Aristotle De Anima

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ARISTOTLE

DE ANIMA

ARISTOTLE

DE ANIMA WITH TRANSLATION, INTRODUCTION AND NOTES

BY

R. D. HICKS, M.A.

AMSTERDAM ADOLF M. HAKKERT - PUBLISHER 1965

f3

Lfi S .AtS

TO HENRY ]ACKSON

1~01----

WHO HAS INSPIRED MANY

11(P~

WITH HIS OWN LOVE OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY

(

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Unc:hanAed Reprint of Aristotle,De Anima by R.D.Hicks, 1907. This Reprint Is published by Arraneement with the Cambridge University Press, - London.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. Page 15, critical notes, line 2, after reliqui codd. add Bek. Trend. .. 48, cri~i~al notes, line 4, for appendicem read Fragmenta I., n. [-3, p. 164 infra. .. 56, cntlcal notes, line 12, after Bek. Trend. Torst. add Rodier. 56, critical notes, line 13, after Simpl. Soph. 11 add NVTWV P 11. 57, translation, line 7, for body read rest. .. .. .. .. .. " "

64, critical notes, line 9, for append. read Fragmenta n., I. 61, p. 166 infra. 114, cr~t~cal notes, line 6, for TOr •.•• 3r. -ylveT"" read rOT•••• 3 1• Kal •• 116, cnttcal notes, last line, for r62 read 160. 145, critical notes, line H, for Hayduck read Heinze. 150, critical notes, line 7, for 540 read 140. 150, critical notes, line 13, after ap. crit. ad loc.) adti Bek. Trend. 15 2 , critical notes, last line, after Bek. Trend. adti Biehl. " 204, end of note on 403 b 8, add A similar confusion of o! M-yot with o! "tyOVTES TOUS M-yous may be noticed 407 b '3- 17. " 25 1, end of first note on 4~6 b 13, adti The meaning of (KITTU" fK ri}s oOITlas, so far as d""oIWITu IS concerned, is given less bluntly and paradoxically 4 1.4 a I f ~., 426 a 4 s~., where .q TOU "'Ot"TtKou Kal KLP'1TtKOU fV/fIY«a is saId to reSIde not a."Ta.crp.a.Ta., grasptng the .ra'1 from among them. It is purely active only when it concerns itself with ''''I TU , among which itself is included." Cf. Brandis, Gesch. der En/w. I. p. 5 18, Halldbuch, H. b, 117 8 . Kampe and Grote came to the conclusion that intellect, though separable from the human hody, is not separable from body in genera\. They affirm that it has for its necessary snbstratum the ether, the most divine of the elements: Kampe, Erkennlt,;sstheorie, pp. 12-49, Grote, Aristotle, 11. p. 220 sqq. See, however, Zeller, Aristotle, n. p. 95, 11. 1, Eng. Tr. 8 Professor James Ward, E,la.lr....... ..v" 81 E (pu" in rasura, Trend.) 11 6. ,..ao-,r om. S T W X 11 9. "0 post K ..I om. S T V W y, leg, etiam Them. Soph. /I U Them., om. V W 11 10. ro,oO"., ....'"", 01 VW et vet. trans!. Biehl Rodier, ro,ou" .." "'"PoI 01 in lemmate Philop. 72, 31 et in interpr. 01 ph r>.Vrws Torst. Belger in ed. alt. Trend. Rodler, eliam Soph. I., 2, ante ollTws reliqui, etiam Simp!. Philop. 11 30. 6'a.ipoVTa.' ....05 b, 29· YtVX-qv non satis ad praecedentia quad rare videntur Susemihlio, Oecon. p. 8. 11 31. TaS cluWp.4TOV' e codd. solus X, TOLS cluwpd'Tov, Them. Philop. Soph. Trend. Torst., ceteri codd. et Bek. Tot. o.CTWp.4TC>" 11 .05 a, 2. 'TOU ...:\-qllovr S T V XII •• TE om. S T 11 7. fro 6i El' sed eras .• in ras. Ka.I, Ka.l etiam V X, '1" 6~ Ka.l S T W 11 TE om. S T W W 8. o.7roa.'VOP.£IIOS TarsI. ex E, reliqui ante Torst. omnes O'...O""'V,;,P.£IIO., etiam Soph. 11 9. I/IvX7} E (Trend.) 11 'Ta.Vrov S T V X 11 10. et.a., I" TW" TU V W XIII I. >'E7rTOp.ipE''''. T et nunc E, sed >.....1'0 in ras. (Stapf.), "sllbtilitatem"

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gruesome strife." In the same manner Plato in the Timaeus con- 7 structs the soul out of the elements. Like, he there Plato. maintains, is known by like, and the things we know are composed of the ultimate principles. In like manner it was explained in the lectures on philosophy, that the self-animal or u.niverse is made up of the idea of One, and of the idea-numbers Two, or primary length, Three, primary breadth, and Four, primary depth, and similarly with all the rest of the ideas. And again this has been put in another way as follows: reason is the One, knowledge is the Two, because it proceeds by a single road to one conclusion, opinion is the number of a surface, Three, and sensation the number of a solid, Four. In fact, according to them the numbers, though they are the ideas themselves, or the ultimate principles, are nevertheless derived from elements. And things are judged, some by reason, others by knowledge, others again by opinion and others by sensation: while these idea-numbers are forms of things. And since the soul was held to be thus 8 The selfcognitive as well as capable of. causing motion, some movlnc thinkers have combined the two and defined the soul as a number. self-moving number. But there are differences of opinion as to the nature and number of 9 Various the ultimate principles, especially between those thinkers theories of who make the principles corporeal and those who make elements: correthem incorporeal; and again between both of these and sponding theories of others who combine the two and take their principles 8Oul. from both. But, further, they differ also as to their 10 number: some assuming a single principle, some a plurality. And, when they come to give an account of the soul, they do so in strict accordance with their several views. For they have assumed, not unnaturally, that the soul is that primary cause which in its own nature is capable of producing motion. And this is why some I I identified soul with fire, this being the element which is made up of the finest particles and is most nearly incorporeal, while further it is preeminently an element which both moves and sets other things in motion. Democritus has expressed more neatly the reason for 12 each of these facts. Soul he regards as identical with mind, and this he makes to consist of the primary indivisible bodies and considers it to be a cause of motion from the fineness of its particles and their shape. Now the shape which is most susceptible of vet. trans!. Torst., cui assentitur etiam Noetel, ZeitSchr. f. Gym. 186., p. 1.1, pAJCpo'A.ElrTopJpEllJ1f S, ,.../CpopJpEla." rc. E et reliqui codd. Diels, p. 386, 33, quod rasllrae subfuis&e

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ZZ. Kul .pa..TUU[ru, deleri vult Freudenthal, Ueber den Begriff """'TM/u bei Arist. p. 8, cui assentiuntur Schieboldt, De imago disquis., p. +4 et Susemihl, B. J. LXXXVIII, u, virgulam post ur.rll'llu" delere, post .pa.vTuuluv ponere in scholis maluit H. Jackson 11 z3' Kul ante XV",!) om. SUWX Soph. 11 z5. oval,..", TUVWXy et Philop. in prooemio ad lib. 1 (I1, I) et ad .pI a, z6 (194,10), sed hoc loco et ad 415 a,'1I (Z6I, 14. 16) oMb "'''', quod etiam Them. legit: cf. Them. pp. 46, 4. IOZ, 12. 103,7. 11 z6. Kul om. S. Cf. Heinzii crit. adn. ad Them. 46, 5. TOZ, 13. 103, 7 [immo, 8] 11 i.3Ix..,..., omnes codd. Soph. et Philop. ter hoc loco et ad 411 a, z6 (194, 11), sed ad ... r5a, 11 (Z6I, 15) bUX.EUllu, et eam quoque scripturam ferri et ab Alexandro legi tradit ad hunc locum Philop., i.8lxEullu, etiam Them. 46, 5 11 'X"'plrEull... om. X. Cf. Them. 1. I. 11 3,3. ToVro ... 41", a, I. N",. cum Torst. in parenthesi posuit Biehl 11 33. SUXP Simpl. 103, 19 PhiJop. vet. transl. Bek. Trend. Torst., bro/!)UE Soph. 11 414a, I. &u.popa,r T V X P, 8i4tf>opA' etiam Philop. Simpl. Soph. 11 z...Ar om. E et rc. T,leg. etiam S et ne sequentia quidem '18. 'EI'".30ICAfit ... 4,6 a, 18 ~'" satis conexa esse cum praecedentibus et sequentibus opinatur 11 9. &,...,s S U W X, 6p.oLIIIS etiam Them. Philop. 11 &fJP"/"&OIJS SUet pr. X, 3'''puT,.I,01Jl Them. Philop. '173, 9' 11 10. GUrU unc. inclusit Biehl, G6rl1 E S, GI!nr Rodier, G~ reliqui omnes 11 II,' i ante o~a"G om. U X 11 13. E, Gl.,.!G etiam Philop. Soph. 11 14' .,.061-011 E fol. I r" (vid. append.) P Soph. 58, 31 et, ut videtur, Shnpl. III, 13 Philop. 171, 3+. 37. 173, 19 sq., recepit Rodier, ceteri et scrlpti et impressi .,.061-.., 11 TOil i. 3111'. S U X, b om. Simpl. 11 '5. "'_,cG S T U V W X Soph. 11 16••ooi ESTV, ""./IvxijP W Bek. Trend., ,....,.Ix., >/IIIX1jrE TV Torst. 11 26. o.';~d.••.,.o., T V X, o.O~''''G' etiam Them. Philop. 1117. >/Iuris W, ,...,.IXT1 y. vulgo At- ,,,al 1"pitfrtl1"al 11 15. "(•••.qITE." E S Soph., 'YE,iITE." etiam Them. Philop. 11 post WOI'l/1"IKOV virgulam posuit Torst. 11 16. a.n-oil ., o(,lT!a STVWX Soph., ., oUlTLa a.n-ov Philop., a.n-7, ., o(,lTLa E U vet. trans!' Bek. Trend., Them. interpretatur 1"0u,.0 'Ya.p tlT1"IV, unc. inc!. haec verba Torst. 11 17, a(,1"o om. E (Trend.) et TVW, leg. Philop. Soph. 11 18. tx0v etiam Philop. Soph., a'X6P.E'OV EWy 11 u. Tai11"'lJv TXy et E (Bus.) et, ut videtur, Them. 53, 19, airr'l,v reliqui ante Biehlium omnes, etiam Philop. Soph. 11 13. EWEI ai ... 25' a.n-o collocanda esse ante 20 EWo! censet Torst., eodem loco, quo vulgata, haec verba legerunt Them. Philop. Soph. 11 'J 5. 'Y.VV'I/1"IKOr EST W x, 'Y''''I/1"IK'I, etiam Soph. 11 1"pi",.1 l' Y et, ut videtur, Them. 53, 26, 1"pi",.,.al etiam Soph. IL 11.

the carpenter is not affected by his material, but on the contrary the. ~aterial th~ carpenter: The carpenter merely passes to actl~lty from 1OactlOn. But It makes a djfference whether by XI nutrIment we mean the final, or the primary, form of what is a~ded. ~f b?th are n~triment, the one as undigested, the other as dl~ested, It WIll ~e poss~ble to use the term nutriment in conformity with .both theOrIes. For, in so far as it is undigested, contrary is nourIshed by contrary: and, in so far as it is digested, like by like. So that clearly both sides are in a manner partly right and partly wrong. . B~t, sinc~ nothing is nourished unless it possesses life,...12 that .WhlCh IS n~urIshe? must be the animate body as such: so that I;lU~l~~1l:~ also IS relative to the animate being which it nourishes: and._!!!.~~not incidentally merely. There-is, -.h~wever, a difference between nutritivity and con- 13 \irowth. dUClvlty to growth. In so far as the animate thing is quantitative, what is taken prom()tes growth j in so far as it is a definite individual, what is taken nourishes. For the animate thing preserves its substance or essential nature and exists as long as it is nourished: and it causes the production, not of that which is nourished, but of another individual like it. Its essential nature already exists, and nothing generates itself, it only maintains its existel}ce. Hence the above described principle of the ~oul is the power to preserve in existence that which possesses it m so far as it is a definite individual, while nutrition prepares it for activity. Therefore it cannot live when deprived of nutriment. There are, then, these three things, that which is nourished, that 14 with which it is nourished, and that which nourishes it. The last of the three is the primary' soul, that which is nourished is the body which contains the soul, that wherewith it is nourished is nutriment. As, however, it is' right to name all things from the 15 end they subserve, and the end here is reproduction of the species, the primary soul is that which is capable of reproducing the' species. That with which. the living thing is nourished may be 16 Vital heat understood in two senses, just as that with which one and nutristeers may mean the hand or the rudder', the former, the ment. hand, both causing -motion and being moved, the lattet,

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77 example, sight is of colour, hearing of sound and taste of flavour, while touch no doubt has for its object several varieties. But at apy rate each single sense judges of its proper objects and is not deceived as to the fact that there is a colour Or a sound; though as to what or where the coloured object is or what Or where the object is which produces the sound, mistake is possible. Such then, are the 3 special objects of the several senses. By common sensibles are or (2) by meant motion, rest, number, figure, size: for such qualities are not the special objects of any single sense, mono but are common to all. For example, a particular motion can be perceived by touch as well as by sight. What. is meant 4 The things by the indirect object of sense may be illustrated if we whl,chhave the attri_ suppose that the white thing before you is Diares' son. bute. are You perceive Diares' son, but indirectly, for that which indirectly perceived. you perceive is accessory to the whiteness. Hence you are not affected by the indirect sensible as such. Of the two classes of sensibles directly perceived it is the objects special to the different senses which are properly perceptible: and it is to these that the essential character of each sense is naturally adapted.

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to colour. For the animals that live in water also appear to have the sense of smell. But man and the other land-animals which breathe are unable to smell without inhaling breath. The reason for this, too, must be reserved for future explanation. Let us now begin by determining the nature of sound and 8 Sound and hearing. There are two s6rts of sound, one a sound hearing. which is' ope rant, the other potential sound. For some things we say have no sound, as sponge, wool; others, for example, bronze and all things solid and smooth, we say have sound, because they can emit sound, that is, they can produce actual sound between the sonorous body and the organ of hearing. When 2 actual sound occurs it is always of something on something and in something, for it is a blow which produces it. Hence it is impossible that a sound should be produced by a single thing, for, as that which strikes is distinct from that which is struck, that which sounds sounds upon something. And a blow implies spatial motion. As we stated above, it is not concussion of any two things taken at random which constitutes sound. Wool, when struck, emits no sound at all, but bronze does, and so do all smooth and hollow things; bronze emits sound because it is smooth, while hollow things by reverberation produce a series of concuss ions after the first, that which is set in motion being unable to escape. The Further, sound is heard in air and, though more faintly, medium. in water. It is not the air or the water, however, which 3 chiefly determine the production of sound: on the contrary, there must be solid bodies colliding with one another and with the air: and this happens when the air after being struck resists the impact and is not dispersed. Hence the air must be struck quickly and forcibly if it is to give forth sound; for the movement of the striker must be too rapid to allow the air time to disperse: just as would be necessary if one aimed a blow at a heap of sand or a sand whirl, wnile it was in rapid motion onwards. Echo IS produced when the air is made to rebound backwards 4 like a ball from some other air which has become a single Echo. mass owing to its being within a cavity which confines vulgatam leg. sine dubio Philop. 359, 13 et fort. Soph. 84,33 E. (v.l . • 1) rAm 11 ,18. E.] ph Iv coni. Torst 11 aAA' .qTTOV unc. incl. Torst., om. Soph., videntur legisse Them. 63,10 Simpl. '40, 15 Philop. 359,18 11 19. oiITe TW, oDTe 8e E, oM. etiam Simpl. Soph. 11 10. Kal] Torsl. coni. " KrJ.I, quod iam Steinhart coniecerat, vulgatam tuentur Philop. Simpl. Soph. 11 11. "1I'o"el.v1/' E et fort. Simpl. 14°,17, 141, 6, "1I'o"i'T! Soph. 11 ~4' Wtr,rep a. ... 15. TrJ.XO une. incl. Susemihl 11 14. a. 0111. S T U X, leg. Soph. 11 O'wpO' " delendum censet Essen 11 Tta'ipa. ,

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undrink~ble. Both are tastes of a sort, but the latter is poor or destructIve of the faculty of taste, while the former is naturally adapted to it. The drinkable is the common object of touch and 4 The of taste. But, since the object of taste is moist, the organ. . . sense:organ wh'ICh perceives it must be neither actually mOIst n6r yet mcapable of becoming moist. For taste is acted up~n by the object of taste as such. The organ of taste, then, wh~ch need~ to be m.oiste~ed, must have the capacity of absorbing mOIsture without bemg dissolved, while at the same time it must not be actuall~ mo~st. A proof of this is the fact that the tongue has no perceptIOn either when very dry or very moist. In the latter case the contact is with the moisture originally in the tongue, just as when a man first makes trial of a strong flavour and then tastes s~me other flavour; or ~ with the sick, to whom all things appear bitter because they perceive them with their tongue full of bitter moisture. As with the colours, so with the species of flavour, there are, 5 Specie. of firstly, simple flavours, which are opposites, the sweet and ftavour. tlle b'Itter; next to t h ese on one side the succulent, on the other the salt; and thirdl , intermediate between these, the pungent, the rough, the astringent and the acid. These seem to be practically all the varieties of flav,our. Consequently, while the faculty of taste has potentially the qualities just described, the object of taste converts the potentiality'into actuality. The same account is to be given of touch and the tangible. 11 If touch is not a single sense but includes more senses Touch. than one, there must be a plurality of tangible objects also. It is a question whether touch is several senses or only one. What, moreover is the sense-organ for the faculty Is It a single of touch? Is it the flesh or what is analogous to this sense? in creatures that have not flesh? Or is flesh, on the contrary, the medium, while the' primary sense-organ is something different, something internal? We may argue thus: 2 every sense seems to deal with a single pair of opposites, sight with white and black, hearing with high and low pitch, taste with bitter and sweet; but under the tangible are included several pairs of opposites, hot and cold, dry and moist, hard and soft and the like. A partial solution of this difficulty lies in the con~:>ph. et, ut videtur, Them. 73, 12, d. ...TOV d.'O"TIKO. de coniect. scripsit Bek., quem seeuti om. X, sunt Trend. Torst. 11 21. 1J om. S U V W, leg. Them. Simpl. Soph. 11 ~3. huic respondet ~5. 6~, cf. Bz. Oestr. Gymn. Zeitschr. 1867, p. 680 11 26 . • /ul. STUVX.

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then it is still in one sense but a capacity: not, however, a capacity in the same sense as before it learned or discovered. And, moreover, at this stage intellect is capable of thinking itself. Now, since magnitude is not the same as the quiddity of 7 How the magnitude, nor water the same as the quiddity of water form or (and so also of many other things, though not of all, the quiddity is apprething and its quiddity being in some cases the same), hended. we judge the quiddity of flesh and flesh itself either with different instruments or with the same instrument in different relations. For flesh is never found apart from matter, but, like "snub-nosed," it is a particular form in a particular matter. It is, then, with the faculty of sense that we discriminate heat and cold anfI all those qualities of which flesh is a certain proportion. But it is with another faculty, either separate from sense, or related to it as the bent line when it is straightened out is related to its former self, that we discriminate the quiddity of flesh. Again, when we come 8 to the abstractions of mathematics, the straight answers to the quality" snub-nosed," being never found apart from extension. But the straightness of that which is straight, always supposing that the .straight is not the same as straightness, is something distinct: we may, for instance, assume the definition of straightness to be duality. It is, then, with another instrument or with the same instrument in another relation that we judge it. In general, therefore, to the separation of the things from their matter corresponds a difference in the operations of the intellect. The question might arise: assuming that the mind is something 9 Some simple and impassive and, in the words of Anaxagoras, ~i~~c~~. has nothing in common with anything else, how will it ' sidered. think, if to think is to be acted upon? For it is in so far as two things have something in common that the one of them is supposed to act and the other to be acted upon. Again, 10 can mind itself be its own object? For then either its other objects ' will have mind in them, if it is not through something else, but in itself, that mind is capable of being thought, and if to be so capable is everywhere specifically one and the same; or else the mind will have some ingredient in its composition which makes it, like the rest, an object of thought. Or shall we recall our old distinction between I I two meanings of the phrase "to be acted upon in virtue of a I

S U V 11 vo-qlTmv T \' X " 26. 0' om. pr. E ,,'27. "vou. S T U W X Philop. Bd.:. Trend. Torst. " 29' de verbis ;) ... 31. voil vide Torst., cui mutila et corrupta videntur; tuetur etiam Simpl., defendit Brentano, p. 137.

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:b

CH. 7

43 1 a 25-431 b 19

143

like white and black? Suppose, then, that as A, the white, is to B, the black, so C is to D [that is, as those sensibles are to one another]. It follows, convertendo, that A is_ to C as B to D. If, then, C and Dare attributes of a single subject, the relation between them, like that between A and B, wi!! be that they are Ol1e and the same, though the aspects they present are distinct: ~nd so, too, of their single subject. The same would hold, supposing A were the sweet and B the white. Thus it is the forms which the faculty of thought thinks in 5 Images mental images. And, as in the region of sense the objects move to of pursuit and avoidance have been defined for it, so also action. outside sensation, when engaged with images, it is moved to action: as, for instance, you perceive a beacon and say" That is fire"; and then [by the central sense], seeing it in motion, vou recognise that it signals the approach of an enemy. But at other '6 times under the influence of the images or thoughts in the soul yo~calculate as though you had the objects before your eyes and dehberate about the future in the light of the present. And when you pronounce, just as there in sensation you affirm the pleasant or the painful, here in thought you pursue or avoid: and so in action generally. And, further, what is unrelated to action, as truth and falsehood, is in the same class with the good and the evil. Yet in this, at any rate, they differ, that the former are absolute, the latter relative to some one concerned. But the abstractions of mathematics, as they are called, the 7 Mathemind thinks as it might conceive the snub-nosed' matica! qua snub-nosed, it would not be conceived apart from' objects, ho.w conflesh, whereas qua hollow, if anyone ever had actually so celved. conceived it, he would have conceived it without the flesh in which the hollowness ~esides. So, too, when we think of mathematical objects, we conceive them, though' not in fact separate from matter, as though they were separate. And, speaking 8 generally, mind in active operation is its objects [when it tht'nks them]. The question, whether it is possible for the mind to think anything which is unextended without being itself unextended, must for the present be postponed. TLS] Er Tt L Y Simpl., om. X, Er."..p coni. Trend. 11 ivvo.' S, ~ Ta

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"'.0.

and to the other elements, e.g. water, Me/apk. 1014 a 30 sq., fire, DB Caelo I. 8, 276 b 5 sq. : again, to the plurality ofmathematical objects, Metapk. 1002 b 14-21 (with TrOAA' lh..a op.o..ll~ cf. 987 b 17 TroXX' if....a 15p.ola). The great examples are arithmetical units, which are aacdcpOpOl, 409 a I sq. : cf. 409 a 18'-2v 1TpOTfpOV ~ '/rEpl TOW V1TOlCfLJ.LEV(J)V ra,s EVfP'Y"lJI.r; Simpl. 14, 17-24. Phi lop. 39, 35 sqq. Philop. remarks that A. ought to have written in b 16 TO aICT8'1TOV 7"ijr alu8~u_"r Ka, TO VO'l7"OV 1'ijr vo~u • .,~.

But if it is once settled that the operation of sense-perception (as better known) is to be studied before the faculty, if we further determine to study the sensible object before the operation, plainly the sensible object will be studied before the faculty. And as the ultimate aim is to arrive at knowledge of the obscure (part or) faculty, it is natural enough to speak of the study of the sensible object as preliminary to this. 40!Z b 16-403 a!Z. It would seem that, while the determination of the essence or What is of use, as in geometry, for the study of the essential properties which follow from it, at the same time the study of these essential properties also materially contributes to the knowledge of what a thing really is. In fact, when we are in a position to give an account of all or most of the properties as they are confusedly and imperfectly presented to us, we shall best be able to define what a thing really is, such a definition forming the startingpoint of all demonstration. Hence definitions which lead to no info~at~on about attributes are of use for dialectical purposes only and have no SClentlfic value [§ 8]. b 16. lO'KE S' KTt This section deals generally with the logic of science conceived as an instrument of discovery, in particular with the relative importance of a study of essence and a study of properties, the two co-ordinate parts of the enquiry proposed (402 a 7 sq.). The series of problems (a 23 to b 16) is nearly complete. Only one remains (403 a 3 sqq.) a1ropiav a' 'X" Krf. They have all been propounded with perfect impartiality, no clue being vouchsafed as to a future decision; but the alternatives, presented in the last section (b 9-16) suggest the possibility that we may have to proceed indirectly

I. I

402

b 15-b 21

19 1

a posten'on' by reasoning from the effect to the cause, and studying the properties in order to obtain a definition of the essence. Accordingly A. faces this possibility and justifies the procedure in question. The fields of enquiry are diverse. Sciences like geometry deduce properties from definitions, elsewhere the study of the properties precedes and contributes to the discovery of the definition. In any case, the possibility of deducing properties serves as a test of a scientific definition. See note on b 26. Ct: Metapk. (035 b 16 fKauTov 'Y~VII, TO p.ipor EOII 0P"'1TO, KaAidr, OVI( aVfv TOV fP'YOV Op&£iTa" 3 cruX v.".ap~n aVfV alu8'1u • .,r.

'b 17. TO TC

.cr;'

'Y""I'e>.. Knowledge of the "What" is knowledge of the CPVU&V I(at -rqv ovuiav~ (a 13) rr}v overlay Kat To Tl fUT', and is expressed in a definition. This becomes a principle or premiss of demonstration (b 25), and from such principles science deduces the essential properties a,' essence, (a 7) T~V

Tf

a1roa.iE·.,s.

b 17. 8E"p~"'e>• ..as e>lT£a.S. Science is the knowledge of causes, Anal. Post. 1.2,71 b 9-16, b 30 sq., I. 6, 75 a 31-37, I. 14,79 a 23 sq. The conclusions of a particular science must be demonstrated, i.e. the facts they state must be shown to follow from premisses better known and causally connected with the first principles of the science (ib. I. 2, 71 b 17 sqq.), the middle term in all such syllogisms denoting the cause of the effect stated in the conclusion. Leaving on one side such conclusions as are merely accidental and depend upon extraneous causes, the rest are the essential properties of the peculiar province ('Yivor) of the given science, and ought therefore to admit of being demonstrated syllogisti~ally from the first principles of that scienc,e upon which remotely or proXimately they depend. b 18. 1'''1' crv...II.II1JK,s"..1' ,...ts o'\",'c"" here as below b 21, 23, 26, the essential properties of things as explained above a 8 and a 15. Them. (5, 4 H., 8, 13 Sp.) 8• .,pijua, Ta Ka8' aUra UVl'fJ_fJ'IKo..a Tq> 1rpay!'""" Simpl. 14,30 Ta Ka8' aUra uvp.{'J'fJ'I"OTa 8,.,p.'v 1'a'r ovuialr. Philop. 40, 12 'Y"owa, Ta oVul.,aids lJ1rapTois 1rpaYJUluw ••• 20 ~ YVIDU&S TIDV Kae' aUTO I(at 1rpc:,T(iJS V7I"apXOIIT(iJV ToiS' 1rpaYl'aul. TaiITa yap crv ... ~.. The properties contribute to the knowledge of the essence: exactly how A. does not state, for (b 22) ~p, KaO' av~v K.v.i..a. Kal p. ...af'JMX... Strictly speaking, the ship and its contents, and most probably the man on horseback, are artificial systems, each with its own K.VOVJI and K.VOVp..vov, just as the C.;;ov is a similar natural system. See Phys. VIII. 4, 254 b 12-17, 27-33· The latter passage ends thus: fO.K. yap C,U'lrfP Iv ..ois 71'XO[OLS Kat ..OIS CPVUfL U1JJI'UTap.Evo&S", OV'TlIJ "a, Ell TOtS" (felLS" flva, a'lIP'1p.lvoJl 1'0 IC.LVOVV KaL TO ICI.VOVP.fVOV, Itat O{;T6) TO 111rav aVTO avra "LVft". a 4 KG8' ¥TtPOV ... S KG8' Gm, per aliud...per se, indirectly ... directly. These phrases, like Ka..a UVp.f'JEf'J'IlCos ... lCaO' aVTo (per accidms...per se) in the Physia, express the manner: they answer the question" How is the thing moved?" English has no preposition to express Ka..a in this connexion as distinct from l.7l'0 C. gen. (Latin ab), but" in respect of," "in virtue of" come near to it. The attribute whiteness (a 18) is moved in virtue or in respect of its concomitance with the body of v:hich it is an attribute. We may note parenthetically the bilateral use of KQTa: Phys. V. I, 224 a 23 ..0 at ..pao fl8i 'Tovro (h:OAov8ov, 3'1AOVOTL leat clVT'O'Tp'tau,,, dA"Sls, ~s 'UV,trcu TO (]'~p.a, OVT'lI) ",vfiCTiJa& Kat T~V ,yVX~J/. TO 8i ufilp.a "Lvli-ra, lCCI.'T'i 'rMroY, &tIT, Kat I

t

..

I "

,

) ,

'l

Ii

r

NOTES

406b 2-b 6

~ ~x~ K"'''U """.0", ([ro, ')I' &A'I ii "ara.p.ap,a p.OUTra,uV'l (cf. 16,35 sq.: 16, 38 H., 3°,13: 30,15: 30, 18 Sp.) without ever indicating that these words are an explanatory inference fro.m another expression. So, too, Philoponus, who twice refers to our passage, VIZ. 106, 19 'fTfla~ ')lap ro ufiJpa rf>'Iul q,opav ",v.ira, "al r~v ..1_.' " A... \ .. 0 \ , \' : . ' "' :vx'l~ a~Q')I"'1 .,.,0pav ~'Vfl': Rl, 107, 2? &ur. "Rl avr'l "''''IO'1u.ra, lCar" ro...ov ii GA'I " ,,,a~a pop,~ p.O,ura!",v" 'U6>r, &A'I p.v &Aov ",vovua ro ufiJpa, "ara pop,a a. plpor avrov lC,vovua. ~elther Them. nor Philop. mentions "ara ro u(J,pa, but the words ~re found m the text used by Simpl. (37, 4), whose explanation of them has ?een clte~ above: As I have already said, the end proposed by the emendation IS as easdy atta10ed by excising p.rafJaAAoL &v "ara ro ufiJpa from the text as. a clumsy .marginal comment, by which some reader unfamiliar with A.'s elhpses suppIJed what seemed to him to be the missing conclusion. It will be observed that the words of Simplicius rovrfurL "aOafT.p ufiJp.a rOfT,,,fiJr would be equally i~ point i~ his lemma stopped short at c,ur. "al ~ ~x~, while th: explanatIOn of Plulop. (1°7, 20) favours an elliptical conclusion with &urf q.UJte as much as does that of Them. (16, 16 H., 29, 15 sq. Sp.), both already clt~d. I~ wo~ld of Course be possible to place a full stop after tvx~, and by .1Osert1Og li before &v to make a new sentence pfTafJaAAo, li' Itv ... p.O,urapfv". ThIs new sente.nce w.ould n.ot be the conclusion of the syllogism, and so far some of th~ dIfficultIes po1Oted out by Bonitz would disappear, but others ,~oul.d rema1O.. If. we must retain and may not emend p.rafJaAAo, &v "ara ro u6> p a" I ,am.1Ocl1Oed to accept Mr Shorey's suggestion (A . ./. Ph. XXII. 153) that "ara ro u6>pa may be taken locally" within the body" and not in the sense gl\'en to the words by Simplicius (37, 4). Cf. "ara fTav r~ ufiJpa 408 a 16 where howe,:er, mo~ion i.s no~ i~plied. "This gives point," Mr Shorey urges, '" to th~ follow1Og antIthesIs: (If It can move in the body) it would follow that it can also ~a{, •go .forth from the body and return. The same thought seems to b~ ImpIJed m the comparison with the quicksilver" 406 b 18 sqq. b .2. ~ .0).'1 ~ K",..a .'~clp", ,..8LCT'1' ' tU'' I' Whe~ it has been proved that the soul IS subject to spatial motion, ".v.iraL rpop~ or "ara ro ...ov, two alternatives present thems~lves. There are two species of spatial motion. Either the whole of a th10g may ch~nge its place: this is motion of translation. Or the parts may move relatIvely to each other while the whole remains in the same place, e.g. when a sphere revolves or a top spins. Cf. De Gm. et Corr. I. 5, 320 a 19 ro p'v ')lap rp.pap."o" &AOII aAAaTTfl ro...ov ro a' a{,l:allo",vov ~ 6" r "'\

I

' "

,

6>u .... p ro ."avvop'VOV· rovrov ')lap Jl-fvovror ra rlL"p.a r".ra"'aAA. " ,,, ,.. , f-I 'KaTa r01rOV, r"r u,rpaLpar' .r~ piI' ')lap [the parts of the revolving sphere] '1'

o~x. 6>UfT'~ ra

"Trr

&uc:> r07Ttp

p.fr~a)"Af&

'TOV

OAOV J.llvovT'or,

Ta at

TOU alJ~avop.'JlotJ

af'

f7Tl

7r"Af{fI)

ro ...ov [se. p.rafJaAAfI), PI. Laws 893 C ra r~v rfiJv fur.,r6>V '1' !LfU A "" A' '" ' >, r 'f' ap",avovra vvaf'tJl f')'ftr, 'l'TJUO}J.fV, fV fvl "'Jlftu6a" K.a6a7rfp ~ TfdV EaTava, Afj'Of'fVQ)JI IClJICACdV urplrp,:cu ....p'q,opa, ":here the rotat~on of a sphere upon a fixed axis is illustrated

li'

by a s.lmpler case, VIZ. the revolutIOn of a circle about a fi~ed centre. Them. and .Slmpl. ~o not comm~nt on the~e words; the inference is that they found ~o dl~culty m the~. P,hllo?onus g:ves, an e~roneous interpretation (107, 21) OA'I p.v ~ov "'vovua ro U6>p.tJ, "ara pop.a li. plpor allroii ",voiiua possibly understandmg p.O.urapi"'1 in an active sense, at all events readin~ into the ~econd cl~use "ara popLa p.O.urapfV'7 an alien idea derived from a forced I~terpretatlon of &A'I ... p.O.urapfv". Conrad Gesner gave approximately the rlg~t explanation: "~ &A'I, u~ si recta moveretur, ii Kara pop,a, ut si circulo," whl~h Trend. deIJb~rately reJecte~: ";'viinime; neque enim ad motus genus pert1Oet. Haec POtlUS est sententJa; Sequeretur animam vel omnem vel eius mter se facultates tan quam partes locum mutare." For this he is rightly

249

censured by Bonitz, I.c., p. of the soul at this point which A. deduces from the of the soul itself conceived

426, who remarks that to introduce the faculties is quite inadmissible, since the inconsistencies theory under examination all relate to the nature as existing and moving in space. b 3 .L ~ ,.w,.' l,,84xera.L. In editione A videtur fuisse El ai roVro, ~VafXO'T' &v "al 'e.AOoiiuav ElULfVCU oraA",. Torstrik inferred this from the variants of the inferior MSS. (see cn'tical notes), and it is actually found in y, of which he had not a collation. Bonitz (I.c.) argues that the reading of the inferior MSS. ought here to be preferred to E, because it is not a question of possibility: that the soul moves in space has been demonstrated as necessarily true. Even granting this, A. might make a compendiary use of 'vlilX.rcu: "If this, as already demonstrated, is possible, a further possibility will follow, viz. etc." Torstrik himself regarded the variation here between what he calls the two editions as due merely to considerations of style: videtur autem correxisse, quia paulo ante usus erat formul~ e~ quae est El ai roVro a 32, an admission which goes a long way in the direction of those who see in the so-called editio prior of Book 11. merely a paraphrase. b 3 Ka.\ ~EA8oVer",,, .lcro.«""'L ".c().w w84xo.... 6,'" into r~v ~x~v. This is intended by A. as a reductio ad absurdum of the suppositi.on that the soul ~oves in space. Such absence from the body and return to It are common .I.n ,the folklore and magic stories of all ages. Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, ch. 11. § 2, "The nature of the soul," and ch. iI'. § 3, ., The external soul in folk-tales." Cf. also Vol. 11., pp. 123-5 (1St ed.), on traces in folk-tales of belief in the resurrection of animals. b 4 ci"Icrra.cr8a... Trend. compares Il. XXI. 55 q ,.&Aa li~ TpfiJ.r p'')IaA~rOpH, OVUfT.p .fT.rpvov, I a~r.r avau~uovra. {mo ~0cfl:ro ~.p.o.vror. His s.ug:ges~ion that the clause is the interpolation of a Christian SCribe hardly ments senous consideration. That the dead should rise again is to Greek ideas the typical instance of an event antecedently incredible as reversing the established order of nature. Cf. Hdt. 1II. 62, cited by Bonitz a{,ror ....Oata P'V X.pul TUU' vvv ol TE6vf;;'Tf~ aVfOToO'" fTpo0'81"fO TO' "al 'AOTVa'Yfa TOV El a' .ur, c,u ....p ... po rov, o{, p~ Tl ro, ." ')I' It-lvov v• .,r.pov avafJAaurfi. 'f'fCdVTOV.

d

P.EV

M~aov .... ava~u.uOcu·

b 5

oni"

~ K"'''d. CI'V,.f3.p,.K~ KC"1Jerw.

This really goes back to 406 a 14 The supposition there broug?t forward h~s now been exhaustively treated. A. next turns to the alternatIve hypotheSIS and shows that, if the motion asserted of the soul be merely accidental ("ara DlIp.fJ.{3'1"or, not "aO' aVro or rpVUfl), such motions may equally well be due to something other than the soul itself. Philop. 109, 15 ro p'v ')lap "ora uvp.fj.{3""or , .aVTTJr Kara uvp{3.{3'1lCor ".v.ira.). But suppose the animal to be impelled .by external agency; in that case it is also adventitious.ly m~ved, but b.y.som.eth1Og else. It is important to remember that A. is stat10g hIS own opmlon I~ th~ sentence before us supported by the evidence of facts. See the recapitulatIon, 408 a 30-34. The body is moved by something external (j,rp~ ~lpov) a~d t~e so~l, through its inclusion in the body thus moved (406 a.5 r'f"~ "WOV~'"'f' .",cu)'. IS also moved, but indirectly, per accidens. The optatlVes WIth c1v m b 6 "",o,ro . . dv, 6.uO.l'l &1' are purely potential. b 6 K&'" v+' iftpov, by something else as well as by Itself, m the way .l lii ".v.ira, p~ "ara uvpfJ.{3""or.

t

,

250

I'/OTE5;

I.

3

described in 408 a 32 sq.: cf. 408 a 31 KLVfiv favr~v (KaTa iYVp./3EfJ?Kot). Cf. on this point Phys. VIII. 6, 259 b 28 OVK '!TT' liE ro avro ro K.viiu8a. Kara CTVP.~~{3TJt(os vq/ aVTOV Kat v'l/ fTipov· TO fJ-f.V "Yap vcf/ fTipov VfrUPXfI. leal r&»v ;v rv 8,i? T.t av. To meet the case of such ~oods we .must suppose the qualification .t I'~ KaTt' UVl'fJEfJ?Ktlt, which stands m the mam clause (406 b 8), to be repeated in the illustration. b ro onjv m +VX~V ... II .r'll'tp KWE'Ta... This statement becomes clearer as A.'s own theories of aiu8?ult and ilp,g.t are unfolded in the present treatise. As to the f?rmer, we may anticipate by a reference to 416 b 33 sq., 417 a 13, 17 sq., ~'h~re Kw••u8a., rrr 00'1'1" .j tvx~ [the Stoics and Epicurus], "a1'a TOV1'OVr ~ap4 T1j~ 'lrOlar uVIIOiufo>r 1'0 tvX& .I"m 1're uV'Y"",.i,,'f" ;j1',r uVvOfulr fl (0'1'1" dpp.ovla, lI'a~a T~S ,ipp.o"lar &v 1'0 tvX& .lval (XO, 1'0 uV'YKfi,.fVOV. "aO' &1' 8. fUTIV .j tvrl Ol/X d... X';'r Ta UV'Y".i,. ...a, aXA' ....\ TU 11'004 ...... WpoW"" ....."",...11 KpcW•• '" ICM pJla. SVVCl.I'-" 'Y.""0>p.''''I, ~ ,.,.,v "pau,s VA'IS lE.. AO)'OV K1'f.

NOTES

407 b 2S--b 32

It is obvious that A. is pursuing the same method as in his earlier criticisms (see p. 240 supra). When criticising the theory of Xenocrates that soul is a self-moving number, he assumes his own doctrine of IClv'1o'lr as laid down in the Physics, and by its aid deduces consequences from the thesis under examination which are either impossible or inconsistent. Cf. Simpl. 62, II {, liE 'AP'OT'OTfX'1;

4lf1 b 117. ...8cr.~ "'~" 'IrOllots, as e.g. to Simmias in the Phaedo, where, renouncing the doctrine, he says (92 c) oli. P.EV yup p.o, y1011 aVToKlv'lTOV "alTO' TOV p.'v ",~oiiVTor '1'01; "IVOVp.lVOV. But then It IS the movent, not the moved, which is the soul of the animal. H~nce the mo~en~ units not the moved, in the number, constitute its soul. Philop. 168, 5 aAA rZU'IT:P Iv (ww TO KLVOVV ~ "'vX~ Ka1 OV TO KlVOVP.fVOV, OUT&) Kat (7ft T'OV T'~r tvX~S' • • [int. cl ap,(Jp.or ] urup.aTL

uTlYpidv. It follows that all bodies will be animate: the distinction between animate and inanimate disappears. a 26. ,; TeO" w rIn>X~1I lXELII. See 409 a 27· El ..1\ S'-"'I>EPCl)1I ""5 dp.e..Os 'nC",.,."., i.e. if the number which is the soul be not something other than the sum total of points in the body (al fV Tcf uwp.a... LTT'yp.a{, 40 K,,,,,,,,e,,, .,.",h"s, the round atoms of Democritus or units of Xenocrates: cf. 403 b 24-31, 404 a 5-9· These words show clearly what the objection taken at the beginning of the chapter, 409 a 32 sq., really is. A. had criticised in 409 a IS sq. the absence of a moving cause for the units of Xenocrates, which is exactly parallel to the complaint he makes against the Atomists. Metaph. 985 b 19 "'P' "1Vr,UfC"S, CiB,v ~ 1I"w. v..UpXEI TOtS' O{J(TL, Kat 0&0' 1rapa,"AFJ(J'lCJl~ TOtS' aAAOLS' pa8vp.{J)S' a~l'i.uaJl. With T4i KWEtria. .. .,.",;.,."s cf. 403b 29-31, 406b 20-22. b II. .,.Ors ~ ,",,,""AEt,,erw Els .,.0 ,,';.,.0. Cf. 404 b 28 sqq. b 12. '"'1'fJ"£IIEL. Cf. injr. 410 b 4. Ind. Ar. 713 b 38 inde (a concludendi necessitate) uvp.f'Ja{VEI usurpatur ubi factis ex aliqua hypothesi conclusionibus ipsa hypothesis refutatur. ita uvp.f'Ja{v"v usurpatur ubi concludendo aliorum philosophorum placita refutantur. Cf. lIfelaph. 989 a 22 and Bonitz ad loe. b 13 o~ yd.p ,,011011 ... 14 '"'..II,ll"IKOs. Such a theory affords no help in either of the two divisions of our task. Here the point seems to be: •• A self-moving number can be no proper description of what soul is, of its essence, nor yet such a characteristic or property of soul as will contribute to a better definition of it." Cf. again 402 b 16 sqq. b 14. S1jAoII 8' Et ""s .""'x"pt!erELEII. Cf. the phrase iflavEp"'TaTov If ,,{ ons &".0a,a';va, "'''puB.{'1 in 408 a 3, where, as here, it is Ta .. aB'1 ~a, Ta ra1'ov is another way of saying 'Af7T1'of'fpiura1'ov. The theories of soul which A. has in view make it identical with an apxr, which strictly is not incorporeal at all. In some of these theories the other simple bodies or elements are derived from the apxr, by UV'YICP'UIS only. See MetajJlt. 988 b 34 sqq. This mode of 'YfVfUIS would apply to the air of Diogenes of Apollonia and to the fire of Heraclitus. The Atomists, however (cf. 405 a 11 sqq.), refused to admit any qualitative change in uWf'O, but derived all varieties in concrete things from the different shape, order and position of the atoms: Them. 32, 34-37 H., 59, 23-26 Sp., Philop. 175, 5-19, Simpl. 66, 6-18. 409 b !oZ3-411 a 7. The greater part of the chapter [§ 5-§ 16, 409 b 23--411 a 7] is devoted to a criticism of the third theory, which, starting with the functions of perception and knowledge, derives the soul from the elements. On this theory soul kIlOW~ and perceives because it is compounded of the elements, and it is further assumed that like is known by like. To this it is objected: (I) that the great majority of concrete things are not single elements but compounds [§ 5], and, even if the elements are present in the soul, this is not true of the particular compound or of the formula by which it is determined [§ 6]. (2) Further, applying the scheme of the categories to the term Being, what, we ask, are the elements from which the soul is derived? Are quantity and quality included, as well as substance ?~f they are not in the soul, how can the soul know them? If they are, the soul must itself be a quantity, quality and substance [§ 7]. (3) Again, if like knows like, it cannot, as Empedocles held, be unaffected by like [§ 8]. (4) On Empedocles' theory the corporeal tissues composed of earth, like hair and sinews, should strictly have perception of their like, i.e. earthy objects, but this is contrary to fact [§ 9]. (5) Empedocles is bound to admit ignorance on a large scale, e.g. the sphere which he calls God cannot know Strife, for in it alone of all things strife is not present [§ 10]. (6) It is a consequence of Empedocles' theory that soul should be found everywhere, for in all things there are present one or more of the elements, and therefore the knowledge and perception which the presence of the elements implies [§ 1lJ. (7) And yet since these elements are material elements, there is further need of a unifying cause, and this wiJI be the main thing, such superior importance being however inconsistent with the priority which EmpedocIes ascribes to the elements [§ 12]. (8) The theory under examination, like that which attributes motion to the soul, fails to apply to all forms of soul. Just as plants and some animals are sbationary, 50 plants are devoid of perception, and many animals of reason [§ 13]. (9) Again plants and

1.

409 b 16-b 3 1

5

. I d ot resRire and so the Orphic theory that soul enters fro~ some amm~ s . 0 ne in the a~t of respiration is untenable [§ 15]. (10) Nor is It the externa umvers d the soul of all the elements: as the knowledge of ary to compoun . f . te neces s . . "11 be sufficient to take one only of a paIr 0 OppOSI contranes IS one, It WI ' ?A ILV...1 .tv~ The criticism of these theories elenlents [~16]. ' 1_ _ l.I_-4I >..£....11'CL\ 8 0"Jn0V K.,.- .IL........ ' 'IV .. 8) . b 23 nied b a fuller exposition, for the precedmg notIce (404 b ,-27 IS accompabl' h dYthe fact that such views were held by Empedocles and Plato. ." to b" me rely esta IS e " . hat sense the soul .IS said e compose d of" , or - 'Ai'YlTa, means m w • h' h h mean 1(6)S, d f m" the elements. The phrase E/c 1"vos «V ai, W IC as many ~'denve I~ob:ar either interpretation. See MetajJlt. ~., C. 24 ; also 1044 b 24 ~q.ov. The ~on~rete woe 15 : h' ch soul as form and body as CPOr.POII. On the theory individual thing, e.g. Calhas IS such a whole,~n; I matter are united. For the form of the wor C. uvlla~s of his four elements of Empedoc1es such concrete things are compoun (410 a 1 UVlllJo1'a).

for

19

H.

11

NOTES

I.

5

410 a I. oil yc\p o...._OVlI, non qualibet ratione, not if taken at randolll, in any casual way. orcl. crro'Xtta. TOII......lI ilCCWTOlI, into ferri. By ravrow are meant the compounds or derivatives. a 2. cI.>.>.cl >..;oy'l' .....lIt KAt crwt4crE.. The dative is causal, .. in virtue of a definite ratio and arrangement," i.e. it is because the elements are combined in certain proportions and arranged in a certain way that each concrete thing comes to be: Metapk. 1042 b 25-31. See also the second note on 408 a 24. Cf. below 410 a 8 and 407 b 32 sq., 408 a 6 sqq. with notes. In C. 4 >'oyar n;r p..i~'6)r and UVVOf(IU are treated as exclusive rather than as complementary. In 408 a 18-23, the section which deals with Empedocles, X6yar (int. n;r p..i~(6)r) only is mentioned. However, in 408 a 24 p..'~.r apparently stands for both modes of combining, when the parts combine without alteration, as well as when their distinctive character is lost by their being fused or blended in the new whole. Here also, as bone is an example and/Kal explicative, uV"Ofulr must include the latter mode as well as the former, cf. De Caelo Ill. 2, 300 b 25-30. a,3. ·J1....SOK>.1j'. This passage,frag. 96 D [211-214 K], is quoted also by Simplicius in Pkys. n. 2, p. 300, 21 sqq., who gives the further line 'App.a"i1J r "a').Xl1uI~ dp'lPOru O.u ....ui'10." and for .verrlp"a.r of our text substit'utes fvrvKra". Reference is made in Metapk. 993 a 17 sq. to the passage for the same purpose as here, viz. to show that the composition of bone is determined by the proportions subsisting between its constituent elements. a 4. x04"OLerLV. Empedocles is apparently thinking of the hollows of the earth, where in geologic ages, as we should say, he must have imagined bones, like other tissues, to have been gradually formed when the reign of Strife was over. Cf. Simpl. 68,8 Ixoava' a. Kal ...apa rre ... al'lrii (Hom. 11. XVIII. 470), '1)t. These words have caused some perplexity. I'rom frag. 6, 3 D [57 K] of Empedocles we gather that Nijerr.r, like Z.vr, ·Hpa and AllJ",,,.vr, was a personification of one of the elements, viz. elemental water or moisture. It seems impossible that aryX1Jr should, as M. Tannery supposed (Pour I'kistoire de la science kellene, p. 333), be an adjective=alyX'1luv TOV 6.dv, TO 11; .".av "ijp's· ll.~" .. v 11. "a~ IIw TOV aTo'X••&>lIovr v'Ypov IIwa,.", 6.lav "'V'lT'''qV alJTov, Diog. Laert. I. 27 TOV "dO',.ov (int. v""'O'T~O'QTo) >"O'Y;;'v V.".O,.fV.1 ,.q 6.;;,v .lva. ",Xqp'l .".&'vTa; Cicero, or his authority, gives it a religious turn, De Legg. n. II § 26 "Thales ... homines (dicit) existimare oportere omnia, quae cernerent, deorum esse plena; fore enim omnis castiores, veluti cum in fanis essent maxi me religiosis." a9. W lIo~v -rtP cUp.. From this we learn how A himself interprets the theory that soul is intermingled in the universe. He regards it as meaning that soul is present in all the elements, wherever found; while he would probably have agreed with Plato (Pkilebus 29 B sqq.) in thinking that these elements are found in the universe (01' Trii .".avTl) in a purer and more potent form than in human organisms (.".ap' f},.'iv). Whether this would have been admitted by the supporters of the theory under examination we cannot tell; but from A's language in the next sentence (o""'(;'1Tr,O'fIf 'Yap /Iv T.r) it seems highly probable that they did admit it. • 10. W ~ 1'Ots IIoflK1'Ots, those compounds of elements which form the bodies of animals. In 435 a I I-b 3 A. will prove on teleological grounds that no animate body can be constituted out of one or more &.".)..a O''''I'"Ta; the constituents must be ,.fln&'. Such is the constitution of the o,.o.o,..pij or tissues: De Part. An. 11., C. I. Cf. De Gen. et Corr. I. 10, 328 a 4 .r."..p "a. ,.aT' ,..n;", o,.o.o,..pis, ib. a 10, Meteor. IV. 8, 384 b 30, ib. IV. 12, 389 b 26 ,,, ,..v 'Yap T;;'V O'To'X.i",v Ta clJU>.o,..pjj. See supra p. 264 and notes on 408 a I J, 17· a 13- VVIIo!Ja.£VII. Torstrik pointed out that 41I a I I o."..c"n,O'fIf ... I3 a6avaT"'Tfpa is a parenthesis; (p. 131) ita enim facilius inteIligetur quae sequantul' non ut haec refellantur adiungi sed ut redarguatur principalis adversariorum propositio 7 01' Ttji 0)..'1' TqV tvXqv ,..,.IX6a•• a 14- ~p"'S. Whichev.er alternative they choose leads to an absurdity. It is equally absurd to call fire or air an animal and to deny the title animal to that which has soul in it. It should be noted that, although the presence of soul does not, according to A., necessarily imply a (;.a.prtv S' lo£J(Q,G'\v. They seem to have arrived at the opinion that the elemental bodies (41 I a I I OV Toirro.s=iv (l>"OIS TOIS &.".>"o'is O'&>,.aO'.v, Them. 36,4 H., 65, 12 Sp. fire and air being. examples) contained soul, from observing that each of them is homogeneous, the fraction of each element found in our bodies not being different in kind or quality from the same element outside of us. Compare again Plato Phil. 29 A-30 B. • • 18. 0IG'1" dva.yntov a.~ts. They are bound in consistency to extend thIS principle, that the whole is homogeneous with its parts, to the case of soul.

I',I"

NOTES 8 18. O",OEo.S.j ,.ots ...op£o",. Cf. infra a 23 6,..0,0""pij. • 8 19 .l "'; cl1l'OMr.p.~l'w8u£ ,.L... 2O Y£l'l'I'GL. a".oA. is passive. Some portion of a given element is detached from the surrounding universe (cf. supra 404 a 10) and enclosed in the organism, e.g. air during respiration: Them. 36, 7 H., 65, 15 Sp. c,u""p yap ra p.op,a r';'v d".A';'V uw,..arwv Eva".oAa,..{3avop.oa ro,~ C';'OI~ ~VJl8fra a~.,.~ f~ 1TciJl~(A)v 7TOLfi, oV"'(i) #Cat Ta f'op,a rijr ;ICtlOTOV Truv UTOf,Xfl(J)v tvxijr

.p.tvxa avra a"'.pyaC.rao. a 20 El S' ci ~l' cl~p ... 21 cll'O...OLO .... P'lS. This does not mean, as Them. (36, 912 H., 65,19-23 Sp.) Supposes, that while there is no difference of kind between elemental air as a whole and that part of it which goes to constitute the body of an animal, there is a difference of. kind between the soul which animates the whole element and the soul of the animal, viz. that the former is superior to the latter. The use of a different word avo,..o,o,...p~~ suggests another meaning. Soul is made up of unlike parts or faculties (nutritive, sensitive, etc.) not always found in combination. Propositionem quae in refutatione efficienda minor est tanquam ab omnibus concessam ne ponit quidem, animam nimirum humanam differre ab anima ceterorum animalium, a plantae anima utramque .... Anima, ait, quae inest corporibus viventibus non est 6,..01O""p~~: at debebat esse ut aliquam vim haberet adversariorum argumentum quod legimus 16-17 (Torstrik, p. 132 ). 821 ,." .,.El' "L a..mjS ... 22 ,.0 S' 0Vx. V~(L, into rrji aipl. Avr~~=r?~ ""vxij~. \Vhether we do or do not follow Torstrik in considering {""ape .. b?AOV &r, an intrusion from the margin, in any case the main strl!ss rests on the second of the coordinated and contrasted clauses. The argument seems to be as follows. If the air is o,..o.. a~~, homogeneous, uniform, then whatever form of soul is contained in one part of the air must be contained in all parts of the air. Again, since it' is by a part of the surrounding air being separated from the rest and enclosed in animals that they become endowed with soul, the soul in animals should be uniform also, in which case it could be only the lowest type found in animals. But, as a matter of fact, higher animals possess in addition to the lowest form higher forms, e.g. man has the rational soul (410 b 1624). These higher types of soul cannot, as above shown, be present in the air. Therefore, if the soul is to be present uniformly in the air, it must itself be homogeneous: and, if it is not homogeneous, it cannot be present uniformly in the air. 823. ,.0'; _"".ss. Cf. 411 a 7 rrji &A'jI. Them. (36, 20 H., 66, 4 Sp.) and Simpl. (76,6 sq.) understood ro,; ".avro~, like fV rrji &A'jI, of the universe. Philop. (192,10-12) mentions this interpretation, as well as that which understands a.po~ with Toii ".avTo~, without deciding between them. Trend., however, favours the latter: de singulis elementis et de aere maxi me dictum est. As in this particular point, so generally in discussing 411 a 7-23, the Greek commentators are influenced by their personal philosophical predilections. Thus Simpl. (74, 27 sqq.) ascribes to the elements a diviner life and a higher dt:gree of immortality than to men, and repudiates altogether the notion that they are without soul. On the other side cf. Philop. 192, 2-9. Them. again (e.g. 36, 12 H., 65, 22 Sp.) regards the assumption that soul is avo,..olO""p~~ (or at least OVX op.o.. a~~) as based upon the belief that there is a better and more immortal soul in the elements than that which animat~s Ta Crjia (cf. 411 a 11, 13). He declines to credit A. with this belief, which he does not hold himself. a 24 cf>a.".pO" ov" ... 26 Aly.,.a.L. This sentence dismisses the two main views of soul previously maintained; cf. 403 b 27 sqq. The view that it is composed of the elements has occupied us in this chapter, 409 b 23-411 a 23; the view

'v

I.

5

411 a IS-b 3

299

hat it is moved was exanlined 405 b 31-407 b 11 and 408 b 3Q-409.b IS. remainder of this chapter discusses questions relating to the umty or divisibility of the soul, cf. 402 b I, 9 sqq. 411 a !36-b 30. The dismissal of these theories suggests the. further enquiry whether the various functions of soul, perception, opinion, deSire, etc. belong to the whole soul or are to be severally assigned to parts of the soul. The question may even be raised of life itself. Does it reside in one or more or all parts of the soul, or is it due to some other cause? [~23]. Of those who make the soul divisible we enquire "On what does the unity of the soul depend?" If there is a principle of unity, a soul of the soul, we go on to enquire whether it also has parts? Then what holds them together? and so on ad infinitum [§ 24]. Again, if soul as a whole keeps the body together, what share. in this process must be assigned to the several parts of the soul, e.g. to the mtellect [§ 25]? Experiment shows that plants and the lower orders of animals continue to live for some time after they have been divided; hence we may infer that the vital principle in the two segments is of t~e s~me n~tu.re; t~ere is no reason. to assume division into parts [§ 26]. ThiS Vital prmclple will be the vegetative soul of plants, and the sentient and locomotive faculty of worms l§ 27]. 826. mt ~ ,.0 'Y"'.....K.." '"i~ ,,",X:'IS lcrr1.. The question which in 411 a 30 follows this long enumeration of functions of the soul is perhaps due to the suggestion 408 b 11 sqq. that not the soul itself but the man with his soul is the true subject of these functions, the {",.olCfi,...vov to which as 'pya Ka, Tra8" they belong. The man is a ,nlvoAov, a compound of body and soul; so that the problem of the latter part of C. 1,403 a 3-b 19, is closely akin to that which is about to be discussed. 828. Ka.\ OAOI'; a.. ople.",. Cf. 403 a 7, note. From 433 a 22 sqq. it appears that fjoVA'IU'~ is a species of I$p.e,~ and is opposed to '".,8v,..ia as rational to irrational desire. Cf. 432 b 6 .i Tpia ~ ""Vx~, EV fKaUT'jI S aI ICpflrrovs, Kat 0l'ott.&ts Ilcr£y, 01011 al Vuxal, dll1\~a.LS or. ,,0.\ orii o~ll' vvxii~ viiI' ov ra~ f" .,,-A.iouI (;~I~ KaAIDv, aAAa f'aS Iv f"aUTft» '~l{J a,acpopovs (6)as, of011 T~V CPVT"(~V, T~V al(T6"Tu(~v, T~V AoyU:~V. • ~., . '"'' . -., ' a~'S", - ?V,X OT~ • TO. rl-...,.,VT'''OV' Kat.TO,aUT ' 0 ' "~cu.., of T0.r~S' IC~' ~I\I\TJ\l\a~S' ",aL ,'71 Ol\lI 'JT'~OV

0""07'

"'" na.. r¥o", aAAa 1I1a r'l" ax"'pICTTo" "'-pOS aAA'IAa~ crvpCPVUll'. And, commentmg upon aAA~A6J" piv Krl., he remarks (80, 17) ~ Il' A.gI~ ~ dU~A.", tU" ... a"araAA.q:>tQ)f f&P'lraL, OTt rE a7rO TID" tvXIDV f1Tl Ta p.opl.a P.ETfv~vfICTa" Ka, g,., awl aO'fu:ijs 'Y"'''fi 1I"T6.Ufl xpijTal' lIEov yap clAA~Aal~ cpuval, clAAqA6JV ,1."-,,,. Here Simpl. is careful to point out that A. does not go on talking of a1l"aual al vvXai, hut reverts once more to iJ..,,-a"Ta Ta pOpta. The changes of subject from pOpla expressed to +VXal understood and back again to popla are capricious and harsh to the last degree. But any inference from this harshness is double-edged: opoftlM~ may have been altered to get rid of it; as I have suggested above, it may have been produced by altering 0poflaij, in order expressly to exclude that interpretation of 6poflaij which Torst. rightly rejects as intolerable and absurd. In any case it is curious to find that SimpL and Philop. seem so little alive to the meaning of the change of expression. Can they be following an authority who explained opoftllij, though they themselves read opo.. a,"~? If we have to interpret rlpo .. lI,'~ as predicate of ui vvXal, it seems strange that SimpL should not have taken the obvious meaning of vvxai, viz. the complete soul or fraction of soul in each segment (cf. 41 1 b 20 ryJV aVT~v ;xovTa vvXry" Te;; .rllft), for 0pofLlIqr=~ aim) Te;; .;8... The sentence then becomes parenthetical-" And each of the two souls in the two segments is homogeneous with the other and with the whole soul prior to segmentation." So Bender: "J edenfalls hindert das nicht, dass nicht in jedem Theil sammtliche Theile der Seele enthalten seien, ItIld diese versckiedatelt See/en sind sowohl t'inander gleicllartig, als auck der ganzen See/e." The strong point in favour of opo.. a~ ... aAAqAoI~ is that the same subject a.,,-avra Ta pop.a Tij~ vvxij~ is retained throughout and in the same sense, "all the parts or faculties of the soul." But this advantage is entirely thrown away if we take this subject to mean firstly with 'vv",-upxfl the divisions of the soul in the sense of faculties and secondly with 0poflllij as the divisions, or rather divided portions, of the whole soul retained by each segment. I cannot, therefore, accept M. Rodier's version: "Mais il n'en est pas moins vrai que, dans chacun des segments, toutes les parties de l'ame sont contenues, et que les portions de l'ame ainsi divisee sont specifiquement identiques entre eJles et a I'ame tout entiere." b2CS dll1\>-.." ..l" ... 2'] oll,"!" Simpl. (80, 17-20) thinks, as we have seen, that A. has passed from the souls to the parts and has used the genitive (dAAqA6JV, rij~ '" 8A'I~) instead of the dative. This points to a brachylogy for

304 ~U.~AO'~

lVUll!.S

I.

5

"i"

(~!",E&a~ ~~ dA}"~A~" oll x"'p.lTTa g,,~a, TV a. OA" tvxn (o!"'f.3ij g"Ta) "'~ a.a.p ...'1~ OVBap.fV Aly',v fll"i rein' ",,31ff'(J) "iv 'XIi"T",." T', ElI"L'"18fi6)V BE 'lTpOS TO a'~au6aL. DV yap ((/'1"L TO uo,p.a rowo XQJPls I/rvxij~ 1TpOTOpOV, .lTa "'X.Tal Tr)v I/rvxf/V, aAX' tUT'V TO IIwa,. .. ,,,,r,v lxov TO aWUlA-'POV ,ijv, TOVTEernv TO txov gpyava 'lTPOS TaS lCora TO {ijv fVfpy,las lCa1 fernv (UOII TO' IIl1va,. .. ,"'r,v IXOV' Tcfi 'tlpyalll".sv,' De An. 16, 12-18 alII TO dpyavl"O~ a"l'o cat Bvvdp.n (6)~V IXfLV AEYfL, rt.i aVvalA-fL (6)~V txo" &",-1 TOV 3v"op.lvov «ar lvfp"/.tav '~v xpro,..VQS. TO yap 7f1l~ T~V 1"A"OV I/rvX~I' txov 1TOAM "aT' alrnj ..

'"

'";11

312

NOTES

11. I

b""aTa, "'O&fj" T' Ka' ...alTxflv ... 11TT& TO bvva,.." TO "'pOlTul,..vo", Tijr "'P"'"lS fJIT.A.xolar b"A_'Ka". Cf. a.... Ka' A"IT. 11. 8, p. 54, where AIex. remarks that , .....)P lx'''' and +vx~v Ix .." are not the same (54, 15), TO ,..v ''''n'r .j , .... q, 0.-, '.j ba' aiITov Tpoq,q T' Ka' al1~"IT'r,' TO a. awa,... ''''~v .xov Af'Y"'T' fiv TO "pyav,lCo" .XO" a,' aiITov ["'por] TO a""aIT8a, TpEq,.1T8al TO Ka' al1€.1T8a,. If "na"'KO", which later replaces avva,.., , ....~v .xov, is an exact equivalent, it is hard to see how 1Ti>p.a q,VIT"'''" "nav'K"" ceases to be "pyav'K'''' when it is actively operant. Zabarella claims for this jnterpretation that it clears up the difficulties of the vegetative soul, which is never in potentia ad operandum, but always actively operant. Cf. e.g. 413 a 30, De Gen. et CO". I. 5,322 a 24 sq. a21. 'Ij S' oVcriG, i.e. .j ':'r .laor oVlTla just mentioned. Form, as we were told TOUl,,",V, such as we above (412 a 9 sq.), is EVT.AEX"a, as matter is a"va,.,r. described, i.e. q,VIT'KOV a"va,... , ....,}JI .xovTor. The subject of the sentence is, of course, the soul. The soul is that which makes the corporeal part of the animal ac~ual and differentiates the animate from the inanimate body. The utility of thiS remark turns on the contrast with the views of preceding philosophers. Some regarded soul solely as the cause of motion in the body, some as percipient only. It may be with reason objected that this is an identical proposition and no more than a restatement of the problem to be solved. No definition is valid if it virtually repeats the term to be defined. TOIOVTOV here implies fJ.&V""x ov. See note on 414 a 28. a 22. Cl~ ~ >.iyf'nU S'X~, as stated 412 a 10 sq. See on 412 a 8. a 23. ~lIf~1I O~II Oon. ~ lmcrniJL1J, into .j ""'x~ 1T"'/'RTor EJIT.AEx..a EIFT'. The point reached in the argument was: TO'OVTOV tlpa 1T"',.aTor EVT.AEx ..a (.; ""vx~ EIFT') a~d now we add ':'r f ... 'lTTq,." (aAA' oux ':'r TO (J .....p..iv). The difference between the two is much the same as that between a permanent state or formed habit (~€'r) and the activities (Evfpy ..a" tpya) in which it manifests itself. Cr. agaIn 4 17 a 22-29, and Phys. VIII. 4. 255 a 33 11FT, a. avva,. .. tl}"A .... r " ~v8av ....v ~...'lTrq,.....v Kal .; IX .... v ffb') Ka' ,.~ (J ..... p;;,v. III yap Tt\> mpXfw, "Included In the presence, or possession of soul." This means that organisms posse~sed Of. ~~ul ~ay be eit?er asleep or awake. In waking hours many psychical activities WIll be mamfested, of which in sleep there is only the latent capacity. Soul is, by the definition, "the activity which, whether displayed or not, is implicit in the living body." a 26. ICCl\ JL..j w.pyttv. The objection has been raised that the lowest stage of soul, the .nutritive (TO (JP""T""'''), is as active in sleep as in waking hours. Cf. Eth. Ntc. 1102 b 2 sqq. Further, A.'s "comprehensive definition" takes accou~t of pl~nts which, as he informs us (De Somno I, 454a 15-19), do not share In sleepIng and waking, these functions being restricted to those creatures which have t~e power of sensation. A.'s remark, then, in the text must be taken as refernng only to the soul in animals, where TO allT(J'I",KoV is superadded to TO (Jpnr.,..Kclv. Zabarella observes that it is not knowledge d...A;;'r which is compar~ble to sleep, but scientia non exiens in actum, knowledge possessed but not apphed. "'pDT4pCl S~ Tij Yfllicra.. There are several senses of "'PM'pOV Kat VITTEPOV enumerated, among other passages, in Metaph. 'ov has reference to these. A similar qu~stion ~s ser!ously handled in Metaph. Z., c. 11, the question there proposed bemg 71'01" TOV fi/lovr p.lp'l K"t 1I'o'a ov, d>'>'a TOV uvvfl>''1p.p.ivov; A. remarks (1036~ 31 sqq.) that, wh\!n the form of a circle is realised in heterogeneous matenal, as brass, wood and stone, it is clear that none of these materials can be parts of the ovu,a of circle, because it is found separated from them. Even where this is not so, that is, where the form is not presented in different materials, the case may still be the same as it would be if all the circles ever seen were of brass, though under those conditions the act of mental abstraction would be rendered difficult. His illustration has a direct bearing on the passage before us: (1036 b 3) oTolI TO roil allBpw7iou {laos alfl. Ell uapg, cpntVEraL p:a~ &0'1'"01" Kat

4I3a 8-a

JI.2 •

'te idle to minimise its meaning. If, as some think, comparing Pkys. VIII. 4,

q~13o, it only means that, as the sailor steers the ship, so the soul rules, controls 2S~ moves the .body, A. would not have said tfll'lAOII, see 407 b 18. The per-

11

anI 't of the Greek commentators may be inferred from the divergence of their pexlY ~ '. s Them. (43, 28 sqq. H., 80, 5 sqq. Sp.) refers the who1 e questIOn to IIOV~ View. dr 'd 'f ' , TWOS' purros as if ~ tvX'I' stoo lor ''I I10'lTtK'I, an as I th'IS could be O''''p.arDr ~.. *).'X"~ but x"'ptUTfJ· Simpl. (9 6,8 sqq.) gives an explanation which would :ve better suited the .",,1 yf of a 6. He of course has no patience with t1/l'l>'0", but for the opposite reason to Alex. Aphr.; (96, 10) ilIa T' 03" t11l'lAO" 'TI .171'f", fl "al "MO'IU xaAf1l'OV; teal yap '"apy.,r ~ (}f"'P'lTlte~ oVll~ wr opyav,!, xpijTat. Philop. (224, 12 sqq.) proposes various explanations mutually inconsistent and does not omit to criticise Alex. 11

CHAPTER

To'ir TOtoVToLr pipEULV' Jp' 03v leat fUTl Tavra pipTI TOV lltlovr leat TOU AOYOV; 'I'" DV " llAAC.tW ETrt:ylyvEuOaL , a'>'>"">' v "l, a'>"'" I\a uta TO, p.1J, Kat"UT dtlvvaToiJ,uEJ.' XCAlplua&, f7ff' aE,

TOVTO /lo ..' ~.v , " . . , , _" . . 102 a UA/\ . . aKtv'IT"'V Kal X"'PIUT"'V fUTt [mt. (}f"'P'ITlte~ '1' T'ip"'''. a 12. '1'0 cr~s. The superior cleamess (O'a~"fta) of mental concepts is emphasised in Plato, Rep. 523 B sqq. KA...a. '1'01' Myov. What is better known by reason or reasoning is frequently opposed to what is known by sense (teaTe. nI" a'lu(}'1O'I"), as theory is to facts. Cf. Pol. 1328 a 20 IJu'J T.,,, AOy"''' )( ilIa ri/s yv"p,,,,,,,"pov, into a7l'>,.,r or T'11 alu8qO'f"'s; de Part. An. 11. 8, 653 b 22, 30. ';O'ft. In Etk. Nic. 1095 b 2, the distinction is very clearly marked between what is better known to us (~p.'v), and what is better known absolutely (a7l')..,r); opteT'iov ,.,,, yap 071'0 T.,,, y""'P''''''''' T'aiira Il' IltTT.,r· Ta p.'" yap ~p.'" T'a Il' a7l')....r. Both there and here A. is discussing method: where are we to start in beginning the study of ethics, psychology or any similar subject? U niversals are combined and confused together in the complex object of sense. A.'s theory of learning amounts to this, that we start with the' data' of sense, indistinct and confused, when tested by the standard of thought (Tq; My'!') and disentangle from their complexity what is more knowable in the order of nature. By induction and abstraction we thus arrive at concepts, principles and causes which are more truly objects of knowledge. Cf. Zeller, Aristotle, I. 204.-:209 Eng. Tr.; Grote, pp. 196, 239, 332, 2nd edition (vol. 1. 282, 344, n., 51St editIOn). The process is described by A. in many passages: Anal. Post. I. 2,71 b 33 sqq., Top. VI. 4, 141 b 3 sqq., Metaph. 1029 b 4 ~ 'Yap p.a(}'1O'tr OVT'O) Y''Y''fTat 71'Out llta T'a>ll ~o" 'Y""'p'p."''' ';Uft fir Ta y,,&'plp-" P.ii>'AO", and b 7. (where aUTtii'Y"Olp~"",,: T'ip"'" stands opposed to Ta Tii VUfI YV"'plp-"), A. contmues ( 1029 b 8), T'a Il fkaUT'Ots y,,&'ptp.a Ka, 71'p.,Ta 71'o>'MKtr ~pi,.a r"'r j (3) PaclUs finds the apodosis in a 8 rOVr(J)V a' q POV '1TL~p'l nf. ~ 5 Ka.8d."..p • ~.crrO./AE8a. (Myo ...v ~ '1";' fUV •.• 6 +UXtlv). If we omit the ao with Bomtz and Bi.ehl, th~re wiII be no comma before ;\"yop,v, which will then be construct~d w,lth KaOa"',fp, "j~st as by the phrase re '".L/TrapfOa we mean" etc If we re~am a, the ICaOa".,p will be retrospective, the comma after '".,/Trap,Oa will be reqU1r~d, and ;\"YOpfV ao will introduce an explanatory sentence "now we mean by It" etc.

f

a.

" a?

• vy.a..'vo/'W.. Prof. Bywater remarks in Journ. of PMI., vol. XVII. p. 55, I thmk we might with advantage bracket the rI before "ymivopfll j with the re the clause as[ a whole ought surely to have run thus' o"o{",~ .' ' . 'V-YW'V0l-'fJl , , , f, r a Of Ka, "'0 pEV VyLfta or VY'fLaV] ro a. POPLOV rt rov uo,poro~ ~ Kat 8;\.ov." . This 'is undoubtedly .the ca~e, .but I ta~e the ungrammatical datives ""I"if!" .popi

"~ is distinct from that of ""~p"'l-'a, with which it is often conjoined: cf. 425 a 10, 432 b 22--24. The former is undeveloped, not yet come to maturity, e.g. a boy, the latter is maimed and will never mature. He or it has become an abnormal member of his class by loss of some part or function. In the organic world there are many irregular natural phenomena where nature's design seems thwarted and stops short of perfect realisation. Extreme cases are called monstrosities (ripara) and these are .".apa CP"UIV, De Gen. An. IV. 4, 770 b 9 sq. But that ""'1pOVV and """pwl-'a are used in a wider signification may be seen from the fact that according to A. the female sex is a stunted or undeveloped male: ro 'Yap 8~>'v c,u."..p ({pp.v EOTt .".f1r'lp"'l-'ivov, De Gen. An. II. 3,737 a 27. The effect of arrested, unequal development is sometimes expressed by vav",lI'Ir, which is applied to birds, fishes and even to all bloodless animals when contrasted with higher types and with man. a 28. a.;"'OJIAl,.,.v. A. firmly believed in spontaneous generation, knowing nothing of the germs or bacilli which in certain processes of decomposition, as in fermentation, invisibly generate new organisms and thus account for the apparent spontaneity. h-EPOV [into rOlOvrov] oiova.;"'6. Cf. 415 b 7, 416 b 24, 26, Pol. 1252 a 30 cited above in note on a 26. a 29. TOV a.\ Ka.\ Toil 8ECov. Cf. Plato Symp. 206 E on afl'Y.vir fOTI Kat a8"varov o>s SV'1TtP ~ yiVV1]O'I.f, and 207 A, 207 D ,,,Tfi Kart! TO 3vvarov aEi rE flval. Kat a8avaro~. a"varUl ro.urlll-'0VOv, rii 'Y.viufI KTE. Cf. also Laws IV. 721 B, C and the spurious treatise Oeeon. I. 3, 1343 b 23 sq. See Teichmiiller, StudieJZ ZUY Gesehiehte tier Begnjfe, p. 35 I. 415 b 2. ,.0 S' 0; iVEKG &,.,.6v. This is of the nature of a footnote. I t is repeated below 415 b 20. Probably either here or there it is out of place. We find it again, unnecessarily interrupting the argument, in Metaph. 1072 b 2 'A"XWs. For the three meanings of cause here given see Metaph. 9 83 a 26 Ta 8' alna AEYETaL TETpaX6", eX., ",tall II-EV alT,all cpap.Ev Elva, 1"qv ovutav Ka, TO Tt ~v EtvaL (clVUYETaL I'lip TO aLa Tt ds TOV Aol'0V fuxaTOV, afnov 8E Kat apxq TO 8"i Tt 1rpOOTOV), lTEpav 8i Tqv VA7]V Ka, TO vrrOICElIMIIOV, TplTfJII 8i 88fll ~ apxr,TijS' K'V~U£Q)S',

a.

a.

a.

, I

~.

343

NOTES

342

n,v

, , I TfTdpnJ" 3« civT'l(np.IVl]v a'''lav ravrn, ')IEvllTEfIlf "a. "'V.)ITEfIlf 1I'alT?S TOVT' pLrTTaL XCdp'S ;"arTTOv. OV 'Yap & 1'& ErvXEV fUT' TO aV6), aAA' 07f'OV cpipfTOt TO frVP KaL TO lCoiicpov· ol'ol6)r BE Kat TO «aTCd OVX i) TL EroX€II, aAX' i)frOV Ta Exo"Ta (:hipos "a. Ta 'Y.7/pa. The part where the mouth, or whatever organ receives food, is found is regarded as the upper part and the rest, in contradistinction, as the lower part. Cf. De lneessu An. 4, 705 a 32--b I, De lltv. et Sen. I, 468 a I "aO' a fLEv 'Yap fluipXfTaL fLopwV ~ TPOf/Jq, llvQ) KaAovp.fv, rrpo~ allT() fj).,/frOVTfS aAA' DV 'lTpas TO frfptixov OAOII, Kare» 8E ICaO" A TO 7rfplTTo>p.a iicJ>i11U& 7"0 7f'P~TOJl. EXn B' fvavrlfiJs Tois cJ>VTo'iS T01lrO Ka, TO'S (cJOU", Hist. An. H. I, 500 b 28 XE'YofLf" liE avCd TO &frO "ff/JaXijs fLEXPL TOU fLopiov " ~'TOU -rrfpLn6>fLaTOs Eunv E~olios, "aT" liE TO &frO TOVTOV XOLfrOV. The similarity of function between the roots of plants and the mouths of animals led to the remark frequently made (see next note) that plants are placed in the earth upside down j see De /uv. loc. cit. and De Part. An. IV. 7, 683 b 18. a 4· ~ 1j Kf",", Metaph. roro b 2 sq., with which must be taken the qualifications IOro b 14-26. a 12. 010" ;;""$ xp..i,..a.TOS. We might have expected XP;;'P.a 1l1/t.",s [1alOv KT,.] to conform with ralo" idOTTJ~ aluB~u.",s above. But a fresh construction seems to begin with orov, "sight is of colour," a genitive of relation, as in 418 a 26, 422 a 20 sqq., 422 b 24, 424 b 34; or we might supply aluBtiv'TaI 6>S lll{ov from a 12 aluBtivfuBa,; or, less plausibly, KPITIK~ (UTI from a 14 Kplv .. below; or again xp"'p.aTOS, tclqJOv, xv!,oii might conceivably, though not very probably, be objective genitives closely attached to the governing nouns, in which case there would be no need to supply (UT{. Cf. 430 b 29 T;' opav Toil lll{ov dA'IBi~: where, however, see critical notes. a 14 ",~,£oV$ ,..E" (Xf. S.a.+op0r X,Vp.or, De Mem. I, 450a 9 p.1'Y KA/CI)vor tll1at, Cf. Slmpl. in Phys. 1062, 2 0 'Yap ~"/CpaT'1r /CUTa UVP.(3f(3'1/Cor opaTor, /CaB' aUTO a. TO XP"p.a. a.LcreciVtTa.., into 0 aluBavop.&,VE&av awov '7f'ipas,

/CaOo llE To.avll. /Cal ll.arpa"is, T" Xp';;p,o. In short, light is in the transparent medium what colour is in body. b IJ. ill "Clot TG;"'OIl. The sentence is incomplete. /Cal Tov,.'!'=ICal T,!, av ... UU,p,oT.: and with iv /Cal TaVTOV must be understood Kal T", 'll'vpl: that is, "for aether also has some quality identical with that in fire," more literally, "for to this also as well as to fire belongs (v ...apx •• ) one and the same attribute." Perhaps this common attribute may be described as illuminative, TO rp;""l,ov, for aether does not, like terrestrial fire, consume and destroy. Trend. is inexact in explaining ~v wl TavTov as igni simile or "fiery," for fire is one of the things with which aether is itself co-ordinated, and Meteor. I. 3, 339 b 22, to which he appeals, merely states that Anaxagoras held aether to have received its· name from a belief in its identity with fire: ~v 'Avaga'Yopas P.EV T", ...vpl TavTov ~riuauOal p.o. llolCE, uTJp.alv • ..,. T' pAll 0;11 ••• 14 .fp1JTGLo Having given his own view, A. casts a glance upon current views which are excluded by it, especially (I) that light is fire or akin to fire (as was held by Empedocles and Plato), (z) that light is something corporeal emitted from the surface of bodies (Democritus). b 14. 0\'1"( .".vp. Cf. Plato, Tim. 45 1l-46 Il. Plato does not say in so many words that light is fire, but he explains vision as due to a stream of clear and subtle fire issuing from the eyes, of the same substance as the sunlight in the air, with which it mingles, the two combined then meeting the fire proceeding from the object seen. This at any rate suggests that fire and light are identical. 0\18' "MS cr....CIo, "nor a body at all," as it would be if it were fire (which the ancients regarded as an element or un compounded body), and as in any case it must have been in the view of Democritus. b IS- .,.;S· d.,..op~. This view, that light is an emanation, is attributed to Empedocles in De Sensu 2, 437 b 23 ·Ep..... lloICAij~ If EO.IC. vOP.l'OVT' aTE P.EV .g.OVTOS TOV rpo>Tos ••• {jAl .....v. Then, after citing the famous lines in which the structure of the eye is compared by Empedocles to a lantern, A. continues (43 8 a 4) OTE llE Ta,s a... oppola.s Ta'S " ... 0 T';;V "p...p.'v",,, [into "pal' rpTJfTlv]: cf. Theophr. De Sensibus § 7 (Diels, Dox. Gr. 500, 28) rplp.ueat llE ('EP. ... EboKAijS A.'Y") Ta xpu,p.aTa ... pos Tqv Ih/r'v ll.a TqV d... oppo~v. The supposition of emana· tions is in full accord with Empedocles' distinctive doctrine of perception through pores or channels. Cf. Plato, Mimo 76 c, D, De Gen. et Corr. I. 8, 324 b 26-35, cited in note on 418 b zo below. b 16. .....pl>i;l TO.Ov...o" TWOS ""Gpo".,.'CIo. This cannot mean the local presence of fire as of something material. For A. has just denied that light is a body at all. Nor has the light exactly the relation of form to the transparent regarded H.

24

NOTES

370

H·7

as matter or substratum. The fire, which is the source of light, is not immanent in the transparent. It is not the illumining fire but the transmitted influence of the fire which actualises the medium and converts it from darkness into light. See 4ISb 11-13 and IlOtcS. Them. explains "presence" as a mere relation: 60, 22 H., 110, 25 Sp. UXfIJ'If TOU 1I"apovTor 1I"POS hiivo, ~ 1I"apffTTt. Plato uses 1I"apOVULa of colour, Lysis 217 C-E, in a very similar manner, and this may have suggested the term to A. for light. Cf. De Sensu 3, 439 a 20, the presence of something fiery constitutes light and its absence darkness. 418 b 18-419 b 3. Darkness is commonly thought to be the contrary of light; the fact is that light is the presence of a positive quality in the medium, darkness its mere absence or privation. Empedoc\es assumed motion of light, motion so rapid as to escape observation, an assumption legitimate perhaps if the distance were short, but not justified if light travels the whole distance from East to West [§ 3]. The medium that is to receive colour must itself be colourless, and the potentially transparent satisfies this condition, as also does that which is invisible or scarcely visible, like dusk. Some objects, namely those which are phosphorescent, are seen, not in the light, but in the dark, but in this case it is not the colours which are seen [~4]. That which is seen in daylight is colour, and this can stimulate motion in the transparent medium, viz. air, which extends continuously between the visible object and the eye. An object in contact with the eye is not visible. A medium of· some sort reaching to the eye is essential to account for vision [§ 5]. If there were a void between eye and object, vision, and a jortiori accurate vision, of a minute and distant object would (pace Democriti) be impossible [§ 6]. Fire is seen both in the light and in the dark, naturally, as being the necessary condition of the actualisation of the transparent medium [§ 7]. A medium intervening between the object and the organ is, as will hereafter appear, indispensable in the case of all senses [§§ 8, 9]. 418 b 18. SoKI' 'I't ••••tIp.·VOV Kal TO cpwr; Ka8a1l"'p Kal 'EP.1I"0aOKAijs CP'1ulv alpE'I'O q aKTlr £V TIjI p.'Ta~v. Cf. A.'s reply 446 b 27 1''1' .zvat "Yap 24- 2

37 2

NOTES

H·7

8AOJS at Ovat op.olQ)s E'If'L rE aAAOt&'O"f(a)S fXfI. Ka, q,opor' at p.'v yap q,opal nlAoy.,r fir "0 p....a~ trpID"OV dCPLlcvoiiv ..al (3oui If os flvaL cpfpop.ivov T&VOS IClv'1tTLS), Gera a' aAAOLoiirot, Ol)l(£T& op.ol6}s· £v8i XtTat. yap dBpoov dAAolovuBm, Kal p.~ ..0 1jP.IUV trpo...pov, orov ..0 vlJ.,p ap.a trOV trqyvvuBal.

T' q,IDS f(1TlV, dXX' ov IClV'7U'LS.

".0...

r

These extracts lead us to expect that the word before should bear the meaning of dcpIKVOVP.EVOV or dcpIYP.EVOV: yl-yv.uBal certainly bears this meaning: possibly ...lv.uBm could also. Torstrik raised the interesting question whether ...IVOP.'vov was an Empedoclean word, "ut sit lux quasi u ..p~ Xpvu.l'l." On the affirmative side M. Rodier cites Alex. Aphr., who, commenting upon Emped. frag. 84, 5 D, in De Sensu 2,437 b 30 Tava"'''.pov lint. trVp], "finest or most subtle fire," remarks (23, 2 I W) ..avaOv IJ...0 trVP [cp'lul] .." IJla A.tr..&..1J ..a .... vop..vov ... Kal IJI.K".I". ...1V IJla .. IDV ".VKVIDV IJvvap..vov, Aet., Plac. VI. 14 (Diels, Doxogr. Gr. 405, 16) cpEp.uBal p.'v yap ..~v ;;~"v .....ap..v'lv cdr ''''1 ..ov xaAKov, £VTvxovuav 8e 7rVICVcfi leal AflCf> 7rA'1x8f'icrav iJ'Tf'oU'rpicpfLv av,",v 'cp' IQv"';'., le.'rE. For ...lv.uBm of light see Jebb's note on Ant. 600 and Phil. 831 ; and of sound Ant. 124. When we consider the use of ...lv .. v and 'K ...lv.IV with p.aKpaV in tragedy (e.g. p.~ ...iv. p.aKpav, P.aKpaV ' ....var, P.aKpaV &v l~E"'lva sim.) where it is practically a verb of motion, it would not be surprising if Empedocles used ...lvEuBal=cpEpfuBm. A. himself so lIses d".O ..';VE'!BaI, e.g. De Sensu 2, 438 a 25 tfAoyov BE oXoos TO 'eLf)VT' TLVl r~v a",."v opav, leaL aTrOTflvECT8at. p.'XP' TWJI &crrpwv (v. Ind. A r. 86 b 60 s.v.): "and, speaking generally, .that the eye should see by something issuing from it and that the visual ray should reach as far as the stars, is unreasonable." b22. trOTE. In De Sensu 6, 446 b I sqq. (cited in last 1lOte) A. says "there was a time when the ray was not yet seen, but was still on its way in the intervening space." Here he says that the sunlight travels and arrives at some time or other in the space between earth and heaven. ~ '"is .y;js K"\ TO'; ""'poiXOVTOS. The meaning of the word p. ...a~v must not be pressed. The light reaches the eye from the sun, moves from East to \Vest, and this motion takes place Iv ..r;; ""p,EXOV ..I, "in that which surrounds or encircles." rrEpl'xOV denotes here not, as in 404a 10, 411 a 19, the circumambient air, but the sky, Ind. Ar. 581 a 22 de extremis mundi finibus, e.g. De Caelo III. 5, 303 b 12. According to Empedoc1es the world was surrounded by a hollow sphere or rather two hemispheres, the one bright, the other dark, see Pluf., Plai:. H. 1I (Diels, Doxogr. Gr. 339, 16). b 23 -,,0. njv ... 24 ..a. cJ>a.o.v6",~. Theory, Aoyor, and facts, cpalvop.fva, as in 414 a 24: also De luvent. 4, 469 a 23 Ka..a p.'v OQv ..a cpalVop..va, ••• z"b. a 28 /Ca..a IJ. "Ov AO-yOV, De Sensu I, 436 b 7 lJijAOV /CallJla "OV AOYOV /Cal ..oV AOYOV X.,plr. A. of course rejects the spatial motion of light (see De SeIlSU 6, 446 b 27 cited above), because to him light is not a cpopa but an ciAAOi.,ulr of the transparent medium. b' 26. poly" ACuv TO "tT1)1'4- A quasi-proverbial expression. Cf. the oracle in Herodotus I. 66 'Ap/CalJ['1v p.' al...ir; p.'ya p.' al...ir· oil "0. lJ",u.,. Apparently .." a1"'1p.a is in apposition to ..0 AavBavElv. b 26 (cm. 8L.2'] TO IbltO+Ov. Philop. says (345, 17 sqq.: cf. Simpl. 134, 3134) that this is because the admixture of any colour in the medium would prevent it from receiving colours in their purity. This principle, that the recipient must be neutral to the qualities it receives, is applied to all the senses . in succession and to the mind (429 a 15-26). b 28. TO ci.cSpctTOV 1j TO ...")"S op......vov. There are many degrees of obscurity from twilight to total darkness. Cf. 425 b 20 sqq., 426 b I sq. b 29. TOLOVToV 8~, into UKOT.IVOV, "dusky," "obscure/'

11·7

418 b 22-419 a IS

373

b 30. ci.AA' 0.."" 8\111e1.",,, into IJlaq,av'r, i.e. the medium is potentially transparent when there is not present the necessary condition of its conversion from dark to light. 419 a I. OV ""eI."" 8t It must not be supposed however that light is in all cases the necessary condition that objects may be visible. It is only the condition in order that they may show their colour. Cf. Them. (61, 9 H., 112, 3 Sp.) OV ".av ..a a~ ..a opa..a 'v cp.,TI opa..a, dAAa ..O p.'v ollCfiov fKaUTov xpIDp.a EV q,.,..l p.ovov. Some things, e.g. the phosphorescent objects about to be described, carry their own medium with them, enough to show brightness and be visible, but not enough to show colour. See also second note on a 7 infra. a 3- Ta. ,",poSS1J cj"\LVcS ... w" K"t Aci....""OVT". A. here defines the class of visibles besides colours for which he has no name (418 a 27), namely things which present a fiery and luminous appearance. a S. KEpctS. A similar account of such objects is given in De Smsu 2, 437 a 3 I sqq.: (437 b 5) "for smooth objects glow normally in the dark, ... the heads of certain fish, for instance, and the ink of the cuttle-fish." a 7. IiUOI Myps. Philop. (348, I1) refers to the De Sensu for a statement to the effect that 'lrECPVKEV 0 ci~p v".;' ..ov Aap."'pov cp",.. ICfuBa" ora 0'6fL~, 6,1' O'ifJa'ipa «frO O'TfPfOV TWOS', rav ;11'"1 Ta3f ai'rov 'lrA~UUOL Tf &,., "at uXTJp.arl(oL fraXLv. ~'7T'O

II1

,

~I

, ,,

b 29. ci."CLK>.ciTCL., is "refracted" or "reflected" (to use modem scientific terminology), according as the ray of light passes through, or is unable to penetrate, the obstacle. b 33. li ... cip(tollfl" The expression is inexact, as pointed out by Torstrik, who gives us the choice between II TO rpo" opiClTat, "by which light is bounded," if A. is speaking of the fact, and ~ TO rpo,. OpiCOP.EV, "by which " [viz. Toil UK,ew 'lTo",v] "we commonly define light." Them. (64, 4 H., 117, 13 Sp.), more exact than his author, writes: ~ avciK~au" £Kl!J~~OTipa IM TO Kat UK,aV avvaulJa, 'lTo",v TO a'ITO'ITa~AO"'Vov rpo". If opiCop...Lo". The similarity of the language in 435 a 5-8 and the final limiting clause there" provided the air be one, as it is in the case of a smooth body" render it probable that there A. has echoes as well as reflection of light in his mind. The use of ~E'iOV in this passage proves, if any proof were needed, that A. does not limit £'lTi'ITElJOV to a flat surface or plane. The word used by the Pythagoreans to denote surface was Xpmci (cf. note on 4 18 a 26, Opo.TO" S'), in Plato it is f'ITi'IT(aov only and in A. £'lTi'ITEl!JOV is still in use, although he also employs the new word i'IT,rpciv ..a, which is never found in Plato in this sense. After Euclid's time £'lTi'ITEaOV was limited to plane which in Archimedes is also expressed by ~ £'lTi'ITEaM (int. f'IT,rpciv ..a). Heiberg, Mathematisches zu Aristole/es, p. 8, remarks: "Proclus in Euc1idem, pp. 116, 17, observes that Plato and A. do not distinguish £'lTi'ITEllov and ."..rpcivlla. Plato has only f'ITi'ITEaOV, sometimes for surface (Laws 817 E, Meno 76 A, Pkilebus 51 c), sometimes for plane (Theaetet. 173 E, Rep. 52 8 A-D). A. is already acquainted with E'IT,rpciv(,a in the mathematical sense (Phys. IV. I, 209 a 8, Metaph. 1020 a 14, lo6ob IS), but still uses £'lTi'ITEaOV also for surface (Top. VI. 4, 141 b 7, 22, De Caelo I. I, 268 a 8, Metaph. 1016 b 27) and both interchangeably, e.g. Categ. 6, 5 a 2 sqq. Once in Euclid f'ITi'ITEllov survives as surface, in a definition presumably derived from an earlier text book, though elsewhere Euclid sharply distinguishes the two terms, e.g. Def. 5 f'IT,cpciv..a l!Ji £tTT'V, t, P.ijKO' Kal 'lTAciTO' p.ovov 'x'" Def. 7 f'ITi'ITEaO' i'IT'rpciv",' 'tTT'V, ~T" £~ ruov Ta" fCP' £avTij, EMEill" u,,.a,. The latter definition, there is reason to think, originated with Euclid himself. These facts make against an assertion in Diog. Laert. Ill. 24 (llAclT"'V) 'lTpo,TO' fV cP,~ouorpiq. ... 6WOp.aU .... TO'V 'lTEpciT"'V T~V w,,~ Kol " Xapvy~ ucf>I7]IT''', Ta /lE acf>.,va >i YAwrra Kal Ta XOlX7]' .~ 6>V ~ /l,aXono. wvij. ITV"oXr,. lK fJapvTipov T07TOV ... O~VT'POV. .,.4).os, " tune," implying a succession of musical notes. This is an advance from Ooyyo. (292, 15), viz. cf>wvij. Oo'ua 8oyyov U7TOT'XO', though a very good description, does not satisfy the requirements of a logical definition. In several passages of the Politics A. implies that JLEX7], melodies or tunes, and pvO!,-oi, rhythms, are the essential factors in music: 1340 a 13, 19, 1341 a I, 14. The essential difference between JLEAo. and cf>0oyyo., song and speech, is well brought out Metapk.

a,

11.

8

420b S-b 14

38 7

1053 b 34-1054 a 2. If the universe consisted entirely of JLiX7], it would be a number or assemblage of quarter tones, a quarter tone being the least musical interval, and so the unit of the scale. But if the universe consisted solely of cf>0oyyo" it would be a number or assemblage of elementary sounds (uTooxo,a, vowels and consonants: not, as Bonitz translates, Buchstaben) and a vowel sound would be the unit. b 8. S.ciM....ov," articulate utterance," "language," "speech," " T~r cf>.,,,ijr ... TY yXwrrr/ /l'''pOPWIT'', as in 535 a 30, cited in note on 420 b 5 supra: cf. 420 b 18. That discourse of sweet sound should be attributed to instruments may be best understood if we take the case when the instruments accompany the chorus or when without the voices they play the same melody which the voices afterwards sing unaccompanied. The first case is noticed in Prob. XIX. 9, 918 a 22 lM Ti rja,ov Tij~ fLovCf!l3tar d"ovofLEV, fav TtS' W'poS' avAov 11 Avpav ~arfj KU{TOI. W'pouxopaa [sic Jan] Kal TO av..o !,-O"O< ~/lovu,,, u!,-o-ripw[r]. Cf. ib. XIX. 27, 919 b 261M Tt TO UKOVO"TOV povov ~Bo~ fXEL TWV alu87]TooV; "Ut yap fay ii tlvtV AOYOV fLEAOS', 01-'6)S' fXfL ~BoS', ib. XIX. 15. When an instrumental melody is said to have character, ~Oo" it may well be supposed to "speak." The same mode of thought recurs in the musical criticism of the present day, in fact, it is implied by the very common direction" cantabile" and by our expression" phrasing," as applied to a single instrument. Professor Beare, Greek Theories, p. 118, thinks /l,axono. is "distinct from !'-iXo. and used to designate the effect of a number of instruments played in harmony or in unison .... Articulation and harmony are terms as suitable for the interplay of ideas in conversation as for that of tones in concert." I see no reason for assuming that several instruments are necessary to /l,aAono 'AXfA~, IT' aE XaAlCtS' Kal KOKKv~ .•• 'Tf'aVTa ai ravTa rryv 3oKovuav CPCAJV~Y dCP,iiuI. Ta fLEV Tn TpltEL T6>V {3puYXlWv, ••• Ta aE rOL~ £VTOS' TOtr 'Trfpt rqv KOl.'Alav· 1Tvfvp.a yap EXn rOVTCAJV El(aUTOV, & 7rpourpl{joVTa Kul KI.VOVVTa ..-0.., TOV. o/0ov •. b 13. t{,pa6s. Cf. Pol. 1258 a 13 1rpo, TO TiAo. /I1ravTa aiov a1ravTiiv. lI..ocr"a.. This word, used here only, is framed on the analogy of "1r"KOO. (cf. also "1raitJpw., V7T0J.L"fJpO" "7TOU"'O.) and means

"guided by scent," "odori quasi obnoxia," as Trendelenburg has it. b 13. Ii..opov +o.(V'Ta.., ,I. The., clause is used as after (}avJ.Laoov) Oux 01'0[00< f/>av,pov ... 445 a 4. This passage is almost a duplicate of 421 b 13-422 a 3 of this chapter and forms such an excellent commentary that I append a translation of part of it. I t will be noticed that, as to the precise process by which non-breathing animals smell, A. is not more explicit in the one passage than in the other. "By what means they thus perceive is not so clear. The point therefore might here be raised, with what organ they perceive odour, if we assume that smelling takes place in the act of inhaling breath, and in this way only (J.L0vaX6,.); for it is a fact that all breathing animals do thus smell, whereas no one of the animals we are now considering breathes, and nevertheless they perceive odours. With what organ, then, can they perceive, if there is not some other sixth sense? But this is impossible, for smell is the sense for odours, and these they perceive, but not perhaps in the same way as breathing animals. The explanation is rather this, that in breathing animals the breath lifts up what covers OVer the sense-organ, as a sort of lid (and hence if they do not breathe, they do 'not smell), whereas in non-breathing animals there is no such lid to be lifted. It is the same here as

395

421 b lo-b 19

11·9

with the eyes; some animals have lids which they must open in order to see, while hard-eyed creatures have none, and so have no need to open them, but see, with what ability they have of seeing, directly. Likewise also none of the other animals is in the least disturbed by the smell of things essentially badsmelling unless it happens to be something noxious. But they are killed by the odours which are noxious, just as men are stupefied and often killed by the fumes of charcoal." b 14. "6' Iiv9p....os cLVa.T1Il..v, into oup.iiTa •• b 16. ovS' av •• .... into TO ouf/>pavTov. The parallel experiment establishing the existence of a medium for sight is mentioned 419 a 12: cf. for hearing and smell 419 a 28 sq. and for the contrast presented by touch and taste 423 b 17-26. b 18. KOWOV ..cillT..v. Whether we understand by 7TavTOOv all animals or all sensible objects depends upon whether we adhere to .A~ ...0 li"EV TO'; dva.T1I,i:v. On this question, in what sense animals can be understood to smell without inhaling, we have, as mentioned above, a parallel and fuller disquisition in De Sensu 5, 444 b 15 sqq. b 19. [S.ov ~ ...i "";v civ9p7TWV. With the neuter article Ta it would be equally easy to understand TWV (cewv, the group of animals, including man, which is contrasted with Ta UKA'Ipocp8aAl-'a. But, on the whole, the former view seems the more natural, and, if this is chosen, no change of gender is involved in Klv~crur or avacr7Tucrar, but only the quite usual change of number. b 29· c!>pciy ... a.," a fence or protection." In De Part. An. 11. 13, 657 a 25 it is called cpVAalCT]: Kat Ot JLfV liv8pCJ)7rOl Kat oi opvdJ£s KaL Ta Ccpon:iKu Kat Tt! ceOTOlCa TWV T