pp. pp. 8686-106, on the the succession succession issue. issue.

1579

China: The The Late Ming Dynasty Dynasty China: Late Ming peror's concubines concubines are are sent sent away, away, and and new new concubines concubines are are selected selected from from all peror's all over over the the kingdom. kingdom.818• Considerable Considerable detail detail concerning concerning the the emperor's emperor's dress, dress, his his daily routine, routine, his wives and and concubines, concubines, and and the the eunuchs eunuchs who who serve serve his daily his wives his court be found Pantoja decourt can can be found in in the the seventeenth-century seventeenth-century descriptions. descriptions. Pantoja describes scribes the the imperial imperial palaces palaces and and grounds; grounds; Semedo Semedo adds adds considerably considerably more more detail.· detail.82 The The common common people people never never see see the the emperor. emperor. Indeed, Indeed, the the Wan-Ii Wan-li ememperor peror is is almost almost never never seen seen by by anyone anyone except except his his women women and and the the eunuchs eunuchs who serve serve him.8 him.833 Such Such complete complete seclusion, seclusion, however, exceptional. At who however, is is exceptional. At court the the women women and and eunuchs eunuchs constitute constitute aa multitude. multitude. Chinese Chinese emperors emperors court marry one one empress, empress, but but keep keep thousands thousands of of concubines. concubines.8484 All All of of the the women women marry are chosen chosen solely solely for for their their beauty. beauty. Unlike Unlike European European monarchs, monarchs, Chinese Chinese ememare perors do do not not marry marry daughters daughters of of neighboring neighboring kings kings or or of of great great noble noble famifamiperors 8' Thousands lies.85 Thousands of of eunuchs eunuchs are employed to to serve serve the the emperor emperor and and his lies. are employed his harem. Pantoja Pantoja describes describes them them and and how how they they are are selected; selected; he he has has little little good good harem. to say say for for them them and and reports reports that that there there were were over over sixteen sixteen thousand thousand eunuchs eunuchs in in to 86 Semedo royal service. service.86 Semedo reckons reckons twelve twelve thousand thousand eunuchs eunuchs in in 1626 1626 and and deroyal describes the the occupations, occupations, grades, grades, and and organization organization of of the the eunuchs eunuchs in in considconsidscribes erable detail. detail.87 When favored favored by by an an emperor emperor they they could could become become insolent insolent and erable 87 When and rapacious; no no one one was was safe safe from from their their abuse abuse of of power. power. rapacious; Semedo also also recounts recounts the the honors honors and and ceremonies ceremonies due due this this powerful monSemedo powerful monarch: once once each each month month officials officials in in every every city city gather gather to to do do him him reverence. reverence. arch: They perform perform similar similar ceremonies ceremonies on on his his birthday. Once each each year year every every They birthday. Once province sends aa high high official official to to the the imperial court to to venerate venerate the the emperor emperor province sends imperial court on behalf behalf of of the the province, and all all high high officials officials come come to to Peking Peking for for that that purpuron province, and pose every third third year. year. No No one one may may pass pass the the palace gate on on horseback horseback or or in in aa pose every palace gate sedan chair, chair, and and no no one one in in mourning mourning may may enter enter the the palace gate. Foreign Foreign amamsedan palace gate. bassadors and and others others rehearse rehearse the the ceremonies ceremonies before before an an empty empty throne throne in in bassadors preparation for for imperial imperial audiences. audiences. In In the the emperor's emperor's presence, all kneel and preparation presence, all kneel and hold flat pieces of of ivory ivory before before their their mouths mouths when when speaking. speaking.8888 Semedo Semedo hold flat pieces thinks the the honors honors shown shown the the emperor emperor are are excessive, excessive, more more appropriate appropriate for for thinks 89 God God than than for for any any human. human.89 2

••81 Semedo, 10. Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 108108-10. 82 Pantoja, loco loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), pp. 407-9; Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 110-17. n o - 1 7 . Cj Cf. pIs. pis. 23, 23, 306, "Pantoja, pp. 407-9; 306, and 314. and 314. 83 Pantoja, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 406; 406; Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 110. n o . On On the the Wan-Ii Wan-li emperor emperor and and "Pantoja, his his seclusion seclusion see see Huang, Huang, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 80), 80), pp. pp. 1-41. 1-41. Most of of the the palace palace women women were were attendants; attendants; only only aa few few dozen dozen became became concubines. concubines. See See "84Most Huang, Huang, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 80), 80), pp. pp. 28-30. 28-30. 85 For example, example, see see Pantoja, Pantoja, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 404, and Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. "For 404, and pp. 110-13. IIo-I3. 86 Pantoja, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), pp. pp. 404-6. 404-6. '·Pantoja, 87 Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. II4-I7. 114-17. On On their their number number and and functions functions see see Wakeman, Wakeman, op. op. cit. "Semedo, cit. 11 —13, and and Huang, Huang, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 80), 80), pp. pp. 13, 13, 19-21. 19-21. On On the the grave grave problem problem of of growing growing (n. I), 1), I, I, 11-13, (n. eunuch control control during during the the Ming Ming see see P. P. M. M. Torbert, Torbert, "The "The Ch'ing Ch'ing Imperial Imperial Household Household DepartDeparteunuch ment: A A Study Study ofIts of Its Organization Organization and and Principal Principal Functions" Functions" (Ph.D. (Ph.D. diss., diss., Dept. Dept. of of History, History, ment: 10-23. University of of Chicago, Chicago, 1973), 1973), pp. pp. 10-23. University 88 Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. II7-I9. 117-19. "Semedo, no. "89Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 110.

[[1580] IS80 ]

Government Government and and Administration Administration The Jesuits Jesuits report report that that China China had had always always been been aa monarchy; monarchy; Trigault Trigault conconThe tends unknown in in tends that that even even the the names names of of other other forms forms of of government government are are unknown China.'o that there China.90 Most Most Europeans Europeans seem seem surprised surprised to to learn learn that there is is no no hereditary hereditary nobility political power power with with the nobility in in China China to to share share political the emperor. emperor. Trigault Trigault corcorrectly reports been aa nobility rectly reports that that there there had had been nobility which which held held titles titles like like duke, duke, marmarquis, these had become defunct quis, and and count count in in China's China's early early history, history, but but that that these had become defunct at least least eighteen eighteen hundred hundred years years earlier." earlier.91 Relatives Relatives of of the the emperor emperor and and dedeat scendants of of those those who who performed performed outstanding outstanding service service in in the establishment scendants the establishment of the dynasty hold hold hereditary hereditary titles-usually titles—usually king king (wang)-and (wang)—and governgovernof the dynasty ment stipends, stipends, but but these, these, Trigault Trigault notes, notes, hold hold no no office office or or authority authority and and are ment are 9 ' They, subject to civil magistrates like any any other other Chinese. Chinese.92 They, in in fact, fact, subject to the the civil magistrates just just like may not office or or reside in either either of of the the capitals. capitals. Trigault Trigault claims claims that that may not hold hold office reside in each of of these these families families possesses royal token token which grants its its holder pardon each possesses aa royal which grants holder pardon 93 for any any crime crime except except treason. It can can be however, only only three three times. for treason. It be used, used, however, times.·3 Semedo, writing writing around around 1642, 1642, reports reports that that royal royal relatives relatives have have but but recently recently Semedo, been allowed to to take take the the examinations.·' examinations.94 Pantoja, Pantoja, however, however, in in 1605, 1605, reports reports been allowed that he knew one one of of the the royal royal relatives who was was studying studying for for the the examiexamithat he knew relatives who nations.95S nations.· While power, most While greatly greatly impressed impressed with with the the emperor's emperor s absolute absolute power, most of of the the Jesuit writers sense the the limitations limitations placed placed on on this power by by the civil bureaubureauthe civil Jesuit writers sense this power cracy. Trigault, for example, example, observes observes that China, although although aa monarchy, cracy. Trigault, for that China, monarchy, is is "to makes "no final decideci"to some some extent extent an an aristocracy" aristocracy" in in that that the the emperor emperor makes "no final sion in in important important matters matters of state without consulting with magistrates of state without consulting with the the magistrates sion or considering considering their their advice." advice." He He states states it it strongly-perhaps strongly—perhaps too too strongly: strongly: "I "I or can assert assert the the following following as as certain certain because have made made aa thorough thorough investigainvestigacan because II have tion of of it, it, namely: that the the King King has has no no power to increase increase aa monetary monetary grant grant tion namely: that power to to anyone, anyone, or or to confer aa magistracy upon anyone, anyone, or or to to increase increase the to to confer magistracy upon the power power 96 thereof, except except on on request request of of one one of of the the magistrates." The emperor, emperor, of of thereof, magistrates."·6 The course, could could reward reward anyone anyone from from his his private private fortune, fortune, but but he he might might not not discourse, dispose of of public and tribute tribute income income as as he he pleased. The budgets budgets of of all all dedepublic tax tax and pleased. The pose ^Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 3S), 38), p. ""Gallagher p. 41. 41. ••91 Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 41-42. 41-42. In In 127 127 B.C. B.C. the the Former Former Han Han ordered ordered that that the the land land of of each each principality principality be be divided after after the the death death of of the the prince prince (vassal (vassal king), king), but but that that the the vassal vassal king's king's title title be inherited by by be inherited divided only one one son. son. This This amounts amounts to to the abolition of of primogeniture, in fact, fact, but to the the noble noble only the abolition primogeniture, in but not not to ranks and titles, titles, which which usually usually passed on to to the the eldest eldest son son of of the the legitimate legitimate wife wife.. ranks and passed on 92 pp. 43-44. The principalities principalities after after 1402 1402 were were brought under increasing increasing supervision supervision •' Ibid., Ibid., pp. 43-44. The brought under by provincial provincial authorities, authorities, even even though though some some princes powerful. by princes remained remained powerful. 93 OJ Ibid., Ibid., p. 44. p. 44. 94 "Semedo, (n. 9), Ming royal royal relatives relatives and hereditary nobility nobility see Semedo, 0p. op. cit. cit. (n. 9), p. p. lOS. 108. On On the the Ming and hereditary see Charles State in Charles O. O. Hucker, Hucker, The The Traditional Traditional Chinese Chinese State in Ming Ming Times, Times, 1368-1644 1368-1644 (Tucson, (Tucson, 1961), 1961), pp. Ladder of Success inin Imperial pp. 12-14, 12-14, 41-42; 41-42; Ho Ho Ping-ti, Ping-ti, The The Ladder of Success ImperialChina China (New (New York, York, 1962), 1962), pp. 21-24; 21-24; and and Lynn Lynn A. A. Struve, Struve, The The Southern 1644-1662 (New (New Haven, Haven, 1984), 1984), pp. pp. II-I3. 11-13. pp. Southern Ming, Ming, 1644-1662 These studies studies confirm confirm the the seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Europeans' Europeans' picture picture of of the the condition condition of of the the royal royal These relatives and and nobility nobility.. relatives 9S cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. • J Loc. Loc. cit. p. 409. 409. 96 96Gallagher p. 45. word to Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 3S), 38), p. 45. "Aristocracy" "Aristocracy" is is not not the the right right word to apply apply to to the the bureaucracy. It It was never aa hereditary hereditary estate. estate. bureaucracy. was never

[[1581] 1581 ]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty partments, indeed indeed the the allowance allowance for for the the emperor emperor himself, himself, are are all all established established partments, 97 Semedo Semedo and regulated regulated by by the the appropriate appropriate administrators administrators and and bureaus. and bureaus.97 dubs the the scholar-officials-even scholar-officials—even the the students-a students—a nobility, nobility, but but aa nobility nobility dubs 98 The raised raised by by their their learning learning rather rather than than aa hereditary hereditary caste. caste.98 The admiration admiration for for China's learned governors on on the the part part of of many many European European observers observers was was ununChina's learned governors bounded. Trigault, Trigault, for for example, example, reports: reports: bounded. Only to take Only such such as as have have earned earned aa doctor's doctor's degree degree or or that that of of licentiate licentiate are are admitted admitted to take part in in the the government government of of the the kingdom, kingdom, and and due due to to the the interest interest of of the the magistrates magistrates part King himself is no lack of Every public is and and of of the the King himself there there is no lack of such such candidates. candidates. Every public office office is therefore ditherefore fortified fortified with with and and dependent dependent upon upon the the attested attested science, science, prudence, prudence, and and diplomacy plomacy of of the the person person assigned assigned to to it, it, whether whether he he be be taking taking office office for for the the first first time time or or civil life life." is already already experienced experienced in in the the conduct of civil is conduct of ...

Athanasius Kircher Athanasius Kircher later later writes: writes: "this "this state state is is governed governed by by the the learned learned in in the the manner manner of of the the Platonists, Platonists, and and according according to to the the desire desire of of the the divine divine philosophilosopher; in which which II consider consider this this kingdom kingdom happy, happy, which which has has aa king king who is able able pher; in who is to philosophize or who who at at least least allows allows aa philosopher philosopher to govern it it and and guide guide to philosophize or to govern him." him." 1O° Martini's Martini's sentiments sentiments are are expressed expressed in in similar similar tones tones..•101 At the central At the the apex apex of of the central administration administration in in Peking Peking were were the the six six boards, boards, "courts" by all the Jesuits "courts" or or "councils" "councils" described described by all the Jesuits from from Pantoja Pantoja to to MarMartini tini..•102 The The functions functions of of most most of of the the administrative administrative boards boards are are evident evident from from their their titles: titles: the the Hu-pu, Hu-pu, or or Board Board of of Finance; Finance; the the Hsing-pu, Hsing-pu, or or Board Board of of PunPunishments; Board of ishments; the the Ping-pu, Ping-pu, or or Board of War; War; and and the the Kung-pu, Kung-pu, or or Board Board of of Public Works. Works. Two Two of of the boards, however, however, performed performed functions functions unique unique to to Public the boards, China and and these these attracted attracted more more attention attention from from the seventeenth-century EuEuthe seventeenth-century China ropean writers writers than others—the Li-pu, Li-pu, or or Board Board of of Civil Civil Office, Office, and and the the ropean than the the others-the Rites, also also called called Li-pu, Li-pu, although although the the character character Iili in in this this case case differs differs Board of of Rites, Board 103 All from from that that used used for for the the Board Board of of Civil Civil Office. Office.103 All agree agree that that the the Board Board of of Civil Office Office is is the the most important of of the the six six boards. boards. It keeps records records on on all all Civil most important It keeps officials and and on on all all the the empire's empire's qualified qualified candidates candidates for for civil civil office. office. NominaNominaofficials tions for administrative administrative posts posts are are made made to to the the emperor emperor by by this The tions for this board. board. The Board of Civil Civil Office Office also also reviews reviews the records of of each each official official every every third third Board of the records year and makes makes recommendations recommendations for for promotion and demotion. demotion. The The Board Board year and promotion and of Rites Rites has has responsibility responsibility for for the the court's court's elaborate elaborate ceremonial. ceremonial. It It also also supersuperof vises the maintenance of of temples temples and and shrines shrines and and exercises exercises authority authority over over vises the maintenance .00

0.

02

97

Ibid., p. Ibid., p. 46. 46. 98 ·'Semedo, pp. 121-22. Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. 121-22. "'Gallagher "Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. pp. 44-45. 44-45. Not Not all all those those appointed appointed to to the the bureaucracy bureaucracy had earned earned degrees. degrees. For some exceptions exceptions see see Ho, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 94), 94), pp. pp. 21-41. 21-41. had For some Ho, op. 100 .00 La Chine plusieurs monuments profanes, et de quantite Chine illustree illustree de deplusieurs monuments tant sacres que profanes, quantite de recherches de la nature etetde nature deI'art Vart... . . . ,, trans. trans. F.F. S.S. Dalquie Dalquie (Amsterdam, (Amsterdam, 1670), 1670), p. p. 226. 226. 101 ,0'Op. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. IS. 15. 102 ,0'The The romanization romanization of of the the Chinese Chinese names names for for the the offices offices varies varies greatly greatly in in Europe Europe from from writer to writer. Wherever possible them to writer to writer. Wherever possible we we have have converted converted them to Wade-Giles Wade-Giles romanizations romanizations.. Board of of Civil Civil Office Office (( V!. g ~?); 4f>); Board Board of of Rites Rites (iff ( # £ -t~ £ ? )).. 03 Board •103 97

[1582]

Government Government and and Administration Administration priests A more more important the Board Board of of Rites Rites is is the the priests and and monks. monks. A important function function of of the administration of of the governmental school school system, system, the the examinations, examinations, and and the governmental administration the granting granting of of the the academic academic degrees degrees by by which which scholars scholars qualify qualify for for civil the civil office. the supervision visioffice. The The reception reception of of tribute tribute missions missions and and the supervision of of foreign foreign visitors, such such as as the the Jesuit Jesuit missionaries, missionaries, are are also also the the responsibility responsibility of of the the Board Board tors, of Rites. Rites. Semedo Semedo observes, observes, too, too, that that the the members members of of the the Board Board of of Rites Rites are are of always appointed appointed from from the the scholars scholars of of the prestigious "Royal "Royal Colledge" Colledge" or or always the prestigious Han-lin Yiian Yuan and and frequently frequently were were also also appointed appointed Grand Grand Secretaries Secretaries (ko-lao) (ko-lao) Han-lin which judges to to be la, Each which he he judges be "the "the chiefest chiefest dignity dignity in in China." China."104 Each board board has has aa president (shang-shu) (shang-shu)and andtwo twoassistants assistants(shih-lang) (shih-lang) called Assessor on the called the the Assessor on the president Right and and the the Assessor Assessor on on the the Left. Left. There There are are ten ten other other members members on on each each Right board. board.105 Another Another important important body body in in seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Chinese Chinese governmentgovernment— and another another which which had had no no western western counterpart-was counterpart—was the the Censorate. Censorate. It It was and was consequently described described by by all all the the Jesuits. Jesuits. Pantoja Pantoja and and Martini call the the cencenconsequently Martini call sors 7> Macao has has five religious houses: houses: one one each each for for the the Jesuits, Jesuits, Dominicans, Dominicans, Macao five religious Franciscans, and and Augustinians; Augustinians; and and the the convent convent of of "St. "St. Clara" Clara" (Franciscan), (Franciscan), Franciscans, established in in 163 1631I by by nuns nuns brought brought over over from from Manila. Manila. There There are are three three established churches within within the the city: city: the the cathedral, cathedral, "St. "St. Lorensio, Lorensio,"" and and "St. "St. Antonio"; Antonio"; churches and walls.273 273 and one, one, "St. "St. Lasaro," Lasaro," outside outside the the walls. Prior no walls walls Prior to to the the unsuccessful unsuccessful Dutch Dutch attack attack on on Macao Macao in in 1622 1622 it it had had no and was was governed governed as as aa republic republic by by its its oldest oldest councillors. councillors. After After the the Dutch Dutch and attack, the the walls walls and and fortifications fortifications were were built built and and the the viceroy viceroy at at Goa Goa was attack, was asked to to send send three three hundred soldiers and and aa governor governor to to be be maintained maintained at at the the asked hundred soldiers city's expense. expense. The The viceroy viceroy responded responded quickly quickly to to this this opportunity opportunity to to estabestabcity's lish royal royal authority authority over over Macao, Macao, and and sent sent Mascarenhas Mascarenhas to to be be the the first first govergoverlish nor (captain-general). (captain-general). Mascarenhas, Mascarenhas, however, however, was was not not well well received received by by the the nor independent-minded citizens citizens until until after after he he seized seized control control over over the the Jesuit Jesuit fort fort independent-minded "St. Paulo" Paulo" by by subterfuge. subterfuge. D'Avalo D'Avalo recounts recounts the the popular popular story story describing describing "St. these events. events.274 In addition addition to to the the captain-general, captain-general, D' D'Avalo reports, Macao Macao these >74 In Avalo reports, has aa bishop, bishop, aa sergeant-major, sergeant-major, aa captain captain of of artillery, artillery, and and three three captains captains of has of infantry.275 infantry.27S Macao's Macao's trade trade occupies occupies aa prominent prominent place place in in D'Avalo's D'Avalo's account. account. Three Three or or four Chinese Chinese junks leave Macao Macao for for Manila Manila each each April April carrying carrying silk silk goods, four junks leave goods, raw raw silk, silk, cotton, cotton, hemp, hemp, porcelain, porcelain, vermilion, vermilion, quicksilver, quicksilver, zinc, zinc, "tentenago" "tentenago" (tutenag objets (tutenag or or white white copper), copper), other other metals metals and and minerals, minerals, and and aa variety variety of of objets d'art. d'art.They Theyusually usuallyreturn returnininOctober. October.The TheJapan Japanships, ships,usually usuallyfour fourtotosix six Portuguese galliots, galliots, leave leave from from Macao Macao laden similar Chinese Chinese goods goods in in Portuguese laden with with similar the middle middle of of July the July and and return return in in November November with with cargoes cargoes of of silver silver bullion. bullion. Prior to to 1630 1630 the the Japan Japan voyages voyages were were undertaken undertaken by by the the Senate Senate of of Macao Macao Prior and and the the profits profits were were used used to to support support the the garrison garrison and and to to maintain maintain the the forfor272 Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), pp. pp. 72-74. 72-74. "'Boxer 273 m Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 74. 74. D'Avalo's D'Avalo's account account also also contains contains aa full-page full-page copperplate copperplate engraving engraving of of Macao. Macao. See our our pis. pis. 24 24 and and 332. 332. See 274 Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), pp. pp. 74-76. 74-76. A detailed contemporary contemporary report report of of the the Dutch Dutch '''Boxer A detailed attack on on Macao Macao is is included included in in the appendices to to Van Rechteren's voyage voyage as as publsihed publsihed in in the the the appendices Van Rechteren's attack ende voortgangh; voortgangh; BV,lIb, lib,45-53. 45-53.For Fora modern a modernaccount accountseesee Boxer,Fidalgos Fidalgos in the Begin Begin ende seeseeBV, Boxer, in the Far Far East, 1550-1770 1550-1770 (The (The Hague, Hague, 1948), 1948), pp. pp. 72-92. 72-92. East, 275 Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), p. p. 76. 76. Boxer Boxer reports reports that that the the episcopal episcopal see see was was vacant vacant when when '''Boxer D'Avalo visited visited Macao. Macao. The The last last bishop bishop of of China China had had died died in in 1633, 1633, and and the the first first bishop bishop of of D'Avalo Macao (as (as distinct distinct from from the the bishops bishops ofJapan ofJapan or Macao or China China who who lived lived in in Macao) Macao) took took office office in in 1692. 1692.

[[ 16IO l6lO ]

Economic EconomicLife Life tifications. bid for tifications. Since Since then then individuals individuals bid for the the right right to to command command the the lucrative lucrative Japan voyage. voyage. D'Avalo D'Avalo describes describes how how Lopes Lopes Carmiente Carmiente Carravallo Carravallo first first neJapan ne276 Trade gotiated this this privilege privilege with with the at Goa. Goa.276 Trade with with Southeast Southeast gotiated the viceroy viceroy at Asian Asian places places such such as as Tongking, Tongking, Champa, Champa, Cambodia, Cambodia, Makassar, Makassar, Solor, Solor, and and Timor are are open open to to any any Portuguese Portuguese merchant. merchant. An An attempt attempt made made in in 1631 1631 to to Timor allow the the highest highest bidder bidder to to monopolize monopolize trade trade with with Makassar, Makassar, Solor, Solor, and allow and Timor 277 Timor failed. failed.277 Chinese Chinese officials officials levy levy anchorage anchorage fees fees on on each each ship ship which which comes comes to to Macao Macao but but no no duties duties on on their their cargoes. cargoes. Trade Trade between between Macao Macao and and Canton, Canton, however, however, is but free. is anything anything but free. A A few few Portuguese Portuguese merchants merchants are are permitted permitted to to attend attend the biennial biennial fairs fairs in in Canton, Canton, during during which which they they order order Chinese Chinese goods goods for for the themselves and and for for others. others. They They sometimes sometimes stay stay as as long long as as four four or or five themselves five months in in Canton, Canton, living living in in their their boats boats to to avoid avoid the the numerous numerous difficulties difficulties months and disputes disputes which which attend attend living living ashore. ashore. Large Large presents presents must must be given to to and be given local and and provincial provincial officials officials in in order order to to obtain obtain permission permission to to trade, trade, licenses licenses local allowing Chinese Chinese merchants merchants to to come come to to the the fairs, fairs, and and permission permission to to return return allowing to Macao. Macao. Dues Dues are are levied levied on on the the boats boats during during the the downriver downriver trip. trip. Each Each day day to some small small Chinese Chinese boats boats bring bring raw raw silk silk and and gold gold to to Macao Macao without without official official some permission. Should Should they they be be caught, caught, their their crews crews would would be be killed killed without without permission. mercy. 27ft mercy.278 Macao has has some some fine Chinese shops shops and and aa large large number number of of Chinese Chinese pedpedMacao fine Chinese dlers house to dlers who who go go from from house to house. house. They They are are sometimes sometimes so so aggressive aggressive that that they must must be be forcefully forcefully driven driven away. away. D' D'Avalo concludes that that Macao Macao "may "may they Avalo concludes justly be considered considered as as the the best, strongest and and most most profitable profitable of of the the PorPorjustly be best, strongest tuguese possessions possessions in in the the Indies." Indies." To To illustrate illustrate its its trade trade he he appends appends aa list list of of tuguese the cargo cargo carried carried by by the the Japan Japan voyage voyage of of 1637, 1637, in in total total value value about about 2,141,468 2,141,468 the taels 279 taels of of silver. silver.279 By the the time time D'Avalo's D'Avalo's description description was was published published in in 1645, 1645, Macao Macao was was no no By longer as as strong strong and and profitable profitable as as it it had had appeared appeared when he visited visited there there in longer when he in 1637 or or 1638. 1638. The The Portuguese Portuguese were were finally excluded fromJapan from Japan in in 1639, 1639, and 1637 finally excluded and the embassy embassy sent sent in in 1640 1640 to to revive revive the the trade trade was was executed executed by by the the Japanese. Japanese. the The Dutch Dutch captured captured Malacca Malacca in in 1641, 1641, seriously seriously impeding impeding Macao's Macao's direct direct The contacts with with Goa Goa and and with with Southeast Southeast Asian Asian ports. ports. The The restoration of Porcontacts restoration ofPortugal's independence independence from from Spain Spain also also had had the the initial initial effect effect of of threatening threatening tugal's Macao's trade trade with with Manila. Manila. Europeans Europeans could could learn learn about about Macao's Macao's problems problems Macao's both both from from published published letterbooks letterbooks and and from from the the several several publications publications which which 276 Ibid., pp. 76-77. 76-77. The The text text of of Boxer's Boxer's translation translation isis defective defective at at this this pont; pont; see see BV, BV, lIb, lib, 81. 81. '76 Ibid. , pp. On the the Japan Japan voyages see Boxer, Boxer, The The Great Great Ship from Amacon; of Macao andthe theOld Oldjapan Japan On voyages see Ship .from Amacon; Annals Annals of Macao and Trade, 1555-1640 1555-1640 (Lisbon, (Lisbon, 1959). 1959). Trade, 277 Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), pp. pp. 77-78. 77-78. mBoxer 27 '7'*Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp.78-80. 78-80. 279 Ibid., p. p. 80. 80. The The list list is is not not included included in in Boxer's Boxer's translation; translation; for for it it see see BV, BV, lIb, lib, 83-86. 83-86. Cj Cf '79 Ibid., ship's manifest manifest of of 1648 1648 as as summarized summarized on on p. p. 68, 6S, above. above. ship's

[[1611] 16II ]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty describe the restoration it describe how how the the Macanese Macanese celebrated celebrated the restoration when when the the news news of of it 280 arrived 1 642 . ,.0 arrived in in 1642. At first first the the Macanese seem to to doubt doubt the which Antonio Antonio Fialho Fialho FerAt Macanese seem the news news which Ferreira reira brought brought from from Lisbon. Lisbon. Then Then they they worry worry about about possible possible invasion invasion from from Manila deand hope hope they they can can persuade persuade the the Dutch Dutch in in Batavia Batavia to to cease cease their their deManila and predations Portugal negotiates the predations while while newly newly independent independent Portugal negotiates aa treaty treaty with with the United to United Provinces. Provinces. Nevertheless Nevertheless the the news news of of the the restoration restoration seems seems aa tonic tonic to them, recent events.'·' As Dom them, depressed depressed as as they they were were by by recent events.281 As Dom Joao Joao Marquez Marquez put it: it: "All "All evils evils vanished, vanished, and and the the city city beMoreira somewhat somewhat extravagantly extravagantly put Moreira became as as if if it it had had returned returned to to its its former former condition condition when millions came came came when many many millions the bar each year, year, and and when when at at the the height height of of its its wealth wealth and and glory, glory, supover the over bar each supplied by by channels channels of of gold gold and and rivers rivers of of silver."'·' silver."282 And And celebrate celebrate they they did; plied did; Moreira describes in in close close detail detail the the public oaths of of allegiance, allegiance, the the bonfires bonfires Moreira describes public oaths the bullfights, bullfights, horse horse races, races, masquerades, masquerades, parades, miliand illuminations, illuminations, the and parades, military salutes, salutes, and and solemn solemn masses masses which which took took place between May May 30, 30, 1642, 1642, tary place between when Fialho Ferreira arrived arrived with with the the news, news, and and August August 20, 20, when when slaves slaves when Fialho Ferreira from the the city city and and St. St. Anthony's Anthony's parish parish staged staged the the last last parade parade costumed costumed as from as Negroes, Malabars, Bugis, and the the like. like. Each religious foundafoundaNegroes, Bengalis, Bengalis, Malabars, Bugis, and Each religious tion, school, school, civic civic organization, organization, military military unit, unit, social social class, class, and and ethnic ethnic group group tion, seems to to have Even torrential torrential rains rains seemed seemed unable unable to to dampen dampen seems have participated. participated. Even their ,., Moreira Moreira concludes: concludes: their spirits. spirits.283 The heathen rejoiced, The Christians Christians rejoiced, rejoiced, the the heathen rejoiced, the the nobleman, nobleman, the the knight, knight, the thesquire squire the plebian, plebian, all all and and each each as as one one who who considers considers himself safely freed freed from from the atand the himself safely the atand tacks tacks and and violence violence which which Portuguese Portuguese subjects subjects in in India India and and its its dependencies dependencies had had sufsuffered. For For as as they they had had no no King King they they were were taken taken as as captives captives and and prisoners, prisoners, not not only only by by fered. European nations nations but but even even by by Oriental Oriental races, races, losing losing the the best best and and wealthiest wealthiest places European places which had had been been taken taken by by those those famous famous early early conquerors, conquerors, and and which which in in the the golden golden which of India's India's prosperity of wealth to days prosperity yielded yielded such such store store of wealth and and treasure treasure as as sufficed sufficed to days of make Portugal Portugal the the richest richest country country in in Europe. Europe. This This is is the the reason why the the stream stream of make reason why of wealth was was diverted diverted to to other other foreign foreign Kingdoms, Kingdoms, leaving leaving [Portuguese] [Portuguese] India India so so weak wealth weak and exhausted exhausted that that in in the the opinion opinion of of the the best best judges it could could not not last last another another three three and judges it 284 years.284 years.

Many Portuguese apparently judgment that that Portugal's Many Portuguese apparently shared shared Moreira's Moreira s judgment Portugal's decline in Asia was a consequence of Spanish rule. The restoration Pordecline in Asia was a consequence of Spanish rule. The restoration of of Portuguese not cure ills. Despite tuguese independence, independence, however, however, did did not cure Macao's Macao's ills. Despite the the celecele280 "OThe The most most important important published published accounts accounts of of the the celebrations celebrations in in Macao Macao are are Antonio Antonio Fialho Fialho daviagem, viagem, que quepor porordem ordemdede Mg,dede AntonioFialho Fialho Ferreira reyno Ferreria, Relafam Relacam da Ferreria, S.S.Mg. fezfezAntonio Ferreira destedeste reyno a a cidade dedeMacau MacaunanaChina: China:... . . .(Lisbon, (Lisbon, I643), 1643), and andDom DomJoao Joao Marques Marques Moreira, Moreira, Rela(Qo Relacdodada cidade magestosa,misteriosa, misteriosa,e notavel e notavel acclamacam, se afezmagestade a magestade d'ElDom Rey Dom IV nosso magestosa, acc/amafam, que que se fez d'EI Rey loam loam 0 IV 0 nosso Deos do grande imperio da China . . (Lisbon, 1644). of these senhorna nacidade cidadedodonome nome senhor de de Deos do grande imperio da China . .. .(Lisbon, I644). BothBoth of these and and other accounts accounts of of the the celebrations celebrations are are translated translated in in Boxer Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n.270). (n. 270). other 281 ,', For For example, example, see see Fialho Fialho Ferreira Ferreira in in Boxer Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op.cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), pp. pp. 95-I03. 95-103. 282 Boxer (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 270), 270), p. 148. "'Boxer p. 148. m "lIbid., Ibid., pp. pp. I50-7I. 150-71. 284 "4 Ibid., Ibid., p. p. I7I. 171.

[[I6I2] 1612]

Economic EconomicLift Life brations of of 1642, 1642, Macao's Macao's trade trade continued continued to to languish, languish, and and under under the brations the Ch'ing, Ch'ing, Macao Macao faced faced more more severe severe crises crises than than ever ever before before..•2858, Western observers during during the seventeenth century century were were always always intrigued intrigued Western observers the seventeenth by China's China's monetary system. The The Chinese, Chinese, they coin neither neither gold gold by monetary system. they report, report, coin nor silver. silver. In In fact, fact, although although it it is highly valued as aa commodity, commodity, gold gold is is never nor is highly valued as never used as aa medium medium of of exchange. exchange. Unminted silver is is the the most commonly used used as Unminted silver most commonly used form of of money. money. Merchants Merchants cut cut it it from from bars and dispense dispense it it by by weight. weight. ClipClipform bars and pings collected business are melted down bars .•286 86 MerMerpings collected during during aa day's day's business are melted down into into bars. chants had had to to be equipped to to cut cut and and weigh weigh the the silver, silver, and and they they also also had chants be equipped had to to be able able to to assay assay its its purity. Semedo avers avers that that impure impure silver silver or or an an alloy alloy of be purity. Semedo of silver can can be for small small transactions!" transactions.287 Most Most commonly, commonly, however, however, silver be used used for copper or or brass brass coins coins called called "cash" "cash" or or "caxa" "caxa" were were used for small small purchases. copper used for purchases. These of little little value individually. Usually one thousand of the the coins coins These were were of value individually. Usually one thousand of were strung together together and and used used in in that that form. form. Dutch Dutch merchants merchants report report that that were strung strings of of cash cash were the most common form form of of money on Java Java and and in in many many strings were the most common money on other parts parts of of the East Indies. Indies. Both Semedo and and Martini describe the other the East Both Semedo Martini describe the ChiChinese decimal-based system system of of weights weights and and measures, measures, and and provide some Eunese decimal-based provide some European ropean equivalents equivalents..•28888 The practices such loans The Chinese Chinese apparently apparently had had developed developed banking banking practices such as as loans and bills of exchange exchange by the seventeenth seventeenth century, century, but Europeans write write and bills of by the but the the Europeans little about them. them. The Jesuit missionaries missionaries had had some some experience experience with with bills bills of little about The Jesuit of exchange, but but if if the the two examples mentioned mentioned by by Trigault Trigault are are at at all all typical, exchange, two examples typical, their acceptability acceptability was not routine China. On On both occasions the their was not routine in in China. both occasions the bills bills of of 289 exchange were not honored. one of of these incidents he he writes, "this exchange were not honored. 28 9 About About one these incidents writes, "this way of doing doing business frowned upon upon by by Chinese Chinese tradesmen, and is is not not aa way of business is is frowned tradesmen, and 290 common practice practice anywhere anywhere in in the the kingdom." The Jesuits also allude allude to common kingdom." 290 The Jesuits also to loans, for for they occasionally had borrow money. Interest rates are deloans, they occasionally had to to borrow money. Interest rates are described as as being almost prohibitively prohibitively high. high. scribed being almost of the the empire empire presupposed rather efficient efficient The bustling economic life life of The bustling economic presupposed aa rather system of of transportation. transportation. Most impressive to Europeans was the ease ease with with system Most impressive to Europeans was the which one one could could travel travel about about the empire by boat. Trigault, Trigault, for for example, example, which the empire by boat. writes by an network of of writes that that China China is is "so "so thoroughly thoroughly covered covered by an intersecting intersecting network rivers and possible to to travel travel almost by water." 29' rivers and canals canals that that it it is is possible almost anywhere anywhere by water."291 Martini there was hardly aa city town that be Martini contends contends that that there was hardly city or or town that could could not not be reached by boat. For example, Peking, aa reached by boat. For example, one one could could travel travel from from Macao Macao to to Peking, distance hundred leagues to north north with with only day's distance of of seven seven hundred leagues from from south south to only one one day's 285 See below, below, pp. pp. 1697-1700. 1697-1700. "'See 286 , 86 See, See, for cit. for example, example, Pantoja, Pantoja, loco loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 374; 374; Trigault Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 14; 14; Van Van Rechteren, Rechteren, loe. loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 27), 27), p. 44; Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 52-53. 52-53. (n. p. 44; 287 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 53. "'Op. 53. m Ibid., 52-53; Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 21. 21. See See also also Van Van Rechteren, Rechteren, loe. loc. cit. cit. (n.27), (n. 27), ," Ibid., pp. pp. 52-53; P75P·75· 289 "'Gallagher op. cit. pp. 314 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. 314 and and 351. 351. 290Ibid., p. 3 1 4. 'OO Ibid., p. 314. 291 '9' Ibid., Ibid., p.p. 12. 12.True True mainly mainly for for the thePearl Pearl River River delta delta and and the the Yangtze Yangtze region. region.

[[1613] 1613 ]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty

travel on on land. land. Similarly Similarly one one could could travel travel from from Chekiang Chekiang Province Province on on the the travel east boat.292 '92 The east coast coast to to Szechwan Szechwan in in the the far far west west entirely entirely by by boat. The missionaries missionaries all by water. water. journeys undertaken undertaken entirely entirely or or predominantly predominantly by all recount recount long long journeys Several missionaries describe the Several missionaries describe China's China's rivers, rivers, especially especially the the Yangtze Yangtze and and the Yellow River. River. Martini, Martini, for for example, example, traces the course course of of each each of of them them from from Yellow traces the 293 The its source to to the the sea. sea.293 The missionaries missionaries also also describe the canals, canals, especially especially its source describe the the Grand Grand Canal Canal which which connects connects Hangchow Hangchow with with Peking. Peking. Pantoja, Pantoja, Trigault, Trigault, the and Martini Martini had had all all traveled traveled on on it, it, and and each each described described it. it. Martini's Martini's account account of and of its route, route, its its locks, locks, and and the the way it was was constructed constructed is is probably the most most its way it probably the 29• complete. complete.294 Not only parts of realm, but an Not only was was travel travel by by water water possible possible to to many many parts of the the realm, but an incredible Westincredible number number of of Chinese Chinese seemed seemed always always to to be be traveling. traveling. All All the the Western ern writers writers are are astonished astonished at at the the number number of of vessels vessels daily daily plying plying the the rivers rivers and might be be said greater truth truth and and withand canals. canals. Trigault Trigault thought thought "it "it might said with with greater without fear fear of of exaggeration exaggeration that there are are as as many many boats boats in in this as can out that there this kingdom kingdom as can be '95 Semedo, the bank bank of of be counted counted in in all all the the rest rest of of the the world." world."295 Semedo, standing standing on on the the Yangtze River near near Nanking, counts three hundred small small ships ships sailing sailing the Yangtze River Nanking, counts three hundred upstream '96 The boats, upstream in in one one hour. hour.296 The major major rivers rivers are are also also alive alive with with fishing fishing boats, houseboats, the sumptuous sumptuous lacquered lacquered barges barges of of officials officials (sometimes (sometimes with with houseboats, the musicians playing on made from musicians playing on deck), deck), rafts rafts made from lumber lumber lashed lashed together together hauling hauling wood from from the the western western forests (see pi. pI. 328), the wood forests to to the the eastern eastern cities cities (see 328), and and the ubiquitous barges hauling hauling tax tax grain ubiquitous government government barges grain from from the the Yangtze Yangtze valley valley to to the capital. capital. Ten Ten thousand thousand imperial imperial grain grain barges barges are are in in regular service bethe regular service between Peking Peking and and the the Yangtze. Yangtze.297 At the entrances to to the the canals canals or or at at the tween '97 At the entrances the locks, may be be backed backed up up for for days while government government barges, barges, espelocks, traffic traffic may days while especially those those carrying carrying perishable foods kept kept cool cool with with ice, ice, and and the the boats of cially perishable foods boats of high officials officials in in order order of of their are given given precedence. precedence. Semedo Semedo writes writes high their rank, rank, are that he "stayed eight eight days days for for aa passage passage through through that that wonderful wonderful concourse concourse of of that he "stayed 2988 vessels.""29 Passengers can rent on commercial boats, even even on vessels. Passengers can rent vacant vacant cabins cabins on commercial boats, on the government barges. With With all all this this traffic traffic it it is is easy easy to to believe believe the the missionmissionthe government barges. aries when when they they report that bamboo bamboo which which grows grows only only in in the south is is used aries report that the south used all over China, China, that that coal coal mined mined in in the is also also widely widely available, available, that that allover the north north is most Chinese silk silk is is produced in Chekiang, Chekiang, or that the found in most Chinese produced in or that the porcelain porcelain found in 292 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 5. '·'Op. 5. 291 '.3 Ibid., 19. Ibid., pp. pp. 1717-19. 294 '94 Ibid., Pantoja, 10c. pp. 369-70; Ibid., pp. pp. 66-67. 66-67. See See also also Pantoja, \oc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), pp. 369-70; and and Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. pp. 306-7. Needham, op. op. cit. Pt. 3, pp. 306-20, the Grand cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. 306-7. See See Needham, cit. (n. (n. 181), 181), Vol. Vol. IV, IV, Pt. 3, pp. 306-20, on on the Grand Canal. Mark Elvin, Pattern of ofthe the Canal. On On the the logistic logistic importance importance of of the the canal canal in in Ming Ming times times see see Mark Elvin, The The Pattern Chinese Past (Stanford, 1973), 1973), pp. 102-6. Chinese Past (Stanford, pp. 102-6. 295 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 13. 2 94~i°5494 494 Matelief, 338. Matelief, loco loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 122), 122), pp. pp. 78-79. 7^-79- Cj Cf. our our pI. pi. 338. 495 49' On On Chinese Chinese popular popular religion religion see see C. C. K. K. Yang, Yang, Religion Religion in in Chinese Chinese Society Society (Berkeley (Berkeley and and Los Los Angeles, 1961); 1961); Arthur P. Wolf Wolf (ed.), (ed.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 488); 488); Laurence Laurence G. G. Thompson, Thompson, Chinese Chinese ReliReliAngeles, Arthur P. gion, (Belmont, Cal., Cal., 1979); 1979);David DavidK. K.Jordan, Gods,Ghosts, Ghosts,and andAncestors: Ancestors:Folk Folk gion, An An Introduction Introduction (Belmont, Jordan, Gods, Religion in aa Taiwanese Taiwanese Village Village (Berkeley (Berkeley and and Los Los Angeles, 1972); and and Daniell. Daniel I. Overmeyer, Overmeyer, Religion in Angeles, 1972); Traditional China China (Stanford, (Stanford, 1976). 1976). Folk Religion: Dissenting Dissenting Sects Sects in in Late Late Traditional Folk Buddhist Buddhist Religion:

1650]] [ r650

Religion and Religion and Philosophy Philosophy Those who who have have had had some some conversation conversation with with the the Dutch Dutch prisoners, prisoners, who who were were Those merchants, had some merchants, painters, painters, and and other other reasonable reasonable people, people, who who had some education, education, held, held, on on in the the point point of of the the knowledge knowledge of of God, God, that that there there is is only only one one all-powerful all-powerful God God who who is is in of the but who the heavens, heavens, but who is is aa being being too too sublime sublime to to concern concern himself himself with with the the affairs affairs of earth. They They pretend pretend that that he he has has given given this this commission commission to to aa holy holy personage named earth. personage named Comichicho,49 there; Comichicho,4966 who who has has been been down down here here in in the the world world and and who who must must return return there; that it it is is he he who who punishes punishes men men every every day, day, and and who who sends sends to to them them the the misfortunes misfortunes that that they they have have merited; merited; that that one one day day they they will will come come to to life life again again and and live live in in complete complete that repose with with their their fathers fathers and and mothers, mothers, or or wives wives and and children children without without having repose having any any other chief or or sovereign sovereign than than him. him. His His statue statue is is that that which honor most most in in their their which they they honor other chief pagodas, and which which they they invoke invoke with with the the most most ardor, ardor, in in order order that that he he may may not not treat treat pagodas, and 497 them them rigorously. rigorously.497 Van Van Rechteren Rechteren was was most most likely likely describing describing Buddhist Buddhist beliefs, beliefs, but but the the main main lines of of his his presentation presentation seem seem to to have have been been held held by by most most of of the Chinese lines the Chinese whom the the Europeans Europeans encountered. encountered. whom If If the the travel travel accounts accounts fail fail to to distinguish distinguish between between the the various various religious religious groups groups in in China, China, the the Jesuit Jesuit accounts accounts perhaps perhaps make make the the distinctions distinctions too too clearly. "sects": clearly. They, They, like like the the Chinese Chinese themselves, themselves, discuss discuss three three religious religious "sects": the Taoists. the Confucians, Confucians, the the Buddhists, Buddhists, and and the the Taoists. Of the three, three, the the Jesuits Of the Jesuits unanimously unanimously prefer prefer Confucianism, Confucianism, or or the the "sect "sect of of the and the Literati," Literati," as as they they call call it. it. This This sect, sect, they they assert, assert, is is the the most most ancient ancient and highly highly esteemed esteemed in in the the empire. empire. Indeed, Indeed, only only Confucians Confucians can can aspire aspire to to public public office. puts it: do not office. As As Trigault Trigault puts it: "Individually "Individually the the Chinese Chinese do not choose choose this this sect: sect: 498 they Most they rather rather imbibe imbibe the the doctrine doctrine of of it it in in the the study study of of letters. letters.""49" Most of of the the Jesuit writers writers correctly correctly doubt doubt that that Confucianism Confucianism can can properly properly be be considered considered Jesuit aa religion; religion; its its followers followers worship worship no no idols idols or or images, images, itit has has no no priesthood priesthood or or common common ceremony ceremony of of worship, worship, and and lays lays down down no no rigid rigid commandments commandments from from which which it it would would be be sinful sinful to to depart. depart. The The Jesuit Jesuit writers writers aver aver that that most most of of the Confucians the Confucians believe believe in in aa single single supreme supreme deity, deity, although although contemporary contemporary Confucians do do not not worship worship him him or or even even discuss discuss him him extensively. extensively. Trigault, Trigault, Confucians for example, example, is is convinced convinced that that the the ancient ancient Chinese Chinese knew knew and and worshipped worshipped aa for supreme being being whom whom they they called called "King "King of of Heaven." Heaven." Nor was this this pristine pristine supreme Nor was monotheism monotheism corrupted corrupted in in ancient ancient times times as as it it was was among among the the Greeks, Greeks, RoRomans, writes, mans, and and Egyptians. Egyptians. "Of "Of all all the the pagan pagan sects sects known known to to Europe," Europe," he he writes, "I the early "I know know of of no no people people who who fell fell into into fewer fewer errors errors in in the early ages ages of of their their antiquity 499 He antiquity than than did did the the Chinese." Chinese."499 He is is confident confident that that many many of of the the ancient ancient Chinese found found salvation salvation by by following following the the law law of of nature. nature. The The Jesuits Jesuits believe believe Chinese that some some remnants remnants of of this this primitive primitive monotheism monotheism still still remain remain among among the the that 496 Perhaps the the Buddha, Buddha, Amitabha Amitabha (O-mi-t'o-jo), (O-mi-t'o-fo), who who presides over the the Western Western Paradise. Paradise. In In "·Perhaps presides over China this god was was aa favorite favorite object object of of popular popular devotion. devotion. China this god 497 mop. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 27), 27), pp. pp. 43-44. 43-44. 498 "'Gallagher 355. Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 94. 94. See See our our pI. pi. 355. 499 '''Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 93. 93. See See also also Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 86, 86, and and Martini, Martini, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 9. 9. op.

I65I]

China: The The Late Late Ming Dynasty China: Ming Dynasty literati of the seventeenth themselves do do not literati of the seventeenth century. century. While While the the literati literati themselves not worworship the one God, the Jesuits Jesuits decide decide that that the the emperor emperor still still does ship the one God, the does when when he he makes the the regular regular sacrifices sacrifices on on the altars of of Heaven Heaven and and Earth Earth in in the capital makes the altars the capital cities. But But it it seems seems that that the the ancient ancient beliefs are dying dying out. out. The The Jesuit Jesuit writers writers cities. beliefs are still belief in punishments among it still find find aa belief in rewards rewards and and punishments among the the Confucians, Confucians, but but it apparently this life apparently is is confined confined to to this life only. only. Many Many of of the the literati literati are are convinced convinced that with the that the the soul soul dies dies with the body, body, and and consequently consequently deny deny the the existence existence of of heaven or or hell. hell. While While the the Confucians Confucians have have kept kept themselves themselves free free from from idolaidolaheaven ,00 try, many of try, many of them them have have fallen fallen into into the the more more serious serious error error of of atheism. atheism.500 Longobardo and Pantoja Pantoja simply simply report that most most educated educated Chinese Chinese are Longobardo and report that are 50' atheists. atheists.501 The The Jesuits Jesuits have have only only the the highest highest praise praise for for the the ethical ethical teachings teachings of of ConConfucius his followers. It is moral code, report, designed fucius and and his followers. It is aa moral code, they they report, designed to to produce produce personal virtue virtue and peace, as as stability government of personal and peace, as well well as stability in in the the government of the the emempire. The Jesuits list by Confucius his pire. The Jesuits list the the five five cardinal cardinal virtues virtues taught taught by Confucius and and his followers: "Gin" , "Y" followers: "Gin" (jen) (Jen), "Y" (i), (/), "Li" "Li" (Ii), (li), "Chi" "Chi" (chih), (chih), and and "Sin" "Sin" (hsin), (hsiri), which Semedo translates translates as as "pietie, "pietie, justice, prudence, policie, policie, and and fidelity. fidelity."" which Semedo justice, prudence, They that Confucius Confucius taught taught the application of of these to the the five five They note note that the application these virtues virtues to human relationships: those those between between father father and and son, son, husband husband and and wife, wife, mashuman relationships: master and In ter and servants, servants, older older and and younger younger brothers, brothers, and and friends friends of of equal equal status. status. In addition, the the Jesuits Jesuits observe observe that the Confucians Confucians subscribe subscribe to to aa negatively negatively addition, that the formulated formulated Golden Golden Rule: Rule: "Do "Do not not do do unto unto others others what what you you would would not not wish wish others to to do do unto unto you." you."502 Nor do the the Confucians Confucians teach teach and and practice practice these these others 5 Nor do virtues merely in in the the hope hope of of some some reward reward in in this this life life or or in in heaven. heaven. They They virtues merely insist that that Confucius Confucius and and his his true true followers followers taught taught that virtue was was its its own own insist that virtue reward and enjoined enjoined virtuous virtuous living without any any hope hope of of reward. reward. reward and living without The portrayal of and his his teachings led them The Jesuits' Jesuits' portrayal of Confucius Confucius and teachings early early led them to to distinguish between the distinguish between the "real" "real" or or "true" "true" literati literati of of Ming Ming China China and and those those whose ideas departed departed from from the the Jesuit Jesuit image image of of Confucius. whose religious religious ideas Confucius. Trigault Trigault is is the make this this distinction—a distinction-a distinction the first first to to make distinction which which is is greatly greatly exaggerated exaggerated by ,03 The by Jesuit Jesuit writers writers during during the the second second half half of of the the century. century.503 The "real" "real" literati, literati, according to to Trigault and most most other other Jesuits, Jesuits, confine confine their their teachings teachings and and conconaccording Trigault and duct duct to to Confucius' Confucius' moral moral system system and and do do not not concern concern themselves themselves with with metametaphysical distinction, the physical speculations. speculations. In In making making this this distinction, the Jesuits Jesuits apparently apparently considered considered many many of of the the orthodox orthodox Confucians Confucians of of the the seventeenth seventeenth century century to to have been false have been false literati literati because because they they had had developed developed aa rather rather elaborate elaborate metameta0

2

500 Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. 93-94. 'OOTrigauit pp. 93-94. 501 '0' Longobardo, Longobardo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 48), 48), p. p. 16; 16; Pantoja, Pantoja, loco loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 39), 39), p. p. 357. 357. 5O2 Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. 97. See See also also Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 50, 'O'Trigault p. 97. 50, n 86-87, 149, H9> aand d Martini, 44), pp. 86-87, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n.44), pp. 9-10. 9-10. The The Confucian Confucian five five virtues virtues are are usually usually translated as as humanity, humanity, righteousness, decorum, wisdom, wisdom, and and fidelity, fidelity, although although Semedo's Semedo's righteousness, decorum, translated translations are are fairly fairly accurate. accurate. translations 5O3 ,03 Gallagher p. 94. 94. Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p.

1652]] [ 1652

Religion Philosophy Religion and and Philosophy physics and themselves to moral philosophy. philosophy.504 ;°4 DeDephysics and certainly certainly did did not not confine confine themselves to moral spite their disapproval of of the Confucians' metaphysical speculations, the the spite their disapproval the Confucians' metaphysical speculations, Jesuits relate relate some some aspects aspects of of that in their Jesuits that metaphysics metaphysics to to Europeans Europeans in their books. books. Semedo reports Chinese division division of of all all philosophy into three three spheres: spheres: the Semedo reports the the Chinese philosophy into the study of of heaven, heaven, the the study study of of earth, earth, and and the the study study of of man. The three study man. The three are are inextricably related, related, and and the philosophy which the Jesuits Jesuits so so admire admire inextricably the moral moral philosophy which the comprises only only the the third sphere.505 The Jesuits Jesuits correctly correctly recognize recognize Buddhist Buddhist ;0; The comprises third sphere. and Taoist influences in in the the Confucian Confucian metaphysics. metaphysics. Trigault, Trigault, for and Taoist influences for example, example, describes aa kind kind of of pantheism pantheism which which he he calls calls the the most most common common metaphysical metaphysical describes teaching of of the the literati of his his day, day, and and in in so so doing doing he he correctly teaching literati of correctly identifies identifies its its Buddhist origin: origin: Buddhist The to me to The doctrine doctrine most most commonly commonly held held among among the the Literati Literati at at present present seems seems to me to

have taken from from the the sect sect of of idols, as promulgated about five ago. This This have been been taken idols , as promulgated about five centuries centuries ago. doctrine asserts asserts that that the entire universe is composed of aa common common substance; substance; that that the composed of the doctrine the entire universe is creator of of the the universe is one one in in aa continuous continuous body, corpus continuum continuum as as it universe is body, aa corpus it were, were, creator together heaven and earth, men men and and beasts, plants, and and the four eletogether with with heaven and earth, beasts, trees trees and and plants, the four elements, and that each individual is member member of of this body. From From this ments, and that each individual thing thing is this body. this unity unity of of substance they reason to the love love that that should should unite the individual constituents and substance they reason to the unite the individual constituents and also that can become like unto unto God God because is created created one one with God. This This also that man man can become like because he he is with God. philosophy we endeavor to only from from reason reason but also from testimony philosophy we endeavor to refute, refute, not not only but also from the the testimony of their own ancient to whom are indebted indebted for for all all the philosophy of their own ancient philosophers philosophers to whom they they are the philosophy they have.506 ,06 they have. Despite their preference for the moral Despite their preference for the the literati literati and and the moral teachings teachings of of the the Confucians, the Jesuits also also describe describe aspects aspects of of Confucianism Confucianism which which look look Confucians, the Jesuits suspiciously like like pagan superstition. The scholar-officials, who who were, were, of suspiciously pagan superstition. The scholar-officials, of course, all all Confucians, Confucians, offer offer sacrifices sacrifices to spirits of of all all kinds. While the emcourse, to spirits kinds. While the emperor alone alone or or his his appointed appointed delegate delegate might might sacrifice sacrifice on on the the altars altars to Heaven peror to Heaven and Earth, Earth, the the highest officials and and they alone are are permitted permitted to to sacrifice sacrifice to and highest officials they alone to the spirits of of the mountains, rivers, and the four quarters of the the spirits the mountains, rivers, and the four quarters of the universe. universe. The Jesuits Jesuits observe, observe, too, too, that that the the literati literati also also sacrifice sacrifice to to the the tutelary tutelary spirits spirits The of cities cities and towns, to to Confucius, Confucius, and and to their ancestors. ancestors. All Chinese sacriof and towns, to their All Chinese sacrifice to ancestors and and are are encouraged to do do so so by by the the literati. literati. The The Jesuits Jesuits fice to their their ancestors encouraged to usually insist insist that that these ceremonies are are not superstitious or or even even religious. usually these ceremonies not superstitious religious. 504

504 On On the the types types of of Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucian orthodoxy orthodoxy prevailing prevailing in in Ming Ming China China see see W. W. T. T. de de Bary, Bary, Neo-Confocian Orthodoxy and the Learning of Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the the Mind-and-Heart Mind-and-Heart (New (New York, York, 1981), 1981), pp. pp. 188-89. 188-89. 0'Semedo, 5505 9), p. 50. Semedo, 0p. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), p. 50. 5o6 5""Gallagher sur I'image Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 95. 95. Cj Cf. K. K. Lundhaek, Lundbaek, "Notes "Notes sur l'image du du NeoNeoConfucianism Actes du Confucianism dans dans la la litterature litterature europeene europeene du du XVlIle XVIIIe a a la la fin fin de de XIXe XIXe siecie," siecle," in in Actes du IIIe Hie de Sin%gie pp. 133-34. Ricci's atColloque International de Colloque International Sinologie (Chantilly, (Chantilly, 1980) 1980) (paris, (Paris, 1983), 1983), pp. 133-34. On On Ricci's atbetween ancient tempts to tempts to distinguish distinguish between ancient Confucianism Confucianism and and Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism see see John John D. D. Young, Versus Neo-Confucianism: Young, "Original "Original Confucianism Confucianism Versus Neo-Confucianism: Matteo Matteo Ricci's Ricci's Chinese Chinese WritWritActes du du XXIXe XXIXe Congres International des Paris, Juillet ings," Actes ings," Congres International des Orientalistes, Orientalistes, Paris, Juillet 1973 1973(Paris, (Paris, 1977), 1977), pp. 372-77. 2 -77PP·37

[ 16 53 ] 1653]

China: The The Late Late Ming Ming Dynasty Dynasty China: The Chinese, Chinese, they they allege, allege, do do not not pray pray to the dead dead or or expect expect anything anything from from The to the them. Setting Setting food food out out is is simply simply aa means means of of honoring honoring their their departed departed ananthem. cestors and and is practiced primarily out of of filial filial piety piety and and as as an an example example to to cestors is practiced primarily out children and and unlearned unlearned adults. adults. The The ceremonies ceremonies in in honor honor of of Confucius, Confucius, held children held each month month in in temples temples built for that that purpose purpose in in each each m:tior major city, city, are are simisimieach built for larly explained explained by the Jesuits Jesuits as as simply simply aa way way of of showing showing honor honor and and gratigratilarly by the tude to to the the man man whose whose teachings teachings they they follow, follow, and and not not worship worship of, of, or or prayer prayer tude to, to, him. him.507 All All this this is is correct, correct, but but it it is is not not the the whole whole story. story. While While the the inculcainculcation of of social social and and ethical ethical values values may the primary goal of of the the sacrisacrimay have have been been the primary goal tion fices for for many many Ming Ming scholar-officials, scholar-officials, most Chinese and and many many literati literati as fices most Chinese as well still still believed believed that that spirits spirits existed existed and and could could aid aid or or harm the living living in in relarelawell harm the tion to to their their diligence diligence in the sacrifices sacrifices at at the the regularly regularly appointed appointed tion in performing performing the times. times. While the the image image of of Confucianism Confucianism presented presented by the Jesuits Jesuits is is somewhat somewhat While by the biased and and in in places confusing, it it is is in in general surprisingly accurate. accurate. Try Try as biased places confusing, general surprisingly as they they may may to to make make Confucianism Confucianism appear appear aa rational rational moral moral philosophy, philosophy, they they are nevertheless forced to to admit admit the the existence existence of of aa speculative are nevertheless forced speculative metaphysics metaphysics and aa rather rather elaborate elaborate program of religious religious sacrifices sacrifices to to aa host host of of spirits spirits and and program of and ancestors. Intentionally Intentionally or or not, not, the the Jesuits' Jesuits' image image of of the the literati literati reveals reveals the the ancestors. unmistakably religious religious aspects aspects of of Confucianism. Confucianism. They They correctly correctly observe observe unmistakably that most most Chinese Chinese conceive conceive of of Heaven (t}ien) asasaapersonal personalpower, power, despite despite that Heaven (t'ien) the efforts efforts of of many many scholars scholars to to make make it it an an impersonal impersonal force. force. They They also also detect detect the the non-Confucian source of of some some Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucian metaphysical doctrines, the non-Confucian source metaphysical doctrines, and they they recognize the importance importance of of sacrifice sacrifice to to the spirits in in the the Confucian Confucian and recognize the the spirits system even even while while they they attempt attempt to to minimize minimize its its spiritual spiritual significance significance by system by stressing its its social social and and ethical ethical purposes. purposes. Jesuit Jesuit writers writers during during the the latter latter half half stressing of the the century century would would provide European readers with much much more detail of provide European readers with more detail about Confucius Confucius and and Confucianism, Confucianism, but the growing growing concern concern for for defending defending about but the their position in the the Rites Rites Controversy Controversy would would also also produce some distortions distortions their position in produce some not seriously seriously present present in works written during the the first half of of the the century. century. not in works written during first half While the pracWhile the Jesuits Jesuits tried tried to to minimize minimize the the religious religious and and superstitious superstitious practices of of the the Confucians, Confucians, they, they, in in contrast, contrast, sought sought to to maximize maximize the the image image of of tices the Buddhists benighted idolators. idolators. A A striking striking change change in in vocabulary vocabulary octhe Buddhists as as benighted occurs in in the the Jesuit Jesuit literature literature when when the the authors authors finish with the the Confucians Confucians and and curs finish with turn to to the the Buddhists. Buddhists. Almost Almost invariably invariably they they refer refer to to the the Buddhists Buddhists as as idolidolturn ators and and seldom seldom speak speak of of them them except except in in derogatory derogatory terms. terms. Introducing Introducing his ators his remarks on on Buddhism Buddhism in in the for example, example, Martini Martini writes: "The secremarks the Atlas, Atlas, for writes: "The second sect sect is is that that of of the the idolators, which they they call call xekiao chia]:thisthis ond idolators, which xekiao [shih [shih chia]: plague and contagion contagion contaminated contaminated China China aa few few years after the the birth birth of of plague and years after Christ. Christ.""508 j07

j08

5O7 '07 For pp. 96-97, For example example see see Trigault Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. 96-97, and and Semedo, Semedo, op. op.

cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 86-87. 86-87. See See our our pI. pi. 309. cit. 309. 508 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. 10. '"'Op. 10.

1654]

Religion Philosophy Religion and and Philosophy As indicated by by Martini's Martini's statement, statement, the the Jesuits Jesuits were were aware aware of of the the Indian Indian As indicated 5 9 A.D. 63 63 or or 65. ° origin of of Buddhism; they date date its entrance into into China in A.D. origin Buddhism; they its entrance China in 65. 509 Trigault concludes concludes that that Buddhism Buddhism had had borrowed borrowed many many of of its its tenets from the Trigault tenets from the West and perhaps even West and perhaps even from from Christianity. Christianity. He He observes observes that that the the Chinese Chinese enenvoys were sent sent to to India India during during the the time time of of St. St. Thomas' Thomas' and and St. St. BarBarvoys were tholomew's Christian Christian mission mission there. there. Perhaps Perhaps the the Chinese Chinese had had heard reports tholomew's heard reports about the the Christian gospel, only only to to have legates return return with with aa false false and about Christian gospel, have their their legates and idolatrous distortion distortion instead instead of of the true gospel. gospel. Buddhists, reports, recidolatrous the true Buddhists, he he reports, recognize only only four four elements, elements, like like the the ancient ancient Western Western philosophers and unlike unlike ognize philosophers and the Chinese. Chinese. He He thinks thinks their their belief in the the transmigration transmigration of of souls souls resembles resembles the belief in Pythagorean notions. He refers refers to to the the same same three-headed three-headed image image earlier earlier menmenPythagorean notions. He tioned as aa possible depiction of of the Christian Trinity. Budtioned by by Mendoza Mendoza as possible depiction the Christian Trinity. Buddhists, he notes, believe believe in in heaven and hell. hell. The The celibate celibate Buddhist clergy dhists, he notes, heaven and Buddhist clergy also suggests suggests Christian Christian antecedents antecedents to Trigault, and and he observes that some also to Trigault, he observes that some Buddhist rites and and ceremonies ceremonies appear appear to similar to to those of his his own own Buddhist rites to be be similar those of 510 Most church.510 Most of of the are convinced convinced that that Buddhism's Buddhism's popularity church. the Jesuits Jesuits are popularity in in China is continuously continuously declining, declining, although although Trigault seems to detect aa reChina is Trigault seems to detect resurgence day.5511 surgence in in his his day. The Jesuits' Jesuits' presentation presentation of of Chinese Chinese Buddhist Buddhist thought thought is is more more confusing confusing The than their portrayal of of Confucian Confucian teachings. teachings. They They fail fail to to distinguish distinguish propthan their portrayal properly between between the various Buddhist Buddhist sects sects and and instead present aa conglomeraconglomeraerly the various instead present tion of of Buddhist Buddhist mythology, popular religious and serious serious tion mythology, popular religious practices, practices, and Buddhist philosophy. few important aspects of of Buddhist thought, howhowBuddhist philosophy. A A few important aspects Buddhist thought, ever, emerge emerge from from this melange. Semedo, Semedo, for for example, example, distinguishes distinguishes beever, this melange. between what he he calls calls an an "exterior "exterior way" way" and and an an "interior "interior way." way."512 Most tween what 512 Most Buddhists follow follow the the "exterior "exterior way," way," and and most most of of what what Longobardo, PanBuddhists Longobardo, Pantoja, Trigault, and the others write descriptive of of that sort of of BudBudtoja, Trigault, and the others write was was descriptive that sort dhism. Crucial Crucial to to this this "exterior "exterior way" way" is is the that one's one's actions actions will dhism. the belief belief that will be be rewarded or or punished after death death and and aa belief in the the transmigration transmigration of of souls. punished after belief in souls. rewarded Semedo reports teaching that that the the soul soul after after death death passes passes to to one one of of the Semedo reports the the teaching the many Buddhist hells hells to purged of of its its sins. sins. After traveling through series After traveling through aa series many Buddhist to be be purged 11

509 For example, example, Semedo, Semedo, 0p. op. cit. (n. 9), 9), p. '''''For cit. (n. p. 88. 88. 5IO ,.oGallagher (trans.), op. (n. 38), Gallagher (trans.), op. cit. cit. (n. 38), pp. pp. 98-99. 98-99. 511 , .. Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 99-100, 99-100, 10I. 101. On On the the condition condition of of Buddhism Buddhism under under the the Ming Ming see see C. C. Eliot, Eliot, HinHinduism and and Buddhism (3 vols.; vols.; London, London, 1954), 1954), III, III, 274-79. 274-79. The The Wan-Ii Wan-li emperor emperor (r. (r. 1573-1620) 1573-1620) duism Buddhism (3 declared that Buddhism and and Confucianism Confucianism are are like like the the two two wings wings of of aa bird, each is useless declared that Buddhism bird, each is useless without the other. other. See See also also Ch'en, Ch'en, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 473), 473), pp. pp. 434-49. 434-49. without the 512 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. 88-91. "Exterior" "Exterior" may may refer refer vaguely to popular Mahayana Buddhism Buddhism '''Op. pp. 88-9I. vaguely to popular Mahayana and "interior" "interior" to to the the earlier earlier Hinayana form imported imported into into China China from from India. In south south China China the the and Hinayana form India. In Buddhists generally generally followed followed the the Hinayana Hinayana with its emphasis emphasis on on wisdom wisdom and and learning; learning; in in Buddhists with its the stressed faith faith and and external external worship. worship. See See K. K. K. K. S. S. Ch'en, The north the the Buddhists Buddhists stressed Ch'en, Buddhism: Buddhism: The the north Light of Asia (Woodbury, N. N.Y., 1968), chap. chap. vii. it may distinLight of Asia (Woodbury, Y., 1968), vii. Or Or it may be be that that the the Jesuits Jesuits are are merely merely distinguishing between between the ("exterior") Buddhism Buddhism of of the and that that of of learned learned priests and the populace populace and priests and guishing the ("exterior") rencontreduduBouddhisme Bouddhismeet et VOccident (Paris, 1954), Again, monks. See See H. H. de de Lubac, Lubac, La monks. La renwntre dede l'Occident (Paris, 1954), p. P84.84. Again, "exterior" may to the the popular popular Pure Pure Land Land sect sect and and "interior" "interior" to Ch'an or or Meditation Meditation sect sect "exterior" may refer refer to to Ch'an Buddhism. Buddhism.

[ 16 55 ] 1655]

China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty China: The The Late Dynasty of nine hells in this this world, of nine hells it it is is reborn reborn in world, its its condition condition depending depending on on the the virtue virtue accumulated previous existence. ,,, Pantoja accumulated during during its its previous existence.513 Pantoja describes describes some some of of the the sl ' Trigault Chinese pictures pictures of of the the Buddhist Buddhist hells. hells.514 Trigault mentions mentions "many "many worlds" Chinese worlds" ,,, The Jesuits have little to say in which the in which the souls souls of of the the dead dead are are reborn. reborn.515 The Jesuits have little to say about Buddhist Buddhist ethics ethics beyond beyond observing observing that that followers followers eat eat no no flesh about flesh and and drink no no wine. wine. Trigault Trigault thinks thinks these these rules rules are are very very poorly poorly kept, kept, and and that that drink infractions ,,6 infractions are are easily easily atoned atoned for for by by almsgiving. almsgiving.516 The beThe wiser wiser Buddhists, Buddhists, Semedo Semedo asserts, asserts, follow follow an an "interior "interior way." way." They They believe universe is is lieve that that the the entire entire universe is composed composed of of aa single single substance substance which which is may be be given molded many particular molded into into the the many particular existing existing things; things; like like wax, wax, it it may given many different different shapes. shapes. The The goal goal of of aa devout devout Buddhist, Buddhist, therefore, therefore, is is to to conconmany template this first first principle. Practitioners of of the the "interior "interior way" way" divide divide all template this principle. Practitioners all men into into ten ten classes classes according according to to the the degree degree of of enlightenment enlightenment they they have have atatmen tained. Four tained. Four classes classes are are good; good; six six are are evil, evil, and and for for each each of of these these there there is is aa hell hell characterized hells or characterized by by aa specific specific sin. sin. Rebirth, Rebirth, either either in in one one of of the the hells or in in some some other condition, happens in this world world only. Men who who choose to live in such only. Men choose to live in such other condition, happens in this aa way way that that they they are are ethically ethically indistinguishable indistinguishable from from animals animals have, have, in in short, short, been reborn reborn as as animals. been animals.517 "7 Buddhism had an an established established and and celibate celibate priesthood, the ChrisChrisBuddhism had priesthood, which which the tian priests describe describe in unflattering detail. detail. The The Buddhist tian priests in unflattering Buddhist priests, priests, called called "bonzes" or or "osciami" "osciami" (ho-shang-men) (ho-shang-rnen) Chinese, according to the "bonzes" by by thethe Chinese, are,are, according to the Jesuits, recruited recruited from from the the dregs dregs of of Chinese Chinese society. society. Most Most of of them them grew grew up up Jesuits, in monasteries monasteries into into which which they had been sold as as slaves slaves by by their in they had been sold their parents. parents. "Not aa single single one one of of them," them," writes writes Trigault, Trigault, "could "could ever ever have elected of of his "Not have elected his own will will to to join class of of cenobites cenobites as as aa means means of of leading leading aa holy holy own join this this vile vile class life."518 Consequently, the the Jesuits Jesuits assert, assert, the the Buddhist Buddhist priests are indolent indolent life." ". Consequently, priests are and unlearned. unlearned. Most of them them live live in in monasteries, some are are hermits hermits and Most of monasteries, although although some who live in in the the mountains mountains where they subject subject themselves themselves to to all all manner who live where they manner of of privations and and hardships. hardships. Many Many monks, monks, whom whom the the Jesuits Jesuits call call vagabonds vagabonds privations and thieves, also roam roam the the countryside countryside begging for their their sustenance. sustenance. The The and thieves, also begging for monks shave their their heads and beards, beards, wear wear distinctive distinctive clothing, clothing, abstain abstain from from monks shave heads and eating flesh, and live live celibately. celibately. The The Jesuits Jesuits assert, assert, however, however, that that even even the the eating flesh, and extremely severe severe punishments inflicted upon upon them them for for fornication fornication fail fail to to extremely punishments inflicted keep them them chaste. chaste. Of Of the the early early Jesuit Jesuit writers, writers, only only Semedo Semedo manages manages to to say say aa keep good word for for them. them. Despite Despite their their many many failings, failings, he writes, "the "the greater greater good word he writes, part of these these ... . . . Sectaries, Sectaries,is isnot notscandalous; scandalous;but butvery verypatient, patient,meek, meek,and and part of humble; whether it it is is from from the the habit, habit, which which humbleth humbleth them; them; or or from from the the humble; whether little esteem that that is is made of them, them, which which keepeth them under." under." Although Although little esteem made of keepeth them 13 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 90. 90. "'Op. I4 Pantoja, loc. cit. (n. 39), p. 381. Cf Cf. our "'Pantoja, IDe. cit. (n. 39), p. 381. our pi. pI. 333. 333. I5 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. "'Gallagher p. 99. 99. , ••16 Ibid. Ibid. 17 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 90-91. 90-91. "'Op. l8 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 100. "'Gallagher roo.

[1656]]

[ 1 656

Religion and Philosophy Philosophy Religion and the morals of Sethe Chinese Chinese frequently frequently discuss discuss the the low low morals of the the Buddhist Buddhist monks, monks, Semedo says says that only two two bad reports about about them them during during his his medo that he he heard heard only bad reports s' 9 twenty-two years in China. China.519 twenty-two years in The The Jesuits Jesuits report report that that each each monastery monastery is is ruled ruled by by aa single single governor, governor, who who at his position position to previously chosen Aside from at death death passes passes on on his to aa previously chosen protege. protege. Aside from these governors there is no Semedo further further notes notes that the BudBudthese governors there is no hierarchy. hierarchy. Semedo that the dhists are are under under the the jurisdiction of the the Board Board of of Rites Rites and and receive imperial dhists jurisdiction of receive imperial s20 Each subsidies.520 Each monastery monastery has has its its own own temple. temple. The The monks monks usually usually rent rent subsidies. rooms to travelers travelers and and to people interested interested in in studying studying Buddhist Buddhist beliefs. rooms to to people beliefs. As As result, writes writes Trigault, Trigault, the the monasteries monasteries "look "look more more like like large large and and noisy noisy aa result, hotels, where people people convene convene to to spend spend time time in in idol idol worship worship or or in in learning learning hotels, where the S" The the doctrines doctrines of of this this iniquitous iniquitous cult." cult."521 The monks monks also also conduct conduct ritualistic ritualistic services and at stated stated occasions occasions pray pray for for the the dead dead or or for for deliverance deliverance from from services and at fires, storms, storms, and and other other misfortunes. Some of of the the services services are are sung sung very fires, misfortunes. Some very much like like the the Gregorian Gregorian chants chants of of European European churches. churches. While While most most of of the much the Jesuits insist that that only only eunuchs, eunuchs, women, women, and and the very lowest lowest classes classes pay Jesuits insist the very pay seserious attention attention to Buddhists, they admit that that Chinese Chinese of of all rious to the the Buddhists, they nevertheless nevertheless admit all classes hire hire the the monks monks for for funerals. funerals. While While the the Jesuits Jesuits did did not not generally generally atatclasses tempt various Buddhist tempt to to distinguish distinguish among among the the various Buddhist sects, sects, Semedo Semedo includes includes aa brief , or orthethe notorious brief discussion discussion of of the the "Pe "Pe Lien Lien Kiao" Kiao" (Pai-lien-chiao) (Pai-lien-chiao), notorious White Lotus Lotus Society. Society. This, This, he he reports, is aa proscribed proscribed sect sect because because of of its its popoWhite reports, is litical purposes, among them them the the overthrow overthrow of of the dynasty. He briefly litical purposes, among the dynasty. He briefly sketches the the 1622 White Lotus Lotus uprising Shantung Province Province and and its its supsupsketches I622 White uprising in in Shantung pression, adding that society still still retains retains many adherents.522 pression, adding that the the society many adherents.s22 The Taoists, Taoists, or them, the the "Epicureans," the The or as as some some Europeans Europeans called called them, "Epicureans," are are the third sect sect described described by Jesuits. They They receive receive even even less less attention attention than than the the third by the the Jesuits. Buddhists. During During the half of of the the seventeenth seventeenth century century only only Trigault, Trigault, Buddhists. the first first half Semedo, Semedo, and and Martini Martini effectively effectively distinguish distinguish Taoism Taoism from from Buddhism Buddhism or or from aa more more generalized generalized popular religion. Many Many of of the same accusations accusations from popular religion. the same hurled repeated against the Taoists: dehurled against against Buddhist Buddhist monks monks are are repeated against the Taoists: they they are are described ignorant, as been sold scribed as as ignorant, as immoral, immoral, and and as as having having been sold as as slaves slaves into into the the Taoist temples. temples. Trigault Trigault observes observes that that Taoist Taoist priests priests let let their their hair hair grow grow long long Taoist like wooden skull like other other Chinese Chinese and and that that they they wear wear aa distinctive distinctive wooden skull cap.S2l cap.523 HerHermits and those those who who live live in in temples temples remain but many Taoist mits and remain unmarried, unmarried, but many Taoist priests and live live with families. Other Other Taoist pretend to priests marry marry and with their their families. Taoist priests priests pretend to be be magicians and fortune-tellers. fortune-tellers. Cleansing Cleansing homes homes and and buildings of evil evil spirits, spirits, magicians and buildings of 519 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 89-90. 89-90. Semedo Semedo calls calls the the monks monks "bonzes," "bonzes," as as do do many many other other Jesuit Jesuit writwrit"·Op. ers. See See our our pIs. pis. 336 336 and and 337. ers. 337. 52O "oSemedo, op. cit. cit. (n. pp. 88-89. 88-89. See See also op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 495), 495), pp. Semedo, op. (n. 9), 9), pp. also Yang, Yang, op. pp. 281-82. 281-82. 521 ,21 Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 101. 101. For For aa typical typical temple temple and and pagoda pagoda see see our our pi. pi. 338. 338. S22 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. 91-92. The The White White Lotus Lotus Society Society originated originated in in the the first first half of the the '''Op. pp. 91-92. half of twelfth Buddhism. It remained aa center political protest twelfth century century as as an an offshoot offshoot ofT'ien-t'ai of T'ien-t'ai Buddhism. It remained center of of political protest until well into into the century. Cj Cf. Overmeyer, cit. (n. (n. 495), 495), p. Overmeyer, op. op. cit. p. 103. 103. until well the nineteenth nineteenth century. 523 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. 102. 102. "'Gallagher

657 ] [1657]

[ I

China: The The Late Dynasty China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty calling calling down down rain, rain, and and conducting conducting funerals funerals seem seem to to be be their their most most important important functions. national orgaorgafunctions. Unlike Unlike the the Buddhists, Buddhists, the the Taoists Taoists are are said said to to have have aa national nization, at at the the head head of of which stands aa hereditary hereditary high high priest priest maintained maintained in nization, which stands in Peking by the emperor. emperor. This This high priest is is much honored by the emperor emperor Peking by the high priest much honored by the and has access access to apartments of of the the palace palace in in order order to drive deand has to the the private private apartments to drive demons from themY' them.524 The The Jesuits Jesuits observe observe that that Taoist Taoist priests priests also also live live at at the the mons from temples to to Heaven Heaven and and Earth Earth and and assist assist the the emperor emperor in in his his sacrifices sacrifices there. temples there. Among the host of idols which they honor Among the host of idols which the the Taoists Taoists worship, worship, they honor most most one one who is the the Lord Lord of whom they they envision in who is the supreme supreme god, god, called called the of Heaven, Heaven, whom envision in corporeal form. form. Trigault Trigault claims claims that that they they also also call call him him "Ciam." "Ciam." He He relates relates aa corporeal story predestory of of how how "Ciam" "Ciam" usurped usurped the the heavenly heavenly throne throne from from "Leu," "Leu," his his predecessor, by inviting him him to to dinner dinner and and stealing stealing off off on on "Leu's" "Leu's" white white dragon dragon cessor, by inviting while his was dining. dining. In In Trigault's Trigault's words: words: "And "And so so these these poor while his guest guest was poor people people now ", now admit admit that that they they are are venerating venerating aa false false lord, lord, aa usurper, usurper, and and aa tyrant." tyrant."525 Next dignity below below the the Lord Lord of of Heaven Heaven is is aa trinity trinity of of gods, gods, one one of of which which Next in in dignity was was the the reputed reputed founder founder of of the the sect, sect, Lao Lao Tzu, Tzu, supposedly supposedly aa contemporary contemporary of Confucius. Confucius. His His eighty-year eighty-year gestation gestation period period is is in in many many of of the the European European of accounts. Taoists, Taoists, according according to to the the Jesuit Jesuit writers, writers, also also believe believe in in aa heaven accounts. heaven and hell hell where punishment and and reward reward are are meted meted out out to to the the deceased deceased in and where punishment in acaccord with with their merits. This This and and many other aspects aspects of of Taoism Taoism demonstrate demonstrate cord their merits. many other the influence influence of of Buddhism Buddhism on on Taoist Taoist thought. thought. On On the the other other hand, most of the hand, most of the Jesuit Jesuit writers writers report report that that the the highest highest good good to to the the Taoists Taoists is is pleasure, pleasure, and and the that seek, therefore, therefore, to prolong this this life as long long as as possible possible because that they they seek, to prolong life as because there is after death-hence death—hence the the epithet epithet Epicurean. Epicurean. The The Jesuits there is no no pleasure pleasure after Jesuits nowhere attempt to resolve the the apparent apparent contradiction contradiction between the search search nowhere attempt to resolve between the for pleasure pleasure in in this life and and the the belief belief in in heaven heaven and and hell. hell. They They report, report, howhowfor this life ever, that that the Taoist heaven is aa place in which which people enjoy physical ever, the Taoist heaven is place in people enjoy physical pleapleasure and and to to which which they they ascend ascend in in both body and and soul. soul. Taoist Taoist temples contain sure both body temples contain the images images of of many many saints saints who who had had been directly from from this this life life into into the been taken taken directly heaven. the use use of of certain certain exercises, exercises, postures, heaven. Trigault Trigault mentions mentions the postures, prayers, prayers, 526 and medicines life or or to to attain and medicines to to prolong prolong life attain heaven. heaven. 526 In In addition addition to to the the native native Chinese Chinese religions religions and and Buddhism, Buddhism, which which they they 524 "'''The "The so-called so-called Taoist Taoist pope, pope, Chang Chang T'ien-shih, T'ien-shih, may may have have high high religious religious or or magical magical presprestige tige derived derived from from assumed assumed ability, ability, for for example, example, to to make make rain rain or or to to harness harness evil evil spirits, spirits, but but he he commands no no organizational organizational subordination subordination from Taoists or or Taoist Taoist temples temples in in different different parts parts of of commands from Taoists the country" country" (Yang, (Yang, op. op. cit. cit. [no [n. 495], 495], p. p. 281). the 281). S2S Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. 102. The The story story related here seems seems to to be popularized "'Gallagher p. I02. related here be aa popularized version of of the the rivalry rivalry between between two two famous famous Taoists, Taoists, Liu Liu Yiian-jan Yuan-jan (1350-1432) (1350-1432) and and Chang Chang YiiYuversion ch'u (1361-1410). (1361-1410). Chang Chang was was the the forty-third forty-third Taoist Taoist Master Master of of Heaven, Heaven, aa position hereditary in in ch'u position hereditary the Chang Chang family. family. Liu Liu is is the the family family name name of of the Han emperors. emperors. See See Giuliano Giuliano Bertuccioli, Bertuccioli, "Mat"Matthe the Han Symposium on onChineseChinese-Western CulturalInterchange Interchange Comteo Ricci Ricci and and Taoism," Taoism," International teo International Symposium Western Cultural in in Commemoration ofthe theFour FourHundredth HundredthAnniversary AnniversaryofofthetheArrival ArrivalofofMatteo Ricci,Sj., S.J.,in in China(Taipei, (Taipei, memoration of Matteo Ricci, China 1983), pp. 41-49. 41-49. 83), pp. 19 5 6 ~ Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), p. p. I03. 103. Also Also see see Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 87-88; 87-88; and and '''Gallagher Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 44), 44), p. p. IO. 10. Cj Cf J. Dehergne, Dehergne, S.)., S.J., "Les "Les historiens historiens jesuites du Taoisme," Taoisme," in in jesuites du Martini, InternationaldedeSillologie Sinologie(Chantilly, (Chantilly,1974) 1974)(Paris, (Paris,1976), 1976),pp.pp.59-67. 59-67. Actes du du Colloque Colloque Imernational Actes

[ 1 658 ] [1658]

Religion and Philosophy Philosophy Religion and recognize recognize as as being being of of foreign foreign origin, origin, the the Jesuits Jesuits also also report report the the existence existence of of Jewish Jewish and and Muslim Muslim communities communities in in China China and and advance advance evidence evidence for for an an earearlier Christian Christian presence. presence. Muslims Muslims remain remain quite quite numerous, numerous, according according to to TriTrilier gault, gault, but but are are still still regarded regarded as as outsiders outsiders by by the the Chinese. Chinese. Apart Apart from from not not eating eating pork, pork, they they remember remember little little of of Islamic Islamic doctrine doctrine and and practice. practice. They They usually renounce renounce their their faith faith if if they they pass pass the the civil civil service service examinations. examinations.527 Seusually ,27 Semedo adds adds that that they they do do not not intermarry intermarry with with Chinese Chinese and and that that educated educated medo Muslims usually usually stop stop at at the the chu-jen chu-jen degree. degree. He He dates dates their their entrance entrance into into Muslims China at at about about A.D. A.D. 940 940 when when they they were were invited invited in in by by an an emperor emperor to to help help China suppress ,2' Both suppress aa rebellion. rebellion.528 Both Trigault Trigault and and Semedo Semedo comment comment on on the the Jesuits' Jesuits' contacts 529 Trigault Trigault describes describes Ricci's Ricci's visit visit with with aa Jew Jew in in contacts with with Chinese Chinese Jews. Jews.529 Peking, and and Semedo Semedo reports reports on on Father Father Giulio Giulio Aleni's Aleni's visit visit with with the the Jews Jews of of Peking, K'aifengYo K'aifeng.530 Both Both report report that that Judaism Judaism is is no no longer longer clearly clearly understood understood or or faithfully practiced practiced by its adherents adherents in in China. China. In In addition addition to to Luis' Luis' and and SeSefaithfully by its medo's descriptions descriptions of of the the Nestorian Nestorian monument monument and and everyone's everyone's discussion discussion medo's of St. St. Thomas' Thomas' reported reported mission mission to to the the Chinese, Chinese, there there are are several several accounts accounts of by the the Jesuits Jesuits of of other other evidences evidences for for an an earlier earlier Christian Christian presence presence in in China: China: by the number number ten ten (a (a cross cross [[f]) on tombstones, tombstones, and and people people reputedly reputedly crossing crossing the t]) on themselves 531 Several themselves without without knowing knowing why. why.531 Several writers writers also also mention mention Marco Marco Polo's claim claim that that there there were were many many Christians Christians in in China China during during the the Mongol Mongol Polo's 532 Martini, Martini, for for example, example, found found abundant abundant evidence evidence of of aa Christian Christian period. period.532 5JJ presence in Chang-chou, Chang-chou, Fukien Fukien Province. Province.533 presence in The Jesuits Jesuits realize realize that that the the three three Chinese Chinese religious religious groups groups (san-chiao) (san-chiao)do do The not not make make exclusive exclusive claims claims for for themselves themselves or or work work for for one one another's another's destrucdestruction. tion. They They understand understand that that the the emperors emperors maintain maintain each each of of them them with with public public funds and and that that each each is is under under the the jurisdiction of the Board of of Rites. The ChiChifunds jurisdiction of the Board Rites. The nese nese do do not not consider consider the the three three sects sects mutually mutually exclusive exclusive or or even even contradiccontradictory; tory; they they select select elements elements from from each each to to suit suit their their convenience. convenience. The The Jesuits Jesuits note that that the the Confucian Confucian literati literati almost almost always always have have Buddhist Buddhist and and Taoist Taoist note priests at at their their funerals. funerals. In In fact, fact, most most Chinese Chinese consider consider the the three three cults cults to to be be priests complementary. Semedo Semedo states states this this most most clearly: clearly: complementary. The Heaven and Earth, allall to to thethe governLitteratiofofthe thefirst firstSect, Sect,imitating imitating Heaven and Earth,apply apply governThe Litterati ment ment of of the the Kingdome; Kingdome; of of their their families; families; and and of of their their persons; persons; only only in in this this life; life; and and S27 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. pp. 106-7. 106-7. '''Gallagher S28 "'Op. An LuOp. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 152-53. 152-53. The The Tang T'ang rulers rulers recruited recruited Muslim Muslim soldiers soldiers during during the the An Lushan pp. 97-98, shan rebellion rebellion (753-63). (753-63). See See Chen, Chen, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 118), 118), pp. 97-98, and and Samuel Samuel Couling, Couling, The The EncyEncyclopedia clopediaSinica Sinica(London, (London, 1917), 1917),pp. pp.378-79. 378-79. S29 Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. pp. 107-10; 107-10; Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 153-54. 153-54. "·Gallagher S30 HO Cf Juifs du in€dite des Jesuites C/ J. Dehergne Dehergne and and D. D. D. D. Leslie, Leslie, Juifs du Chine Chine a a travers traverslalacorrespondallCe correspondance inedite desjesuites du 13, 3839. du dix-huitieme dix-huitieme siecle siecle (Rome (Rome and and Paris, Paris, 1980), 1980), pp. pp. II11-13, 38-39. 531 HI See, See, for for example, example, Trigault Trigault in in Gallagher Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 38), 38), pp. pp. 110-14, n o - 1 4 , and and Semedo, Semedo, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), pp. pp. 154-65. 154-65532 "'On Polo's Asia On the the Christians Christians of of China China in in Marco Marco Polo's Polo's book, book, see see L. L. Olschki, Olschki, Marco Marco Polo's Asia (Berkeley, (Berkeley, 1960), i960), pp. pp. 223-]2. 223-32. 533 mop. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. «), 44), pp. pp. 152-53. 152-53.

[[1659] r659 ]

China: The The Late Dynasty China: Late Ming Ming Dynasty after that The Tausi Tausi [Taoists] [Taoists]of ofthe thesecond second Sect, Sect,without withoutany any after that pretend pretend to to nothing. nothing. The regard to their their families families or or the government, treate only of of the body. The disciples of regard to the government, treate only the body. The disciples of Xaca [Buddhists]of ofthe thethird thirdSect, Sect,without withoutany anyregard regardtotothe thebody, body,treate treateonly onlyofofthethe Xaca [Buddhists] 534 Spirit, internal internal peace, and quiet quiet of of conscience. Spirit, peace, and conscience. 534 Although the eclectic Although oversimplified, oversimplified, Semedo's Semedo's statement statement succinctly succinctly reflects reflects the eclectic nature nature of of Chinese Chinese religion. religion. Trigault suggests suggests that attempt to believe in in all all three sects inevitably inevitably to believe three sects Trigault that the the attempt leads to atheism: believing that that they they can three laws leads to atheism: "In "In believing can honor honor all all three laws at at the the same same time, they without any any law law at at all, all, because because they they do do not sinnot sintime, they find find themselves themselves without 535 cerely Among the common the cerely follow follow anyone any one of of them. them.""S3S Among the common people, people, however, however, the attempt to to follow follow all all three ways certainly certainly did did not not result in atheism. atheism. It It attempt three ways result in produced instead aa conglomeration conglomeration of of gods gods and and beliefs beliefs not not unlike unlike that that deproduced instead described by by the the European European travelers. The Jesuits Jesuits are are aghast aghast at at the the proliferation proliferation scribed travelers. The of the people: people: not not only temples, but streets, of idols idols among among the only in in temples, but in in houses, houses, shops, shops, streets, and ships. ships. The The people follow aa multitude of superstitious superstitious rites. and people blindly blindly follow multitude of rites. In In addition to to practicing practicing ancestor ancestor worship worship and and spirit spirit worship, believe in in the the addition worship, they they believe existence of of demons demons that that have to be be periodically periodically driven driven out out of of their their homes homes and and existence have to public buildings. They are are addicted addicted to to fortune-telling, fortune-telling, and and the theJesuits Jesuits describe describe public buildings. They many ways which divination divination was was accomplished. accomplished. Extremely prevalent is many ways in in which Extremely prevalent is the belief belief in in lucky lucky and and unlucky unlucky days. days. The The Chinese Chinese consult consult almanacs almanacs to to deterdeterthe mine the the appropriate appropriate day day for for marriages, marriages, funerals, funerals, building building homes, homes, beginning beginning mine journeys, and almost almost every every imaginable imaginable undertaking. And the the empire empire journeys, and undertaking. And abounds with with magicians, magicians, astrologers, astrologers, fortune-tellers, fortune-tellers, and and the the like, like, who, for aa abounds who, for fee, will will perform perform the the necessary rituals and and supply supply the the desired desired information information or fee, necessary rituals or forecast future future events. events. Before Before erecting erecting public public buildings or houses, houses, "geolo"geoloforecast buildings or gists" are are consulted consulted who who determine determine whether whether or or not not the the site site is is fortunate, fortunate, gists" which directions directions the doors or or windows windows should should face, face, and and where where trees trees should should which the doors be or walls walls raised. raised. Two Two superstitious superstitious practices are aa virtual virtual mania be planted planted or practices are mania among the the Chinese, Chinese, affecting affecting all all classes classes of of society. society. These These are are the the search search for for aa among chemical to turn base base metals metals into into silver silver and for aa potion potion of of immorimmorchemical to turn and the the search search for tality. Fortunes are are squandered squandered in in search search of of these, these, and and imposters, imposters, who claim tality. Fortunes who claim to found the secrets, never lack an an audience. to have have found the secrets, never lack audience. In fact, fact, the religion of of the Chinese was combination of of beliefs beliefs In the popular popular religion the Chinese was aa combination taken from each each of of the the three three authorized authorized cults cults and and from from the taken from the traditional traditional anianimism of of the distant past. past. No one of of the the cults cults remained untainted; many many docmism the distant No one remained untainted; doctrines of the the Buddhists Buddhists and and Taoists Taoists had had infiltrated infiltrated the the orthodox orthodox Confucianism Confucianism trines of of permeated both of the the seventeenth seventeenth century, century, and and Confucian Confucian ethics ethics in in return return permeated both Taoism and and Buddhism. Buddhism. Buddhism and Taoism Taoism also also borrowed borrowed heavily heavily from from Taoism Buddhism and each The sharp the Jesuits would have have liked each other. other. The sharp distinctions distinctions which which the Jesuits would liked to to make, therefore, especially especially between between the Confucians and and the other two make, therefore, the Confucians the other two sects, sects, su Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. p. 91. 91. On On the the san-chiao tradition see see Overmeyer, Overmeyer, op. cit. (n.49S), (n. 495), mop. san-chiao tradition op. cit. pp. 133-34. pI. 333. 333. pp. 133-34- Cj Cf. our our pi. 535 "'Gallagher (n. 38), lOS. Gallagher (trans.), (trans.), op. op. cit. cit. (n. 38), p. p. 105.

[1660]] [1660

Religion Religion and and Philosophy Philosophy simply not exist. to note what they simply did did not exist. The The Jesuits Jesuits were were obliged obliged to note what they called called susuperstitious in perstitious rites rites in in Confucianism, Confucianism, and and the the presence presence of of the the Confucian Confucian ethic ethic in the other other despised despised sects. sects. Despite Despite their their efforts efforts to distinguish between between the the the to distinguish cults, therefore, therefore, the the image image of of Chinese Chinese religion and philosophy philosophy developed developed by cults, religion and by the Jesuits, while while inaccurate inaccurate in in some some details details and and certainly certainly biased biased in in favor favor of of the Jesuits, the literati, literati, nevertheless nevertheless approximated approximated actual actual conditions conditions in in seventeenthseventeenththe century China. China. century

[[1661] 1661 ]

CHAPTER CHAPTER XXI XXI

China: The The Early Early Ch'ing Ch'ing Dynasty China: Dynasty

Founded early early in in the the seventeenth seventeenth century, century, contemporary contemporary with the Thirty Thirty Founded with the Years' War War in in Europe, Europe, the the Ch'ing Ch'ing dynasty dynasty ruled ruled China China from from 1644 1644 to to 1911. Years' 191 I. The Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest and and the subsequent civil civil wars wars tore tore China China apart apart from from The the subsequent the peace the early early 1640'S 1640's to to 1683. 1683. The The establishment establishment subsequently subsequently of of domestic domestic peace and internal unity led led to to aa century century of of economic economic prosperity prosperity and and sustained sustained and internal unity population growth. As As the the last last phase phase of of China's China's ancien ancienregime, regime, Ch'ing population growth. thethe Ch'ing period included both the zenith zenith and and the the nadir nadir of of the traditional Chinese Chinese period included both the the traditional imperial system. system. While While acting acting as as jealous guardians of of China's China's established established imperial jealous guardians institutions and and values, values, by by 1800 1800 the the Manchus Manchus had laboriously extended extended institutions had laboriously China's effective effective jurisdiction over aa geographical geographical area area far far larger larger than than it it conconChina's jurisdiction over trolled at at any any earlier earlier (or (or later) later) period. From Peking Peking the the Manchus Manchus painstakpainstaktrolled period. From ingly welded welded the the peoples peoples of of China's China's internal internal frontiers frontiers to to the the imperial imperial ingly standard and and to to the Chinese way of life. After After adopting adopting intact intact the the Ming Ming sysstandard the Chinese way oflife. system, the the Manchus Manchus undertook undertook aa systematic systematic program of sinicization sinicization for for themthemtem, program of selves and and the other non-Han non-Han peoples of their their extensive extensive empire. selves the other peoples of empire. The new rulers the social relationships of The new rulers endorsed endorsed the social and and political political relationships of the the ChiChinese past and elevated elevated to to official official orthodoxy orthodoxy the teachings of of the nese past and the teachings the Later Later Sung Sung school of of Neo-Confucianism. and inculcating inculcating aa few few traits traits school Neo-Confucianism. While While preserving preserving and and customs customs of of their their own own Manchu Manchu heritage, Ch'ing dynasts dynasts honored honored and heritage, the the Ch'ing Confucianism traditional Chinese Confucianism and and cultivated cultivated traditional Chinese literature, literature, calligraphy, calligraphy, painting, and practices. From From K'ang-hsi's majority (1667) painting, and social social practices. K'ang-hsi's majority (1667) onward onward the the political hierarchy key Chinese and political hierarchy was was increasingly increasingly dominated dominated by by key Chinese officials officials and scholars. Established Chinese scholars. Established Chinese economic economic and and social social institutions institutions likewise likewise matured benevolent tutelage the intermatured with with the the benevolent tutelage of of the the court court and and through through the interregional cooperation cooperation and and economic economic integration integration encouraged encouraged by by the the Ch'ing. Ch'ing. regional While Peking Peking remained official center center of of government, government, voluntary voluntary associaassociaWhile remained the the official [[1662] 1662]

The Conquest The Manchu Manchu Conquest tions tions of of merchants merchants and and craftsmen craftsmen brought brought new new life life and and stimulation stimulation to to the the major major cities cities and and prospering prospering towns towns of of central central China. China. In In the the favorable favorable climate climate of of aa rising rising standard standard of of living, living, material material culture culture and and education education leisurely leisurely adadvanced, vanced, along along with with aa broader broader range range of of intellectual intellectual and and artistic artistic activities activities that that 1 were were cultivated cultivated especially especially by by the the merchant-princes merchant-princes of of the the lower lower Yangtze. Yangtze. To To the the Europeans, Europeans, the the China China ruled ruled by by the the Ch'ing Ch'ing continued continued in in many many ways ways to to be be but but aa more more rational rational and and better better administered administered edition edition of of the the Ming. Ming. Since Since some some of of the the missionaries missionaries personally personally experienced experienced the the dynastic dynastic change, change, they they and their their successors successors were were constantly constantly on on the the lookout lookout for for portents portents which which and might encourage encourage or or hinder hinder their their own own activities. activities. The The conquest conquest itself itself is is aa sepamight separate subject subject in in the the European European literature. literature. But But much much of of what what the the Europeans Europeans rate later later report report concentrates concentrates on on the the early early Ch'ing Ch'ing as as aa continuation continuation of of or or as as aa dedeparture parture from from the the Ming Ming system, system, and and duplicates duplicates or or merely merely extends extends or or modimodifies reflection of of what what was was actually actually fies the the remarks remarks of of the the earlier earlier observers—in observers-in aa reflection China itself. itself. As As aa consequence consequence there there is is aa current current quality quality taking place place in in China taking about the the later later reports reports that that is is not not so so prevalent prevalent in in those those of of the the first first half half of of the the about century. century. I

i

THE CONQUEST THE MANCHU MANCHU CONQUEST

When about the in Europe mid-century, When news news about the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest arrived arrived in Europe at at mid-century, earlier of China China as and changeless changeless empire parearlier images images of as aa remote remote and empire were were at at least least partially more dynamic China which which was tially replaced replaced by by those those of of aa more dynamic China was enduring enduring aa most China from from which countless innovations most disruptive disruptive revolution—a revolution-a China which countless innovations and and new personalities would would soon soon emerge. emerge. The The reports reports of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest new personalities seemed dramatically dramatically to to move China into into the the European European awareness, and for for aa seemed move China awareness, and time, informed Europeans Europeans seemed seemed conscious conscious of of living in the same world world time, informed living in the same Announcements of the Manchu Manchu invasions invasions of of north China with the Chinese. Chinese.2 Announcements with the of the north China began to appear in in print in Europe Europe during during the the 1620'S, 1620's, or or shortly shortly after after their their began to appear print in commencement. Semedo Semedo also also reported reported mounting troubles on on China's China's mounting troubles commencement. northern frontier. frontier. Some Some brief brief notices notices of of the the conquest conquest also also appeared appeared in in the the northern annual Jesuit Jesuit letters letters and and in in the the reports reports of of trading trading companies. companies. The The Holannual Hollandtschemercurius mercurius on July 1650, carried a brief note "confirming the calandtsche on July 22, 22, 1650, carried a brief note" confirming the calamities of the the ingenious ingenious China," China," and and in in November, November, 1653, 1653, observed observed that that lamities of "the Tartar Tartar [Manchu] [Manchu] still still holds holds the the once-splendid once-splendid China China partially partially under under his "the his power."3 power."J 2

'Based on on Ho Ho Ping-ti, Ping-ti, "The "The Significance Significance of of the the Ch'ing Ch'ing Period Period in in Chinese Chinese History," History," Journal Journal of of 'Based Asian Studies, Studies, XXVI XXVI (1967), (1967), 189-95. 189-95. Asian 2 For aa more more detailed detailed discussion discussion of of the the reporting reporting of of the the conquest conquest in in Europe Europe see see E. E. Van Van Kley, Kley, 'For "News "News from from China: China: Seventeenth-Century Seventeenth-Century European European Notices Notices of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest," Conquest," JourJournal of of Modern Modern History, History, XLV, XLV, NO·4 No. 4 (December, (December, 1973), 1973), pp. pp. 561-82. 561-82. nal 3 J Hollandtsche Hollandtsche mercurius, mercurius,I,I,25, 25,and andIV, IV,94. 94.

[[ 166 3 ]] 1663

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty

The Polish Polish Jesuit Jesuit Michael Michael Boym Boym arrived arrived at at Venice Venice in in 1652 1652 carrying carrying an an apThe appeal from from the the Ming Ming empress empress for for European European aid aid against against the the Manchus. Manchus. She She and and peal several members members of of her her family family and and of of the the Southern Southern Ming Ming court court had had accepted accepted several Christianity.4 In In 1653 1653 Boym's Boym's book book was was published. It describes describes the the Jesuit Christianity.' published. It Jesuit the most recent Christian premission mission in in China China and and the most recent Christian successes successes at at the the Ming Ming pretender's court.S brief history the conquest, tender's court.5 It It also also contains contains aa brief history of of the conquest, although although for for the most the most part part it it ignores ignores the the Manchus. Manchus. Boym Boym apparently apparently assumed assumed that that the the Ming refugee refugee Chu Chu Yu-lang Yu-lang (1623-62; (1623-62; reign Yung-li) was was indeed indeed still still Ming reign title: title: Yung-li) emperor of of China China and and would would perpetuate perpetuate the Ming line. emperor the Ming line. More detailed detailed information information about about the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest arrived arrived in in 1654 More 1654 with Father Martino Martini, Martini, who sent to to Rome Rome by Jesuits in in with Father Martino who had had been been sent by the the Jesuits China to to persuade the pope to reverse reverse his his 1654 1654 condemnation condemnation of of certain certain China persuade the pope to Jesuit accommodation accommodation practices. practices. He He wrote wrote his hellotartarico tartarico during Jesuit his De De bello during the the homeward his arrival in homeward voyage voyage and and arranged arranged for for its its publication publication soon soon after after his arrival in Europe Europe in in August, August, 1653. 1653.66 The The conquest conquest was was also also mentioned mentioned in in aa German German newssheet Welt (Augsburg, 1654); it reported newssheet called called Zeiting Zeiting auss aussder dernewen newen Welt (Augsburg, 1654); it reported Martini's HolMartini's arrival arrival and and the the state state of of the the Jesuit Jesuit mission mission in in China. China. The The Hollandtsche of August, 1654, carried a much longer account of the landtschemercurius mercurius of August, 1654, carried a much longer account of the appears to to have primarily from Martini, although conquest conquest that that appears have come come primarily from Martini, although some some parts parts of of it it also also owe owe aa debt debt to to Boym's Boym's report. report. The De bello became thethe most authoritative andand best-known de-deThe De hellotartarico tartarico became most authoritative best-known scription traces the scription of of the the conquest. conquest. In In it it Martini Martini traces the background background of of hostility hostility between north of the thirteenthbetween the the Chinese Chinese and and the the tribes tribes north of the the Great Great Wall: Wall: the thirteenthcentury restocentury Mongol Mongol conquest conquest and and the the resulting resulting Yuan Yuan dynasty, dynasty, the the Ming Ming restoration with the ration of of 1368, 1368, and and the the late late Ming's Ming's growing growing difficulty difficulty with the Manchus. Manchus. He He also discusses discusses the the Manchu Manchu people, people, as as well as their their customs, customs, government, government, also well as and military military techniques. He traces traces the the growth growth of of Manchu Manchu power power in in the the and techniques. He northeast and and the careers of of its its leaders-Nurhachi leaders—Nurhachi (1559-1626), (1559—1626), Abahai Abahai northeast the careers (1592-1643), and and Dorgon Dorgon (1612-50). (1612-50). Then Then Martini Martini analyzes analyzes the the internal internal (1592-1643), problems of the the late late Ming: Ming: oppressive oppressive taxation, taxation, corruption, corruption, arbitrary arbitrary misproblems of misuse of power court eunuchs, eunuchs, and and the the personal weakness and and avarice avarice of of the use of power by by court personal weakness the Ch'ung-chen emperor emperor (1628-44). (1628-44). Imperial Imperial greediness greediness and and mismanagement mismanagement Ch'ung-chen 4 4 Ibid" Ibid., IV, IV, 4. 4. See See also also Robert Robert Chabrie, Chabrie, Michel Michel Boym,jisuite Boym,Jesuite Polonais Polonaisetetlafin la findes desMing MingenenChine Chine (1646-1662) (Paris, 1933), pp. pp. 90-II4. 90-114. (1646-1662) (Paris, 1933), 5 Sehr wehrte wehrte und und angenehme angenehme newe newe Zeitung Zeitung von von der der Bekehrung Bekehrung zum zum catholischen catholischenGlauben Glaubendesz. desz. 'Sehr andererforstl. furstl. Personen Personenund undvon vonderderLegation Legationdesz. desz.Ehrw. Ehrw.P.P.Michaelis Michaelis jungen Konigs in in China China und und anderer jungen Kiinigs Societet Jesu Jesu Priestern Priesternpolnischer polnischerNation Nationzuzu ihrer ihrerpabstl. Pabstl.Heyligkeit Heyligkeitnach nachRohm Rohm... . .. Bouyn deT der Societet Bouyn 1654: Briefe relationdedelalanotable notable (Augsburg, 1653). 1653). We We have used the enlarged French edition of of 1654: (Augsburg, have used the enlarged French edition Briefe relation & l'estat de Vestat la religion Chrestienne la Chine . . . (Paris, conversiondes despersonnes personnes royales royales & de de ladereligion Chrestienne en la en Chine . .. (Paris, 1654).1654). conversion See Streit, Streit, V, V, 793-95, 793-95, for for bibliography. bibliography. For For aa discussion discussion of of Boym's works see see B. Szczesniak, See Boym's works B. Szczesniak, "The Writings Writings of of Michael Michael Boym," Boym," Monumenta Monumenta Serica, XIV (1949-55), (1949-55), 481-538. 481-538. Also Also see see "The Serica, XIV above, pp. pp. 526, 526, 538-39. 538-39. On On the the conversion conversion episode episode in in the context oflate of late Ming Ming resistance see above, the context resistance see Lynn A. A. Struve, Struve, The The Southern Southern Ming (New Haven, Haven, 1984), 1984), pp. pp. 139-66 139-66 and and especially especially n. n. 17, Lynn Ming (New 17, pp. 241-42. 1 -42· PP·24 6 For Martini's Martini's publications publications see see above, above, pp. pp. 379-81, 379-81, 525-27. 525-27. On On Martini's Martini's activities activities in in Europe Europe "For bello tartarico tartaricoseeseeD.D.Mungello, Mungello,Curious Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation Origins and the the De and De bello Land: Jesuit Accommodation andand the the Origins of of Sinology (Stuttgart, 1985), 1985), pp. pp. 106106-16. Sinology (Stuttgart, 16.

[1664]

The Manchu Conquest The Manchu Conquest of well as of public public affairs, affairs, he he explains, explains, alienated alienated Manchu Manchu chieftains chieftains as as well as Chinese Chinese The results results were were both on the the frontier frontier and officials and and subjects. subjects.77 The officials both unrest unrest on and rebellion at home. Tzu-ch'eng (1605[?]-45) (i605[?]-45) finally finally topple topple rebellion at home. Rebels Rebels led led by by Li Li Tzu-ch'eng 8 Li's army, by traitors enters Pethe the dynasty. dynasty.8 As As Li's army, aided aided by traitors within within the the capital, capital, enters Peking, emperor, according according to Martini, stabs stabs to to death death his his young young daughter, daughter, king, the the emperor, to Martini, writes aa letter letter in in his his own own blood blood accusing accusing high high officials officials of of treason, and then then writes treason, and hangs with his his garter from aa plum plum tree tree in the palace The hangs himself himself with garter from in the palace garden. garden. The empress, several several imperial imperial concubines, concubines, and and loyal loyal officials officials follow follow suit.9 suit.9 The The empress, victorious Li Li Tzu-ch'eng Tzu-ch'eng then then crowns crowns himself emperor and and attempts attempts to to victorious himself emperor gain the the submission submission of of the remaining Ming Ming military military forces. forces. Wu Wu San-kuei San-kuei gain the remaining (1612—78), however, who commanded commanded the the largest largest Chinese on the the (1612-78), however, who Chinese army army on northern frontier, refuses submit despite despite the fact that that his his father father is northern frontier, refuses to to submit the fact is aa hoshostage in Li's court.10 Whether Whether motivated motivated by by loyalty and aa desire desire to to revenge revenge the the tage in Li's court. loyalty and Ming emperor's emperor's death death or or by by personal enmity toward toward Li, Li, Wu Wu makes Ming personal enmity makes aa pact pact with the the Manchus, Manchus, who who then on Peking. Peking. Li to the the northwest; northwest; the the with then march march on Li flees flees to Manchus stay stay and and establish establish aa new new dynasty. dynasty. Martini Martini describes describes the the conquest conquest of of Manchus the of China, China, city city by by city city and province by up to 1651, in the rest rest of and province by province, province, up to 1651, in which left the the country. country. which year year he he left Martini obviously obviously thought thought the Manchu Conquest an event of worldMartini the Manchu Conquest was was an event of worldhistorical significance, readers aa deep historical significance, and and he he conveyed conveyed to to his his readers deep sense sense of of the the tragedy involved involved in in the the event. event. In In contrast contrast to to Boym, insists that the tragedy Boym, he he insists that the Ch'ung-chen emperor emperor was last Ming because he was the the last last to Ch'ung-chen was the the last Ming ruler ruler because he was to govern all all of of China. China.11 About About Wu San-kuei's pact the Manchus, Martini govern Wu San-kuei's pact with with the Manchus, Martini says: "Wu "Wu San-kuei, San-kuei, eager eager for for revenge, admitted all all they desired, unaware, says: revenge, admitted they desired, unaware, as the the Chinese Chinese say, say, that that he he let let tigers tigers into into the empire to drive out out the the dogs." dogs."I2 as the empire to drive 10

II

12

7 7De De bello nostra aetate sinicum hello tartarico historia: in qua, quo pacto pado tartari hac hacnostra sinicum imperium imperium invaserint, invaserint, ac fere totum eorumque mores describuntur (Antwerp, ( A n t w e r p , 1654), 1654), PP.24-25, p p . 24—25, Jere totum occuparint occuparint narratur: narratur: eorumque mores breviter breviter describuntur 51-56. On On the the Ming-Manchu Ming-Manchu confrontation F. Wakeman, Wakeman, The The Great Great Enterprise (2 vols.; 51-56. confrontation cf if. F. Enterprise (2 vols.; Berkeley, 1985), 1985), I, I, chaps. chaps, i-iii. i-iii. Berkeley, 8 For aa history history of of Li Li Tzu-ch'eng Tzu-ch'eng and and other other Chinese Chinese rebels rebels see see J. B. B. Parsons, Parsons, The The Peasant 'For Peasant Rebellions of the the Late Late Ming Ming Dynasty Dynasty (Tucson, (Tucson, 1970), 1970), chaps. chaps, iv-v. iv-v. Rebellions of 9 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), pp. pp. 70-71. 70-71. Martini's Martini's description description of of the the details details surrounding surrounding the the fall fall of of Peking Peking 'Op. is not not entirely entirely accurate. were so so many conflicting stories stories and and rumors circulating at the is accurate. There There were many conflicting rumors circulating at the time that that it it was probably impossible impossible for for Martini Martini to to learn learn the truth. It It appears, appears, however, that the the time was probably the truth. however, that emperor did did not not kill kill his his fifteen-year-old fifteen-year-old daughter, daughter, although although he he intended intended to to do do so. so. He He lost lost heart heart emperor after cutting off off her arm; she she survived survived until until 1645. 1645. The The emperor's emperor's last last letter letter was written after cutting her left left arm; was not not written in his his own It was, however, presumably presumably written on the the sleeves sleeves of of his gown. Martini Martini own blood. blood. It was, however, written on his gown. in appears have accurately accurately described described the general content of the the letter. According to to Martini, Martini, Li Li appears to to have the general content of letter. According later had cut into into small small pieces. pieces. In In fact, fact, however, it appears appears that Li had had the the body cut however, it that Li later had the the emperor's emperor's body emperor and and empress empress ceremoniously ceremoniously buried buried in in their their imperial imperial robes. robes. See See A. W. Hummel Hummel (ed.), (ed.), emperor A. W. the Ch'ing CWing Period (1644-igu) (Washington, 1943), p. p. 192; 192; Min-sun Min-sun Eminent Chinese Chinese of of the Eminent Period (1644-1912) (Washington, D.C., D.C., 1943), Chen, "Three Contemporary Contemporary Western Western Sources Sources on on the of the Late Ming Ming and the ManManChen, "Three the History History of the Late and the chu Conquest of of China" China" (Ph.D. (Ph.D. diss., diss., Dept. of History, of Chicago, Chicago, 1971), 1971), chu Conquest Dept. of History, University University of an pp. 186-87; and d Wakeman, pp. 186-87; Wakeman, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), I,J, 257-66. 257-66. Wakeman Wakeman avers avers (p. (p. 266) 266) that that the the emperor emperor did not leave leave the the suicide suicide note many contemporary contemporary annalists make reference. reference. did not note to to which which many annalists make I0 On Li's Li's efforts efforts to to use Wu Hsiang Hsiang to exert pressure on his son see see Parsons, Parsons, op. op. cit. cit. (n.8), (n. 8), WOn use Wu to exert pressure on his son pp. 138-40. 8-40 . PP·13 11 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), p. p. 71. 71. "Op. 12 Ibid., p. p. 75. 75. Cj Cf Parsons, Parsons, op. op. cit. (n. 8), 8), pp. 140-41. Ibid., cit. (n. pp. 140-41. U

1665 ]] [[1665

China: The The Early Early Ch'ing Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: the conquest conquest as as the the tragic tragic fall fall of of the the Chinese Chinese empire empire to to Martini depicts depicts the Martini foreign conquerors. conquerors. He He does does not, not, however, however, consider consider itit the the fall fall of of civilization civilization foreign to barbarism barbarism as as did did some some of of his his contemporaries contemporaries in in Europe. Europe. True, True, he he deto describes some some barbarous barbarous Manchu Manchu customs-for customs—for example, example, the the burning burning of scribes of wives, servants, servants, and and animals animals with with the the body body of of aa deceased deceased prince-but prince—but he wives, he quickly adds adds that that they they relinquished relinquished this this custom custom once once they they ruled ruled China. China.13'3 He quickly He provides abundant abundant evidence evidence for for the the sinicization sinicization of of the the Manchus Manchus prior prior to to the provides the conquest. As As Martini Martini sees sees it, it, the the Manchus Manchus at at the the time time of of the the conquest conquest were were conquest. no longer longer barbarians. barbarians. no of Manchu Manchu rule, rule, once once it it isis established established in in Peking, Peking, makes makes His description description of His traditional Chinese Chinese dynasty. dynasty. He He reports reports that that they they the Ch'ing Ch'ing appear appear like like aa traditional the justify their continued continued presence in China China on on the the grounds grounds that that there there are are still still justify their presence in rebels to to be be driven driven out out of of the the empire; empire; Li Li Tzu-ch'eng Tzu-ch'eng is is still still alive! alive!I4'4 He He rerebels recounts the the six-year-old six-year-old Shun-chih Shun-chih emperor's emperor's (r. (r. 1644-61) 1644-61) speech speech from from the counts the throne in in 1644 1644 and and the the inauguration inauguration of of Manchu Manchu government government in in adulatory adulatory throne terms. The The whole whole court, court, he he asserts, asserts, was was astounded astounded by by the the young young emperor's emperor's terms. moderation and and wisdom, wisdom, while while his his uncle uncle Dorgon's Dorgon's humane humane government government immoderation impressed Chinese officials officials and and induced induced many many of of them them to to support support the the new pressed Chinese new dynasty.15'5 dynasty. Not eviNot that that the the Manchu Manchu armies armies were were so so gentle. gentle. Martini Martini provides provides ample ample evidence for for the the destruction destruction and and slaughter slaughter that that accompanied accompanied the the conquest. conquest. The The dence plundering of Canton Canton after after its its capture capture in in 1650, 1650, for for example, describes as plundering of example, he he describes as an act act of of barbarous cruelty: "On "On the the next day (November (November 24) 24) they they really an barbarous cruelty: next day really began plunder the the city, and the the ravaging ravaging continued continued until the fifth of Debegan to to plunder city, and until the fifth of December, which children, children, women, women, and anyone in in the the way most crucember, in in which and anyone way were were most cru16 elly slain; slain; and and only only one one cry cry was heard, 'Kill, 'Kill, kill barbarous rebels.'" elly was heard, kill these these barbarous rebels.'" 16 But cruelty in concerned, the But where where cruelty in battle battle was was concerned, the Manchus Manchus had had plenty plenty of of comcoma s as pany. seizure of of Peking Peking in 1644 wwas pany. Li Li Tzu-ch'eng's Tzu-ch'eng's seizure in 1644 as bloody bloody and and destrucdestructive tive as as any any Manchu Manchu victory. victory. For For wanton wanton cruelty cruelty and and slaughter slaughter no no one one in in Martini's Hsien-chung Martini's account account compares compares with with Li's Li's fellow fellow rebel, rebel, Chang Chang Hsien-chung (1605-47), Szechwan between 1644 and 1647. His (1605-47), who who tyrannized tyrannized Szechwan between 1644 and 1647. His career career seems seems an an almost almost continuous continuous succession succession of of mass mass murders, murders, culminating culminating in in the the slaughter 1646.17 The slaughter of of six six hundred hundred thousand thousand inhabitants inhabitants at at Cheng-tu Cheng-tu in in 1646.'7 The Ch'ung-chen Ch'ung-chen emperor, emperor, too, too, could could be be callously callously inhumane. inhumane. Martini Martini reports reports that disthat he he personally personally ordered ordered the the dikes dikes above above K'aifeng K'aifeng breached breached in in order order to to disrupt Li's rupt Li Li Tzu-ch'eng's Tzu-ch'eng's siege siege of of the the city city in in 1641. 1641. The The siege siege was was lifted lifted and and Li's 13

Op. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), p. p. 26. 26. Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 77-78. 77-78. 15 Ibid., pp. pp. 83-84. 83-84. "Ibid., 16 " Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 134-35. I34-35. Qf. Cj the the Manchu Manchu sack sack of of Chiating Chiating in in August, August, 1645, I645, as as described described in in J. Dennerline, The The Chia-ting Chia-ting Loyalists: Loyalists: Confucian ConfUcian Leadership Leadership and and Social Social Change Change in in SeventeenthSeventeenthDennerline, Century 1-2. Century China China (New (New Haven, Haven, 1981), 1981), pp. pp. 1-2. I7 17 Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), pp. pp. 139-53. 139-53. For For Gabriel Gabriel de de Magalhaes' Magalhaes' unpublished unpublished account account of of Chang's efforts efforts to to establish establish aa regime regime of of his his own own in in Szechwan Szechwan see see Parsons, Parsons, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 8), 8), Chang's pp. 170-71. pp. 170-71. I]

I4 14

[1666] [ 1666 ]

The Manchu Conquest The Manchu Conquest troops were routed, routed, but most of of K'aifeng's K'aifeng's already already starving starving residents residents were were troops were but most drowned.'s drowned. 18 Massive, disruptive Massive, disruptive changes changes such such as as the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest naturally naturally cry cry out Martini, like have written written about out for for explanation. explanation. Martini, like most most others others who who have about it, it, tried His analysis tried to to find find reasons reasons for for Ming Ming failure failure and and Manchu Manchu success. success. His analysis is is generally perceptive and accurate, accurate, although although it it echoes echoes his his familiarity familiarity with with generally perceptive and traditional Chinese Chinese explanations. explanations. As As Martini Martini describes describes it, it, aa significant significant inintraditional crease in in Manchu Manchu strength strength and and restiveness restiveness along along the the frontier frontier in in the early crease the early years of of the the century century coincided coincided with the Wan-li court's general general mismanagemismanageyears with the Wan-li court's ment of Mongol Mongol and and Manchu Manchu relations. relations. A series of of injustices injustices against against the the ment of A series Manchus ensued, ensued, which first raid south of of the the wall wall in in 1616, 1616, Manchus which provoked provoked their their first raid south their seizure of of Liaoyang, Liaoyang, and and their their assumption assumption of of the the imperial imperial title title in in their seizure 19 According 1618.19 According to Martini, the the court court frequently frequently treated treated Chinese Chinese officials officials 1618. to Martini, and generals generals as as shabbily shabbily as as it it treated Many were were alienated alienated and and and treated the the Manchus. Manchus. Many during the the Ch'ung-chen Ch'ung-chen period threw in in their lot with with the the growing growing number number during period threw their lot of bandit or rebel rebel gangs gangs in in the the empire. empire. Famine Famine further further swelled swelled their numof bandit or their numbers. Martini concludes that the emperor's personal greediness and his heavy bers. Martini concludes that the emperor's personal greediness and his heavy But far far more more important important than than the the emperor's emperor's taxes aggravated aggravated the the situation. situation.2020 But taxes personal failings as a source of governmental mismanagement is the almost personal failings as a source of governmental mismanagement is the almost 21 unrestrained power held by the court eunuchs. All these factors, Martini unrestrained power held by the court eunuchs. All these factors, Martini argues, fanned fanned popular popular discontent, discontent, swelled swelled the the ranks of rebel rebel bands bands such such as argues, ranks of as those led by Li Tzu-ch'eng and Chang Hsien-chung, and alienated the treathose led by Li Tzu-ch' eng and Chang Hsien-chung, and alienated the treasonous officials officials who opened Peking Peking to to Li's Li's army army in in 1644. 1644. who opened sonous Despite historiography, Martini, Despite his his apparent apparent debt debt to to official official historiography, Martini, the the ChrisChristian posits still still another another interpretation interpretation of of the the Manchu Manchu triumph. triumph. tian missionary, missionary, posits He thinks it it significant significant that the Manchu Manchu prince prince Nurhachi invaded the the LiaoLiaoHe thinks that the Nurhachi invaded tung Peninsula and and assumed the imperial imperial title in the same year, 1618, in in tung Peninsula assumed the title in the same year, 1618, which the the Wan-Ii Wan-li emperor emperor (1573-1620) (1573-1620) began began to to persecute persecute Christian Christian which missionaries: missionaries: 21

II should should like, like, nevertheless, nevertheless, briefly briefly to to touch touch on on itit here, here, so so that that we we may may admire admire Divine Divine Providence, who raised sharp sharp war against China China at at the the time time when when they they were neglectProvidence, who raised war against were neglecting Christian Christian peace; and in in the same year year permitted sink their their roots ing peace; and the same permitted the the Tartars Tartars to to sink roots in in the Chinese empire, empire, from from which which they they later later grew grew so so great great that that they the the Chinese they uprooted uprooted the Ming family family and and subjugated subjugated almost almost the the entire entire Chinese Chinese empire, empire, while while otherwise otherwise Ming the Chinese thought utterly to to uproot Christian truth: as it it ordinarily does, the the the Chinese thought utterly uproot Christian truth: but but as ordinarily does, Christian cause cause has such persecution persecution grown grown to so great great aa state state that Christian has through through such to so that the the church rejoices rejoices in in it; it; and and the the Chinese, Chinese, unless God comes comes to aid their their distressed distressed condicondichurch unless God to aid 22 tion, lost possession of their tion, have have lost possession of their empire. empire. >2

lS l'Op. pp. 60-61. Recent scholarship both sides were responsible responsible for Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), pp. 60-61. Recent scholarship avers avers that that both sides were for Parsons, op. numbers drowned cutting cutting the the dikes. dikes. See See Parsons, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 8), 8), pp. pp. 162-63, 162-63, and, and, on on the the numbers drowned in in K'aifeng, pp. 103-4. K'aifeng, pp. 103-4. 19 lOOp. pp. 24-29. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), pp. 24-29. 20 2°Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 51-57. 51-5721 21 Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 63-66. 63-66. "22Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 30. 30.

[1667]

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty The Manchu Manchu Conquest, God's punishment punishment for the Wan-Ii The Conquest, then, then, was was Gods for the Wan-li ememperor of Jesuit peror'ss persecution persecution of Jesuit missionaries. missionaries. While resist looking looking for for God's God's purposes in the While Martini Martini could could not not resist purposes in the Manchu Manchu Conquest, he probably probably enjoyed the events events not Conquest, he enjoyed aa degree degree of of detachment detachment from from the not possible for for aa Chinese Chinese observer. observer. However much he the Chinese Chinese may possible However much he thinks thinks the may have deserved deserved it, it, Martini Martini is is obviously obviously saddened saddened by Ch'ung-chen's death death and have by Ch'ung-chen's and the fall of of the dynasty. He describes it it as as aa catastrophe. catastrophe. On On the the other other the fall the Ming Ming dynasty. He describes hand, extolls the intelligent and and humane of the the new Manchu hand, he he extolls the intelligent humane government government of new Manchu rulers, and especially especially their their gracious gracious treatment of the forethe missionaries. missionaries. He He forerulers, and treatment of sees exciting exciting possibilities possibilities in in the new dynasty: dynasty: "And "And perhaps God opened opened sees the new perhaps God China to to the the Tartars Tartars in throw open open for for the the Christian China in order order to to throw Christian religion religion aa way way into furthest furthest Tartary, Tartary, hitherto hitherto unknown unknown and and inaccessible inaccessible to to us."" us."23 into Martini provided provided European and Martini European readers readers with with generally generally accurate accurate details details and with interpretation of of the Manchu Conquest. Conquest.24'. Later with aa remarkably remarkably balanced balanced interpretation the Manchu Later writers, whether they writers, whether they wished wished to to emphasize emphasize the the destructive destructive war war and and the the tragic collapse of of the dynasty or or the the vigorous and enlightened enlightened ManMantragic collapse the Ming Ming dynasty vigorous and chu rulers, rulers, could could find find most most of of the the necessary necessary details details in in the hellotartarico. tartarico. chu the De De bello It It was also also aa very very popular The Latin Latin text seven editions, was popular book. book. The text went went through through seven editions, and it was translated translated into into nine nine other other European European languages. languages. Altogether at least and it was Altogether at least twenty-five editions editions and and translations translations appeared appeared before the end end of of the the cencentwenty-five before the tury.25'5 Some Some of of the the changes changes in in these these editions editions reflect the emphases emphases of of the the pubtury. reflect the publishers Gillis Janszoon Janszoon Valckenier's Valckenier's 1660 1660 Dutch edition, for for lishers or or editors: editors: Gillis Dutch edition, example, is is entitled entitled China China Devastated by the the Barbarous Barbarous Tartar: Tartar: Including the example, Devastated by Including the Dreadful War Begun Begun by by the the Tartars Tartarsininthe theEmpire EmpireofChina. of China.2626His His1661 1661 Dreadfol Ruinous Ruinous War Latin edition was was entitled entitled An Exposition of of the theEmpire Empireof ofChina China TyranTyranLatin edition An Elegant Elegant Exposition nically Devastated the Tartars!' Tartars.27 Valckenier faithfully rerenically Devastated and and Ravaged Ravaged by by the Valckenier faithfully produced the original text in his Latin edition, and his Dutch edition is produced the original text in his Latin edition, and his Dutch edition is an an accurate translation translation of of it. it. Only Only the the titles illustrations are are new. accurate titles and and illustrations new. Half Half of of the plates in each each edition edition depict destruction and bloodshed.288 Three of the the the plates in depict destruction and bloodshed.· Three of eleven, for for example, example, illustrate illustrate the seventeen-page career career of of Chang Chang HsienHsieneleven, the seventeen-page the Dutch edition adds to chung. The poem which follows the title page of chung. The poem which follows the title page of the Dutch edition adds to the impression of carnage and bloodshed; it is called "The Destruction of the impression of carnage and bloodshed; it is called "The Destruction of China Tartars." China by by the the Tartars." Johann Nieuhof's 1665 account of the the first first Dutch Dutch embassy embassy to to the the Manchu Manchu account of Johann Nieuhof's 1665 23

Ibid., p. p. 137. Ibid., 137. For the accuracy De bello For aa detailed detailed examination examination of of the accuracy of of the the De hello tartarico tartaricosee seeChen, Chen,op.op.cit.cit.(n.(n.9),9), pp. 146-230. 2 30 . pp. 14625 "For bibliographique des des For most most of of the the editions, editions, see see Henri Henri Cordier, Cordier, Bibliotheca Bibliothecasinica: sinica:Dictionnaire Dictionnaire bibliographique Vempire chinoise 5 vols.; New York, 1968), I, 623-27. Streit, ouvrages relatifs relatifsa aI'empire ouvrages chinoise (2d{id ed.;ed.; 5 vols.; New York, 1968), I, 623-27. SeeSee alsoalso Streit, V, 797-800, 797-800, and and above, pp. 525-26. 525-26. V, above, pp. 26 Het verwoestSina, Sina, door doorden denwreeden wreeden Tartar: vervaatende de schrickelijcke landt-verdervende '" Het verwoest Tartar: vervaatende de schrickelijcke landt-verdervende oorlogh oorlogh by by de de Tartar Tartar in't in't rijck rijck van van Sina Sina aangevangen aangevangen(Amsterdam, (Amsterdam,1660). 1660). 27 '7 Regni Regni sinensis sinensis aa Tartaris evastati depopulatique concinna enarratio (Amsterdam, 166 I).1661). Tartaristyrannice tyrannice evastati depopulatique concinna enarratio (Amsterdam, 28 "For For an an informative informative discussion discussion of of one one of of these these engravings engravings and and its its possible possible debt debt to to aa famous famous European prototype prototype see see Mungello, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 6), 6), pp. pp. IIO-I4. no-14. European Mungello, op. 'l

24

'4

[ 1668 1668 ]

The Manchu Conquest The Manchu Conquest court 57 tends to reinforce court in in 16551655-57 tends to reinforce the the image image of of carnage carnage and and destruction!9 destruction.29 The the embassy's journey from The first first part part ofNieuhof's of Nieuhof's book book recounts recounts the embassy's journey from CanCanton back; it the impression ton to to Peking Peking and and back; it conveys conveys the impression that that they they were were traveling traveling through Nieuhof repeatedly through aa devastated devastated countryside. countryside. Nieuhof repeatedly describes describes the the former former grandeur been depopulated to grandeur of of towns towns and and cities cities that that had had been depopulated and and reduced reduced to rubble when he he saw rubble when saw them. them. Concerning Concerning "Sanyuum" "Sanyuum" (Ch'ing-yuan) (Ch'ing-yuan) on on the the Pei River, River, for reports: Pei for example, example, he he reports:

In the recent war Tartars, that that rough rough people, people, miserably miserably wrecked wrecked and and demolished demolished In the recent war the the Tartars, this and almost reduced it it to rubble heap. heap. This This fate, fate, to to have so pitiably town and almost reduced to aa rubble have been been so pitiably this town and profanely profanely devastated devastated and and demolished, demolished, like like aa second secondTroy, Troy, fell fell the the lot lot of ofalmost almost all all and excellent but but small small towns towns and and their their inhabitants, inhabitants, who who did did not not accept accept the the irresistible irresistible excellent 30 might Tartars. ,0 the Tartars. might of of the Again, describing describing "Vannungam" "Vannungam" (Wan-an) (Wan-an) on on the the Kan Kan River, he writes: Again, River, he writes: "The furious furious Tartar Tartar raged raged so so dreadfully dreadfully against against this this city city in in the recent war, war, "The the recent and so so pitiably pitiably mutilated it with the razing, destruction, and and the and mutilated it with the razing, destruction, the burning burning of of almost all all of the prominent buildings, that it has has retained retained little little or or nothing nothing of almost of the prominent buildings, that it of 31 its former ancient splendor splendor whole the people, people, Nieuhof Nieuhof its former ancient whole and and intact." intact." 3' Even Even the concludes, showed showed scars scars of of humiliation and conquest. conquest. He He describes describes the the concludes, humiliation and coolies who who pulled pulled his his boat upriver as as pathetic pathetic slaves slaves to to the the conquerors: conquerors: coolies boat upriver "Here we we saw, saw, alas! alas! to to what miserable and and piteous piteous condition condition the Chinese "Here what aa miserable the Chinese were reduced the recent recent war: for in in this this towing towing they they must must serve serve the least were reduced by by the war: for the least Tartars as as servile servile slaves; slaves; and and without without distinction distinction between between young young and and old, old, Tartars people must strain strain on on the the towline harder than than beasts beasts to to pull their vessel vessel people must towline harder pull their against the the current current of of the the river." river."3232 In In all all of of human human history, history, he he believes, believes, few few against conquerors have have been as ruthless as the the Manchus: "The ancient ancient Greeks Greeks and and conquerors been as ruthless as Manchus: "The haughty Romans, who who formerly formerly subdued subdued so so much much of of the the world, world, never inhaughty Romans, never injured their defeated defeated and and subjugated subjugated peoples peoples with so much misery and and cast jured their with so much misery cast down their eyes with such unbearable sorrows as as these these cruel cruel and and merciless merciless down their eyes with such unbearable sorrows Tartars."3333 Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Nieuhof's firsthand description description of of the the Tartars." Nieuhof's firsthand the way way the Manchu overlords shared power power with with Chinese Chinese officials officials in in Peking Peking does not does not Manchu overlords shared depict the the Chinese Chinese as helpless slaves. slaves. From From his it seems seems that the ChiChidepict as helpless his report report it that the nese members of the Board of Rites were more influential than the Manchus nese members of the Board of Rites were more influential than the Manchus in handling the Dutch Dutch request for frequent frequent tributary tributary missions and regular regular in handling the request for missions and 34 trade in Canton. In other words, Nieuhof, like Martini, provides evidence trade in Canton. 34 In other words, Nieuhof, like Martini, provides evidence for considerable considerable continuity continuity between between the the two two dynasties. dynasties. He He in in fact fact adds adds an for an 29 Het gezantschap gezantschap der der Neerlandtsche Neerlandtsche Oost-Indische Oost-Indische Compagnie Compagnie aan aan den den grooten grooten tartarischen tartarischen cham, cham, .. Het van China China .. .... (2 (2 vols. vols. in in I; 1; Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1665). 1665). For For bibliographic den tegenwoordigen tegenwoordigen keizer keizer van den bibliographic dedetail see see above, above, pp. pp. 483-84. 483-84. For For aa further further discussion discussion of of the the book in this see below, below, tail book in this chapter, chapter, see p. 1685. 168 5. p. ,03ONieuhof, 59. Nieuhof, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 29), 29), I, I, 59. il 3l Ibid., p. 58. Ibid.9 p. p. 78. 78. "Ibid., p. 58. "Ibid., 32 u l4Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 165-67. 165-67. Ibid., p. p. 57. 57. "Ibid.,

[[1669] 1669 ]

China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: Early Ch'ing eyewitness account the new new government operated. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, he he eyewitness account of of how how the government operated. made the conquest the Chinese countryside appear more destructive and made the conquest in in the Chinese countryside appear more destructive and oppressive than than Martini had. oppressive Martini had. The Nieuhof'ss book based pripriThe second second part part of of Nieuhof book is is aa description description of of China China based marily on the of Trigault, Trigault, Semedo, and Martini but augmented the works works of Semedo, and Martini but augmented by by marily on his observations. It It contains contains aa lengthy lengthy description description of of the the Manchu Manchu his personal personal observations. Conquest De bello very closely butbut which Conquest which which follows follows Martini's Martini's De hellotartarico tartarico very closely which also taken primarily primarily from also contains contains some some geographic geographic descriptions descriptions taken from Martini's Martini's Atlas. 3S3S Nieuhof, Atlas. Nieuhof, aaProtestant, Protestant, also also omits omits the the role role of of the theJesuits Jesuits during during the the conquest as Martini's Martini's interpretation God's judgconquest as as well well as interpretation of of the the conquest conquest as as God's judgment on on the for its of Christian Christian missionaries. missionaries. ment the Ming Ming for its persecution persecution of Another account of Manchu Conquest Conquest appeared appeared in in 1670, 1670, this Another major major account of the the Manchu this one by Palafox yy Mendoza, held bishoprics bishoprics in both Spain Spain and one by Juan Juan Palafox Mendoza, who who held in both and Mexico and briefly served New Spain.,6 Palafox wrote hisMexico and briefly served as as viceroy viceroy of of New Spain.36 Palafox wrote his his history the conquest in Mexico to him him from from the the tory of of the conquest in Mexico from from information information sent sent to Philippines. visited China. Nor does he appear have borrowed Philippines. He He never never visited China. Nor does he appear to to have borrowed from Martini; Martini; there far too differences in in details from there are are far too many many differences details and and in in emphases emphases between begins his his account with the the rebelbetween the the two. two. Palafox, Palafox, for for example, example, begins account with rebellion ofLi of Li Tzu-ch'eng Tzu-ch'eng and and Chang Chang Hsien-chung Hsien-chung in 1640. He He includes none of of lion in 1640. includes none the Martini. He the background background to to the the revolt revolt related related by by Martini. He devotes devotes more more space space than Martini, the conquest conquest of of south south China, especially to than Martini, however, however, to to the China, especially to the the campaigns partisan and pirate Cheng campaigns against against the the Ming Ming partisan and pirate Cheng Chih-Iung Chih-lung (known (known to Europeans as as Nicholas Nicholas Iquan) Iquan) (1604-61) (1604-61) and his son son Cheng Ch'engand his Cheng Ch'engto Europeans kung (Koxinga) (1624-62). (1624-62). Finally chapters on on Manchu governkung (Koxinga) Finally he he includes includes chapters Manchu government, religion, religion, customs, military techniques, ment, customs, dress, dress, military techniques, and and manners. manners. Palafox's Palafox's account is is considerably considerably less less reliable and accurate accurate than account reliable and than Martini's. Martini's.37 '7 Palafox, the fall an exceedingly exceedingly imPalafox, too, too, considered considered the fall of of the the Ming Ming dynasty dynasty an important than aa simple dynasties. He He uses uses portant event-far event—far more more serious serious than simple change change in in dynasties. phrases such this empire," has phrases such as as "the "the destruction destruction of of this empire," "the "the Chinese Chinese empire empire has perished," and ruin of of China." He thought thought the the perished," and "the "the ruin of the the whole whole state state of China."38,8 He Ch'ung-chen best ever ever to have governed governed China, Ch'ung-chen emperor emperor was was one one of of the the best to have China, 3S Ibid., II, 181-253. "Ibid., II, pp. pp. 181-253. 36 ,6We We cite cite from from the the 1732 1732 French French edition, edition, Juan Juan Palafox Palafox yy Mendo~a, Mendoga, Histoire Histoire de de la la conqueste conquestededela la Chine par Tartares: contenant contenant plusieurs choses remarquables touchant la religion les & les Chine par les les Tartares: plusieurs choses remarquables touchant la religion les ntoeurs, moeurs, & les coutomes (Amsterdam, p. p. i. i.The first edition entitled de de la la coutomesdedeces cesdeux deuxnations nations (Amsterdam,1732), 1732), The first editionwas was entitledHistoria Historia conquista de la China por el Tartaro, por el Illustrissimo Illustrissimo Senor Don Juan Juan de Palafox Palafox y Mendo(a, conquista China por Tartaro, escrita por Senor Don Mendoga, siendo Obispo de la Puebla Puebla de los Angeles, Angeles, yy Virrey siendo Obispo de Virrey de la Nueva-Espana Nueva-Espana yy aa su muerte muerte Obispo Obispo de Osma Osma (Paris, Palafox's history was first in 1670, then into (Paris, 1670). 1670). Palafox's history was first translated translated into into French French in 1670, then into English English in in 1671. translation was was reissued reissued twice; op. cit. (n. 25), I, 627-28. 1671. Each Each translation twice; see see Cordier, Cordier, op. cit. (n. 25), I, 627-28. See See also also above, 356-57. above, pp. pp. 356-57. 37 "For the sources cit. For aa discussion discussion of of the sources and and an an evaluation evaluation of of Palafox's Palafox's account, account, see see Chen, Chen, op. op. cit. (n.9), pp. 231-52. 231-52. Koxinga Koxinga is the Amoy-area Amoy-area pronunciation (n. 9), pp. is the the latinized latinized form form of of the pronunciation of of KuoKuohsing yeh, or "Master the [imperial] Ming emperor emperor gave Cheng Ch'enghsing yeh, or "Master of of the [imperial] surname." surname." The The Ming gave Cheng Ch'engkung the dynastic dynastic surname an honor honor to to Ch'eng-kung's father, Cheng Cheng Chih-lung. kung the surname as as an Ch'eng-kung's father, Chih-lung. 3 *Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 36), 36), PP·32, pp.32, J3, 33, 43"Op. 43.

[1670]

The Manchu Conquest The Manchu Conquest even even though though he he was was served served by by corrupt corrupt and and self-interested self-interested officials. officials.3939 The The popularity of of rebels rebels like like Li Li and and Chang, Chang, he he suggests, suggests, resulted from the popularity resulted from the cruelty and and mismanagement mismanagement of of these these officials. officials. Nevertheless moralizes cruelty Nevertheless he he moralizes about how how it it is is never never permissible permissible for for subjects subjects to to rebel rebel against against their their about sovereign. sovereign.40,0 Palafox's the Ch'ung-chen heavily dradraPalafox's description description of of the Ch'ung-chen emperor's emperor's suicide suicide is is heavily matic-and than two matic—and long. long. What What Martini Martini describes describes in in less less than two small small pages pages takes takes Palafox eight.41 Martini describes describes the the emperor's emperor's bloody letter to to Li Li Tzubloody letter TzuPalafox eight. " Martini ch'eng exch'eng in in eight eight lines; lines; Boym Boym summarizes summarizes it it in in two two sentences. sentences. Palafox Palafox expands it it to to almost almost two two pages of melodramatic melodramatic monologue. monologue. 42 His final final pands pages of " His on the the emperor's emperor's death death exemplify exemplify the mood: comments on comments the mood: The thus hanging hanging from tree. This This prince had The emperor emperor of of China China remained remained thus from aa tree. prince who who had been people, at name alone been the the idol idol of of his his people, at whose whose name alone so so many many millions millions of of subjects subjects trembled, more than than aa hundred million subjects, monarch of trembled, the the sovereign sovereign of of more hundred million subjects, the the monarch of aa kingdom as as large large as as all all of of Europe, Europe, he who counted counted his his soldiers soldiers by millions and and his his kingdom he who by millions tribute by hundreds of of millions; millions; finally finally the the great great emperor emperor of of China China is is hanged hanged from from aa tribute by hundreds tree, and and the empress his his wife wife from from another another close close by him. What What aa sight sight on on those those two tree, the empress by him. two tree trunks! tree trunks!43 43 A A great great tragedy, tragedy, surely surely not not deserved deserved by by the the Ch'ung-chen Ch'ung-chen emperor. emperor. Nor, Nor, according to to Palafox, Palafox, was was it it God's God's judgment on the the Ming Ming for for its its mistreatmistreataccording judgment on of Christian Christian missionaries. Rather it it was was the the result result of of slow slow deterioradeteriorament of ment missionaries. Rather tion and neglect: tion and neglect: For years already, For many many years already, all all the the symptoms symptoms of of mortal mortal illness illness in in the the body body of of this this great great empire negligence, which empire were were recognized. recognized. But But through through aa lax lax and and too-imprudent too-imprudent negligence, which only the ailment perto show show the the weakness weakness of of the the government, government, the ailment was was peronly served served better better to ceived was not ceived only only sufficiently sufficiently to to fear fear it; it; and and it it was not perceived perceived sufficiently sufficiently to to bring bring forth forth remedies for not perish perish because ailremedies for it it..... . . . In In short, short, the the empire empire of of China China did did not because of of an an ailment had ment which which was was completely completely incurable, incurable, but but solely solely because because of of an an ailment ailment which which had not not been been treated. treated.4444 Palafox no good Palafox has has no good words words for for Li Li Tzu-ch'eng. Tzu-ch'eng. Still, Still, like like Martini, Martini, he he seems seems to think that that even usurpation would been better better than the takeover to think even Li's Li's usurpation would have have been than the takeover by he writes, writes, "that beby the the Manchus. Manchus. "It "It is is true," true," he "that the the usurper usurper had had already already become but at was of his come extremely extremely powerful; powerful; but at least least he he was of Chinese Chinese birth, birth, and and all all his soldiers soldiers were were likewise likewise Chinese."" Chinese."45 Unlike Unlike Martini, Martini, he he shows shows no no sympathy sympathy for for Wu Wu San-kuei. San-kuei. 39

Ibid., pp. pp. 22 and 28. Ibid., and 28. Ibid., p. 7. Ibid., p. 7. 41 41 Ibid., - 31. Ibid., pp. pp. 23 23-31. *2Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 29-30; 29-30; Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7). 7), p. p. 70; 70; Boym, Boym, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 5), 5), p. p. 47. 47. 42 43 Palafox, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 36), 36), pp. pp. 30-31. 30-31. 43Palafox, 39

40 0

4

44 Ibid . "Ibid. 45 ., 44. Ibid., p. p . 44.

6 71 ] [ 11671

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early CWing Dynasty Dynasty If the Chinese nevertheless dedeIf Palafox Palafox deplores deplores the the "fall "fall of of the Chinese empire," empire," he he nevertheless scribes Manchu successor very favorable scribes the the Manchu successor state state in in very favorable terms. terms. The The conquerors conquerors certainly that the the Mancertainly do do not not appear appear to to be be rapacious rapacious barbarians. barbarians. He He avers avers that Manchu ruler, saddened chu ruler, saddened by by Ch'ung-chen's Ch'ung-chen's death, death, displays displays righteous righteous anger anger against the young against Li Li Tzu-ch'eng. Tzu-ch'eng.4646 Like Like Martini, Martini, Palafox Palafox seems seems to to admire admire the young Shun-chih moderate character Shun-chih emperor emperor and and the the moderate character of of the the new new Manchu Manchu governgovernment.4747 He ment. He also also emphasizes emphasizes the the political political and and administrative administrative continuity continuity bebe48 Although tween the two two dynasties. dynasties.48 Although he he refers refers to to such such events events as as the the pillage pillage of of tween the Canton, Canton, Palafox's Palafox's book book probably probably contains contains less less material material on on Manchu Manchu cruelty cruelty and Martini's; certainly than Nieuhof's, and destruction destruction than than Martini's; certainly less less than Nieuhof s, although although the the Spaniard battle to Spaniard believed believed cruelty cruelty in in battle to be be the the Manchus' Manchus' most most serious serious failing. failing. To to have been To Palafox Palafox the the most most oppressive oppressive aspect aspect of of Manchu Manchu rule rule seems seems to have been the that all hair and queue.49 49 the requirement requirement that all Chinese Chinese cut cut their their hair and wear wear the the queue. When When Palafox Palafox compares compares the the Manchus Manchus to to the the Chinese, Chinese, he he seems seems to to prefer prefer the they are are the Manchus; Manchus; they are not not as as effete effete or or formal formal as as the the Chinese, Chinese, and and they they are less hostile hostile to to foreigners. foreigners. They They are, are, he he believes, believes, more more like like Europeans, or like like less Europeans, or the 50 He apt the ancient ancient Romans. Romans.50 He finds finds the the Roman Roman conquest conquest of of Carthage Carthage aa more more apt historical parallel parallel to to the Manchu Conquest Conquest than than the the burning of Troy Troy or or the the historical the Manchu burning of barbarian the barbarian invasions invasions of of the the Roman Roman Empire. Empire.515' In In short, short, Palafox Palafox thought thought the Chinese it Chinese empire empire had had been been destroyed, destroyed, but but the the Manchu Manchu empire empire that that replaced replaced it was was just just as as good good and and perhaps perhaps better. better. Brief Brief descriptions descriptions of of the the conquest conquest are are also also included included in in many many of of the the Jesuit Jesuit reports about the mission under under the dynasty, particularly in those those pubpubreports about the mission the new new dynasty, particularly in lished after after 1647.5' 1647.52 Most Most of of these these seem seem to to have have been based on on Martini's Martini's aclished been based account of of the the conquest, conquest, and and they they usually stress the the continuity continuity between between the the count usually stress two dynasties. dynasties. Johann Johann Adam Adam Schall's Schall's account account (1665) (1665) is is particularly particularly interestinteresttwo ing because it describes describes his his personal personal experiences experiences in in Peking Peking during during Li Li TzuTzuing because it ch'eng's burning when ch'eng's capture capture of of the the city, city, during during the the looting looting and and burning when Li's Li's armies armies fled, the first fled, and and during during the first days days of of Manchu Manchu occupation. occupation.5353 His His general general ininterpretation not differ terpretation of of the the events, events, however, however, does does not differ significantly significantly from from Martini's. Martini's. If If anything, anything, Schall Schall seems seems more more favorably favorably inclined inclined toward toward the the Manchus, who who were were so so kind kind to to the the Christian Christian mission mission and and who who raised raised him him to to Manchus, such report appears such high high honor honor and and influence. influence.5454 His His report appears to to confirm confirm Martini's Martini's opoptimism regarding the future future of of the the mission mission under under Manchu Manchu rule. timism regarding the rule. 46 38-42.. 46 Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 38-42 47 ., Ibid., pp. Ibid., pp. 66-69. 66-69. 48 For examples examples see see ibid., ibid., pp. pp. 71, 71, 367, 377-79.. "For 367, 377-79 49 • 9 Ibid., Ibid., pp. wrote about the Manchu Manchu Conquest, pp. 72-74 72-74 and and 369. 369. Almost Almost everyone everyone who who wrote about the Conquest, from from Martini to wearing the queue. Martini on, on, described described the the fierce fierce Chinese Chinese resistance resistance to wearing the queue. s ,0°Ibid., Ibid., pp. 222 and and 331. 33 I. pp. 222 Ibid., pp. pp. 352-56. 352-56. "51 Ibid., 52 See below, below, pp. 1676-84. "See pp. 1676-84. S3 Historica na"atio narratio de initio initio et progressu missionis Societatis Societatis Jesu Jesu apud apud Chinensis Chinensis ... . . . (Vienna, (Vienna, "Historica progressu missionis 1665). For bibliography see see above, above, p. p. 528. 1665). For bibliography 528. 54 ,. Schall, fidei orthodoxae Schall, Historica Historica re/alio relatio de ortu et progressu progressu Jidei orthodoxae in regno chinensi chinensi per per missionarios missionaries SoSocietatis Jesu . . .. . .1581-1669 1581-1669... . . . (Ratisbon, (Ratisbon, 1672). 1672). pp. pp. 178-96,345-52. 178-96, 345-52. cietatisJesu

[1672]

The The Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest Olfert Olfert Dapper's Dapper's general general description description of of China China (1670) (1670) also also contains contains an an acaccount primarily aa condensation It is is primarily condensation of of Martini Martini count of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest. Conquest.5555 It with some some additions additions taken taken from from Schall. Schall. Dapper Dapper also also emphasizes emphasizes the the conticontiwith nuity between the Ming Ming and and the the Ch'ing; Ch'ing; the the China China of of 1670 1670 is is essentially essentially the the nuity between the same same as as that that described described earlier earlier by by Trigault Trigault and and Semedo. Semedo. In In his his historical historical sketch sketch Dapper Dapper simply simply lists lists the the Ch'ing Ch'ing ("Taising," ("Taising," or or Great Great Ch'ing) Ch'ing) as as the the latest Chinese dynasty. latest Chinese dynasty. The The Dominican Dominican missionary missionary Domingo Domingo Fernandez Fernandez Navarrete, Navarrete, writing writing in in 1676, uses uses similar similar language; language; he he calls calls the the inhabitants inhabitants of of the the Ch'ing Ch'ing empire empire 1676, "Tartar-Chinese." the conquest, "Tartar-Chinese." 5656 His His account account of of the conquest, however, however, includes includes aa great great deal more more violence than that of Dapper. He describes, describes, for for example, example, how the violence than that of Dapper. He how the deal Ming pretender offered his life to Manchu general general whose whose troops were Ming pretender offered his life to the the Manchu troops were besieging besieging Hangchow Hangchow if if only only the the innocent innocent citizens citizens and and soldiers soldiers could could be be spared. spared. A A grand grand gesture, gesture, thinks thinks Navarrete: Navarrete: What an opportunity this this was was for What an opportunity for the the Tartar Tartartotohave haveshown showna aNoble NobleSoul! Soul!How Howwell well the King and and his Subjects would come off, off, had he met with an an Alexander Alexander or or aa CaeCaethe King his Subjects would come had he met with sar. He He lighted lighted among among barbarous barbarous and and cruel cruel People, were not not satisfy'd satisfy'd with People, who who were with dedesar. stroying the King, butcher'd all Those who who fled, fled, which very stroying the King, but but butcher'd all his his Army. Army. Those which were were very numerous, numerous, were were drown'd drown'd in in the the River River that that washes washes the the Walls, Walls, only only the the unarm'd unarm'd MulMultitude was d.57 57 titude was spar' spar'd.

In another context, however, however, Navarrete argues at at some some length length that Asian In another context, Navarrete argues that Asian peoples—Chinese, Tartars, Tartars, and and Japanese-are Japanese—are as as civilized civilized as as Europeans Europeans and and peoples-Chinese, should not not be called barbarians. barbarians. Here Here he he makes makes no no distinctions distinctions between between the the should be called three peoples. peoples.58 are all all the the barbarous deeds in in Navarrete's Navarrete's account account perperthree 58 Nor Nor are barbarous deeds petrated by the the Manchus. Manchus. Li Li Tzu-ch'eng's Tzu-ch'eng's mutilation mutilation of of Ch'ung-chen's Ch'ung-chen's petrated by corpse he calls "Horrid barbarity!" and he depicts Chang Hsien-chung as corpse he calls "Horrid barbarity!" and he depicts Chang Hsien-chung as 59 being "more cruel than Nero, or all the Tyrants that ever were." The Manbeing "more cruel than Nero, or all the Tyrants that ever were." 59 The Manchus, in in short, short, are are no more cruel cruel or or barbarous than the the Chinese. Chinese. chus, no more barbarous than Still Navarrete regarded the the conquest conquest aa tragic disaster for for China. China. Much Much of of Still Navarrete regarded tragic disaster what he wrote possibility of of continuity continuity between dynasties. what he wrote belies belies the the possibility between the the dynasties. The carnage attending attending Li's Li's seizure seizure of of Peking Peking was so great, great, he contends, that that The carnage was so he contends, it was was impossible impossible to to reconstruct reconstruct the the details details of of the the emperor's emperor's last last days days from from it the conflicting conflicting reports. Navarrete thinks thinks Ch'ung-chen's Ch'ung-chen's greed greed and and seclusion seclusion the reports. Navarrete precipitated the the rebellion, he in in no no way way condones condones Li's usurpation. He precipitated rebellion, but but he Li's usurpation. He 55 "Olfert der Nederlandsch Maetschappye, op de Olfert Dapper, Dapper, Gedenkwaerdig Gedenkwaerdigbedryf bedryfder NederlandschOost-indische Oost-indische Maetschappye, opkuste de kuste en Sin a ... Amsterdam, en in in het het keizmijk keizerrijk van van Taising Taising of ofSina . . . (2 (2 vols. v o l s . in i n I; 1; A m s t e r d a m , 1670), 1670), II, II, 26-36. 2 6 - 3 6 . Vol. V o l . II II has has aa separate separate title title page: page: Beschryving Beschryuing des des keizerryks keizerryks van van Taising Taising of of Sina Sina.. ... . . . For For bibliography bibliography see see 490-91. For of his his book chapter, see 1685. above, above, pp. pp. 490-91. For aa further further discussion discussion of book in in this this chapter, see below, below, p. p. 1685. 56 '6Domingo Account of the Empire I, Domingo Fernandez Fernandez Navarrete, Navarrete, "An "An Account of the Empire of of China China ... . . . ," ," CV(1704), 0^(1704), I, 27. Navarrete's book book was politiCOS, ethicos y religiosos de lade la 27. The The first first edition edition of of Navarrete's was Tratados, Tratados,historicos, historicos, politicos, ethicos y religiosos monarchia monarchiadedeChina China. .... .(Madrid, (Madrid, 1676). 1676).For Forbibliographical bibliographicaldetails detailssee seeabove, above,pp. pp.358-60. 358-60. 57 S7Navarrete, 338. Navarrete, CV, CV, I, I, 338. $s "Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 14-15. 14-15. ,.S9Ibid., pp. 336-37. Ibid.9 pp. 336-37-

[[1673 1 673

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China: China: The The Early Early Ch'ing Chying Dynasty Dynasty

sympathizes with with Wu Wu San-kuei's San-kuei's refusal refusal to to serve serve Li Li but but thinks thinks inviting inviting the the sympathizes Manchus 60 He He also also condemns condemns Manchu Manchu perfidy perfidy in in refusrefusManchus in in to to be be worse worse still. still.60 ing to to withdraw withdraw after after Li's Li's defeat defeat and and in in usurping usurping the the crown crown for for themselves. ing themselves. Even while while describing describing the the collapse collapse of of Ming Ming resistance resistance in in south south China China and Even and the young young "Constantine's" "Constantine's" flight to Pegu, Pegu, Navarrete Navarrete seems seems to to be be hoping hoping for for the flight to restoration. "Perhaps "Perhaps God," God," he he wrote, wrote, "may "may preserve preserve Constantine Constantineforforhishis aa restoration. greater Glory; Glory; for for Nothing Nothing that that is is violent violent is is lasting; lasting; no no one one ever ever long long held held aa greater violent Command, Command, that that which which is is moderate moderate is is lasting." lasting."616, Nevertheless, when Nevertheless, when violent later pondering pondering whether whether missionaries missionaries might might baptize soldiers and and officials officials later baptize soldiers who had had served served the the illegal illegal Manchu Manchu emperor, emperor, Navarrete Navarrete concludes concludes affiraffirwho matively. They They might might even even baptize baptize the the Manchu Manchu emperor. emperor. The The Roman Roman ConConmatively. stantine, he observes, had "tyrannically usurp'd usurp'd the the Empire, Empire, and and yet yet S. stantine, he observes, had "tyrannically S. Sylvester baptis'd baptis'd him." him."626, Sylvester One of of the the appendices appendices to to Navarrete's Navarrete's description description of of China China contains contains his One his 63 63 He He notes Martini's De De hello bello tartarico. makes little effort herehere to hide his his notes on on Martini's tartarico. makes little effort to hide antagonism toward toward Martini. Martini. He He seems seems almost almost surprised surprised whenever whenever he finds antagonism he finds something in in the the De hellotartarico tartarico with which to agree. criticism of Marsomething De bello with which to agree. HisHis criticism of Martini, however, however, is is largely largely personal personal or or trivial. trivial. He He questions, questions, for for example, example, MarMartini, tini's competence competence in in the the Chinese Chinese language. language. He He disagrees disagrees with with Martini Martini over tini's over when the the Manchus Manchus left off burning burning the the wives wives and and servants servants of of dead dead men men and and when left off over how how many many cannons cannons there there were in Peking Peking at at the the time time ofLi of Li Tzu-ch'eng's Tzu-ch'eng's over were in entry. His His most most serious serious criticisms criticisms pertain pertain to to Martini's Martini's account account of of his his perperentry. sonal experiences experiences during during the the conquest conquest and and to to anything anything Martini Martini wrote wrote that that sonal touched on on the the Rites Rites Controversy. Controversy. touched Time far as Time was was on on the the side side of of continuity, continuity, so so far as European European interpretations interpretations of of the Manchu Conquest are are concerned. concerned. They They increasingly increasingly depicted depicted the the ManManthe Manchu Conquest chus chus as as the the creators creators of of aa new new but but an an essentially essentially Chinese Chinese dynasty dynasty despite despite their their foreign origin. origin. This This is is also also true true for for most most of of the the descriptions descriptions of of the the conquest conquest foreign included in in the the Rites Rites Controversy Controversy literature literature published published during during the the last last deincluded decades of of the the seventeenth seventeenth century. century. In In these these later later writings writings the the images images of cades of cruelty and and destruction destruction seem seem to to fade fade from from view. view. Gabriel Gabriel de de Magalhaes, Magalhaes, for for cruelty example, included included an an almost almost bloodless bloodless account account of of the the conquest conquest in in his his New example, New History of ofChina, China,even eventhough thoughhe hehad hadwitnessed witnessed some someof ofthe thebloodiest bloodiestepiepiHistory sodes while while aa hostage hostage at at Chang Chang Hsien-chung's Hsien-chung's court court in in Szechwan. Szechwan.646• He He sodes 65 treats the Ch'ing Ch'ing as as simply simply the the last last in in the the long long series series of of Chinese Chinese dynasties. treats the dynasties. 65 60 Ibid . *°Ibid. •61, Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 339. 339. Constantine Constantine was was the the name name given given to to Chu Chu Tz'u-hsiian, Tz'u-hsuan, the the young young son son of of the the Ming p. 195. 195. Ming Pretender Pretender Chu Chu Yu-lang, Yu-lang, at at his his Christian Christian baptism. baptism. See See Hummel, Hummel, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. 62 ·'Navarrete, Navarrete, CV, CV, I,I, 398. 398. 366-71. "6iIbid. Ibid.,9 pp. pp. 366-71. 64 "Magalhaes' published in Magalhaes' book book was was written written in in Portuguese Portuguese in in 1668. 1668. It It was was first first published in French French transtranslation in in Paris, Paris, 1688. 1688. See See above, above, p. p. 424. 424. lation 65 Gabriel de de Magalhaes, Magalhaes, A A New New History History of of China, China, Containing Containing aa Description Descriptionofofthe theMost MostConsiderConsider·'Gabriel able Particulars Particularsofofthat thatVast Vast Empire (London,1688), 1688), 252-53. able Empire (London, pp.pp. 252-53.

1674] [[1674]

The Manchu Conquest The Manchu Conquest 66 Joachim Andreas Miiller, the German sinologist, sinologist, did did the the same. same.66 Joachim Bouvet's Bouvet's Andreas Muller, the German treatise of 1697 1697 is almost entirely entirely aa panegyric panegyric to to the K'ang-hsi emperor. emperor. His His treatise of is almost the K'ang-hsi legitimacy is is unquestioned. unquestioned. Bouvet Bouvet pictures Chinese learning learning and and Manchu Manchu legitimacy pictures Chinese military vigor as being being happily the K'ang-hsi reign to to produce produce aa military vigor as happily wedded wedded in in the K'ang-hsi reign 67 balanced balanced ideal. ideal.67 One last last major description of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest appeared appeared in in 1688, 1688, the the One major description Tartar Conquerors ConquerorsofofChina. China. Jesuit Pierre Joseph d'Orleans' of the the Two Two Tartar Jesuit Pierre Joseph d'Orleans' History History of Based primarily on Martini Martini and and Schall, Schall, it, it, too, too, underscores continuity Based primarily on underscores the the continuity between Ming and and the Ch'ing. Orleans Orleans conveys conveys aa sense sense of of high tragedy between the the Ming the Ch'ing. high tragedy in the death in the the passages passages that that describe describe Li Li Tzu-ch'eng's Tzu-ch'eng's seizure seizure of of Peking Peking and and the death of he also of the the Ch'ung-chen Ch'ung-chen emperor, emperor, but but he also accepts accepts Martini's Martini's view view that that the the Ming deserved wrath. He makes no to hide his preference preference for Ming deserved God's God's wrath. He makes no effort effort to hide his for the Manchus in post-1644 portions portions of the Manchus in the the post-1644 of the the story, story, repeatedly repeatedly contrasting contrasting Chinese with Manchu Manchu vigor vigor and and openness. Chinese effeminacy effeminacy and and exclusiveness exclusiveness with openness. Concerning the Shun-chih relationship with with Adam Concerning the Shun-chih emperor's emperor's relationship Adam Schall, Schall, for for exexample, writes: "He those who ample, he he writes: "He excited excited the the admiration admiration of of all all those who recollected recollected the the late the haughty haughty and and exclusive exclusive manners manners of of the late Chinese Chinese sovereigns, sovereigns, by by his his easy this foreigner." perhaps best easy familiarity familiarity with with this foreigner."686. Orleans' Orleans' attitude attitude can can perhaps best be be summarized Wall: "After summarized with with his his observation observation about about the the Great Great Wall: "After all, all, the the monmonarch in our arch who, who, in our days, days, has has reunited reunited the the Chinese Chinese and and the the Tartars Tartars under under the the same things more more advantageous same dominion, dominion, has has done done things advantageous for for the the safety safety of of China China built this this long than the Chinese than the Chinese emperor emperor who who built long wall." wall." 69 Nevertheless, occasional Nevertheless, occasional glimpses glimpses of of disjuncture disjuncture remain, remain, even even in in late late seventeenth-century for example, seventeenth-century histories. histories. Magalhaes, Magalhaes, for example, provides provides abundant abundant evidence for for the the continuity continuity between Ming and and Ch'ing Ch'ing governments, governments, but in aa evidence between Ming but in description of of the the Board of Rites (Li-pu) he asserts: description Board of Rites (Li-pu) he asserts: (X)

When the the Chineses Chineseswere wereMasters Mastersofoftheir theirown ownCountrey, Countrey,none nonebut butDocteurs, Docteurs,and and When those too onely those too onely such such as as were were of of the the most most repute repute for for their their knowledge knowledge and and merit merit were were admitted into into this this Tribunal. Tribunal. So So that that they they were were the the most most esteem'd, esteem'd, and and such such as as stood stood admitted the fairest fairest for for preferment; preferment; for for out number it it was was that the King King made made choice out of of their their number that the choice the Colao[Grand [GrandSecretary] Secretary]and andhis hisCounsellors Counsellorsof ofState. State.But Butnow now Tartars Tartars of the the Colao of areare putput in, dispose of of all all things at their own pleasure, pleasure, while signifynono in, who who dispose things at their own while the the Mandarins Mandarins signify more among them dumb Statues: Statues: and and so so it it is is in rest of of the the Tribunals. more among them than than onely onely dumb in the the rest Tribunals. So truly truly may may we we believe it to to have the will of God, God, to to chastise chastise and and bring down So believe it have been been the will of bring down the incredible of this subduing and and subjecting subjecting them the incredible pride pride of this Nation, Nation, by by subduing them to to aa small small 66 66 Andreas Hebdomas observationum rebus sinicis . ... (Cologne, 1674). Andreas Muller, Miiller, Hebdomas observationumdede rebus sinicis . . (Cologne, 1674). 67 07Joachim Portrait historique Joachim Bouvet, Bouvet, Portrait historique de de l'empereur VempereurdedelalaChine, Chine, presentee presenteeauauroy roy. .... .(Paris, (Paris, 1697), p. p. 14· 14. 1697), 68 Pierre Joseph Joseph d'Orleans, of the the Two Two Tartar Tartar Conquerors Conquerorsof ofChina, China, including includingthe theTwo Two ··Pierre d'Orleans, History History of theEmperor EmperorK'ang-hsi K'ang-hsi.. .. . . , , ed. ed. Earl Earl of of Journeys into Tartary Tartary of of Ferdinand Ferdinand Verbiest, Verbiest, ininthe theSuite Suiteof ofthe Journeys into Ellesmere ("HS," ("HS," 0.5., o.s., XVII; XVII; London, London, 1854), 1854), p. p. 38; 38; we cite this edition throughout Ellesmere we will will cite this edition throughout this this chapter. The The first first edition edition was was entitled entitled Histoire deux conquerans conqueransTartares Tartaresquiqui subjugue Histoire des des deux ontont subjugue la la chapter. Chine ., .. . . (Paris, 1688). For For further further bibliography see above, 424. Chine (Paris, 1688). bibliography see above, p. p. 424. 69 D'Orleans, 0p. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 68), 68), p. "D'Orleans, p. 83. 83.

[[1675] 1675 ]

China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: Early Ch'ing handfull poor, ignorant, Barbarians; as ifasGod for for the the punishment of Euignorant, rustick rustick Barbarians; if God punishment of Euhandfull of of poor, rope,should shoulddeliver deliverit itover overinto intothe thepower powerofofthe theCafers Cafers of Angola or Mozambique.70 rope, of Angola or Mozambique.'o For For seventeenth-century seventeenth-century Europe Europe the the reports reports of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest enengendered and and appreciably appreciably increased increased familiarity familiarity with with China China and and its its recent recent gendered history. history. During During the the half-century half-century after after the the conquest conquest an an impressive impressive amount amount of of new information information about about China China poured into Europe. Europe. It It became became popular new poured into popular and and seems to to have have been been widely widely read. read. In In fact, fact, it it inspired inspired plays, plays, novels, novels, and and seems 71 poems. Furthermore, there there seems seems to to have been aa new new dynamism dynamism about about poems." Furthermore, have been much of of this this literature. literature. It It made made China China and and its its people little more more believable believable much people aa little and more more obviously obviously aa part of the the world world of of those those who who read read it. it. and part of

2 2

THE POST-CONQUEST P O S T - C O N Q U E S T LITERATURE LITERATURE THE

Jesuit missionaries missionaries continued continued to to contribute contribute the the lion's lion's share share of of the the new new inforinforJesuit mation about about China China which which appeared appeared in in print during the the second second half half of of the the mation print during seventeenth century. century. Their Their newsletters newsletters continued continued and, and, in in fact, fact, the the number number seventeenth ofJesuit of Jesuit publications publications increased increased as as the the century century wore wore on. on. But But these these later later pubpublications focused focused more more and and more more on on the the defense defense of of the the Jesuit Jesuit position position in in the the lications Rites Controversy. Controversy. While While readers could still still learn learn about about China China from from them, them, Rites readers could the topics topics they they treated treated were were fewer fewer and and the the information information they conveyed more more the they conveyed biased and less reliable. Much the same can be said about the anti-Jesuit biased and less reliable. Much the same can be said about the anti-Jesuit letters, pamphlets, and books which swelled swelled in in number number and and size size as as the the Rites Rites letters, pamphlets, and books which 72 Controversy heated up. Controversy heated Up.7 The by The missionaries' missionaries' larger larger descriptions descriptions of of China China were were similarly similarly affected affected by controversy. Nevertheless, the controversy. Nevertheless, the rites rites issue, issue, along along with with the the Manchu Manchu ConCon2

70 Magalhaes, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 65), 65), p. 7OMagalhaes, p. 208. 208. 71 For examples examples see see E. E. Van Van Kley, Kley, "An "An Alternative Alternative Muse: Muse: The The Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest of of China China in in "For the Literature Literature of of Seventeenth-Century Seventeenth-Century Northern Northern Europe," Europe," European European Studies StudiesReview, Review, VI VI (1976), (1976), the 21-43· 21-43"72 Among Among the the major major Rites Rites Controversy Controversy pieces pieces published published during during the the second second half half of of the the sevenseventeenth ethicos, y reteenth century century were: were: Domingo Domingo Fermindes Fernandes Navarrete, Navarrete, Tratados Tratadoshistoricos, historicos,politicos, politicos, ethicos, y religiosos pratique de de ligiosos dedelalamonarchia monarchiadedeChina China(Madrid, (Madrid,1676); 1676);Vol. Vol.II IIofofA.A.Arnauld, Arnauld,LaLamorale morale pratique Jesuites ... desdes missionaires de de Jesuites . . . (Paris, (Paris, 1683); 1683); Michel Michel Le Le Tellier, Tellier, Defense Defense des des nouveaux nouveauxchrestienes chrestieneset et missionaires la Japon, et intitulez LaLa morale pratique des Jesuites et l'esprit de de la Chine, Chine, du dujapon, et des des[ndes, Indes,contre contredeux deuxlivres livres intitulez morale pratique des Jesuites et V esprit y M. Arnauld (Paris, M. Arnauld (Paris, 1687); 1687); Philippe Philippe Couplet, Couplet, Histoire Histoire dd'une une dame dame chretienne chretiennededelalaChine, Chine,ououpar par occasion leslesusages de de cesces peuple, I'etablissement de lade religion, les maximes des missionaries, et les exeroccasion usages peuple, Vetablissement la religion, les maximes des missionaries, et les exercises expliquez Louis LeLe Comte, cises dedepiete pietedes desnouveaux nouveauxehretiens chretienssont sont expliquez(Paris, (Paris,1688); 1688); Louis Comte,Nouveaux Nouveauxmememoires la la leyley dede Dios en en e/ el moires sur surI'etat Vetatpresent presentdedelalaChine Chine(Paris, (Paris,1696); 1696);Joseph JosephSuarez, Suarez,La Lalibertad libertaddede Dios imperio de de /a la Chine imperio de delalaChina China (Lisbon, (Lisbon, 1696); 1696); Charles CharlesLe LeGobien, Gobien, Histoire Histoirededel'edit Veditdedel'empereur Vempereur Chine en sur sur les honneurs que Ieque chinois rendent a a en faveur faveur de de la la religion religionchrestienne. chrestienne.Avec Avecununeclaircissement eclaircissement les honneurs le chinois rendent Confocius Ap%gie des la la Confucius aux aux morts morts (Paris, (Paris, 1698); 1698); [Noel [Noel Alexandre], Alexandre], Apologie des dominicains dominicainsmissionaires missionairesde de Chine. et a Chine. Ou Ou reponse reponse au aulivre livredu duPere PereIele Tellier, Tellier,Jesuite, Jesuite,intitute intituleDefense Defensedesdesnouveaux nouveauxchretiens; chretiens; et a /'eclaircissement ... VeclaircissementduduP.P.Gobien Gobien . . (Cologne, . (Cologne,1699). 1699).For Fora more a morecomplete completebibliography bibliographyseeseeStreit, Streit, V, 803-961; 803-961; VII, VII, 1-44; 1-44; and and above, above, pp. 428-30. V, pp. 423-24, 423-24, 428-30.

[1676]

The The Post-Conquest Post-Conquest Literature Literature quest, quest, engendered engendered writings writings about about China China that that greatly greatly increased increased the the volume volume of information information available available to to European European readers. readers. The The new new literature literature was was also of also more dynamic dynamic and and current current than than the the ethnohistories ethnohistories of of Trigault Trigault and and Semedo Semedo more or even even than Martini's report report on on the Manchu Conquest Conquest and and his his Atlas. Atlas. The The or than Martini's the Manchu Jesuits report on contemporary contemporary events events in in China China generally, generally, as as well as on on the Jesuits report on well as the state and and progress progress of of the Christian mission. mission. Their Their writings are also also more more state the Christian writings are narrowly focused focused and and more more frequently frequently deal deal with limited topics topics or or time time perinarrowly with limited periods. Adam Adam Schall's Schall's Historica narratio (1665), example, is essentially Historica narratio (1665), for for example, is essentially an an ods. account of of the the mission mission in in Peking Peking and and of of the the author's author's experiences experiences at at court; court; the the account expanded second second edition edition of of 1672 1672 brings brings the the story story down down to to 1669. 1669.7373 ItItdoes doesnot not expanded pretend to to be general description description of of China China or or even even of of the the Ch'ing Ch'ing dynasty, dynasty, pretend be aa general although much much can can be learned from from it it about about society society and and learning, learning, about about the the although be learned Manchu Conquest, Conquest, and and especially especially about about the the workings of government government and Manchu workings of and life in in Peking Peking under under the the first first Ch'ing Ch'ing emperors. emperors. life News about the the early early Ch'ing Ch'ing could could be be extracted extracted from from Palafox Palafox yy MenMenNews about doza's history history of of the the Manchu Manchu Conquest Conquest and and from from Francisco Francisco Garcia's Garcia's account account doza's 74 But neither neither was was an an eyewitness eyewitness account. account. The The of the the 1664-68 1664-68 persecutions. of persecutions. 74 But Jesuit missionary missionary Adrien Adrien Greslon's Greslon's Histoire Histoire de de la la Chine Chine sous sous la la domination domination des des Jesuit Tartares(1671) (1671)was wasperhaps perhapsthe thefirst firstdescription descriptionofofChina Chinadevoted devotedentirely entirelytoto Tartares the Ch'ing. Ch'ing.7575 While it is is primarily primarily aa history of the Christian mission the While it history of the Christian mission in in China from from 1651 1651 to to 1669, 1669, it it nevertheless contains some some useful useful descriptive descriptive China nevertheless contains passages and considerable considerable detail detail about about politics politics during during the the Shun-chih Shun-chih period period passages and (1644-61) and and the the Oboi Oboi Regency Regency (1661-69). (1661-69). To To describe describe the the missionaries' missionaries' (1644-61) troubles during during the the regency, Greslon presents wealth of of detailed detailed informainformatroubles regency, Greslon presents aa wealth tion about about Chinese Chinese law law and and administration administration at at all all levels. levels. Several Several important important tion Chinese persons persons emerge emerge from from Greslon's Greslon's story story accurately accurately and and in in their their full full Chinese complexity: the Shun-chih emperor, for example, Yang Kuang-hsien complexity: the Shun-chih emperor, for example, Yang Kuang-hsien (1597—1669), the the Jesuits' Jesuits' main main antagonist, antagonist, some some of of the the regents, regents, and and the (1597-1669), the young K'ang-hsi emperor. young K'ang-hsi emperor. The Historia tartaro-sinka of Jesuit the Jesuit Franqois de Rougemont The Historia tartaro-sinica novanova of the Franc;ois de Rougemont was was published in in Latin Latin in in 1673 1673 but but had had already already been been translated translated into into Spanish Spanish durdurpublished 76 ing the the preceding preceding year. year. It It is is in in many many ways similar to to Greslon's Greslon's Histoire. Part ing ways similar Histoire. ']Ii Part II of of Rougemont's Rougemont's work treats events events at at the Ch'ing court court during during the the ShunShunII work treats the Ch'ing chih period period and and also also describes describes the the fate fate of of the Ming pretenders' pretenders' court court in in the the chih the Ming south. Part Part III III recounts recounts the story of of the the Oboi Oboi regency regency with emphasouth. the story with primary primary emphasis on on the the trials trials and and persecutions persecutions of of the the missionaries. missionaries. It It ends ends with the K'angK'angsis with the hsi emperor's emperor's formal formal assumption assumption of of power, power, which which Rougemont Rougemont dates dates on on hsi 77 77 Rougemont's description of these events is very similar August 25, 1666. August 25, 1666. Rougemont's description of these events is very similar 73

For see above, above, p. For aa bibliography bibliography see p. 528. 528. For Palafox Palafox see see above, above, pp. pp. 356-57. 356-57. For For Garcia Garcia see see above, above, pp. pp. 357-58. 357-58. "For 75 For bibliography bibliography see see above, above, pp. 414-15. "For pp. 414-15. 76 See above, above, p. 358, for for bibliographical bibliographical details. details. "See p. 358, 77 77The personal rule The personal rule ofK'ang-hsi of K'ang-hsi officially officially began began on on August August 25, 25, 1667, 1667, although although the the regent, regent, Oboi, remained remained aa major major influence influence at at court court until until K'ang-hsi K'ang-hsi had him imprisoned imprisoned in in June, June, 1669. Oboi, had him 1669. See Hummel, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 9), 9), p. See Hummel, op. p. 328. 328. 73

74

1677] [[1677]

China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: Early Ch'ing to more precise precise about and to Greslon's, Greslon's, except except that that Greslon Greslon is is more about Chinese Chinese terms, terms, and names I, however, names more more individuals individuals than than Rougemont. Rougemont. Rougemont's Rougemont's Part Part I, however, contains of the the Manchu power in in the the contains aa detailed detailed description description of Manchu consolidation consolidation of of power south, including including the the career career of of Cheng Cheng Chih-lung Chih-lung and and his son Cheng Cheng Ch'engCh'engsouth, his son kung (Koxinga) (Koxinga) and and the the Manchu Manchu campaigns campaigns against against the the latter. The events kung latter. The events described by by Schall, Schall, Greslon, Greslon, and and Rougemont Rougemont were were recounted recounted once once more more in described in 1672 by by another another Jesuit Prospero Intorcetta.7878 Intended Intended as as aa re1672 Jesuit missionary, missionary, Pro spero Intorcetta. report to to the the Propagation Rome, Intorport the Congregation Congregation for for the Propagation of of the the Faith Faith in in Rome, Intorcetta's more narrowly mission than cetta's account account is is much much more narrowly focused focused on on the the mission than the the other therefore contains other Jesuit Jesuit accounts, accounts, and and it it therefore contains less less information information about about ChiChinese life and and institutions. nese life institutions. The Dominican Dominican friar friar Domingo Navarrete's Tratados Tratadoshistoricos, historicos, The Domingo Fernandez Fernandez Navarrete's politicos, ethicos yy religiosos religiososdedefa la monarchia de China, published 1676, politicos, ethicos monarchia de China, published in in 1676, waswas perhaps most important important single single anti-Jesuit anti-Jesuit piece piece of of Rites Rites Controversy Controversy perhaps the the most literature. It It is, is, however, however, much much more than an an anti-Jesuit anti-Jesuit polemic. literature. more than polemic. While While Navarrete's hostility hostility to to the Jesuits is is apparent apparent throughout throughout the Navarrete's the Jesuits the work work and and sometimes sometimes colors colors and and distorts distorts his his descriptions, descriptions, the the seven seven treatises treatises which which comprise comprise the the Tratados Tratadosnevertheless neverthelesscontain containa awealth wealthofofinformation informationabout about China. it is China. Some Some of of it is explicitly explicitly critical critical of of earlier earlier Jesuit Jesuit descriptions; descriptions; much, much, however, agrees agrees with with Jesuit observations. Most of the Tratadosarearebased basedonon however, Jesuit observations. Most of the Tratados Navarrete's personal personal ten irreleNavarrete's ten years' years' experience experience in in China China and and treat treat topics topics irrelevant to the wide vavavant to the Rites Rites Controversy-indeed Controversy—indeed he he digresses digresses lengthily lengthily on on aa wide riety of subjects. subjects. His His long long description description of of Confucian Confucian thought thought and and religious religious riety of beliefs is illustrated illustrated with with hundreds hundreds of of quotations quotations and and paraphrases from the beliefs is paraphrases from the classics, histories, and Neo-Confucian writings. Book IV, entitled entitled "Con"Conclassics, histories, and Neo-Confucian writings. Book IV, cerning Moral Doctrine," Doctrine," is translation of of the the "Ming Pao cerning Chinese Chinese Moral is aa translation "Ming Sin Sin Pao Kien" Kien" (Ming-hsin (Ming-hsinpao-chien), pao-chien), "i.e. "i.e. The The precious precious mirror mirror of of thethe soul; soul; or or The The precious that enlightens enlightens and and diffuses diffuses aa brightness brightness into into the the heart," heart," precious mirror mirror that with gloss. Navarrete was not not as as impressed impressed with Confucian with Navarrete's Navarrete's gloss. Navarrete was with Confucian thought as as were were the the Jesuits, Jesuits, and and he he pays pays much much more more attention attention to to Buddhism. Buddhism. thought He was convinced that that Confucius Confucius and and most most of of his his followers followers were He was convinced were atheists. atheists. His critical stance stance was obviously motivated motivated by Rites Controversy Controversy issues; His critical was obviously by Rites issues; nevertheless, provides aa useful useful contrast nevertheless, his his description description provides contrast to to the the adulatory adulatory Jesuit Jesuit image. image. Fresh information about about the of the the Jesuit Jesuit mission mission under under the the Fresh information the rehabilitation rehabilitation of K'ang-hsi with Ferdinand Ferdinand Verbiest's Verbiest's letters the early K'ang-hsi emperor emperor arrived arrived with letters during during the early 1680'S. and the the 1680's. A A French French translation translation of of his his 1678 1678 letter letter appeared appeared in in 1681 1681 and letters his hunting hunting trips trips with in letters describing describing his with the the emperor emperor were were published published in 1685. description of Calendrical Bureau 1685. Verbiest's Verbiest's description of his his work work in in the the Calendrical Bureau of of Peking Peking and of his his efforts to tutor tutor the the emperor in Western mathematics, science, and of efforts to emperor in Western mathematics, science, mumu78 7' Compendiosa narratione dello dello stato stalo della missione missione cinese ... dall' ano anD 1581 Compendiosa narratione . . . dalV 1381 fino fino al 1669 1669 ... . . . (Rome, 1672). It It was was translated translated into into Latin Latin in in the the same same year. year. See See Streit, Streit, V, 849, 851. (Rome, 1672). V, 849, 851.

1678]

The Post-Conquest Literature The Post-Conquest Literature sic, Astronomia europaea sub sub imperatore sic, and and painting painting were were reported reported in in his his Astronomia europaea imperatore 79 tartaro-sinico Cam Hy Hy apellato, which was published in 1687.79 Apart fromfrom his his tartaro-sinico Cam apellato was published in 1687. Apart y which descriptions of of the the imperial imperial hunting expeditions north north of of the descriptions hunting expeditions the Wall Wall there there is is little new new description description of of the the Chinese Chinese and and their their land land in in Verbiest's Verbiest's writings. little writings. Some insights insights into into the the character character of of the K'ang-hsi emperor emperor could could be be gleaned gleaned Some the K'ang-hsi from them, however. Appended Appended to Verbiest's Astronomia listofofJesuits Jesuits from them, however. to Verbiest's Astronomia is isa alist who served in in China China from from the death of of Matteo Matteo Ricci Ricci until 1681. Verwho had had served the death until 1681. Verbiest had had first first published published the the list list in in Chinese; Philippe Couplet Couplet translated translated it it biest Chinese; Philippe into Latin Latin under under the title Catalogus Cataloguspatrum patrum Societatis (1686). into the title Societatis Jesu Jesu (1686). The which describe travels into with the the The two two letters letters which describe Verbiest's Verbiest's travels into Tartary Tartary with K'ang-hsi emperor to Pierre Pierre Joseph Joseph d'Orleans' d'Orleans' account account K'ang-hsi emperor were were also also appended appended to 80 These of the Manchu published in of the Manchu Conquest, Conquest, published in 1688. 1688.8o These contain contain information information about the emperor, the regions beyond the Wall through about the emperor, the the Manchus, Manchus, and and the regions beyond the Wall through which they traveled. D'Orleans' traces the which they traveled. D'Orleans' book book also also traces the events events of of the the ShunShunchih reign, the the Oboi the Manchu the camchih reign, Oboi regency, regency, the Manchu conquest conquest of of the the south, south, the campaigns Koxinga (Cheng Ch'eng-kung), and the fate the several paigns against against Koxinga (Cheng Ch'eng-kung), and the fate of of the several Ming their heirs. witness to these events; Ming pretenders pretenders and and their heirs. He He was was not not aa witness to these events; his his information the writings information came came from from the writings of of the the Jesuits Jesuits Martini, Martini, Schall, Schall, RougeRougemont, mont, Verbiest, Verbiest, and and Greslon. Greslon.818I The most comprehensive The most comprehensive and and accurate accurate general general description description of of China China pubpublished the second the seventeenth lished during during the second half half of of the seventeenth century century was was the the Nouvelle Nouvelle relation dedelalaChine Jesuit relation Chinewritten writtenbybythethePortuguese Portuguese JesuitGabriel GabrieldedeMagalhaes. Magalhaes. Magalhaes' Portuguese manuscript manuscript was was carried back to to Europe by Philippe Magalhaes' Portuguese carried back Europe by Philippe Couplet by Abbe Claude Bernou, Couplet in in 1682, 1682, translated translated into into French French by Abbe Claude Bernou, and and pubpublished Paris in the same same lished in in Paris in 1688. 1688. An An English English translation translation appeared appeared during during the 8 ' Unlike year.82 Unlike other the century, year. other Jesuit Jesuit accounts accounts of of the the second second half half of of the century, which which were of or the mission, mission, Magalhaes' work is is were primarily primarily histories histories of or apologies apologies for for the Magalhaes' work aa major major ethnohistory ethnohistory in in the the tradition tradition ofTrigault of Trigault and and Semedo. Semedo. Rites Rites ControControversy considerations he unversy considerations occasionally occasionally intrude intrude into into his his description, description, and and he unblushingly judges Jesuits to to have have written written the the best best earlier earlier descriptions descriptions of of blushingly judges the the Jesuits China. China. Nevertheless Nevertheless Magalhaes' Magalhaes' description description is is remarkably remarkably balanced, balanced, and and he he occasionally the works Nor is occasionally criticizes criticizes the works of of his his Jesuit Jesuit predecessors. predecessors. Nor is he he ununcritical critical of of Chinese Chinese customs customs and and institutions. institutions. In In short, short, Magalhaes' Magalhaes' Nouvelle Nouvelle relation relationisisperhaps perhapsthe thebest bestsingle singlesource sourcetotoamplify amplifyand andsupplement supplementthe theimimage by Mendoza, age of of China China sketched sketched out out earlier earlier by Mendoza, Trigault, Trigault, Semedo, Semedo, and and Martini. Martini. Louis Nouveaux memoires Louis Le Le Comte's Comte's Nouveaux memoiressur surl'flat Vetatpresent presentdedefalaChine Chine(1696) (1696) also also contains contains much much accurate accurate information information about about Chinese Chinese history, history, religion, religion, and culture, culture, and and about about life life and and government government under the new dynasty. It It was and under the new dynasty. was 79 See above, above, pp. 419 and and 539, 539, for for bibliographic bibliographic details details on on Verbiest's publications. '"See pp. 419 Verbiest's publications. 80 See above, above, p. p. 424. 424. 'OSee 81 "D'Orieans, D'Orleans, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 68), 68), pp. pp. iv-v. iv-v. 82 "For p. 424. Also see For bibliographical bibliographical details details see see above, above, p. 424. Also see Mungello, Mungello, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 6), 6), pp. pp. 91-96. 91-96.

1679] [[1679]

China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: Early Ch'ing also, intended to bolster the Jesuit position position in in the also, however, however, so so obviously obviously intended to bolster the Jesuit the Rites that it Rites Controversy Controversy that it quickly quickly became became aa focus focus of of dispute. dispute. Refutations Refutations were written by the the Jesuits' opponents and the book book was was eventually eventually cenwere written by Jesuits' opponents and the censored. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, it it was translated into into several several other languages and fresored. was translated other languages and fre83 quently Despite Le Le Comte's Comte's biases and his his excessive excessive enthusiasm enthusiasm quently reprinted. reprinted. 8 ' Despite biases and for much much of of Chinese Chinese civilization, civilization, the the Nouveaux memoires probably shaped for Nouveaux memoires probably shaped the European view view of of China China more more definitively definitively than than many other more more accuaccuthe European many other rate descriptions. rate descriptions. While free of of Rites Controversy polemics, polemics, Joachim Joachim Bouvet's Bouvet's While relatively relatively free Rites Controversy Portrait historiquededel'empereur I'empereur Chine(1697) (1697)is is a panegyrictotothetheK'angK'angPortrait historique dede la la Chine a panegyric hsi emperor emperor as in the the Jesuit Jesuit galaxy galaxy for for Confucius. Confucius. Bouvet Bou vet dedehsi as aa replacement replacement in scribes the emperor as as an an absolute absolute but wise and and humane superb scribes the emperor but wise humane ruler, ruler, aa superb administrator, hunter, aa brilliant diliadministrator, aa valiant valiant soldier soldier and and avid avid hunter, brilliant intellect, intellect, aa diligent scholar, scholar, aa paragon of personal personal morality, morality, and and the the protector protector of of the the gent paragon of Jesuits, who who hoped his conversion. K'ang-hsi was, was, in in short, short, very very much much Jesuits, hoped for for his conversion. K'ang-hsi like Louis Louis XIV, XIV, to to whom whom Bouvet Bouvet dedicated dedicated the the Portrait, andtotowhom whomthe the like Portrait, and Jesuits Jesuits also also looked looked for for continued continued support. support.848. Near Portrait Bouvet Near the the end end of of his his Portrait Bouvetdiscusses discussesK'ang-hsi's K'ang-hsi'sedict edictofoftoleratoleration for Christianity in (1692) and and the tion for Christianity in China China (1692) the conversion conversion of of several several high high offioffi85 He cials. He presents presents the culmination of the Jesuits' Jesuits' tireless tireless and and cials.85 the edict edict as as the the culmination of the courageous efforts preach the the gospel gospel in in China and as as the dawning of courageous efforts to to preach China and the dawning of aa new era era in in which "Christian China" China" and and the conversion of of the emperor have new which "Christian the conversion the emperor have 86 become distinctly distinctly possible. Similar descriptions descriptions of of the edict were become possible. 86 Similar the edict were pubpublished by by Joseph Suarez (1696) (1696) and and by Charles Le Le Gobien Gobien (1698).87 (1698).87 These, lished Joseph Suarez by Charles These, however, are very much aa part part of of the the Rites Controversy literature literature which which however, are very much Rites Controversy became and intemperate intemperate during the late late 1690'S. 1690's. Little Little became increasingly increasingly abundant abundant and during the new information about about China China can can be found in in this this literature, literature, and and much of it it new information be found much of is seriously seriously distorted. distorted. Nevertheless Nevertheless the the polemic certainly contributed contributed to the is polemic certainly to the higher visibility visibility and and the the wider wider availability in Europe of printed information higher availability in Europe of printed information about China. about China. Europe's of China China was was also also sharpened sharpened appreciably appreciably by more by more Europe's perception perception of specialized publications and by the texts into specialized publications and by the translation translation of of some some Chinese Chinese texts into Western languages. the Jesuit Western languages. Michele Michele Ruggiero, Ruggiero, one one of of the Jesuit pioneers, pioneers, had had apparapparently translated the into Latin before he he left left China China in in ently translated the Confucian Confucian Four Four Books Books into Latin before 1588. Ruggiero's translations Learn1588. Of Of Ruggiero's translations only only aa part part of of the the Ta TaHsiieh, Hstieh,ororGreat Great Learning, selecta ing, was wasever everpublished. published.ItItappeared appearedininAntonio AntonioPossevino's Possevino'sBibliotheca Bibliotheca selecta 83 See above, above, pp. 427-28; see see also also Mungello, Mungello, op. op. cit. (n. 6), 329-31. "See pp. 427-28; cit. (n. 6), pp. pp. 329-31. 84 "See 6), p. p. 17. The Portrait Portrait historique See Mungello, Mungello, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 6), 17. The historiquedoes doesnot notdodoBouvet's BouvetsChinese Chinese scholarship justice, and and his his substantive were suppressed of the scholarship justice, substantive Chinese Chinese works works were suppressed because because of the Rites Rites Controversy; see D. D. Mungello, "Unearthing the the Manuscripts Bouvet's Gujin Gujin after Nearly Controversy; see Mungello, "Unearthing Manuscripts of of Bouvet's after Nearly 34-61. See See also also Three Centuries," China Mission Studies (1550-1800) (1550-1800) Bulletin, (1988), 34-61. Three Centuries," China Mission Studies Bulletin, X X (1988), Claudia von von Collani, Collani, P.Joachim S.J., sein sein Leben undsein Werk (Nettetal, 1985). P. Joachim Bouvet, Bouvet, S.]., Leben und sein Werk (Nettetal, 1985). Claudia *sOp. cit. cit. (n. (n. 67), 67), pp. pp. 242-45. 242-45. "Op. 86 How far far from from reality reality these these hopes hopes were were may may be be seen seen in in Jonathan Jonathan Spence, Spence, Emperor Emperorof ofChina: China: '"How Self-Portrait of K'ang-hsi (New (New York, York, 1975), 1975), pp. pp. 72-85. 72-85. Self-Portrait ofK'ang-hsi 87 '7For 363; for 429. For Suarez Suarez see see above, above, p. p. 363; for Le Le Gobien Gobien see see above, above, p. p. 429.

[[1680] 1680]

The Post-Conquest Literature The Post-Conquest Literature 88 In in In 1672 the Chung in 1593. 1593.88 1672 Prospero Prospero Intorcetta's Intorcetta's translation translation of of the Chung Yung, Yung, or or Doctrine Doctrine of of the the Mean, Mean, appeared appeared in in Latin;,g Latin;89 aa French French translation translation of of it it was was pubpub90 In lished during during the the following following year. year.90 In 1687 1687 the the China China Jesuits out lished Jesuits brought brought out philosophus, aa Latin Latin translation translation of of three three of of the the Four Four their Confocius Confucius sinarum their sinarum philosophus, Books: the Chung Yung, Yung, Ta Ta Hsiieh, and the the Lun Yti, or or Analects. Four Books: the Chung Hsueh, and Lun YU, Analects. Four names—Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Herdtrich, Herdtrich, Francesco Francesco (Fran«ois) (Franqois) names-Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Rougemont, and and Philippe Philippe Couplet-appear Couplet—appear on on its its title title page, but it it appears appears page, but Rougemont, to have have been cooperative project involving many many other other China China Jesuits Jesuits over over aa to been aa cooperative project involving long period period of of time. time. Couplet Couplet functioned functioned as as its its editor. editor.9191 A A long long "Proemialis "Proemialis long declaratio" describes describes the the Five Five Classics Classics and and the the Four Four Books, Books, ancient ancient Chinese Chinese declaratio" religion, and the development of of China's China's three religions, and and sketches sketches the the religion, and the development three religions, de La La Brune Brune published condensation of of the the introintrolife of of Confucius. Confucius.929' Jean life Jean de published aa condensation Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophusininFrench French duction and and aa precis precis of of the text of of the the Confocius duction the text 93 It in 1688. 1688.93 It became became quite quite popular popular and and was was frequently frequently reissued. reissued. Finally Finally in in in 1696 Christian Christian Mentzel, Mentzel, physician physician to to the the elector elector of of Brandenburg, claimed to to 1696 Brandenburg, claimed have translated the the Hsiao-erh lun, or or Small Small Child's Child's Discourse, into German German have translated Hsiao-erh lun, Discourse, into 9• along with with his his comments. comments. 94 along The Jesuit Michael two important The Polish Polish Jesuit Michael Boym Boym contributed contributed two important special special studstudies: sinensis (1656), ies: Flora Flora sinensis (1656), in in which which he he described described and and illustrated illustrated plants plants and and aa few from south few animals animals from south China, China, and and aa collection collection of of treatises treatises on on Chinese Chinese medicine: medicine: Specimen Specimen medicinae medicinae sinicae sinicae(1682}.95 (1682).95Both Both were were influential influential works works frequently by others wrote about China. The The Flora Flora sinensinenfrequently cited cited or or used used by others who who wrote about China. sis to south sis not not only only accurately accurately describes describes some some of of the the plants plants native native to south China China and Asia, but but also indicates that that several and Southeast Southeast Asia, also indicates several plants plants which which had had been been brought America during preceding century brought over over from from America during the the preceding century had had acclimated acclimated to to south 96 south China. China.96

88 88 Antonio qua agiturde ratione studiorum in historia, in disciplinis, in in Antonio Possevino, Possevino, Bibliotheca Bibliothecaselecta selecta qua agiturde ratione studiorum in historia, in disciplinis, omniumprocuranda procuranda(Rome, (Rome,1593), 1593),IX, IX,583. 583.See SeeK.K.Lundbaek, Lundbaek,"The "TheFirst FirstTranslation Translationfrom from salute omnium salute Studies Bulletin, Bulletin, II (1979), (1979), 2-11. 2-11. the Confucian Confucian Classics Classics in in Europe," Europe," China China Mission Mission Studies the 89 8, Sinarum Sinarum scientia scientia politico-moralis, politico-moralis,sive sivescientiae scientiae sinicae sinicae liberliber interinter Confocii Confucii libros libros secundus secundus (Paris). (Paris). 90 go La fo-fU traduit mot pour motmot de de la la langue chinois parpar Ie P.le P. La science sciencedes desChinois ChinoisououIelelivre livrededeCum Cumfu-qu traduit mot pour langue chinois Intorcetta (Paris, 1673). 1673). Intorcetta (Paris, 91 ,I Confocius sinensis, latine exposita . ... (Paris, 1687). ForFor a deConfuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus, philosophus,sive sivescientia scientia sinensis, latine exposita . . (Paris, 1687). a deits authorship authorship and and content content see see Mungello, Mungello, op. cit. (n. (n. 6), 6), chap. chap. viii. viii. tailed analysis analysis of of its op. cit. tailed 92 See K. K. Lundbaek, Lundbaek, "The "The Image Image of of Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism in in Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarum philosophus," philosophus/' "See Journal of the the History of Ideas, XLIV (1983), (1983), 19-30. 19-30. Journal of History of Ideas, XLIV 93 La morale moralededeConfocius, Confucius,philosophe philosophededelalaChine Chine(Amsterdam, (Amsterdam,1688). 1688). "La 94 94 Christian oder Zeit-Register aller chinesischen Kayser Christian Mentzel, Mentzel, Kurtze Kurtze chinesische chinesischeChronologia Chronologia oder Zeit-Register aller chinesischen Kayser chineserkinder kinderLehre LehreSiao SiaoululhiD hiooder oder genandt . . (Berlin, . (Berlin,1696). 1696). . . . gezogen gezogen aus aus der der chineser ... lunlun genandt . .. It It is is ex-extremely doubtful doubtful that that Mentzel Mentzel knew enough Chinese Chinese to translate aa Chinese Chinese text. chrotremely knew enough to translate text. His His chrochronologicamonarchiae monarchiae Sinicae, which nology appears appears to to have have come come from from Couplet's Couplet's Tabula Tabula chronologica Sinicae, which nology lun.The TheHsiao-erh Hsiao-erhlun, lun,however, however,isisnot not Mentzel seems seems to to have came from from the the Hsiao-erh Mentzel have thought thought came Hsiao-erh lun. chronology, but but aa four-page four-page hypothetical hypothetical dialogue dialogue between between Confucius Confucius and and aa boy. boy. On On the the aa chronology, beginnings of Sinology Sinology in in Germany see F. F. R. R. Merkel, Merkel, "Deutsche "Deutsche Chinaforscher," Chinaforscher," Archiv fur beginnings of Germany see Archiv for Kulturgeschichte,XXXIV XXXIV (1951-52), (1951-52), 81-106; 81-106;and andMungello, Mungello, op. op.cit. cit.(n. (n.6), 6),chaps. chaps,vi-vii. vi-vii. See See Kulturgeschichte, for aa detailed detailed analysis analysis of of Mentzel's Mentzel's possible possible sources. sources. Mungello, pp. Mungello, pp. 238-41, 238-41, for 95 See above, above, pp. 526, 538-39. 538-39. "'See pp. 526, 96 "'See See Hartmut Hartmut Walravens, Walravens, "Eine "Eine Anmerkung Anmerkung zu zu Michael Michael Boyms Boyms Flora Flora Sinensis Sinensis (1656)(1656)— einer wichtigen wichtigen naturhistorischen naturhistorischen Quelle," Quelle," China China Mission Studies Bulletin, Bulletin, II (1979), (1979), 16-20. 16-20. einer Mission Studies

6 8 l ]] [[ l1681

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty In Martino Martini published Europe's general ChiIn 16S8 1658 Martino Martini published Europe's first first work work on on general Chi97 97 It contains nese Sinicae historiae. a chapter on on each emperor nese history, history, the the Sinicae historiae. It contains a chapter each emperor from the the legendary legendary Fu Fu Hsi Hsi through the Former Former Han dynasty (206 (206 B. B.C. from through the Han dynasty C. --A.D. A. D. 8). Derived from the Confucian classics classics and and official official histories, contains aa 8). Derived from the Confucian histories, it it contains wealth of of detailed detailed information information about about the the sage sage emperors, emperors, chronology, chronology, and and wealth the Former Han. is the ancient ancient dynasties: dynasties: the the Hsia, Hsia, Shang, Shang, Chou, Chou, Ch'in, Ch'in, and and Former Han. It It is essentially aa court court chronicle, chronicle, containing containing details details about about the of emperors emperors essentially the lives lives of and ministers, ministers, relations relations between states and and the the barbarians on the and between the the various various states barbarians on the fringes world, the fringes of of the the Chinese Chinese world, the unification unification of of China China under under the the Ch'in, Ch'in, and and the consolidation of of the imperial system system under under the the Han. Han. Martini's the imperial Martini's descripdescripthe consolidation tion of of court court affairs affairs also also includes includes details details about about religion and philosophy, the tion religion and philosophy, the lives and and thoughts of the the great great thinkers of the Era (sth(5thlives thoughts of thinkers of the Hundred-Schools Hundred-Schools Era 3rd centuries centuries B.C.), B.C.), and and the the further further development development of of Confucianism Confucianism and and Tao3rd Taoism during during Ch'in Ch'in and and Han Han times. times. Martini Martini used Chinese sixty-year sixty-year ism used both both Chinese cycles and and the the Christian Christian calendar calendar to to date date the the emperors' emperors' reigns. For other other cycles reigns. For events he he frequently frequently used used the the year of the the reigning emperor as as well as Westevents year of reigning emperor well as Western dates. dates. In In sum, sum, Martini Martini provided provided European readers with with aa rather comern European readers rather complete account of of traditional traditional Chinese Chinese dynastic dynastic history history from from its its beginning beginning to plete account to the birth of the birth of Christ. Christ. Martini's Sinicae historiae decas primaprima was apMartini's intended intended continuation continuation of of the the Sinicae historiae decas was apparently published, although parently never never published, although the the manuscript manuscript of of aa "decas "decas secunda" secunda" seems to to have have existed. existed.9898 He He included included aa very very brief brief outline outline of of the post-Han seems the post-Han dynasties in in his Melchisedech Thevenot Thevenot produced complete ChiChidynasties his Atlas." Atlas. 99 Melchisedech produced aa complete nese chronology from from Fu Hsi to the fifteenth fifteenth century, century, which provided denese chronology Fu Hsi to the which provided detailed coverage coverage of of the dynasties comparable comparable to Martini's coverage coverage tailed the post-Han post-Han dynasties to Martini's of the the earlier earlier era. era.100 Thevenot Thevenot claims claims to have used manuscript in in its its of to have used aa Persian Persian manuscript preparation, post-Former Han Han part of his "Synopsis" is is entitled entitled preparation, but but the the post-Former part of his "Synopsis" "Historiae sinicae sinicae decas decas secunda," secunda," which which sounds sounds suspiciously suspiciously like like Martini's Martini's "Historiae promised manuscript. He also once once refers refers to to the Jesuit order order as "Societas promised manuscript. He also the Jesuit as "Societas nostra," although Thevenot Thevenot was was not not aaJesuit. Jesuit. In In the the following following line, line, however, however, nostra," although he names Martini Martini along along with Trigault, Semedo, Semedo, and and Magalhaes Magalhaes in in his his list list of he names with Trigault, of 101 Jesuits who who brought accurate information information about about China China to Jesuits brought accurate to Europe. Europe. Like Thevenot's "Synopsis" is essentially a a Like Martini's Martini's Sinicae Sinicae historiae, historiae, Thevenot's "Synopsis" is essentially 100

101

97 97 Sinicae Sinicae historiae historiae decas decas prima, prima, ... . . . (Munich, (Munich, r658), 1658), For For bibliographic bibliographic details details see see above, above, pp. 526-27. 6 - 2 7· PP·52 98 "H. 25), I, 580. H. Cordier, Cordier, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 25), I, 580. 99 Martini, Novus Novus atlas sinensis, Vol. XI of Johan Blaeu, Le grand grand atlas r663), "Martini, atlas sinensis, Vol. XI of Johan Blaeu, Le atlas (Amsterdam, (Amsterdam, 1663), pp. 20-21. pp.20-21. 100 lOO"Synopsis Vol. II, "Synopsis chronologica chronologica monarchiae monarchiae sinicae sinicae ... . . . ," ," TR, TR, Vol. II, Pt. Pt. 44 (Paris, (Paris, r672?). 1672?). The The earliest edition of part part 44 is dated r672, 1672, but but there there is is no way of of knowing whether or or not the earliest edition of is dated no way knowing whether not the it, since since many many pieces of part were separately separately published published and and only only later later "Synopsis" was of it, "Synopsis" was part part of pieces of part 44 were bound together as aa single volume. The at any any time bound together as single volume. The "Synopsis" "Synopsis" could could have have appeared appeared at time between between 1672 and r696. 1696. It It should should be noted, however, that Magalhaes' manuscript was was brought brought back to r672 and be noted, however, that Magalhaes' manuscript back to Europe in r682 1682 and and was published only only in in r688, 1688, thus thus suggesting suggesting that that Thevenot's "Synopsis" Europe in was published Thevenot's "Synopsis" 410-11. was not published 1682. On On Thevenot's collection see see above, above, pp. was not published before before 1682. Thevenot's collection pp. 41011. 101 101 Thevenot, Thevenot, loco loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. roo), 100), p. p. 65. 65.

[[1682I 1682 ]

The Post-Conquest Literature The Post-Conquest Literature court decourt chronicle. chronicle. The The first first part part retraces retraces Martini's Martini's ground, ground, but but in in far far less less detail. tail. Thevenot Thevenot also also employed employed aa system system of of romanization romanization different different from from that that Martini used, included variant variant names names for for the the emperors, emperors, and and occasionally occasionally rereMartini used, included ferred to to events events in in Hebrew Hebrew or or classical classical history history contemporary contemporary with with those those he ferred he was describing. describing. Apart Apart from from these these differences differences this this part part of of his his "Synopsis" "Synopsis" was reads like like aa condensation condensation of of Martini. Martini. The The second second part part of of Thevenot's Thevenot's "Syn"Synreads opsis," the the "Decas "Decas secunda," secunda," on on the the other other hand, hand, is is more more richly richly detailed. detailed. It It opsis," describes the the rise rise and and fall fall of of the the dynasties dynasties from from Han Han to to Ming, Ming, China's China's relareladescribes tions with other peoples-especially peoples—especially with with the Mongol and and Manchu Manchu tribes— tions with other the Mongol tribesthe reception reception of of tribute tribute missions, missions, the the character character and and deeds deeds of of emperors emperors and the and high officials, officials, the the role role of of court court eunuchs, eunuchs, Confucian Confucian scholars, scholars, and and consort consort high families, the the introduction introduction and and progress progress of of Buddhism, Buddhism, and and the the development development families, of learning and scholarship. Like Martini's Decas prima, it includes a hostofof oflearning and scholarship. Like Martini's Decas prima, it includes a host illustrative stories and conversations. A chapter is devoted to each dynasty. illustrative stories and conversations. A chapter is devoted to each dynasty. Within the the chapters chapters he, he, like like Martini, Martini, names, names, dates, dates, and and describes describes the the reign reign Within of each emperor. Thevenot's sketch of the interdynastic periods is incomof each emperor. Thevenot's sketch of the interdynastic periods is incomplete. Through Through the the Three Three Kingdoms Kingdoms epoch epoch (A.D. (A.D. 221-65) 221-65) he he follows follows the the plete. Shu Han kingdom, treating the Wu and Wei kingdoms only as they related Shu Han kingdom, treating the Wu and Wei kingdoms only as they related to the Shu Han. Han.102 He He then chronicles the the Western Western and and Eastern Eastern Chin Chin dynasdynasto the Shu then chronicles 103 ties as a single house, although he reports the move to Loyang in A.D. ties as a single house, although he reports the move to Loyang in A. D. 317. 317. Following the the demise demise of of the the Eastern Eastern Chin, Chin, Thevenot Thevenot chronicles chronicles only only the the Following southern dynasties—the Liu Sung, Southern Ch'i, Liang, and Ch'en—writsouthern dynasties-the Liu Sung, Southern Ch'i, Liang, and Ch'en-writing very very little little about about the the Sixteen Sixteen Kingdoms, Kingdoms, the the Northern, Northern, Western, Western, and and ing 104 Eastern Wei states, the Northern Chou, or the Northern Ch'i. His treatEastern Wei states, the Northern Chou, or the Northern Ch'i. His treatment of of the the Five Five Dynasties Dynasties period period (A.D. (A.D. 907-79) 907-79) is is briefer briefer still. still. He He names names ment each emperor in each dynasty but includes only enough detail to illustrate each emperor in each dynasty but includes only enough detail to illustrate that it it indeed indeed was was aa time time of of "war, "war, rebellion, rebellion, slaughter, slaughter, and and parricide." parricide."105 that lOS Thevenot's "Decas "Decas secunda" secunda" ends ends with with the the Ming Ming dynasty's dynasty's Hung-hsi Hung-hsi ememThevenot's peror, who reigned but but for for aa single single year year in in 1425, 1425, thus thus providing European peror, who reigned providing European readers with a proper continuation of the story begun by Martini if, indeed, readers with a proper continuation of the story begun by Martini if, indeed, it is not itself Martini's work. it is not itself Martini's work. In 1686 1686 Philippe Philippe Couplet Couplet produced produced aa complete complete Chinese Chinese chronology chronology from from In the the beginning beginning of of the the reign reign of of Huang Huang Ti, Ti, the the third third sage sage emperor emperor (2697 (2697 B.C.), B.C.), to [06 It table; it to the the K'ang-hsi K'ang-hsi reign, reign, or or A.D. A.D. 1683. 1683.IO6 It is is aa detailed detailed chronological chronological table; it is is not not divided divided into into chapters chapters on on individual individual emperors emperors like like Martini's Martini's Decas Decas prima or even evenon ondynasties, dynasties, asaswas wasThevenot's Thevenot's "Decas "Decassecunda." secunda." The The dividiviprima or sions in in Couplet's Couplet's Tabula Tabulaare arethose thosewhich whichmark markthe thebeginning beginningofofsixty-year sixty-year sions cycles, and and it it is is primarily primarily at at these these junctures junctures that that Western Western dates dates are are provided. provided. cycles, In content, content, however, however, apart apart from from the the material material on on the late Ming Ming and and early early In the late 102

[OJ

[04

102

Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 27-28. 27-28. Ibid., 0 -31. Ibid., pp. pp. 330-31. 104 [O'Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 34-40. 34-40105 00, Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 53-56. 53-56. 106 [06 Tabula sinicae (Paris, 1686). See See above, pp. pp. 423-24. Tabula chronologica chronologicamonarchiae monarchiae sinicae (Paris, 1686). above, 423-24. [02

103

[0,

1683 ] [[1683]

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early CWing Dynasty Dynasty Ch'ing, Ch'ing, Couplet's Couplet's Tabula Tabulaappears appearstotobebea acondensation condensationofofthe the"Decas "Decassesecunda" in in Thevenot. Thevenot. At At least least half half of of Couplet's Couplet's sentences sentences appear appear to to come come didicunda" rectly from from the the "Decas "Decas secunda." secunda." Perhaps, like the the translation translation of of the the Four Four rectly Perhaps, like Books, the the Jesuit Jesuit history history of of China China was was aa cooperative cooperative project. project.107 Books,

have that the the Four basis for the civil civil service service examiexamiknown that Four Books Books were were the the basis for the have known nations, that that most most students students memorized memorized them them entirely, entirely, and and that only the the nations, that only Sung dynasty commentaries of of the Ch'eng brothers Chu Hsi Hsi were offiSung dynasty commentaries the Ch'eng brothers and and Chu were officially endorsed. endorsed.313 cially "3 European about Chinese Chinese medicine medicine did not change change during the European judgments judgments about did not during the latter half of the the seventeenth seventeenth century, century, but but aa great great deal deal more more was was written written latter half of about it, especially about the way in in which which Chinese Chinese physicians diagnosed about it, especially about the way physicians diagnosed ailments by by taking and about about the and cures they ailments taking the the pulse pulse and the various various herbs herbs and cures they used. Michael Michael Boym, Boym, in in fact, fact, translated translated aa major Chinese treatise treatise on on the the didiused. major Chinese agnostic use of the the pulse which was was published before the the end end of of the the agnostic use of pulse which published twice twice before Several missionaries missionaries related related stories stories of of their experiences century.314 century. "4 Several their personal personal experiences with Chinese physicians. In general, the missionaries praised their diagdiagwith Chinese physicians. In general, the missionaries praise~ their nostic acumen, but noted that Chinese medicine lacked scientific foundanostic acumen, but noted that Chinese medicine lacked scientific foundations. Physicians, Physicians, they they report, report, rely on experience experience and and practice than tions. rely on practice rather rather than 315 theory, and while some are very good, others are very poor. theory, and while some are very good, others are very poor. 3 European of the last half of the century also also contain contain considerconsiderEuropean descriptions descriptions of the last half of the century ably more information about about mathematics and astronomy astronomy than did earlier earlier ably more information mathematics and than did publications. The The Jesuits the Chinese Chinese to to be quick to to understand and Jesuits judge judge the be quick understand and publications. master Western geometry and algebra; traditional Chinese mathematics they master Western geometry and algebra; traditional Chinese mathematics they consider to be far far inferior to that of Europe, its great great antiquity. antiquity. The The consider to be inferior to that of Europe, despite despite its Europeans assert that Chinese mathematics, like Chinese medicine, lacks Europeans assert that Chinese mathematics, like Chinese medicine, lacks precise and basic basic principles. Le Comte Comte writes, for example: example: precise rules rules and principles. Le writes, for 1,

Their geometry geometry is is very very superficial, superficial, it few propositions, Their it is is restrained restrained to to aa very very few propositions, and and to some some problems problems in algebra, which which they resolve without elements or or principles, to in algebra, they resolve without elements principles, and and 31 • by induction. that that only only by induction.316 311 3 For For example. example, see see Magalhaes, Magalhaes, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 65), 65), pp. pp. 89-98; 89-98; Le Le Comte. Comte, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 125). 125), pp, 189-92; 189-92; Dapper, Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n.55), (n. 55), II, II, 93-94; 93-94; Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarum philosophus (n. 91), philosophus (n.91). pp. pp. xv-xxi; xv-xxi; and and De La Brune, op. cit. pp. 6-12. For the from the the /I Ching pp. De La Brune, op. cit. (n. (n. 93), 93), pp. 6-12. For the hexagrams hexagrams from Ching 348 and and 349. see our our pis. see pis. 348 349. 3I2 On Mencius 155-60; Dapper, (n. 55), 55), II. II, 101-4; 101-4; 3" On Mencius see see Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), pp. pp. 155-60; Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n. Magalhaes, op. (n. 65), 65), pp. See pI. pi. 355. Magalhaes, op. cit. cit. (n. pp. 98-99. 98-99. See 355. 313 On the the special special status status of of the the Sung Sung commentaries commentaries see see Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n. (n.91), 91), "'On pp. liii-lx. The The Ch'eng-Chu Ch'eng-Chu school school of of Neo-Confucianism official state state teaching in pp. liii-ix. Neo-Confucianism became became the the official teaching in the Ming dynasty; it it emphasized emphasized study study of of the for civil civil servants. servants. See See Fung Yu-lan, the Ming dynasty; the Four Four Books Books for Fung Yu-Ian, 319-21. A A Short Short History History of ofChinese Chinese Philosophy Philosophy (New (New York, York, 1959), 1959), pp. pp. 319-21. 314 See above, above, pp. 538-39, and and our our pis. 356-58. '''See pp. 538-39, pis. 356-58. 3I5 For example, example, see see Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. (n. 125), 125), pp. 215-29. "'For cit. (n. pp. 215-29. ,316 •• Ibid .• p. mathematics see Ibid., p. 214. 214. On On traditional traditional Chinese Chinese mathematics see Needham, Needham, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 154), 154), III, III, 1-5]. 1-53. 11

[[1720] 172 0 ]

Intellectual Intellectual Life Life The Chinese are however, to be very very facile The Chinese are reported, reported, however, to be facile at at arithmetic. arithmetic. Martini Martini describes and pictures pictures the abacus in common use, claims describes and the Chinese Chinese abacus in common use, which which he he claims 317 was invented during sage emperor Huang-ti's reign (2697-2597 B.C.). was invented during the the sage emperor Huang-ti's reign (2697-2597 B.C.).3" Most subsequent subsequent European also comment comment on it. The Jesuits praise praise Most European writers writers also on it. The Jesuits and the accuracy of ancient observations observations China's traditional astronomy astronomy and China's traditional the accuracy of the the ancient recorded in in the classics and the histories date important important recorded the classics and the histories which which helped helped to to date reigns or acts. acts. Martini Martini describes describes many these celestial Almost reigns or many of of these celestial events. events. Almost everyone admiringly admiringly comments on the instruments in in the Peking everyone comments on the antique antique instruments the Peking 318 observatory; several several books contain plates plates picturing picturing them. For the observatory; books contain them. ,,8 For the mismissionaries, however, however, there there was no doubt doubt about about the superiority of of European European the superiority sionaries, was no astronomy. Their of the Chinese calendar calendar and and their accurate astronomy. Their reformation reformation of the Chinese their accurate predictions of eclipses eclipses and and planetary planetary conjunctions conjunctions had their predictions of had earned earned them them their prestigious in the Chinese court. All the accounts of of the prestigious place place in the Chinese court. All the accounts the Jesuits' Jesuits' calcalendrical and and astronomical astronomical work work in in Peking contain descriptions descriptions of of the endrical Peking contain the dedeficiencies of of traditional astronomy, of of superstitions superstitions regarding regarding ficiencies traditional Chinese Chinese astronomy, eclipses and and conjunctions, and the absence of of sound theory. eclipses conjunctions, and the absence sound astronomical astronomical theory. Under direction even even the instruments in in the Peking obserobserUnder Verbiest's Verbiest's direction the ancient ancient instruments the Peking new, more more accurate accurate ones ones patterned patterned after after those vatory vatory were were replaced replaced with with new, those of of 319 Europe. Comte puts it more cynically than than most: most: Europe. 3 ' 9 Le Le Comte puts it more cynically If China China hath hath been mathematicians, they have at at least least had had perperIf been deficient deficient in in excellent excellent mathematicians, they have fect the well fect astrologers; astrologers; because, because, for for the well succeeding succeeding in in judicial judicial astrology astrology it it sufficeth sufficeth to to be an able able deceiver, deceiver, and and to to have have aa knack knack of lying handsomely, handsomely, which which no be an oflying no nation nation can can dispute with China.320 with China. 32 dispute 0

How Chinese kept kept time time was was described by many many of of the the missionaries, How the the Chinese described by missionaries, heavenly stems stems and and the earthly who accurately named the who accurately named the ten ten heavenly the twelve twelve earthly branches how these functioned in in timekeeping. timekeeping. Making Making use of their their branches and and told told how these functioned use of accounts, especially Martini's, Dapper Dapper includes book one one of largest accounts, especially Martini's, includes in in his his book of the the largest and most detailed descriptions of Chinese period and most detailed descriptions of Chinese timekeeping. timekeeping. The The day, day, the the period of and darkness into twenty-four of light light and darkness which which Europeans Europeans divide divide into twenty-four hours, hours, the the Chinese divide divide into into twelve, so that that one one Chinese European Chinese twelve, so Chinese hour hour equals equals two two European hours. They do do not the hours not designate designate the hours by by numbers numbers as as westerners westerners do, do, but but hours. They by "Cu" (tzu), (tzu), "Ch'eu" "Ch'eu" (ch'ou), (ch'ou), "Yin" "Yin" (yin), (yin), "Mao" "Mao" (mao), by characters: characters: "Cu" (mao), "Xin" (ch'en), (ch'en), "Su" "Su" (ssu), (ssu), "U" " U " (wu), (wu)9 "Vi" "Vi" (wei), {wei)9 "Xin" "Xin" (shen), (shen), "Yeu" "Yeu" (yu), (yu), "Xin" "Sio" (hsii), (hsii)9 and and "Hai" "Hai" (hai)-the (hai)—the twelve "Sio" twelve branches. branches. While While the the Chinese Chinese comcom2l7 '·'Op. 97), p. another, was was probably probably developed developed indeOp. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), p. 16. 16. The The abacus, abacus, in in one one form form or or another, independendy use in to thirteenth and came came into into common common use in Europe Europe and and China China from from the the eleventh eleventh to thirteenth pendently and so far appeared on on the the origins origins of of this this practical practical calculating calculating centuries. Nothing definitive has Nothing very very definitive has so far appeared centuries. See Needham, op. cit. cit. (n. 154), III, III, 74-80. 74-80. instrument. See instrument. Needham, op. (n. 154), 3l8 For example, example, see see Le Le Comte, Comte, op. (n. 125), 125), pp. pp. 63-71. 63-71. See See our our pi. "'For op. cit. cit. (n. pI. 307. 307. ,319 •• Ibid., 65. Ibid., p. p. 65. 320 Ibid., p. p. 215. 215. For For an an evaluation evaluation of of the the Jesuits' Jesuits' comments comments on on Chinese Chinese astronomy astronomy and and of of their their "0 Ibid., contributions see see Needham, Needham, op. (n. 154), III, 437-58. 437- 58. On traditional Chinese op. cit. cit. (n. 154), III, On traditional Chinese astronomy astronomy contributions see Needham, III, III, 182-461, pp. 458-61. 182-461, and and especially especially the the summary summary on on pp. 458-61. see Needham,

[[1721] 1721 ]

China: The The Early Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: Early Ch'ing monly use year of monarch to to date they also use aa monly use the the year of the the reigning reigning monarch date events, events, they also use sexegenary twelve branches sexegenary cycle cycle formed formed by by combining combining each each of of the the twelve branches with with one of of the stems: "Kia" "Kia" (chia), {chid), "Yi" "Yi"(i), (/),"Ping" "Ping"(ping), (ping),"Ting" "Ting"(ting), (ting), one the ten ten stems: "Vu" (hsin), "Giu" (jen), andand "Quei" "Vu" (mou), (mou), "Ki" "Ki"(chi), (chi),"Ken" "Ken"(keng), (keng),"Sin" "Sin" (hsin), "Giu" (jen), "Quei" (kuei). The The first first year of aa cycle cycle would thus be be "Kia-cu" "Kia-cu" (chia-tzu), (chia-tzu), the thesecsec(kuei). year of would thus ond "Yi-ch'eu" "Yi-ch'eu" (i-ch'ou), (i-ch'ou), and andthe thesixtieth sixtiethyear yearwould wouldbebe"Quei-hai" "Quei-hai"(kuei(kueiond hai), after after which which aa new new cycle cycle would would begin. begin. Dapper Dapper lists lists the the years years of of an an entire entire hai), cycle. Each Each of of the stems corresponds corresponds to to one one of of the and to to cycle. the ten ten stems the five five planets planets and one of of the five elements, elements, thus making the cycle an an integral of the the order order one the five thus making the cycle integral part part of of nature. nature. Further, Further, each each of of the the twelve is associated associated with specific of twelve branches branches is with aa specific animal which which is to characterize characterize the the hour or day day so so designated. designated. Sexanimal is thought thought to hour or Sexegenary cycles themselves are are designated designated upper, or lower, lower, thus thus egenary cycles themselves upper, middle, middle, or producing grand cycle cycle of of 180 180 years. years. Still Still larger larger numbers numbers of of years years are are desigdesigproducing aa grand nated in in terms terms of the character character "van" "van" (wan), (wan), or or ten Each year nated of the ten thousand. thousand. Each year is is divided into into twelve twelve "moons," "moons," half of which contain 30 of divided half of which contain 30 days days and and half half of which contain contain 29 29 days, days, thus thus producing of 354 354 days. days. To To every every third third which producing aa year year of year—"leap year"—another of 30 days is added, making making that that year year-"leap year" -another moon moon of 30 days is added, year 384 days. days. Each Each new year begins the sun sun enters enters the fifteenth degree degree of of 384 new year begins when when the the fifteenth Aquarius (near (near February February 15) 15) which also marks marks the the beginning beginning of of spring. spring. Aquarius which day day also Like westerners, westerners, the the Chinese Chinese divide divide the into four four seasons, seasons, but but they Like the year year into they also also divide each season into six parts. Dapper lists the twenty-four parts of the the divide each season into six parts. Dapper lists the twenty-four parts of 321 year thus produced. year thus produced. According to Magalhaes and and Le Chinese astronomy, indeed all all of of According to Magalhaes Le Comte, Comte, Chinese astronomy, indeed Chinese science, science, was was handicapped by Chinese Chinese smugness-by smugness—by their distrust Chinese handicapped by their distrust of any any knowledge knowledge originating originating outside outside the the empire-and empire—and by an uncritical of by an uncritical revreverence for for antiquity antiquity and and aa reluctance reluctance to challenge ancient ancient ideas and pracerence to challenge ideas and practices.322 Still, Still, China's China's concern concern for for the evinced in in the the number number and and quality quality tices. the past, past, evinced of its its historical writings, was was nonetheless nonetheless one one of of the the most most admired admired aspects aspects of historical writings, of Chinese Chinese learning. learning. Martini's Martini's Sinicae Sinicaehistoriae historiae sequels published of andand its its sequels published by by Thevenot and Couplet made available to to late late seventeenth-century seventeenth-century European European Thevenot and Couplet made available readers aa continuous, continuous, detailed detailed account account of of traditional traditional Chinese Chinese history history from from readers the legendary sage emperors emperors to to the the K'ang-hsi K'ang-hsi reign. Most other other writers inthe legendary sage reign. Most writers include some some pieces of China's China's history, history, frequently frequently derived derived from from Martini Martini but but clude pieces of sometimes reflecting writers' particular or emphases. emphases. All All in sometimes reflecting the the writers' particular interests interests or in all, all, Europe's knowledge of Chinese Chinese history history was was greatly greatly increased increased over over what Europe's knowledge of what was was available during first half of the the century. century. available during the the first half of Martini's begins with Fu Fu Hsi, thethe firstfirst legendary sage emSinicaehistoriae historiae begins with Hsi, legendary sage emMartini's Sinicae peror, whose whose reign reign Martini Martini calculated calculated began began in 2952 B.C. dismisses as peror, in 2952 B.C. He He dismisses as myth the the long dynasties of of heavenly, earthly, and and human sovereigns who who myth long dynasties heavenly, earthly, human sovereigns were supposed supposed to Fu Hsi, Hsi, observing observing that that most most Chinese Chinese were to have have reigned reigned before before Fu scholars did did the the same. same. He He does does not, question the the authenticity authenticity of scholars not, however, however, question of ,21

,22

32I Dapper, op. tit. (n. (n. 55), 55), I, 496-501. See See also also Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. tit. (n. (n. 97), 97), pp. 3-13. '''Dapper, op. cit. I, 496-50I. pp. 3-13. 322 Magalhaes, op. op. cit. tit. (n. (n. 65), 65), p. Le Comte, tit. (n. 125), p. p. 69. '''Magalhaes, p. 63; 63; Le Comte, op. op. cit. (n. 125), 69.

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Intellectual Life Intellectual Lift Fu Hsi Hsi and and his successors. Martini's first book contains aa chapter chapter on on each each of of Fu his successors. Martini's first book contains the sage sage emperors-Fu emperors—Fu Hsi, Hsi, Shen Shen Nung, Huang Ti, Ti, Shao Shao Hao, Hao, Chuan Chuan Hu, Hu, the Nung, Huang Ku, Yao, Yao, and and Shun-which Shun—which recounts achievements and and the the outstandoutstandKu, recounts their their achievements ing events events of of their their reigns. also contains contains aa discussion discussion of of ancient ancient Chinese Chinese ing reigns. It It also mathematics and astronomy, astronomy, the sixty-year cycles, cycles, and and the great flood durmathematics and the sixty-year the great flood durMost ing Yao's Yao's reign, reign, which supposed was the biblical deluge.323 Most ing which Martini Martini supposed was the biblical deluge.J23 subsequent writers accept Martini's Martini's judgment about the the beginning beginning of of ChiChisubsequent writers accept judgment about nese history, although although some some point point out out that Ching begins begins with with Yao Yao nese history, that the the Shu Shu Ching (2356-2255 B.C.) B.C.) and and several several speculate speculate about about how ancient Chinese Chinese chro(2356-2255 how the the ancient chronology could be reconciled with with Genesis.324 Genesis.324 Magalhaes, for example, example, obobnology could be reconciled Magalhaes, for serves that most learned learned Chinese Chinese considered considered it it probable probable that that Fu Fu Hsi Hsi was serves that most was the the first emperor. emperor. No No one one would dare question the authenticity authenticity of of Yao. The first would dare question the Yao. The Jesuits in in China, China, therefore, therefore, used used the Septuagint version version of of the the Old Old TestaTestaJesuits the Septuagint ment for for their their chronologies, chronologies, making making it it somewhat somewhat easier easier to reconcile ancient ancient ment to reconcile Chinese chronology chronology with with that derived from from the the Old Old Testament. Testament.325 Chinese that derived 3 Martini's account of of the the sage sage emperors emperors and and of of the the ancient ancient dynasties-the dynasties—the Martini's account Hsia, Shang, Shang, and and Chou-reflects Chou—reflects the semi-mythological and and heavily moralHsia, the semi-mythological heavily moralistic character character of of the classics and and the the Confucian Confucian histories. histories. Each Each dynasty, dynasty, for for istic the classics example, was allegedly founded founded by pious emperor emperor who who acted acted as as Heaven's Heaven's example, was allegedly by aa pious {t'ien)instrument instrumentinindeposing deposingtyrants tyrantsand andininrelieving relievingthe theoppressed oppressedpeople. people. (t'ien) Martini recounts stories from from the the classics classics to illustrate the the piety piety of of Yao, Martini recounts stories to illustrate Yao, Shun, Yii Yii (the (the founder founder of of the the Hsia Hsia dynasty), T'ang (the (the founder founder of of the the Shun, dynasty), Tang Shang dynasty), dynasty), Wen Wen Wang, and Chou Chou Kung Kung (the (the duke duke of of Chou). Chou).326 Shang Wang, and 326 While While each dynasty dynasty was founded by of Heaven's Heaven's mandate, mandate, each each was founded by aa pious pious recipient recipient of each ended with an impious, impious, debauched debauched tyrant. the tyrants, tyrants, too, Martini ended with an tyrant. About About the too, Martini 327 Of provides illustrative illustrative stories. stories.327 Of the emperors who who ruled between the the provides the emperors ruled between virtuous founders founders and and the the vicious vicious forfeiters forfeiters of of Heaven's Heaven's mandate, mandate, Martini Martini virtuous reports very little. little. His His account account of of the the Chou Chou dynasty dynasty is is much much more more dereports very de328 Soon tailed—over one hundred long.328 Soon after after applauding applauding the wise and tailed-over one hundred pages pages long. the wise and virtuous administration ofWu of Wu Wang Wang and and the duke of of Chou, Chou, Martini Martini tells tells of virtuous administration the duke of disloyalty to the emperors, intrigues, assassinations, and wars between disloyalty to the emperors, intrigues, assassinations, and wars between the the feudal His description description of of the States Period (403-221 B.C.) feudal lords. lords. His the Warring Warring States Period (403-221 B.C.) especially depicts the alliances, battles, and intrigues that resulted in the the exexespecially depicts the alliances, battles, and intrigues that resulted in 2'

Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), pp. pp. 1-34. 1-34. '"323Op. 324 3" For For aa discussion discussion of of the the chronological chronological problems problems and and the the attempts attempts of of European European scholars scholars to to solve them them see see E. E. Van Van Kley, Kley, "Europe's "Europe's 'Discovery' 'Discovery' of of China China and and the the Writing of World Hissolve Writing of World HisReview, LXXVI LXXVI (1971), (1971), pp. pp. 358-85. 358-85. tory," American tory," American Historical Historical Review, 325 Magalhaes, op. op. cit. (n. 65), 65), pp. 59-61, 251-53. See also also Mungello, op. cit. cit. (n. 6), cit. (n. pp. 59-61, 251-53. See Mungello, 0p. (n.6), "'Magalhaes, pp. 102-3. 102-3. Ancient Ancient chronology chronology derived derived from from the the Hebrew Hebrew Masoretic texts of of the Old TestaTestapp. Masoretic texts the Old ment or from from the the Vulgate Vulgate date date the the Creation Creation at at 4004 and the universal flood flood at at 2349 2349 B.C. ment or 4004 B.C., B.C., and the universal B.C. ca. 5200 5200 B.C., the Chronologies derived derived from from the the Greek Septuagint text text date date the the creation at ca. Chronologies Greek Septuagint creation at B. c., and and the flood at at 2957 2957 B.C. B.C. flood i26 Op. cit. (n. 97), 97), pp. 34-36, 58-61, 58-61, 87-92. 87-92. "·Op. cit. (n. pp. 34-36, *27Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 54-55, 54-55, 77-86. 77-86. l'7 328 ". Ibid., Ibid., pp. pp. 87-193. 87- 193.

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China: The The Early Early Ch'ing Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: pansion of he gives pansion of the the outlying outlying states states of of Ch'u, Ch'u, Ch'i, Ch'i, and and Ch'in; Ch'in; he gives the the names names of kings, generals, philosophers, their their conversations as well well of kings, generals, ministers, ministers, and and philosophers, conversations as as their their deeds. deeds. Edifying Edifying anecdotes anecdotes about about emperors, emperors, ministers, ministers, and and philosoas philosoChina. Martini's Martini's hisphers creep creep into into many many other other European European descriptions descriptions of of China. hisphers tory and its its continuation continuation in in Thevenot Thevenot seem seem to to be be the the sources sources for for most of tory and most of them, although some some obviously obviously derive derive from from elsewhere. elsewhere. Navarrete devotes them, although Navarrete devotes several chapters chapters to to such such stories.J29 stories.329 Some Some of of them them were were repeated repeated often often enough enough several before the the end end of of the the century century to to have have become quite familiar familiar to European before become quite to European readers. readers. Late seventeenth-century seventeenth-century writers—Martini, Dapper, NavarNavarLate writers-Martini, Nieuhof, Nieuhof, Dapper, rete, Couplet et et al., aL, and and Le Le Comte-provide Comte—provide much much more more information information about about rete, Couplet 330 He Confucius than could have been learned learned from from Trigault Trigault and and Semedo. Semedo.330 Confucius than could have been He was born, they report, report, in in 55I 551 B.C., B.C., married married at at age age nineteen, nineteen, fathered fathered one one was born, they son, and and held held high high office office in in his his native state ofLu. of Lu. Injust In just three three months' months' time time son, native state he affected affected astounding astounding reforms reforms in in morals morals and and government government only only to to see see it it all he all undone the envious envious duke duke of of Ch'i Ch'i sent sent aa beautiful to corrupt corrupt undone when when the beautiful woman woman to the duke duke of Lu. Confucius Confucius resigned when his his duke government the of Lu. resigned when duke neglected neglected government for the the lady. lady. "Raro "Raro enim enim virtus virtus et et Venus sociantur," observes observes Martini.J3I Martini.331 for Venus sociantur," Thereafter Confucius Confucius traveled, traveled, advised advised several several other other princes, taught, and Thereafter princes, taught, and wrote. reportedly taught taught three three thousand thousand students, students, seventy-two seventy-two of of wrote. He He reportedly whom were were outstanding, outstanding, and and twelve twelve of of whom whom became became philosophers. The whom philosophers. The Jesuits name name the the outstanding outstanding students. students.332 of course, course, he he edited edited or or wrote wrote Jesuits 332 And, And, of each of of the Classics and and three three of the Four Navarrete and and the each the Five Five Classics of the Four Books. Books. Navarrete the Confuciussinarum sinarum philosophus report onmiraculous his miraculous andattendant its attendant Confocius philosophus report on his birthbirth and its portents (according to the Confocius Confuciussinarum sinarum philosophus the Shang emperors portents (according to the philosophus the Shang emperors 333 were his ancestors). Both describe him as fully mature at age six. Basing J3J were his ancestors). Both describe him as fully mature at age six. Basing their statements statements on on the the Ch'un Ch'un Ch'iu, CWiu} Martini Martini and and the the authors authors of of the the Contheir Confucius sinarum philosophus declare that Confucius had foretold the coming focius sinarum philosophus declare that Confucius had foretold the coming of of 334 The Jesuit compilers and Le Comte Christ and of Christianity to China. Christ and of Christianity to China. J34 The Jesuit compilers and Le Comte hold that that Confucius' Confucius' prophecy was partially partially fulfilled fulfilled by the Han Han emperor emperor hold prophecy was by the Ming Ti's dream, which because of an ambassador's error brought BudMing Ti's dream, which because of an ambassador's error brought Bud335 dhism rather than Christianity to China. Navarrete, however, contends m dhism rather than Christianity to China. Navarrete, however, contends 329 ''9CV, CF, 1, I, 83-100. 83-100. 33O Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), pp. pp. 120, 120, 123, 123, 125-33; 125-33; Nieuhof, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 29), 29), II, II, 19-21; 19-21; Dapper, Dapper, "OMartini, Nieuhof, op. op. cit. cit. (n. 55), II, CV, 1, I, 111-14; 111-14; Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarum philosophus (n. 91), op. (n.55), II, 90-94; 90-94; Navarrete, Navarrete, CV, philosophus (n.91), pp. cxvii-cxxiv; Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 125), 125), pp. pp. 194-201. 194-201. See See our our pI. pi. 309 309 for for aa representation representation pp. cxvii-cxxiv; sinarum philosophus. philosophus. of Confucius Confucius taken from the the Confocius Confucius sinarum of taken from 331 "For virtue virtue and and Venus Venus seldom seldom go go together"; together"; op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), p. p. 126. 126. "'''For 332 Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n. (n.91), 91),p.p.cxix. cxix. m Confocius 333 333Navarrete, 1- 12; Confocius Navarrete, CV, CV, 1,I, II 111-12; Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n.(n.91), 91),p. p.cxvii. cxvii. 334 Martini, op. (n. 97), 97), pp. pp. 131 131-32; Confucius sinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n.(n.91), 91),p.p.cxx. cxx.See Seealso also 334 Martini, op. cit. cit. (n. - 32; Confocius Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 55), 55), II, II, 98, 98, and and Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 125), 125), p. Dapper, p. 200. 200. 335 Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n.(n.91), 91),p.p.cxx; cxx;LeLeComte, Comte,op.op.cit.cit.(n.(n.125), 125),p.p.200. 200.Ming-ti's Ming-ti's m Confocius 67, is is aa traditional traditional story. story. Buddhism Buddhism was was already already aa recognized form of of dream, dated dated around around A.D. dream, A.D. 67, recognized form TrendsininModern ModernChina China(New (NewYork, York, temple by this time. See See Wing-tsit Wing-tsit Chan, Chan, Religious temple worship worship by this time. Religious Trends X 953)> pp. PP- 136-37. 136-37. On On Ming-ti's Ming-ti's dream dream see see Kenneth Kenneth Ch'en, Ch'en, Buddhism Buddhism in in China: China: A 1953), A Historical Historical 29-31. Survey (Princeton, (Princeton, 1974), 1974), pp. pp. 29-31. Survey

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Intellectual Intellectual Life Life that was an about the the prophecy. 336 that Confucius Confucius was an atheist atheist and and reports reports nothing nothing about prophecy.336 Most Most European European writers writers discuss discuss some some aspects aspects of of Confucius' Confucius' teaching teaching and and the the classics which he supposedly supposedly edited edited or or wrote. Many quote quote aphorisms aphorisms apwrote. Many apclassics which he parently taken taken from from the the Lun Lun Yti. Still more more important, important, three three of of the the Four Four parently yu. Still Books, those containing the the essence essence of of Confucian Confucian thought, thought, were were translated translated Books, those containing into Latin Latin by by Couplet Couplet and and his his colleagues, colleagues, and and paraphrased paraphrased in in French French by by Jean Jean into 337 Modern de La La Brune. Brune.337 Modern scholarship scholarship has has painted painted aa very different picture picture of de very different of Confucius. Much Much of of what what was was related related to to Europeans Europeans during during the the seventeenth seventeenth Confucius. 338 Apart century now now appears appears to to be be the the hagiography hagiography of of late late Confucians. Confucians.338 Apart century from the the miracles miracles attending attending Confucius' Confucius' birth, birth, however, however, seventeenth-censeventeenth-cenfrom tury Europeans Europeans did did not not question question the the story; story; consequently consequently they they furnished furnished tury their readers readers with with an an accurate accurate replica replica of of the the traditional traditional Chinese Chinese portrait portrait of of their the sage, sage, to to which which they they added added their their own own Christian Christian myth. myth. the The they learned Lao The missionaries missionaries were were far far more more critical critical of of what what they learned about about Lao Tzu, probably probably because because they they learned learned it it from from hostile hostile Confucians. Confucians. Trigault Trigault had Tzu, had already introduced introduced him as aa contemporary contemporary of of Confucius. Confucius.339 Martini gives gives already him as J39 Martini All European European writers writers repeat repeat the the fable fable of of his 605 B.C. B.C. as as his his birth birth date.34 date.340 All 605 his eighty-year gestation gestation period period which made him him old old and and wise wise at at birth. Most of of eighty-year which made birth. Most them also also include include some, some, usually usually unsympathetic, unsympathetic, account account of of Taoist Taoist beliefs beliefs them and practices. The Taoists Taoists are are frequently called Epicureans Epicureans because of their their and practices. The frequently called because of search for for physical physical immortality immortality through through elixirs elixirs or or exercises exercises and and the the attempts attempts search to change change base metals into into gold, gold, which which were were reported reported by by Martini Martini and and others others to base metals as the the major major preoccupations preoccupations of of popular popular Taoism. Taoism. Le Le Comte Comte thinks thinks Taoism Taoism as began to corrupt corrupt ancient ancient Chinese Chinese monotheism, monotheism, aa process temporarily ararbegan to process temporarily rested by by Confucius Confucius and and his his followers followers but but later later completed completed by by Buddhism.34I Buddhism.341 rested Martini also also describes describes the the career career and and teaching teaching of of Mencius Mencius and and of of some some Martini 34' The philosophers philosophers with with whom whom Mencius Mencius had had debated. debated.342 The only only other other westernwesterners who wrote about about Mencius Mencius were were Dapper, Dapper, who who repeats Martini's account, account, ers who wrote repeats Martini's and Navarrete, who relates relates aa few few stories stories from from the the Meng-tzu todemonstrate demonstrate and Navarrete, who Meng-tzu to w that Mencius Mencius had had no no knowledge knowledge of of the the true true God. God.343 that Martini's the Ch'in Martini's account account of of the Ch'in and and the the Former Former Han Han is is also also richly richly detailed, detailed, and quite quite faithfully faithfully transmits transmits the the official official Confucian Confucian historiography historiography of of his and his sources. under the the Ch'in sources. He He carefully carefully charts charts China's China's unification unification under Ch'in and and the the new new empire's expansion expansion to to areas areas never never before before considered considered part part of of China. China. He He also also empire's describes the the rigor rigor and and cruelty cruelty of of Ch'in Ch'in rule rule which which eventually eventually drove drove many many describes Chinese to to live live as as rebels rebels and and outlaws-Liu outlaws—Liu Pang Pang among among them. them. He He relates relates Chinese General Meng Meng T'ien's T'ien's construction construction of of the the Great Great Wall Wall which, which, he he reports, reports, enenGeneral 0

336 ,,6CV, 113. CI/ I, I, 113. 337 Op. 93). Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 93). 338 For example, example, see see Herrlee Herrlee Creel, Creel, Confocius Conjucius and andthe theChinese Chinese Way Way (New (New York, York, I960), i960), chap. chap. i.i. "'For 339 '39 See See above, I658. above, p. p. 1658. 34O Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), p. p. II7. 117. See See also also Dapper, Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 55), 55), II, II, 134. 34"Martini, I34. 341 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. I25), 125), pp. pp. 324-26. 324-26. "'Op. U2 Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), pp. pp. I55-6I, 155-61, 170-71. 170-71. 34'Op. 343 Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 55), 55), II, II, IOI-4; 101-4; Navarrete, Navarrete, CV, CV, I, I, I38-41. 138-41. '''Dapper, 317

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China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early CWing Dynasty Dynasty 344 Li tailed the conscription conscription of of one-third one-third of of China's China's work work force. force.344 Ssu's intailed the Li Ssu's infamous burning of the books in 213 B.C., B.C., the the persecution persecution of of Confucian Confucian famous burning of the books in 213 scholars, imaginative ways ways in which people ancient scholars, and and the the imaginative in which people preserved preserved the the ancient are also also recounted. recounted. The The most detailed, apart apart from from Martini's, books books are most detailed, Martini's, were were those accounts written written by Dapper and and Le Comte.345 Martini's Martini's history history of of the the those accounts by Dapper Le Comte.345 Ch'in ends ends with with the first emperor's emperor's death, death, the subsequent intrigues intrigues ofLi of Li Ssu Ssu Ch'in the first the subsequent and the the eunuch eunuch Chao Chao Kao, Kao, and and the the rebellions rebellions which which overthrew overthrew the the dynasty. dynasty.346 and 346 After describing attempts to restore the pre-Ch'in states and the the long After describing the the attempts to restore the pre-Ch'in states and long rivalry between Liu Hsiang Yu, and other other rebels, devotes aa rivalry between Liu Pang, Pang, Hsiang Yu, and rebels, Martini Martini devotes chapter to each emperor emperor of of the Former Han Han dynasty. dynasty. The The longest longest are are natunatuthe Former chapter to each rally those which treat treat ofKao of Kao Tsu Tsu (Liu (Liu Pang), Pang), the the founder founder (206-195 (206-195 B.C.), rally those which B.C.), and Wu Wu Ti (141-87 B.C.). B.C.). Martini's coverage is thorough and and accurate. accurate. It and Ti (141-87 Martini's coverage is thorough It includes not conquests, rebellions, relations with the Tartars, Tartars, but includes not only only conquests, rebellions, and and relations with the but also the the revival revival of of Confucianism, of the classics, the the power also Confucianism, the the recovery recovery of the classics, power and and intrigues of of consort consort families, families, and the influence influence of of popular Taoism. He He dedeintrigues and the popular Taoism. picts the rise rise of of the the Wang family but does not not report report on on Wang Wang Mang's Mang's picts the Wang family but does usurpation of of the throne in in A.D. A.D. 9. 9. Martini's Martini's account account ends ends with with the the death death of usurpation the throne of 347 Apart the emperor in I.347 from aa few few morally the twelfth twelfth emperor in A.D. A.D. 1. Apart from morally edifying edifying tales tales and loyal loyal officials, officials, little little of of Martini's richly detailed detailed about virtuous virtuous emperors emperors and about Martini's richly history of of the Former Han Han appeared appeared in in other other European European accounts. history the Former accounts. The most commonly reported incident Later Han Han The most commonly reported incident from from the the history history of of the the Later dynasty was the introduction introduction of of Buddhism. everyone tells tells the story dynasty was the Buddhism. Almost Almost everyone the story 348 Ti's dream and its its consequences. Several writers writers also of Emperor of Emperor Ming Ming Ti's dream and consequences. 348 Several also recount Gautama's Gautama's life life and and teachings and discuss discuss some some of of the the varieties varieties of recount teachings and of Buddhism.349 Kircher treats treats Buddhism Buddhism as as another another variety of the the idolatry idolatry that that Buddhism. 349 Kircher variety of slowly spread spread from from ancient ancient Egypt Egypt to the rest rest of of the arriving rather rather slowly to the the world, world, arriving late in in China China and and Japan. Japan.350 Couplet and and his colleagues correctly correctly suspect suspect that late 35 0 Couplet his colleagues that the Neo-Confucian of the the Sung Sung dyBuddhism even the Buddhism influenced influenced even Neo-Confucian philosophy philosophy of dynasty, which which was still regarded as being the officially interpretation nasty, was still regarded as being the officially correct correct interpretation 35I Navarrete during the the early early Ch'ing. Ch'ing.351 Navarrete recounts some Buddhist Buddhist birth stories during recounts some birth stories and suggests suggests that that the the Confucians Confucians in in their antagonism towards towards Buddhist Buddhist and their antagonism "idolatry" fell fell instead instead into into the error of of atheism. atheism.352 "idolatry" the error 352 Despite Ming Ti's part in bringing Buddhist idolatry to to China, China, the the Despite Ming Ti's part in bringing Buddhist idolatry "Decas secunda" secunda" of of Thevenot Thevenot judges him to have been good emperoremperor— "Decas judges him to have been aa good

3U Op. cit. (n. 97), 97), p. p. 208. 208. '''Op. cit. (n. us ,., Ibid., II; Dapper, op. cit. cit. (n. Ibid. pp. 209209-11; Dapper, op. cit. (n. (n. 55), 55), II, II, 104-6; 104-6; Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. (n. 125), 125), y pp. pp. 192-93; pp. 192-93; Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarumphilosophus, philosophus,(n. (n.91), 91),pp. pp.xxii-xxiii. xxii-xxiii. H6 Op. cit. (n. 97), 215-29. 3400p. cit. (n. 97), pp. pp. 215-29. U7 ,.7 Ibid.,f p. p. 362. 362. Ibid. 348 34' See 1646. See above, above, p. p. 1646. 349 "'For For example, example, Dapper, Dapper, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 55), 55), II, II, 106-13; 106-13; Confocius Confucius sinarum sinarum philosophus philosophus(n.91), (n. 91), pp. pp. xxii-xxxiv; xxii—xxxiv; Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 125), 125), p. p. 326. 326. 350 ,,0 Kircher, IIO), detail see Mungello, op. Kircher, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. n o ) , pp. pp. 173-223. 173-223. For For further further detail see Mungello, op. cit. cit. (n.6), (n. 6), pp. 160-62. pp.160-62. 351 "I Confocius Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n. (n.91), 91),pp. pp.lx-lxii. lx-lxii. 352 CV, I, I, 78, 78, 91-92. 91-92. "'CV,

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Intellectual Intellectual Life Life "prudent, -unlike most 353 It "prudent, wise, wise, and and clement" clement"—unlike most of of his his successors. successors.353 It also also traces the the rapid rapid growth growth of of both both Buddhism Buddhism and and popular popular Taoism Taoism during during the the traces Later Han Han and and gives gives aa rather rather complete complete account account of of politics politics and and court court affairs affairs Later from Wang Wang Mang's Mang's usurpation usurpation (A.D. (A.D. 9-23) 9-23) to to the the fall fall of of the the dynasty dynasty in in from 354 A . D . 220. 220. 354 A.D. To To European European observers observers the the most most important important event event of of the the glorious glorious T'ang T'ang dynasty (6r8.,...907) (618-907) was was the the coming coming of of Christianity Christianity to to China. China. A A stele stele which which dynasty had been been erected erected by by the the Nestorians Nestorians in in the the T'ang T'ang capital capital of of Ch'ang-an Ch'ang-an was was had unearthed in in r623 1623 or or r625. 1625. Semedo Semedo saw saw itit in in r625 1625 and and described described itit in in his his unearthed 1642 description description of of China. China.355 Most subsequent subsequent writers writers also also comment comment on on the the r642 355 Most stele and and the the Christian Christian mission mission which which had had produced produced it. it. Kircher's Kircher's China Chinaillusillusstele trata(r667) (1667)contains containsthe themost mostcomplete completediscussion discussionofofit,it,together togetherwith withthe the trata text of of its its inscription inscription in in Chinese Chinese and and Syriac, Syriac, and and aa Latin Latin translation. translation. The The text inscription describes describes the the advent advent of of Christianity Christianity at at Ch'ang-an Ch'ang-an in in 636, 636, sumsuminscription marizes the the basic basic Nestorian beliefs, and and lists lists the the bishops bishops and and priests priests who who had had marizes Nestorian beliefs, served the the church church in in Ch'ang-an Ch'ang-an and and the the emperors emperors who who had had patronized patronized it. it. served The stele stele itself itself had had been been erected erected only only in in 781. 781. In In Kircher's Kircher's work, work, the the planting planting The of Christianity Christianity in in China China became part of of the the global global spread spread of of the the gospel gospel just just of became part as Buddhism was part of the global spread of idolatry. Although the misas Buddhism was part of the global spread of idolatry. Although the missionaries continued continued to to believe believe that that Saint Saint Thomas Thomas had preached Christianity Christianity sionaries had preached in China during the first century, neither the stele nor any other Chinese in China during the first century, neither the stele nor any other Chinese source supported them. Navarrete, in fact, complains that Chinese source supported them. Navarrete, in fact, complains that Chinese histohistorians to mention the seventh-century seventh-century Christian Christian church. church.356 rians even even fail fail to mention the 356 Apart from edifying stories about about the the emperor emperor T'ai T'ai Tsung (618-26) reApart from edifying stories Tsung (6r8-26) re357 lated by nothing else else about about the T'ang as depicted depicted by by Chinese Chinese lated by Navarrete, Navarrete, ll7 nothing the T' ang as scholars appears appears in in European European publications before Thevenot's Thevenot's "Decas "Decas sescholars publications before secunda." That work and balanced sketch of T'ang. cunda." That work contains contains aa detailed detailed and balanced sketch of the the T'ang. There and other other emperors, emperors, but There are are pious pious stories stories about about T'ai T'ai Tsung Tsung and but in in addiaddition affairs of "Decas secunda" secunda" traces tion to to the the affairs of rulers, rulers, the the "Decas traces the the fortunes fortunes of of Christianity—especially Christianity-especially its its persecution persecution under under the the empress empress Wu WU (684—710)— (684-7IO)the Tsung the influence influence of of Buddhism, Buddhism, the the revival revival of of Confucianism Confucianism under under Hsuan Hsuan Tsung (712-56), and An Lu-shan's rebellion (755). In the period of rapid decline (7r2- 56), and An Lu-shan's rebellion (755). In the period of rapid decline after after Hsuan Hsuan Tsung's Tsung's death, death, the the "Decas "Decas secunda" secunda" reports, reports, most most of of the the 358 358 emperors were Buddhists chosen by the palace eunuchs. Buddhism's emperors were Buddhists chosen by the palace eunuchs. Buddhism's popularity, further popularity, deplored deplored by by the the writer writer and and his his Confucian Confucian sources, sources, was was further attested by the elaborate court reception put on in 803 for the bone attested by the elaborate court reception put on in 803 for the bone of of 359 Buddha. Buddha. 359 Apart Apart from from its its treatment treatment in in the the "Decas "Decas secunda" secunda" the the Sung Sung dynasty dynasty was was 353

tit. (n. 22-23. m hoc. Loc. cit. (n. 100), 100), pp. pp. 22-23. JWd., pp. pp. 2121-27. 354 Ibid., 2 7. See above, above, pp. pp. 1646-47. 1646-47. J55 See 356 Kircher, op. o ) , pp. 35'Kircher, op. cit. cit. (n. (n. n110), pp. 1-62; 1-62; Navarrete, Navarrete, CV, CV, I, I, 74. 74. mcv,y I,I, 93-9593-95. ™CV 358 ]58 Loc. Loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 100), 100), pp. pp. 4253. 42-53. i59 Jj9Ibid. Ibid.,y p. p. 51. 51. This This miracle-working miracle-working bone bone was was brought brought in in state state to to the the imperial imperial palace palace in in 819 819 354 355

[ r7 2 7 ] [1727]

China: The The Early Early Ch'ing Ch'ing Dynasty Dynasty China: similarly slighted slighted by by those those who who described described China China to to Europe Europe during during the the latter latter similarly seventeenth century. century. Martini Martini and and some some others others notice notice that that Hangchow, Hangchow, the the seventeenth Southern Sung Sung capital, capital, was was the the city city Marco Marco Polo Polo called called "Quinsai." "Quinsai." The The tenth tenth Southern Sung emperor emperor had had moved moved there, there, Martini Martini reports, reports, after after the the northern northern provprovSung Navarrete writes writes more more about about Sung Sung than than inces had had been been lost lost to to the the Tartars. Tartars.360 inces 360 Navarrete most. It It was was aa time, time, he he claims, claims, "when "when learning learning flourished most," and and when when most. flourished most," the number number of of schools schools and and degree degree holders holders increased. increased. He He lists lists the the numbers numbers the and categories categories of of "bachelors" "bachelors" alloted alloted to to each each town, town, city, city, and and metropolis. metropolis.361 and 36 ' Navarrete observed, observed, too, too, that that the the Sung Sung commentaries commentaries on on the the classics classics were were Navarrete the officially officially established established homework homework for for the the examinations. examinations.362 In his his catalog catalog of of the 3 62 In exemplary deeds deeds and and sayings sayings of of emperors emperors and and officials, officials, aa disproportionate disproportionate exemplary number come come from from the the Sung Sung period, period, although although he he does does not not identify identify them them number 363 363 as such. as such. The "Decas "Decas secunda" secunda" provides provides considerable considerable detail detail to to support support the the generfll general The impression that that Confucian Confucian morality morality and and scholarship scholarship flourished during the the impression flourished during Sung. It It bristles bristles with with the the names names and and accomplishments accomplishments of of scholars scholars such such as Sung. as Ssu-ma Kuang, Cheng I,I, and and Chu Chu Hsi, and is is replete replete with with Ssu-ma Kuang, Wang Wang An-shih, An-shih, Cheng Hsi, and stories exemplifying exemplifying Confucian Confucian virtues. along with with the virstories virtues. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, along the virtuous deeds of of Sung Sung emperors, emperors, Emperor Tsung's homosexuality and its tuous deeds Emperor Jen Jen Tsung's homosexuality and its popularity in his his court court are are reported, reported, as are the decline of of the the last last emempopularity in as are the moral moral decline 364 perors and the the dynasty's dynasty's continuous continuous inability perors and inability to to control control the the Mongols. Mongols. 36, Much in European about the Much more more was was reported reported in European publications publications about the fall fall of of Sung Sung to dynasty which to the the Mongols Mongols and and about about the the Yuan Yuan dynasty which the the intruders intruders estabestablished. Manchu Conquest 1644 obviously obviously provoked curiosity about about lished. The The Manchu Conquest of of 1644 provoked curiosity China's earlier Tartars and China's earlier relations relations with with the the Tartars and about about the the Mongol Mongol period period when, Tartars had when, as as the the European European writers writers understood understood it, it, the the Tartars had ruled ruled all all of of China. Martini reports that the hostility between the Chinese and Tartar China. Martini reports that the hostility between the Chinese and Tartar tribes tribes was was millennia millennia old; old; the the first first Tartar Tartar invasion invasion reported reported by by Chinese Chinese hishistorians occurred during the reign of the sage emperor Shun torians occurred during the reign of the sage emperor Shun in in the the third third 365 millennium historiae "Decas secunda" millennium B.C. B. C. 36 5 Martini's Martini's Sinicae Sinicae historiae andand thethe "Decas secunda" in in Thevenot's compilation contain hundreds of reports about Tartar raids or Thevenot's compilation contain hundreds of reports about Tartar raids or wars wars and and about about Chinese Chinese efforts efforts to to control control the the Tartars Tartars diplomatically diplomatically or or milimilitarily. Almost everyone, from Pantoja in the beginning of the century tarily. Almost everyone, from Pantoja in the beginning of the century to to Ides Ides at at the the end, end, reports reports something something about about the the Mongol Mongol Conquest, Conquest, if if only only to to observe observe that that the the Tartars Tartars had had once once before before conquered conquered all all of of China. China. Several Several writers—Martini, writers-Martini, the the author author of of the the "Decas "Decas secunda," secunda," D'Orleans, D'Orleans, and and by Emperor Emperor Hsien Hsien Tsung Tsung despite despite the the protests protests of of some some of of his his Confucian Confucian officials. officials. See See C. C. Eliot, Eliot, by Hinduism Hinduism and and Buddhism Buddhism (3 (3 vols.; vols.; London, London, 1954), 1954), III, III, 265-67. 265-67. i6o 360Op. 0 p . cit. cit. (n. (n. 99), 99), pp. pp. 133-37133-37. 361 36 • Navarrete, V, I,I, 49. Navarrete, C CV, 49. 362 362 Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 198. 198. See See also also Confucius Con}Ucius sinarum sinarumphilosophus philosophus(n. (n.91), 91),pp. pp.xxxiv-xxxix. xxxiv-xxxix. 363 36 3 C V, I, I, 96-102. 96- I02. CV, 364 36, Loc. Loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 100), IOO), pp. pp. 56-66. 56-66. 365 ]6, Op. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 97), 97), p. p. 32. 32.

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Intellectual Life Intellectual Life Magalhaes, detail.366 366 Magalhaes, for for example-describe example—describe the the Mongol Mongol effort effort in in some some detail. They usually distinguish between between the the Eastern Tartars or or Manchus, They usually distinguish Eastern Tartars Manchus, who who had had established the the Chin Chin state state in in north China in 1126, and Western Tartars Tartars or established north China in 1126, and the the Western or Mongols, who had been invited by Southern Sung Sung emperor emperor to drive out out Mongols, who had been invited by the the Southern to drive the Chin Chin in in 1206. 1206. As As D'Orleans D'Orleans saw saw it, it, the the emperor emperor had had "called "called in in the the aid aid of the of powerful enemy enemy to to drive drive out out aa weaker weaker one." one."367 The Mongols Mongols indeed indeed subsubaa powerful 367 The dued the the Chin Chin and and then then turned turned on on the Southern Sung, Sung, although although it it took took over dued the Southern over seventy years to end end Sung Sung resistance. resistance. D'Orleans D'Orleans describes describes how the dynasty dynasty seventy years to how the died in in 1279 1279 when the defeated defeated Sung Sung general general took child-emperor in in his died when the took the the child-emperor his 368 arms and and plunged plunged into into the the sea. arms sea. 368 In In 1271 1271 Khublai Khublai Khan Khan (Shih-tsu) (Shih-tsu) established established the the dynasty dynasty called called Yiian Yuan after after having his court Peking-Marco Polo's having moved moved his court in in 1264 1264 to to Peking—Marco Polo's "Cambaluc." "Cambaluc." Post-1650 European European writers writers continue continue to comment on on Marco Polo's visit to Post-1650 to comment Marco Polo's visit to China during during the Yiian, to to demonstrate the identity Polo's Cathay Cathay with China the Yuan, demonstrate the identity of of Polo's with China, and and to to note note the the general general accuracy story. Magalhaes, however, China, accuracy of of his his story. Magalhaes, however, thinks Polo had erred erred in in reporting reporting the the use of paper money during during the the Yiian, Yuan, thinks Polo had use of paper money but in in this, this, too, was correct. correct.369 D'Orleans reports that Khublai Khublai but too, Marco Marco Polo Polo was 369 D'Orleans reports that became popular with his Chinese subjects subjects and and is is still still considered considered "holy." "holy."370 became popular with his Chinese 370 In the "Decas secunda," secunda," too, too, he is described described as as pious, perspicacious, prupruIn the "Decas he is pious, perspicacious, dent, magnanimous, and aa patron patron of of letters. letters.371 Martini observes observes that that the dent, magnanimous, and 37' Martini the Mongols brought almost seventy seventy years years of of peace China, during which Mongols brought almost peace to to China, during which time they lost their their former former vigor and martial spirit.372 Nor was the Yiian Yuan detime they lost vigor and martial spirit. 37> Nor was the devoid of peaceful achievements: the Grand Canal Canal and and the the much-admired much-admired aspeaceful achievements: the Grand asvoid of tronomical instruments in in the observatory are are credited credited to tronomical instruments the imperial imperial observatory to the the Mongols.373 Mongols. 373 Late writers continue Late seventeenth-century seventeenth-century writers continue to to describe describe Chu Chu Yiian-chang's Yuan-chang's revolt and the the consequent consequent establishment establishment of of the native Ming dynasty in revolt and the native Ming dynasty in 1368.374 the story, 1368.374 They They sometimes sometimes add add additional additional details details and and insights insights to to the story, but but in general general they as had had Pantoja, Trigault, and and Semedo Semedo earlier in they report report it it much much as Pantoja, Trigault, earlier in the century.375 century.375 That an orphan, orphan, former former monk, monk, and and bandit could have have sucin the That an bandit could successfully led led the which toppled the Yiian Yuan dynasty dynasty fascinates fascinates European European cessfully the revolt revolt which toppled the 366 Martini, De hello tartarico tartarko (n. 7), pp. and Atlas (n. 99), 99), pp. pp. 116-17; "Synopsis '''Martini, De bello (n. 7), pp. 255-57, 255-57, and Atlas (n. II6-17; "Synopsis chronologica" (n. 100), chronologica" (n. 100), pp. pp.64-66; 64-66; D'Orleans, D'Orleans, op. op. cit. tit. (n. (n.68), 68), PP.2-5; pp. 2 - 5 ; Magaihaes, Magalhaes, op. op. cit. cit. (n. 65), 65), pp. 19-21. (n. pp. 19-21. 367 Op. cit. tit. (n. (n. 68), 68), p. '''Op. p. 3. 3. 36 ,68*Ibid., Ibid., p.p.4.4.See Seealso also"Synopsis "Synopsischronologica" chronologica" (n. (n. 100), 100),p.p.66. 66. 369 '''Op. pp. 136-37. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 65), 65), pp. 136-37370 '700 cit. (n. p. 4. 4. p . cit. Op. (n. 68), 68), p. 371 '7' Loc. Loc. cit. cit. (n. (n. 100), 100), p. p. 67. 67. 372 3720p. 7), p. p. 256. 256. Op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 373 313 See See above, above, p. p. 1643; 1643; "Synopsis "Synopsis chronologica" chronologica" (n. (n. 100), 100), p. p. 67; 67; Magalhaes, Magalhaes, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 65), 65), pp. pp. II4-15, 114-15, II8. n8. 374 374For 251-52; "SynFor examples examples see see Martini, Martini, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 7), 7), p. p. 256; 256; Nieuhof, Nieuhof, op. op. cit. cit. (n. (n. 29), 29), II, II, 251-52; "Synopsis chronologica" PP.70, pp. 253-54; 253-54; D'Orleans, opsis chronologica" (n. (n. 100), 100), pp. 70, 72; 72; Magalhaes, Magalhaes, op. op. cit. cit. (n.65), (n. 65), pp. D'Orleans, op. cit. (n. p. 5. 5. op. cit. (n. 68), 68), p. 375 37SSSee ee above, above, pp. pp. 1647-48. 1647-48.

29 ] 1729 [ 17

China: Early Ch'ing China: The The Early CWxng Dynasty Dynasty observers. observers. Chu, Chu, of of course, course, claimed claimed the the "Mandate "Mandate of of Heaven" Heaven" to to free free China China from Mongol Mongol tyranny. tyranny. Magalhaes Magalhaes observes observes that that all all rebels rebels in in Chinese Chinese history history from claimed as as much much and and hoped hoped to to found found new new dynasties. dynasties. That That hope, hope, he he specuspecuclaimed lates, probably accounts for for the the many Chinese history.37 history.3766 Once Once lates, probably accounts many rebellions rebellions in in Chinese the Mongols Mongols were were defeated defeated and and the the new new dynasty dynasty secured, secured, Chu, Chu, the Hungthe the Hungwu emperor, emperor, turned to more more peaceful pursuits. He He established established new new laws, laws, as wu turned to peaceful pursuits. as did all all founders founders of of Chinese Chinese dynasties, dynasties, and and as as reported in the "Decas sedid reported in the "Decas se377 cunda," he he collected collected books books and and received tribute missions. Several writers writers cunda," received tribute missions.J77 Several describe the the Yung-lo emperor's usurpation of the the crown crown and and removal describe Yung-Io emperor's usurpation of removal of of the court court from from Nanking Nanking to to Peking Peking in in 142I. 1421. Some Some also also mention mention the the widewidethe ranging maritime maritime expeditions expeditions of of his his reign, reign, but but other other Europeans Europeans doubt doubt the ranging the 378 Late accuracy of of those those reports. reports.378 Late seventeenth-century seventeenth-century writers, especially accuracy writers, especially those who who report report on on the the Manchu Manchu Conquest, Conquest, also also give give increased increased attention attention to to those Ming relations with the Tartars and the persistent ineptitude of late Ming Ming relations with the Tartars and the persistent ineptitude of late Ming government, all all of of which which appeared appeared as as antecedents antecedents to to the 1644 conquest. conquest. government, the 1644 Post-1650 European European descriptions descriptions of of China China naturally naturally contain contain countless countless dePost-16so details about about the the last last years years of of the the Ming Ming dynasty, dynasty, the Conquest, and tails the Manchu Manchu Conquest, and the early early Ch'ing. Ch'ing. Many Many of of these these derived derived from from the the writers' writers' own own observations observations the rather than than from from traditional traditional Chinese Chinese scholarship. scholarship. Seventeenth-century Seventeenth-century readreadrather ers, however, however, no no doubt doubt considered considered this this information information news news rather rather than ers, than hishistory. They They may may also also have have seen seen it it as as the working out out of of long-term long-term trends trends in tory. the working in Chinese history or the the dynamic dynamic play play between between the the ancient, ancient, great great traditions traditions Chinese history or sketched by by Martini Martini and and the disruptive events events of of the mid-seventeenth sketched the disruptive the mid-seventeenth century. century. An industrious reader could have learned An industrious seventeenth-century seventeenth-century reader could have learned aa great great deal about about China's China's history. history. Some Some of of it it was was systematically, systematically, indeed indeed chronochronodeal logically, organized organized for for him-by him—by Martini, Martini, Thevenot, Thevenot, and and Couplet, Couplet, for for logically, example. Some Some of of it it was was tucked tucked away away in in the descriptions of of China's China's people, example. the descriptions people, institutions, customs, customs, and and landscape. landscape. Some Some parts parts of of it it were were frequently frequently institutions, repeated. If it it was somewhat slanted, slanted, the the bias bias was of its its ConConrepeated. If was somewhat was primarily primarily that that of fucian sources. But an interpretive bias need not necessarily produce inaccufucian sources. But an interpretive bias need not necessarily produce inaccurate history, and and apart apart from from obviously obviously mythological mythological stories stories about about the the sage rate history, sage emperors, the ancient dynasties, and the hagiographic life of Confucius, the emperors, the ancient dynasties, and the hagiographic life of Confucius, the story of China's past presented to seventeenth-century Europeans was fairly story of China's past presented to seventeenth-century Europeans was fairly reliable. No No better better information information became available in in the the West-or West—or in in China, China, became available reliable. for that that matter-for matter—for the the next two and one-half centuries. If he or she were for next two and one-half centuries. If he or she were reasonably diligent, therefore, therefore, our our seventeenth-century seventeenth-century European European reader reader reasonably diligent, could have learned as as much about Chinese Chinese history history as as "all "all the the schoolboys schoolboys in could have learned much about in China know," know," to to steal steal Navarrete's phrase,379 and and considerably considerably more than China Navarrete's phrase,379 more than most twentieth-century university graduates graduates in in the the West. most twentieth-century university West. i76 Op. tit. (n. 65), 65), pp. pp. 253253-54. "'Op. Cit. (n. 54.

377 "Synopsis chronologica" chronologica" (n. (n. 100), 100), pp. pp. 72-74. 72-74. J77"Synopsis 378 "'For Navarrete, CV, For example, example, see see Le Le Comte, Comte, op. op. cit. tit. (n. (n. 125), 125), p. p. 231; 231; Navarrete, CV, I, I, 6. 6. 379 mcv, 7. CV, I, I, 7.

1730

THE THE MAPS MAPS OF OF CHINA CHINA

The European European depiction depiction of of China, China, unlike the mapping mapping The unlike the ofIndia, of India, owes owes aa heavy heavy debt debt to to the the native native cartographic cartographic tradition. Beginning Beginning early early in in the the century century the the Europeans Europeans tradition. began to collect and and imitate imitate the the maps maps prepared the began to collect prepared by by the Chinese On these these outlines they placed roChinese themselves. themselves. On outlines they placed romanizations of of the of provinces, cities, rivers, manizations the names names of provinces, cities, rivers, mountains, lakes, lakes, and and seas. seas. To Chinese maps maps they they mountains, To the the Chinese added conventions conventions and and physical physical features features taken taken from from added earlier European European maps maps and and written descriptions, or or earlier written descriptions, they added new Chinese materials to earlier earlier European European they added new Chinese materials to prototypes. In the latter latter half of the the century century the the Jesuits Jesuits prototypes. In the half of acquired more and better Chinese maps, maps, which they more and better Chinese which they acquired relayed Europe along along with inforrelayed to to Europe with new new geographical geographical information. By century's century's end end certain certain of of the Jesuits had had mation. By the Jesuits begun to to cooperate cooperate with with the Chinese in the geographgeographbegun the Chinese in the ical survey survey of of the empire. For For aa succinct succinct history of the the ical the empire. history of beginnings of the Jesuit cartography cartography of of China China see see T. T. N. N. beginnings of the Jesuit Foss, "A "A Jesuit Jesuit Encyclopedia Encyclopedia for for China. China. A A Guide Guide to to Foss, Chine Jean-Baptiste Du Halde's Description Jean-Baptiste Du Halde's Description . .... .dedela la Chine (Ph.D. diss.; diss.; 22 vols.; vols.; Committee Committee on on History History of of (I735)" (Ph.D. (I735)" Culture, University of Chicago, Chicago, I979), 1979), Vol. Vol. I, I, chap. chap, ii; Culture, University of ii; and H. H. Wallis, Wallis, "Missionary "Missionary Cartographers Cartographers to to China," China," and GeographicalMagazine, Magazine,XLVII XLVII(I975), (1975),75I-59. 751-59. Geographical

284. OF CHINA 284. PURCHAS' PURCHAS' MAP MAP OF CHINA From Samuel Purchas, Purchas, Hakluytus (Glasgow, From Samuel Hakluytus Posthumus Posthumus (Glasgow, 1906), and 481. I906), XII, XII, between between pp. pp. 480 480 and 481. "The original! originall Map, Map, whence taken "The whence this this present present was was taken and contracted, was Captaine Uohn] [John] Saris Saris ... . . . gotgotby Captaine and contracted, was by ten at Bantam of Chinese, in in taking taking aa distresse of ten at Bantam of aa Chinese, distresse of debts owing to merchants; who seeing him him debts owing to the the English English merchants; who seeing carefull to convey away away aa Boxe, carefull carefull to convey Boxe, was was the the more more carefull to apprehend it and therein Map, which which ananto apprehend it and therein found found this this Map, other Chinese Chinese lodged lodged at at his his house, lately come come from from other house, lately China, had had brought him..... . . . Master Hakluyt China, brought with with him Master Hakluyt procured it it of of the the Captaine, Captaine, ... . . . and and Master Master Hakluyt Hakluyt procured following, this this Map Map came came to to my my hand, hand, who who sought sought to to following, expresse my my love love to to the the publike publike in in communicating communicating expresse what II could could thereof. thereof. For For it it being in China China Characters Characters what being in (which II thinke, thinke, none none in in England, England, if if any any in in Europe, Europe, (which understands) II could could not not wholly wholly give give it, it, when when II give give it; it; understands) no man man being able to to receive, receive, what what he he can can no no way way conconno being able ceive" (p. (p. 470). ceive" 470). Purchas dropped dropped the the characters characters off off this this map, map, which which Purchas was "above "above foure foure foot foot one one way, way, and and almost almost five five foot foot was the other" other" (p. (p. 47I). 471). He He filled filled in in the the names names of of the the provprovthe inces from from his his study study of of the the Jesuit Jesuit relations. relations. Notice Notice that that inces Korea appears appears here here as as an an overly overly large large peninsula, peninsula, that that is is Korea extended much much too too far far to to the the south. south. extended The characters characters at at the the top top of of the the map, map, reading reading from from The right to to left, left, are are huang-ming huang-ming i-tung i-tung fang-yu fang-yii pei-Ian; pei-lan; they they right mean: "Map "Map of of the the Whole Whole of of China China under under the the Ming Ming mean: emperor." The The European, European, probably probably missionary, missionary, calcalemperor." ligrapher has has written written several several of of the the characters characters ligrapher incorrectly. incorrectly.

285. 2 8 5 . MAP MAP OF OF CHINA CHINA

AND AND ITS ITS EASTERN EASTERN PERIPHERY PERIPHERY From Nicolas Nicolas Sanson Sanson d' d'Abbeville, UAsie en plusieurs plusieurs From Abbeville, L' Asie en cartes(Paris, (Paris,r652), 1652),n.n.p. Pis.372 372and and390 390are arealso alsofrom from cartes p. PIs. this book. book. this Engraved Engraved by by A. A. Peyrounin. Peyrounin. This This outline outline isis possibly possibly based based on on one one ofPurchas' of Purchas' maps maps but but with with many many changes, changes, omissions, omissions, and and modificamodifications. tions. See See B. B. SzcezeSniak, Szcezesniak, "The "The Seventeenth Seventeenth Century Century Maps Maps of of China. China. An An Inquiry Inquiry into into the the Compilations Compilations of of European European Cartographers," Cartographers," Imago Imagomundi, mundi,XIII XIII(r956), (i956)> rr8-23. 118-23. Notice Notice that that the the longitude longitude of of China China isis much much too too far far to to the the east. east. According According to to the the text, text, Sanson Sanson gathered gathered his his informainformation tion from from the the works works of ofJuan Juan Gonzalez Gonzalez de de Mendoza Mendoza and and from from Diego Diego de de Pantoja Pantoja in in Purchas Purchas as as well well as as from from the the available availableJesuit Jesuit letterbooks. letterbooks. His His materials materials on on Annam Annam were were probably probably derived derived from from Rhodes Rhodes and and other otherJesuits. Jesuits. Korea Korea isis here here shown shown as as an an island. island. Perhaps Perhaps Sanson Sanson copied copied this this mistake mistake from from the theJapan Japan map map (ca. (ca.r650) 1650) of of Philippe Philippe Briet, Briet, aaJesuit Jesuit teacher teacher of ofgeography geography ininParis. Paris. The The confusion confusion over over Korea Korea asasan an island island or or peninsula peninsula goes goes back back atatleast least to to the the maps maps prepared prepared for for Abraham Abraham Ortelius' terrarum (r 580). A few earlier Ortelius' Theatrum Theatrumorbis orbis terrarum (1580). A few earlier 554), maps, maps, such such asasthe the Lopo Lopo Homem Homem planisphere planisphere (r(1554), correctly depicted depicted Korea Korea asasaapeninsula. peninsula. correctly

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286. MAP MAP OF AND ITS ITS PERIPHERY PERIPHERY 286. OF CHINA CHINA AND From Johan Blaeu, Asia(Amsterdam, (Amsterdam, FromJohan Blaeu, Atlas Atlas maior, maior, Asia 1662), Vol. 1662), Vol. X, X, Bk. Bk. 2, 2, frontispiece. frontispiece. Pis. Pis. 294, 294, 295, 295, 297, 297, 302, book. 302, and and 318 318 are are also also from from this this book. This It is This is is Martino Martino Martini's Martini's general general map map of of China. China. It is essentially aa Latin Latin version version of of Chu Chu Ssu-pen's Ssu-pen's work work enenessentially y titled Yu Yii ti Ii tI'uu (printed (printed 1311-12) 1 JI 1 - 12) as as it it appeared appeared in in the the titled by Lo Lo Hung-hsien Hung-hsien (1504-64) (1504-64) entitled entitled revised version version by revised Kuang yii Kuang yu t'u. Vu. ItIt was was first first published published separately separately in in MarMartini's Novus Novus atlas atlas sinensis tini's sinensis(Amsterdam, (Amsterdam,1655) 1655)issued issuedbyby the Blaeu Blaeu printing printing house. house. Notice Notice that that Korea Korea is is clearly clearly the as aa peninsula peninsula even even though though misshapen. misshapen. To To the the depicted as depicted west Martini Martini retains retains the the European European map map convention convention of of west the imaginary imaginary lake lake in in which which the the rivers rivers of of Southeast Southeast the to originate. originate. Yezo Yezo is is shown shown as as an an Asia were were supposed supposed to Asia island north north of ofJapan. Japan. Japan Japan itself, itself, as as well well as as Formosa Formosa island and part part of of Luzon, Luzon, are are within within Martini's Martini's delineation delineation of of and the Chinese Chinese empire. empire. the

287. MAP OF CHINA CHINA DATED DATED 1654 1654 287. MAP OF

From the the English English translation translation of of Martino Martino Martini's Martini's From Bellum Tartaricumappended appendedtotoAlvarez AlvarezSemedo, Semedo,The The Bellum Tartaricum

History of of That That Great Great and and Renowned of China China History Renowned Monarchy Monarchy of (London, 1655), 1655), facing facing p. p. 255. 255. Pis. 288, 342, 342, and and 388 (London, PIs. 288, 388

are also also from from this this edition edition of of Semedo. Semedo. are This This is is known known as as Martini's Martini's "little "little map," map," according according to loc. cit. cit.(pI. (pi.285), 285),p.p.125, 125,pI. pi. 6.6.The The to B. B. SzcezeSniak, Szcezesniak, loc. same same map map is is found found in in Adrien Adrien Greslon's Greslon's Histoire Histoirededelala Chine 1671). Chine (Paris, (Paris, 1671).

288. MAP MAP OF DATED 1655 288. OF CHINA CHINA DATED 1655 From Semedo, op op.. cit. cit. (pi. (pi. 287) 287),, facing facing p. From Semedo, p. 1. I. This related to to the the Purchas Purchas map 284) This is is closely closely related map (pl. (pi. 284) in nomenclature, and in proportions, proportions, nomenclature, and illustrations. illustrations. Ricci's Ricci's portrait on is replaced portrait on the the Purchas Purchas map map is replaced here here with with aa dedepiction of piction of "A "A King King of of China." China."

89. COUPLET'S 2289. MAP OF COUPLET'S MAP OF CHINA CHINA

From Philippe Philippe Couplet phiFrom Couplet et et aI., al, Confocius Confuciussinarum sinarumphilosophus chrolosophus(Paris, (Paris,1687), 1687),section sectionon onCouplet's Couplet'sTabula Tabula chronologica monarchiae sinicae (Paris, 1686), facing p. 108. nologica monarchiae sinicae (Paris, 1686), facing p. 108. Pis. 309, 345, 345, 349, 352, 354, and 355 are also also from PIs. 309, 349, 352, 354, and 355 are from this this book. book. This map shows the 15 This map shows the 15 provinces provinces and and 150 150 major major cities The Christian Christian churches cities of of the the Chinese Chinese empire. empire. The churches and residences, marked by aa cross, and Jesuit Jesuit residences, marked by cross, number number around 200. lake "Kia" "Kia" to to the the around 200. Notice Notice the the mythical mythical lake west. Korea is is shown shown correctly correctly as as aa peninsula, it is is peninsula, but but it west. Korea still placed The Great Great Wall erroneously enenstill placed incorrectly. incorrectly. The Wall erroneously closes Liaotung. Liaotung. closes

290. KIRCHER'S KIRCHER'S MAP MAP OF OF CHINA 290. CHINA

From Athanasius Athanasius Kircher, Kircher, La La Chine Chine illustree illustree (AmsterFrom (Amsterdam, 1670), between between pp. pp. 44 and and 5. 5. Pis. Pis. 296, 296, 299, 299, 300, 300, dam, 1670), 308, 311, 316, 317, 333, 340, 353, 375, 383-87, and 308,311,316,317,333,340,353,375,383-87, and 410 410 are are also also from from this this book. book. See See also also pi. pI. 376. 376. This This is is based based on on the the general general map map of of China China in in MarMartini's Atlas Atlas (see (see our our pi. pI. 286). 286). It It omits omits much much of of the the Japan Japan tini's and Yezo Yezo shown shown on on Martini's Martini's map, map, but but itit does does depict depict and Korea as as aa peninsula. peninsula. It It also also omits omits Luzon, Luzon, CochinCochinKorea China, and and materials materials to to the the west west of of the the imaginary imaginary lake, lake, China, but but is is otherwise otherwise aa close close copy copy of of the the Martini Martini map. map.

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NIEUHOF'SS MAP MAP OF 2291. 9 1 . NIEUHOF OF CHINA CHINA From des HoUandois a la From Johann Johann Nieuhof, Nieuhof, Ambassade Ambassade des Hollandois a la Chine .. .. . . traduits traduits sur manuscrits HoUandois (Paris, Chine sur deux deux manuscrits Hollandois (Paris,

1666), end end of of vol. vol. 1666), This is is Martini's Martini's map, from the the Blaeu atlas.. It It This map, taken taken from Blaeu atlas shows than most most the the peripheral peripheral states shows better better than states of of China. China.

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292. ROUTE ROUTE TAKEN TAKEN BY BY DUTCH DUTCH EMBASSY FROM 292. EMBASSY FROM CANTON TO TO PEKING PEKING IN CANTON IN 1655-56 1655-56 From Gesandtschaffi. .. . . (Amster. (AmsterFrom Johann Johann Nieuhof, Nieuhof, Die Die Gesandtschaffi dam, 1666), 301, 303, I666), facing facing p. p. 444. 444. Pis. PIs. 30I, 303, 305, 305, 314, 3I4, 315, 3I5, dam, 319-24, 326, 326, 328-30, 334, 335, 335, 337-39, 34i, I , 351, 32 8-30 , 334, 319-24, 337-39, 34 35 I , 360-64, 367, 367, 374, 377, 381, and 382 382 are also from this 360-64, 374, 377, 38I, and are also from this book. book. prepared by by Nieuhof Nieuhofhimself, Evidently Evidently drawn drawn and and prepared himself, according to to the caption on on the But the the map still according the caption the map. map. But map still owes Martini map. owes aa heavy heavy debt debt to to the the Martini map. Lists Lists almost almost every route from every town town on on the the route from Canton Canton to to Peking, Peking, to to give the viewer viewer aa vivid give the vivid impression impression of of China's China's crowded crowded landscape. landscape. For For identifications identifications of of the the towns towns and and showshowplaces K wangtung see places of of Kwangtung see C. C. Imbault Imbault Huart, Huart, "Le "Le voyage travers la la voyage de de l'ambassade l'ambassade hollandaise hollandaise de de I656 1656 a travers province jRAS (China province de de Canton," Canton," JRAS (China Branch), Branch), n.s., n.s., No. I1 (I895-96), Vol. Vol. XXX, XXX, No. (1895-96), pp. pp. I-73. 1-73.

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293. ROUTE OF DUTCH EMBASSY EMBASSY 293. ROUTE OF THE THE DUTCH From 68. From Nieuhof, Nieuhof, op. op. cit. cit. (pi. (pi. 29I), 291), facing facing p. p. 68.

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294. FRONTISPIECE, BLAEU BLAEU'S 294. FRONTISPIECE, S ATLAS MAJOR, MAJOR, X X (1662). ATLAS (1662). This is the the volume that contains Martini's Novus Novus atlas This is volume that contains Martini's atlas sinensis. Cf.totoclose-up close-upengravings engravingsof ofdoor, door,opener, opener, sinensis. Cj the frontispiece cupids, globes, globes, etc., cupids, etc., in in the frontispiece to to Martini's Martini's work itself (pI. (pi. 295). work itself 295).

2295 9 5 .. FRONTISPIECE, FRONTISPIECE, MARTINI'S NOVUS NOVUS ATLAS ATLAS SINENSIS MARTINI'S SINENSIS From Vol. Vol. X X of ofBlaeu's Atlas major. From Blaeu's Atlas major.

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ACU-POINTS ACU-POINTS IN IN CHINESE CHINESE MEDICINE MEDICINE From From Michael Michael Boym, Boym, Cia Clavis vis medica medica ad ad chinarum chinarum doctridoctrinam de de pulsibus, pulsibus,ed. ed.Andreas AndreasCleyer, Cleyer,asaspublished publishedininthe the nam appendix to to the the Miscellanea Miscellaneacuriosa curiosa of the Academia appendix of the Academia Caesareo-Leopoldina Naturae Naturae Curiosorum Curiosorum (Nuremberg, (Nuremberg, Caesareo-Leopoldina 1686); illustrations illustrations follow follow p. 142 of of Boym: Boym. 1686); p. 142 These illustrations illustrations to Boym's Clavis Clavis (see (see p. p. 142) 142) are are These to Boym's taken in in turn turn from from Cleyer's Cleyer's Specimen medicinae Sinicae Sinicae taken Specimen medicinae (Frankfurt, 1682). 1682). Plate Plate 356 356 shows shows the three coctive coctive re(Frankfurt, the three regions (shang (shang chiao, chiao, chung chung chiao, chiao, and and hsia hsia chiao), chiao), "cavities," "cavities," gions and pulses, pulses, giving giving for for each each aa Chinese Chinese name name in in romanizaromanizaand tion, aa translation, translation, and and aa description description of of the the location, location, and tion, and for some, some, the diagnostic use. Lu Guei-djen Guei-djen and and Joseph Joseph for the diagnostic use. Lu in CeCeNeedham reproduce reproduce this this illustration illustration from from Cleyer Cleyer in Needham lestial Lancets. Lancets. A History and and Rationale Rationale of of Acupuncture lestial A History Acupuncture and and Moxa (Cambridge, (Cambridge, 1980), 1980), p. p. 278; 278; they they know of no no ChiMoxa know of Chinese original original on on which which this this depiction depiction is is based. Boym's nese based. Boym's Clavis was was probably probably aatranslation translation of ofsome some version version of ofthe the Clavis sixteenth-century Mo chiieh(the (thesecrets secretsofofthe thepulse) pulse)(Lu (Lu Mo chueh sixteenth-century and Needham, Needham, p. p. 285). 285). and

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385. THE THE DALAI DALAI LAMA LAMA AND AND "HAN," 385. "HAN," THE THE DECEASED AND AND REVERED REVERED KING KING OF OF TAN GUT DECEASED TANGUT From Kircher, Kircher, op. op. cit. cit. (pi. (pI. 290), 290), facing facing p. p. 99. From 99. On the the left left isis the the portrait portrait of ofNgawang On Ngawang Labsang Labsang (1617-82), the the Fifth Fifth Dalai Dalai Lama, Lama, as Gyatso (1617-82), Gyatso as executed executed byJohann Johann Grueber, Grueber, S.J., S.J., in in 1661. 1661. Since Since Grueber Grueber could by could notsee seehim him in in person, person, the the Jesuit Jesuit copied copied an an effigy effigy of not of the the out in in the the vestibule vestibule of of his his palace. palace. The DalaiLama Lama set set out Dalai The prostrateTibetans Tibetans are are making making their their obeisances obeisances before prostrate before as ififitit were were the the living living Dalai Dalai Lama Lama therepresentation representation as the himself. himself. Thebust bustlabeled labeled "Han, "Han, the the Dead Dead King King of ofTangut" is The Tangut" is probablyaarepresentation representation of ofGushi Gushi Khan, Khan, aa powerful probably powerful who pacified pacified Tangut, Tangut, presumably presumably the the rereKalmukruler rulerwho Kalmuk gionbetween betweenKoko Koko Nor Nor and and Tibet. Tibet.'1 In In 1640 1640 he he helped helped gion theDalai DalaiLama Lamatake takecontrol control over over Lhasa Lhasa where where Gushi Gushi the managedsecular secularaffairs affairsuntil until his his death death in in 1655. r655. As As aa managed rewardfor forhis hisefforts effortsGushi GushiKhan Khan was was awarded awarded the the title title reward "Han.'"2 After Afterhis hisdeath deaththe the successors successors of of "Han" "Han" ofof"Han." continuedtotowield wieldaadegree degreeof ofsecular secular power power and and were were continued 3 bythe theDalai Dalai Lama. Lama.' similarlyawarded awardedtitles titlesby similarly :

'SeeWessels, Wessels,op. op.cit. cit.(pi. (pI.299), 299).pp. pp.187-88. 187-88. See 'Seethe thequotation quotationfrom fromthe theJesuit Jesuitcartographer cartographerJean-Baptiste Jean-Baptiste Regis Regis as as See givenininAhmad, Ahmad,op. op.cit. cit. (pi. (pI. 374), 374), p. p. 145. 145. given p. 146. 146. Kircher Kircher concludes concludes from from this this that that all 3Ibid .,p. 3Ibid., all the the secular secular rulers rulers of of Tibetwere weredescended descendedfrom from"the "theTartars TartarsofofTangut." Tangut." Tibet 2

V11. Marque Marque PIdolc l'Idole dc de Aidmipe /lfA.;p' dans PI'XXV11. dans13laVille ViUcde dc Barantola, du Royaumc Royaumcde deLA/il. L*Jf*. BArllnt.l.. • du

\'PXXI. X X I. Un autre Idole de Unautrcldolcdc .;JfAmpr. t^fantpe.

386. THE THE IDOL IDOL ""MANIPE" IN LHASA LHASA 386. M A N I P E " IN From Kircher, Kircher, op. op. cit., cit., p. p. 98. 98. From "Manipe rises rises to to aa great great height height and and has has aa nine-fold "Manipe nine-fold division of ofheads heads in in aa cone cone shape" shape" (Van (Van Tuyl division Tuyl [trans.], [trans.], op. cit. cit. [pi. [pI. 299], 299], p. p. 64). 64). "Our "Our fathers, fathers, to op. to illustrate illustrate the the blind folly folly of of those those nations nations worthy worthy of of the blind the pity pity of of lamlamentation, drew drew the the idol idol in in the the form form they they saw entation, saw it. it. in another However, they they also also sent sent it it to to me me in However, another form" form" 65). ((p. P . 65). "Manipe" is is not not the the name name of of the the idol idol shown "Manipe" shown but but is, is, as Kircher Kircher also also realized, realized, aa garbled garbled version version of as of the the mantra mantra om ma om ma ni ni pad pad me mehum, hum,which whichisisananappeal appealtotoAvalokiteAvalokitesvara, aa Tantric Tantric deity deity in in Tibetan Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism. The svara, The idol idol on the the left left is is probably probably the the eleven-headed eleven-headed Avalokitesvara on Avalokitesvara with the the two two backward-facing backward-facing heads heads not not showing. with showing. Kircher believed believed that that the the many-headed many-headed idols Kircher idols of of Asia Asia from similar similar idols idols of of Egypt. were copied copied from were Egypt.

387. "PAGODES," DEITY OF INDIANS, WITH WITH "MANIPE" 387. "PAGODES," DEITY OF THE THE INDIANS, "MANIPE" From Kircher, 0p. op. cit. cit. (pI. (pi. 290), 177. From Kircher, 290), p. p. 177. "Pagodes," this case European word word for for an an idol idol of India, is is applied here to to aa "Pagodes," in in this case aa European of India, applied here deity figure in (See P. Mano figure in the the Hindu Hindu pantheon. pantheon. (See P. Mitter, Mitter, Much Much Madeity that that resembles resembles no lignedMonsters Monsters[Oxford, [Oxford,1977], 1977],p. p. 60.)Apparently Apparentlyit it supposedtotobebea deity a deityofofthethe ligned 60.) is issupposed "wicked sect" sect" of Spanish "wicked of Buddhism. Buddhism. The The six six heads heads perhaps perhaps reflect reflect aa comment comment in in aa Spanish letter seen, to that "there "there exists letter by by Trigault, Trigault, which which Kircher Kircher had had seen, to the the effect effect that exists in in the the province Paguin [Peking] [Peking] aa certain certain idol ofPaguin idol which which has has aa mans man's body body but but three three heads heads province of 122). which other" (Van (Van Tuyl Tuyl [trans.], [trans.], op. [pi. 299], which look look at at each each other" op. cit. cit. [pI. 299], p. p. 122). Or do do the the heads heads merely merely represent represent "Manipe" (see pi. pI. 386) 386) as as the the Tibetan Tibetan form form of of Or "Manipe" (see the Buddha, Buddha, who who was was originally originally the the god god of of the the Indians, Indians, and whose teachings teachings spread the and whose spread to Japanese threethreeto Tibet? Tibet? This This surmise surmise is is reinforced reinforced by by the the illustration illustration in in Kircher Kircher of of aa Japanese headed Certainly god who who is is shown shown in in the the company company of of Amida Amida Buddha Buddha (see (see pi. pI. 410). 410). Certainly headed god Kircher China illustrata wasendeavoring endeavoringtotoshow showthat thatBuddhism Buddhism point in in the the China illustrata was Kircher at at this this point had had spread spread from from India India to to Central Central and and East East Asia. Asia.

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