Archaeozoological Approaches to Medieval Moldavia 9781407304373, 9781407334707

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BAR S1954 2009

Archaeozoological Approaches to Medieval Moldavia

BEJENARU ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Luminita Bejenaru

BAR International Series 1954 2009 B A R

Archaeozoological Approaches to Medieval Moldavia

Luminita Bejenaru

BAR International Series 1954 2009

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1954 Archaeozoological Approaches to Medieval Moldavia © L Bejenaru and the Publisher 2009 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407304373 paperback ISBN 9781407334707 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407304373 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2009. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1. General study framework 1.1. A historical account of the research 1.2. Geographical and historical framework 1.2.1. Geographical characteristics 1.2.2. Historical framework 1.2.3. Regionalization of the medieval sites had in view 1.3. Materials and methods of study 2. Archaeozoolgical samples studied within the research 2.1. Archaeozoological remains in Baia 2.2. Archaeozoological remains in Siret 2.3. Archaeozoological remains in Hudum-Botoşani 2.4. Archaeozoological remains in Nicolina-Iaşi 2.5. Archaeozoological remains in Hlincea-Iaşi 2.6. Archaeozoological remains in Vaslui 2.7. Archaeozoological remains in Bârlad 2.8. Archaeozoological remains in Bârlăleşti 2.9. Archaeozoological remains in Târgu Trotuş 2.10. Archaeozoological remains in Borniş-Neamţ 2.11. Archaeozoological remains in Negreşti-Neamţ 2.12. Archaeozoological remains in Proscureni 2.13. Archaeozoological remains in Pohorniceni-Petruha 2.14. Archaeozoological remains in Hansca 2.15. Archaeozoological remains in Lucaşeuca 2.16. Archaeozoological remains in Orheiul Vechi 2.17. Archaeozoological remains in Lozova 2.18. Archaeozoological remains in Stâncăuţi 2.19. Archaeozoological remains in Alcedar 2.20. Archaeozoological remains in Echimăuţi 2.21. Archaeozoological remains in Calfa 2.22. Archaeozoological remains discovered in other settlements 3. Animal resources used in mediaeval Moldavia 3.1. Fishing 3.1.1. Importance of fishing in mediaeval Moldavia 3.1.2. Distribution of the identified fish species 3.2. Hunting 3.2.1. Importance of hunting in mediaeval Moldavia 3.2.2. Distribution of certain wild mammal species 3.2.3. Game selection according to age and sex 3.3. Animal breeding 3.3.1. Importance of animal breeding 3.3.2. Relative importance of domestic species 3.3.3. Regional livestock varieties 3.3.4. Selection of domestic animals according to age and sex 3.3.5. Valorisation of the slaughtered animals 4. Morphometrical description of some of the identified species 4.1. Bovines 4.2. Swine 4.3. Sheep and goat (Ovis aries and Capra hircus) 4.4. Horse (Equus caballus) 4.5. Dog (Canis familiaris) 4.6. Domestic cat (Felis domesticus) 4.7. Hare (Lepus europaeus) 4.8. Brown bear (Ursus arctos) 4.9. Cervids 4.10. Domestic poultry

1 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 23 23 23 23 24 24 25 28 30 30 30 34 35 42 52 52 59 63 64 66 68 68 68 69 71

Conclusions References Appendices Appendix 1. Cattle (Bos taurus) – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 2. Pig (Sus domesticus) – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 3. Sheep (Ovis aries) & goat (Capra hircus) – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 4. Horse (Equus caballus) – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 5. Dog (Canis familiaris) – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 6. Deer – metrical data (in mm). Appendix 7. Hen (Gallus domesticus) – metrical data (in mm).

72 74 79 80 135 144 149 151 153 155

INTRODUCTION Archaeozoology is part of the interdisciplinary research that enables materials brought to light in archaeological contexts to be understood at the highest level of complexity. By studying the faunal remains recovered from excavations, archaeozoologists aim to identify the animal species that were in contact with ancient human communities and the relations established between the two (hunting, fishing, husbandry); to determine various aspects of their shared geographical environment, to estimating species biogeography and dispersal, especially in the case of certain species that are no longer part of our native fauna, or that are extinct (such as the aurochs, for instance).

This book is organized into four chapters, followed by a conclusion, bibliography and an annex consisting of a metrical data inventory. The first chapter outlines the general framework of the study followed by a review of previously published data on mediaeval archaeozoology in our country, the geographical and historical framework and the methodology employed in the study. Chapter two provides a general description of the archaeozoological samples on which the synthetic analysis is based. The investigation of the animal resources used in mediaeval Moldavia, with the development of multiple aspects according to the study objectives, is found in the following chapter. In chapter four, the osteometric descriptions of the domestic animal species identified in the archaeological samples that have been investigated has explores intra-specific geographical and temporal variability. A synthesis of the main results and the resulting research perspectives they open are presented in the conclusions section.

At the present stage of the international scientific investigations, the polyvalent reconstruction of the way of life within ancient societies in general – mediaeval in the case of this project – is not possible without the relatively precise reference points provided by archaeozoology in relation to economics, palaeoecology and palaeoethnology. The written sources concerning the fauna of mediaeval Moldavia are rather deficient and ambiguous. Therefore, it is particularly important to thoroughly consider the archaeozoological records and to develop a synthetic study of this topic.

Acknowledgments I am grateful to several specialists for their contributions towards the realisation of this work. Thanks to archaeologists who showed interest in the study of the animal remains they excavated: Dr. Victor Spinei (Archaeological Institute of Iaşi), Dr. Stela Cheptea (Centre of History and European Civilisation, Iaşi), Dr. Gheorghe Postică (Free International University of Moldova), Dr. Alexandru Artimon (Museum of History, Bacău). Dr. Ludmila Bacumenco from the Institute of Cultural Patrimony, Academy of Sciences, Chişinău, aided in the evaluation of the bibliography and excavation reports from Republic of Moldavia. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Aleksander Pluskowski (University of Reading) for his careful reading and insightful comments on this work. I wish to extend particular thanks to Dr. Alice Choyke (Central European University, Budapest) and Dr. László Bartosiewicz (University of Edinburgh) for very supportive references in view to publishing this book.

The inquiries included in this work are a continuation and an expansion of one of the subjects tackled in the PhD thesis entitled “The comparative anatomical study of the faunal remains discovered on Romanian territory on archaeological sites dating from the 11th-17th century (The 11th-17th century archaeozoology for Romania)”. The studies purpose to correlate the animal history with the evolution of human society and with the ecological transformations in mediaeval Moldavia, thus contributing to understanding the role played by animals in the life of mediaeval communities, the exploitation strategies that were employed, the dynamics of the morphology and of the distribution of various animal species in mediaeval Moldavia. Our research objectives were: to evaluate the animal resources and the purposes of their use in various mediaeval settlements in Moldavian territory; to identify the consumers’ diversity depending on geographical, ethnical and religious factors, on the urban or rural environment; to describe from a morphometric viewpoint the different animal species identified on the basis of the archaeozoological samples and to establish the diversity of domestic animal breeds in mediaeval Moldavia on the basis of the correlation of the archaeozoological data with written sources, as well as with modern zoological data; to estimate the ways in which animals were exploited (the selection dependent on age and gender, the butchering methods).

1

1. GENERAL STUDY FRAMEWORK 1.1. A historical account of the research The first archaeozoological studies focusing on the region of Medieval Moldavia located to the west of the river Prut were carried out by the Iaşi school, whose foundations were set as early as the postwar period under the guidance of academy member Professor Olga Necrasov. In the 1980’s, Haimovici and his team published works in reference to a series of settlements: Bârlad, Baia, Bârlăleşti Vaslui, Hlincea-Iaşi, and BornişNeamţ. The archaeological inquiries developed during the following years yielded numerous faunal assemblages. During these past years, the increasingly closer collaboration between the Animal Morphology Laboratory of the “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi and the Institute of Archaeology of the Iaşi branch of the Romanian Academy, the Archaeology Seminary of the “Alexandru Ion Cuza” University of Iaşi, and several county museums (Botoşani, Vaslui), materialized in the works published relating to the mediaeval sites of Vaslui, Hudum-Botoşani, Nicolina-Iaşi and Siret. The archaeozoological investigation of the region of Medieval Moldavia situated to the east of the river Prut began in the 1950’s with several studies and records conducted by Ţalkin in reference to the sites of Lucaşeuca, Alcedar, Echimăuţi, Orheiul Vechi, Poiana, and Ruseni. David’s contributions concerning the Calfa, Hansca, Pohorniceni, Lucaşeuca, Stâncăuţi, Proscureni, and Orheiul Vechi settlements were published from the 1960s. Mention must be made of the fact that the present work uses as a key bibliographical reference David’s synthesis of 1982, which brings together all the previously existing information on the region of Medieval Moldavia located to the east of the river Prut. Although numerous archaeozoolgical studies on Medieval Moldavia are available today, we are convinced that new enquiries would greatly contribute to the diversification of the types of archaeozoological samples (depending on the geographical environment, the ethnic identities and even the religion of the human communities, on the urban or rural environment and on social categories), to a more thorough understanding on statistical bases of subjects related to palaeoeconomy, palaeoethnology and palaeoecology. 1.2. Geographical and historical framework 1.2.1. Geographical characteristics Medieval Moldavia spread from the Carpathian Mountains to the river Dniester and was characterized by three relief levels: the Oriental Carpathians, the Moldavian Sub-Carpathians and the Moldavia Plateau. The Oriental Carpathians, which are situated to the west of Moldavia, are not particularly massive with

prominently fragmented peaks of medium height. The toponyms employing words that make reference to gorges (mountain passes), ravines, clefts and rifts are particularly frequent in the mountain regions. Through time, all these characteristics facilitated the contacts between the interCarpathian and the peri-Carpathian regions. The Moldavian Sub-Carpathians are divided by numerous depressions. The valleys, which are predominantly transversal, are often deep and wide, turning into depressions with vast terraced fields (the Neamţ, the Cracău-Bistriţa, and the Tazlău Depressions). In the east there is the Moldavia Plateau. The northern region of this plateau is a depression (the Middle-Prut Depression), surrounded by high hills (250-600 meters in height). In the southern part of the plateau there are many hills, whilst the region widens and progressively descends to the south. To the north of the Danube and of the Black Sea spreads a plain called Bugeac, to the east of the river Prut (Romanian Encyclopaedia, 1938). 1.2.2. Historical framework During the first millennium following the end of Roman occupation, several migratory populations passed through the Moldavian territory: Huns, Ostrogoths, and Slavs. The territory was ruled temporarily in turn by the Bulgarians, the Hungarians, the Petchenegs, and also by the Mongolians. During the first centuries of the 2nd millennium A.D., the main historical reference points coincide with the founding of the Romanian states (Georgescu, 1992). In Moldavian territory, much of which had been under the rule of the Golden Horde after 1241, the process of centralization of power began; there were at the time a few political entities: the one ruled by the Romanian voivode Olaha, the Blachs in the northern part of Moldavia and “the Wallachians’ country” in the south. In the first half of the 14th century, when the power of the Golden Horde began to decline, the Hungarians initiated military campaigns against the Tartars, in which voivode Dragoş of Maramureş participated. At the northern boundary of Moldavia, the Hungarians organize a military mark, whose charge is entrusted to Romanian dukes. Moldavia became an independent state in the 14th century, when Bogdan I came to the throne of Moldavia, after deposing Balc, the son of Dragoş, loyal to the Hungarian crown (Spinei, 1994). The founding of the Romanian principalities was followed by a short period of stability, until the invasions, the wars and the internal clashes began anew. During the first half of the 16th century, Moldavia was subdued by the Ottoman Empire, and would remain under its rule for the next 300 years (Georgescu, 1992).

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Nicolina-Iaşi. The Nicolina site corresponds to a hovel dating from the last part of the 12th century and the first half of the 13th century. It was discovered in the course of some rescue excavations in the Nicolina neighbourhood, in Iaşi (Haimovici, 1993a).

1.2.3. The regional context of sites in the study The sites studied from an archaeozoological perspective (Figure 1.1) were arranged into groups according to region, while in evaluating the natural potential of the territory and in analysing the circumstances that most probably influenced the ancient human populations in these areas, we took into account first of all the distribution of this territory into physical-geographical units (Velcea et al., 1983). We have also considered the specific historical circumstances and the concentration of the medieval sites within certain spaces. The sites that have been studied in relation to Medieval Moldavia belong to several sub-units that are particularized by elements pertaining to relief, climate or vegetation.

Hlincea-Iaşi. The Hlicea station is situated on the bank of the Nicolina brook, in the flood plain of the river Bahlui, very close to the city of Iaşi. The faunal remains have been collected from the strata corresponding to the 14th-15th century period (Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987). C. Bârlad Plateau

The Suceava Plateau is a relatively high unit, with a fairly humid and cool climate, with beech, hornbeam and oak forests alternating with meadows and crop fields.

The Bârlad Plateau, which spreads within the space between the rivers Siret and Prut, is very vast and displays a fairly wide woodland area. The oak, beech and other deciduous forests interpenetrate with the southern forest steppe. The yearly precipitations are richer in the high north-west and north-east regions, reaching up to 600 mm.

Baia. The archaeological excavations organized in the medieval city of Baia provided numerous osteological remains from the 14th-17th centuries. The settlement is situated in a depression bordered to the south by the heights on the right bank of the river Moldova, and to the north and north-west by the Plateau of the Şomuz and the Dealul Porcului (Hill of the Pig) (Neamţu et al., 1980).

Vaslui. The medieval city of Vaslui has been mentioned in documents since 1435, but it was probably functional as early as the time of Alexandru cel Bun (Alexander the Kind), as the archaeological discoveries testify. The site, which is located on the Bârlad Plateau, at the confluence of the rivers Vasluieţ and Bârlad, provided several faunal remains (Haimovici, 1992).

Siret. The medieval Siret was one of the first urban settlements in the Carpathian-Dniester area. It even became the second capital of the Moldavian medieval state in the 14th century, due to the fact that the route of an important transcontinental commercial axis that connected the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea passed through it (Spinei, 1994). It is located to the north-west of the river Suceava, on the right bank of the upper stream of the river Siret, in the Suceava Plateau.

Bârlad. Located in the Bârlad Valley, the Bârlad medieval settlement is bordered by the Tutova Hills to the north-west and by the Fălciu Hills to the south-east. The bone fragments come from eleven dwelling complexes of the semi-hovel type dating from the 13th-14th century period (Haimovici, 1980b).

A. Suceava Plateau

Bârlăleşti. The station corresponds to an old Romanian settlement (the late stage of the Dridu culture) from the 10th-11th century. It is situated on the eastern side of the Fălciu Hills, towards the depression of the river Elan, at approximately 20 km from Bârlad, in the Epureni commune, the Vaslui County (Haimovici, 1984).

B. Moldavian Plain This depressionary area corresponding to the Jijia river basin displays a hilly relief (with medium altitudes of 150 m), eastern climatic influences (annual average temperatures of 8-9°C and medium precipitations of 475550 mm), and a mostly semi-permanent hydrographical net. It is a forest steppe area, with isolated wooded patches (oak, hornbeam, linden, cherry), meadows with various types of hair grass on some of the slopes and wide surfaces covered with grassy vegetation, which began centuries ago to be replaced by crops (facilitated by the presence of the chernozems).

D. Peri-Carpathian area of Moldavia The relief of this area (the Moldavian Sub-Carpathians) consists of a range of depressions (Neamţ, CracăuBistriţa, Tazlău, Trotuş) and of summits aligned parallel to the mountain ridge. The average annual temperature lowers from the south-west (9°C) to the north (8°C), as do also the annual precipitations (from 776 mm to 670 mm). Within the depressions steppe-like secondary meadows and crop fields prevail.

Hudum-Botoşani. The medieval settlement at Hudum, dating from the 13th-15th century period, is placed in the Botoşani Depression. To the west, it is very close to the city of Botoşani. It is bordered to the west by the high hills on the left bank of the river Siret (Haimovici, 1993b).

Măleşti, Obârşia and Silişte-Negoieşti. These three medieval rural settlements were discovered within the perimeter of the present-day village of Borniş-Neamţ. The place is situated to the basin of the river Valea Mare, a tributary of the river Moldova, south of the Neamţ Depression. The archaezoological material found at 4

GENERAL STUDY FRAMEWORK Măleşti dates from the 14th-15th centuries, while the one discovered at Obârşia and Silişte-Negoieşti is attributed to the 14th-17th centuries (Haimovici and Cojocaru, 1987; Haimovici, 1994).

Lucaşeuca is a multi-layered archaeological complex where several sites have been explored. The point Lucaşeuca II is a 9th-10th century settlement situated in the Lucaşeuca commune. Lucaşeuca-Cetăţuie (9th-11th centuries) is located 4km west of the Lucaşeuca commune, and 80 km south of the Orhei-Bravicea route. Lucaşeuca V (12th-15th centuries) is a settlement situated 4 km west of the Lucaşeuca commune, at the Cornul Blăjiei point, in the forest.

Negreşti-Neamţ. This rural settlement (in Dobreni commune) is located in the upper part of the Cracău Depression, toward the foot of the Stânişoara massif, at a height of nearly 600 m. The animal remains are as old as the 17th century (Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987).

Alcedar (9th-10th centuries) is a citadel located two km south-west of the Alcedar commune.

Târgu Trotuş. The urban settlement at Trotuş was formed and developed starting from the second half of the 14th century within the Trotuş Depression (in the south-western area of Moldavia). The urban centre was situated near an old and important salt mine, around the starting point of the road that led to Breţc, in Transylvania, and then farther, to Braşov (Artimon, 1993).

Echimăuţi (9th-10th centuries) is a citadel situated 2 km north of the Echimăuţi commune. Calfa (9th-11th centuries) is a citadel situated 0.8 km north of the Calfa train station, at the mouth of the river Bâc.

E. Moldavian Plateau at the east of the river Prut

The urban settlement Orheiul Vechi (14th-16th centuries) is located on the right bank of the river Răut, between Trebujeni and Butuceni, on the Peştere promontory.

At the east of the river Prut, we encounter several subunits that succeed each other within the main relief unit (the Moldavian Plateau).

1.2. Materials and methods of study The size of the archaeozoological assemblages, expressed by the number of remains (NR), varies between 47 and 8175 fragments (Table 1.1). The deficiency caused by the presence of smaller samples (with less than 1000 identified remains) is somewhat balanced by the existence of several more significant assemblages containing over 1000 identified remains (Table 1.1), which validates the study from a statistical perspective. Expert archaeologists collected and dated the remains discovered during the various excavations.

The Plateau of Northern and Central Moldavia has an even appearance, with a slight slant to the south and altitudes of 240-320 m. It spreads between the north area of the region and the Soroca-Drochia-Râşcani line. The Plain of Northern Moldavia displays a smooth relief, slightly undulating (a maximum altitude of 250 m), wide valleys with symmetrical slopes. The Plateau of Central Moldavia has a maximum height of 429 m and is also fragmented by deep valleys. Proscureni (6th-12th centuries). The settlement is located on the bank of the river Ciuhur, in the Râşcani region.

The identification of the archaeozoological material, a process aiming to establish the anatomical and taxonomic origin of the remains according to their morphological characteristics, was made with the help of the osteological reference collection belonging to the Laboratory of Animal Morphology, as well as of atlases and treatises of comparative osteology (Gheţie & Paştea, 1954; Nicolescu, 1985). With a view to differentiating those remains belonging to species that were quite close in terms of skeletal morphology, we used special identifying criteria. Thus, in order to differentiate the species Ovis aries (sheep) and Capra hircus (goat), we made use of the morphological identification criteria on the skeleton belonging to the adult animal, published by Boessneck and his team (1964), Prummel and Frisch (1986), as well as of the metric technique of differentiating the metapodials (Udrescu et al., 1999). The separation of the domestic species from their wild ancestors (Bos primigenius -aurochs / Bos taurus - cattle, Sus scrofa ferus - wild boar / Sus scrofa domesticus - pig) was achieved by identifying several osteometric differences, as the morphological criteria were almost completely absent in this case.

Stâncăuţi (15th-18th centuries). The settlement is situated 2 km west of the Mălăeşti commune, and to the southwest of the Şeptebani commune, in the Dragaia region. Lozova I (14th century). The settlement is situated on the eastern boundary of the Lozova commune, on the bank of a tributary of the river Bâc-Bâcoveţ. The Dniester Plateau is located between the Dniester, the Răut and its tributary Căinari, and consists of hilly relief (a maximum altitude of 347 m) greatly fragmented towards the east. Pohorniceni-Petruha (8th-14th centuries). The settlement is situated within the basin of the river Răut, on the outskirt of the forest, 4 km from the Pohorniceni commune. Hansca-Limbari Căprăria (10th-14th centuries). This site consists of a settlement and a necropolis located to the north-east of the Hansca commune in Lăpuşna, on the bank of a tributary of the river Botna. 5

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA The dimensioning of the different skeletal elements with a view to establishing some metric particularities was achieved by using the measurements standardized by Von den Driesch’s osteometric guide (1976), with a precision reaching up to half a millimetre. The measuring tools employed were the vernier calliper and the metric tape (for circumferences). The metric data obtained were used on one hand to directly describe lengths, breadths, and circumferences; on the other hand, they led, through some calculated indexes, to more elaborate estimations, like the withers height, the sex, and even the species.

information published by Prummel (1987a, 1987b) proved to be particularly useful. The determination of the sex of different species was achieved on the basis of several morphologic and metric criteria applied to the various anatomical elements, such as the metapodials of cattle, the horn cores of cattle, sheep and goat, the canines of pig, the tarsometatarsus of hens, etc. The archaeozoological quantification aimed at evaluating the relative frequencies of the different species and of the different skeletal elements in the samples. The quantification methods used were based on establishing the number of remains (NR) and on estimating the minimum number of individuals (MNI).

The estimation of the age at death and sex of animals; although this concerned only a small proportion of the identified remains, it gave rise to some opinions regarding the way in which certain exploited animal populations were made use of, managed and controlled. The dental age estimation was achieved in a differentiated manner for young and adult animals. The research employed the age estimation tables based on tooth eruption criteria that have been published in relation to the main domestic species by Schmid (1972) and Haimovici (1979). It also made use of the data concerning tooth eruption sequences put forward by Grigson (1982) for cattle (Bos taurus), by Bull and Payne (1982) for pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus), and by Levin (1982, taken from Udrescu et al., 1999) for horse (Equus caballus). In the case of adult or even old animals, the study took into account the tooth wear stages, making use of the tables published by Haimovici (1979) and Grant (1982) for the main domestic species, as well as of those put forward by Payne (1973) for sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus). In the case of the red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreoluls capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus), age estimation was made possible by using data provided by forestry studies of tooth eruption sequences and the wear stages of the permanent mandibular teeth (Cotta & Bodea, 1969).

Calculating the number of remains (NR) consisted of counting the fragments for each taxon – chiefly species, or anatomical elements, after having determined them. The estimation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) represented in the assemblage was calculated for each species separately, starting in the majority of cases from the most frequently encountered element, after performing a separation in accordance to laterality (left,/right), but without excluding other estimation criteria, such as age or size. As a result it was possible to obtain a “frequency MNI”. In a few other cases the reconstruction of theoretical individuals was incorporated, resulting in an “MNI by individualization” (Arbogast, 1994). The statistical processing of the archaeozoolgical data was done with Excel, according to the objectives of the study. For each sample several statistical parameters were used. The initial information necessary for the statistical processing was obtained by establishing the statistical series (n), the minimum value (min.), the maximum value (max.), and the arithmetic mean (when n>3). For the groups of values having a n>5, other statistical parameters were used as well, with a view to determining a particular internal organization (the estimation of the relationships between the average and each individual value): the standard error of the average, the standard deviation of the average and the confidence range for the average (with a precision of 95 %).

The skeletal age estimation (analysing the degree of epiphyseal fusion and closure of cranial sutures in animals with determinate growth) was based mainly on the data provided by Barone (1976), Grigson (1982), and Bull & Payne (1982). Concerning the age stages in the case of foetal and newborn domestic animals, the

Table 1.1. Medieval settlements that have been archaezooologically analysed (NR – number of remains). Settlement

Baia

Dating (Centuries) XIV-XVII

References Haimovici, 1980a Bejenaru, 2003; Bejenaru & Agache, 2000 Albu, 2002; Ionescu, 2002; Nistor, 2003; Cavaleriu, 2004 Haimovici et al., 1993 Bejenaru, 2003

6

Sample NR 1848 3723 2844 1300 4335

GENERAL STUDY FRAMEWORK Settlement Siret

Dating (Centuries) XIV-XV

Rotaru, 2002

Sample NR 198

Nicolina-Iaşi Hudum-Botoşani Hlincea-Iaşi Vaslui Bârlad Bârlăleşti Negreşti-Neamţ Borniş-MăleştiBorniş-Obârşia Borniş-Silişte Târgu Trotuş Proscureni

XII-XIII XIV XIV-XV XV XIII-XIV X-XI XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVIII XIV-XVIII XIV-XVII VI-XII

Haimovici, 1993a Haimovici, 1993b Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987 Haimovici, 1992 Haimovici, 1980b Haimovici, 1984 Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987 Haimovici, 1994 Ibidem Ibidem Bejenaru, 2003 After David, 1982

47 128 152 1900 800 1300 323 450 850 774 510 1691

Pohorniceni Hansca Lucaşeuca Orheiul Vechi

VIII-XIV X-XIV IX-XV XIV-XVI XIV-XVII XIV XV-XVIII IX-X IX-X IX-XI

Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem Bejenaru et al., 2003 After David, 1982 Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem

1175 5999 796 8175 1779 373 67 990 3911 100

Lozovo Stâncăuţi Alcedar Echimăuţi Calfa

References

Figure 1.1. Map of Medieval Moldavia showing the sites that have been archaezooologically analysed.

7

2. THE ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL ASSEMBLAGES The archaeozoological assemblages on which the present study is based are briefly analysed in the following pages, with the purpose of rendering an initial outline of faunal exploitation in mediaeval Moldavia. 2.1. Archaeozoological remains in Baia This settlement, which is situated within a depression bordered to the south by the heights on the right bank of the river Moldova, and to the north and north-west by the Plateau of the Şomuz and by the Dealul Porcului (Hill of the Pig) (Neamţu et al., 1980), played an important role in the history of mediaeval Moldavia. Historians seem to think that Baia had been established as a city before the Moldavian mediaeval state was founded, but disagree over how this urban settlement arose and developed, a process that also involved foreign populations, most of them Catholics (Neamţu et al., 1980). The archaeological excavations conducted in the mediaeval city of Baia provided numerous faunal remains from the 14th-17th century (Table 2.1). Some of these (1484 remains belonging to a number of at least 224 individuals) have been studied and published by Haimovici (1980), while another assemblage, of approximately 3723 remains, was the focus of the research published by Bejenaru (2003). About 2844 animal remains have been analysed by several students of the Faculty of Biology in their graduation theses (Albu, 2002; Ionescu, 2002; Nistor, 2003; Cavaleriu, 2004), and are summarised in table 2.1.c.

as in each of them the highest number of remains belonged to domestic animals. The relationship between the significant species used for alimentation also indicates a comparable hierarchy (Bos taurus / Sus domesticus / Ovis aries-Capra hircus). The remains that have been analysed, most of them from household contexts, come from several types of archaeological structures (dwellings, holes, strata). Remains of a different origin have also been identified; for example, a distal phalanx from the posterior limb of a mountain eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and a skeletal fragment from a bovine foetus (Bejenaru, 2003). The eagle phalanx, found in dwelling no. 9, has on its articulatory surface a perforation in the dorsoplantar direction, which indicates that the piece was used as a pendant (Gál, 2005). The foetal bones found on the floor of dwelling no 18 come from an approximately 200-day-old animal (according to the indexes established by Prummel, 1987; idem, 1988) and seem to indicate a case of fetal pathogenesis. 2.3. Archaeozoological remains in Hudum-Botoşani The mediaeval settlement of Hudum (13th-15th century period) is situated in the Botoşani Depression, very close, towards the west, to the present-day city of Botoşani. It is bordered to the west by the high hills on the left side of the river Siret. The archaeozoological sample, analysed and published by Haimovici (1993b), is included in table 2.3. 2.4. Archaeozoological remains in Nicolina-Iaşi

2.2. Archaeozoological remains in Siret The mediaeval city of Siret was one of the first urban settlements within the Carpathian-Dniester area, being mentioned for the first time in a document dating from 1370, the time of Laţcu’s reign, as the second capital of the Moldavian state. The settlement was located on the route of a major transcontinental axis that connected the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. The faunal material supplied by the archaeological excavations performed systematically during 1992-1995 under the guidance of Professor Victor Spinei formed the basis of several archaeozoological studies (Table 2.2). The first one was undertaken by Professor Sergiu Haimovici and his team and focused on approximately 1300 remains (Haimovici et al., 1993). Another two samples of 1100 and 3235 remains, respectively, were analysed and subsequently published separately (Haimovici & Bejenaru, 1994; Bejenaru & TarcanHrişcu, 1996), but also cumulatively (Bejenaru, 2003), as for instance in table 2.2.b. A recent analysis was performed within the framework of a graduate thesis (Rotaru, 2002), whose findings are summarised in table 2.2.c. The four analysed samples are similar in structure,

The Nicolina site corresponds to a hovel dating from the last part of the 12th century and the first half of the 13th century, discovered during the rescue excavations performed in Nicolina, a neighborhood of the city of Iaşi. The animal remains have been studied and published by Haimovici (1993a) (Table 2.4). 2.5. Archaeozoological remains in Hlincea-Iaşi The settlement of Hlincea is located on the banks of the brook Nicolina (the flood plain of the river Bahlui), on the outskirts of the county capital Iaşi. The area displays heights of approximately 400 m, which still remain richly wooded. Almost all the faunal material collected by archaeologist Rodica Popovici comes from the 14th-15th centuries (Table 2.5). 2.6. Archaeozoological remains in Vaslui The mediaeval city of Vaslui is mentioned in documents since 1435, but it was probably functional since the time of Alexandru cel Bun (Alexander the Kind), as the archaeological discoveries seem to indicate. The site, which is located within the Bârlad Plateau, on the

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH convergence point of the rivers Vasluieţ and Bârlad, contained a number of faunal remains (Haimovici, 1992). These fragments, dated to the 15th century, were recovered during the rescue excavations conducted by archaeologists Ruxandra Halaiba and Alexandru Andronic (Table 2.6). According to the archaeological investigations, the city of Vaslui was functioning before being mentioned in documents (1435) as a borough and a princely court, probably as early as Alexandru cel Bun’s reign.

2.10. Archaeozoological remains in Borniş-Neamţ

Located in the Bârlad Valley, the mediaeval settling of Bârlad is bordered to the north-west by the Tutova Hills and to the south-east by the Fălciu Hills. The faunal remains (Table 2.7) come from eleven dwelling complexes of the semi-hovel type, dating from the 13th14th century period (Haimovici, 1980a).

Within the perimeter of the present-day village of Borniş, in the Dragomireşti commune, the county of Neamţ, three archaeological sites have been explored: Obârşia, Mâleşti, and Silişte-Negoieşti. Thus, three faunal samples were obtained (Table 2.10). The three settlements belong to the basin of the river Valea Mare, a tributary of Moldova. They are surrounded by hills of over 300 m in height, which still remain partly wooded. The mediaeval station of Obârşia is mentioned in a document on September 1st 1444, and then on September 23rd 1483. It is located on a slope slanting toward a swampy area. The Mâleşti settlement is mentioned in contemporary documents as well. The archaeozoological sample in Mâleşti is dated from the 14th-15th centuries, and the one in Obârşia and Silişte-Negoieşti is dated to the 14th-17th centuries (Haimovici and Cojocaru, 1987; Haimovici, 1994).

2.8. Archaeozoological remains in Bârlăleşti

2.11. Archaeozoological remains in Negreşti-Neamţ

The site corresponds to an ancient Romanian settlement (the late stage of the Dridu culture), dated to the 10th-11th centuries. It is located in the eastern side of the Fălciu Hills, toward the depression of the river Elan, at approximately 20 km from Bârlad, in the Epureni commune, the county of Vaslui. The animal remains (Table 2.8) have been studied and published by Haimovici (1984).

The rural settlement of Negreşti (the Dobreni commune) is situated in the upper part of the Cracău Depression, towards the foot of the Stânişoara massif, at a height of approximately 600 m. The animal remains (Table 2.11) are dated 17th century (Haimovici and Cojocaru, 1987).

2.7. Archaeozoological remains in Bârlad

2.12. Archaeozoological remains in Proscureni The mediaeval settlement of Proscureni (6th-12th centuries) is located on the bank of the river Ciuhur and was investigated by I. Hîncu in 1973. Because of the partial disarray of the archaeological layers, the osteological material, processed by A. David, was analysed as a single sample (Table 2.12).

2.9. Archaeozoological remains in Târgu Trotuş The urban settlement of Trotuş was set up and developed in the second half of the 14th century in the Trotuş Depression (in the south-western part of Moldavia). The urban centre was located near an old and important salt mine, around the starting point of a road that led from Breţc to Transylvania and then farther, to Braşov (Artimon, 1993). Trotuş was one of the mediaeval urban centres and was located in the south-western part of Moldavia, in the vicinity of an old and significant salt mine and around the starting point of the road that led to Transylvania. The city of Trotuş is mentioned for the first time in a document dated from voivode Alexandru cel Bun’s reign, in a commercial privilege granted on October 6th 1408. As the subsequent documents show, in the 15th century Trotuş was already a thriving handicraft and commercial centre. The archaeological investigations were initiated in 1976, with a view to clarifying some of the questions related to the creation and development of this urban centre in the 14th-17th centuries (Artimon, 1993). The faunal remains included in this study were recovered during the 1993-1996 excavations conducted by archaeologist Alexandru Artimon. The origin of the sample is heterogeneous; it contains a small amount of household materials, while the rest of the sample is made up of an important stock of horn cores (Table 2.9). The archaeologist believed that these horn cores, which were found in the vicinity of a furnace, came from a hornprocessing workshop.

2.13. Archaeozoological remains in PohorniceniPetruha The settlement, dated 8th-14th century period, is located in the basin of the river Răut, on the skirt of the forest, at 4 km from the Pohorniceni commune. I. Hîncu performed the archaeological diggings in 1961-1963, and A. David investigated the osteological sample from the disarrayed layers (Table 2.13). 2.14. Archaeozoological remains in Hansca The archaeological station of Hansca-Limbari Căprăria, dated 10th-14th century period, consists of a settlement and a necropolis located to the north-west of the Hansca commune (Lăpuşna), on the bank of a tributary of the river Botna. I. Hîncu initiated the diggings in 1964, and A. David investigated the faunal assemblage (Table 2.14). 2.15. Archaeozoological remains in Lucaşeuca The 9th-10th century Lucaşeuca settlement is part of the plurilayered site in the Lucaşeuca commune, 9

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA archaeologically investigated by Gh. B. Fedorov (19571959). The osteological remains were analysed by V. I. Ţalkin (Table 2.15.a).

guidance of Gh. B. Fedorov, while the osteological material was investigated by V. I. Ţalkin (2.19). 2.20. Archaeozoological remains in Echimăuţi

The Lucaşeuca Cetăţuie (Citadel) (9th-11th centuries) is situated 4 km west of the Lucaşeuca commune, at a distance of 80 km south from the route Orhei-Bravicea. The excavations were performed by a Prut-Dniester expedition in 1950, 1953-1954 and 1957, while the animal remains were investigated by V. I. Ţalkin (Table 2.15.b).

The 9th-10th century citadel, located 2 km north of the Echimăuţi commune, was archaeologically explored in 1950-1952, 1958, 1961, and 1964. The faunal remains were examined by V. I. Ţalkin (Table 2.20). 2.21. Archaeozoological remains in Calfa

The 12th-15th century site represents a settlement of the plurilayered complex located 4 km west of the Lucaşeuca commune, at the Cornul Blăjiei point, in the forest. I. Hîncu performed the archaeological diggings. The archaeozoologial sample from the 1957-1959 expeditions was studied by V. I. Ţalkin, while the remains from the 1961 expedition were investigated by A. David (Table 2.15.c).

0.8 km north of the Calfa train station a 9th-11th centuries citadel was discovered, which was subsequently investigated by Gh. Cebotarenco in 1959, 1961-1962, 1964-1968. The osteological inquiries were conducted on the material provided by the 1961 and 1968 archaeological expeditions (Table 2.21). 2.22. Archaeozoological remains discovered in other settlements

2.16. Archaeozoological remains in Orheiul Vechi th

Gura-Bâcului (15th-16th century). This mediaeval settlement is located 2 km south of Gura-Bâcului and at 0.5 km west of the river Dniester. It yielded faunal remains during excavations conducted in 1962 and 1964. A. David identified bone fragments from three red deer (Cervus elaphus) and from two wild boars (Sus scrofa ferus) (David, 1982).

th

The settlement Orheiul Vechi (14 -17 century period) is located on the right bank of the river Răut, between the villages of Trebujeni and Butuceni. It was archaeologically investigated between 1947-1963 by Gh. D. Smirnov and later by P. Birnea, while the osteological material was analyzed by V. I. Ţalkin and A. David (Table 2.16.a). The archaeological research during 19972001 was coordinated by Gh. Postică, and the faunal remains underwent a preliminary study performed by Bejenaru and team (2003) (Table 2.16.b).

Poiana (17th century). The settlement is located at 0.6 km east of Poiana, on the right bank of the river Dniester. The archaeological excavations were conducted between 1953 and 1956, and the osteological assemblage was discovered during the 1956 expedition. V. Ţalkin identified 10 red deer bones (Cervus elaphus) and a wild boar bone (Sus scrofa ferus).

2.17. Archaeozoological remains in Lozova This 14th century settlement is located on the east border of the Lozova commune, on the bank of a tributary of the river Bâc-Bâcoveţ. L. L. Polevoi and I. A. Rafalovici performed the archaeological excavations, and I. I. Socolov and A. David investigated the faunal sample (Table 2.17).

Mălăeştii Vechi (17th-18th centuries). This mediaeval site is situated to the south-west of Mălăeşti. Among the osteological material yielded by the excavations conducted by P. Birnea in 1960-1961, A. David identified skeletal remains from two red deer (Cervus elaphus), a roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and a wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus).

2.18. Archaeozoological remains in Stâncăuţi The archaeological site of Stâncăuţi (15th-18th centuries) is located at 2 km west of Mălăeşti and to the south-west of Şeptebani. P. Birnea excavated it in 1962-1963, and A. David provided the archaeozoological data (Table 2.18).

Ruseni (15th-16th centuries). The mediaeval site is situated on the bank of the river Bâc, 100 m from the Chişinău-Bender route. The archaeological excavations conducted by P. Birnea in 1957 yielded an osteological sample that was subsequently investigated by A. David and V. Ţalkin. They recorded two red deer bones (Cervus elaphus), a hare bone (Lepus europaeus) and a roe deer bone (Capreolus capreolus).

2.19. Archaeozoological remains in Alcedar 2 km south-west of the Alcedar commune a 9th-10th century citadel was discovered. The archaeological investigations were initiated in 1959-1963 under the

10

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH Table 2.1. Quantification of faunal remains from Baia. a. After Haimovici, 1980b. MNI 136 44 15 13 3 1 1 213 4 3 2 1 1 11 224

% 60.71 19.64 6.70 5.80 1.34 0.45 0.45 95.09 1.78 1.34 0.89 0.45 0.45 4.91 100

MNI 62 19 6 3 3 4 1 98 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 12 110

% 56.36 17.27 5.45 2.72 2.72 3.62 0.9 89.09 0.9 1.81 1.81 2.72 0.9 1.81 0.9 10.9 100

c. After Albu, 2002; Ionescu, 2002; Nistor, 2003; Cavaleriu, 2004. NR % MNI Bos taurus 1651 76.83 28 Sus domesticus 297 13.82 10 Ovis aries/Capra hircus 79 3.67 4 Equus caballus 27 1.26 2 Canis familiaris 57 2.65 2 Gallus domesticus 3 0.13 1

% 48.28 17.24 6.9 3.45 3.45 1.72

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domesticus Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Ursus arctos Lepus europaeus Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 1187 196 38 34 10 2 1 1468 7 3 2 3 1 16 1484 400 1884

% 79.99 13.21 2.56 2.29 0.68 0.13 0.07 98.92 0.47 0.20 0.13 0.20 0.07 1.08 100

b. After Bejenaru, 2003. Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Gallus domesticus Anser domesticus Total domestic animals Bos primigenius Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Ursus arctos Lepus europaeus Aves Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 2669 538 132 48 19 20 1 3427 2 13 12 10 3 2 2 44 3471 252 3723

11

% 76.89 15.49 3.8 1.38 0.54 0.57 0.02 98.73 0.05 0.37 0.34 0.28 0.08 0.05 0.05 1.26 100

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Total domestic animals Bos primigenius Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Ursus arctos Lepus europaeus Aves Acipenser sp. Pisces Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 2114 4 6 7 2 1 1 8 1 5 35 2149 695 2844

% 98.37 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.37 0.04 0.23 1.63 100

MNI 47 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 11 58

% 81.03 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 3.45 1.72 3.45 18.97 100

Table 2.2. Quantification of faunal remains from Siret. a. After Haimovici et al., 1993. Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domesticus Gallus domesticus Anser domesticus Total domestic animals Sus scrofa Cervus elapus Ursus arctos Canis lupus Aves Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 778 174 65 21 9 1 1 1 1050 3 1 1 1 1 7 1057 243 1300

% 73.60 16.46 6.14 1.98 0.85 0.09 0.09 0.09 99.33 0.28 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.66 100

MNI 33 24 11 6 4 1 1 1 81 2 1 1 1 1 6 87

% 37.93 27.58 12.64 6.89 4.59 1.14 1.14 1.14 93.10 2.29 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 6.89 100

NR 2568 786 462 42 24 9 27 17 1 3936

% 64.75 19.75 11.61 1.05 0.6 0.22 0.67 0.42 0.02 99.14

MNI 49 30 12 2 3 1 4 1 1 103

% 42.98 26.31 10.52 1.75 2.63 0.87 3.5 0.87 0.87 90.35

b. After Bejenaru, 2003. Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domesticus Gallus domesticus Anser domesticus Anas sp. Total domestic animals

12

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH NR Bos primigenius Sus scrofa Cervus elapus Lepus europaeus Aves Acipenser sp. Silurus glanis Cyprinidae Pisces Molusca Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Aquila chrysaetos Bos taurus - fetus Total sample

1 5 2 3 11 1 1 3 4 2 33 3969 357 1 8 4335

% 0.02 0.12 0.05 0.07 0.27 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.1 0.05 0.85 100

MNI 1 2 1 1

% 0.87 1.75 0.87 0.87

1 1 2

0.87 0.87 2

1 11 114

0.87 9.64 100

1 1

c. After Rotaru, 2002. NR 115 31 7 3 1 157 20 ═ 40 198

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Canis familiaris Unidentified remains Total sample

% 73.24 19.74 4.45 1.91 0.63 100 one

MNI 5 3 2 2 1 14 animal

% 35.71 21.43 14.28 14.28 14.28 100

Table 2.3. Quantification of faunal remains from Hudum-Botoşani (after Haimovici, 1993b). NR Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

% 52.38 28.57 11.11 3.17 1.59 96.83 3.17 3.17 100

33 18 7 2 1 61 2 2 63 65 128

Table 2.4. Quantification of faunal remains from Nicolina (after Haimovici, 1993a).

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus

NR 24 4 1

13

% 55.81 9.3 2.33

MNI

% 3 2 1

25 16.67 8.33

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA NR Equus caballus Gallus domesticus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Sus scrofa Cyprinus carpio Pisces Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

5 1 4 39 2 1 1 4 43 4 47

% 11.63 2.33 9.3 90.7 4.65 2.33 2.33 9.3 100

MNI 1 1 1 9 1 1 1 3 12

% 8.33 8.33 8.33 75 8.33 8.33 8.33 25 100

Table 2.5. Quantification of faunal remains from Hlincea-Iaşi (after Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987). NR 96 38 7 2 2 3 148 2 2 4 152

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Total wild animals Total identified remains * There is not estimation

% 63.15 25 4.60 1.31 1.31 1.97 97.36 1.31 1.31 2.63 100

MNI 9 7 2 1 1 * 20 1 1 2 22

% 40.90 31.81 9.09 4.55 4.55 90.90 4.55 4.55 9.09 100

Table 2.6. Quantification of faunal remains from Vaslui (after Haimovici, 1992). NR 934 298 136 50 15 31 34 2 1500 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 44

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domestica Gallus domesticus Anser domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa Lepus europaeus Martes martes Esox lucius Cyprinus carpio Silurus glanis Stizostedion lucioperca Pisces

14

% 59.94 19.12 8.72 3.20 0.96 1.98 2.18 0.12 96.27 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 2.82

MNI 50 23 17 5 5 4

% 43.85 20.17 14.91 4.38 4.38 3.50

104 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

91.22 0.87 0.87 0.87 1.75 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH NR Unio sp. Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

4 58 1558 342 1900

% 0.25 3.72 100

MNI 10 114

% 8.77 100

Table 2.7. Quantification of faunal remains from Bârlad (after Haimovici, 1980a). NR 387 49 136 8 3 583 4 59 8 1 1 2 75 658 142 800

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Sus scrofa Cervus elapus Capreolus capreolus Bos primigenius ? Aves Cyprinus carpio Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

% 58.81 7.45 20.67 1.22 0.45 88.60 0.61 8.97 1.22 0.52 0.52 0.30 11.40 100

MNI 33 9 22 2 2 68 2 7 3 1 1 2 16 84

% 39.29 10.71 26.19 2.38 2.38 80.95 2.38 8.33 3.71 1.19 1.19 2.38 19.05 100

Table 2.8. Quantification of faunal remains from Bârlăleşti (after Haimovici, 1984).

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Asinus domesticus Canis familiaris Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Lepus europaeus Molusca Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 686 66 76 65 2 12 2 909 12 5 3 1 5 26 935 365 1300

15

% 73.37 7.06 8.13 6.95 0.21 1.28 0.21 97.22 1.28 0.53 0.32 0.11 0.53 2.78 100

MNI 48 12 16 11 1 6 2 97 5 3 1 1 5 16 113

% 42.48 11.5 14.16 9.73 0.88 5.31 1.77 85.84 4.42 2.65 1.77 0.88 4.42 14.16 100

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Table 2.9. Quantification of faunal remains from Târgu Trotuş (after Bejenaru, 2003). NR 205 38 9 6 258 195 57 510

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries / Capra hircus Equus caballus Total identified remains Bos taurus - manufacture Unidentified remains Total sample

% 79.45 14.72 3.48 2.32 100

MNI 9 7 2 2 20 100

% 45 35 10 10 100

Table 2.10. Quantification of faunal remains from Borniş-Neamţ sites (after Haimovici, 1994). a. Obârşia Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domesticus Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

NR 306 223 63 49 12 1 1 655 1 8 9 664 186 850

% 46.08 33.58 9.48 7.37 1.80 0.15 0.15 98.64 0.15 1.20 1.35 100

MNI 25 28 8 7 5 1 1 75 1 3 4 79

% 31.64 35.44 10.12 8.86 6.32 1.26 1.26 94.94 1.26 3.79 5.06 100

NR 183 117 51 7 4 3 24 1 390 1 3 1 1 3 9 399 51 450

% 45.86 29.32 12.78 1.75 1.00 0.75 6.01 0.25 97.74 0.25 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.75 2.25 100

MNI 12 11 7 3 2 1 2 1 39 1 2 1 1 2 7 46

% 26.08 23.91 15.21 6.52 4.34 2.17 4.34 2.17 84.78 2.17 4.34 2.17 2.17 4.34 15.22 100

b. Mâleşti Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domestica Gallus domesticus Anser domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa Aves Emys orbicularis Total wild animals Total identified remains Unidentified remains Total sample

16

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH c. Silişte-Negoieşti NR 331 259 78 67 6 24 765 2 1 1 1 2 2 9 774

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa Aves Cyprinus carpio Pisces Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 42.76 33.46 10.07 8.65 0.77 3.10 98.83 0.25 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 1.16 100

MNI 37 39 18 15 3

% 31.35 33.05 15.25 12.71 2.54

112 2 1 1 1 1

94.92 1.69 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84

6 118

5.08 100

Table 2.11. Quantification of faunal remains from Negreşti Neamţ (after Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987). NR 85 166 24 6 12 293 3 8 4 9 6 30 323

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Gallus domesticus Total domestic animals Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa Lepus europaeus Pisces Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 26.31 51.39 7.43 1.85 3.71 90.71 0.92 2.47 1.23 2.78 1.85 9.28 100

MNI 9 17 5 4

% 21.42 40.47 11.90 9.52

35 1 3 2 1

83.33 2.38 7.14 4.76 2.38

7 42

16.67 100

Table 2.12. Quantification of faunal remains from Proscureni (after David, 1982). NR 1288 128 133 98 9 1656 17 16 2 35 1691

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Lepus europaeus Citellus suslica Total wild animals Total identified remains

17

% 76.16 7.56 7.86 5.79 0.53 97.93 1.00 0.94 0.11 2.06 100

MNI 14 6 5 4 2 31 2 2 1 5 36

% 38.88 16.66 13.88 11.11 5.55 86.11 5.55 5.55 2.77 13.88 100

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Table 2.13. Quantification of faunal remains from Pohorniceni-Petruha (after David, 1982). NR 774 144 106 94 1 1119 28 14 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 56 1175

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Bos primigenius Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Lepus europaeus Canis lupus Canis vulpes Meles meles Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 65.87 12.25 9.02 8.00 0.08 95.23 2.38 1.19 0.25 0.17 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.08 0.08 4.76 100

MNI 26 14 9 8 1 58 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 70

% 37.14 20.00 12.85 11.42 1.42 82.85 4.28 2.85 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 17.14 100

Table 2.14. Quantification of faunal remains from Hansca-Limbari Căprăria (after David, 1982). NR 3923 536 747 552 5 122 5885 2 40 10 4 2 3 2 1 43 7 114 5999

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Asinus domesticus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Canis lupus Canis vulpes Martes sp. Meles meles Lepus europaeus Citellus suslica Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 65.39 8.93 12.45 9.2 0.08 2.03 98.1 0.03 0.67 0.17 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.72 0.12 1.9 100

MNI 60 28 31 14 2 10 145 1 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 7 3 25 170

% 35.29 16.47 18.24 8.24 1.18 5.88 85.29 0.59 2.94 1.76 1.18 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 4.12 1.76 14.71 100

Table 2.15. Quantification of faunal remains from Lucaşeuca (after David, 1982). a. Lucaşeuca, 9th-10th centuries. NR 121 38 18 9

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus 18

% 58.74 18.45 8.74 4.37

MNI 5 6 3 1

% 22.73 27.27 13.64 4.55

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH NR Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Lepus europaeus Total wild animals Total identified remains

7 193 7 4 1 1 13 206

% 3.4 93.69 3.4 1.94 0.48 0.48 6.31 100

MNI 2 17 1 2 1 1 5 22

% 9.09 77.27 4.55 9.09 4.55 4.55 22.73 100

NR 170 51 19 16 5 261 9 1 7 3 7 27 288

% 59.03 17.71 6.6 5.56 1.74 90.63 3.12 0.35 2.43 1.04 2.43 9.37 100

MNI 9 10 3 3 3 28 2 1 2 1 3 9 37

% 24.32 27.03 8.11 8.11 8.11 75.68 5.41 2.7 5.41 2.7 8.11 24.32 100

MNI

% 23.33 20 16.67 10 6.67 76.67 3.33 3.33 3.33 3.33 3.33 6.67 23.33 100

b. Lucaşeuca Fortress (9th-11th centuries). Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Bos primigenius Bison bonasus Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Total wild animals Total identified remains c. Lucaşeuca, 12th-15th centuries. NR 134 52 22 45 33 286 3 1 2 2 3 5 16 302

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Bos primigenius Bison bonasus Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 44.37 17.22 7.28 14.9 10.93 94.7 0.99 0.33 0.66 0.66 0.99 1.66 5.3 100

7 6 5 3 2 23 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 30

Table 2.16. Quantification of faunal remains from Orheiul Vechi. a. After David, 1982. NR 4374 390 2231 240 56 365

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Felis domesticus 19

% 53.48 4.76 27.28 2.93 0.68 4.46

MNI 98 34 131 16 9 1

% 31.71 11.00 42.39 5.17 2.91 0.32

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA NR 7656 8 479 20 3 7 3 2 522 8178

Total domestic animals Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Lepus europaeus Canis vulpes Martes sp. Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 93.61 0.09 5.85 0.24 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.02 6.38 100

MNI 289 3 7 4 2 2 1 1 20 309

% 93.52 0.97 2.26 1.29 0.64 0.64 0.32 0.32 6.47 100

b. After Bejenaru et al., 2003. 14th century Mongolian period NR

14th-17th centuries

MNI

NR

MNI

Bos taurus

91

4

679

21

Ovis aries

7

3

2

1

Capra hircus

5

2

124

5

1 67

1 4

Sus domesticus

3

2

315

22

Equus caballus

64

3

22

2

Canis familiaris Felis domesticus

56 1

4 1

18 2

2 1

Bos/Equus

25

-

16

-

376

24

1122

54

Cervus elaphus

0

0

72

5

Capreolus capreolus

1

1

13

3

Dama dama

0

0

3

1

Sus scrofa

0

0

7

2

Bos primigenius

0

0

2

1

Ursus arctos

0

0

1

1

Total wild animals

1

1

98

13

Bos/Cervus

0

0

6

-

Mammalia

35

-

128

-

Aves

1

-

6

-

Pisces

1

-

5

-

Total

414

25

1365

67

Ovis aries /Capra hircus

Total domestic animals

Table 2.17. Quantification of faunal remains from Lozova (after David, 1982). NR 64 30 8 3 105

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Total domestic animals 20

% 51.2 24 6.4 2.4 84

MNI 5 1 3 2 11

% 29.41 5.88 17.65 11.76 64.71

ARCHAEOZOOLGICAL SAMPLES STUDIED WITHIN THE RESEARCH NR Bison bonasus Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Cervus elaphus Sus scrofa Canis vulpes Total wild animals Total identified remains Canis familiaris

% 0.8 8 4 2.4 0.8 16 100

1 10 5 3 1 20 125 248

MNI 1 2 1 1 1 6 17 1

% 5.88 11.76 5.88 5.88 5.88 35.29 100

Table 2.18. Quantification of faunal remains from Stâncăuţi (after David, 1982). NR 29 21 5 2 57 2 1 2 1 1 3 10 67

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Canis vulpes Meles meles Lepus europaeus Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 43.28 31.34 7.46 2.98 85.07 2.98 1.49 2.98 1.49 1.49 4.47 14.92 100

MNI 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 11

% 9.09 18.18 9.09 9.09 45.45 9.09 9.09 9.09 9.09 9.09 9.09 54.54 100

Table 2.19. Quantification of faunal remains from Alcedar (after David, 1982). NR 586 179 65 120 4 954 20 11 3 1 1 36 990

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Alces alces Sus scrofa Bison bonasus Ursus arctos Total wild animals Total identified remains

21

% 59.19 18.08 6.56 12.12 0.40 96.36 2.02 1.11 0.30 0.10 0.10 3.63 100

MNI 22 20 8 9 2 61 3 2 1 1 1 8 69

% 31.88 28.98 11.59 13.04 2.89 88.40 4.34 2.89 1.44 1.44 1.44 11.59 100

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Table 2.20. Quantification of faunal remains from Echimăuţi (after David, 1982). NR 930 492 179 2258 40 3899 6 3 3 12 3911

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus Equus caballus Canis familiaris Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Total wild animals Total identified remains

% 23.77 12.57 4.57 57.73 1.02 99.69 0.15 0.07 0.07 0.30 100

MNI 34 67 22 58 10 191 2 1 2 5 196

% 17.34 34.18 11.22 29.59 5.10 97.44 1.02 0.51 1.02 2.55 100

Table 2.21. Quantification of faunal remains from Calfa (after David, 1982). NR 32 16 28 76 13 2 4 3 1 1 24 100

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Equus caballus Total domestic animals Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus Canis lupus Ursus arctos Total wild animals Total identified remains

22

% 32 16 28 76 13 2 4 3 1 1 24 100

MNI 5 4 2 11 2 1 2 1 1 1 8 19

% 26.31 21.05 10.52 57.89 10.52 5.26 10.52 5.26 5.26 5.26 42.10 100

3. ANIMAL RESOURCES IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA The archaeozoolgical samples include the remains of animals used by humans. Their investigation provides important information regarding the animal resources that were used and the exploitation strategy employed by any given community – from the system of animal selection through to butchery techniques.

remains were picked out from a total amount of 7000 fragments. A few scattered remains were identified in another six sites: 48 (3.08%) in Vaslui (Haimovici, 1992); 3 (3%) in Obârşia Neamţ (Haimovici, 1994); 6 (1.8%) in Negreşti Neamţ (Haimovici, 1987); 2 (4.2%) in Nicolina Iaşi (Haimovici, 1993a); 2 (0.30%) in Bârlad (Haimovici, 1980a).

3.1. Fishing Unfortunately, the fish remains found in the explored archaeological sites were underestimated. Compared to the mammal bones, the fish bones are more liable to dispersion and are available only in the sites where the preservation conditions proved more favorable. The sizes of the skeletal elements vary to a great extent: very often they are extremely small and greatly scattered. In these circumstances, the fact that the sediment- flotation technique was not employed explains the scarcity of fish remains from the archaeological sites. However in recent years, Romanian archaeozoological studies have focused on fish remains, thus isolating fishing as a potential palaeoecological and palaeoeconomical indicator. 3.1.1. Importance of fishing in mediaeval Moldavia The documents of the time mention the fish trade practiced both internally and externally, with fish sourced from the Danube. Within the borders of the country, fish carts traveled the so-called “fish-roads” leading from the Danube to Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia. It was in fact the reverse route of the so-called “salt roads”, which led from the Carpathian mines to the Danube (Giurescu, 1964). In the context of this internal fish trade it is possible to situate sturgeon bones identified among the faunal remains from the mediaeval urban settlements of Siret (Bejenaru & Tarcan-Hrişcu, 1996) and Baia (Albu, 2002), as well as the carp bones discovered at Silişte-Negoieşti (Haimovici and Cojocaru, 1987).

As for the sites located to the east of the river Prut, we only have some archaeozoological information relating to fishing from Orheiul Vechi. From the total amount of faunal material investigated from mediaeval period contexts (1778 remains), only six fish remains have been identified, which within the stratigraphical context account for only 0.24% in the case of the Golden Horde period and for 0.36% in the case of the 14th-17th century layer (table 2.16.b). We should consider that the representation of these remains has been underestimated, since the retrieving technique that was employed did not include the flotation of samples. The hydrological regime of the region of the Orhei forests is particularly rich, consisting of rivers, lakes and ponds that were probably intensely exploited during the mediaeval period. Some written mediaeval sources certify the existence of several ponds within the region: in a document dated November 26, 1470, voivode Stephen confirms the village of Mărzăşti for brothers Dumitru and Gheorghe Budeci, „where are their homes and ponds in a wooded area” (Sava, 1944); on July 13, 1639 Drăgan and his brothers, sons of Hârcescu, sold to Mateiaş Sturza the fourth part of Stan’s share of the Sămăşcani estate, located in the Orhei country, with a portion „of the village area and of the plough lands and of the hayfields and of the ponds and of the glades” (Sava, 1944). Four of the identified remains belong to sturgeons, a particularly nutritious fish, which came probably from the river Dniester (Bejenaru et al. 2003). 3.1.2. Distribution of the main fish species

In the region of mediaeval Moldavia located to the west of the river Prut fishing was practiced mainly in the wide water streams (the Danube, the Prut, the Siret) and associated lakes, but also in ponds and pools, which were sometimes of considerable size, such as the Dorohoi pond. Ponds are mentioned for the first time during the time of Alexandru cel Bun, who on December 13th 1421 was offering to his former wife, princess Rimgaila (sister to the king of Poland), “the boroughs of Siret and Volhovăţ with all the villages and hamlets, the mills and ponds in them” (Giurescu, 1964). However, archaeozoological fish remains are rarely encountered in Moldavian sites. In the mediaeval city of Siret only nine specimens were identified from a sample that included more than 4000 remains (Bejenaru & Tarcan-Hrişcu, 1996), while in Baia (Suceava) only five

Sturgeons Without being specifically determined, some bone remains belonging to sturgeons were isolated in two settlements that are located way beyond the specific distribution area of the group (the Danube): Siret (Bejenaru & Tarcan-Hrişcu, 1996) and Baia (Albu, 2002). The discovery of these sturgeon remains most probably confirms the existence of a trade with fish from the Danube during the Middle Ages. However, the sturgeons identified in Orheiul Vechi could have very well been caught in the river Dniester. Many foreign travelers were astonished by the great amount and variety of fish living in our waters, and especially in the Danube. The big sturgeons and the Danube sterlet would go upstream the great rivers. Nowadays only the sterlet can

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA still be encountered on the lower streams of the great rivers (Bănărescu, 1964), while the number of the sturgeons living in the Danube has diminished considerably.

within a rather large time range, i.e. the first half of the second millennium. They are located in different geographical areas: the Sub-Carpathian region and the Moldavian Plateau with its various subunits.

Fresh water teleostean fish

It is important to mention certain limitations of this inquiry, which are due to taphonomic factors, as well as to the collecting techniques. We believe that the lack of employing flotation methods has led to an overrepresentation of the large-sized species, such as the red deer or the wild boar, for example. The remains belonging to small-sized species are rare, with the exception of the hare remains, which only occasionally appear in large amounts (Table 3.1). On the other hand, the small carnivores such as the marten (Martes sp.), or even the badger (Meles meles) and the fox (Vulpes vulpes), which were hunted mainly for their fur and were probably skinned outside human settlements; as a result, their skeletal remains are very seldom found in archaeozoological samples. The presence of the spotted suslik (Citellus suslica) in certain sites located to the east of the Prut should be considered with caution, as the remains of this lair animal could represent intrusions into archaeological contexts (Chaix & Maniel, 1996).

Carp (Cyprinus carpio). Referring to the abundance of the fish living in the Danube, in the rivers and in the ponds of our country, the Swiss Sulzer, the secretary of the Walachian voivode Alexandru Ipsilanti (1774-1782), said: “If there are people who think that this statement is exaggerated, I urge them to tell me if there be any way to count the carps caught in the Danube in one year’s time only, carps that feed for half a year at least a million Romanians in Moldavia, Walachia and Transylvania” (Giurescu, 1964). Indeed, the carp is nowadays one of the most widespread fish species in Romania, and it has also been often identified among mediaeval faunal assemblages in Silişte-Neamţ, Hlincea (Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987), Nicolina and Bârlad (Haimovici, 1993a; idem, 1980a). In most cases, it was caught in the streams of the plane regions, which swarmed with “tasty carps”, as the German W. Derblich said in 1859 (Giurescu, 1964). An exception is the site at Silişte-Neamţ, located at a higher altitude, in the distribution area of the barbel, where the presence of carp bones can be explained either by the practice of the fish trade, or by the acclimation of this species to the specific conditions of the pond (Haimovici, 1999).

3.2.1. Importance of hunting in mediaeval Moldavia

As table 3.1 shows, the percentages of wild mammals vary from one site to another, as well as from one region to another. The occurrence frequencies of wild mammals have been estimated from the total number of the identified animal remains. To the west of the river Prut, these frequencies, with an average of 3.76%, vary from 0.40% in Vaslui to 12.41% in Bârlad. To the east of the Prut, the percentages of wild mammals are slightly increased, with an average of 7.09%: from 0.30% in Echinăuţi to 24% in Calfa. Documentary sources reveal that common people faced several restrictions when it came to hunting. They were only allowed to hunt in order to be able to pay their meat and fur quota (Giurescu, 1976). Both private and state properties were protected from exploitation in terms of wood-cutting, grazing, fishing, and hunting. However, in certain cases the extremely low hunting rate indicated by archaeozoological findings is extremely surprising, especially since it is contradicted by historical sources. In Orheiul Vechi, mammal hunting records a low general rate, yet with some discrepancies between the analyzed archaeological contexts: from 0.24% during the Golden Horde period to 7.18% during the subsequent period of the 14th-17th centuries (Bejenaru et al., 2003). The low occurring frequency of wild animal remains during the Golden Horde period is quite surprising, since we find in the documents of the time information stressing that the Mongolians used to rely to a great extent on hunting, which was practiced for different purposes: to supply in case of food shortages, to secure furs and hides, to keep fit for future battles, etc. (Spinei, 1996).

With a view to estimating the hunting practices of mediaeval Moldavia, the present study takes into account 21 archaeozoological samples (Table 3.1). From the chronological point of view, the samples were dated to

The rather long list of identified wild mammals is available in table 3.1. The variety of the wild mammal species that have been identified depends to a great extent on the size of the sample, as indicated also by figure 3.1.

Sheat-fish (Silurus glanis). While describing the Moldavian country (1646), the catholic missionary Bandini stated that in Galaţi “the sturgeons and the sheatfish that are caught have an incredible size …” (Giurescu, 1964). Sheat-fish bone fragments from the Middle Ages period were identified solely in the Siret settlement. 3.2. Hunting In the majority of sites from mediaeval Moldavia, the remains of wild mammals account for only a small portion of the samples, which is generally the case for the other regions of Europe as well (Bejenaru, 2003; Bökönyi, 1974). The cynegetic activity suggested by the relatively low percentages of the skeletal remains that have been identified, which also vary to a quite large extent, should be interpreted in the light of the right to hunt as well. This right, which possessed a strong social character, was mainly a privilege of the ruling classes, as also suggested by the high hunting percentages recorded in the case of the medieval castles in Switzerland, Germany and Poland (Bökönyi, 1974).

24

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA The most frequently occurring species, such as the red deer (Cervus elaphus), the wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus), and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), are to be found in the vast majority of the samples, whereas the rare species, such as the carnivores, only occur in the samples that comprise a larger amount of remains.

well, as indicated by butchery traces that have been identified (Figure 3.2) and the frequency of remains belonging to hare (Lepus europaeus), elk (Alces alces), fallow deer (Dama dama) and brown bear (Ursus arctos). Hunting could have also had the purpose of securing furs from certain species, such as the marten, the bear, and the elk, of eradicating predators (the carnivorous mammals), and was even practiced for sport.

The quantification of the wild mammal remains based on NR (the number of remains) shows various proportions in what the identified species are concerned (Table 3.1). The predominance of several species should be pointed out: red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and even the wild bovines (Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus) or the hare (Lepus europaeus). Red deer is found in eleven sites, the wild boar in two, the hare in four, and the bovines solely at the Lozova site. Within the Lucaşeuca sample, the red deer and the wild bovines (Bos primigenius and Bison bonasus) are at the top of the list of the wild mammal group, with 16 remains each.

3.2.2. Distribution of certain wild mammal species From an ecological point of view, the list of the mammals that used to be hunted suggests that a certain type of biotope was being exploited. The wild mammals identified have been divided into groups according to their ecological characteristics, thus resulting in forest species (Cervus elaphus, Alces alces, Dama dama, Sus scrofa ferus, Ursus arctos, Bison bonasus), forest-skirts species (Capreolus capreolus, Lepus europaeus, Bos primigenius), steppe species (Citellus suslica), and eurytope species (Vulpes vulpes, Canis lupus, Meles meles). As figure 3.2 indicates (the marten was excluded because of the difficulty of obtaining a specific identification), the forest species prevail in over half of the samples, while in the remainder of the sites we deal with the preeminent exploitation of a forest-skirts or of an open-field environment.

Within the group of hunted mammals the large-sized animals are better represented (Cervus elaphus, Sus scrofa, Capreolus capreolus and Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus). Consequently, one should conclude that securing food was the main purpose of hunting. Certainly, other wild species were considered food as

9000

12

8000

10

7000 6000

8

5000

6

4000 3000

4

2000

2

1000

0

Ba ia Si re Ba t rla V d as Ba l u rla i l N esti ic ol in H a lic N ea eg Bo rest rn i isH Nt u Pr dum os cu re Pe ni tru H ha a L n O uc sca rh as e e O iul nca rh V ei e c ul h V iI ec hi Lo II z St ovo an ca A uti lc Ec ada hi r m au ti Ca lfa

0

Figure 3.1. Variety of the wild mammal species identified.

25

Total number of identified remains Number of wild mammal species

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Calfa Echinauti Alcadar Stancauti Lozovo Orhei II Orhei I Lucaseuca Hansca Forest species NR

Petruha

Skirt species NR

Proscureni

Steppe species NR Eurytope species NR

Bornis Negresti Hlincea Nicolina Barlalesti Vaslui Barlad Hudum Siret Baia 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Figure 3.2. Distribution of wild mammal remains according to the ecological characteristics of species. et al., 1993; Bejenaru & Tarcan-Hrişcu, 1996). Particularly significant is the discovery of red deer remains in sites that are located way beyond today’s distribution areas. On the Moldavian territory, red deer is present in the Moldavian Plain – in Hudum Botoşani in the 13th-15th centuries (Haimovici, 1993b), in the eastern region of the Bârlad Plateau – in Vaslui (15th century), Bârlad (13th-14th centuries), and Bârlăleşti Vaslui (10th11th centuries) (Haimovici, 1992; idem 1980a, idem, 1984). As the archaeozoological studies indicate, the red deer was also present across almost the entire Moldavian region located to the east of the Prut, since remains have been identified in all the investigated sites (Table 3.1).

Forest species In the case of the forest species, the archaeozoological identifications correspond in terms of location to the widely wooded areas mentioned in the documentary sources (Giurescu, 1976). Two species that are considered nowadays as being Carpathian, i.e. the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the bear (Ursus arctos) (Cotta, 1982), were in the Middle Ages widespread in the extraCarpathian regions as well (Figure 3.4). Red deer (Cervus elaphus). The red deer, a species that lives in wide forest areas, is found in the present day in the Carpathian chain. Also, there have been several repopulation attempts for this species, especially in the hilly areas. Nevertheless, the archaeozoological investigations highlight a much more extended presence of red deer during the Middle Ages in comparison with today’s distribution area of this species. A series of extraCarpathian sites have provided remains from this species, thus confirming the historiographical information regarding the profusion of red deer in mediaeval Moldavia. Red deer remains were found around the eastern boundary of today’s distribution area, in the Moldavian Sub-Carpathians, as follows: in NegreştiNeamţ (Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987) and Borniş-Neamţ (Haimovici, 1994), in the Suceava Plateau – in Baia (Haimovici, 1980b; Bejenaru, 2000) and Siret (Haimovici

Elk (Alces alces). In the case of the elk, there is but one archaeozoological example, to the east of the Prut, in the Alcedar site. The two animals whose presence has been estimated within the site (David, 1982) had probably arrived there during the winter migration typical to this species, coming from the north-west. However, the rare character of the species is contradicted by 13th century documentary information provided by bishop Albert Magnus, who records the presence of this species (that he calls Equicerus) in the mountain and forest regions of Ardeal, Maramureş and Moldavia. Other sources state that the Transylvanian rulers used to send to the West live animals as gifts, among which there were also elks (Nania, 1991). Nevertheless, in Descriptio Moldaviae 26

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA (14th-15th century period) (Haimovici & Tărăbuţă, 1968). Documentary sources indicate that the last bison ever spotted in these parts was the one hunted in Maramureş in the 19th century (Nania, 1991). On the other side of the Prut River this species was identified in three instances, in Lucaşeuca (9th-11th and 12th-15th centuries), Lozova (14th century), and Alcedar (9th-10th centuries).

Dimitrie Cantemir, who was probably referring to elk when he mentioned the bubalus (a name used in the Middle Ages Latin to designate several large-sized artiodactyls), was considering these animals as nonautochthonous, believing that they were reaching the Moldavian borders only during their hibernal migration from the north-west (Haimovici, 1974). The fact that the elk is no longer part of our fauna could be also explained by intensive deforestation, drainage, and the exploitation of peat bogs and swamps.

Forest-skirts species The distribution of the forest-skirts species is generally similar to the one recorded in the case of the forest species.

Fallow deer (Dama dama). The archaeozoological identification for the 14th-17th century period, in Orheiul Vechi, of the fallow deer (Dama dama), a thermophilic species originating from the Mediterranean region of Europe and from Asia Minor, suggests that there was at that time in the Orhei Forests area a hunting reservation where the species had been acclimatized.

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The ecological plasticity of this species, as well as the repopulation operations performed by sylviculturists during recent decades account for the extensive spread of roe deer. The archaeozoological inquiries indicate its presence in both the hilly and flat Moldavian regions, and on both sides of the river Prut. However, no remains have been identified in the sites at Siret, Hudum, Nicolina, Proscureni, Lozova, and Alcedar.

Wild boar (Sus scrofa). Nowadays, the wild boar is spread across all the wide forest areas of Moldavia. The archaeozoological record indicates the constant presence of the wild boar throughout the entire territory of mediaeval Moldavia. Perhaps more so than the red deer, the wild boar was a common game animal during the Middle Ages. There are only two samples (Hudum and Proscureni) that do not contain wild boar remains. In terms of biogeography, the archaeological sites where the presence of the wild boar was confirmed generally cover today’s distribution area of this species.

Aurochs (Bos primigenius). Aurochs used to be the symbols of Moldavia, and were often rendered on seals and coats of arms (Nania, 1991). Now extinct, the aurochsen was archaeozoologically identified to the west of the Prut no later than the 14th-15th century period, in Siret and Baia. The questionable recording of the species at the site in Bârlad would correspond to the 12th-14th century period. The mediaeval documents show that the last aurochs vanished from the Moldavian fauna probably at the beginning of the 17th century (Nedici, 1940). To the east of the Prut there are several identifications pertaining to a longer period that corresponds to the 8th-16th centuries. Thus, the presence of the aurochs is signaled in Pohorniceni-Petruha (7th-14th centuries), Lucaşeuca (9th11th and 12th-15th centuries), and Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th centuries). There are also unspecific identifications of some wild bovine skeletal remains (Bos primigenius/Bison bonasus) in Hansca (10th-14th centuries), Lozova (14th century), and Echimăuţi (9th-10th centuries), among which must have most definitely been some aurochs fragments. The presence of the aurochs is also confirmed by several toponyms. For instance, a document from October 5, 1631 mentions the existence in the Orhei country of the toponym Valea Bourilor (the Valley of the Aurochs) (Sava, 1944), which could prove beyond any doubt the presence of the species in these parts. It is known that aurochs would go downhill, closer to the human settlements in search of food, causing in the summertime “great damage to the fields near the woods” (Filipaşcu, 1969).

Bear (Ursus arctos). Bear remains have been identified in only five settlements from mediaeval Moldavia: two are located in the Suceava Plateau – Siret (Haimovici et al., 1993) and Baia (Haimovici, 1980b; Bejenaru, 2000), and three in the Plateau of the Dniester – Orheiul Vechi, Alcedar, and Calfa (David, 1982).

Figure 3.3. Butchery marks: bear humerus from Baia. All these sites are situated in hilly areas and the resulting biogeography differs when compared with the modern distribution of the species, which is limited to the Carpathian area.

Hare (Lepus europaeus). The hare is an incredibly adaptive animal and is widely distributed, with the exception of the aquatic environment and mountain ranges. However, the osteological remains pertaining to this species hunted in mediaeval Moldavia are relatively rare and found at the sites of Baia (Haimovici, 1980b;

Bison (Bison bonasus). The bison, which is no longer part of our fauna, has been identified archaeozoologically to the west of the Prut only, in the Muşatin Fort in Roman 27

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Bejenaru, 2000), Siret (Bejenaru & Tarcan-Hrişcu, 1996), Vaslui (Haimovici, 1992), Bârlăleşti-Vaslui (Haimovici, 1984), Negreşti-Neamţ (Haimovici & Cojocaru, 1987), Proscureni, Pohorniceni-Petruha, Hansca, Lucaşeuca, Orheiul Vechi and Stâncăuţi (David, 1982).

Although red deer antlers are virtually constant within the archaeozoological assemblages, thus indicating the presence of male individuals, they can only rarely be attributed unequivocally to hunted animals: these could have very well been naturally fallen antlers that were gathered with a view to being processed.

Steppe species Wild boar (Sus scrofa). For the most part, wild boar remains come from sexually adult animals, i.e. whose age was over two years old. Because of the difficulty of separating the remains pertaining to the young animals of the two types of swine – wild and domestic –, it is impossible to specify whether the wild piglets were hunted or not. For the individuals bordering the immature – mature threshold (about one year old), the distinction between the two types was made on the basis of the dimensional differences.

Spotted suslik (Citellus suslica). The identification, even under the form of an intrusive species, of the spotted suslik (Citellus suslica) in two sites located in the east of mediaeval Moldavia – Proscureni (6th-12th centuries) and Hansca (10th-14th centuries) – indicates the presence in this area of steppe landscape. Eurytope species Wolf (Canis lupus). The presence of the wolf has been archaeozoologically identified only in the case of the remains discovered in the sites in Siret (Haimovici et al., 1993), Pohorniceni-Petruha, Hansca, and Calfa (David, 1982).

In Baia, we also find among the specimens attributed to the wild boar two humeri bearing traces of proximal growing cartilage. In one of the cases the proximal epiphysis is fallen, suggesting an age of less than three and a half years, while in the other case the epiphysis is just partially ossified, indicating a more precise age, of approximately three and a half years. The remaining specimens are thought to have belonged to adult individuals. In Siret, two of the investigated individuals were definitely adult, and the three individuals discovered in Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th centuries) were also adult.

Fox (Vulpes vulpes). The presence of the fox was isolated in only four sites located to the east of the Prut: Hansca, Lucaşeuca, Lozova, and Stâncăuţi (David, 1982). Badger (Meles meles). The badger is a widespread species, especially in the hilly areas, and its presence was identified among the faunal remains in PohorniceniPetruha, Hanca, and Stâncăuţi (David, 1982).

In determining the sex related elements for this species, the morphometrical criterion of the canine teeth was the only one taken into account, since on the level of the post cephalic skeleton there are no significant dimensional differences that would indicate a sexual dimorphism. Unfortunately, we only possess scattered data, with an isolated identification of three males and of a female in Baia, and of a male in Orheiul Vechi.

3.2.3. Game selection according to age and sex Approaching the question of the selection of game according to age and sex is made considerably difficult by the scarcity of the remains pertaining to this group of animals within the archaeozoological assemblages.

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The hunting of roe deer was probably similar to that of red deer. The sites in Baia and Orheiul Vechi provide several archaeozoological data on this subject. In Baia two individuals were investigated with the following dental elements: a M2 inferior molar tooth presenting signs of incipient wear that indicate the age of approximately one year and a half, and a moderately eroded M3 inferior molar tooth indicating an age of about 3-4 years old. In Orheiul Vechi the age of four individuals has been investigated based on dentition, as follows: a slightly eroded M2 inferior molar (about two years old), and three M3 molars presenting different degrees of wear, from mild to advanced (3-4 years old and over).

Red deer (Cervus elaphus). In the sample from Baia, among the identified remains there are two mandibular fragments from two individuals of under two and a half years old. Only in the case of one of them could the age be estimated with greater precision: the individual is thought to have been approximately one year old, since the M1 molar tooth was on the verge of erupting. In the other case we have a less clear indication (only a Pd4 deciduous tooth). In Orheiul Vechi, among the 72 remains that have been identified within the 14th-17th century sample, only two are maxilla fragments pertaining to two sub-adult individuals of approximately three years old (M1 with a beginning of dental erosion). In accordance to the epiphyseal stages, the remainder of the bone fragments can be attributed to at least four adult individuals.

Other hunted species. Other isolated examples of wild species recorded at some of the investigated sites are generally represented by adult individuals. This is the case for the following animals: the hare identified in Baia, the aurochs in Baia, Siret and Orheiul Vechi, and the bear in Baia and Orheiul Vechi.

One should notice the presence of individuals pertaining to the sub-adult and adult age category, which would indicate a certain interest in selecting game animals – males most probably – before they reached reproductive age (5-6 years old). 28

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figure 3.4. Distribution of the wild mammals archaezoologically identified (1. Siret; 2. Baia; 3. Hudum; 4. Nicolina; 5. Hlincea; 6. Vaslui; 7. Bârlad; 8. Bârlăleşti; 9. Negreşti; 10. Borniş; 11. Roman; 12. Proscureni; 13. Pohorniceni; 14. Hansca; 15. Lucaşeuca; 16. Orheiul Vechi; 17. Lozovo; 18. Stâncăuţi; 19. Alcedar; 20. Echimăuti; 21. Calfa).

29

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA species: cattle (Bos taurus), sheep and goat (Ovis aries and Capra hircus), pig (Sus domesticus), and horse (Equus caballus). Domestic species with no direct economical relevance, such as the dog (Canis familiaris) and the cat (Felis domesticus), were identified in 18 and, respectively, seven settlements. Although they are frequently mentioned in the period documents, the domestic birds, the hen (Gallus domesticus) and the goose (Anser domesticus), were generally found more rarely than the other food-related animals. We know however that their bone remains are less likely to last under the influence of the taphonomic factors that act upon them in time. Nevertheless, the presence of chicken was identified in all the sites studied to the west of the Prut, whereas the domestic goose was only found in four.

3.3. Animal breeding Animal breeding was an essential activity for the inhabitants of mediaeval Moldavia. This fact is pointed out by several foreign travellers in their notes. For instance, Giovanni Maria Angiolello, who accompanied Mohamed II in 1473 on his campaign in Moldavia against Stephen the Great, wrote that “…Moldavia is a fertile country rich in cattle, oxen and good horses” (Foreign travellers about the Romanian principalities, 1968). The archaeozoological investigations performed during recent years provide numerous information that supports such statements, while also exploring periods previous to those for which we possess documentary records (the notes of foreign travellers are only available from 1331).

3.3.2. Relative importance of domestic species 3.3.1. Importance of animal breeding Cattle, pig, sheep-goat (Bos taurus, Sus domesticus, Ovis aries/Capra hircus)

In the first part of the Middle Ages (up to the 14th century), the numerous archaeozoological samples studied in reference to the Moldavian region contain large amounts of domestic animal remains, with percentages ranging from 82.97% – Nicolina (Haimovici, 1993a) to 97.11% – Bârlăleşti (Haimovici, 1984). The settlements in Bârlad – 88.6% (Haimovici, 1980a) and Hudum – 96.82% (Haimovici, 1993b) occupy an intermediate position. To the east of the Prut, a single settlement stands out in view of its low percentage of domestic animal remains: Calfa, with 76%, but with remains pertaining to a numerically small sample, of only 100 skeletal specimens. The remaining mediaeval settlements show high rates going from about 92% in Lucaşeuca to 99.39% in Echimăuţi. The high percentages recorded in the sites located to the east of the Prut are also due to the fact that here the identifications were limited to the domestic and wild mammals, without taking into account other animal groups (such as birds or fish, for instance).

As far as the number of remains (NR) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) are concerned, the prevailing domestic animals in most of the investigated sites are cattle, pig and sheep/goat. Judging by the representation average of the remains left from these within the ensemble of the samples, of approximately 85%, their breeding was a basic component of local economies. The lowest rates have been recorded in Nicolina – 76.31% (Haimovici, 1993a), Calfa – 76%, and Echimăuţi – 40.91% (David, 1982). The percentage of each of these three animals varies from one settlement to another according to ethnical, geographical, and social factors. In many settlements from mediaeval Moldavia, among the remains pertaining to this predominant domestic group (cattle, pig, sheep/goat), the highest frequency is recorded in the case of cattle skeletal fragments. During the first part of the Middle Ages (until the 14th century), in all the investigated sites, irrespective of their location to the west or to the east of the Prut, cattle prevail, in point of the number of identified remains (NR) – with an average of 71.60%, as well as in point of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) – with an average of 49.17% (Figures 3.6 and 3.7). In terms of occurring frequency of remains, sheep/goat in Bârlad, Bârlăleşti and Hansca come second, whereas in most of the remaining settlements pig occupies this place. In Proscureni the proportions of the sheep/goat and pig remains are very similar, whereas in Calfa the sheep/goat group is not represented at all (however, one should take into account the small size of the investigated sample, which contains only 100 faunal remains). As for the minimum number of individuals (MNI), the pig scores higher than the sheep/goat in several sites, with the exception of those in Hansca, Bârlad and Bârlăleşti (Figure 3.7). In point of food-related preferences, the pig generally comes before the sheep/goat, as indicated both by the number of identified remains (19.17% for pig and 10.02% for

The archaeozoological samples pertaining to the 14th-17th century period also include high percentages of domestic animal remains, over 90% in almost all the cases. An exception is the sample in Orheiul Vechi representing the 14th-17th century period (Bejenaru et al., 2003), with a percentage of 82%, as well as the samples from Stâncăuţi and Lozova, with domestic animal remains percentages of 85% and 84%, respectively (Figure 3.5). The list of the domestic species identified in the mediaeval sites on the Moldavian territory is quite comprehensive, including both birds and mammals. The absence of domestic bird remains in the mediaeval settlements to the east of the Prut does not necessarily reflect their absence from the local livestock, but is rather the consequence of the specialists’ incomplete determinations in the case of these particular sites. Concerning the diversity of domestic mammal groups, the composition of the livestock seems relatively homogenous in the case of the investigated settlements (Table 3.2). There is a continuous record of the following 30

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA sheep/goat) and the minimum number of individuals (31.65% for pig and 18.38% for sheep/goat).

69% in Siret). Also, high percentages of remains have been recorded in Hlincea (68%) and Vaslui (68.27%). Smaller rates occur in the rural settlements located in the sub-Carpathian region of Neamţ, with an average of 51.04%, letting aside the sample in Negreşti, with a percentage of 30.9%. In these rural sites pig remains are well represented, with percentages close to those recorded in the case of cattle, reaching approximately 36.65% and more and prevailing in the sample in Negreşti, with 60.3%. In fact, the importance of the domestic pig in this area is better illustrated by the quantification based on the minimum number of individuals; thus, this species occupies the first position in three of the four settlements, while in the fourth (Mâleşti) its frequency is almost similar to that of cattle (Figure 3.7).

In the later period (14th-17th centuries), the majority of the samples that have been investigated in relation to mediaeval Moldavia place the cattle first as far as the frequency of remains is concerned, with only two exceptions: Negreşti and Orheiul Vechi during the Golden Horde period (Figure 3.6). Mention should be made that in the case of Târgu Trotuş the sample most probably pertains to a workshop specialized in processing bovine horns and skins, therefore containing almost exclusively (87.95%) remains from this domestic species (Bejenaru, 2000); consequently, this sample was not placed alongside the others in estimating the frequency averages. The frequency of the cattle was even greater in the Suceava Plateau (with an average of 81% in Baia and of

85.07

Stâncăuţi Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th)

82.19 90.82

Orheiul Vechi (Mongolian Period) Lozovo

84 97.36

Hlincea Vaslui

97.56 90.71 98.64 98.73

Negreşti Borniş-Obârşia Borniş-Mâleşti Borniş-Silişte

98.83 98.67 99.22 100

Baia Siret Târgu Trotuş Calfa

76

Lucaşeuca Pohorniceni

92.96 95.23

Alcedar Proscureni

96.36 97.93 98.09 99.69

Hansca Echimăuţi 82.97

Nicolina Bârlad

88.6 96.82 97.11

Hudum Bârlăleşti

Figure 3.5. Frequencies of domestic animal remains.

31

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Stâncăuţi Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th) Orheiul Vechi (Mongolian) Lozova Hlincea Vaslui Negreşti Borniş-Obârşia Borniş-Mâleşti Borniş-Silişte Baia Siret Târgu Trotuş

Bos taurus Sus domesticus Ovis aries/Capra hircus

Calfa Lucaşeuca Pohorniceni Alcedar Proscureni Hansca Echimăuţi Nicolina Bârlad Hudum Bârlăleşti 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

NR

Figure 3.6. Frequencies (NR) of cattle, pig, sheep-goat remains. A similar situation of pig slightly surpassing the percentage of the cattle in terms of MNI was recorded in Orheiul Vechi within the sample pertaining to the 14th17th century period. During the Golden Horde period, in the same settlement, sheep/goat prevailed in terms of minimum number of individuals, while cattle came in second. In the remaining sites, the pig comes second after the cattle among the domestic species with the highest frequency of remains (Figure 3.7). On average, during this period too, cattle occupy the first place reflecting food-related preferences, followed by pig and sheep/goat, as indicated by the number of identified remains (59% cattle, 29% for pig and 12% for sheep/goat) and the minimum number of individuals (44% cattle, 35% pig and 21% sheep/goat).

Horse (Equus caballus). The occurrence frequency of the horse within the frame of the mediaeval faunal samples is generally low and varies from one site to another. Figure 3.8 renders the representation percentages for the number of remains (NR) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) in the case of the horse, from the ensemble of those determined within each sample for the two time periods in question. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the percentage of the horse within the archaezoological samples is higher (with an average of 14.56% NR and 11.07% NMI), in comparison with the frequency recorded during the following centuries (an average of 4.13% NR and 8.63% NMI). The sites where the occurrence frequencies of the remains are high, such as Nicolina (10.63%) and 32

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA especially those located to the east of the Prut – Calfa (28%), Echimăuţi (57.73%), Orheiul Vechi (15.45% during the Golden Horde period), could be perceived as indicating the presence of hippophagia. In addition, within this latter sample on the bone fragments, meatcutting traces were identified (Bejenaru et al., 2003). The consumption of horse meat was practiced, and is recorded during the subsequent periods as well (14th-17th centuries). This is suggested by the fragmentary character of the horse remains and by the burning and cutting traces identified in Baia and Târgu Trotuş (Bejenaru, 2003), although their frequency within the site in question is of only 2.69% and 2.32%, respectively.

Dog (Canis familiaris) and cat (Felis domesticus). The presence of these species of no direct economic importance in the sites of mediaeval Moldavia is fairly constant, but the frequency of the remains is low; of about 1.6% in the case of the dog and of only 0.6% in the case of the cat. Samples with partial skeletal deposits were excluded from the calculation of the average, such as the one in Lozova and one of those in Siret. Moreover, in Orheiul Vechi from the Golden Horde period a high percentage of dog remains was recorded (approximately 14%), which is not included in the average. The rather large number of these remains points out the special status of the dog within that particular community, where it was used predominantly for guarding herds and for hunting.

Donkey (Equus asinus). This species, which was probably used solely as a draft animal, was identified in only two sites, the number of remains being extremely small: Bârlăleşti (0.21%) and Hansca (0.08%).

Stâncăuţi Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th) Orheiul Vechi (Mongolian) Lozova Hlincea Vaslui Negreşti Borniş-Obârşia Borniş-Mâleşti Borniş-Silişte Baia

Bos taurus

Siret

Sus domesticus

T ârgu T rotuş

Ovis aries/Capra hircus

Calfa Lucaşeuca Pohorniceni Alcedar Proscureni Hansca Echimăuţi Nicolina Bârlad Bârlăleşti 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

MNI

Figure 3.7. Frequencies (MNI) of cattle, pig, sheep-goat remains.

33

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Stâncăuţi Orheiul Vechi (14th-17th) Orheiul Vechi (M ongolian) Lozova Hlincea Vaslui Negreşti Borniş-Obârşia Borniş-M âleşti Borniş-Silişte Baia Siret M NI

Târgu Trotuş

NR

Calfa Lucaşeuca Pohorniceni Alcedar Proscureni Hansca Echimăuţi Nicolina Hudum Bârlad Bârlăleşti 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Figure 3.8. Percentages of horse remains (NR) and minimal number of individuals (MNI). 14th-18th century period (with a maximum percentage of 6.01% recorded in Borniş-Mâleşti). The goose has only been identified within the samples pertaining to the 14th18th century period, with a medium weight of 0.16%.

Poultry. The real usage rate of poultry for feeding purposes does not entirely correspond to the archaeozoological results that have been obtained (only for the sites located to the west of the Prut), which show low rates in the occurrence frequency of the remains. In this particular case, one should take into account the likelihood of limited preservation of these fragile bones, which are endangered from the start not only by anthropical destructive factors, but by domestic carnivores as well (the dog and the cat).

3.3.3. Regional livestock varieties Concerning the basic composition of mediaeval livestock, the analysis of local varieties led to the outlining of several different areas, to which would correspond certain animal-breeding types. Given the fact that the fragmentation of the skeletal remains can vary to a great extent from one settlement to another, or from one species to another, the estimation of the basic composition of the livestock was predominantly based on the minimum number of individuals (MNI).

During these two time periods there are no significant differences in representation in the case of the domestic chicken. The averages of the frequencies calculated for the settlements where these remains have been found are close: 1.15% for the first centuries and 2.22% for the 34

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA In the northern and eastern areas of the Moldavian region located to the west of the Prut, the mediaeval livestock was dominated by cattle, whose quantity could vary from one region to another in comparison with those of pigs and sheep-goat. A specialized breeding of cattle, which represented over half of the domestic animal group, was practiced in the Suceava Plateau, in Baia and Siret (Figure 3.9), where this species surpassed the pig and the sheep-goat, with average percentages of 63.5% NMI and 76.14% NR, in the Moldavian Plain, in Hudum, Nicolina, Hlincea (Figure 3.10), with averages of 50% MNI and 69.24% NR, as well as in the Bârlad Plateau, in Vaslui, Bârlad, and Bârlăleşti (Figure 3.11) with averages of 57.32% MNI and 72.92% NR. In the first two areas mentioned above the second place was occupied by the pig, with averages of 26.4% MNI and 17.17% NR in the Suceava Plateau and of 36.11% MNI and 23.92% NR in the Moldavian Plain, whereas the sheep-goat played a minor role, recording an average of 10.1% NMI within the group of the three domestic animals in the Suceava Plateau and one of 13.88% in the Moldavian Plain. In the Bârlad Plateau the second position was occupied by the sheep-goat with 23.61% MMI and 14.29% NR, while the frequency of the pig was only 19.06% NMI or 12.77% MNI. This animal-breeding pattern is similar to the one recorded in other European areas as well as the Hungarian plain, the Northern Plain, or the present-day Czech Republic, where cattle represented half of the livestock, the rest being made up of pig and sheep (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1997).

MNI of 52.6% and 46.35%, respectively, followed by pig (a MNI of 23.7% and 31.78%, respectively) and sheepgoat (MNI of 23.7% and 21.86%, respectively). There is also an exception, i.e. the mediaeval site of Echimăuţi, which was not included in the calculated average for the Dniester Plateau area. In this particular sample, the maximum proportion is that of the pig in terms of the minimum number of individuals (MMI) (34.18%), followed by the horse (29.59%), and cattle (17.34%). In terms of the number of remains, the horse scores the highest percentage, of 57.73%. 3.3.4. Selection of domestic animals according to age and sex Concerning livestock management in the investigated mediaeval settlements, the rules that were applied varied from one species to another, according to whether the main interest was focused on primary products (the products obtained after slaughter) or on the secondary products (products that were obtained repeatedly during the lifetime of an animal, such as milk, wool, draft force, offspring). Cattle (Bos taurus). The estimation of the age at death in the case of the cattle was based in each site on the epiphysation stage of the appendicular skeleton bones (Barone, 1976), as well as on the dental eruption and wear stages (Haimovici, 1979; Grigson, 1982). Considering the flaws of each of these two methods, a high congruity of their results could be perceived as indicating the homogeneous character of the data.

The peri-Carpathian region of Moldavia – the Neamţ area (Figure 3.12), seems to be characterized by the significant presence of the pig. This species represents between 44.72% and 47.72% of the MNI, although in terms of NR it only reaches 29.29% and 49.42%. A similar livestock pattern was recorded for the hilly area of Banat, Crişana (Bejenaru, 2003), as well as for nonMediterranean France and Central Germany; in these two last cases, the pig represents between 41% and 45% of the individuals and the remains (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1997). The development of this breeding type had probably been determined by the environmental conditions suitable for this species, which seem to have prevailed for livestock; also, it could have been brought about by a tendency to decrease the frequency of cattle while increasing that of pig, a tendency recorded on a macro-regional level during the 11th-13th centuries in the northern and central plains of mediaeval Europe (the Netherlands, Sweden, the Czech Republic and Hungary) (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1997).

The investigation of the epiphysation stage focused on the metapodial elements (Table 3.3), which are particularly well represented within the archaeozoological samples, due to the high chance of these being discovered in a less fragmented state (they are not covered in muscular mass). In addition, in the case of these long bones the distal consolidation occurs around the age of two years and a half, which provides an important criterion for delimiting two age groups: under two and a half years old and over two and a half years old, i.e. biological immaturity and maturity, respectively. The data related to the dental eruption and wear stages were grouped according to the following age categories (Table 3.4): 0 – 2.5 years old (up to the eruption of the last M3 inferior molar tooth); 2.5 – 4 years old (a mild wear of the M3); 4 – 6 years old (a medium wear of the M3) and over 6 years old (a marked wear of the M3). In the settlements of mediaeval Moldavia, cattle were slaughtered mainly at adult ages. Judging by the epiphysation stage of the metapodials, the rates of the animals slaughtered (MNI) after reaching the age of two and a half vary from one settlement to another within small limits: 72.22% in Orheiul Vechi (the 14th-17th century period) and 83.33% in Baia (Figure 3.15).

In the Moldavian region situated to the east of the Prut, our study focused on the two large geographical areas within which the investigated sites were concentrated, i.e. the northern and central plateaus (Figure 3.13) and the Plateau of the Dniester (Figure 3.14). In both these regions representation of cattle is slightly higher, with a

35

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Ovis aries/ Capra hircus 10%

Sus domesticus 26%

Ovis aries /Capra hircus 34%

Bos taurus 64%

Bos taurus 38%

Sus domesticus 28%

Figure 3.9. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Suceava Plateau (Baia, Siret).

Figure 3.12. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Moldavian Sub-Carpathians (BornişObârşia, Borniş-Mâleşti, Borniş-Silişte, Negreşti).

Ovis aries /Capra hircus 14%

Ovis aries /Capra hircus 24% Bos taurus 50%

Sus domesticus 36%

Sus domesticus 24%

Figure 3.10. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Moldavian Plain (Nicolina, Hlincea).

Bos taurus 52%

Figure 3.13. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Northern and Central Moldavian Plateau, Eastern of Prut River (Proscureni, Stâncăuţi, Lozova).

Ovis aries /Capra hircus 24%

Ovis aries /Capra hircus 22% Bos taurus 46% Bos taurus 57%

Sus domesticus 19%

Sus domesticus 32%

Figure 3.14. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Dniester Plateau (Pohorniceni, Hansca, Lucaşeuca, Alcedar, Calfa, Orheiul Vechi).

Figure 3.11. Proportions (MNI) of the main domestic species in the Bârlad Plateau (Vaslui, Bârlad, Bârlăleşti).

36

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 3.3. Proportions of distal non-epiphysed metapodials in the faunal samples.

Baia Siret Tg. Trotuş Orheiul Vechi

NR 29 33 5 17

non-epiphysed % MNI % 15.34 9 16.66 20.00 12 18.18 23.80 2 25 26.56 5 27.78

NR 160 114 16 47

epiphysed % MNI 84.66 45 80.00 48 76.19 6 73.44 13

% 83.33 81.82 75 72.22

Table 3.4. Age at death for cattle, based on dentition.

Baia Siret Tg. Trotuş Orheiul Vechi Total

0 – 2.5 years MNI % 11 15.28 5 31.25 2 22.22 6 35.29 24 21.05

2.5 - 4 years MNI % 14 19.44 3 8.75 2 22.22 6 35.29 25 21.92

Animals over the age of four years appear less frequently, judging by the NR weight of the consolidated distal extremities in the case of the radius bone (compared to the total number of distal extremities pertaining to radius bones that have been identified), whose growing cartilage fuses towards the age of 48 months: 67% in Baia, 50% in Siret, and 72.27% in Orheiul Vechi (the 14th-17th century period).

4 - 6 years MNI % 34 47.22 6 37.5 3 33.33 5 29.42 48 42.10

over 6 years MNI % 13 18.06 2 12.5 2 22.22 0 0 17 14.91

Total 72 16 9 17 114

approximately 15% the one estimated on the basis of metapodials (Figure 3.15). In what the cattle are concerned, we generally find a selection pattern based on the slaughtering of individuals aged between 4 and 6 years old (Table 3.6). The cases in which the animals were slaughtered at more advanced ages, of over 6 years old, are rare, having a more reduced weight than the one recorded for the immature individuals. The 2.5-4 years old category seems also to have been spared, as the animals of this age were probably intensely exploited for their secondary products (draft-force, milk, reproductive purposes).

Those animals slaughtered before reaching two and a half years are represented by 27.78% in Orheiul Vechi (the 14th-17th century period) and 16.66% in Baia, whereas the indicators pertaining to individuals under the age of one are rare. Thus, by comparing the non-epiphysed proximal extremities of radius bones to the total number of the proximal extremities of radius bones that have been identified, whose consolidation occurs around the age of one, only in Siret and Orheiul Vechi (the 14th-17th century period) were identified rates of 18.18% and 3.12%, respectively.

The osteometrical studies performed on whole metapodial bones pertaining to adult animals indicate within the large samples (Baia, Siret, Orheiul Vechi, even Târgu Trotuş) a predominance of female individuals (Figure 3.16). The males only occur sporadically, being represented by six metapodials in Baia, seven in Orheiul Vechi and just one in Siret. The castrated individuals have a low frequency as well, their presence having been identified only in Baia and Orheiul Vechi, based on nine and three metapodials, respectively. As a result, in the case of the adult cattle the sex-ratio appears unbalanced and favoring the females, as the male individuals were probably selected for slaughtering at a young age, of less than two and a half years old.

For the ages estimated based on dentition, we generally find similar rates. In this case also, the immature/mature ratio favors the individuals over two and a half years in all four settlements; in addition, there is a high congruity of results in the case of the two methods applied in Baia and Târgu Trotuş. There appears a slight inbalance within the sample in Siret, where the weight of the individuals slaughtered before reaching the age of two and a half years, estimated based on dentition, surpasses by

37

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Baia dentition mature immature

metapodium 0

20

40

60

80

100

Siret dentition mature immature

metapodium 0

20

40

60

80

100

Târgu Trotuş dentition mature immature

metapodium 0

20

40

60

80

100

Orheiul Vechi dentition mature immature

metapodium 0

20

40

60

80

Figure 3.15. Frequencies of immature/mature (MNI) for cattle.

38

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Orheiul Vechi (n=36) Targu Trotus (n=12)

Castrated Male Female

Siret (n=60) Baia (n=124) 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Figure 3.16. Sex distributions for adult cattle, based on metapodials. Pig (Sus domesticus). The estimation of the ages at death for the pig was achieved based mainly on dentition (Table 3.5). The data regarding the epiphysation stage of long bones in each of the investigated samples are insufficient and do not allow a statistical age estimation that would come close to the one based on the dental investigation. This situation can be accounted for by the feeble resistance to taphonomic factors of the bones from young individuals; dogs being primarily responsible for destroying and scattering the bones.

another, as indicated by the data in table 3.5. Nevertheless, it seems that the 2-3 year old category was generally preferred for slaughtering purposes. There are few data that allow sex determination for the pig. As in the case of its wild relative, the wild boar, the main criterion used was the morphology of the canine teeth. Among the mature animals, the sex-ratio appears to be quite balanced in the case of the investigated settlements (table 3.6), which could indicate that there was no strict sex selection, neither for the young slaughtered animals, nor for the ones that were going to be killed at an adult age. There seems to be a slight sex disproportionality in Baia, but we could be dealing in this particular case with a possible distortion generated by a processing-oriented selection of the canine teeth pertaining to male individuals.

In the case of the pig, slaughtered individuals were typically over one year old. The rates of the animals butchered before reaching 13 months are more reduced and vary between 15.38% in Baia and 42.85% in Târgu Trotuş (Figure 3.17). In the case of the biologically mature animals (i.e. that had already started to reproduce), the slaughtering selection varied from one settlement to

Table 3.5. Age at death for pig, based on dentition. 0 – 13 months 1 – 2 years MNI % MNI % 15.38 8 30.77 Baia 4 20 5 16.66 Siret 6 42.85 1 14.28 Tg. Trotuş 3 18.18 5 22.73 Orheiul Vechi 4 Total 17

20

19

22.35

39

2 – 3 years MNI % 9 34.62 9 30 2 28.57 10 45.45

over 3 years MNI % 5 19.23 10 33.33 1 14.28 3 13.64

30

19

35.30

22.35

Total 26 30 7 22 85

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Orheiul Vechi Targu Trotus

immature mature

Siret Baia 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 3.17. Frequencies of immature/mature (MNI) for pig. Table 3.6. Sex distributions for pig. Baia Siret Tg. Trotuş Orheiul Vechi Total

Female (NMI) 2 9 1 4 16

Sheep-goat (Ovis aries / Capra hircus). As in the case of the pig, the estimation of the ages at death for sheep-goat was made primarily based on dentition (Table 3.7). We could therefore avoid a possible undervaluation of young individuals that would have occurred in a skeleton-based analysis, given the fact that their bones are more easily damaged by various taphonomic factors.

Male (NMI) 6 5 0 7 18

Total 8 14 1 11 34

slaughtered at an age of over three years is higher (62.5%). In the case of the sheep (Ovis aries), according to the sexual dimorphism on the level of the bodily massiveness, the bone dimensions show the predominance of females among the adult individuals. The identification of a few bones that are larger than the prevailing ones reveals the isolated presence of males. Thus, in Siret a proximal radius fragment was attributed to a male due to the fact that its 44 mm breadth surpasses by far the 33.75 mm average of the others. Male horn cores are rare as well, and they have only been identified in Siret. The smaller horns, pertaining to sheep, are not much more numerous either; however, if we should take into account the possibility of hornless types, we can conclude that females were indeed prevalent among the adult individuals.

In the investigated mediaeval sites (except the one in Târgu Trotuş, for which there is a single age estimation), at least a third of sheep-goat (37.5% in Baia, 41.66% in Siret and 40% in Orheiul Vechi) were slaughtered before reaching the age of 1.5 years, i.e. before becoming biologically mature (Table 3.7; Figure 3.18). The selection of young animals seems to have been done differently. Lambs of up to six months old were slaughtered primarily in the settlement of Baia and to a lesser extent in Siret. Within the site corresponding to the Mongolian occupation period (Orheiul Vechi I), this age category is absent, whereas the young individuals of 6 to 18 months old are particularly well represented. The adult animals were retained in all the investigated settlements; only in Baia the weight of the animals

In the case of the goat (Capra hircus), the male horn cores are also rare; only two have been identified in Baia, while the remaining ones were attributed to females: three in Baia and one in Târgu Trotuş.

40

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 3.7. Age at death for sheep-goat based on dentition. 0 - 6 months 6 - 12 months NMI % NMI % 2 25 1 12.5 Baia 2 16.66 2 16.66 Siret 0 0 0 Tg. Trotuş 0 0 0 2 20 Orheiul Vechi I* 1 20 0 0 Orheiul Vechi II** 5 13.89 5 13.89 Total *Mongolian Period; **14th-17th century

1 - 1,5 years NMI % 0 0 1 8.33 0 0 2 20

1,5-2 years NMI % 0 0 1 8.33 0 0 0 0

2 - 3 years NMI % 2 25 3 25 0 0 2 20

> 3 years NMI % 3 37.5 3 25 1 100 4 40

1

20

0

0

3

0

4

11.11 1

2.78

10 27.78 11 30.55 36

60

Total 8 12 1 10

0

5

Orheiul Vechi II Orheiul Vechi I

immature mature

Siret Baia 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 3.18. Frequencies of immature/mature (MNI) for sheep-goat. Horse (Equus caballus). Referring to the investigated mediaeval settlements in cases where clear indications of eating horse meat were identified, one should also consider the question of possible selection of the animals in question according to age. In each of these sites remains from mature horses are prevalent. Thus, in Baia only two anatomical elements out of the 75 horse remains found indicate younger ages: a coxal bone with unknit centers (less than one year old) and an underlevel permanent inferior canine tooth (about 4 years old). From the total of six remains found in Târgu Trotuş, only one indicates an immature skeletal age of less than three years and a half: a non-epiphysed distal fragment of a radius bone. In both the archaeozoological samples in Orheiul Vechi, the horse remains come from adult individuals, except for a very small calcaneum, which could have belonged to a foetus.

archaeozoological analysis, including the one related to the slaughtering age. It was however possible to obtain a few indications regarding the age of the domestic hen used for feeding purposes. In the case of the domestic goose, no remains from immature individuals have been identified, whereas young chicken remains were found in some of the investigated sites. The rate of the latter varies, as indicated by the data shown in table 3.8. Information related to the sex of the individuals slaughtered in the mediaeval settlements occurs only in the case of the chicken (Gallus domesticus), which seems in fact to have been the most important of the domestic fowls. The presence of the spur on the tarsometatarsus of the rooster ensured a precise sex differentiation. The sex ratio seems to favor the females, with a value of 5/3 when the criterion used is the minimum number of individuals (MNI) or even higher, of almost 7/3, when the criterion is the number of remains (NR) (Table 3.9). There were no identified cases of abnormal developments of the spurs, which would have indicated the practicing of castration with a view to obtaining capons.

Domestic poultry. The fowl bones are extremely delicate, especially those of young individuals; consequently, they are often devoured by dogs, cats or pigs. This is the main cause for the undervaluation of this category of remains, with direct implications for the

41

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 3.8. Proportions of the hen remains, on the age categories. Immature Mature Total

Baia 3 20 23

Siret 4 23 27

Table 3.9. Sex distributions for Gallus domesticus.

Baia Siret Total

NR 3 4 7

Female MNI 2 3 5

Male NR 2 1 3

MNI 2 1 3

NR 5 5 10

Total MNI 4 4 8

3.3.5. Valorisation of the slaughtered animals The present study included the investigation of traces left by the butchering technique and was based on a sample of 1085 remains found in the mediaeval city of Baia. The faunal remains that make up the sample pertain to the following species: Bos taurus (79.63%); Sus domesticus (12.4%); Ovis aries/Capra hircus (12.2%); Equus caballus (3.7%), Cervus elaphus (0.65%); Capreolus capreolus (0.47%); Canis familiaris (0.47%); Gallus domesticus (0.37%); Lepus europaeus (0.1%). The anatomical distribution of the skeletal fragments provided by the domestic mammal species identified within this sample indicate the presence, with variable frequencies, of remains from all the regions of the body. The fact that the occurrence frequency of the remains varies according to species and body regions is due primarily to fragmentation and to differential preservation. The systematic absence of an anatomical region was not recorded in any of the investigated cases.

Case study: butchering technique in the mediaeval settlement of Baia From the death of the animal to the discovery of its remains in an archaeological site occur a series of quantitative and qualitative modifications of the initial ensemble, like the disassembly and the scattering of the skeleton, or the preservation of the bones. These transformations happen under the influence of various anthropical factors, such as the practices related to meatcutting, food storage, trade, tool manufacturing, but also the archaeological excavation, the methods of collecting and analyzing the faunal remains. Natural factors are equally significant, such as the chemical action of the soil or that of rodents and carnivores. As the butchering technique is a practice endowed with a cultural character, it can be in its turn influenced by economic and social factors, by customs and prejudices, and by religious norms. Therefore, the deciphering of the resulting traces on bone fragments can prove very important for the understanding the history of the economy and of local mentalities. Archaeozoological research in recent years has pointed out variability in mediaeval butchering practices in different regions of Western Europe. A comparative study dedicated to butchering techniques employed during the Middle Ages in various parts of the Romanian territory could represent an additional information source regarding both the economy and mentalities.

Tables 3.10-3.13 present the location and frequency of butchering traces on those domestic species with the highest quantity of remains. In the case of the roe deer, which is represented by very few remains, butchering traces were identified solely on the level of the mandible: a transversal cut on the diastema and a breach cut on the mandibular angle. Also, the traces were marked on the descriptive charts of the respective skeletons (Figures 3.19-3.22).

Table 3.10. Location and frequency of butchering marks on cattle (Bos taurus) remains (NR=864). Element Anatomical description of buchering marks Cranium: neural a. Oblique-transversal cut on the base of horn core b. Longitudinal cut on the frontal bone c. Cuts on the frontal bone, around of the horn core d. Transversal cut over frontal and occipital bones e. Sagittal cut on basioccipital and basisfenoid 42

NR 3 4 7 1 2

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA f. Tangent-longitudinal cut on the occipital condyle with oblique cut on the temporal region g. Oblique cut on supraoccipital h. Sagittal cut on occipital bone i. Cut on the antero-inferior limit of the eye socket j. Cut on the supero-posterior limit of the eye socket k. Anterior cut over zygomatic arch Maxilla l. Transversal cut between M1 - M2 teeth n. Transversal cut on diastem o. Longitudinal cut p. Transversal cut to M3 tooth r. Transversal cut to P2 tooth Mandible s. Transversal cut to M2 - M3 teeth ş. Transversal cut on diastem t. Oblique-transversal cut between body and vertical ramus ţ. Transversal cut to P1 - P2 teeth u. Longitudinal cut on the basis of mandible body v. Cut on the posterior border of vertical ramus x. Transversal cut to M1-M2 teeth z. Cut on mandibular condyle Vertebra: - Atlas a. Sagittal cut on both archs b. Cut on transverse process - Axis c. Oblique-transversal cut on the odontoid process d. Longitudinal cut on the basis of spinous process e. Longitudinal cut between arch and body - Cervical f. Transversal cut on the cranial end of the first (?) typical cervical vertebra - Thoracic g. Cut on transverse process h. Longitudinal cut on the basis of spinous process - Lumbar i. Longitudinal cut on the intern face of the arch (superior-medial) j. Longitudinal cut between arch and body Rib a. Transversal cut on shaft Scapula a. Tangent cut on the medial border of the glenoid cavity a'. Tangent cut on the lateral border of the glenoid cavity b. Oblique-transversal cut on the neck c. Cut on the spine d. Parallel cut with the spine e. Short and superficial cuts of deboning f. Longitudinal cut on the medial border of scapula f'. Longitudinal cut on the middle of scapula g. Oblique-transversal cut on scapula Humerus a. Oblique-transversal cut on the humeral neck b. Oblique-tangent cut the distal articular surface c. Break on diaphysis with oblique-transversal borders c'. Oblique-transversal cut on the half of diaphysis d. Oblique-transversal cut to deltoid tuberosity e. Longitudinal cut on middle third of diaphysis f. Transversal cut above the lateral condyle g. Oblique-longitudinal cut on trochlea h. Longitudinal cut on the medial epicondyle i. Transversal cut on the distal epiphysis Radius + ulna a. Transversal cut on olecranon b. Transversal cut on the proximal third of ulna diaphysis b'. Transversal cut on the proximal third of radius diaphysis c. Longitudinal cut on radio-ulna d. Oblique-transversal cut on the distal third of radius d'. Oblique cut on the distal third of radius-ulna e. Transversal cut on the distal articular surface f. Transversal cut on the distal third of radius

43

2 1 8 1 2 1 2 2 4 11 2 12 24 34 10 23 3 6 1 4 5 4 2 3 1 1 21 1 1 3 7 3 17 3 1 1 3 3 2 9 5 9 10 7 6 3 3 3 3 5 2 7 1 4 1 1 3

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Metacarpus a. Longitudinal cut on the proximal fourth b. Longitudinal cut on the distal fourth c. Transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis d. Transversal cut on the proximal third of diaphysis e. Transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis Pelvis a. Transversal cut on acetabulum b. Transversal cut on ischium c. Longitudinal cut on the superior limit of acetabulum d. Double oblique cut on ilium e. Longitudinal cut on the middle of ilium f. Transversal preacetabular cut on ilium g. Transversal cut on iliac ala Femur a. Oblique-transversal cut on femoral neck/head b. Transversal cut on the proximal third-middle of diaphysis c. Transversal cut (+break) on the distal third of diaphysis d. Longitudinal cut on the distal half of diaphysis Tibia a. Oblique-longitudinal cut on the distal end b. Transversal cut on the proximal third of diaphysis c. Transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis d. Longitudinal cut on the middle of diaphysis e. Transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis Astragal a. Oblique-longitudinal cut on the lateral edge b. Tangential cut on the superior articular surface Calcaneus a. Longitudinal cut on the medial border Centrotarsus a. Sagittal cut Metatarsus a. Transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis (+break) b. Transversal cut on the proxima1 third of diaphysis (+break) c Transversal cut on lateral face in the proximal third of bone d. Longitudinal cut on the anterior-lateral face in the proximal half of bone e. Oblique-transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis (+break) f. Longitudinal cut on the anterior-lateral face in distal third of bone Phalanx a. Sagittal cut

2 1 8 1 8 11 11 5 3 1 3 2 3 19 12 3 6 7 9 3 1 7 2 8 1 9 3 1 3 9 1 1

Table 3.11. Location and frequency of the butchering marks on pig (Sus domesticus) remains (NR=133). Element Anatomical description of buchering marks Cranium a. Transversal cut on frontal bone b. Sagittal cut on occipital bone c. Transversal cut on maxilla, between P4 and M1 teeth d. Transversal cut on maxilla, posterior to M3 tooth e. Cut and break on mandible body, about M1/M2 f. Longitudinal cut on, below M2-M3 teeth Vertebra: - Atlas a. Longitudinal cut on both archs - Cervical b. Cut between arch and body - Thoracic c. Cut between arch and body d. Cut to separate rib off transverse process - Lumbar e. Cut on transverse process Rib a. Cut to separate rib off vertebra b. Cut on shaft Scapula a. Oblique-transversal cut on the neck Humerus a. Transversal cut and break on the proximal third of diaphysis b. Oblique cut on the middle of diaphysis c. Transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis d. Longitudinal cut and break on the anterior face of diaphysis Radius a. Oblique-transversal cut on the proximal third of diaphysis b. Oblique-transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis Ulna a. Oblique-transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis

44

NR 1 1 3 3 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 3 1 1

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA Pelvis a. Oblique-transversal cut on ischium b. Oblique-transversal cut on pubis c. Oblique-transversal cut on ilium, proximal d. Oblique-transversal cut on ilium, distal e. Transversal cut on acetabulum Femur a. Cut and break on the middle of diaphysis b. Oblique-transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis Tibia a. Oblique-transversal cut on the proximal third of diaphysis b. Oblique-transversal cut on the distal third of diaphysis c. Oblique-transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis Metapodium a. Transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis

5 2 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 2

Table 3.12. Location and frequency of the butchering marks on sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus) remains (NR=41). Element Anatomical description of buchering marks NR Cranium a. Oblique-transversal cut on occipital bone (to separate the head off 1 body) b. Cut on the basis of the horn core 1 2 Rib a. Oblique cut on the proximal part of the shaft b. Oblique cut on the distal part of the shaft 1 a. Transversal cut on the coracoid process 1 Scapula b. Transversal cut on the medial border 1 2 Humerus a. Oblique-transversal cut on the middle of diaphysis a. Transversal cut on the acetabulum 1 Pelvis b. Transversal cut on the ischium 1 c. Longitudinal cut on the superior border of ischium 1 1 Tibia a. Oblique-transversal cut on the proximal third of diaphysis 1 Metacarpus a. Oblique-transversal cut on diaphysis 1 Metatarsus a. Oblique break on the proximal third of diaphysis b. Oblique cut on the distal third of diaphysis 1 Table 3.13. Location and frequency of the butchering marks on horse (Equus caballus) remains (NR=24). Element Anatomical description of buchering marks Humerus a. Transversal cut and break on the proximal third of diaphysis Radius a. Oblique cut on the lateral border of the distal end Pelvis a. Transversal cut on ilium b. Longitudinal cut on the supraacetabular ridge c. Transversal cut on pubis Femur a. Cut and break on the proximal third of diaphysis b. Cut and break on the distal third of diaphysis Tibia a. Cut and break on the distal third of diaphysis Metatarsus a. Cut and break on the middle of diaphysis

The analysis of the characteristics related to the location and frequency of the butchering traces led to describing some of the butchering operations performed in the case of the animal species taken into consideration, as follows.

NR 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1

Skinning of animals. The detaching and peeling of the skin usually leaves marks shaped as light scores on the extremities of the head and limbs, in those regions where the skin is directly attached to the bone. Skinning marks have been identified indisputably only in the case of cattle, on the frontal part of the skull, around the base of the horn cores.

Killing of animals. The marks left by the process of slaughter could have varied according to the methods employed for different species, but they have not been identified on the remains analysed for the purpose of this particular study.

Primary cutting. This operation aims predominantly at severing the head and the limbs from the trunk and is influenced by the anatomy of the animal, but also by the

45

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA geographical region and the historical period during which it was performed.

cranium was split longitudinally, on the trace of a blow struck on the level of the occipital bone, but the skull was also broken up through transversal cuts on the frontal bone or on the upper jaw. The sagittal split of the cranium was identified in the case of cattle as well.

For all the investigated species, the severing of the head from the trunk was done with a strong chopper or hatchet blows. As a rule, the blows were aimed at the region between the occipital bone and the atlas, and the posterior edges of the atlas or the condyles were very often cut off. The traces of these types of blows occur more frequently on cattle remains, but were noticed in the case of some sheep-goat as well. Sometimes this blow meant to detach the head had a slightly posterior trajectory, aiming at the limit between the atlas and the axis. The marks of this type of blow occur in the case of the domestic bovines, where the odontoid apophysis is sectioned transversally, as well as in the case of the domestic swine, where the longitudinal sectioning of the atlas could be an indirect indication of the fact that the atlas remained attached to the head, being cut off along with it on the sagittal plane.

Secondary cutting. This is an operation consisting of cutting up larger pieces of meat, and it may vary according to the customs or preferences of the consumers, but also according to the importance given to the animals used for feeding purposes. The cutting of the spinal column is indicated by traces found only in the case of cattle and pig. It seems that for both these species the practise consisted of a longitudinal split through two rows of parallel slits performed on both sides of the vertebral arches, very often with the sectioning of the transverse apophyses as well. The disjointing, which resulted from the sectioning of the ligaments, left many short and deep marks on the ends of the bones. It is very noticeable only in the case of largesized species, such as cattle and horse, and it seems to have preceded the portioning out of the meat. For the bovines, the scapulo-humeral disarticulation generally supposed the sectioning of the glenoid labrum, in which case the edges of the glenoid cavity were involved as well. For the pig, the cut of this disarticulation operation occurs on the level of the cervix (neck), while in the case of the sheep it touches and affects the coracoid process. The disarticulation of the elbow (humero-radioulnar) through the sectioning of the articular capsule led to the cutting of the internal surface of the trochlea and of the humeral condyle (for the cattle), and sometimes of the olecranon too (quite often in the case of the cattle); through the sectioning of the collateral ligaments were cut the epitrochlea and the humeral epicondyle (for the bovines).

The detaching of the limbs from the trunk was done on the level of the girdles. The scapula was probably severed by cutting the muscular mass that kept it attached to the trunk, since no traces were detected on the skeletal remains for any of the investigated species. In the case of the cattle, the pelvis seems to have been detached from the sacrum through the cutting of the iliac part and the sectioning of the vigorous sacro-spinal-tuberal ligament, a sectioning that sometimes included the supraacetabular crest as well. This same operation is indicated by traces identified on the very few pelvis remains pertaining to other species – horse, pig, and sheep-goat. Evisceration. The extracting of the viscera from the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs) and from the abdominal cavity very seldom leaves any traces on the internal side of the ribs and on the inferior side of the vertebral bodies. In what the investigated remains are concerned, these traces have not been identified. On the other hand, the evisceration marks are numerous and easily recognizable on the cephalic level.

The antebrachio-carpo-metacarpal disarticulation is indicated for the bovines and the horse by the sectioning of the lateral corners or even of the entire distal articular surface (for the bovines) on the level of the zeugopod. Approaching the coxal-femoral joint was a more difficult task because of the depth of the acetabular cavity. As the marks on the bovine remains indicate, it seems that the femoral cervix was usually sectioned, as was sometimes the portion of the femoral head not included in the cavity. The disarticulation of the knee was not identified on the bone remains analysed for the purpose of this inquiry. One can suppose that in this case the damaging of the involved bones was easier to avoid, given the greater distance between the bone ends due to the interpolation of the articular meniscuses. The tibio-tarsus-metatarsal disarticulation is very noticeable in the case of the cattle due to the chipped corners of the distal extremity of the tibia as a result of the sectioning of the collateral ligaments, to the transversal cutting of the upper trochlea of the astragalus as a result of its separation from the tibia, and to the cutting of the calcaneal-astragalar articular surfaces.

The taking out of the tongue supposed the detachment of the mandible from the skull, an operation whose traces are particularly noticeable in the case of the cattle, where the bony connection is cut off on the limit between the mandibular body and the mandibular ramus. This cut was probably preceded by a sectioning of the superficial muscular attachment (primarily the masseter), but of the deep one as well (like the pterygoids). The separation of the two symmetrical bodies of the mandible was generally achieved through a sectioning on the level of the diastema. The mandibular body was sectioned with a view to extracting the marrow, which was fairly abundant in the case of the pig, and even in that of the cattle, the species where the marks corresponding to this operation have been in fact been identified. The opening of the brain-pan was done for the purpose of extracting the brain. In the case of the domestic pig, the 46

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA A standardization of the butchering technique is noticeable on the investigated remains, applied primarily to the cattle, which in the case of the present study provide the greatest number of bone fragments. We are thus given the archaeozoological proof that in the mediaeval settlement of Baia the butchery craft was well established and was practiced by specialized people – butchers. The choppers and the knives were the most intensely used tools in mediaeval butchery, and archaeologists discovered a great number of such instruments in Baia (Neamţu et al., 1980). The traces left by their use are the most frequently identified ones, and they have been described supra.

The portioning was performed with a view to preparing the daily meals (boiling, roasting) or for preservation purposes. The traces left by this operation vary according to the particular features of the bony structure, but also according to the culinary requirements. The broad bones, which had a lot of meat on them, were cut in several portions. The portioning of the shoulder blade generally involved the separation of the articular end from the scapular remainder – an operation clearly identifiable in the case of the cattle and pig remains and suggested only for the sheep-goat by an attempted cut whose trace was preserved on the vertebral edge of the bone. The rest of the large scapulae could have been further portioned, as indicated by the cattle remains. The coxal bone was usually divided in a similar manner – in three portions – for all the investigated species. First the pre-acetabular portion was separated, through the transversal sectioning of the ilium, and a post-acetabular portion, through a similar sectioning of the ischium and the pubis: thus resulted the third portion corresponding to the acetabular cavity. For the medium-sized species, like the pig or the sheep-goat, it was possible to perform a single transversal cut on the acetabular cavity, which resulted in only two portions – an anterior one and a posterior one. The long bones of the stylopod and of the zeugopod were for all the species portioned in three segments: proximal, middle and distal. For both the large-sized species (cattle) and the average-sized ones (pig, sheep-goat), there are cases in which these bones were portioned in only two segments. The metapodials pertaining to cattle, sheep-goat or horses, which are long and well developed bone elements, but which are not wrapped in meat, are frequently found fragmented; this probably indicates the intention of extracting the bone marrow, extremely rich in fats.

Within the framework of the meat-cutting models described above, there seem to be three principles operating that guide their employment: the animal splitting technique, the separation of the different meat categories and the use of each body-part. The splitting of the slaughtered animals was employing, at least for the cattle, the pig and the sheep-goat, a somewhat complicated method viewed as primitive, which consisted of creating two rows of parallel slits on the vertebral bodies. This rustic habit was also identified in the 11th14th century France; it was going to be replaced later by a method involving the splitting in two of the spinal column along the centre of its axis. The old method was employed for a long time in the case of the pig (AudoinRouzeau, 1987). For the cattle as well, this method is still employed nowadays by butchers in several rural areas of Romania, such as the village of Rugineşti, the county of Vrancea (Bejenaru and Agache, 2000), and even France (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1987). This confirms the conservative character of this technique of animal splitting. By most of its proceedings, the secondary cutting becomes part of a certain schematism dictated by the animal’s anatomy. The specific features of the skeleton were taken into account with a view to reducing the effort and increasing the speed of the butchering technique, while the specific distribution of the muscular mass influenced the cutting method according to the quality of the meat.

Traces of de-boning meat are more rarely identifiable on the investigated remains. Most of them are found on the level of the cattle shoulder blades, as cuts on the scapular fossae (sub-scapular, infraspinal, and supraspinal) resulted from the muscles having been detached from them.

47

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figura 3.19. Schematic representation of butchery marks identified on the cattle (Bos taurus) remains.

48

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figura 3.20. Schematic representation of butchery marks identified on the pig (Sus domesticus) remains.

49

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figura 3.21. Schematic representation of butchery marks identified on the sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus) remains.

50

ANIMAL RESOURCES USED IN MEDIAEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figura 3.22. Schematic representation of butchery marks identified on the horse (Equus caballus) remains. .

51

4. Morphometrical description of some of the identified species The animal remains discovered in archaeological contexts are very often fragmented and poorly preserved, and therefore only limitedly suited to an osteometrical description aiming at providing a morphological characterization of the species to which they pertain. The study of the skeletal dimensions was performed solely in the case of the species that left a greater number of remains, i.e. domestic mammals and poultry. 4.1. Bovines Within the investigated archaeozoological samples two bovine types were mainly identified: cattle (Bos taurus) and aurochs – the wild ancestor of the first (Bos primigenius). On the east of the Prut the presence of bison (Bison bonasus) was also identified, but in this case there is no type of osteometrical information available. Aurochs (Bos primigenius). The aurochs, a species nowadays extinct, had been described since Antiquity, as well as in other ancient representations (drawings primarily) as a large animal, with a back that was becoming more and more increased towards the withers, but without a hump, without a mane, and with fairly long and tousled hair on its head. Aurochs were extremely powerful animals, quick and ill-tempered, always ready to attack. The rapidness and the swift movements of the aurochs are illustrated in the Moldavian dialect by the word “bouru”, which means fast. In the 1673 Psalter, Dosoftei wrote: “…vădzui pre spurcatul suindu-se bour…” (“…I saw the beast rising swiftly…”), and Dimitrie Cantemir used the expression “arme buirate” for designating weapons taken out of scabbards and ready for attack (Filipaşcu, 1969). Given the scarcity and scatteredness of the skeletal specimens, we possess only lacunar information regarding the osteometry of this species. The differentiation of aurochs from cattle was achieved based on metrical data, as the dimensions of the specimens

attributed to the wild type surpassed the maximal limits recorded in the case of the domestic bovine. The maximum length of an aurochs astragalus found in Siret (Figure 4.1), of about 85 mm, surpasses the values recorded for the local population of domestic bovines (Figure 4.2). In the site of Baia, two distal phalanxes are clearly differentiated in terms of dimension (Figure 4.3) from similar specimens from domestic bovines. This time, the metrical comparison meant to establish the maximal plantar length and the maximal plantar breadth was performed not only on the Bos taurus specimens of Baia, but also on those found in the near settlement of Siret, in order to ensure as large a number of sizes as possible (Figure 4.4). Several horn cores attributed to the aurochs also produced the following metrical data (Table 4.1). Starting from the metrical description of the identified specimens, we can conclude that the represented individuals, although rare, were quite massive, comparable to those whose remains pertain to previous periods, when the members of this species were far more numerous. The dimensions of the aurochs specimens identified in the Romanian mediaeval sites go beyond the average sizes – of 82.76 mm for the lateral length of the astragalus and of 87.54 mm for the plantar length of the distal phalanx – established in the case of other 31 European and Asian sites from different periods (Kobryn and Lasota-Moskalewska, 1989). In fact, a complex statistical analysis, achieved based on various osteometrical characteristics of the aurochs with a view to establishing a secular and geographical gradient, indicates in reference to the dimensions of the acropod a slight tendency of growing over time (from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages). Regarding the geographical gradient in question, it was detected only on the level of the female metapod and acropod, the segments in question decreasing from the east to the west of Europe (LasotaMoskalewska and Kobryn, 1990).

Table 4.1. Metrical data recorded on aurochs horn cores. Sample Baia Orheiul Vechi

Great lenght (1) 290

Basal circumference (2) 270 260

Greatest diameter of the horncore base (3) 95 87

Least diameter of the horncore base (4) 72 80

(4x100)/3 75.78 91.95

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES

GL (mm) 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 40

Figure 4.1. Aurochs astragalus found in the Siret site.

45

50

55

60 65 70 Bd (mm)

75

80

85

90

Figure 4.2. Metrical separation of bovine astragali in the sample of Siret (aurochs astragalus in white).

Figure 4.3. Dimensional comparison between cattle and aurochs (at right) phalanges identified in the site of Baia.

MBS 36 (mm) 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 464850525456586062646668707274767880828486889092 DLS (mm) Figure 4.4. Metrical separation of bovine distal phalanges (aurochs in white).

53

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Cattle (Bos taurus). The archaeozoological description of the types of cattle bred in mediaeval Moldavia is based primarily on information regarding horn cores and the height of the withers. The statistical processing of the data also includes information provided by previous faunal studies, and the withers’ sizes given by other authors have been converted according to the Fock coefficients, which are also employed in the synthetic study of the size of European domestic bovines (AudoinRouzeau, 1991), used in this research for comparative purposes.

were subsequently processed statistically (Baia, Siret, Târgu Trotuş, Vaslui, Orheiul Vechi), the cattle populations appear to be fairly compact in terms of the mentioned corporal parameter. The animals in question seem to represent the primary types from whence the Grey Steppe has derived; a breed with gracile horns of the “brachyceros” type, and a withers height of approximately 112 cm. This primitive breed was spread across the entire territory of the country, with the exception of the Carpathian region, where another primitive bovine was probably common, of a smaller size, the mountain breed also known as “Mocăniţa”. In fact, Dimitrie Cantemir himself was mentioning in his Descriptio Moldaviae the small mountain oxen and the “large herds of fine, sturdy flat-land oxen”. Unfortunately, in the present stage of the archaeozoological investigations any such precise typological differentiations have not been identified. In figure 4.7 there only appears a slight fluctuation of the withers heights, as the samples located in the north of Moldavia, to the east of the Prut, show a somewhat lower average. The frequency histogram related to the size of the mediaeval cattles that were living on the territory of our country presents a unimodal distribution pointing out the homogeneous character of the bovine population. These animals could reach withers heights from a minimum of 97.8 cm (a female in Siret) to a maximum of 135.1 cm (a castrated males in Orheiul Vechi), the highest frequency being recorded around the value of 110-117 cm (Figure 4.8).

In all the investigated samples the cranium is very fragmented, the most frequently measurable anatomical elements being the horn cores (Figure 4.5). The site that furnished the largest number of horn cores is Târgu Trotuş. Here 195 horn cores were identified, among which 151 have proven measurable. The dispersion diagram of some horn core dimensions shows a compaction of the values (Figure 4.6). We have taken into account the circumference of the base, the large diameter and the small diameter of the base; these last two being indirectly represented on the diagram through the flattening index (small diameter X100/large diameter). The compact cluster of the values that have been recorded seems to represent the female sex, which is believed to have had medium size horns with an average degree of flattening. The marginal values could be attributed to males and castrated individuals, as they correspond to larger horns, or at least to horns that were thicker around the base and were flattened to a greater extent. Without being able to establish a precise differentiation between the castrated and the males, we could however intimate that the larger specimens with a less flattened section pertain to the first, whereas the large and extremely flattened specimens indicate the presence of the bulls. The cattle sample in Târgu Trotuş is fairly compact, also in terms of the maximal length of the horns, estimated along the great curvature. Although the variability limits are extremely large, with a difference of 180 mm, the statistical estimation shows with a 95% probability that the reliability range in the case of the population is smaller, of 63.75 – 186.9 mm, with an average of 125.33 ± 3.11 mm.

As far as the cattle of mediaeval Moldavia are concerned, the average withers height is close to the averages estimated for other regions of the country (Bejenaru, 2003): 114 cm in the south and south-east, 113 cm in Banat (Table 4.2), as well as to those recorded throughout the European area, of 110.6 cm (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1991a). If we should consider the variability of the withers height on a macroregional level, figure 4.9 indicates that its average for mediaeval Moldavia ranges among the highest rates in mediaeval Europe, being surpassed only by the averages estimated for the central (Hungary, the Czech Republic) and western (France, Belgium) areas. The slightly lower numbers of bovine size in mediaeval Moldavia, and especially to the east of the Prut, could indicate the existence of a certain selection of bovines related to exports. It is a well-known fact that the archaeozoological samples consist of remains that pertain to what locals consumed, and not necessarily to what they bred. It is also known that some of the bovines bred on the territory of our country were subsequently shipped to the West, and we can suppose that the largest individuals were primarily destined for trading purposes. The trade with large cattle was fairly intensive in 14th-17th century Europe, because meat consumption was high both in the rich and in the other social environments, which entailed securing regular meat supplies not only from the nearby regions, but from further ones as well (Braudel, 1984). It is mentioned that large cattle herds were headed to the

The settlement of Siret provided 78 measurable horn cores. The length of the horn cores (n=34) shows a wideranging variability (60 mm - 160 mm), with an average of 120.5 ± 4.7 mm. In the case of Baia, measurements were performed on 36 remains, among which 14 were unfragmented and had a medium length of 126.06 ± 6.93 mm. The site of Orheiul Vechi provided 10 measurable remains, but only four of them have been able to furnish length-related data with maximal values of 130-210 mm and an average of 158 mm. Concerning the appendicular skeleton, the metapodials were the basic osteological material providing data on the withers height in the case of the cattle of mediaeval Moldavia (Figures 4.10-4.11). In those mediaeval sites that yielded a larger number of such metrical data, which 54

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES west of Europe from Poland, Hungary and the Romanian principalities. The Moldavian oxen were chosen as draft animals as well, as they were forbearing, capable of enduring extreme temperatures during both summer and winter, endowed with a great draft power and excellent yoke pullers. Cows too were employed as draft animals; as a great part of their potential chemical energy was

spent to this purpose, the remainder was barely sufficient for producing milk and meat, which could explain the low economical efficiency of the breed. We should interpret in the same light the presence of several female metapodials with greatly enlarged distal extremities, which reflect precisely the use of the females in question for draft purposes as well.

Figure 4.5. Cattle horn cores identified in the site of Targu Trotus.

Flattening index (mm) 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 Basal circumference (mm)

Figure 4.6. Dispersion diagram of cattle horn cores identified in the site of Targu Trotus.

55

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 Baia (n=124)

Siret (n=60)

Tg. Trotus (n=12)

Orheiul Vechi (n=36)

Figure 4.7. Variation of cattle withers height based on metapodials.

n 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 978- 1003- 1028- 1053- 1078- 1103- 1127- 1152- 1177- 1202- 1227- 1252- >1277 1003 1028 1053 1078 1103 1127 1152 1177 1202 1227 1252 1277 mm

Figure 4.8. Frequency histogram of cattle withers heights (mm), in the sites of Medieval Moldavia.

56

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES

Western Europe - France, Belgium (n=10)

Central Europe-Ungaria, part Romania, Czech and Slovakia (n=30)

Medieval Moldavia (n=223)

United Kingdom (n=31)

Northern EuropeDenmark, Sweden (n=12)

Central-Northern EuropeGermany, Netherlands, Poland (n=63)

South Europe-Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein (n=9)

past USSR (n=13)

withers height (in cm) 129 127 125 123 121 119 117 115 113 111 109 107 105 103 101 99 97 95

Figure 4.9. Geographical variation (average and standard deviation) of cattle withers heights in Medieval Europe (after Audoin-Rouzeau, 1991a, with modifications) Table 4.2. Variation of cattle withers heights in Romanian medieval sites (except Orheiul Vechi, in Republic of Moldavia). Settlement

Period Count Minimum Maximum Average (mm) (mm) (mm) (centuries) (n)

Confidence Standard interval for Deviation average (mm) (mm)

Moldavia (Eastern Romania) Baia

XIV-XVII

124

1020

1254

1126

1116-1136

± 55.32

Siret

XIV-XVI

60

978

1219

1100

1085-1114

± 54.78

Tg. Trotuş

XIV-XVI

12

1068

1194

1123

1096-1149

± 41.95

Vaslui

XIV-XVI

40

1020

1286

1130

1113-1146

± 50.50

Bârlad

XIII-XIV

1

1280

-

-

-

-

Orheiul Vechi

XIV-XVII

36

1048

1351

1158

1137-1179

± 61.96

South-Eastern Romania Brăila (Bejenaru, 2003) Piua Petrii (Bejenaru, 2003) Isaccea (Bejenaru, 2003)

XV-XVII

2

1176

1248

-

-

-

XV-XVI

19

1050

1289

1167

1137-1196

± 60.38

XIII

12

975

1254

1155

1098-1223

± 74.72

57

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Period Count Minimum Maximum Average (mm) (mm) (mm) (centuries) (n)

Hârşova (Bejenaru, 2003) Capidava (Haimovici, Ureche, 1979) Dinogetia (Gheorghiu, Haimovici, 1965)

Confidence Standard interval for Deviation average (mm) (mm) -

XI-XIII

2

1062

1096

-

XI-XII

9

1062

1291

1167

1087-1246

± 103.65

XI-XII

38

-

-

1123

-

-

1242

1147

1121-1171

± 57.37

1132

1080-1183

± 56.12

Southern Romania Bucov (Haimovici, 1979)

VIII-X

23

1050

Banat (South-Western Romania) Banat Region (El Susi, 1996)

X-XIII

7

1074

1234

Figure 4.10. Cattle metacarpals identified in the site of Baia.

Figure 4.11. Cattle metatarsals identified in the site of Baia.

58

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES and another for the domestic pig (Figure 4.12). The values that mark a transition from one group to the other could be attributed to half-breeds.

4.2. Swine The two interfertile forms of identified swine, the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and the domestic pig (Sus domesticus), were differentiated based on osteometrical criteria only on the level of the adult individuals.

In comparison to other regions in Romania and to some neighboring geographical areas, like Serbia for instance (Bartosiewicz, 1996), the dimensional variability of the post-cephalic wild boar skeleton does not exhibit significant fluctuations. Greater discrepancies occur between the dimensions of the autochthonous wild boar and the one found in the west of Europe (Gautier and Rubberechts, 1978), but these discrepancies are part of a general tendency revealed by this species whose size decreases from the east to the west of the continent, as several authors point out (Teichert, 1970).

Wild boar (Sus scrofa). The scarcity of wild boar remains within the investigated samples, as well as their marked fragmentation limited the morphometrical study in this particular case. For the more numerous M3 molar teeth were measured (in mm) the maximum length and breadth of the crown (Table 4.3). The measurements obtained for the settlement in Orheiul Vechi were represented under the form of a dispersion diagram, which allowed their comparison to the domestic type (the pig) and facilitated also the identification of a possible variability within the frame of the wild form (the wild boar). The data provided by our study are however insufficient and unable to ensure statistical conclusions. The differentiation of the M3 teeth pertaining to the two swine types seems an easy enough task, since the values rendered by the dispersion diagram form two distinct groups: one for the wild boar

For the wild boar, the withers height was measured by applying Teicherts’ coefficients (1990, taken from Udrescu et al., 1999) to the lengths of several bones discovered unfragmented (four metapodials and an astragalus) in the samples of Baia and Orheiul Vechi (Table 4.4). As indicated in table 4.4, the withers height varies in the case of the wild boar between 93.9 cm and 100.7 cm, with an average of 98.2 cm.

Table 4.3. Metrical data on wild boar dentition identified in the site of Orheiul Vechi. Teeth Inferior tooth M3 Inferior tooth M3 Inferior tooth M3 Inferior tooth M3

Lenght (mm) 44 45 38 39

Breadth (mm) 18 19 18 19

Wear stage unworn slightly worn slightly-medium worn slightly worn

breadth (mm) 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 length (mm)

Figure 4.12. Metrical separation of swine inferior M3 tooth (wild boar in white). 59

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 4.4. Estimation of the wild boar withers heights. Settlement

Bone

GL

Bp

Bd

SD

Baia Baia Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi

metatarsus IV metacarpus III metacarpus III metacarpus IV astragal

113 95 94 92 55

18 19 16

17 18 18 17,5 32

15 14 14 13

Domestic pig (Sus domesticus). The morphometrical typology of the mediaeval domestic pig is a question of interest for many archaeozoologists. Nevertheless, the marked fragmentation degree of the remains discovered in the mediaeval sites, as well as their immature character hinder a more rigorous scrutiny of this type. In the case of the previously investigated sites, the withers heights have been measured or converted (the existing ones) according to Teichert’s coefficients (1990). The metrical data of the various skeletal elements do not differ to a significant extent from the neighboring regions (Bejenaru, 2003), the inter-populational variability recording a minimum rate (Table 4.5).

Withers height (mm) 995.12 989.7 978.98 939.36 1007.5

suited to the extensive exploitation characteristic of the Middle Ages, when this variety was bred in large numbers (as mentioned also in several documents). Its feeding could be easily secured in pasture lands, in mountain regions and in the areas rich in acorn, beechnuts and other wild fruit. Entire pig herds were driven from Moldavia to the Bistriţa forests to fatten, as mentions a note written by Efrem, the bishop of Rădăuţi, at the beginning of the 17th century: “For the good Lord giveth beech-nuts…or acorn, so you be willing to let us send whatever pigs we have, hoping they fatten. And what be due to you, you shall have.” (Giurescu, 1976).

The withers height was estimated to a general average of 764 mm, higher in Orheiul Vechi (of approximately 782 mm) than in the settlements located in the Suceava Plateau (756 mm in Baia and Siret). The higher corporal parameters (around 800 mm) recorded in all the settlements included in table 4.6 could be perceived as being wild boar cross-breeds.

On the occasion of his 1891 voyage to the south-east of Europe, Cornevin described the local hog as being slow to develop, just like the wild boar. The present-day zootechnical data indicate an increased late-development rate in the case of this breed, since the weight-gain that makes it suitable for exploitation is reached only after the age of two or three years old. This could also explain the archaeozoological findings that indicate in most of the mediaeval sites advanced slaughtering ages for the domestic swine. The Stocli pigs can survive at large, deprived of shelter, since they are able to secure their own food for long periods of time – months even. Therefore, the presence of wild boar cross-breeds could be easily explained. In fact, the archaeological investigations have already identified this phenomenon in the settlements of mediaeval Moldavia.

The big-headed domestic pig, quite long, endowed with a long and strong snout well-adapted for rooting could suggest the Stocli breed. The anterior part of the body, more developed than the posterior one, is well emphasized by the height of the large withers; the limbs were not very thick, as indicated by the rather small breadths of the extremities of the appendicular bones (Bejenaru, 2003). The Stocli breed, which is preserved nowadays in a pure state in the mountain area located to the west of the Apuseni Mountains, in the regions of Vrancea, Măcin and the Brăila Lakes, is thought to have appeared under different conditions, in a mountain environment – the Stocli variety, as well as in a waterregion one – the Băltăreţ variety (Gligor, 1969). It is the autochthonous swine breed in our country. It was well

The cases in which the mandibular symphisis is shorter and the jugal dentition is more gracile cannot be considered for the time being as suggesting the existence of another morphometrical type, but rather an individual variability within the group. Regarding its dimensions, the domestic pig bred during the Middle Ages on the territory of mediaeval Moldavia was not very different from the one found in the neighboring regions (Bejenaru, 2003) and in other parts of Europe. It was similar to the variety in Muntenia (with an average height of 763 mm), Banat (an average height of 726 mm), and Crişana (an average height of 769 mm), but apparently a little smaller than the variety eaten during that same period at the Court of Louvres-Paris, whose height at the withers was about 77-84 cm (Meniel, 1989).

In mediaeval Moldavia, the pig had a snout whose mandibular symphisis varied in point of length (Figure 4.13), with averages of 56.33 mm in Baia, 54.66 mm in Siret and 62.4 mm in Orheiul Vechi. The minimal length, of 48 mm, was recorded in Baia, and the maximal one, of 69 mm, which supports the cross-breeding hypothesis for the two swine forms, was discovered in Orheiul Vechi.

60

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES

Table 4.5. Averages (in cm) of medieval pig dimensions found in Romanian sites (1. Baia; 2. Siret; 3. Vaslui; 4. Bârlad; 5. Tg.Trotuş; 6. Obârşia; 7. Măleşti; M. Moldova Region; D. Low Danube Meadow; Mn. Muntenia Region; B. Banat Region; C. Crişana Region). 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Dimension Length M1-M3

8

M

D

Mn

B

64.8

63.2

64.6

-

66.5

64.8

Length M3

31.4

31.1

31.5

-

34.3

30.8

LG

36.1

34.6

35

35

-

LA

28.3

32.8

31.3

33

-

Humerus, Bd

38.2

38.5

36.6

37

Tibia, Bd

29.5

30.4

28.9

-

65

65

64.8

62.4

63.6

62.5

67

31

31.7

31.7

32.9

30.9

30.4

30.3

30

32

36.5

34.2

32.3

33.9

32.8

35

33

31.3

30.3

31.4

30.4

31.7

27.7

31

39.5

35.6

36

39.8

37.7

35.6

38.4

37.4

38.7

-

27.3

30

31.2

29.5

29.9

29.1

28.8

31.5

Table 4.6. Estimation of the pig withers heights. Settlement

Bone

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Average Baia Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Average Siret Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Average Orhei General average

Metacarpus III Metacarpus III Metatarsus III Metatarsus III Metatarsus IV Metatarsus IV Astragal Astragal Astragal

GL (mm) 75 78 87 81 88.5 84 38 39 38

Metacarpus III Calcaneus Calcaneus Calcaneus Calcaneus Astragal Astragal Astragal

77 76 82 75 75 40 39 44

Metatarsus III Metacarpus III Metacarpus IV Metacarpus IV Astragal astragal

81 81 72 76 43 43.5

61

Withers heights (mm) 775.3 807.46 818.18 762.14 778.54 738.76 703.2 721.1 703.2 756 796.7 735.8 791.9 726.5 726.5 739 721.1 810.6 756 762.14 839.62 728.76 770.88 792.7 801.65 782 764

C

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Figure 4.13. Pig mandibular remains identified in the site of Siret.

Figure 4.14. Pig humeral remains identified in the site of Siret.

62

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES reaching about 69.5 cm (Bökönyi, 1974). The osteometrical data, although insufficient for allowing the defining of a morphometrical type, can however supplement certain historical information, in reference to the quality of the wool for instance. Thus, in a description of Transylvania dated 1566-1567, Giovan Andrea Gromo said about the Romanians that they “…wear chiefly garments of rough sheep wool and goat’s hair woven by themselves” (Foreign travelers about the Romanian principalities, 1970). This sheep with rough wool, with an average size of 61-67 mm and horns of various sizes, sometimes rudimentary, even absent in the case of the females and more vigorous in the case of the males was undoubtedly the Tzurcana sheep. Nowadays, this rudimentary, local breed is still spread in the submountain and mountain areas of our country, and can be found occasionally even in the hilly regions (Pop et al., 1976). It is endowed with a great endurance and adaptability, which even allows it to survive under the open sky during the cold and rainy season. The Tzurcana sheep exhibits a slow development rate and a highly seasonal reproductive rhythm, a fact that should be taken into account when determining the slaughtering seasons within the archaeozoological samples.

4.3. Sheep and goat (Ovis aries and Capra hircus) The specific differentiation between these two domestic animals, the sheep (Ovis aries) and the goat (Capra hircus) was achieved for a limited number of specimens, as it was hindered by the anatomical similarities between the skeletons of the two species and by the fragmentation of the investigated material. Although these differentiators were rather limited, we could however conclude that the presence of the goat within the archaeozoological samples is usually more discreet. The specific identification of the metapodials, based on metrical criteria, (Udrescu et al., 1999), concurred with the results obtained through applying the morphological differentiation method to the same bones (Boessneck et al., 1964; Prummel and Frisch, 1986), thus being confirmed the validity of the method in question in the case of the mediaeval samples as well. Sheep (Ovis aries). The horn cores of the female sheep have smaller dimensions and a basal circumference of approximately 100 mm. Within the investigated samples we have not identified hornless varieties of sheep, although these are considered to have appeared as early as the Late Bronze Age (Chaix, 1977); for the Middle Ages period, hornless varieties were identified on the territory of our country in Dobrogea (Gheorghiu and Haimovici, 1965), or suggested for the region of Moldavia (Haimovici, 1990-1992). The horn cores of the males have rather small dimensions, with lengths of 205 mm (Baia) and a basal circumference of 133 (again Baia).

Goats (Capra hircus). In what the goat is concerned, the identified horn cores chiefly represent the scimitar type. According to the findings of a study performed on an archaeozoological sample pertaining to the mediaeval Polish area, it would seem that the occurrence frequency of scimitar horns and spiral horns was related to the sex of the domestic goats; thus, while in the case of the males both types of horns occurred, the females exhibited exclusively straight horns (Kobryn et al., 1991). In our case, the twisted horn type, with a circumference of 155 mm, was only identified in the site of Baia, and it was attributed – for dimensional reasons – to a male. In the case of the female sex we find scimitar-type horn cores having a more gracile base, with circumferences of 110 mm (Baia) and 89 mm (Târgu Trotuş). A pair of scimitartype horns with a basal circumference of about 118 mm, discovered in Baia, is considered to have belonged to a male.

Within the sites of mediaeval Moldavia the sheep exhibit fairly high withers heights, with an average of 67.5 cm and a variability range from 61.1 cm to 70.9 cm (Table 4.7). The sizes are larger than those recorded for the sites in Banat and Muntenia (Bejenaru, 2003), with averages of 62.2 cm and 62.5 cm, respectively, and closer to those in Crişana and the low Danube Meadow (Bejenaru, 2003), with averages of 66.5 cm and 68.1 cm, respectively (Table 4.8).

The estimated withers height varies between 741.75 mm in Baia (Table 4.7) and 790 mm in Vaslui (Haimovici, 1992), with an average of approximately 768 mm. Nowadays, the Carpathian breed is the one breed that shows features somewhat similar to the archaeozoological description. It is a primitive breed that displays great variability in its corporal structure, explainable by the fact that in its case no attempts of organized improvement have been made; this breed has scimitar-type horns (Taftă, 1976).

In the case of the sheep, the average height at the withers recorded in Moldavia exceeds the averages of other European countries, like France or England, which had quite small sheep, of about 58 cm, or Italy, Spain, Poland and Germany, with average withers heights of 61-61.7 cm (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1991b). The Russian sheep recorded also increased heights, of about 65 cm, during the first centuries of the millennium (Bökönyi, 1974). In Hungary, the sheep had a smaller size, of about 59.5 cm, at the beginning of the millennium (11th-13th centuries), but these sizes got bigger later (14th-17th centuries)

63

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 4.7. Estimation of the sheep and goat withers heights. Settlement

Species

Bone

Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul Vechi Siret Baia Baia

Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Capra hircus Capra hircus

Metacarpus Metacarpus Metacarpus Metatarsus Metatarsus Astragal Metacarpus Metacarpus

GL (mm) 125 134 145 149 145 31 134,5 129

Withers height (mm) 611.25 655.26 709.05 676.46 658.3 703.08 773.37 741.75

Table 4.8. Regional variation of the sheep withers height. Settlement Baia

Count (n) 4

Minimum (mm) 611

Maximum (mm) 709

Average (mm) 663

Orheiul Vechi

1

658

-

658

Siret

1

703

-

703

Vaslui

2

655

671

663

Bârlad

2

680

703

691

Total Moldova

10

611

709

675

Low Danube Meadow

71

597

782

681

Muntenia Region

30

589

748

625

Banat Region

2

617

628

622

Crişana Region

7

635

718

665

Total

120

597

782

653

group of horses with slender extremities, while the second was considered as having averagely gracile extremities. These individuals could have been unimproved types of the Romanian horse, with mountain and flat-land varieties and multiple employments (packsaddle, riding and draft).

4.4. Horse (Equus caballus) The differentiation of the various types of horses according to their uses (riding, carting, ploughing, or warfare) in mediaeval Moldavia was achieved through analysing the variability of the withers heights and their gracility. The height at the withers was estimated by applying Kiesewalter’s coefficients to the length of the metapodials, while the gracility degree was obtained through estimating the diaphysary indexes for the bones in question. Also, for the sites in Vaslui and Orheiul Vechi two withers heights have been calculated based on the radiuses. By referring the heights at the withers to the classification scale put forth by Vitt, the horses of medieval Moldavia were grouped in four size-categories: small, sub-medium, medium, and large. In order to point out the gracility of the horses as well, each size-category was divided into groups according to the Brauner scale.

B. The sub-medium size (128-136 cm) was identified for two medium gracile individuals in Orheiul Vechi. C. The medium size category (136-144 cm) includes two horses with slender extremities, one in Baia and one in Bârlăleşti – 138.6 cm (Haimovici, 1984), as well as a medium gracile individual in Vaslui – 137.1 cm. In Vaslui has also been reported a size of 138.4 cm estimated based on the radius, but without the corresponding diaphysary index. D. Supra-medium size horses (144-152 cm) were identified in Baia. Among them, one has sub-medium gracile extremities, and another has medium gracile ones.

A. Small-size horses (120-128 cm) were identified in Măleşti Neamţ – 122 cm (Haimovici, 1994) and Vaslui – 124.3 cm (Haimovici, 1992); the first was included in the 64

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES E. The large size (over 152 cm) was identified for a single individual in Orheiul Vechi, based on a radius with a diaphysary index of 11.16.

constraint when it comes to interpreting the shaping of some local varieties. When looking at the ensemble of the withers heights pertaining to the horses identified in the sites of mediaeval Moldavia, rendered by the histogram in figure 4.15, one can notice the unimodal distribution feature, with the highest frequency recorded in the case of the medium and sub-medium-size groups, from 128 to 144 cm. The variability limits range from 122 to 155 cm, while the general size-average is of 138.1 cm, i.e. about the middle of the variability range of the averages recorded in mediaeval Europe. As indicated by figure 4.16, which renders the standard averages and deviations for several European areas, the horse varieties in mediaeval Moldavia had generally a larger size than those in the former USSR, Great Britain, and even those in the central and north-western regions of the continent (Germany or the Netherlands); they had a size similar to the horses in Western Europe (France, Belgium), but were smaller than the ones in Central (Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia), Northern (Denmark, Sweden, Island) and Southern (Italy, Liechtenstein) Europe.

The sub-medium-sized and the medium-sized horses were probably prevailing, making up a fairly homogenous group. To attribute the remains in question to a certain breed is a very difficult task, given the vaivodes’ keen interest in breeding army horses. With a view to improving the horses, especially the light riding ones, there was a constant interest in importing breeders, chiefly oriental in the case of Moldavia and Walachia and western in Transylvania. In a Description of Transylvania from the middle of the 16th century, Anton Verancsisc (Verantio) noted that “…they have several varieties of horses, but the very best are the Turkish, which are saved for the decisive moment of the battle, because they are swifter and nimbler than the others and can easily pass from one type of fighting to another, and are also trained to go forward and run backwards, while keeping to certain rules” (Foreign travellers about the Romanian principalities, 1968). Consequently, the existence of these horse imports requires a certain

Table 4.9. Metrical data (in mm) on horse long bones (mc – metacarpus; mt – metatarsus; r – radius). Baia Dimension

Orheiul Vechi

mc

mc

mc

mt

mc

mt

r

Maximum length

227

241

238

272

209

260

372

Lateral length

217

233

231

266

202

251

359

Proximal breadth

56

55

51

48

51

53

92

Distal breadth

52

57

51

48

50

52

84

Minimum breadth on diaphysis

38

36

38

30

34

33

41.5

Diaphysis index

16.74

14.93

15.96

11.02

16.27

12.69

11.16

Withers height

1390

1493

1480

1417

1295

1338

1558

n

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 120-128

128-136

136-144

144-152

> 152 cm

Figure 4.15. Frequency histogram of the horse withers heights, in the sites of Medieval Moldavia. 65

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Withers height (cm) 148 146 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120 118 Central EuropeHungary, Czech, Slovakia (n=54)

Northern EuropeDenmark, Sweden, Iceland (n-7)

Southern EuropeItaly, Liechtenstein (n=3)

Western EuropeFrance, Belgium (n=5)

Moldavia (n=12)

Central-Northern Europe-Germany, Netherlands (n=18)

United Kingdom (n=7)

past USSR

116

Figure 4.16. Geographical variation (average and standard deviation) of the horse withers heights in Medieval Europe (after Audoin-Rouzeau, 1994, with modifications)

In those cases where the mandibles were better preserved (Table 4.12), based on the length of the jugal teeth and following Dahr’s method for measuring the basal length (jugal length x 2.9 - 44), the variety of classes, each of them corresponding to a particular size type (small, submedium, medium, large). Thus, based on Dahr’s basal length (and including the data taken from the specialized literature), were estimated the following dog-types:

4.5. Dog (Canis familiaris) The osteometrical data regarding the dog of mediaeval Moldavia are for the moment rather dispersed and still insufficient for allowing a more detailed description of the morphometrical types. With a view to establishing several dog varieties we have used chiefly the withers height criterion (estimated based on the long bones) put forward by M. Udrescu and team (Udrescu et al., 1999).

- a small-size dog, in Siret – 106.8; - two sub-medium-size dogs, one in Vaslui (141.6) and one in Siret (144.5); - five medium-size dogs, one in Vaslui (164.8) and four in Orheiul Vechi (150.3; 154.65; 159; 161.9); - seven large-size dogs, one in Vaslui (182.9), one in Siret (182.2), one in Baia (185.1), two in Obârşia Neamţ (175.5; 179.3) and two in Orheiul Vechi (196.7; 202.5).

According to the classification in table 4.11, where the individual data have been cumulated with those provided by the specialized literature, the following categories of dogs were recorded: - a sub-medium-size dog in Baia; - three medium-size dogs in Orheiul Vechi; - 11 supra-medium-size dogs, one in Vaslui (Haimovici, 1992), one in Bârlăleşti (Haimovici, 1984), two in Baia and seven in Orheiul Vechi; - three large-size dogs, two in Baia and one in Orheiul Vechi.

Judging by the classifications that have been made, the extreme types of dogs seem to prevail. These types have been identified based on the long bones and the 66

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES mandibles that were preserved. The large sizes make us think of the massive and strong sheep-dogs, used for guarding cattle herds and sheep flocks. The Romanian Shepherd is a big and robust dog, fit to endure the harshest conditions. It has a large size, with a minimum height of 65 cm for the males and of 62 cm for the females (Lica et al., 1986). The small dogs identified in the sites of Baia and Siret could be perceived as the expression of a phenomenon that led to a size-decrease related to the urban agglomeration environment, a phenomenon noticed in other mediaeval cities as well, in those in France for instance (Forest, 1994). This could also account for other small-sized bones found in various urban sites, such as the distal extremity of a humerus discovered in Siret, with a breadth of only 22 mm. The prevailing size-type is the medium-to-large one, as the dogs in question could have been employed for guarding (the dwellings chiefly) and for hunting.

As several archaeozoological inquiries show, the wide range of sizes and gracility degrees was a general characteristic feature of the dogs in mediaeval Europe. Thus, the 16 individuals identified at the court of Louvres-Paris were grouped as follows: six small-sized (20 - 36 cm), six medium-sized (40-52 cm) and four large-sized (62-72 cm), but without isolating morphological features for any of them typical of a specialized variety (Meniel and Arbogast, 1989). In Serbia too a wide variability range of the withers height, from 38.5 cm to 76.3 cm (Bartosiewicz, 1996) is evident. A certain morphological differentiation was however suggested by Forest (1994) for at least three types, following an analysis performed on tibias pertaining to a population of about 20 individuals discovered in French sites dated to the 14th century (Place des Terreaux, Lyon, Rhone).

Table 4.10. Metrical data on dog long bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi

Bone Femur Humerus Humerus Humerus Radius Radius Femur Femur Femur Humerus Humerus Radius Radius Tibia Tibia Tibia Tibia Tibia

GL (mm) 214.5 118 197 197 175 194 195 195 174 180.5 158 189 158 214? 197 198 173 174

Diaphysary Index 6.06 11.86 7.61 7.61 7.71 7.73 6.66 7.17 7.47 7.75 8.22 7.40 8.22 6.54 7.10 6.81 6.93 7.18

Withers height (mm) 660.57 378.2 649.17 649.17 536.99 597.41 599.34 599.34 533.4 592.57 568.48 581.51 482.93 615.47 565.83 568.75 495.75 498.67

Table 4.11. Dog typology in Medieval Moldavia, based on withers heights. Class

Small

Sub-medium

Medium

Supra-medium

Large

Withers height

< 30 cm

30 < 40 cm

40 < 50 cm

50 < 60 cm

> 60 cm

MNI

0

1

3

11

3

67

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Table 4.12. Metrical data on dog cranium.

Settlement Baia Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Orheiul Vechi Siret Siret Siret

Length Inferior cheektooth row (mm) 79 67 68.5 70 71 83 83 85 52 65 78

Basal Length (mm) 185.1 150.3 154.65 159 161.9 196.7 196.7 202.5 106.8 144.5 182.2

- the transversal diameter = 9 mm; 10 mm; - the antero-posterior diameter = 5.5 mm; 6 mm. In Siret three remains have been identified: a tibia, metapodial and a radius (with a proximal breadth of 11 mm).

4.6. Domestic cat (Felis domesticus) There is a rather small number of metrical data pertaining to cat skeletal remains identified in Siret and Orheiul Vechi. In Siret the following specimens were inventoried: a mandible with 20 m-long jugal teeth and a 7.5 mm-long carnassial, two rib fragments, a distal fragment from a humerus with a 16 mm maximum breadth of the extremity, two ulnar remains – one immeasurable and the other with a 9 mm-breadth of the articular surface, and three metapodials. In Orheiul Vechi a femur has been identified with a maximum length of 97 mm, a proximal breadth of 18 mm, a distal breadth of 17 mm, and a 7.5 mm minimal breadth of the dyaphisis.

4.8. Brown bear (Ursus arctos) Three measurable fragments from the appendicular skeleton of a bear were identified within the faunal sample of Baia: a distal fragment of a left humerus and two metacarpi. The humerus fragment corresponds to the distal epyphisis and to a short dyaphisary segment. The estimated distal dimensions are: – the maximal distal breadth = 95 mm; – the maximal articular breadth = 75 mm.

4.7. Hare (Lepus europaeus) In what this species is concerned, measurable skeletal remains were discovered in Baia and Siret. The site of Baia provided two proximal fragments of radius; in both cases the dyaphisis is broken, and the proximal epyphisis is well consolidated on the dyaphisis (adult individuals). On the level of the proximal extremity the following dimensions were measured:

The right metacarpus I and the left metacarpus II could have belonged to the same adult individual; in both cases the epyphises are well consolidated. The metacarpi are unfragmented, with no traces of human intervention and have the following dimensions (Table 4.13).

Table 4.13. Metrical data on bear bones. Dimension Maximum length Proximal breadth Distal breadth Minimum breadth on diaphysis

Metacarpus I (mm) 77 24 19 11

68

Metacarpus II (mm) 86 20 21 12

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES smaller since more ancient times even, like the Roman period (Lipper, 1981/82). Moreover, several investigations that compared the size of red deer hunted in mediaeval Moldavia with the size of red deer that lived during previous historical ages, Neolithic (Bălăşescu et al., 2005; Necrasov and Haimovici, 1963) or GetoDacian (Udrescu, 1989), did not reveal significant modifications in time. The more robust shape of the red deer identified archaeozoologically on the territory of our country is also close in dimensions to the one recorded in neighboring areas, such as Serbia (Bartosiewicz, 1996).

4.9. Cervids Two species of cervids occur rather constantly within the archaeozoological samples: red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Based on the metrical data, in Orheiul Vechi, fallow deer (Dama dama) remains have also been identified. Red deer (Cervus elaphus). Red deer antlers are constantly identified in a fragmented state; this is caused either by their fragility and shape, which makes their preservation in archaeological sites limited, or by the fact that they are often subjected to processing.

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). A small number of roe deer remains found in Baia and Orheiul Vechi could be measured. We assume that in figure 4.20 the separation of the two groups of values is due to the sexual dimorphism, which is to say that the largest tooth pertains to a male individual.

There are also remains pertaining to the post-cephalic skeleton, which limit the osteometrical inquiry for this species. The mediaeval settlement of Orheiul Vechi provided the largest amount of measurable remains (annex 6). The morphometrical variability (in mm) of the skeleton is influenced by the sexual dimorphism, as indicate the investigations performed on the following anatomical elements: humerus (Figure 4.17), radius (Figures 4.18-4.19) and metacarpus.

Concerning the post-cephalic skeleton, the dimensions are dissimilar (Annex 6). They were compared to those recorded for Dinogetia (Haimovici, 1989), and have been discovered to be quite close to them in terms of dimensions. In the case of the sample from Dinogetia the withers height was estimated at 772.2 mm (the average of two values obtained for the same specimen by applying different coefficients), a value considered by the author as being slightly larger than that of the roe deer living today on the territory of our country.

The withers height was measured by applying the Godinicky coefficient to the three unfragmented metacarpi discovered in Orheiul Vechi. Thus, this corporal parameter records values of 1219.1 mm, 1237.6 mm, and 1319.5 mm, which are close to the average withers height of 1313 mm estimated for the beginning of the 2nd millennium in the low Danube Meadow (Haimovici, 1989). This seems to indicate the variety of the Carpathian red deer, described at the beginning of our century as a sub-species proper (Cervus elaphus carpathicus) in an attempt of differentiating it from the Central and Northern European one (Cervus elaphus hippelapus), whose dimensions seem to have been

Fallow deer (Dama dama). For this species the following skeletal remains were identified: a proximal fragment from a metacarpus with a proximal breadth of 28 mm; a distal fragment from a radius with a distal breadth of 32 mm; a coxal fragment with an anteroposterior acetabular diameter of 29 mm.

BFd (mm) 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

Bd (mm)

Figure 4.17. Dispersion diagram of the red deer humerus (distal extremities).

69

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA BFp (mm) 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

Bp (mm)

Figure 4.18. Dispersion diagram of the red deer radius (proximal extremities).

Bd (mm) 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 count 1

2

3

4

5

Figure 4.19. Metrical variation of the red deer radius (distal extremities).

Breadth M3 (mm) 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Length M3 (mm)

Figure 4.20. Dispersion diagram of the roe deer inferior M3 tooth.

70

21

MORPHOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE IDENTIFIED SPECIES skeletal specimen measures in the investigated samples only 58-78 mm in length.

4.10. Domestic poultry Domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus). With the exception of a single neurocranium fragment discovered within the sample in Siret, all the other identified bone remains pertain to the post-cranial skeleton. Although they vary to a quite large extent, the metrical values of the few measurable remains do not reach the minimal representation limits of the supposedly improved types identified among the archaeozoological materials of the Roman period. For instance, while the tarsometatarsus records a length of 100-110 mm in the case of a supposedly improved variety (Bökönyi, 1974), a similar

Given the fairly small number of measurements performed for each series (Table 4.14), it is impossible to establish a dimensional variability according to the various regions; the global analysis rather points out an individual variability, based also on the sexual dimorphism. Domestic goose (Anser domesticus). The dimensions estimated for the bone remains pertaining to the Anser domesticus species (Table 4.15) concur with the metrical data provided by other mediaeval settlements.

Table 4.14. Metrical data on hen remains. Dimension

Settlement

Humerus length (GL) Femur length (GL) Tibiotarsus length (GL) Tarsometatarsus length (GL)

Baia Baia Siret Siret Siret

Count (n) 3 2 3 1 3

Minimum (mm) 62 76 70 92 58

Maximum (mm) 70 77 87 78

Average (mm) 64.83 75.66 67

Table 4.15. Metrical data on goose remains.

Anser domesticus Anser domesticus ? Anser domesticus ? Anser domesticus ? Anser domesticus ? Anser domesticus Anser domesticus Anser domesticus Anser domesticus

Settlement

Bone

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Baia Siret Siret Siret

Femur Femur Humerus Humerus Carpometacarpus Carpometacarpus Tarsometatarsus Tibiotarsus Tibiotarsus

71

GL (mm) 74 91 86 -

Bp (mm) 19 20 33 20 18.5 25 -

Bd (mm) 20 25 14 13 18 20

CONCLUSIONS On the whole, the present work is an archaeozoological synthesis of mediaeval Moldavia on the basis of samples found in 21 settlements, which comprise a total of over 46,000 faunal remains. Some of the archaeozoological findings taken into account have been provided by the specialist literature, as pointed out in the previous chapters. In mediaeval Moldavia, recorded climatic fluctuations were limited, and their impact upon the biotic components (vegetation, fauna) was considered minimal and is still subject to debate. The anthropic pressure, which was rather low at the beginning of the 2nd millennium A.D. (due to reduced population density and poorly developed technology), became more manifest only toward the last part of the millennium, generating changes on the level of vegetation cover and the faunal spectrum. The intensification of human activities during the second half of the 2nd millennium A.D. led chiefly to the shrinking and fragmentation of woodland, which in turn resulted in the reduction of the distribution of several animal species, such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) and bear (Ursus arctos). Very often, excessive hunting significantly reduced this distribution, which resulted in some species simply vanishing from the fauna of the region in question: bison (Bison bonasus) and aurochs (Bos primigenius). A comparative approach shows that the faunal spectrum was more diverse to the east of the Prut, where 14 wild species have been identified, than to the west of the river, where only 11 species occur. It seems however that during the Middle Ages several restrictions against the hunting of wild species were introduced, as their number within the archaeozoological samples is rather low. Moreover, these species were still more widely spread than today, since their presence has been identified also beyond the limits of the present distribution. The geographical conditions characteristic of the region of mediaeval Moldavia and the continued low anthropical pressure might explain the large sizes recorded as well, in the case of the stag at least, whose size was comparable to that of the individuals pertaining to more ancient periods (Neolithic, Geto-Dacian), and at the same time larger than the size of individuals living in Western Europe. Animal breeding had a major importance in the economy of the settlements in mediaeval Moldavia, and most households had focused on breeding cattle, pig and sheep-goat; the relative representation of these species varying according to geographical, ethnical or religious factors. Cattle occur constantly in almost all the investigated settlements. The archaeozoological inquiries have been able to identify regions where the medieval livestock was dominated by bovines, whose numbers exceeded by far those recorded for pigs or sheep-goat: the Suceava Plateau, the Moldavian Plain, the Bârlad

Plateau, the Plateau of Northern and Central Moldavia located to the east of the Prut and the Dniester Plateau. More specialized breeding of cattle, which made up over half of the domestic livestock, was apparently practiced in the northern and central part of Moldavia, on both sides of the river Prut. In the peri-Carpathian area of Moldavia, a region with increased humidity and vast stretches of woodland (Negreşti-Neamţ), the intensity of pig breeding was high, while in the Dniester Plateau the amount of pig remains also increased. Thus, it would seem that in these areas another type of animal breeding was practiced, characterized by the high frequency of pigs. The remains pertaining to sheep-goat have a higher frequency (yet without ever prevailing), in the settlements located in flat-land arid regions with xerophile vegetation, such as the Bârlad area. The influence of the ethnic and at the same time religious element on the structure of the livestock is emphasized in the case of the site at Orheiul Vechi (14th century). The faunal material in question, of Mongolian origin (from the Golden Horde period), contains an extremely small number of pig remains, whereas the sheep-goat remains are particularly numerous. Hippophagia still persisted sporadically in mediaeval Moldavia, despite the religious bans. As early as 732 Pope Gregory III had prohibited Christians from eat horse-meat, a custom considered as heathen. According to the archaeozoological data, the habit of eating horse-meat is only occasionally indicated by cut marks (Baia, Târgu Trotuş, Orheiul Vechi), and it was probably as a result of food shortages and/or the utilization for feeding purposes of the injured individuals. The management of livestock in the investigated mediaeval settlements was guided by rules that varied from one species to another, as well as from one region to another, according to whether the interest was focused on primary or secondary products. The archaeozoological results show that the ruminants (both cattle and sheepgoat) were exploited primarily with a view to securing secondary products. As was to be expected, in the case of the domestic bovines the management of herds was particularly important and evident (aimed at ensuring a breeding stock, at securing milk and traction through a selection of young individuals based on keeping most females throughout adulthood, but only a small number of breeding or castrated males) in those areas specializing in the breeding of these animals; mainly the Suceava Plateau. On the other hand, judging by the high rate of young animals identified within the archaeozoological samples, the domestic pig seems to have been bred almost exclusively for meat and other primary products. The concern for ensuring the reproductive capacity of the stock might account for the keeping of some individuals, especially boars, over the age of three years old, while the high rate of animals slaughtered around the age of two could be explained by the interest in securing a maximal

CONCLUSIONS

quantity of meat, given the late-development rates of the primitive types of pig. The analysis of butchery techniques practiced in the settlement in Baia completed the outlook on the utilization of animals in mediaeval Moldavia.

related to the urban environment, and could provide an explanation for the small corporal parameters identified in Baia and Siret, although the existence of pet dogs cannot be ruled out either.

The types of animals identified within the archaeozoological samples and described from a morphoscopical and osteometrical point of view correspond for the most part to the autochthonous primitive breeds, which have survived until today. They have a low productivity, but exhibit a great endurance, being well adapted to the environmental conditions of our country. In the case of the horse we were able to find improved varieties as well, but their employment was the exclusive privilege of the high social classes. The domestic bovines identified archaeozoologically in the sites of mediaeval Moldavia seem to represent the variety from which subsequently originated the Grey Steppe breed, with gracile horns of the “brachyceros” type and an average withers height of 112 cm, placing it among the largest varieties in mediaeval Europe. The domestic pig bred in mediaeval Moldavia, with an average withers height of 764 mm, was not very different from the varieties found in the neighboring regions and in the rest of Europe. The larger corporal parameters recorded in Baia, Siret and Orheiul Vechi could be explained by a cross breed with wild boar. With an average withers height of 67.5 cm, the sheep of mediaeval Moldavia ranged among the largest in Europe. The horns of the males were generally moderately sized; the more massive horn cores (like the specimen from Bârlad for instance) were quite rare. Some of the females had gracile horns, but there were also hornless varieties, such as the ones identified archaeozoologically in Bârlad. Given their rather wide variability range (122 to 155 cm), the values recorded for the withers heights of the horses were grouped in several categories. The most comprehensive and relatively homogenous group is that of the submedium and medium-sized individuals, identified archaeozoologically on the entire Moldavian territory. With an average size of 138.1 cm, the autochthonous horses were medium-sized in comparison with the individuals identified in other European countries. In the case of this species one should also mention the information regarding imports, which were a common practice in those times. Therefore, it is easier to suppose that the supra-medium-sized individuals identified within the archaeozoological samples in Baia and the even larger individual in Orheiul Vechi came from the Western European area. The typology of the dog found within Romanian territory during the Middle Ages was outlined based on withers height and gracility criteria, as well as on the basal length measured following Dahr’s method. The most frequently occurring sizes are medium and even large ones, pertaining to dogs that were supposedly used for guarding and hunting purposes. The large sizes identified in Baia, Orheiul Vechi, Siret, Vaslui, Obârşia Neamţ could be attributed to massive and robust individuals used for guarding cattle herds and sheep flocks. The phenomenon that led to a size-decrease 73

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APPENDICES

APPENDICES Abbreviations (Standard by Angela von den Driesch, 1976) Dimension Greatest length Breadth of the proximal end Breadth of the facies articularis proximal Depth of the proximal end Breadth of the distal end Breadth of the facies articularis distal Depth of the distal end Greatest breadth Smallest breadth of the diaphysis Diagonal length of the facies solaris Breadth on the middle of facies solaris Basal circumference Greatest diameter of the horncore base Smallest diameter of the horncore base Greatest length of the processus articularis Length of the glenoid cavity Breadth of the glenoid cavity Smallest length of the collum scapulae Length of the acetabulum including the lip Transversal diameter of the acetabulum Length of the cheektooth row Length of the molar row Length of M3 tooth Breadth of M3 tooth Length of canine tooth Greatest breadth of canine tooth Length of the carnassial tooth Greatest breadth of the carnassial tooth Length of the mandibular condyle Length of the mandibular symphysis

79

Abbreviation GL Bp BFp Dp Bd BFd Dd GB SD DLS MBS

GLP LG BG SLC LA TA LC LM LM3 BM3 Lc GBc Lcarnassial GBcarnassial Lcondyle Ls

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Appendix 1. Cattle (Bos taurus) – metrical data (in mm). Long (excepting unfragmented metapodials) and short bones. Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus

55 64 63 60 55 57 62 60 65 60 57 52 59 66 61 60 68 65 59 54 55 61 52 61 55 62 57 59 61 60 62 60 65 51 58 59 61 63 64 60 67 63

-

-

-

41 40 36 42 39 38 36 36 32 36 42 32 37 37 37 40 42 36 39.5 42.5

-

-

-

-

80

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

astragalus astragalus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus

64 64 120.5 126 113 130 120 135 117 139 120 133 124 116 119 122 129 125 119 133 122 130 136 125 119 128 117 117 111 136 120 132 116 118 125 124 112 -

-

-

-

45 39 -

-

-

?46 45 47 56 52 47 51 46 50 49 54 49 47 51 49 57 47 52 47 50 48 44 49 51 51 48 47 53 49 56 53 50 40 39 48 54 46

-

81

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV

centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

55 58 59 59 65 50 56 58 58 52 57 57 56 52 62 58 53 55 60 55 54 60 58 58 54 50 59 56 54 50 59 58 60 56 59 55 56 61 54 62 55 54 55 54 61

27 26 24 26 26 31 29 23 31

-

-

25

-

-

52 50 49 -

23 22 22 24 25 20 26 27 21 23 23 22 20 20 23 22 21 20 25 22 22 23 22 23 22 20 21 22 21 20 24 24 23 18 20 22 19 23 21 23 23 24 22 30

24 27 28 26 26 26 29 27 26 24 29 27 26 27 27 25 26 23 26 28 28 22 28 28 27 22 26 29 24 26 26 27 27 26 25 35 82

26 25 28 27 22 32 31 25 25 25 25 24 24 28 25 24 22 27 25 23 25 25 25 25 22 25 25 25 24 27 26 26 22 23 26 23 25 25 25 26 25 25 29 33

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

60 62 60 60 55 65 55 53 56 57 57 57.5 55 52 63 52 56 51 54 53 62 55 49 57 57 57 61 61 58 56 59 57 55 54 59 53 61 9 60 56 55 56 56 55 57 57 57 63 55 62 53

27 31 25 29 26 31 27 25 26 24 24 26 30 24 32 ?21 27 26 24 24 27 25 27 25 23 25 28 31 27 29 26 27 28 23 30 25 29 25 25 25 28 26 25 27 25 32 32 24 30 26

-

-

26

-

-

-

23 25 21 23 23 24 25 20 21 19.5 19.5 21 26 20 28 19 22 21 19 19 23 21 23 21 19 23 24 26 22 25 22 25 23 20 25 19 24 21 21 20 22 23 20 23 20 26 26 20 24 21

83

26 27 25 29 27 24 25 23 23 22 29 22 30 ?20 25 24 24 22 25 23 24 24 23 26 30 29 26 27 255 25 26 22 29 22 28 24 23 23 26 25 23 25 24 29 29 30 24 30 24

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

58 56 55 63 63 58 61 54 52 54 52 60 53 55 56 52 57 53 57 52 62 53 62 61 61 64 64 54 59 61 56 60 60 59 62 53 54 60 56 60 62 58 56 61 58 62 57 51 57.5 57 66

25 26 25 33 31 30 27 31 24 23 26 27 26 23 26 25 25 27 26 25.5 29 26 25 31 27 31 29 23 25 25 27 29 33.5 24 26 28 34 31 26 31 24 28 29 33 25 25 22 23 27 23 32

-

-

23 23 23 33 30 29 26 29 22 23 23 27 24 22 24 26 24 25 24 23.5 27 25 24.5 26 26 29 27 22.5 24 25 24 27.5 31 23 23.5 25 33 26 24.5 28 31 26 29 30 22.5 23 22 22.5 25 21.5 30

-

-

-

20 20 20 26 24 24 23 25 20 19 21 23 22 21 21 22 20 22 20 21.5 24 23 23 25 24.5 27 24.5 19.5 22 22.5 22 25 27 20.5 22.5 24 28 26 23 24 29 23 24 28 21 21 20 19 23 20.5 25.5

84

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

57 55 57.5 55 54 54 54.5 55 60 56 55 51 53.5 56 50 55 65 60 57 57 54 56 57 55 57 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 56 56 57 57 59 60 60 60 62

27 24.5 28 25 23 23 28 24.5 26 30 23.5 25 21.5 25 25 25 33 27.5 28.5 27.5 26 28 22 24 25 26 24.5 25 26 25 25 26 27 25 24 24 24 28.5 26 30 24 27 28 25 25 28 28.5 26 26 30 31

-

-

25 24 25 24 22 22 26 25 25 28.5 25 26 20.5 23 24.5 24 29 27 25 24 26 26 23 23 22.5 23 22.5 23 23 24 23.5 24.5 26 23 23 22 26 23 29 26 26 25 24 25 27 27 25 25 27.5 30

-

-

-

22 21.5 24 22 20 11.5 23.5 23 21 24 20 19.5 17.5 21 19 21 28 24.5 24 24.5 22 22.5 20 20 21 22.5 21 22 22 20.5 22.5 24 21 21 20 23 21 26.5 22 22 23 22 22 24 24 22 22 24.5 26

85

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II

62 63 54 55 52.5 56 57 53.5 38 35 39 40 44 41 38 40 42 39 33 35 30 40 40 34 37 38 40 35 36 38 35 37 42 41 33 38 37 33 40 36 32 41 40 36 38 37 37 45 32

30 26 29 24.5 28 28 26.5 25 26 29 28 28 25 26 30 36 29 23 24 26 24 27 26 25 27 27 25 25 27 24 26 31 27 24 26 25 24 26 22 25 28 28 27 29 24.5 31.5 29 23

-

-

27 24 27.5 24 27 26 24 36 26 22 20 21 20 23 22 21 24 22 21 22 23 20 21 26

-

-

-

24 22 23 27 21 24 24.5 21.5 21.5 23.5 20 25 24 19

86

21 22 21 20 24 23 26 23 22 25.5 24.5 19

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III

39 43 43 43 39 42 43 35 37 44 33 34 35 35 35 37 37 37.5 38 50 35 40 41 40 35 57 35 57 65 61 57 67 77 59 66 62 77 66 56 65 54 62

30 30 29 30 27 29 30 24 37 30.5 25 28 26 28 26 26 27 30 29 30 24 26 28 22 24 30 26 -

22 20 19 21 20 21 21 21 21 20 21 22 24 22 25 19 22 21 20 20 19 19

-

26 27 25 26 23 24.5 25 19 21 25.5 20 21 23 24 22 22 23 23 23 24 22 23.5 25 19 21 24 23.5 -

-

-

28 21 20 24 23 20 22 20 25 22 23 22 22 29 25 23 21 26 23 21 21 22 23

24.5 25 23 24 20.5 22.5 24 19.5 21 24 18.5 20 21 22 21 20 22 22.5 22 25 19.5 19.5 22 18 20.5 25 21 -

87

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV XIV XIV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III

55 65 66 68 68 66 63 61 53 65 72 62 73 68 65 56 50 56 54 70 66 60 68 58 62 69 -72 76 64 60 67 54 56 91 87 59 53 50 70 56 58 58 60 64 66 70 58 68 79

-

19 20 21 22 20 20 22 21 19 20 25 20 29 22 22 19 18 18 18 20 20 18 22 19 19 20 21 20 25 21 21 21 23 19 19.5 24 27 18.5 18.5 17.5 26 19.5 20 17 19 19 20 22 20.5 19.5 24

-

25 20.5 21 30 32 21 19 19 26 20 22 23 19.5 23 23.5 25 22 22.5 26

-

-

20 23 23 24 22 23 24 20 19 23 26 22 27 25 24 20 19 20 18 23 21 20 25 21 22 23 26 23 27 23 23 22 -

-

88

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III femur femur femur femur femur femur femur humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

70 56.5

30 76 102 -

22 20 25 19.5 21 19 19.5 22 22 19.5 56 40 46 46 43.5 45 -

-

23.5 21 28 22 23 23 19 20 26.5 20 24 77 89 88 75 84 89 69 83 72 67 80 68 67 74 69 58 75 72 50 57 60 58 60 63 65 57 62 52

74 65 68 65 68 65 64 60 60 72 66 67 72 65 65 -

-

-

25 -

61 65 66.5 61 61 78.5 65 38 -

89

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus

-

-

-

-

49 51 56 52 65 53 58 62 50 54 55 49 50 59 51 55 47 52 58 55 60 53 52 50 49 52 52 63 63 51 52 53.5 59 62 52 52.5 61 50 53 51 51 49 50 -

-

-

-

-

58 51 46 60 50 60 49 53 90

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus

-

50 50 49 52 56 53 57 54 50 62 59 59 51 60 55 56 59 53 56 51 57 62 51 50 57 59 57 57 50 59 57 47 49 53 47 46 46 52 50 52 50 48 52 51 53 48 51 56 50 51 51

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

91

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

-

53 50 48 60.5 51.5 50 50.5 53 50.5 55 51 58 57.2 49 52 50 51 -

-

-

49 53 52 55 50 54 49 45 51 51 54 48 47 45 50 52 59 55 47 58 50 54 58 48 49 48 50 52 49 47 45 51 56 59

-

-

-

-

92

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus

-

-

-

-

54 56 46 48 56 51 45 54 49 59 57 48 48 46 51 50 52 51 56 52 50 46 48 49 48 52 59 60 52.5 52 56.5 50 50 48 48 58 50.5 59 53 -

-

-

-

-

48 43 41 46 41 49 52 39 52 40 40 42 93

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus

-

40 40 46 41 45 39 44 48 41 42 47 45 42 51 43.5 40 40 53 41 46 47 44 42 43 39 43 38 43 44 42 47 43 40 44 42 45 44 45 41 45 47 44 41 44 45 44 49 42 43 39 40

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

94

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus

-

40 45 43 44 42 43 40 40 40 46 41 41 40 44 44.5 42 44 43 47 46 43 51 43.5 47 47.5 38.5 38 43 41.5 46 51 40 41 47 52 52 50 52.5 60 43 40 42 41 43 41 44 46 42 47 40.5 43

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

95

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

metatarsus metatarsus radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia

260 -

46 54 76 76 65 70 79 73 73 68 64 60 65 76 84 76 70 68 67 61 72 71 65 75 70 70 75 75 71 69 68 86 72.5 78 79 73.5 68 -

75 68 65 60 67 62 63 69 68 64 78.5 67.5 71.5 68 61.5 -

36 36 -

68 79 65 65 65 69 56 59 52 63 49 60

70 60 58 67 54 53 ?47 52 41 52

-

-

-

-

37.5 -

96

-

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus

68 61.5 59 59.5 63.5 58 56 58 62 61 62 60 64 61 61.5 65 57

85 -

85 40 36 48 44 44 43 43 44 43 44 44 46 42 43 45 45 40 40 38 43 40 47 40 42 40 47 45 46.5 -

-

56 57 52 46 51.5 63 44 38 38 38 41 37 35 36.5 43 39 39 39 40 38 41 43 35

47 40 41 49.5 54 -

-

-

-

97

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

66 60 62 67 69 62 63.5 64 61 61 73 65 114 123 127 117 132 64 64 58 79 77.5 64.5 55 54.5 53 57 66 56

33 29 31 26 33 32 36 26 25.5 29 26 31 27

33 36 42 36 47.5 47.5 45 45 46 44 44 45 43 43 47 42.5 -

-

42 39 42 44 47 42 39 44 39 39 46 43 28.5 30 24 32.5 33 31.5 24 24 27 24.5 29.5 26

-

-

40 52 43 44 47 60 58 62 50 48 -

25.5 28 21 30 31 31 22.5 21 22 23.5 25 25

98

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II

58 57 57 58.5 59 62.5 60 77 54 60 58 65 59 57 58 58 57 55 54 59 62 61 56 60 55 57 54 58 61 62 53 58 57 61 60 61 75 57 60 54 34.5 37 53 46 42 41 39 43 38.5 40 38

29 28 26 27 28 28 26 33 27 34 29.5 37 27 28 28 29 28 28 24 24 34 31 26 29 26 24 27 32 30 31 27 26 27 27 26 32 30 27 32 34 25 26 34 35 28.5 29 28 28 27.5 26 33

-

-

27 26 25 26 27 27 25 34 25 31 29 35 25 25 27 26 26 25 23 23 30 31 26 25 25 22.5 24 29 29.5 33 26 26 26 23 25 31 31 26 30 28 23 23 27 29.5 25 25 24 22 22 22.5 29

-

-

-

24.5 23.5 22.5 23 23 23.5 22.5 32 23 28 25 32 22.5 24 25 25 25 24 21 21 28 26 23 26 24 21 22 27 27 28 22 22 24 20.5 22 26 27 24 27 27.5 19.5 20 26 29 23 22.5 22 21 21 20 -

99

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III femur femur femur femur humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus

40 41 44 38 43 42 39 46 59 63 54 76 75 325? -

27 26 30 28 32 29 27 32 21 48 54 54 53 59 65 52

19

-

21 22 24 21 27 22 22 25 19 21 24 19 28 23 112

83 66 65 66 71 78 67 68 62 78 70 78 -

79 71 73 72 73 66 73 80 -

-

21 20 23 20 24 22 22 24 -

100

22 19 23 19 80 65 43 -

89 93 71 67 56 89 73 73 75 69 81 75 72 72 87 66 54 54 67 53 50 57 60 68 -

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius

-

52 52 51 53 52 53 46.5 43 42 41 50 37 42 50.5 47 49 57 54 51 45 89 70 65 90 83? 72.5 73 86 78 65 91 63 76 77

67 79.5 64 60 85 76 66 67 79 69 60 83 60 69 69.5

37 32 47 41 39 40 43 40 37 46 35 41 39

49.5 53 54.5 65.5 57 65 63 86 67 66 69 67 64 62 81 61 -

39 -

35 48 44 56 40 43 42 40 38 39 47 -

-

-

101

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus

268 320? 275? 255 292 61 61 50 57 58 58 62 59 56 51 48 65

78 88 106 72 72 87 81 96? 81? 89 -

70 61 56 87 83 98 66 66 80 73 108 -

39.5 37 35 47.5 47 55 37 34 46 37 41 88 103 -

64 78 75 65 71 58 58.5 56 56 55 54 48.5 50.5 62 52 54 58 58 51 54 58 56 64 59 55 58 61 42 -

52 49 46 50.5 48 47 44 44.5 55 47 47 50 50 -

39 39 47 44 47 39 41 39 40 45 38 39 43 45 40 41 45 41 47 45 43 42 46 -

-

36 47 46 39 38 -

102

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus

55 66 66 50 58 64 57 61 57 59 64 58 57 56 61 60 57 55 70 59 62 62 61 59 59 60 62 64 67 59 57 64 56 65 122 124 132 124 119

-

-

-

42 35 41 39 38 40 43 37 38 35 38 38 36 37 46 40 39 43 43 38 34 33 39 45 35 42 45 38 45 -

-

-

51 48 50 49 50 50 44 51 39 52 49 48 48 49 56 41

-

103

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus centrotarsus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

52 53 58 58 57 56 57 52 58 55 60 56 51 59 58 54 56 51 55 57 60 60 54 52 54

35 26 28 28 25 26 26 30 26 25 28 31 26 27 27 31 23 25 25 27 25 26 26 25 26 25 29 29 28 29 26 25 28

-

-

31 28 26 21 27 24 26 32 23 24 27 24 25 24 29 23 26 24 25 24 25 25 24 24 25 25 27 27 27 25 25 22 24

-

-

47 48 47 48 55 49 53 -

30 27 23 21 23 22 22 20.5 23 25 22 22 21 25 20 22 21 21 21 23 20 21 22 22 23 25 25 24 22 21 23

104

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

57 59 50 58 60 57 54 52 62 51 59 55 60 58 58 58 57 55 55 60 58 55 57 59 56 56 59 61 59 59 56 59 64 57 57 65 54 56 54 57 55 53 58 55 61 55 58 57 58 56

30 28 26 27 29 24 25 25 32 27 30 26 26 28 27 25 27 26 30 28 29 28 27 26 24 31 23 31 27 26 25 27 32 27 26 32 27 30 27 28 27 27 26 27 25 28 30 28 24

-

-

30 27 23 27 29 23 24 24 29 25 28 24 25 26 24 25 25 23 26 27 28 25 27 25 22 26 24 29 25 26 24 26 29 25 25 30 24 28 24 27 24 26 24 25 24 27 24 30 26 27 23

-

-

-

25 24 22 24 25 20 21 23 27 23 25 21 22 22 20 21 23 21 22 23 23 23 23 21 20 24 21 24 22 23 21 22 25 22 22 25 22 25 22 24 21 22 21 22 20 24 23 25 24 25 21

105

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I

54 58 55 57 54 56 56 66 58 55 67 56 54 61 62 56 57 54 55 50 56 54 57 55 50 61 57 58 55 53 57 62 57 54 59 58 60 53 60 57 56 52 52 56 60 60 53 54 53 58 60

29 28 24 27 25 24 25 30 28 26 31 26 23 28 30 27 26 26 25 26 25 27 27 27 25 30 27 25 25 23 25 27 33 27 28 28 27 27 27 32 29 28 32 27 26 24 27 29 29

-

-

28 27 22 27 25 23 25 28 25

-

-

-

25 25 20 25 23 21 22 23 23 25 23 20 23 25 23 22 21 19 20 22 23 22 26 24 22 21 20 20 23 23 20 24 27 22 22 23 23 24 23 26 24 23 26 21 20 21 22 23 26

106

30 24 23 27 30 25 24 24 23 24 24 25 26 23 28 25 23 23 22 26 27 22 24 28 25 26 25 24 26 25 27 25 24 30 24 27 21 28 25 33

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II

58 55 59 55 53 62 65 57 62 60 59 53 52 51 57 59 52 51 52 54 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 58 59 62 38 38 36 38 39 39 42 42 40 38 39 40 37 34 39 42

29 27 29 29 26 28 35 35 35 33 30 33 28 26 25 26 23 25 25 28 25 26 26 25 24 24 31.5 28 27 33 28 29 28 29 26 25 24 26 33 30 28 28 28 26 25 25 23 29

-

-

28 28 27 25 25 27 36 28 35 30 30 33 24 26 23 24 23 24 24 26 22.5 23.5 23.5 24 23 22 31 28 26 30 18 20 24 21 20 22 21 21 29 26 22 24

-

-

-

25 23 23 24 23 23 28 25 35 28 28 27 22 23 20 22 21 22.5 21 22 21 21 21.5 22.5 20 19.5 27 23 23.5 27 22 21 23 19 20 20 18 20 26 24 21 20 21 21 20 20 20 23

107

22 21 22 21 24

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II

42 45 37 38 38 45 42 40 40 42 38 37 39 37 41 43 45 41 38 37 38 39 39 42 38 40 38 35 38 48 40 38 39 38 37 39 33 44 40 38 40 35 39 41 43 37 37 37 38 34 36

30 30 25 25 24 30 29 28 27 27 23 24 27 24 27 32 34 27 26 26 27 27 27 28 25 26 23 26 34 28 27 28 25 26 27 28 31 28 24 29 24 24 27 30 27 27 27 26 25 30

-

-

24 23 20 24 22 22 29 30

-

-

-

22 22 20 21 19 21 28 26 21 19 20 21 21 22 24 19 20 17 21 27 21 20 22 21 20 23 25 26 22 21 21 19 20 20 25 22 19 20 20 19 22

108

20 21 22 21 23 25 21 20 18 24 30 23 23 26 23 21 23 25 27 23 21 21 19 21 26 30 24 26 26 23 21 23

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III humerus humerus humerus

37 37 37 37.5 38.5 44 64 54 51 64 61 59 58 58 78 55 60 62 65 59 58 52 67 53 55 70 73 63 53 61 63 64 61 -

24 25 25 25 24.5 29 -

21 21 21 20 20 19 21 19 20 19 18 21 19 19 23 19 19 18 20 22 19 20 18 24 19 19 18 20 19 18 19 21 18 20 22 20 20 19 20 21 25 19 -

-

21 23 21 21 21 25 21.5 67 68 87

58 64 78

-

21 24 21 22 20 24 20 23 19 22 21 19 18 22 24 21 20 18 26 19 22 20 23 19 17 18 25 20 20 27 24 22 21 23 22.5 26 -

19 21 19.5 20 20.5 23 65 -

109

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus

-

-

-

-

81 66 75 68 72 82 70 54 53 55 57 58 53 51 54 53 64 52 64 55 53 57 54 56 62 53 52 55 55 57 52.5 55 -

75 63 72 63 65 72 64 -

-

-

69 -

51 59 55 51 48 49 52 60 51 43 49 50 49 51 59 59 48 52 45 110

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus

-

52 53 55 49 53 55 50 54 60 50 49 50 49 (54) (54) 49 38 44 46 44 41 40 38 44 51 49 43 41 46

-

-

52 48 53 49 49 55 47 56 46 54 48 49 46 47 60 46 48 52 61 52 48 49 -

-

-

-

-

111

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia

-

40 42 41 48 37 41 40 39 45 49 42 43 (38) 72 71 86 70 78 70 75 72 81 65 71 68 -

68 64 80 65 44 64 65 -

37 34 30 30 34 45 42 37 -

65 70 56 76 62 63 60 72 59 56 51 58 -

59 63 50 67 56 60 55 47 44 55 -

37 38 35 45 45 45 42 38

-

-

112

43 39 43 42 40

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GL

Bp

BFp

Dp

Bd

BFd

Dd

GB

SD

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI XIV_XVI

tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna astragalus astragalus phalanx I phalanx II humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus radius radius radius radius tibia tibia

64 58 55 40 -

86 26 31 58 44 42 39 70 72 73 82 -

83 45 40 42 41 43 47 43 37 43 39 37 41 39 42 38 41 64 67 72 -

75 -

58 53 51 64 54 42 37 25 31 75 55 52 59 75 55 55

44 49 47 42 53 45 40 -

-

22 -

-

113

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Unfragmented metapodials: metrical data, estimation of sex (mal – M; female – F; castrated mal – C), and withers height. Period Anatomic Settlement (centuries) element Baia XIV metacarpus Baia XIV metacarpus Baia XIV metacarpus Baia XIV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metacarpus Baia XV metacarpus Baia XV metacarpus Baia XV metacarpus Baia XV metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus

GL (1) 170 174 186 198 172 174 175 175 176 176 182 183 184 185 186 187 193 198 207 175 179 188 190 170 175 180 180 190 192 205 179 194 185 177 187 170 185 197 190 187 193 198 188 182 178 181 186

Bp (2) 52 50 53 60 48 47 47 53 47 52 49 51 49 51 52 50 52 56 60 50 49 52 53 46 49 59 52 51 62 61 51 51 50 49 50 47 51 54 51 50 58 63 50 52 46 52 49

Bd (3) 56 48 53 61 48 47 48 52 48 54 48 53 49 52 53 51 52 55 61 52 51 56 49 51 59 50 53 62 63 54 54 52 50 53 55 53 51 60 63 52 54 47 53 51

114

SD (4) 32 25 29 34 26 25 25 30 26 28 27 29 29 29 27 26 28 29 37 27 27 31 29 27 27 33 27 30 32 36 31 30 32 26 29 24 28 30 27 27 35 36 28 30 26 27 26

2x100 /1 30.59 28.74 28.49 30.3 27.91 27.01 26.86 30.29 26.7 29.55 26.92 27.87 26.63 27.57 27.96 26.74 26.94 28.28 28.99 28.57 27.37 27.66 27.89 27.06 28 32.78 28.89 26.84 32.29 29.76 28.49 26.29 27.03 27.68 26.74 27.65 27.57 27.41 26.84 26.74 30.05 31.82 26.6 28.57 25.84 28.73 26.34

3x100 /1 32.94 27.59 28.49 30.81 27.91 27.01 27.43 29.71 27.27 30.68 26.37 28.96 26.63 28.11 28.49 27.27 26.94 27.78 29.47 29.71 28.49 29.79 ##### 28.82 29.14 32.78 27.78 27.89 32.29 30.73 30.17 27.84 ##### ##### 27.81 29.41 28.65 27.92 27.89 27.27 31.09 31.82 27.66 29.67 26.4 29.28 27.42

4x100 /1 18.82 14.37 15.59 17.17 15.12 14.37 14.29 17.14 14.77 15.91 14.84 15.85 15.76 15.68 14.52 13.9 14.51 14.65 17.87 15.43 15.08 16.49 15.26 15.88 15.43 18.33 15 15.79 16.67 17.56 17.32 15.46 17.3 14.69 15.51 14.12 15.14 15.23 14.21 14.44 18.13 18.18 14.89 16.48 14.61 14.92 13.98

Sex M? F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F M? F F F?C C F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

withers height 1062.5 1044 1116 1188 1032 1044 1050 1050 1056 1056 1092 1098 1104 1110 1116 1122 1158 1188 1242 1050 1074 1128 1140 1020 1050 1125 1080 1140 1171.2 1254.6 1074 1164 1110 1062 1122 1020 1110 1182 1140 1122 1158 1188 1128 1092 1068 1086 1116

APPENDICES Period Anatomic Settlement (centuries) element Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XVII metacarpus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XIV-XV metatarsus Baia XV metatarsus Baia XV metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus

GL (1) 181.5 190 179 184 172 176 187 194 184.5 182 192 186.5 196 184 170 204 208 211 212 213 213 214 214 217 218 204 206 194 200 206 206 206 206 207 208 209 215 217 218 220 220 225 227 228 217 194 207 211 206 216 213

Bp (2) 49 56.5 47 50 48 50 54 61.5 48 50.5 52.5 54.5 58.5 51.5 47 45 42 48 48 45 44 49 43 41 42 43 43 39 43 43 40 40 48 51 42 43 45 42 43 50 43 49 46 47 42 41 40 48 42 48

Bd (3) 51 58.5 51 49 48 50 59 64 50.5 50.5 51 56 61.5 49.5 49 49 48 54 57 49 52 61 49 49 48 49 48 46 48 50 48 45 49 50 51 49 49 58 55 52 52 50 48 45 50 53 49 51 115

SD (4) 27.5 33 28 27 27 27 33 36 25 28 28.5 29 33.5 26.5 27 23 27.5 28 24 26 26 26 25 25 23 24 23 24 26 23 24 27 28 22.5 23 25 24 23 29 25 31 27 24 26 24 23 25 27 23 29

2x100 /1 27 29.74 26.26 27.17 27.91 28.41 28.88 31.7 26.01 27.74 27.34 29.22 29.84 27.98 27.65 22.06 20.19 22.75 22.64 21.13 20.66 22.9 20.09 18.89 19.27 21.08 20.87 20.1 21.5 20.87 19.42 19.42 23.3 24.64 20.19 20.57 20.93 19.35 19.72 22.73 19.55 21.78 20.26 20.61 19.35 21.13 19.32 ##### 23.3 19.44 22.54

3x100 /1 28.1 30.79 28.49 26.63 27.91 28.41 31.55 32.98 27.37 27.74 28.02 30.02 31.37 26.9 28.82 24.02 23.08 25.59 26.89 23 24.41 28.5 22.9 22.58 22.02 24.02 23.3 23.71 24 24.27 23.3 21.84 ##### ##### 23.56 23.92 23.72 22.58 22.48 26.36 ##### 24.44 22.91 22.81 23.04 24.74 21.74 23.7 25.73 22.69 23.94

4x100 /1 15.15 17.37 15.64 14.67 15.7 15.34 17.65 18.55 13.55 15.38 14.84 15.54 18.62 14.4 15.88 11.27 #### 13.03 13.21 11.27 12.21 12.15 12.15 11.52 11.47 11.27 11.65 11.86 12 12.62 11.17 11.65 13.11 13.53 10.82 11 11.63 11.06 10.55 13.18 11.36 13.78 11.89 10.53 11.98 12.37 11.11 11.85 13.11 10.65 13.62

Sex F C F F F F C M F F F F C F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F M?C F M?C F F F F F F F F F

withers height 1089 1162.8 1074 1104 1032 1056 1144.4 1212.5 1107 1092 1152 1119 1199.5 1104 1020 1091.4 1112.8 1128.9 1134.2 1139.6 1139.6 1144.9 1144.9 1161 1166.3 1091.4 1102.1 1037.9 1070 1102.1 1102.1 1102.1 1102.1 1107.5 1112.8 1118.2 1150.3 1161 1166.3 1210 1177 1237.5 1214.5 1219.8 1161 1037.9 1107.5 1128.9 1102.1 1155.6 1139.6

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Period Anatomic Settlement (centuries) element Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Baia XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metacarpus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus

GL (1) 230 225 202 224 214 202 212 217 217.5 211 223 215 204 209 203 224 215 211 217.5 202 207 227 223 227 207 219 183 193 207 183 187.5 186 191 199 205 187 184 187.5 193 198 189 188 189 182 211 224 218.5 213 207 228 213

Bp (2) 50 50 46 41 42 40 44 46 46 43 46 52.5 40.5 40 39 52 42.5 45 43.5 42 38 42 46 52 39 44.5 54 53 57 62 55 53 65 65 60 57 54 51 54 58 63 53 45 41 52 42 51 41? 55 44.5

Bd (3) 53 60 53 50 47 46 52 54 51 49 55 56.5 49 46 45 57 47.5 54 50 49 46 49 53.5 58 45.5 48 53 54 57 65.5 57.5 51 64.5 69 59 61 56 53 54 61 65 51 54 49 48 59 47 59 48 63 50 116

SD (4) 28 28 27 25 22 23 25 28 26 24.5 27 28 25.5 21 21 33 26 28 24.5 23 22 23 27 26 24 24 23 32 29 37 29 28 38 37 32 31 29 30 32 35 42 28 30 28 24 31 24.5 29 24 31 24.5

2x100 /1 21.74 22.22 22.77 18.3 19.63 19.8 20.75 21.2 21.15 20.38 20.63 24.42 19.85 19.14 19.21 23.21 19.77 21.33 20 20.79 18.35 18.5 20.62 22.9 18.84 20.31 29.51 27.46 27.54 33.88 29.33 28.49 34.03 32.66 29.27 30.48 29.35 27.2 27.98 29.29 33.33 28.04 24.73 19.43 23.21 19.22 23.94 19.81 24.12 20.89

3x100 /1 23.04 26.67 26.24 22.32 21.96 22.77 24.53 24.88 23.45 23.22 24.66 26.28 24.02 22.01 22.17 25.45 22.09 25.59 22.98 24.25 22.22 21.58 23.99 25.55 21.98 21.91 28.96 27.98 27.54 35.79 30.67 27.42 33.77 34.67 28.78 32.62 30.43 28.27 27.98 30.81 34.39 27.13 28.57 26.92 22.75 26.34 21.51 27.7 23.19 27.63 23.47

4x100 /1 12.17 12.44 13.37 11.16 10.28 11.39 11.79 12.9 11.95 11.61 12.11 13.02 12.5 10.05 10.34 14.73 12.09 13.27 11.26 11.38 10.62 10.13 11.1 11.45 11.59 10.95 12.57 16.58 14.01 20.22 15.47 15.05 19.9 18.59 15.61 16.58 15.76 16 16.58 17.68 22.22 14.89 15.87 15.38 11.37 13.84 11.21 13.62 11.59 13.6 11.5

Sex C C F F F F F C F F C M F F F M F C F F F F F C F F F F F M F F M M F F F F F C M F F F F M F M F M F

withers height 1253.5 1226.3 1080.7 1198.4 1144.9 1080.7 1134.2 1182.7 1163.6 1128.9 1215.4 1193.3 1091.4 1118.2 1086.1 1243.2 1150.3 1150 1163.6 1080.7 1107.5 1214.5 1193.1 1237.2 1107.5 1171.7 1098 1158 1242 1143.8 1125 1116 1193.8 1243.8 1230 1122 1104 1125 1158 1211.8 1181.3 1128 1134 1092 1128.9 1243.2 1169 1182.1 1107.5 1265.4 1139.6

APPENDICES Period Anatomic Settlement (centuries) element Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Orheiul V. XIV-XVII metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metacarpus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus

GL (1) 217 208 212 217 196 206 198 216 248 211 228 163 164 165 170 172 172 172 173 175 175 176 176 178 180 181 182 183 183 183 184 185 185 185 186 186 187 190 193 194 196 200 182 181.5 192 195 199 199 202 202 202

Bp (2) 42 43 49 47 38 45 38 42 53 42 48 45 46 51 49 47 48 49 47 48 51 48 55 55 50 55 50 51 51 51 54 50 49 51 53 47 56 56 58 55 57 59 53 42 38 40 41 39 40 36

Bd (3) 46 51 56 52 46 50 46 48 63 48 54 48 50 56 51 49 48 49 49 52 50 56 59 52 50 60 51 52 52 53 56 49 50 54 52 51 60 57 61 59 58 64 51 46 41 49 46 45 47 46 117

SD (4) 25 22 25 25 20 23 22.5 23.5 30 24 26 27 26 29 27 27 27 27 26 27 27 26 29.5 31 27 26 32 25 28 29 30 30 26 29 29 29 27 30 32 33 33 32 33 27 23.5 24 22 21 23 25 23

2x100 /1 19.35 20.67 23.11 21.66 19.39 21.84 19.19 19.44 21.37 19.91 21.05 27.61 28.05 30.91 28.82 27.33 27.91 28.49 27.17 27.43 29.14 27.27 31.25 30.9 27.78 ##### 30.22 27.32 27.87 27.87 27.72 29.19 27.03 26.49 27.42 28.49 25.13 29.47 29.02 29.9 28.06 28.5 32.42 29.2 21.88 19.49 20.1 20.6 19.31 19.8 17.82

3x100 /1 21.2 24.52 26.42 23.96 23.47 24.27 23.23 22.22 25.4 22.75 23.68 29.45 30.49 33.94 30 28.49 27.91 28.49 28.32 29.71 28.57 ##### 31.82 33.15 28.89 27.62 32.97 27.87 28.42 28.42 28.8 30.27 26.49 27.03 29.03 27.96 27.27 31.58 29.53 31.44 30.1 29 35.16 28.1 23.96 21.03 24.62 23.12 22.28 23.27 22.77

4x100 /1 11.52 10.58 11.79 11.52 10.2 11.17 11.36 10.88 12.1 11.37 11.4 16.56 15.85 17.58 15.88 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.03 15.43 15.43 14.77 16.76 17.42 15 14.36 17.58 13.66 15.3 15.85 16.3 16.22 14.05 15.68 15.59 15.59 14.44 15.79 16.58 17.01 16.84 16 18.13 14.88 12.24 12.31 11.06 10.55 11.39 12.38 11.39

Sex F F C F F F F F C F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F M F F F F F F F F

withers height 1161 1112.8 1155.4 1161 1048.6 1102.1 1059.3 1155.6 1351.6 1128.9 1219.8 978 984 990 1020 1032 1032 1032 1038 1050 1050 1056 1056 1068 1080 1086 1092 1098 1098 1098 1104 1110 1110 1110 1116 1116 1122 1140 1158 1164 1176 1200 1137.5 1089 1027.2 1043.3 1064.7 1064.7 1080.7 1080.7 1080.7

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Period Anatomic Settlement (centuries) element Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Siret XIV-XVI metatarsus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metacarpus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metatarsus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metatarsus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metatarsus Tg. Trotus XIV-XVI metatarsus

GL (1) 204 206 206 209 209 209 210 212 213 215 216 217 218 220 220 220 228 223 207 195 178 179 180 182 190 191 193 199 204 208 216 218

Bp (2) 34 47 49 48 40 44 44 42 41 41 46 49 45 48 40 50 48 44 40 37 48 52 54 50 53 52 53 59 42 45 45 43

Bd (3) 46 55 55 59 45 49 49 51 42 48 53 55 56 55 50 57 57 55 42 50 55 54 50 53 54 55 60 49 54 49 51

SD (4) 22 25 27 28 22 25 27 23 24 23 24 27 28 27 25 28 29 24.5 22 21.5 27 29 30 28 30 29 27 34 23 25 24 24

2x100 /1 16.67 22.82 23.79 22.97 19.14 21.05 20.95 19.81 19.25 19.07 21.3 22.58 20.64 21.82 18.18 22.73 21.05 19.73 19.32 18.97 26.97 29.05 30 27.47 27.89 27.23 27.46 29.65 20.59 21.63 20.83 19.72

3x100 /1 22.55 26.7 26.7 28.23 21.53 23.44 23.33 24.06 19.72 22.33 24.54 25.35 25.69 25 22.73 25.91 25 24.66 20.29 28.09 30.73 30 27.47 27.89 28.27 28.5 30.15 24.02 25.96 22.69 23.39

4x100 /1 10.78 12.14 13.11 13.4 10.53 11.96 12.86 10.85 11.27 10.7 11.11 12.44 12.84 12.27 11.36 12.73 12.72 10.99 10.63 11.03 15.17 16.2 16.67 15.38 15.79 15.18 13.99 17.09 11.27 12.02 11.11 11.01

Sex F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

withers height 1091.4 1102.1 1102.1 1118.2 1118.2 1118.2 1123.5 1134.2 1139.6 1150.3 1155.6 1161 1166.3 1177 1177 1177 1219.8 1193.1 1107.5 1043.3 1068 1074 1080 1092 1140 1146 1158 1194 1091.4 1112.8 1155.6 1166.3

Horncores: 1 – greatest length; 2 – basal circumference; 3 – greatest diameter of the horncore base; 4 – smallest diameter of the horncore base; 5 – flattening index. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII

1 98 108 110 110 120 120 120 130 135 143.5 145 145

2 128 100 102 127 127 140 153 129 110 115 118

3 39 40 32 35 41 35 43 49 41 48.5 42 35

4 35 30 22 29 36 30 36 45 34 36 35 31

5 89.74 75 68.75 82.85 87.8 85.71 83.72 91.83 82.92 74.22 83.33 96.87

APPENDICES

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 150 150 130 133 160 210 60 75 82 90 90 90 90 98 99 100 105 110 110 115 120 120 125 125

2 128 135 110 112 115 120 123 124 125 127 128 129 130 133 139 139 141 142 143 167 205 140 129 140 180 125 128 157 165 170 181 110 110 115 115 120 104 95 110 110 121 125 135 105 120 119

3 43 48 37 41 45 42 42 46 58 43 46 43 43 48 38 45 48 49 57 57 72 41 45 47 44 45 58 41 41 53 53 57 58 39 41 42 38 38 40 40 37 37 34 35 39 41 43 48 47 34 40

4 35 37 30 33 39 37 35 38 45 35 34 34 35 37 31 40 38 43 35 50 61 35 38 33 41 51 36 37 43 47 43 48 30 32 35 31 30 31 35 31 28 28 32 37 34 36 35 35 29 34

5 81.39 77.08 81.08 80.48 86.66 88.09 83.33 82.6 77.58 81.39 73.91 79.06 81.39 77.08 81.57 88.88 79.16 87.75 61.4 87.71 84.72 85.36 80.85 75 91.11 87.93 87.8 90.24 81.13 88.67 75.43 82.75 76.92 78.04 83.33 81.57 78.94 77.5 87.5 83.78 75.67 82.35 91.42 94.87 82.92 83.72 72.91 74.46 85.29 85

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 125 130 135 135 135 138 140 140 145 147 150 150 150 153 160 160 -

2 123 125 120 140 160 130 130 140 115 151 120 140 150 120 130 130 110 110 115 115 120 120 120 120 120 121 125 125 125 125 125 126 130 131 135 135 138 140 140 140 140 140 140 143 150 152 155 155 160 160 160 120

3 40 42 40 50 54 45 43 48 52 40 47 51 40 45 47 35 38 40 40 38 39 40 43 41 40 43 42 42 42 39 44 43 41 42 47 42 50 45 46 48 48 46 50 52 50 55 52 56 53 57

4 33 36 34 40 42 39 37 39 38 35 41 42 33 39 41 29 32 33 30 33 36 37 34 35 37 37 40 35 35 36 35 38 31 36 34 34 38 41 39 38 37 38 40 41 40 46 43 46 48

5 82.5 85.71 85 80 77.77 86.66 86.04 81.25 73.07 87.5 87.23 82.35 82.5 86.66 87.23 82.85 84.21 82.5 75 86.84 92.3 92.5 79.06 85.36 92.5 86.04 95.23 83.33 83.33 92.3 79.54 88.37 75.6 85.71 72.34 80.95 76 91.11 81.25 79.16 80.43 76 76.92 82 72.72 88.46 76.78 86.79 84.21

APPENDICES

Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 55 65 70 75 77 78 85 87 88 90 90 92 92 95 95 96 96 97 98 98 100 102 102 102 103 105 105 106 106 108 108 108 108 109 110 110 110 110 111 112 112 115

2 161 165 165 175 190 190 190 90 98 110 100 105 115 93 112 119 106 118 108 121 91 120 108 115 100 102 112 107 92 111 120 108 115 144 110 121 108 109 125 110 102 109 116 127 112 97 112 105 121

3 52 59 58 62 67 60 59 55 30 34 35 33 35 37 28 39 35 35 39 35 40 30 41 35 42 34 35 38 37 31 38 40 35 39 48 39 38 37 37 40 46 39 35 36 40 43 39 30 37 36

4 42 52 42 47 52 52 54 43 24 25 31 27 29 31 24 32 27 31 31 30 31 27 31 28 31 29 30 33 31 23 30 34 30 31 43 30 36 27 31 35 30 27 30 32 36 32 28 31 28

5 80.76 88.13 72.41 75.8 77.61 86.66 91.52 78.18 80 73.52 88.57 81.81 82.85 83.78 85.71 82.05 77.14 88.57 79.48 85.71 77.5 80 75.6 80 73.8 85.29 85.71 86.84 83.78 74.19 78.94 85 85.71 79.48 89.58 76.92 94.73 72.97 83.78 87.5 76.92 77.14 83.33 80 83.72 82.05 93.33 83.78 77.77

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 115 118 118 118 119 120 120 120 120 120 124 125 128 128 128 130 130 130 131 132 132 133 133 135 135 135 135 136 136 138 139 140 140 142 145 145 145 148 148 148 150 150 150 153 153 154 155 155 155 157 160

2 122 108 111 102 109 123 130 130 128 118 109 131 165 113 120 130 113 119 124 128 130 112 127 129 132 128 180 137 120 106 122 134 114 120 151 119 120 89 115 178 108 122 131 120 140 165 152 129 122

3 39 35 36 45 32 35 41 41 43 41 40 38 36 42 51 36 40 44 40 42 42 38 45 37 43 48 45 42 62 42 40 35 40 43 38 39 48 39 42 32 38 59 36 41 44 40 45 56 52 42

4 35 30 34 40 31 31 35 36 36 37 34 31 40 48 33 30 37 30 35 34 32 37 32 34 36 37 37 49 37 33 30 31 37 34 33 41 32 31 22 35 49 30 32 37 33 39 47 42 36

5 89.74 85.71 94.44 88.88 96.87 88.57 85.36 87.8 83.72 92.5 89.47 86.11 95.23 94.11 91.66 75 84.09 75 83.33 80.95 84.21 82.22 86.48 79.06 75 82.22 88.09 79.03 88.09 82.5 85.71 77.5 86.04 89.47 84.61 85.41 82.05 73.8 68.75 92.1 83.05 83.33 78.04 84.09 82.5 86.66 83.92 80.76 85.71

APPENDICES

Settlement Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 160 164 174 175 185 220 230 245 -

2 138 178 137 142 205 168 90 92 94 95 99 101 102 102 106 108 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 118 119 120 120 120 120 124 126 127 128 128 128 130 131 132 132 133 133 134 135 135 137 142 142 148 150 123

3 47 59 48 49 71 52 27 31 32 32 33 35 31 33 37 34 32 36 39 38 42 38 39 35 40 41 42 41 39 40 39 42 43 39 45 41 46 45 48 44 44 41 41 44 46 46 47 52 48

4 38 49 39 38 57 50 41 27 27 27 27 27 28 27 30 37 31 27 32 31 31 31 33 29 32 31 34 32 32 35 38 36 35 33 32 37 36 37 37 38 37 40 38 35 38 37 43 41 41 42

5 80.85 83.05 81.25 77.55 80.28 78.84 100 87.09 84.37 84.37 81.81 80 87.09 90.9 100 91.17 84.37 88.88 79.48 81.57 73.8 86.84 74.35 91.42 77.5 82.92 76.19 78.04 89.74 95 92.3 83.33 76.74 82.05 82.22 87.8 80.43 82.22 79.16 84.09 90.9 92.68 85.36 86.36 80.43 93.47 87.23 78.84 87.5

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus Tg.Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

1 -

2 151 155 155 155 158 160 163 168 170 171 178 210 -

3 51 54 52 54 52 58 59 52 58 54 57 70 32

4 43 42 45 43 46 42 43 46 46 50 47 57 -

5 84.31 77.77 86.53 79.62 88.46 72.41 72.88 88.46 79.31 92.59 82.45 81.42 -

Flat bones. Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic Element

GLP

LG

BG

SLC

LA

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

XIV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV

coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula

54 57 58 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 62 62 63 63

46 49 51 51 48 49 48 51 53 48 53 50 51 52 52 52 -

40 42 43 40 44 42 42 44 41 44 45 47 -

40 47 48 45 47 45 48 49 45 48 47 51 52 48

59 58 62 59 56 55 55 55 58 59 62 59 65 60 64 -

124

APPENDICES

Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic Element

GLP

LG

BG

SLC

LA

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula

63 65 65 65 66 66 67 70 76 76 77 51 54 57 58 59 62 63 63 65 66 66 72 62.5 57 59 62 63

52 54 52 56 57 58 63 64 61.5 65 46 54 45 60 57 44 49 49 50 49 52 55 55 53 54 55.5 60 53 59 58.5 55 54 50 50 49 54

43 44 54 48 49 47 55 55 54 60 49 44 45 38 38 39 42 38 42.5 44 45 43 50 42 41 54 48 46 39.5 40 43

47 54 53 59 45 45 48 59 61 58 42 43

62 63 58 -

49 52 52 50 45 62 53 42 44.5 51 51

85 60 89 78 65 -

125

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic Element

GLP

LG

BG

SLC

LA

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula

64 65 65.5 66 66 67 68 77 50 55 59 60 60 60 61 62 64 65 65 65 65 65 69 70 71 49 60 60 66 66 67

52

45 44 43 48 47 47 47 53 43 38 40 42 38 38 45 43 41 50 46 48 42 45 47 48 54 43 42 47 43 47 44 44 40 42 45 -

51 52 48.5 50 52 59 43 42 46 50 51 47 50 53 50 60 51 48 43 51 47 55

51 54 58 52 53 50 62 58 -

126

54 55 56 53 56 59 46 44 47 53 50 51 52 52 53 54 52 57 53 55 56 59 58 59 54 52 55 51 42 53 45 53 53 59

APPENDICES Dentition. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible

LC -

127

LM 83 83 85 79 82 84 83 84 85 81 80 96 86 84.5 81 82

LM3 34 35 37 35 34 34 35 35 38 34 35 40 36.5 41 33 37

BM3 15 14 13 14 17 14 14 13 14 14.5 13 15

80 76 81 81 82 83 85 86 -

34 31.5 34 35.5 35 36 38 36 35 30 34 36 34 32 35 32 35 31 35 34 38 35 35 35 35 35 36 35 36 34 32 34 36

12.5 14.5 15 15 16 16 14 14 -

Wear M3 intensely medium medium medium medium medium medium/intensely intensely medium intensely intensely medium medium slightly medium intensely medium medium medium intensely intensely medium medium medium medium intensely medium medium medium medium medium medium medium medium

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible

LC -

LM -

-

-

128

LM3 33 30 32 36.5 28 35 37 36 40 33 33 34 37 37 34 35 36 33 35 35 35 35 34 36 34 37 35 33 32 37 33 36 35 35 35 28 27 35 34.5 32 32

BM3 12 15 17 15 17 14 15 14 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 15 15 15 16 15 15 16 17 14 15 15 15 16 13 14.5 15 22 20 12.5 13.5 15 13.5

36.5 35 34 {30} 35 37 36 33 34.5 35

14.5 14.5 13 12 13 14 13.5 14.5 13.5 13

Wear M3 slightly unworn medium medium intensely slightly/medium medium intensely medium intensely slightly medium slightly medium intensely slightly intensely medium medium intensely medium medium medium medium medium -

APPENDICES

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible

LC 109 111 118 120 121 121 121 123 123 124 124 125 125 125 127.5 128 128 128 128 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 131 132 132 132 132 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 135 135 136

129

LM 77 72 73 83 77 77 82 81 80 86 77 81 79 81 81 79 82 83 80 84 82 84 78 82 81 82 84 81 83 82 81 85 85 82 82 83 84 86 47 83 87 82 81 51 82 85 85 85

LM3 34 37 28 28 36 34 32 34.5 35 35 35 33.5 33 30 28 36 33 33 35 36 34 34 35 37 35 34 35 37 35 38 35 35 35 34 34 36 34 35 35 35 37 38 37 35 35 33 38 36 35 37 35

BM3 14 17.5 13 14 16 14 15 17 16.5 13 16 15 13 14 15 16 14 15 15 14 14 13 13 13.5 15 13 15 -

Wear M3 unworn medium medium/intensely medium slightly slightly/medium slightly medium medium intensely medium medium medium intensely medium/ intensely medium/ intensely intensely medium medium slightly/medium slightly/medium medium/intesely medium medium medium slightly medium intesely medium unworn medium slightly medium medium

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla

LC 136 136 137 137 138 139 140 141

LM 87 89 82 87 91 88 86 86

LM3 37 37 34 37 41 37 35 33

BM3 14 14 17 12

148 -

91 74 75 80 73 70 78 77 73 74 72 70

40 27 28 31 30 28 32 27 27 26 26 27

21 19 17 17.5 19

80 82 70 72 79 80 66.5 83 -

28.5 28 26 25 29 30 25 29 30 29 27 28 24 26 27 25 30 26 28 25 30 27 28 26 27 29 25 26.5 28 26 28

20 20 18.5 19.5 19 21 18.5 20.5 -

-

130

Wear M3 slightly/medium slightly slightly medium medium/intesely intesely slightly unworn intesely unworn medium medium medium slightly medium medium slightly unworn medium medium intensely unworn unworn slightly medium medium medium medium unworn medium medium medium slightly medium medium intensely intensely

APPENDICES

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla

LC -

131

LM -

LM3 28 28 26 28 27 29 28 28 30 27 25 27 28 25 26 27 27 27 26 26 27 27 28 27 27 27 27 27 29 28 29 27 27 28 27 27 29 27 26 25 25 26 28 25 27 28 27 27 26 27 26

BM3 21 19 22 20 21 23 23 20 22 22 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 22 26 20 21 19 20 21 19 20 21 20 21 22 22 22 19 20 20

Wear M3 medium intensely unworn medium medium slightly slightly medium medium medium medium medium medium medium medium medium medium slightly medium/intensely medium medium medium medium/intensely medium medium slightly medium slightly unworn slightly medium medium medium medium slightly medium/intensely slightly unworn slightly/medium medium medium medium medium medium/intensely slightly medium/intensely medium medium slightly intensely slightly

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XVII

Anatomic element Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible

LC -

LM -

114 116 118 120 121 123 132 132 -

71 69 70 78 73.5 77 80 81 100

132

LM3 27 27 28 27 25 30 29 28 27 28 27 27 29 26 28 25 28 27 29 26 27 27 30 27.5 26.5 28.5 22.5 28 29.5 27 28 27 25 26 27 28 28 29 26 23 23.5 25 28 23.5 25 30 27 29 30 31 4

BM3 21 23 22 21 21 23 21 22 22 19 20 20 21 19 19 18 22 17 20 21 20 22 22.5 20 20 17 24 22 20 20 21 21 21 19.5 21 21 29 20.5 18.5 17 18 17 18 19 18.5

Wear M3 slightly/medium medium medium intensely intensely medium medium medium/intensely medium slightly/medium slightly slightly medium slightly/medium medium medium medium slightly unworn medium medium unworn medium medium medium

APPENDICES

Settlement Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible

LC 111 119 122 129 130 130 131 132 133.5 134 134.5 120 121 122 127 129 -

133

LM 80 89 71 89 81 79 79 81.5 78.5 82 82 81 88 85 86 71 72 70 74.5 69 73 75.5 74 77 77 92 88 81 -

LM3 33 35 30 35 33 34 37 34 33 35 36.5 33 34 38 34 35 31.5 32.5 35 32.5 35 34 35 36 36 38.5 27 27.5 32 26 27 30 29.5 28.5 26 27 24 27 27 28 28 28 38 34 35 35 35 36 34 37

BM3 14 15 15 14 13.5 13 15 15 14 15 15 13 15 16 12.5 14 13 13 15 13.5 15 12 15.5 15.5 14.5 12.5 16.5 22 15 18.5 17 19.5 17.5 22 19 20 20 19 19 19 19.5 19.5 -

Wear M3 medium slightly medium slightly slightly-medium slightly medium slightly medium-intensely medium medium slightly intensely slightly slightly medium medium slightly-medium slightly slightly-medium slightly-medium slightly-medium medium unworn medium medium slightly slightly slightly unworn slightly medium medium slightly slightly-medium slightly-medium slightly slightly-medium slightly medium medium medium medium slightly medium

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla

LC 118 -

LM 82 -

132 126 -

85 74 78 72 81 79 74 73 -

134

LM3 37 34 34 36 34 31 37 28 26 29 28 27 26 29 28 28 24 35 34 35 24 28 26 28 27 27 27 26 28 25 27 28 27 31 26 32 26

BM3 18 15 16 13 18 19 17 21 21 20 20 19 19 20 18 20 21 21 19 18 19

Wear M3 medium medium slightly medium medium medium medium medium unworn medium medium slightly medium medium medium medium

APPENDICES

Appendix 2. Pig (Sus domesticus) – metrical data (in mm). Long and short bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element astragalus calcaneus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx1 femur femur femur humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus3 metacarpus3 metatarsus III metatarsus IV radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia

GL 38 30 50 36 25 26 38 78 78 81 88.5 135

Bp 22 16 15 16 15 16 16 15 16.5 36 28 30 29 -

BFp 13 25 -

Dp -

Bd 21.5 16 13 14 14 40 43 39 42 33 45 41 36 39 40 41 37 37 38 33 34 37 39 38 41.5 38 37 38 41 17 18 10 17 27 28 30 27 31 30

BFd 33 32 27 37 32 30 33 31 33 30 28 30 27 29 30 28 36 31 29 33.5 21 25 22 23

GB -

SD 20 14 13 14 13 12 13 -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna astragalus astragalus ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna femur femur humerus

GL 43 43.5 136

Bp 42 -

BFp 23 22 25 22 21.5 24 21 23 22 23 22 21 21 23 19 20 21 21 21 29 22.5 21 24 20 22 21 21 21 22 -

Dp -

Bd 25 30 29 32 31 29 30 30 30 29 32 38.5 28 30 27.5 29 24 27.5 44 44 42

BFd 22.5 22 22 24.5 33

GB -

SD -

APPENDICES Settlement Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus IV metacarpus IV metacarpus IV metatarsus III radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia astragalus astragalus astragalus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus

GL 81 72 76 81 40 39 44 76 82 75 137

Bp 14.5 14 14.5 14 26 29 31 30 28 29 28 27 28 29 33.5 29.5 -

BFp -

Dp 18 19 22 21 19 18 19 19 21 24 21 -

Bd 41 43 38.5 44 38? 43 38 40 38 40 35 36 41 40 40 38 39 16 15 15 15 29 31 34 31 32 31 29 28 34 33 23 25 25 -

BFd 34 33.5 30 33 30.5 33 29 33 31 31 32 28 33 33 32 31 33 29 -

GB 22 28 27 31 23

SD 12.5 12 12 12 -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element calcaneus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus III radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia

GL 75 27 42 33 52 26 22 28 24 25 28 77 138

Bp 21 18 17 19 16 19 17 15 16 20 62 16 22 25 24 24.5 27 25 29 25 26 (23) 27 -

BFp -

Dp -

32 -

19 17 17 18 17 16 -

Bd 17 14 20 16 13 14 19 36 40 38 38 40 39 40 42 37 40 38 39 33 37 40 40 39 37 18 33 31 28 33 29 32 32

BFd -

GB 27 -

31 27 32 32 29 33 30 31 32 28 31 28 33 30 29 32 30 26 30 24 20 24 23 25

-

SD 14 13 18 13 12 13 16 13.5 -

APPENDICES Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna humerus humerus

GL -

139

Bp 21 22 -

BFp 22 23 19 22 23 21 21 20 20 22 23 21 19 21 23 19 20 30 21 21 18 19 20 19 24 23 23 22 21.5 19 20 22 20 21 21 19 -

Dp -

Bd 30 30 31 30 28 39 40

BFd 22.5 22 22 24 30 33

GB -

SD -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Flat bones. Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GLP

LG

BG

SLC

LA

TA

Ls

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV

coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal mandible mandible mandible scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal mandible mandible mandible mandible mandible scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal coxal

41 37 40 36 39 34 35 35 32 35 35 35.5 35.5 35 39 34 -

33 29 31 29 29 31 31 27.5 30 26 29.5 31 29 29 29 30 29 -

28 28 27 26 24 29 23.5 25 25 22 27 23.5 23 28 28.5 28 24 -

28 24 20 27 24 23 25 27 20 22 25 24 25.5 21.5 22.5 25 25 24 -

34 31 29 31 34 32 3.4 32 30.5 32 28 30 29.5 31 31 30 31 32 32 29 -

30 30 31 31.5 30 28.5 28.5 27 28 28.5 29 28 29.5 29 30 27 26

-

140

48 62 59 61 69 58 61 63 -

APPENDICES Settlement

Period (centuries)

Anatomic element

GLP

LG

BG

SLC

LA

TA

Ls

Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XVI

coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal coxal mandible mandible mandible mandible scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula

34 36 38 32.5 32.5 (33)

26 20 30 28 28 (29)

24 21 27 25 23

23 24 28 23 22 25 26 22.5

35 34 35 32 33 -

29 29 30 30 -

60 55 49 33 -

Dentition. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia

Period (centuries) XIV XIV-XV XIV-XV XV XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla

LC 105 141

LM 64 64 67 65 69 61.5 70 70 65 60 61

LM3 30 30 31 25 32 31 32 36 36 33 30 30 28 33.5 33.5 32 31 33 29 38 37 31 26 30

BM3 15 15 14 13.5 20 16 15 15 15.5 14.5 16 15 14.5 15.5 15 18 14 18 15 16 20 16 16

Wear M3 unworn unworn unworn unworn medium unworn slightly slightly slightly slightly medium medium slightly slightly unworn slightly

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla

LC 113 114 114 118 122 123 126 142

LM 65 61 65 69 67 63 65 62.5 63 60 68 66 61.5 68 66 68 69 67 64 61 61 62 67 67 61 64 65 65 70 -

LM3 30 29 30 30 30 33 32 32.5 29 34 28 32 33 37 32 32 31 32 31 31 35.5 37 33 37 30 35 30 33 33 32 33 29 32 31.5 32 35 34 32 27 27 30 32 33 28 29 32 32.5 34 27.5 33.5 31

BM3 19 18 16.5 16 19 19 18.5 18.5 18 20 18 18 17 17 16.5 15 17 16 15 16.5 16 16 15.5 17 14.5 15 14.5 15.5 17 15 14.5 15 15 16 16 16 16 19 17.5 17 19 19 18 16 19 19 18.5 18 16.5 19 19.5

Wear M3 slightly slightly slightly unworn slightly medium slightly slightly slightly slightly-medium slightly medium slightly slightly medium intensely slightly slightly slightly slightly unworn slightly slightly medium slightly medium slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly-medium slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly-medium slightly slightly

APPENDICES Settlement Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible

LC 92 96 104 109 123 113 104

143

LM 62 56 67 66 62 67 64 59 63 62 71 56 62 72 58 61 62 65 68.5 61 65 68

LM3 27 27 29 30 31 27 33 31 31 31.5 31 30 32 30 31 32 33 31.5 31 32 29 32 35 28 28 28 32 32.5 32 28 31 30 30 31 30 32 31 30 32 36 35

BM3 16.5 16.5 17 18.5 15 15 15 14 14.5 14 15 15 15.5 14 15 15 16 18.5 15 15 14 15 17 17 17 17.5 18 16 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 18 20 17.5 15 17 16

Wear M3 slightly slightly unworn slightly unworn medium slightly slightly slightly slightly slightly unworn medium medium slightly slightly slightly unworn intensely slightly slightly medium medium slightly slightly unworn medium -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Appendix 3. Sheep (Ovis aries) & goat (Capra hircus) – metrical data (in mm). Long and short bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XIV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Species Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries? Ovis aries? Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries

Anatomic element humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus radius radius radius tibia humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus radius radius tibia ulna humerus humerus astragalus phalanx I femur humerus humerus metacarpus tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus tibia tibia tibia humerus metatarsus tibia tibia

GL 134.5 129 125 134 145 149 32 27 145 -

144

Bp 28.5 28 26 30 30 25 26 26 23 24 30 27 12 32.5 38.5 26 25 -

BFp 17 29 26 -

Bd 34 32 31 29.5 29 45 33 29 28.5 28.5 28.5 32 40 20 10 35 30 29 29 31 33 39 40 33 39 29.5 30.5 29.5 34.5 28.5 28

BFd 27 30.5 25 30 27 26 29 27 27 25 31 35 31 32 26 25

GB -

SD 16 15.5 14 16 17 13 7.5 15.5 -

APPENDICES Settlement Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Species Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries

Anatomic element astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus calcaneus ulna ulna phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III humerus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus tibia tibia tibia astragalus calcaneus phalanx II humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus radius radius radius astragalus calcaneus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus

GL 32 28.5 30 32 31 64 40 41 24 30 26 28 21 31 43 41 37 41 -

145

Bp 16 14 11.5 13 28 23.5 23 12 26 28 30 36 14 16 17 23 22 23 23.5 28 27 22 22.5

BFp 20.5 20.5 9.5 -

Bd 15 13 8.5 10 8 38 30 30 33 10 34 26 27 23.5 21 13 14 16 14 35 34 32 -

BFd 21 19 20 20 21 36 27.5 30 28 29 26 32 32 31 37 32 -

GB 21 -

SD 12.5 11 7.5 9 9 11 13 13 12 14 -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Species Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries? Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra

Anatomic element radius radius radius radius radius radius radius radius ulna metacarpus femur humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus patella tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna radius ulna

GL 21 -

Bp 45 33 31 34 37 36 21 44 27 25 31 -

BFp 29 29 32 29 23 19 29 23

Bd 34 31 33 33 31 26 29 30 29 28 29 28 28 -

BFd 30 29 25 24 26 25 25 25 -

GB -

SD 13 17 13 -

Horncores: 1 – greatest length; 2 – basal circumference; 3 – greatest diameter of the horncore base; 4 – smallest diameter of the horncore base. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Siret Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XV XV XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Species Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Capra hircus

Sex female male male ? female male male male male ? male ? female female

146

Type scimitar spiral scimitar scimitar

1 205 160 150

2 110 155 118 104 133 166 143.5 100 89

3 39 60 44 34 48 52 45 48.5 38 32

4 25 35 28 24 35 38.5 30 36 22 22

APPENDICES

Flat bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Species Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Capra hircus ? Ovis aries ? Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra

Anatomic element scapula coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula mandible mandible mandible scapula

GLP 31 33 27 36 35 35 37 32? 35 36 38 38

LG 23 29 25 30 29 27 28 27? 27 30 30 29

BG 23 24 25 22 21 23 22 23 25 24 -

SLC 23 22 24 21 21.5 21 22 23 26 23 20

LA 30 31 32 29 31 -

L condyle 22 23 25 -

Dentition. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Specie Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible 147

LC 82 76 72 80 75 71 74 -

LM 58 52 51 50 54 53.5 52 58 43 39 49 48 -

LM 3 25 23 24 21 24 24 26 24 25 25 25 25 17 21 20 23 22 21 20 24 22

BM3 8 9 9 10 10 9 9 10 13 13 14.5 13.5 14 9 -

Wear M3 medium medium slightly medium medium medium slightly-medium medium intensely intensely slightly slightly slightly neerodat medium medium intensely medium

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Siret Siret Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Specie Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis aries

Anatomic element Maxilla Maxilla Mandible

148

LC 69

LM 47

LM 3 21 18 23

BM3 9

Wear M3 medium medium medium

APPENDICES

Appendix 4. Horse (Equus caballus) – metrical data (in mm). Long and short bones (without unfragmented metapodials and radius - see text, p. 60). Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element astragalus calcaneus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx III femur humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus metatarsus tibia tibia tibia astragalus astragalus calcaneus calcaneus ulna ulna phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III phalanx III phalanx III femur humerus humerus humerus metapodium

GL 62 109 86 87 79 81 49 63.5 58 58 112 111 86 78 83 50 48.5 50 56 64 56 -

Bp 57 52 77 52 54 49 79 59 48 58 55 55 52 54 149

BFp 50 73 41 42 49 51.5 50 -

Bd 63 50 76 50 44 44 74 90 50? 50 49 50 51 50 53 49 50 70 83 68 54 54 47 45 48 51 47.5 47.5 63 90 67 78 75 81 50

BFd 61.5 82 60 58 100 74 71 71 -

GB 60 48 45 -

SD 37 29 39 41 37 34 36 47 13 44 -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Tg. Trotus

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element metapodium radius radius radius tibia tibia calcaneus calcaneus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I metacarpus radius

GL 115 111 82 85 86 -

Bp 75 91 108 52 61 56 -

BFp 83 50 49 -

Bd 53 75 74 45 49 45 54 77

BFd 61 54 62

GB 57 62 -

SD 33 36 35 -

Flat bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XIV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula scapula

GLP 85 89 91 95 99 102 85

LG 58 55 55 58 59 58 -

150

BG 48 48 46 49 49 48 -

SLC 64 63 64 72 64.5

LA 67 63 61 64 67 -

TA 56 63 -

APPENDICES

Appendix 5. Dog (Canis familiaris) – metrical data (in mm). Long and short bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Orheiul V Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element femur humerus humerus humerus metacarpus IV radius radius radius ulna ulna calcaneus calcaneus calcaneus phalanx I femur femur femur femur femur humerus humerus radius radius radius radius radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna ulna humerus ulna

GL 214.5 118 197 197 85 175 194 41 42.5 38 45 195 195 174 180.5 158 189 158 214? 197 198 173 174 -

151

Bp 35 33 33 20 20.5 21 20 40 41 35 38.5 35.5 32 26 19 15.5 19 20 16 37.5 37.5 29 30 35 -

BFp 21 15 15 17.5 17 15 15.5 19 14 14.5 15

Bd 33 34 38 39.5 10 28.5 16 31 34 28 33 28 24.5 25 21 27.5 27 25 25.5 18 18.5 22 -

GB 16 15 15 -

SD 13 14 15 15 8 13.5 15 14 13 14 13 13.5 14 13 14 13 12 14 14 13.5 12 12.5 -

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA

Flat bones. Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Anatomic element coxal coxal coxal coxal scapula scapula scapula scapula coxal coxal coxal scapula

GLP 34.5 34 29 29 26

LG 31 30.5 24 24 22

BG 21 21 18 18 17

SLC 2.5 25 25 21

LA 27 21 25 26 24 25 23

Dentition. Settlement Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI XIV-XVI

Anatomic element Mandible Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla Maxilla Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla Maxilla

LC 79 67 68.5 70 71 83 83 85 65 78 52 -

LM 32 38.5 37.5 37 32 33 41 39 41 33 41 -

152

Lc 13.5 -

GBc 10.5 -

Lcarnassial 24 20 22 23 22 20 21 24 24.5 25 18 20 20 19 25 15 17 15.5

GBcarnassial 9 10 9 9 8 8.5 8 9.5 9 9.5 9 10 9 9

APPENDICES

Appendix 6. Deer – metrical data (in mm). Long and short bones. Settlement

Period (centuries)

Species

Anatomic element

Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus

phalanx III metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus radius radius phalanx III humerus metatarsus radius radius radius astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus astragalus phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx I phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx II phalanx III humerus humerus humerus humerus humerus metacarpus metacarpus metacarpus metatarsus radius radius radius radius radius radius radius

153

GL 62 58 63 57 54 61 63 68 68 62 50 48 51 49 49.5 57 290 272 268 334

Bp 22 23 23 24 22 29 28 24 25.5 25 23 25.5 25 26 24.5 24.5 49.5 45 42 61 64 65 69

BFp 14 20.5 28 27 19 56.5 59 60 63

Dp 25 16 16 32 36 36 36

Bd 22 18 29 25 37.5 41 35 34 36 24.5 24 23 22.5 22 22 23 19.5 21 20 69 63.5 67 60.5 65 54.5 45 43 52 51 53 59 60

BFd 26 -

62.5 53 58 54 55 -

SD 18 20 20 20 18 17.5 19 17 17.5 29 27.5 25 40

ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL APPROACH TO MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA Settlement

Period (centuries)

Species

Anatomic element

Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus

radius radius tibia tibia tibia tibia tibia astragalus phalanx III humerus radius tibia tibia

GL 303 325? 64 55 290 -

Bp 58.5 78 77 56 -

BFp 54 71 20 52.5 -

Dp 32 40 31 -

Bd 53

SLC 17 36.5

58 52 55 52 55 42 18 66 52 83 52

BFd 52 46.5 50 46 85 46

SD 32 35 30 -

Flat bones. Settlement Baia Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Species

Anatomic element scapula coxal coxal scapula

Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Cervus elaphus

GLP 28 56

LG 20 43

BG 20 42

LC 68 66 79 72

LM 40 38 47 38 42

L M3 17 16 20 17 15

LA 30 57 -

TA 26 47 -

Dentition. Settlement Baia Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V. Orheiul V.

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII XIV-XVII

Species Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolus

Anatomic element Mandible Mandible Mandible Mandible Maxilla

154

B M3 9 8 10 8.5 15.5

Wear M3 slightly medium medium intensely medium

APPENDICES

Appendix 7. Hen (Gallus domesticus) – metrical data (in mm). Settlement Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Baia Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret Siret

Period (centuries) XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV XV-XVII XIV-XV XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XV-XVII XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV XIV-XV

Anatomic element femur femur femur femur humerus humerus humerus humerus tarsometatarsus tarsometatarsus tibiotarsus coracoideum coracoideum coracoideum femur femur femur femur humerus humerus humerus radius radius radius tarsometatarsus tarsometatarsus tarsometatarsus tibiotarsus tibiotarsus ulna

155

GL 77 76 62.5 62 70 54 47 70 87 70 55 65 78 58 92 55

Bp 14.5 17 16 19 18 17.5 20 14 19 10 10 16 14 20 15 17 17 6 5 11 13 12 17 6

Bd 16 15 13.5 13 15 15 15 14 20 14 13 6 6 12 14 12.5 12 11 5