Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi 9781407308746, 9781407338576

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BAR S2297 2011 PEACOCK ET AL ARCHAEOLOGY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF PREHISTORIC FRESHWATER MUSSEL SHELL

B A R Peacock et al 2287 cover.indd 1

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Evan Peacock Cliff Jenkins Paul F. Jacobs Joseph Greenleaf

BAR International Series 2297 2011

14/11/2011 14:16:51

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Evan Peacock Cliff Jenkins Paul F. Jacobs Joseph Greenleaf

BAR International Series 2297 2011

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2297 Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi © The authors individually and the Publisher 2011 The authors' moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407308746 paperback ISBN 9781407338576 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407308746 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2011. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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Table of Contents List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. viii Chapters 1. Old Shell and Modern Problems: The Applied Value of Archaeological Freshwater Mussel Remains ................................................................................................................ 1 2. Time, Space and Form in Archaeological Shell Assemblages from Mississippi ............................... 3 Shell Rings in the Delta ............................................................................................................... 5 Previous Investigations of Shell Rings ............................................................................. 6 Analysis of Aerial Images ................................................................................................ 7 Locations ................................................................................................................ 8 Site Structure ................................................................................................................ 9 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 11 3. Methods and Sample Descriptions .................................................................................................. 12 Archaeological Sites Tombigbee Drainage ...................................................................................................... 12 Lee County 22LE504 – Spaulding Dig #2 ............................................................... 12 22LE827 – Trice 1 ................................................................................ 12 Chickasaw County 22CS503 – Bynum Mounds ................................................................. 12 Lowndes County 22LO530 – Shell Bluff ......................................................................... 13 22LO538 – Vaughn Mound Site .......................................................... 13 22LO600 – Tibbee Creek #1 ................................................................ 14 22LO860 – River Cut #1 ...................................................................... 14 Clay County 22CL527 – Kellogg .............................................................................. 14 22CL814 – Yarborough ........................................................................ 14 22CL917 – Sanders .............................................................................. 14 Oktibbeha County 22OK520 – Lyon’s Bluff...................................................................... 14 22OK534 – South Farm........................................................................ 14 22OK578 – Curry ................................................................................. 15 22OK595 – Prissock Site...................................................................... 15 22OK793 – Josey Farm ........................................................................ 15 22OK904 and 22OK905 ....................................................................... 15 22OK912 .............................................................................................. 15 Kemper County 22KE511 – Dudley ............................................................................... 15 Big Black Drainage ........................................................................................................ 15 Hinds County 22HI500 – Pocahontas Mounds............................................................ 15 Yazoo Drainage .............................................................................................................. 15 Tallahatchie County 22TL1131 – Greg Sheely ..................................................................... 15 Leflore County 22LF551 – Gary #2 .............................................................................. 16 22LF649 – Palusha Creek #2 ............................................................... 16 Holmes County 22HO546 – Tchula Lake ...................................................................... 16 22HO557 – Hunting Club .................................................................... 16 22HO565 – French ............................................................................... 16 Quitman County 22QU525 – Shady Grove ..................................................................... 16 22QU1013 – Louise Henry .................................................................. 17 Bolivar County 22BO551 – Acree Place ....................................................................... 17 Sunflower County 22SU501 – Walford.............................................................................. 17 22SU526 – Kinlock .............................................................................. 17 22SU531 – Lake Dawson ..................................................................... 17

i

Coahoma County 22CO503 – Oliver Mounds .................................................................. 17 22CO516 – Wilsford ............................................................................ 17 Humphries County 22HU550 – Townson Lake Landing .................................................... 18 Sharkey County 22SH522 – Little Spanish Fort ............................................................. 18 22SH549 and 22SH551 – Riley and Strom .......................................... 18 Yazoo County 22YZ515 – Milner Place ...................................................................... 18 22YZ557 – Lake George ...................................................................... 18 22YZ624 – O’Neil Creek ..................................................................... 18 Pascagoula Drainage ...................................................................................................... 18 George County 22GE512 – Bilbo Basin ........................................................................ 18 4. Discussion of Species .............................................................................................................. 20 Actinonaias ligamentina ................................................................................................. 20 Amblema plicata ............................................................................................................. 20 Arcidens confragosus ..................................................................................................... 21 Cyprogenia aberti........................................................................................................... 22 Ellipsaria lineolata ......................................................................................................... 22 Elliptio arca.................................................................................................................... 23 Elliptio arctata ............................................................................................................... 24 Elliptio crassidens .......................................................................................................... 24 Elliptio dilatata............................................................................................................... 25 Epioblasma penita .......................................................................................................... 25 Fusconaia cerina ............................................................................................................ 26 Fusconaia ebena............................................................................................................. 27 Fusconaia flava .............................................................................................................. 28 Glebula rotundata .......................................................................................................... 29 Lampsilis cardium .......................................................................................................... 29 Lampsilis hydiana........................................................................................................... 29 Lampsilis ornata ............................................................................................................. 30 Lampsilis ovata............................................................................................................... 31 Lampsilis perovalis......................................................................................................... 31 Lampsilis radiata ............................................................................................................ 32 Lampsilis siliquoidea ...................................................................................................... 32 Lampsilis straminea claibornensis ................................................................................. 32 Lampsilis straminea straminea....................................................................................... 33 Lampsilis teres................................................................................................................ 34 Lasmigona complanata alabamensis.............................................................................. 35 Leptodea fragilis............................................................................................................. 35 Ligumia recta ................................................................................................................. 36 Ligumia subrostrata ....................................................................................................... 36 Medionidus acutissimus.................................................................................................. 37 Megalonaias nervosa ..................................................................................................... 37 Obliquaria reflexa .......................................................................................................... 38 Obovaria jacksoniana .................................................................................................... 39 Obovaria olivaria ........................................................................................................... 39 Obovaria retusa.............................................................................................................. 40 Obovaria subrotunda ..................................................................................................... 40 Obovaria unicolor .......................................................................................................... 40 Plectomerus dombeyanus ............................................................................................... 41 Plethobasus cyphyus....................................................................................................... 41 Pleurobema beadleianum ............................................................................................... 42 Pleurobema cordatum .................................................................................................... 42 Pleurobema decisum ...................................................................................................... 42 Pleurobema marshalli .................................................................................................... 43 Pleurobema perovatum .................................................................................................. 43 Pleurobema rubrum ....................................................................................................... 44 Pleurobema taitianum .................................................................................................... 45 Potamilus alatus ............................................................................................................. 45 ii

Potamilus purpuratus ..................................................................................................... 46 Quadrula apiculata ........................................................................................................ 46 Quadrula asperata ......................................................................................................... 47 Quadrula cylindrical ...................................................................................................... 47 Quadrula metanevra....................................................................................................... 48 Quadrula nobilis............................................................................................................. 49 Quadrula nodulata ......................................................................................................... 49 Quadrula pustulosa ........................................................................................................ 50 Quadrula quadrula ......................................................................................................... 50 Quadrula refulgens......................................................................................................... 51 Quadrula rumphiana complex ....................................................................................... 51 Quadrula stapes ............................................................................................................. 52 Strophitus subvexus ........................................................................................................ 52 Strophitus undulates ....................................................................................................... 53 Toxolasma parvum ......................................................................................................... 53 Toxolasma texasiensis .................................................................................................... 54 Tritogonia verrucosa ...................................................................................................... 55 Truncilla donaciformis ................................................................................................... 55 Truncilla truncate ........................................................................................................... 56 Uniomerus declivis ......................................................................................................... 56 Uniomerus tetralasmus................................................................................................... 57 Villosa lienosa ................................................................................................................ 57 Villosa vibex ................................................................................................................... 58 5. Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................................................. Appendix A: Tables .............................................................................................................................. 62 Appendix B: Range Maps ..................................................................................................................... 69 References Cited ................................................................................................................................. 139

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List of Figures Figure 1. King site (22SU551), Sunflower County ....................................................................................... 7 Figure 2. Brooks site (22HO547), Holmes County ....................................................................................... 8 Figure 3. Shady Grove site (22QU525), Quitman County............................................................................. 8 Figure 4. Confirmed freshwater mussel shell rings in the Mississippi Delta ................................................. 4 Figure 5. Racetrack Landing site (22LF521), Leflore County....................................................................... 9 Figure 6. New Haywood Landing site (22WS562), Washington County ...................................................... 9 Figure 7. Shellwood site (22YZ600), Yazoo County .................................................................................... 9 Figure 8. Light Capp site (22YZ605), Yazoo County ................................................................................. 10 Figure 9. Lester Way Site (22LF501), Leflore County................................................................................ 10 Figure 10. Drainage basins of Mississippi. From Jones et al. (2005:Figure 1). Used with permission of the authors ............................................................................................................... 13 Figure 11. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Actinonaias ligamentina from the Louise Henry site (22QU1013) on the Coldwater River, Quitman County.................................... 20 Figure 12. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Amblema plicata from the surface of Mound B at the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County ...................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 13. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Arcidens confragosus from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................... 21 Figure 14. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Cyprogenia aberti from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................... 22 Figure 15. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Ellipsaria lineolata from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................ 23 Figure 16. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Elliptio arca from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ......................................................... 23-24 Figure 17. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Elliptio crassidens from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ...................................... 24 Figure 18. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Elliptio dilatata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County ................................................................ 25 Figure 19. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Epioblasma penita from an Archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ................................ 25-26 Figure 20. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Fusconaia cerina from an archaeological site on the main stem of the Tombigbee River in Lowndes County; C – exterior, and D – interior right valve from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Note the different shell morphology between the downstream (A and B) and upstream (C and D) ecophenotypes ......................................... 26-27 Figure 21. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Fusconaia ebena from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. ......................................... 27-28 Figure 22. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Fusconaia flava from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................... 28 Figure 23. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Glebula rotundata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County...................................... 29 Figure 24. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of a female; and C – exterior, and D – interior left valve of a male Lampsilis hydiana. Both valves from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County .......................................... 30 Figure 25. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Lampsilis ornata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River, Lowndes County.................................................................. 31 Figure 26. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Lampsilis ovata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County ....................................... 31 Figure 27. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Lampsilis siliquoidea from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County ......................................................... 32 Figure 28. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea claibornensis from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ......................... 33 Figure 29. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of a female; and C – exterior, and D – interior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea straminea from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ........................................... 33-34 Figure 30. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Lampsilis teres from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................. 34 Figure 31. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Lasmigona complanata alabamensis from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ................................. 35

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Figure 32. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Ligumia recta from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................................... 36 Figure 33. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Ligumia subrostrata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an abandoned channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County .................. 36 Figure 34. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Medionidus acutissimus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ................................................ 37 Figure 35. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of subadult Megalonaias nervosa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County....................... 37-38 Figure 36. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Obliquaria reflexa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Breakage along posterior margin is typical for much archaeological shell, and probably represents intentional breakage for removal of the meat ............................................................................ 38-39 Figure 37. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Obovaria jacksoniana from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ................................................ 39 Figure 38. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Obovaria subrotunda from the Greg Sheely site, 22TL1131, on the Tallahatchie River in Tallahatchie County ........................... 40 Figure 39. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Obovaria unicolor from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................... 40-41 Figure 40. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Plectomerus dombeyanus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County .................................... 41 Figure 41. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Plethobasus cyphyus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County .......................................... 42 Figure 42. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Pleurobema beadlieanum from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GR512, on the Pascagoula River in George County ................................. 42 Figure 43. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Pleurobema decisum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ...................................... 43 Figure 44. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Pleurobema perovatum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ................................................ 44 Figure 45. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Pleurobema rubrum from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................ 44-45 Figure 46. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Pleurobema taitianum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ...................................... 45 Figure 47. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Potamilus purpuratus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County .......................................... 46 Figure 48. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Quadrula apiculata from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GE512, on the Pascagoula River in George County .................................. 46-47 Figure 49. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Quadrula asperata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ................................. 47-48 Figure 50. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Quadrula cylindrica from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County .................................... 48 Figure 51. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Quadrula metanevra from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................ 48-49 Figure 52. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Quadrula nodulata from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County ........................................................ 49 Figure 53. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Quadrula pustulosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County .................................... 50 Figure 54. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Quadrula quadrula from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County ........................................................ 51 Figure 55. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Quadrula rumphiana from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ...................................... 51 Figure 56. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Quadrula stapes from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County ...................................... 52 Figure 57. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Strophitus subvexus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ........................................... 52-53 Figure 58. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Strophitus undulatus from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County.............................................. 53 Figure 59. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Toxolasma parvum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ................................................ 54 Figure 60. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Toxolasma texasiensis from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ................................. 54 Figure 61. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Tritogonia [= Quadrula] verrucosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ..................... 55 v

Figure 62. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Truncilla truncata from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County ............................................... 56 Figure 63. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Uniomerus declivus from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County ......................... 56-57 Figure 64. A – exterior, and B – interior left valve of Uniomerus tetralasmus from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Clay County ............................................. 57 Figure 65. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Villosa lienosa from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County .................................................... 57-58 Figure 66. A – exterior, and B – interior right valve of Villosa vibex from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22Ok520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County ............................................................. 58 Appendix A. Tables Table 1. Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5.

Basic descriptive data on freshwater mussel shell rings ........................................................... 62-63 Supplement. ................................................................................................................................... 64 Taxonomic data from Tombigbee drainage basin sites.................................................................. 65 Taxonomic data from Big Black drainage basin sites.................................................................... 66 Taxonomic data from Yazoo drainage basin sites ......................................................................... 67 Taxonomic data from Pascagoula drainage basin sites .................................................................. 68 Appendix B. Archaeological Range Maps

Map A-1. Known mussel-bearing sites in Mississippi ................................................................................ 69 Map A-2. Actinonaias ligamentina .............................................................................................................. 70 Map A-3. Amblema plicata.......................................................................................................................... 71 Map A-4. Arcidens confragosus .................................................................................................................. 72 Map A-5. Cyprogenia aberti ....................................................................................................................... 73 Map A-6. Ellipsaria lineolata...................................................................................................................... 74 Map A-7. Elliptio arca ................................................................................................................................ 75 Map A-8. Elliptio arctata ............................................................................................................................ 76 Map A-9. Elliptio crassidens ....................................................................................................................... 77 Map A-10. Elliptio dilatata ......................................................................................................................... 78 Map A-11. Epioblasma penita ..................................................................................................................... 79 Map A-12. Fusconaia cerina ....................................................................................................................... 80 Map A-13. Fusconaia ebena ....................................................................................................................... 81 Map A-14. Fusconaia flava ......................................................................................................................... 82 Map A-15. Glebula rotundata ..................................................................................................................... 83 Map A-16. Lampsilis cardium ..................................................................................................................... 84 Map A-17. Lampsilis hydianai .................................................................................................................... 85 Map A-18. Lampsilis ornate ........................................................................................................................ 86 Map A-19. Lampsilis ovata ......................................................................................................................... 87 Map A-20. Lampsilis perovalis ................................................................................................................... 88 Map A-21. Lampsilis radiate ....................................................................................................................... 89 Map A-22. Lampsilis siliquoidea................................................................................................................. 90 Map A-23. Lampsilis straminea claibornensis ............................................................................................ 91 Map A-24. Lampsilis straminea straminea ................................................................................................. 92 Map A-25. Lampsilis teres .......................................................................................................................... 93 Map A-26. Lasmigona complanata alabamensis ........................................................................................ 94 Map A-27. Leptodea fragilis ....................................................................................................................... 95 Map A-28. Ligumia recta ............................................................................................................................ 96 Map A-29. Ligumia subrostrata .................................................................................................................. 97 Map A-30. Medionidus acutissimus ............................................................................................................ 98 Map A-31. Megalonaias nervosa ................................................................................................................ 99 Map A-32. Obliquaria reflexa ................................................................................................................... 100 Map A-33. Obovaria jacksoniana ............................................................................................................. 101 Map A-34. Obovaria olivaria .................................................................................................................... 102 Map A-35. Obovaria retusa....................................................................................................................... 103 Map A-36. Obovaria subrotunda .............................................................................................................. 104 Map A-37. Obovaria unicolor ................................................................................................................... 105 Map A-38. Plectomerus dombeyanus ........................................................................................................ 106 Map A-39. Plethobasus cyphyus ............................................................................................................... 107 Map A-40. Pleurobema beadleianum ........................................................................................................ 108 vi

Map A-41. Map A-42. Map A-43. Map A-44. Map A-45. Map A-46. Map A-47. Map A-48. Map A-49. Map A-50. Map A.51. Map A-52. Map A-53. Map A-54. Map A-55. Map A-56. Map A-57. Map A-58. Map A-59. Map A-60. Map A-61. Map A-62. Map A-63. Map A-64. Map A-65. Map A-66. Map A-67. Map A-68. Map A-69. Map A-70.

Pleurobema cordatum ............................................................................................................. 109 Pleurobema decisum ............................................................................................................... 110 Pleurobema marshalli ............................................................................................................. 111 Pleurobema perovatum ........................................................................................................... 112 Pleurobema rubrum ................................................................................................................ 113 Pleurobema taitianum ............................................................................................................. 114 Potamilus alatus ...................................................................................................................... 115 Potamilus purpuratus .............................................................................................................. 116 Quadrula apiculata ................................................................................................................. 117 Quadrula asperata .................................................................................................................. 118 Quadrula cylindrical ............................................................................................................... 119 Quadrula metanevra ............................................................................................................... 120 Quadrula nobilis ..................................................................................................................... 121 Quadrula nodulata .................................................................................................................. 122 Quadrula pustulosa ................................................................................................................. 123 Quadrula quadrula .................................................................................................................. 124 Quadrula refulgens ................................................................................................................. 125 Quadrula rumphiana complex ................................................................................................ 126 Quadrula stapes ...................................................................................................................... 127 Strophitus subvexus ................................................................................................................. 128 Strophitus undulates ................................................................................................................ 129 Toxolasma parvus ................................................................................................................... 130 Toxolasma texasiensis ............................................................................................................. 131 Tritogonia verrucosa ............................................................................................................... 132 Truncilla donaciformis ............................................................................................................ 133 Truncilla truncate.................................................................................................................... 134 Uniomerus declivis .................................................................................................................. 135 Uniomerus tetralasmus ........................................................................................................... 136 Villosa lienosa ......................................................................................................................... 137 Villosa vibex ............................................................................................................................ 138

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Acknowledgements We are indebted to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science for supporting this project, using funding provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special thanks to Bob Jones and Paul Hartfield for their encouragement, enthusiasm, and patience. We also thank David Abbott, Sam Brookes, John Connaway, Jessica Crawford, Pam Edwards Lieb, Scott Gardner, Chris Goodwin, Wendell Haag, Louise Henry, Ed Jackson, Janet Rafferty, Mary Stevens, and Jim Williams for their assistance on different aspects of this project at different times over the years. John and Pam also provided useful comments on the draft manuscript. Shell taxonomic data were derived from a number of projects spanning the last few decades, including excavations sponsored or conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Park Service, the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, the Mississippi Department of Transportation, Mississippi State University, the University of Southern Mississippi, and the U.S. Forest Service. We also thank Joe Seger, Director of the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, for his assistance in getting this report published. Katherine Jacobs graciously provided technical assistance in report production. Finally, this work could not have been completed without the invaluable assistance of several (now former) Anthropology graduate students at Mississippi State University: Keith Baca, Wes Bacon-Schulte, Sarah Mistak-Caughron, and Jennifer Seltzer. Any mistakes in identifications, synonymy, or other things zoological are the sole responsibility of the senior author. Contributors Evan Peacock is a Professor of Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures and a Senior Research Associate with the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Mississippi State University. Cliff Jenkins is the State Cultural Resources Specialist for the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Jackson. Paul Jacobs is Head of the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures and a Senior Research Associate with the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Mississippi State University. Joseph Greenleaf is a graduate student in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures, Mississippi State University.

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Chapter 1

Old Shell and Modern Problems: The Applied Value of Archaeological Freshwater Mussel Remains al. 2004; Neves et al. 1997; Strayer et al. 2004; Williams et al. 1993). Initial work discovering and naming new species of this very diverse family peaked in the first half of the 19th century (Bogan 1998; Turgeon et al. 1998). More systematic work arose as stocks declined due to pressure from pearling and button manufacture (Claassen 1994; Parmalee 1955a). Much of this work was sponsored by the federal government (e.g., Churchill and Lewis 1924; Coker et al. 1922; Ellis 1936; Isley 1911), something that has continued as the Endangered Species Act has mandated mussel surveys in streams slated to be altered by government or government-sponsored actions (Bogan 2006). Recent discoveries concerning prey mimicry and other unusual propagation strategies among many mussel species (Conover 1998; Haag et al. 1995; Hartfield and Butler 1997; Roe and Hartfield 2005) highlight the urgency of employing every means at our disposal better to understand and conserve these imperiled, extraordinary animals, which also serve as excellent indicator organisms for water quality.

Over the last three decades, natural scientists have increasingly recognized the utility of archaeological plant and animal remains to inform on biogeographic ranges and community characteristics, as they existed prior to extensive modern impacts. Efforts at employing archaeological data (solely, or in conjunction with historical data) have found expression in such fields as historical ecology (Crumley 1994; Egan and Howell 2001; Kirch and Hunt 1997; Russell 1997), ethnobiology (Anderson et al. 2010), and human ecodynamics (Bailey et al. 2000). Such efforts, while useful, have tended to suffer from a lack of rigor where issues such as scale, lag time in species responses to environmental change, and even basic terminology are concerned (Peacock 2002a). More systematic application has recently emerged in explicit form as applied zooarchaeology (Frazier 2007, 2010; Lauwerier and Plug 2004; Lyman 1996, 2006; Lyman and Cannon 2004), with several case studies demonstrating how archaeological data can be used to help explain the evolution and current state of plant/animal communities (e.g., Delcourt and Delcourt 2004; Lyman and Cannon 2004; Peacock 1998a, 2010; Peacock and Melsheimer 2003).

The southeastern United States is home to the richest, most diverse freshwater mussel faunas on the planet, and Mississippi is no exception in this regard. Until fairly recent times, however, only qualitative lists of taxa were available and/or sampling was unsystematic and spotty (Hinkley 1906; Grantham 1969). More recent work has taken place in waterways that have been significantly impacted by erosion, other forms of water pollution, and impoundment in modern times (Hartfield 1993; Jones et al. 1997; Jones et al. 2005:82). Thus, even the best modern studies could benefit from a better knowledge of ranges and community characteristics as they existed prehistorically, when human impact, though present (Peacock et al. 2005), was minimal (Bogan 1990). An excellent example in this regard is the discovery of the western fanshell (Cyprogenia aberti), an “Ozarkian” species, at archaeological sites along eastern tributaries of the Mississippi River (Bogan 1987; Hartfield 1993; Jones et al. 2005; Peacock and James 2002).

The successful application of archaeological data to modern conservation problems requires clear goals, carefully chosen target variables, appropriate measured variables (Lyman 2008:11-16), and a realistic assessment of the biases that attend such data (Peacock 2000, 2010). This latter factor can be accommodated in a number of ways, such as employing species-area curves to show that archaeological deposits have been adequately sampled (Lyman 2008), assessing preservation bias via systematic studies of taxonomic proportions, element size, shape and density (e.g., Peacock 2000; Peacock and Chapman 2001; Wolverton et al. 2010), investigating the effects of archaeological recovery bias (e.g., Muckle 1994), and so on (see Peacock 2010 for an in-depth discussion). While human preference (a.k.a. the “cultural filter”) often is invoked to explain why certain species are absent or rare in archaeological faunal assemblages (e.g., Baker 1979; Dickens 1971; Murphy 1971; Myers and Perkins 2000; Ray 1994; Robison 1983), one must be careful about arguing from negative evidence. As is true with all forms of bias, the role of cultural factors in shaping assemblage composition should be assessed on a case-by-case basis (Peacock 2010). With the proper qualifications, zooarchaeological data can play a valuable role in conservation efforts.

A recent report by the National Native Mussel Conservation Committee (NNMCC 1998:1420) noted the need to: Coordinate a thorough search and summary of the current knowledge of basic biology, population characteristics, and habitat requirements of mussels. Much of the information that exists on freshwater mussels is scattered throughout various professional journals, government publications, unpublished research reports, museum records, and observation records of numerous individuals. If this information

One of the most threatened groups of organisms in North America is freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) (Bogan 1993, 1997, 1998, 2006; Haag 2009a; Lydeard et

1

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi employed in models developed for binary (presence/absence) data (e.g., Mynsberge et al. 2009). Perhaps most directly, presence/absence data may be used to inform reintroduction efforts, the results of which have thus far met with mixed success (e.g., Dunn and Sietman 1997; Havlik 1997; Morgan et al. 1997).

could be consolidated into a computerized annotated bibliography, the mussel conservation community and other interested individuals would have ready access to current knowledge to help expedite the conservation effort. We agree wholeheartedly with this recommendation and suggest that compilations of raw data, not just references, are even more useful. The lack of long-term, “historical” data and the need for such have been noted time and again by biologists, zoologists, and other scientists engaged in freshwater mussel conservation efforts (e.g., Bogan 1993:605; Cummings and Bogan 2006:313; Lydeard et al. 2004:327; Mynsberge et al. 2009; NNMCC 1998:1422; Strayer 2008). Early “natural history” collections in museums are not in themselves adequate to address this need, due to inconsistencies in collecting and reporting, loss of information with lax curation practices, and other biases (Haag 2009b; Hoke 2000; Mynsberge et al. 2009:389). In many cases, the original collections are no longer available, and in such cases the data produced by naturalists working with an extremely diverse and what were largely unknown faunas are understandably suspect (Hughes and Parmalee 1999:29). In such circumstances – and, indeed, in any circumstance – it would be imprudent to ignore archaeological data that provide spatial (bed-specific to continental-scale) and temporal (short-term to millennial-scale) characterizations of mussel distributions and abundances that are complementary to other sources and that are readily available.

Although a number of studies of, or work incorporating, archaeological mussels have been published in the nonarchaeological literature, these usually are focused on particular species (e.g., Barber 1982; George and Vidrine 1993; Gordon 1983; Peacock et al. 2005; Williams and Fradkin 1999), sites (e.g., Baker 1923; Call and Robinson 1983; Murphy 1971; Murray 1981; Ortmann 1909; Parmalee and Bogan 1986; Peacock and James 2002; Van Dyke et al. 1980), or waterways (e.g., Hughes and Parmalee 1999; Lyons et al. 2007; Matteson 1958, 1959; Parmalee 1956; Parmalee et al. 1980, 1982; Randklev et al. 2010; Robison 1983; Stansbery 1966; Starnes and Bogan 1988; Taylor 1989; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; Theler 1990; see Haag 2009a; Parmalee and Bogan 1998; and Williams et al. 2008 for broader-scale considerations). Statewide syntheses of archaeological shell data are lacking, so that much of the available information is not easily accessible. With funding from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provided to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science, the senior author began an effort to compile the available data on freshwater mussel shell from archaeological sites in Mississippi. In addition to compiling data from site reports and other records (e.g., the archaeological site files maintained by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History [MDAH]), analysis of excavated but previously unanalyzed shell from a number of sites was undertaken by the senior author with the aid of Graduate Research Assistants. The work was done at the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Mississippi State University (MSU). Identifications were checked as necessary by Robert Jones (MMNS) and Paul Hartfield (USFWS), who also helped to answer taxonomic questions arising from earlier reported data. Other experts have provided similar assistance over the years (see acknowledgments). Accordingly, we consider these data to be reasonably sound, especially as we were generally conservative with identifications and provide detailed qualifications where necessary.

Among its many other resources, Mississippi has a rich archaeological record that spans about 12,000 years. Tens of thousands of prehistoric sites have been formally recorded, many of which contain the remains of freshwater mussels (Peacock and Jenkins 2010), an important food item for the native inhabitants of Mississippi. Mussel shell also provided raw material for beads, pottery scrapers, spoons, and other tools, and was crushed and added to pottery as a tempering agent beginning about a thousand years ago. Mussel shell has been retrieved in very low amounts from sites near small waterways in the uplands and in very large amounts from sites located adjacent to the larger streams and rivers of the state (Peacock 1998b; Peacock and Jenkins 2010). All of this shell is important from a biogeographical standpoint. Although shell assemblages from archaeological sites may reflect the various kinds of bias noted above for faunal assemblages in general (e.g., better preservation of species with denser and/or more spherical shells – Randklev et al. 2009; Wolverton et al. 2010), comparative work has shown that the effects of such biases can be understood as long as a sufficient range of contexts is sampled and sufficient numbers of shells are systematically retrieved (Peacock 2000, 2010; Wolverton et al. 2010). Even assemblages with only a few valves may at least inform on the ranges and habitat tolerances of the species recovered, and such data may be

We present herein a robust synthesis of pre-industrial mussel distributions and, to a lesser degree of precision, relative abundances in the state. These data are also available at www.mississippimusselbiogeography.com hosted by the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures, MSU. We plan to update the website as more data on archaeological shell assemblages become available, and we welcome researchers who wish to share their own data on this site.

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Chapter 2

Time, Space, and Form in Archaeological Shell Assemblages from Mississippi mussel shell are quite common in Mississippi. Locational data on 221 such sites were obtained, including those discussed in detail in this report (Map A-1). The data available are not, unfortunately, of sufficient quality to assess more than the most broad-scale spatial and temporal patterns in Native American shellfish use. For one thing, the number of sites recorded as containing shell is undoubtedly a gross under-representation of the phenomenon, dependent on whether researchers bothered to note that shell was present, something that even today is not done consistently. It is known, for example, that many additional sites in the Delta have shell (John Connaway, personal communication, 2010) that have not been reported in any detail. Survey bias also is a major factor, with the relatively large numbers of sites in the Tombigbee and Yazoo basins (Map A-1), for example, being due to the amount of survey that has been done there for research or compliance purposes (Peacock and Jenkins 2010). Shell noted on the surface of a site cannot be dated by association unless the artifacts retrieved indicate only a single cultural period is represented, a relatively rare situation in major river valleys where elevated, well-drained landforms tended to be occupied repeatedly or over great spans of time. In many cases, shell is mentioned in reports but has not been analyzed in any fashion (e.g., Belmont 1983; Brain 1989; Collins 1932; Connaway and McGahey 1971; Fuller 1992; Hinks et al. 1993; Hyatt 1975, 1992; Marshall 1988; Marshall and Glover 1974; Morgan and Raspet 1979; Penman 1985). Also, although the data search we conducted was thorough, we do not claim that it was exhaustive. There are doubtless numerous collections held by state agencies, universities, museums, and private citizens containing archaeological shell that have never been analyzed. Locating and analyzing the shell assemblages from those sites would be a useful undertaking, especially assemblages from waterways underreported in this study. In the meantime, we are confident that we have amassed the existing data on shell assemblages from the state that have been analyzed, that is, assemblages from which taxonomic data are available at some level.

Mussel shell is a common constituent of the archaeological record of Mississippi, being found at sites of various sizes located along waterways ranging from major rivers to what are today small channels carrying intermittent flow (Peacock and Jenkins 2010). This is one characteristic of archaeological shell that makes it so valuable for biogeographical studies, as data are available from locales where modern biological surveys have not been carried out or have been done only following extensive historical impacts to mussel communities (Peacock 2010). In this chapter, we briefly describe the different sorts of contexts from which archaeological shell has been recovered. The use of freshwater shell remains for archaeological research has recently been reviewed specifically for Mississippi by Peacock and Jenkins (2010; see also more general reviews by Peacock [1997, 1998b, 2002b, 2010]), and will be only briefly discussed in this chapter. Similarly, the effects of various kinds of bias (collection, preservation, recovery, analytical) on archaeological freshwater mussel assemblages have recently been discussed in detail (Peacock 2000, 2010; Peacock and Chapman 2001; Wolverton et al. 2010), and are mentioned only in a qualitative fashion for particular assemblages described in Chapter 3. We do, however, present new data on one particular kind of site, freshwater shell rings, expanding upon the discussion presented in Peacock and Jenkins (2010). Archaeological shell (freshwater or otherwise) is a global phenomenon, with accumulations dating back tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. In North America, freshwater mussel shell has been found at sites spanning the Holocene epoch, with an increase in exploitation beginning during the mid-Holocene (Dowd 1989; Morrison 1942; Smith 1986:22-24; Steponaitis 1986:372). About 5,000 years ago, enormous “shell mounds” began to accumulate along the banks of the Tennessee, Green, and other rivers in eastern North America (Claassen 2010; Marquardt and Watson 2005; Webb and DeJarnette 1942). As noted by Peacock and Jenkins (2010), and as detailed in the site descriptions in Chapter 3, archaeological shell from Mississippi has been obtained from sites ranging from mid-Holocene (ca. 5000 B.C.) to early Historic period (late 18th to early 19th century) in age. Most reported shell in the state comes from Woodland- or Mississippian-period deposits (see Rafferty and Peacock 2008 for a discussion of “Mississippian” vs. “Mississippi”), circa. 200 B.C. – A.D. 1000, and we suspect that this general pattern will hold true as more shell data become available in the future.

Sites such as the Tennessee and Green River shell mounds reflect the exploitation of mussel beds over the course of millennia, resulting in deposits several meters thick and hectares in size (Marquardt and Watson 2005; Warren 1975; Webb and DeJarnette 1942). The scale of exploitation is impressive. For example, Haag (2009a: 109) estimated that the remains of over 135 million animals were contained in three middens on the Green River, and that “on average, 242,000 mussels were harvested from this 8 km reach of river each year.” Shell accumulations vary in size and density from large, shellrich sites down to those containing a few scattered valves, and such a range is apparent in Mississippi. Generally

Review of the technical literature and the state site files reveals that archaeological sites containing freshwater

3

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi

Figure 4. Confirmed freshwater mussel shell rings in the Mississippi Delta as a staple based on protein contributions. This consideration of mussels has played into interpretations of shell deposits in Mississippi and adjacent states. For example, Peacock (1998b, 2002b) suggests that shellfish use in the Mid-South peaked during the Late Woodland period, from circa A.D. 700 – 1000, when human population pressure and consequent territorial restriction led to the increased use of lower-ranked resources (Blitz 1993; Futato 1989; Hill 1981, 1987; Jenkins 1982; Jenkins and Krause 1986; Peacock 2002b; Welch 1990; Woodrick 1981). Other suggestions for mussel exploitation have been made, notably that shell was intentionally used as a construction material for burial

speaking, long-duration occupations located on major rivers next to shoals have larger, denser shell accumulations, with a progressive drop-off in the amount of shell at sites with upstream distance. As noted by Peacock and Jenkins (2010), however, our knowledge of prehistoric mussel exploitation remains quite limited, especially where the interior of the state is concerned. We assume that, in most cases, shell recovered from archaeological sites represents the remains of animals gathered for consumption. In general, mussels do not provide much nutritional value (Parmalee and Klippel 1974), although Erlandson (1988) has argued for their use

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Time, Space and Form mounds or other facilities (Claassen 1991a, 1991b, 1992, 1996, 2010). This has been debated for freshwater mussel shell, in particular (Milner and Jeffries 1998; Morey and Crothers 1998; Peacock 1998b), and remains a hypothesis that must be tested on a case-by-case basis. As will be discussed in Chapter 3, only one of the sites discussed in this report - the Vaughn Mound site, 22LO538 - shows evidence of the intentional use of shell in such a manner, unless the “shell rings” of the Delta can be so characterized.

Shell Rings in the Delta Most shell-bearing sites in Mississippi do not display any formal structure in the layout of shell; rather, the material occurs in general midden deposits and/or as concentrations within pits or other features (Peacock and Jenkins 2010). A major exception is that many sites in the Delta have “rings” or other geometric forms of shell deposits (Jenkins 2010). The scale of these deposits, and the fact that many are routinely exposed through plowing, allow them to be recorded using a variety of aerial images. The most basic are aerial photo prints such as those available at Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) county field offices. Lipo and Dunnell (2008) have demonstrated the utility of using free online aerial imagery, such as Terraserver™ and Google™, to detect archaeological sites in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Another type of free online aerial imagery that has proven exceptionally useful for detecting archaeological sites in the Yazoo Basin is the low altitude, oblique aerial imagery on the Bird’s Eye View feature on Bing Maps™.

Mussel shells also were used for a variety of tools and decorative items (Peacock 1997, n.d.), but not in numbers that would significantly affect species abundances in midden deposits (Peacock 1998b, 2000). Most shell ornaments recovered in North American archaeological contexts are of marine rather than freshwater shell (e.g., Blakeslee 1997; Brown 1996; Carlson 1997; Dowd 1989; Fosha 1997; Hammett and Sizemore 1989; Hayes 1989; Holmes 1883; Jaynes 1997; Lippencott 1997; Long 1974; Parmalee 1958; Pendergast 1989; Picha and Swenson 1997; Sempowski 1989; Smith 1997; Woodward 1936), with flat disc beads from thick-shell species being the most common ornament produced from unionid shell (e.g., Hilliard and Harcourt 1997; Picha and Swenson 2000). (Disc beads also were manufactured from marine shell [e.g., Morse 1972], but the distinction is rarely made in the literature). This presumably reflects cultural choice for exotic specimens rather than locally abundant shells.

While all of these different types of aerial coverage are valuable for remote archaeological survey and site identification, the real strength of aerial imagery is its integration with a Geographic Information System (GIS). In using aerial imagery to evaluate NRCS project areas, one particular archaeological site type, shell midden rings, has proven to be especially detectable. Jenkins (2010; Peacock and Jenkins 2010) undertook a systematic effort to synthesize information concerning shell midden rings in the Yazoo Basin, using aerial imagery to detect new sites and conducting basic quantitative analysis using GIS on identified shell rings.

Modification of mussel shells for tools is more common and has been suggested as a factor that structured mussel assemblages; for example, Casey (1987) suggested that Megalonaias nervosa, Lampsilis ovata, and Amblema plicata were underrepresented in sites along the Lower Cumberland River due to shells of these species having been taken elsewhere for use as hoes; conversely, Theler (1991) attributed the high proportion of A. plicata hoes at the Aztalan site in Wisconsin to import of this relatively thick-shelled species from the Mississippi River to the west. Thick-shelled species are known to have been used as hoes at Late Woodland and Mississippian sites in Mississippi (e.g., at the Acree site in Bolivar County – [Connaway 1981:Plate 12] and the Oliver site in Coahoma County [Peacock n.d.]). Suggestions that taxonomic frequencies are significantly altered by such use tend to be subjective, however, and may reflect recovery bias toward modified valves on the part of archaeologists (Theler 1991:318) or some other bias. A review of the literature indicates that shells modified for use as tools consistently make up far less than 1 percent of any given assemblage (e.g., Morrison 1942; Peacock 2000:191-193; Theler 1991:318; Warren 1975). Unless demonstrated otherwise, therefore, it may be assumed that mussel assemblages primarily reflect the availability of taxa in the local waterways (Peacock 2000, 2010; see Peacock 2010 for a discussion of microhabitat avoidance by prehistoric shellfishers as another possible bias).

Many archaeologists are familiar with the coastal clam and oyster shell rings in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi (e.g., Bruseth 1980, 1991), and elsewhere. Such sites receive a great deal of attention, with debate on seasonal vs. sedentary settlement, functional versus ceremonial use, and other topics (e.g., Bruseth 1991; Calmes 1968; Kidder and Sassaman 2005; Marquardt 2010; Russo 1996, 2004; Russo and Heide 2001, 2002; Sassaman 2005; Saunders 2004; Simpkins 1975; Thompson et al. 2004; Trinkley 1975, 1985; Waring and Larson 1968). The Yazoo Basin shell rings differ in many ways from these coastal rings. Shell rings in the Yazoo Basin are composed of freshwater mussels and are located on the interior rivers, bayous, and lakes (given the species represented [see Chapter 4], lakeside sites were located beside active channels when the shells accumulated). The Delta rings are generally circular or semicircular concentrations of shell middens and, because of the predominantly agricultural land use of the region, are nearly all heavily cultivated. Therefore, unlike some of the coastal middens that can reach heights of five meters or more, the Yazoo Basin shell middens have little remaining elevation. Coastal rings seem to have accumulated primarily during the Archaic-period. As

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi the Big Sunflower River Watershed for the Corps of Engineers (e.g., Walling and Roemer 1993; Walling et al. 2007 – see especially Chapman et al. 2004). Panamerican personnel used aerial photos and on-the-ground inspection to provide some of the best survey-level documentation of shell ring sites to date. Their survey identified 15 shell ring sites, all located along the Sunflower River. Many of these sites had previously been reported but had not been recognized as rings.

discussed below, whether the Delta rings are broadly contemporary and when they accumulated are a matter of debate. Previous Investigations at Shell Rings The investigation of Delta shell rings closely follows the history of archaeology in the Yazoo Basin. C. B. Moore, a Philadelphia antiquarian, explored many sites in the Southeast and visited a number in the Yazoo Basin. Moore excavated at the Spanish Fort site (22SH500) in Sharkey County, Mississippi in 1908, and in addition to the large, semicircular earthwork, mentions a circular rise thickly strewn with bits of pottery and fragments of mussel shells that he “excavated extensively without result” (Moore 1908:589). This is the earliest possible recognition of a shell ring in the Yazoo Basin. Calvin Brown, author of Archaeology of Mississippi, also investigated the Spanish Fort site in 1917 and described a semicircular refuse-heap or dwelling site accumulation several feet thick and rich in shells and potsherds (Brown 1992). Archaeologists James Ford and Moreau Chambers conducted surveys across Mississippi in the 1930s, and were the first to record many of the sites now recognized as shell rings. Although they did not apparently recognize the rings as such, many of their sites are now recorded as shell ridges (Works Progress Administration 1940).

A renewed interest in freshwater shell ring sites has begun in recent years with the reexamination of the Tchula Lake site by Robert Dunnell in 2000 (Dunnell et al. 2002). New surface collections were made and radiocarbon dates were obtained from mussel shells, with calibrated ranges spanning from 1400 – 590 B.C. calling into question Phillips’ (1970) previous conclusion that the site is a pure Deasonville occupation (Feathers 2008:Table 8.2; Lipo and Dunnell 2008:153, 156). It is possible that a freshwater reservoir effect (i.e., shell dates being affected via the uptake by mussels of old, radiogenically depleted carbon in the water) contributed to the variability in these dates (Peacock and Feathers 2009), although more work is necessary to ascertain the magnitude of such a phenomenon in the Delta. Although a number of excavations have been conducted at shell ring sites, none of these previous investigations recognized the rings as such or were designed specifically to examine rings. The earliest excavation at a shell ring was the previously mentioned exploration by Moore at the Spanish Fort site (Moore 1908:589). The LMS conducted excavations at several shell midden sites, including some shell rings (Phillips 1970; Phillips et al. 1951). Their excavations at Thornton and Spanish Fort were primarily directed toward documenting the stratigraphic sequence of ceramics and identifying early buried deposits, although some information about the shell deposits was also provided.

Shell rings were first definitely recognized and described in detail by Harvard University’s Lower Mississippi Survey (LMS) in the mid-20th century. In Archaeological Survey in the Lower Yazoo Basin, Philip Phillips (1970) describes eight shell ring sites (22HO546 – Tchula Lake; 22HU502 – Payne; 22IS507 – Thornton; 22LF515 – Palusha Creek; 22LF528 – Hunt; 22YZ510 – Barry; 22YZ590 – Yucatan; and 22YZ600 – Shellwood). He coined the term “Tchula Lake settlement pattern,” after the site of the same name, to refer to the circular arrangement of shell middens. Phillips describes the Tchula Lake site in detail, giving his on-the-ground impression that the site was a continuous ring of shell about 200 meters in diameter. However, in aerial photos he observed clearly separate concentrations of shell, and noted that there was no shell in the interior of the circle. The “stub of a shell-heap” about one meter high was recognized adjacent to the lake, and was suggested as a possible indication of the height of all the middens before cultivation (Phillips 1970:270-273; see also Peacock and Jenkins 2010). The Tchula Lake site and other shell ring sites identified by the LMS were assigned to the Deasonville Phase of the Late Woodland Period (approximately A.D. 300-600). In the years following the work by the LMS additional shell rings were sporadically documented by private collectors and by small-scale cultural resource management projects.

The results of the excavation at Thornton are ambiguous, due to removal of the upper deposits by heavy machinery prior to the excavation, but they do demonstrate that the shell deposit was deposited some time after the early Middle Woodland period (Phillips 1970: 576-615). The lower deposits appear to represent a series of mound fill and midden deposits that are attributable to the early Middle Woodland period. Artifacts from the late Middle Woodland through Mississippian periods were recovered from the upper, truncated shell midden deposit and surface collections. A number of postholes originating in the upper midden were recorded, but no patterning was recognized. Six burials were also exhumed, all of which were within the upper midden or upper mound loading. Burial 1 was interred with three unworked mussel shells, and Burial 5, which included three individuals, was within a shell midden matrix. Burial 3, the only burial with a diagnostic artifact possibly associated, had a redpainted, barrel-shaped ceramic beaker placed at

In the 1990s a substantial contribution to the documentation of shell rings was made by Panamerican Consultants, Inc., during their extensive surveys within

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Time, Space and Form potential for a secondary shell midden (22LF649) associated with the Palusha Creek site. Further work by Brown et al. (1994) also demonstrated that the Palusha Creek #2 site dates primarily to the Late Woodland period.

approximately the same level as the burial. Three radiocarbon samples were also obtained from the Thornton excavation. Two were from the lower, early Middle Woodland deposits and appear to corroborate this assignment. The third was from a pit originating from the upper midden and indicates a Late Woodland date (Phillips 1970: 595).

Salvage excavations at the Shady Grove site (22QU525) on the Coldwater River (Phillips et al. 1951:54) in 1975 showed a dense shell midden (Connaway 1981:27-31). A large shell ring just north of the mound has recently been recognized from aerial photos, and the 1975 excavations, as well as excavations at the site in 2010 by graduate students from the University of Southern Mississippi, were in the east end of the shell ring, “beneath or adjacent to the former small Mound B location” (Connaway, personal communication 2010). Pottery recovered suggests a Late Woodland affiliation for the shell (Connaway 1981:27-31; personal communication 2010).

A two-meter test unit was placed within the thickest portion of the shell midden in the southeastern corner of the Spanish Fort enclosure. The excavation revealed two midden deposits separated by, “a sterile deposit of gumbo” (Phillips 1970: 313). Coles Creek artifacts were recovered from the plowzone, while the upper shell midden is interpreted as a Deasonville occupation, and the lower midden with no shell is Issaquena. Therefore, the shell ring at the Spanish Fort site appears to be related to the early Late Woodland period.

In the summer of 2009, Mississippi State University’s field school at the Kinlock site (22SU526) in Sunflower County was the first research-based excavation specifically designed to answer questions about shell rings, including the age of the shell deposit and the nature of the interior “plaza” (Carlock and Rafferty 2009). Fieldwork included a controlled surface collection in 2m2 units, limited testing in the ring and plaza, and magnetometry survey of the plaza and much of the ring. At the time of this report, analysis of the materials obtained from the site is underway as part of a master’s thesis by MSU student Bradley Carlock.

Substantial excavations at the Lake George site (22YZ557) and testing at the Shell Bluff site (22LF505) by the LMS also provide information relative to shell midden deposits. Although neither of these sites has been verified as a shell ring, both are possibly rings that are obscured by later disturbance. The shell midden deposits at both sites appear to represent Deasonville occupations. It is an interesting possibility, based on shell midden recovered on the western portion of the Lake George site, that the western plaza may be organized around a shell ring. Jackson (1998:212) describes a shell-midden at the Little Spanish Fort site which was “apparently culturally mixed” but which contained Middle and Late Woodland period ceramic diagnostics.

Although previous excavations have not been specifically directed toward understanding the nature of shell rings, they do provide some indication of the cultural chronology for these sites. It appears that most of the shell middens investigated thus far, including the rings, are associated primarily with the Late Woodland period, and specifically with the early portion of that period. Much additional testing is needed, however, to determine if all rings are associated with Late Woodland occupations. Analysis of Aerial Images The first step in evaluating the rings was to inventory the state archaeological site files for known shell ring sites and sites with shell middens in the Delta. This step resulted in a total of 158 shell-bearing sites in twelve counties, with 33 of these being previously recorded shell rings. Next, a GIS shape file was created with centroid points from UTM data in the site files for each of the shell-bearing sites, and each point location was examined in ESRI ArcMap™ with digital orthoimagery and with Bing Maps’™ Bird’s Eye View (where coverage was available) to determine if a shell ring was visible. The rings appear as white or light colored circles or semicircles, usually within a dark colored midden area (e.g., Figure 1). While these aerial images are quite useful

Figure 1. King site (22SU551), Sunflower County Investigations at the Palusha Creek and the Palusha Creek #2 (22LF649) sites also indicate a Late Woodland association for the shell middens (Brown et al. 1994; Marshall 1978; Phillips 1970: 265-268; Thorne and Curry 1983). Testing at site 22LF516 by Thorne and Curry (1983) revealed intact sub-plowzone shell midden, and there is some indication that the deposit dated to the Late Woodland period. Thorne and Curry also recognized the

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi for identifying shell ring sites, it is important to point out that when conducting virtual surveys, multiple images showing a variety of ground conditions are desirable to identify archaeological features. This shows one of the strengths of orthoimagery in GIS: to provide quickly and accurately a diachronic view of site conditions. After all known site locations were inspected, the waterways on which these sites are located, along with some adjacent water courses, were systematically surveyed, using the 2006 two-foot, natural color orthos at 1:8,500 scale to locate additional shell rings.

Figure 3. Shady Grove site (22QU525), Quitman County Locations The shell ring sites are found in nine counties within the Mississippi Alluvial Plain Ecoregion (following S. S. Chapman et al. 2004). In Mississippi, this Level III ecoregion is further divided into five subdivisions, or Level IV ecoregions, that have proven useful for examining prehistoric settlement in the Delta. Nearly all of the shell rings are located within the Northern Holocene Meander Belt ecoregion. Few rings are found in the Northern Pleistocene Valley Trains or the Northern Backswamps ecoregions, and these few are all directly associated with major rivers. None are known in the Southern Backswamps or Southern Holocene Meander Belt ecoregions (the narrow extension of the Basin south of Vicksburg), and none have been documented in the uplands east of the Delta. Also, to the authors’ knowledge, no freshwater mussel shell midden ring has been reported in adjacent states. The rings are generally in the southeastern portion of the Delta, but four rings have recently been recognized in Quitman County in the north Delta. Other than the Quitman County sites, only seven shell ring sites are located north of 33 degrees 30 minutes north latitude – roughly along the US Highway 82 corridor. Interestingly, no shell rings have been identified in Tallahatchie County, despite concerted attempts to identify rings on aerial imagery along several waterways there.

Figure 2. Brooks site (22HO547), Holmes County Polygon shape files were then created outlining the visible shell rings, and associated information was recorded in the attribute table for each site. In a few cases, a portion of the shell ring outline was estimated because it was obscured from aerial view (e.g., Figures 2 and 3). Next, the diameters of the rings were measured to the nearest five meters using the measuring tool in ArcMap™. To ensure consistency, all measurements (Table 1) were taken with the view scale set to 1:1,000. Shell ring and “plaza” (ring interior) areas were also calculated. Where visible and relatively well defined, individual shell concentrations also were measured. These latter measurements are not as precise, as the edges of the individual concentrations are not easily recognized due to spreading by cultivation. Those data are not included in this report, but are available upon request from the second author.

The shell rings are located in the Sunflower, Yazoo, Tallahatchie, and Coldwater Rivers watersheds (Figure 4). They are about evenly divided between the Sunflower River and Yazoo River watersheds, with a smaller number of sites in the Coldwater and Tallahatchie watersheds. Within the Sunflower River watershed, sites are primarily located along the Sunflower River, while within the Yazoo watershed sites are located on the Yazoo River and on a number of smaller lakes and bayous.

As a result of the investigations, a total of 67 shell ring sites were identified (Figure 4), a substantial increase from the 47 discussed by Peacock and Jenkins (2010). A number of additional shell-bearing sites are suspected as shell rings, but could not be verified either through the site file search or aerial imagery. Of the 67 identified rings, 60 were visible in whole or in part on orthoimagery. The 60 shell rings sites were then examined using a variety of GIS layers, and measured in ArcMap™.

Soils information was also examined for 65 shell ring sites to determine preferences for site location. The non-

8

Time, Space and Form other undocumented disturbances may account for the unusual shapes of these sites on orthoimagery.

irrigated capability classes for soils in the Delta have been shown to correspond to prehistoric site locations (Chapman et al. 2004). Shell ring sites are predominantly located on Class I and II soils, with 20 and 36 sites respectively. Only seven sites are located on Class III soils, and 2 are located on Class V soils (Table 1). Soil texture class indicates a preference for silt loam soils, with lower numbers of sites on sandy loams, silty clay loams, and clays (Table 1). Site Structure As observed by previous researchers, the basic site structure is one of annular, or ring-shaped, concentrations of mussel shell middens surrounding a vacant central “plaza.” The shell concentrations do not always form a complete ring and sometimes are observed to be annular segments, or “c-shaped.” When the shell ring plans are semicircular or “c-shaped,” the open side of the ring always faces toward the water (e.g., Figure 5 and 6). Sometimes, either side of the arc reaches the waterway, and sometimes the ring is cut by a road, forested riparian area, or other cover that obscures a portion of the ring. It is possible that all rings were once complete circles that have been truncated by natural or human causes. However, the “c-shaped” site plan is well-known on prehistoric sites in the Southeast, such as the c-shaped earthworks at the Middle Woodland-period Spanish Fort, Little Spanish Fort, and Leist sites in the lower Yazoo Basin (Jackson 1998) and the famous Late Archaicperiod Poverty Point site in northeast Louisiana (Ford and Webb 1956).

Figure 6. New Haywood Landing site (22WS562), Washington County

Figure 7. Shellwood site (22YZ600), Yazoo County

Figure 5. Racetrack Landing site (22LF521), Leflore County

Two of the oval-shaped plan sites are complete ovals and five are c-shaped. The c-shaped sites (e.g., Figure 7) are included in this group because their long axis is substantially wider than the short axis, even if a substantial portion of the ring has been eroded by the adjacent waterway. Also, shell either has been previously reported or is observable on orthoimages along the bank, indicating that these are more oval (or possibly “Dshaped”) and not truncated circles. The long axes of these oval rings (Table 1) range from 170 to 240 meters. The long axis is oriented parallel to the waterway in all but one case - the King site, 22SU551 (Figure 1).

Three general site plans were observed by the examination of the 60 rings visible on orthoimagery. A total of 51 are basically circular in plan, seven have ovalshaped plans, and two have irregular-shaped plans. These two sites with irregular plans are also relatively small, and have had some known disturbance beyond regular cultivation. For example, a county road was cut through a portion of the Honey Island (22HU552) midden. These or

Most of the shell rings are fairly regular circles (Figure 8). The 51 circular plan rings include 24 complete circular plans and 27 c-shaped plans. The diameters of all 51 circular rings were measured along an axis parallel to the adjacent water body. The ring diameters range from 70 to 230 meters (Table 1), with an average of 152.4 meters and a median and mode of 150 meters. When compared separately, complete circular plans average

9

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi about 152 meters in diameter, and c-shaped plans average 153 meters in diameter, suggesting that these two forms are not functionally different.

Where individual shell concentrations are visible, they are not always equal in size or distribution. Some concentrations are larger and denser than others. Phillips (1970) noted a shell mound adjacent to the water at the Tchula Lake site. While this was suggested as a possible remnant of the original height of the entire ring, it may be that shell was unequally distributed around the rings. The Light Capp site (22YZ605) in Yazoo County clearly shows a denser concentration, also on the side of the ring nearest the river (Figure 8). Other sites show denser areas in different positions around the ring (e.g., Figure 6). These denser concentrations might reflect hierarchal organization or mark the location of a common house, or they may simply be related to duration of occupation (including rebuilding) for any particular structure. Differing degrees of post-depositional alteration or exposure of deposits also must be considered as possibilities.

Figure 8. Light Capp site (22YZ605), Yazoo County

Besides the individual concentrations of shell making up the ring, some additional observations were made from inspecting aerial images. The shell concentrations appear to be surrounded by a halo of darker soils on both the exterior and interior of the ring. These darker soils occasionally extend across the entire plaza (e.g., Figure 5), but frequently are confined to a narrow band following the ring (e.g., Figure 7). Based on general field observations these darker areas appear to be organically enriched soils with little shell. If these middens represent primary refuse deposits, it would seem to indicate that garbage-generating activities centered on top of the shell ring rather than being located to either side of the ring, supporting the hypothesis that structures stood atop the individual patches. Alternatively, it is possible that in some or all cases the midden rings represent pre-shell accumulations exposed by plowing.

The areas encompassed by all circular rings range from 0.4 to 3.4 hectares (Table 1). As expected, the average area of complete circular plans is slightly larger than that for c-shaped plans, as it is possible that c-shaped features have been partially truncated by adjacent waterways. The “plaza” area for complete circular plans averages about 8,000 square meters, which is around 40% of the total area encompassed, on average, by the rings. As recognized by previous researchers (e.g., Phillips 1970), the rings are not composed of a single continuous concentration of shell but a series of closely adjacent, roughly circular concentrations. Plowing has often obscured the individual circular concentrations, but occasionally they remain quite visible in aerial photos (e.g., Figure 6). These concentrations are more difficult to measure accurately, but the better-defined patches are generally 25-30 meters in diameter, with some as small as 15 meters and some as large as 50 meters. On sites where multiple concentrations are visible, measurements were taken from the center point of one concentration to the center of the next. The average spacing of these is about 30 meters. An association of separate shell patches with individual houses has been hypothesized since these sites were first recognized by the LMS (Phillips 1970:265, 549). Unfortunately, house patterns at shell ring sites have not been verified through excavation. However, based on the average spacing from center point to center point of the individual shell concentrations, and assuming a single structure is situated in or near the center of the concentration, some estimates of the number of potential structures within the ring is possible. An average shell ring of about 150 meters diameter would accommodate about twelve structures, a 100-meter diameter ring would hold seven, and a 200-meter ring 17. Additional work along these lines would provide valuable demographic information for the shell ring sites.

Figure 9. Lester Way Site (22LF501), Leflore County The individual concentrations of shell are not always continuous around the ring. Sometimes only a portion of the ring contains dense shell concentrations, while other parts have little shell. This may be a result of past disturbances, differential shell preservation, or different

10

Time, Space and Form species and biogeographic patterns as they existed prior to modern times.

activity areas (e.g., the Lester Way site, 22LF501 – Figure 9). Finally, shell rings were often reoccupied by later residents. Some have earthen mounds that appear to be constructed on top of the rings (e.g., the Kinlock site), and a number of rings are partially covered by modern farm houses or farm headquarters (e.g., Figure 5). Shell rings are only one class of archaeological sites identifiable from aerial imagery. The better known earthen mounds of the Mississippi Delta also are easily observable, even when above-ground evidence has been plowed away. Higher resolution aerial imagery and continued examination of remotely sensed data may expand the categories of archaeological phenomena that are detectable, aiding in making more reliable planning decisions for cultural resource management. Conclusions The timing, extent, intensity, and duration of freshwater mussel exploitation, as well as the factors underlying site structure, are all archaeological questions worth pursuing. Other topics worthy of investigation include seasonality of exploitation using shell thin-section analysis (e.g., Claassen 1986), potentially combined with micromilling and oxygen isotope analysis (e.g., Andrus and Rich 2008), the use of shell as a raw material in the production of pottery and lapidary items, the use of shell for scrapers, hoes, and other kinds of tools, and trade/exchange of shell as a raw material for various purposes (or shell-tempered pots – Peacock et al. 2007). Additionally, shell shape and chemical content can be used potentially to assess paleohydrological conditions, a proxy for past precipitation regimes (Peacock 2008; Peacock and Seltzer 2008). While all such endeavors will require the systematic recovery of shell from many more sites, mussel shell already acquired can be used to establish basic biogeographic patterns in a number of drainages. While prehistoric Indians could and did alter the structure of mussel populations through predation (Peacock et al. 2005; Peacock and Mistak 2008), resulting changes in taxonomic frequencies were not sufficient to alter the basic makeup of communities. Only one instance of the prehistoric extirpation of a species has been noted (Williams and Fradkin 1999) and this instance is not universally accepted (Haag 2009a). Therefore, as Peacock (2010) has argued, for conservation purposes an “archaeological present” can be assumed for shell assemblages recovered from archaeological sites, with differences between them and modern faunas likely being related to modern impacts to mussels or their fish hosts. We now turn to a discussion of the archaeological contexts in Mississippi from which taxonomic data on mussels have been obtained, followed by discussion of

11

Chapter 3

Methods and Sample Descriptions Presence/absence species data from site 22LO860 (Hartfield 1986) in Lowndes County also are reported. Sites from the drainage range from large prehistoric villages on the main stem of the Tombigbee River to very small sites in the Black Prairie uplands to the west. Earlier syntheses (Peacock 1998b, 2002b; Robison 1983) focused only on a few of the large sites on the main stem of the Central Tombigbee River. One strength of the data reported herein is the inclusion of the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520), located on Line Creek, a tributary of Tibbee Creek, a major Tombigbee River tributary. When combined with samples from sites on Black Prairie headwater streams in Oktibbeha and Lee County, the Tombigbee River drainage data are the most complete in the state in terms of past mussel distributions at the scale of an entire, major drainage basin, especially given that archaeological mussel data also are available from the central and lower Tombigbee drainage in Alabama (e.g., McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009; Woodrick 1983).

The sites in Mississippi from which taxonomic mussel data have been derived are briefly described in this chapter. For security purposes, general site descriptions are given but detailed locations are not. Credentialed researchers may obtain precise site location information from MDAH, Jackson, MS. The following discussion includes all site types, not only the shell rings described in the previous chapter. Taxonomic data available in published articles or technical reports were amassed and tabulated for this study. In addition, data from several assemblages analyzed by the senior author are presented herein. All data are provided as simple valve counts; the numbers of left/right valves (where such data exist) are available upon request from the senior author. The number of valves with an umbo or “beak” (the raised area at the top of the shell) but otherwise too fragmentary to allow identification to genus or species (a.k.a. “unidentifiable” valves) per site is not reported in most cases, despite the fact that such data provide at least a qualitative assessment of the relative state of preservation of the shell (Peacock 2010). This is because of inconsistencies in whether or how such information is reported in the literature. Where such data are available, they will be supplied by the senior author upon request.

22LE504 – the Spaulding Dig #2 site. This early Historicperiod Chickasaw settlement is located near Chiwapa Creek in the Black Prairie physiographic province in Lee County. It was extensively excavated by archaeologist Albert Spaulding in 1939 and 1940, revealing numerous burials, pits, posthole patterns, and other features (Jennings 1941, 1944). Recovery was done in arbitrary 3inch levels; the extent of bias in the recovery of shell is not known. Seven valves from Spaulding’s excavations were identified by the senior author.

In all cases, old names used by original researchers have been updated. If identifications from the older literature could not be updated with certainty, simple generic assignments were made (e.g., Toxolasma sp. for “Carunculina germana” [Morrison 1951]).

22LE827 – the Trice site is located on a low ridge or terrace remnant fronting the Chiwapa Creek bottom in Lee County (Alvey 2003). Chiwapa Creek is a tributary of Town Creek, itself a tributary of the Tombigbee River. Controlled surface collections and limited testing were conducted at the site in May, 2002, and April, 2003. Although cultural materials from a wide range of periods are present, the primary occupation is Middle Archaic, ca. 5700 – 4730 B.C. (Alvey 2003, 2005). A very small sample of mussel shells was recovered from a pit feature, and these were identified by the senior author.

For those sites from which taxonomic data are reported, those data are organized by drainage (Figure 10) following Jones et al. (2005). Unless otherwise noted, all shell was retrieved by screening site matrix through onequarter inch wire mesh, a recovery method comparable to that used in systematic quadrat sampling by freshwater biologists (e.g., Miller and Payne 1993). Sample sizes range dramatically from site to site, from one to 21,679 identified valves. In total, the data on identified valves gathered herein represent 42 sites in 18 different counties, in four different major drainage basins. If species were noted only via presence/absence, they are so included in the appropriate table. For those collections from which quantified (taxonomic count) data are available, a statewide total of 77,257 valves representing 69 taxa are reported.

22CS503 – the Bynum Mounds site is located on the Natchez Trace Parkway in Chickasaw County about three miles east of Houston, on a low ridge east of Houlka Creek. The site contains several mounds dating to the Middle Woodland period (Cotter and Corbett 1951); calibrated radiocarbon dates place construction of these mounds to the second century B.C. (Walling et al. 1991). A small sample of mussel shells from various mound and non-mound contexts at the site was analyzed by Morrison (1951).

Tombigbee Drainage For the Tombigbee River drainage, 47,328 valves are reported from 18 sites in six counties: Chickasaw, Lee, Oktibbeha, Clay, Lowndes, and Kemper (Table 2).

12

Methods and Sample Descriptions

Figure 10. Drainage basins of Mississippi. From Jones et al. (2005:Figure 1). Used with permission of the authors. 22LO530 – the Shell Bluff site (Futato 1987) is a large, Late Woodland-period (A.D. 700 – 1000) site located on the east bank of the Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. The site contained a 20 to 25 cm. thick shell midden that was extensively excavated in 1979. A few thousand valves of the mussel shell obtained from the site were originally analyzed by Reitz (1987); these were reanalyzed by the senior author (Peacock 1998b; see also Peacock 2000, 2002b, 2010), who also analyzed most of

the remaining shell obtained from the excavation. A total of 21,679 valves were identifiable at least to the generic level. 22LO538 – the Vaughn Mound site is located about 3 km south of the town of Columbus, Lowndes County, next to White Slough, an abandoned channel of the Tombigbee River (Atkinson 1974). The site is an accretional “midden mound” (Bense 1987; Pettry and Bense 1989) rising

13

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi farmstead located on a natural levee of Tibbee Creek in Clay County, about 4 km upstream from its confluence with the Tombigbee River, but only about 1,700 meters from the river on a straight line. A single wattle and daub structure and an associated dump on the sloping creek bank immediately south of the structure provided 2,791 mussel valves identified at least to genus by Hanley (1982).

approximately 2½ meters above the floodplain and encompassing an area of approximately 5,320 square meters. It was subjected to limited archaeological testing in the summer of 1973 as part of a cultural resources survey of the river corridor prior to construction of the Tenn-Tom waterway (Atkinson 1974). Site matrix was not screened, but the presence of many small mussel and snails shells, as well as many small artifacts, in the collection suggests that archaeological recovery bias is not a significant factor. Two main shell-bearing zones occur at the site, a Late Woodland period shell-bearing zone (ca. A.D. 600) and a Middle Archaic-period zone (ca. 5000 B.C.) (Atkinson 1974; Peacock and Feathers 2009.) A total of 1,180 valves were identified to at least the generic level by the senior author and Jennifer Seltzer. Differences in taxonomic composition between the two strata may be due to sampling error or to changing water conditions over time (Peacock and Seltzer 2008). For this report, all the shell data from the site are combined.

22CL917 – the Sanders site (O’Hear 1990) was a singlecomponent, Gulf Formational period (ca. 700 - 800 B.C.) refuse dump located on a high spot in the floodplain in Clay County near the west bank of the Tombigbee River, near the Tibbee Creek confluence. Two discrete deposits of mussel shell up to 50-cm thick were excavated. Hartfield (1990) analyzed 9,057 valves representing a minimum of 25 taxa from the site. 22OK520 – the Lyon’s Bluff site is an extremely wellpreserved, single-mound, palisaded village in Oktibbeha County that was occupied primarily from the Mississippian through Protohistoric periods, from circa A.D. 1200 – 1650 or later (Peacock and Hogue 2005). The site is located on Line Creek, a tributary of Tibbee Creek, a major tributary of the Tombigbee River. A series of excavations have been conducted at the site since the mid-1960s (e.g., Marshall 1977, 1985, 1986), but most of the materials from the earlier excavations have not been analyzed. In the summers of 2001 and 2003, excavations were conducted at the site under the supervision of the senior author as part of Mississippi State University’s (MSU) archaeological field school. Shells recovered from midden, mound flank, and feature contexts were analyzed by the senior author. Because the assemblage was markedly different from main-stream Tombigbee River assemblages, several checks on species identifications were made with Bob Jones and Paul Hartfield. Of particular interest is the presence of a single valve of Lampsilis straminea claibornensis, the big river form of the species, with a burial excavated by Richard Marshall. This valve stands out as easily recognizable against the 299 valves of the highly sculptured, small-river subspecies L. straminea straminea recovered from the site (see discussion in Chapter 4). It has been carved or abraded along the anterior margin, leading Marshall to describe it in his field notes as a “shell spoon.” The hypothesis that the shell was an import from the main river was tested via chemical analysis, which showed that it was similar to other shell at Lyon’s Bluff but chemically different from shells obtained from sites on the main stem of the Tombigbee River (Peacock et al. 2010); i.e., that it was obtained locally.

22LO600 – the Tibbee Creek site (O’Hear et al. 1981) was a large, prehistoric village site located in Lowndes County, on a low alluvial ridge at the extreme western margin of the Tombigbee River floodplain near Tibbee Creek. This two-hectare site was destroyed by construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee (Tenn-Tom) Waterway. Mussel shell was present throughout the prehistoric strata but was concentrated in Late Woodlandperiod contexts. A total of 8,620 valves were identified to at least the generic level by the senior author (1998b). 22LO860 – the River Cut #1 site is located on a terrace remnant about 300 meters west of the main channel of the Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. The site was impacted by construction of a cutoff channel as part of the Tenn-Tom waterway project. Testing in the summer of 1985 revealed a circa 30 cm thick midden; a pit feature produced an uncalibrated radiocarbon date of A.D. 790, in accordance with the mostly Late Woodland-period ceramics recovered (Rafferty and Starr 1986). Mussels were analyzed by Hartfield (1986), who presented only presence/absence data due to the generally poor state of preservation of the shells. 22CL527 – the Kellogg Village site (Atkinson et al. 1980) was another large, Late Woodland-period site on the west bank of the Tombigbee River, in Clay County. It also was excavated prior to construction of the Tenn-Tom Waterway. Most excavated deposits were screened through one-quarter inch and/or smaller wire mesh, although one-half inch mesh was used to some extent. Although cultural materials were found to a depth of one meter, most artifacts and biotic remains came from the two uppermost midden zones. Mussel shell from the site was analyzed by Rummel (1980).

22OK534 – the South Farm site is a small, Mississippianperiod farmstead located on the Black Prairie uplands on MSU’s South Farm, Oktibbeha County. It lies on a rise overlooking a first-order tributary of Skinner Creek, which flows into Hollis Creek, which flows into the Noxubee River, itself a major tributary of the Tombigbee

22CL814 – the Yarborough site (Solis and Walling 1982) was a small, Late Mississippi-period (ca. A.D. 1480)

14

Methods and Sample Descriptions River. The site was extensively excavated by Dr. Crawford Blakeman, MSU, in the summer of 1975. The materials remained unreported until 1995, when basic analyses and descriptions were provided by Hogue and Peacock (1995). Based on radiocarbon dates, the primary occupation at the site dates to ca. A.D. 1400 (Hogue and Peacock 1995:Table 2). A few poorly preserved mussel valves recovered from the site are reported in Peacock and Gerber (2008).

22OK912 is another small, Protohistoric (sixteenth century) site located on an upland Black Prairie ridge near Starkville, in Oktibbeha County. One half of the site was systematically collected and excavated prior to construction of a highway bypass (Rafferty and Hogue 1999). Two valves recovered from the surface are reported in Peacock and Gerber (2008). 22KE511 – the Dudley site is located in Kemper County on Shy Hammock Creek, a tributary of Bodka Creek, which flows into the Noxubee River in western Alabama. The site was reported by John Blitz in 1983 (site card on file, MDAH), who described it as a “village” approximately one-half acre in extent and under heavy cultivation at the time. Artifact density was heavy, with lithics, sherds, bone, and burials being noted. Occupations from Middle Archaic to Historic Indian were noted, a span from ca. 6,000 years ago to early historic times. Two valves collected from the surface were identified by the senior author.

22OK578 – the Curry site is located near the confluence of Jordan Canal and Hollis Creek, tributaries of the Noxubee River in Oktibbeha County. The site is on a low terrace remnant at the interface of the Black Prairie/Flatwoods physiographic provinces. A single mound was recorded by Crawford Blakeman of MSU in 1975, when a Mississippian-period assignment was made, based on a small surface collection of artifacts (Blakeman 1975). The site was tested in 2005 by MSU student Nicole Palmer. Radiocarbon dates place the site’s main occupation span from about A.D. 1280 to 1440; both earlier and later occupations also appear to be present, based on artifact styles (Palmer 2007). A total of 32 valves recovered from within and on the flanks of the mound were identified by the senior author.

Big Black Drainage From the Big Black River drainage, one site has produced 1,454 valves representing a minimum of 23 taxa (Table 3).

22OK595, the Prissock site is a small, Late Mississippian to Protohistoric farmstead discovered during construction of a subdivision in Starkville, Oktibbeha County. The site is near a (now-intermittent) first-order branch of an unnamed, second-order tributary of Josey Creek. Salvage excavations were conducted in the summer of 1976 (Crawford Blakeman, notes on file, Cobb Institute of Archaeology, MSU). The work has not been formally reported. One mussel valve recovered during the salvage excavations is reported in Peacock and Gerber (2008).

22HI500 – the Pocahontas Mound A site is located between Limekiln Creek and an unnamed third order stream in the Jackson Prairie physiographic province. Both streams merge southwest of the site, with Limekiln Creek then flowing into Bogue Chitto Creek, which flows roughly north and west eventually to enter the Big Black River. Salvage excavations were carried out by Mississippi Department of Transportation archaeologists in 1974 (Rucker 1976). More recent work was conducted at the site by MSU in preparation for interpretive development (Rafferty et al. 2005). The site dates primarily from the late Coles Creek through Plaquemine periods, circa A.D. 700-1400 (Rafferty et al. 2005:97). A large pit feature with superimposed, shell-bearing strata was discovered by the MDOT archaeologists just south of the large platform mound at the site. While an unknown amount of the shell was discarded, a retained sample of valves was analyzed by Peacock and James (2002), of which 1,422 were identifiable at least to genus. Additional valves recovered by the MSU testing were analyzed by the senior author (Rafferty et al. 2005:9194). The data have been combined for this report.

22OK793 – the Josey Farm site is a small, multioccupation (Late Mississippian and Protohistoric) farmstead located in the Black Prairie uplands just north of Starkville in Oktibbeha County. The site is located near Josey Creek, a tributary of Trim Cane Creek, itself a tributary of Line Creek, which flows into Tibbee Creek, which flows into the Tombigbee River. Fieldwork at the site has been described in detail by Rafferty and Hogue (1999) and Rafferty (2001). Very few mussel valves were recovered, which are reported in Peacock and Gerber (2008). 22OK904 and 22OK905 are small, Mississippian to Protohistoric farmsteads located on the Black Prairie uplands north of Starkville, Oktibbeha County, on ridges overlooking first-order (now intermittent) tributaries of an unnamed second-order tributary of Josey Creek. The sites were excavated by Drs. Janet Rafferty and S. Homes Hogue, prior to construction of a highway bypass. The final report on these excavations has not yet been completed. A few shells from each site are reported in Peacock and Gerber (2008).

Yazoo Drainage From the Yazoo Drainage, 21 sites have produced 10,913 valves representing a minimum of 45 taxa (Table 4). 22TL1131 – the Greg Sheely Site is a Woodland-period site eroding into the Tallahatchie River in Tallahatchie County. Materials eroded from the bank were collected

15

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi by MDAH archaeologist John Connaway and Jenkins in May, 2002. An additional collection was made by the senior author Peacock and second author Jenkins, MSU archaeologist Janet Rafferty, and (then) MSU graduate student Keith Baca on March 29, 2006. Pottery recovered indicates a Late Woodland-period occupation (Connaway, personal communication 2010). A total of 89 identifiable valves recovered from these two visits were identified by the senior author.

Phillips identified the site as a “pure Deasonville phase” phenomenon (A.D. 300-600), and, as discussed in Chapter 2, broadly attributed the large shell rings noted throughout the Yazoo Basin as belonging to this phase. Also as noted in Chapter 2, Dr. Robert Dunnell collected artifacts and shell from the surface of the site in 2000, and the artifacts seem to indicate a longer time-span than Phillips had suggested (Feathers 2008; Feathers et al. 2004). Fourteen valves collected from the surface of the site by Dunnell were identified by the senior author. Eleven of those shells were radiocarbon dated to a time span ranging from 1200 – 590 B.C. (Feathers 2008; Feathers et al. 2004), much older than suggested by Phillips (1970).

22LF551 – the Gary #2 site is located on the west bank of the Tallahatchie River in Leflore County just north of Greenwood. The site was tested in 2001 by Panamerican Consultants, Inc. (McNutt 2003). Some poorly preserved mussel shell was retrieved from features. Based on radiocarbon dates, the occupation dates to about A.D. 1100 (McNutt 2003). Thirty valves identified at least to genus by the senior author and are reported here for the first time.

22HO557 – the Hunting Club site is located on Millstone Bayou in Holmes County. Millstone Bayou flows into Tchula Lake, an old channel of the Yazoo River. Little information is available for this site. Records on file at MDAH note Mulberry Creek and Baytown pottery types, suggesting a Late Woodland period occupation. A sample of shell was collected from the surface by the second author Jenkins and identified by the senior author.

22LF649 – the Palusha Creek #2 site is located near the east bank of the Yazoo River in Leflore County. The site is predominantly a Late Woodland-period (ca. A.D. 600 – 1000) settlement. A fairly large collection of mussels was obtained from excavations (Brown and Athens 1994; Brown et al. 1994:Appendix C), but only 55 were positively identified in the reports to at least the generic level. Of these, 31 valves were identified as Obovaria retusa, almost certainly a misidentification. The analyst is not specified in the report. Not tabulated here are several tentative identifications from the report; e.g., 43 valves identified as “possible Quadrula cylindrica.” The rabbitsfoot is a relatively easy mussel to identify in archaeological collections, so the uncertainty represented in this report is troubling and the data should be viewed with caution. It would be useful to have an expert reanalyze this collection in the future.

22HO565 – the French site is a prehistoric (primarily Late Woodland through Mississippian) to early Historicperiod (18th century) site located beside Everett Branch, a tributary of the Yazoo River, on the eastern edge of the Delta physiographic province adjacent to the Loess or Bluff Hills in Holmes County. Records on file at MDAH indicate that 6,737 “pieces” of shell were recovered in excavations at the site. The current location of this collection is not known. Fifty mussel valves from an Early Mississippian (circa A.D. 900 – 1000) period pit feature at the site were identified by Wilson (1987:Table 2), who also notes 6,662 “unidentified mussel” remains from the site.

22HO546 – the Tchula Lake site is located on the west bank of Tchula Lake, an old channel of the Yazoo River in Holmes County. A surface collection of the site was conducted in the mid-20th century and reported by Phillips (1970:270-273), who described it as:

22QU525 – the Shady Grove site (Phillips et al. 1951:54) is a large village with a platform mound and a small burial mound (now destroyed) located on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. As noted in the previous chapter, a large shell ring just north of the mound has recently been recognized from aerial photos. Salvage excavations at the site were carried out by archaeologists from the MDAH in response to land leveling in 1975. Three excavation units produced “many hundreds of mussel shells” from a very dense shell midden, with a Late Woodland Baytown occupation being indicated by the pottery (Connaway 1981:27-31; personal communication 2010). Samples of midden were washed through window screen (Connaway 1981:27). A large sample of shell was analyzed by Paul Hartfield (list on file, MDAH field office, Clarksdale). Another small sample of 123 shells from the site was analyzed by the senior author, and the results are combined for this report, for a total of 2,374 identified valves. Further excavations at the site in 2010, by graduate students from the

a remarkable circular arrangement of shell middens. The first impression one receives on approaching the site is that of a continuous ring of shells about 200 meters in diameter, but I think this is almost certainly due to the spreading of individual middens by cultivation. In…aerial photographs they show up clearly as separate concentrations of shells…At the point where the circle comes closest to the lake, between the highway and the lake bank, is the stub of a shell-heap about one meter high. This may be an indication of the height of all the middens before cultivation. There is no shell in the middle of the circle…The surfaces of the midden are solidly white with shell and the effect from a distance is really quite spectacular” (Phillips 1970:270).

16

Methods and Sample Descriptions salvage excavations, but a large sample of shells was obtained from densely packed features and from a surface collection. The 1,316 valves identifiable at least to genus are reported here for the first time. Identifications were made by the senior author.

University of Southern Mississippi produced more shell which was provided to the senior author but which has not been analyzed at the time of the writing of this report. 22QU1013 – the Louise Henry site is located on the Coldwater River in the town of Marks, Quitman County. Workmen removing dirt from beneath the house of Louise and Goly Henry in 2006 displaced a large number of shells, animal bones, potsherds, and other artifacts. Based on the size of the sherds, at least that part of the site beneath the house has never been plowed, an extraordinarily rare situation in the Mississippi Delta. The pottery appears to be mostly grog-tempered cordmarked, indicating a Late Woodland-period occupation. The mussel valves were collected by the landowner and Jessica Crawford, an archaeologist with the Archaeological Conservancy. They are very well preserved, with only a few valves unidentifiable. In fact, this assemblage is easily the best preserved collection of archaeological shell the senior author has seen from the state of Mississippi. In total, 336 valves were analyzed to the specific level by the senior author. Of particular interest are single specimens of Quadrula metanevra and Actinonaias ligamentina, both new records for the Coldwater River. This extraordinary site should be placed on the National Register of Historic Places, and every effort should be made to preserve it. It would be an ideal locale for systematic sampling for mussel remains in the future.

22SU526 – the Kinlock site is a large prehistoric mound and village complex located on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County (Phillips et al. 1951). The site, which has components ranging from the Late Archaic through Mississippian periods, had six mounds, five of which were arranged around an open plaza, with a discrete concentration of shell shown by Phillips (1970:Fig. 184) as lying between Mounds B and E. Using aerial photographs, Panamerican Consultants, Inc., identified this concentration as part of a “d-shaped” shell ring, and the second author Jenkins made general surface collections of shell from different parts of the site on January 26, 2007. The shell was analyzed by the senior author for this report, with the assistance of Bob Jones. A total of 767 identifiable valves are represented. In the summer of 2009, an MSU archaeological field school was held at the site, which included controlled surface collection and test excavations on the shell ring (Carlock and Rafferty 2009). This work produced several thousand valves which were still being analyzed at the time of the writing of this report. 22SU531 – the Lake Dawson site is another large mound and village complex, located on the north side of Lake Dawson in the Sunflower River drainage, not far from the point at which Mound Bayou enters the lake (Phillips et al. 1951). The site has Middle Woodland through Mississippian-period occupations and had at least four mounds. A small collection of shell was made from the surface of the site by the second author Jenkins and was analyzed by the senior author for this report.

22BO551 – the Acree site is located on the bank of what was once a channel of the Mississippi River (Connaway 1981) in Bolivar County. It was described by Phillips et al. (1951:53) as a circa 4-acre village with two mounds. Salvage excavations by MDAH personnel and volunteers were carried out due to land leveling in 1973. Several pit features were excavated that were primarily Late Woodland in age (Connaway 1981). A small sample of 36 valves was identified by Hartfield (list on file, MDAH field office, Clarksdale).

22CO503 – the Oliver site is a large village site with two mounds located on the south bank of the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County. The site has seen intermittent excavations since the early 1900s (Peabody 1904; Phillips et al. 1951:253-260). Extensive salvage excavations were carried out at the site in the 1990s by MDAH archaeologist John Connaway, revealing Late Woodland (Baytown) and Mississippian-period features such as pits, burials, and structures. The shell from the site was analyzed by the senior author (Peacock n.d.) for a site report that was not completed at the time of the writing of this report. Limited data on selected species are presented in Peacock (1996, 1997); all the data are given here. In total, 497 valves from the site were identified at least to genus.

22SU501 – the Walford site is a palisaded village with three mounds located on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. The site is noted but not described in detail by Phillips et al. (1951); however, Chapman et al. (2004:249) describe “a linear patch of shell midden along the high bank but no Tchula Lake pattern extending out into the field. It is possible that the shell midden is associated with the Mississippian component at the site.” They also note Late Woodland ceramics recovered from the surface of the site. Daub with cane impressions, ash and artifact concentrations also were noted along the bank, “suggesting the presence of several burned [Mississippian] houses” (Chapman et al. 2004:300). Leveling of the site led to salvage excavations under the direction of MDAH archaeologist John Connaway in the spring of 2004. Numerous pits and other features were encountered, dating mostly to the Late Woodland and Mississippian periods. Screening was not employed in the

22CO516 – the Wilsford site is located in the northern Yazoo Basin, in the Sunflower River drainage in Coahoma County. It is a village site with one to two mounds, dating primarily to the Mississippian period. Limited excavations begun by the University of

17

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi sides by an earthen embankment (Williams and Brain 1983). A number of apparently discrete occupations are present, but the main occupation dates from the Early to Middle Mississippian periods (Williams and Brain 1983). A collection of mussel valves from the site was reported by Barber (1983), who noted that “quantifications should be regarded cautiously. The sample is small and was not collected with an eye toward unbiased representation” (Barber 1983:471). Most of the shells reported were identified by Richard I. Johnson, then Curator of FreshWater Mollusca at Harvard University (Barber 1983:471). This is an important fact, as one of the species reported is Obovaria retusa (a single valve), which as noted above for the Palusha Creek #2 site (22LF649), would be a very unusual record for Mississippi. Another unusual identification is 29 valves of Pleurobema cordatum. It is an interesting possibility, based on the presence of shell midden in the western portion of the site (Williams and Brain 1983), that the western plaza was encompassed by a shell ring.

Mississippi were expanded by MDAH in 1969 (Connaway 1984). Numerous house structures and other features were revealed. Eight mussel valves are mentioned in the report, with only two being identified to genus (Connaway 1984:Table 18). 22HU550 – the Townson Lake Landing site is located on the south bank of Townson Lake in eastern Humphreys County. The site was originally recorded in 1972 during the Tallahatchie Basin Survey by MDAH. A general surface collection of shell was made by the second author Jenkins on February 16, 2005, and the shell was identified by the senior author for this report. Forty valves were identifiable from the collection. 22SH522 – the Little Spanish Fort site is a large, Middle Woodland-period semi-circular earthwork on the lower Yazoo River in Sharkey County. Excavations conducted in 1993 by the University of Southern Mississippi (Jackson 1998) included testing a shell midden on the riverbank noted earlier by Phillips (1970:381). A 30 to 40 cm. thick shell midden was encountered from which some 1,300 valves were recovered. Due to poor preservation, only 242 could be assigned to species by the senior author for this report. Based on a radiocarbon date obtained from a lower stratum and ceramics from the “culturally mixed” shell stratum (Jackson 1998), a Middle to Late Woodland (circa 100 B.C. – A.D. 600) date is assigned to this shell. The shell midden is possibly ring-shaped at this site; however, ground cover on available aerial imagery prevents a definitive identification at this time.

22YZ624, the O’Neil Creek site is located on O’Neill Creek, a tributary of the Yazoo River, in Yazoo County. The site was excavated and reported by Heartfield, Price and Greene (1987) who consider it to be primarily a Late Woodland period (late Baytown) site. Bogan (1987) analyzed the mussels and presents data on 555 identifiable valves. Pascagoula Drainage From the Pascagoula drainage, one site has produced 17,562 valves representing a minimum of 14 taxa (Table 5).

22SH549 and 22SH551 are two of four “mound” sites located on the Delta National Forest (see also Davies 1999) in Sharkey County. These are likely accretional middens rather than constructed mounds. Based on ceramics collected from animal-burrow back piles, they likely accumulated during the Late Woodland and Mississippian periods (Sam Brookes, USDA Forest Service, personal communication). A few valves collected from animal burrows were analyzed by the senior author.

22GE512 – the Bilbo Basin site is located in the Pine Hills physiographic province on the Pascagoula River in George County, Mississippi. The University of Southern Mississippi conducted limited excavations at the site in the fall of 2003. Three 1m2 units were dug in arbitrary 10 cm levels, revealing a shell midden approximately 50 cm thick. Although a report on the excavations has not yet been completed, the mussel shell was analyzed by Peacock and Mistak (2008:13), who note:

22YZ515 – the Milner site is located on the eastern margin of the Yazoo Basin in Yazoo County, on the west side of O’Neill Creek, a tributary of the Yazoo River (Heartfield, Price and Greene 1987:1.2-2). A primarily Woodland-period, Deasonville-phase occupation is suggested by Heartfield, Price and Greene (1987). Bogan (1987) analyzed the mussels and presents data on 3,843 identifiable valves.

Charred plant material from Unit N1025 E1033, Level 5, was submitted for radiometric-standard dating and produced a 2-sigma calibrated date range of 790-660 B.P. (Beta-217101), or A.D. 1160-1290. Mussel shell from a shell-tempered sherd recovered from the same unit and level was AMS radiocarbon dated and returned a calibrated 2-sigma range of 920-700 B.P. (Beta-217099), or A.D. 1030-1250. There are no visible stratigraphic breaks, suggesting that the deposit accumulated relatively rapidly.

22YZ557 – the Lake George site is located on the south side of George Lake, once an active channel of the Mississippi River, near the point at which the lake joins the Sunflower River in Yazoo County (Williams and Brain 1983). The site is justifiably famous as a large village with as many as 25 mounds surrounded on three

The assemblage clearly has suffered from postdepositional alteration, as most of the shells recovered are from relatively thick-shelled species. This is reflected in 18

Methods and Sample Descriptions the proportion of identified valves (n = 17,562, or 68%) out of the total valves recovered (n = 25,898) from the site. It also is possible that the relatively low diversity represented reflects the naturally “stressed” environment of the highly acidic, relatively turbid waters of the Lower Gulf Coastal Plain (e.g., Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Miller et al. 1986). An interesting feature of this assemblage is that virtually all the shells have been extensively eroded, many completely through the umbonal portion of the shell (Peacock and Mistak 2008). This is a common feature of mussels found in streams in the area today and is an indication that similar conditions existed in the past.

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Chapter 4

Discussion of Species The taxonomic diversity revealed in archaeological data is high relative to historical mussel records for Mississippi (e.g., Hinkley 1906; Grantham 1969). Each species identified will be briefly discussed, with reference to the range maps given in Appendix B of this report. While we mention some archaeological occurrences in states adjacent to Mississippi, there is a large body of “gray literature,” as well as journal publications, in which species lists are given for sites across the Southeast and other parts of North America. We refer the reader to Peacock (2010) for citations to the broader literature. In all photos the scale is in cm.

(e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998:52), although Peacock and Chapman (2001) also report a few valves from a site in Ouachita Parish, Louisiana, while Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. Peacock et al. (2011) report it in very low numbers from sites along Bayou Bartholomew in southeastern Arkansas. In the case of Mississippi, given the number of archaeological assemblages analyzed from the Yazoo Basin, a strong argument could be made that the mucket has increased in numbers in Historic times.

Actinonaias ligamentina. This species has been recorded in recent years in the Big Sunflower River, where it is considered to be a species of significance by Jones et al. (2005), and in the Yazoo River by Hartfield (1993:Table 1). Miller and Payne [2004:Table 2]) list “Actinonaias confragosus” for the Big Sunflower; this presumably refers either to A. ligamentina or Arcidens confragosus. Nationally, A. ligamentina is Currently Stable (Williams et al. 1993). Evidence for its spread during Historic times (basically the mid-19th through late 20th centuries) is mixed, with some documented cases of increase (e.g., Isom and Yokley 1968a, 1968b; White 1977) and other cases of decrease (e.g., Stansbery 1964; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; Theler 1987). Figure 11B. Interior right valve of Actinonaias ligamentina from the Louise Henry site (22QU1013) on the Coldwater River, Quitman County. Amblema plicata. The threeridge is one of the more successful species of mussel today in terms of survivorship. With rare exceptions (e.g., Metcalf 1980; Miller et al. 1994), it has either maintained or extended its range in Historic times (e.g., Ahlstedt 1984; Blaylock and Sickel 1996; Coon et al. 1977; Cvancara and Freeman 1978; Miller et al. 1992; Parmalee and Klippel 1986; Payne et al. 1994; Starrett 1971; Theler 1987). The species is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and is an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005; see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997). It occurs in large rivers (Miller and Payne 2004) to small, low-current, silt-bottomed bayous (Miller and Payne 2001) in the Yazoo Basin in northwest Mississippi. In the Tombigbee drainage, McGregor and Haag (2004) report it from the Noxubee and Buttahatchee rivers, Town Creek, and Coonewah Creek (the last three only as dead, weathered shells), as well as from the Sipsey River in Alabama (see also McGregor 2000:13), an “aquatic hotspot” for freshwater mussels (McCullagh et al. 2002). Interestingly, they note for the Upper Tombigbee River system that “it is restricted to larger streams” (McGregor and Haag 2004:20). Jones et

Figure 11A. Exterior right valve of Actinonaias ligamentina from the Louise Henry site (22QU1013) on the Coldwater River, Quitman County. Only one valve of the mucket was noted in all the archaeological data compiled for this report. As noted earlier, the valve is from 22QU1013, the Louise Henry site, located on the Coldwater River in Marks, Mississippi (Map A-2). This is a positive identification; the shell (Figure 11) is a right valve, elliptical in outline, and distinguishable from archaeological specimens of Elliptio crassidens by the presence of a beak cavity. This find is on the edge of the animal’s known historical range

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Discussion of Species limited to larger streams prehistorically, as the threeridge has been recovered from a number of sites on smallerorder streams in Chickasaw and Lee counties (Table 2). It also was quite common at the Lyon’s Bluff site on Line Creek, where it makes up over 13 percent of the identifiable shell. McGregor and Dumas (2010) and) found it to be common at sites on the Lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama. It is found at sites in Louisiana and Arkansas as well (e.g., Peacock and Chapman 2001; Peacock et al. 2011; Saunders et al. 2005; Vidrine 2008).

al. (1997) report it as abundant in Tibbee Creek, while Jones et al. (1996) found it to be common in the Noxubee River. Miller and Hartfield (1988) and Hartfield and Jones (1989a) found it to be a dominant species in the middle and lower reaches of the East Fork of the Tombigbee. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1989b) and Jones (1991) also report it in low numbers from the Buttahatchee River. It is present in the main channel of the Tombigbee as well (e.g., van der Schalie 1939; Hartfield and Jones 1989b). McGregor et al. (1999) report it from a number of tributary streams in the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama River drainages in southwest Alabama. Brown and Curole (1997) report this species for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. It is found west into the eastern half of Texas (Howells et al. 1996).

Figure 13A. Exterior left valve of Arcidens confragosus from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 12A. Exterior right valve of Amblema plicata from the surface of Mound B at the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 13B. Interior left valve of Arcidens confragosus from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 12B. Interior right valve of Amblema plicata from the surface of Mound B at the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Arcidens confragosus. The rock pocketbook is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) but is considered an S2 species (imperiled) in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005). Jones et al. (2005) show this species as occurring in the Big Black, Yazoo, Tennessee, Pearl,

Its relatively high abundance in Historic times (e.g., Miller et al. 1992) is mirrored by its widespread distribution across the state prehistorically (Figure 12 and Map A-3). Also, it is not the case that the species was

21

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi al. (2005) report two valves from the Watson Brake site (16OU175), also in Ouachita Parish. Peacock et al. (2011) report it in small numbers from prehistoric sites on Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. This mussel is considered to be Threatened nationally (Williams et al. 1993).

and Tombigbee River drainages in Historic times (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1987, 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997). McGregor and Haag (2004) report only one live specimen from Tombigbee River drainage, in the Noxubee River, while Jones et al. (1997) found only one live specimen in Tibbee Creek. A few specimens were noted in the Buttahatchee River by Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991). Similarly, Pierson (1991) found one dead specimen in the lower Sipsey River. Hartfield and Jones (1989a) found it restricted to the upper reaches of the East Fork Tombigbee River. Van der Schalie (1939) lists it for the pre-impoundment Tombigbee River, while Hartfield and Jones (1989b) and McCullagh et al. (2002) note the occurrence of the species there following impoundment. It is found west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Interestingly, the only verified archaeological occurrences of this species (Figure 13) in Mississippi are from the Yazoo Basin (Map A-4), where it also has been reported in modern times (e.g., Miller and Payne 2001). It apparently was quite rare prehistorically, with only seven valves being noted (Table 4), a pattern mirrored in Historic-period records (Hartfield 1987:139-140). However, it does appear to have been widespread throughout the basin, and is found at sites in northern Louisiana (Peacock and Chapman 2001) and southeastern Arkansas (Peacock et al. 2011) as well. Given the large number of valves analyzed from archaeological sites in the central Tombigbee River drainage, it seems unlikely that the species was present there in prehistoric times, unless it was restricted to tributary streams. It certainly does not appear to have been present in the main river until the lower stretches, where it was rare: Peacock (2009) reports only eight valves of this species out of 16,555 identifiable valves from site 1CK56 on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama.

Figure 14A. Exterior right valve of Cyprogenia aberti from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Cyprogenia aberti. One of the more important contributions from the analysis of archaeological shell in Mississippi has been to demonstrate the former presence of the western fanshell in the eastern tributaries of the Mississippi River (Bogan 1987; Hartfield 1993; Jones et al. 2005:80-81; Peacock and James 2002). Including new records from assemblages analyzed for this report, the species (Figure 14) is now known from six sites in the Yazoo drainage and one in the Big Black drainage (Map A-5). These data indicate that the species was probably widespread in western Mississippi streams and rivers in prehistoric times. It also may have been abundant; for example, it was the fourth most common species found at the Pocahontas Mound A site in the Big Black drainage in Hinds County (Peacock and James 2002). No extant populations are known in the state today (Jones et al. 2005). Peacock and Chapman (2001) found a single valve in a large assemblage from a site on the Ouachita River in Ouachita Parish, Louisiana, while Saunders et

Figure 14B. Interior right valve of Cyprogenia aberti from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Ellipsaria lineolata. The butterfly is a species of Special Concern nationally (Williams et al. 1993) and an S3 species (rare or uncommon) in Mississippi, where it is known from the Big Black, Yazoo, Tennessee and Tombigbee drainages (Jones et al. 2005; see also Hartfield 1987, 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985).

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Discussion of Species Miller and Payne (2004) found it to be rare in the Big Sunflower River. Haag and Warren (1998a) report only relict shells from a survey of streams in the Delta National Forest in the Yazoo River drainage. Jones et al. (1996) report a single specimen from the Noxubee River. McGregor (2000:13) reported it from a single station on the Sipsey River, while McGregor and Haag (2004) note its presence in the Sipsey River and Factory Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage in Alabama. McCullagh et al. (2002) also note that it is present, though rare, in the lower Sipsey. A few valves were reported from the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a) and from the Buttahatchee River by Jones (1991). It is known from the main Tombigbee River as well (Hartfield and Jones 1989b; McCullagh et al. 2002; van der Schalie 1939).

(McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). An interesting occurrence from Mississippi is at the Dudley site (22KE511) in Kemper County, on a lower-order tributary in the Noxubee River drainage. The species apparently was relatively rare in prehistoric times, making up less than one percent of the total archaeological valves recorded for the state (see also Peacock and Chapman [2001] and Saunders et al. [2005] for Louisiana). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, and Peacock et al. (2011) for Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 15A. Exterior left valve of Ellipsaria lineolata from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

The species (Figure 16) was relatively abundant in the Tombigbee River drainage in the past (Map A-7), as it makes up nearly seven percent of the identified valves (Table 2). Most of these valves are from sites on the main stem of the Tombigbee River; however, the species has also been noted from very small assemblages on tributary streams, and, given the smaller sample sizes involved, it likely was common in those smaller streams as well. It has been reported in low numbers from archaeological sites along the lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009).

Elliptio arca. Once considered a Mobile River system endemic (Hartfield 1987:139), the Alabama spike is known today from the Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (Jones et al. 2005). Its national status is Threatened (Williams et al. 1993) and its state status is S3 (rare or uncommon). Jones and Majure (1999) reported a few specimens from Bull Mountain Creek, a Tombigbee River tributary. McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) found it at several stations in the eastern tributaries of the Tombigbee River, while McCullagh et al. (2002) note that it is common in the lower Sipsey River, Alabama. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) found it to be quite common in some reaches of the Buttahatchee River. It was restricted to the upper reaches of the East Fork Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989a). Early listings of Elliptio dilatata in the Tombigbee River itself (e.g., van der Schalie 1939) doubtless refer to E. arca.

Figure 15B. Interior left valve of Ellipsaria lineolata from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Archaeologically, the butterfly (Figure 15) is present in assemblages from the Yazoo, Big Black, and Tombigbee drainages (Map A-6). A few valves have been reported from sites along the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama

Figure 16A. Exterior left valve of Elliptio arca from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Curole (1997) report it from the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. Jones et al. (1996) report a few specimens from the Noxubee River, while Jones et al. (1997) note only a single specimen from Tibbee Creek. McGregor and Haag (2004:21) note that it is “widely distributed in medium- to large-river habitats in the Upper Tombigbee River system,” including the lower Buttahatchee and Noxubee rivers and Bull Mountain Creek (McGregor 2000:13; see also Hartfield and Jones 1990; Jones 1991; Yokley 1978). McGregor (2000) and McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be common in stretches of the Sipsey River. It was common in the East Fork Tombigbee River in 1988 (Hartfield and Jones 1989a). It also is found in the main channel of the Tombigbee River (e.g., van der Schalie 1939), where it appears to be relatively common (Hartfield and Jones 1989b). It was rare in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers in southwest Alabama (McGregor et al. 1999).

Figure 16B. Interior left valve of Elliptio arca from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County Elliptio arctata. The delicate spike is a species of Special Concern nationally (Williams et al. 1993) and an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005). Miller (2001) reports one valve from Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage of east-central Mississippi, while McGregor and Haag (2004:21) note that it is “extremely rare” in the Upper Tombigbee River drainage, with a few occurrences in the Buttahatchee and Sipsey rivers. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991) report it from the Buttahatchee, where it was rare. McCullagh et al. (2002) reported it from only one station in the lower Sipsey. It apparently was historically rare in the main stem of the Tombigbee River as well (e.g., van der Schalie 1939). Only 13 valves have been recorded archaeologically, two from a site on the main Tombigbee River and eleven from a site on Tibbee Creek (Map A-8; Table 2). It also appears to have been extremely rare in the Lower Tombigbee River prehistorically (Peacock 2009). To some extent this may be due to the fragile nature of the shell; however, given the amount of archaeological shell that has been analyzed from the Tombigbee River drainage, and the presence of other thin-shelled species in those assemblages, it would appear that E. arctata was rare prehistorically, as it is historically (Hartfield 1987:140).

Figure 17A. Exterior left valve of Elliptio crassidens from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County

Elliptio crassidens. The literature on this species is mixed where modern impacts are concerned, with some studies showing it to be maintaining or expanding its range (e.g., Blalock and Sickel 1996; Isom and Yokley 1968a, 1968b) and others showing decline (e.g., Matteson 1959; Parmalee 1956; Parmalee and Hughes 1993; Starrett 1971; Taylor and Hughart 1981; Theler 1987). The elephantear is considered to be Currently Stable nationally (Williams et al. 1993) and an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi, where it occurs in the Mississippi, Big Black, Tennessee, Lake Pontchartrain, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee drainages (Jones et al. 2005; see also Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; Miller 2001). Hartfield (1993:Table 1) lists E. crassidens from the Yazoo River. Brown and

Figure 17B. Interior left valve of Elliptio crassidens from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. The elephantear had a similar wide distribution prehistorically (Figure 17 and Map A-9), being known from the Yazoo, Big Black, Tombigbee, and Pascagoula drainages (see also McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock

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Discussion of Species 18 and Map A-10). Hartfield (1993:Table 1) notes its presence as fossil (archaeological) material in the Yazoo River. It was most common at site 22QU525, the Shady Grove site, located on the Coldwater River, at five percent of the total identified assemblage (Table 4). It was present in both smaller and larger waterways in western Mississippi. Peacock and Chapman (2001), Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) reports it from Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas.

2009). It was present, but rare, at a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana (Peacock and Chapman 2001). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. One item of interest is that the species does not seem to have had wide distribution in the smaller streams of the Yazoo drainage (e.g., compare Map A-9 with the pattern of distribution for Amblema plicata in Map A-3). This may be a result of sampling error, but it is not a result of preservation bias. The species is relatively thick-shelled and easy to identify; it shows up at sites of all sizes and all locations, including very small tributary streams in the Tombigbee River drainage, for example (Map A-9). Elliptio dilatata. The spike is Currently Stable nationally (Williams et al. 1993) but is considered an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005). Historical records on the success of this species are mixed, with some evidence for range maintenance or expansion (e.g., Parmalee et al. 1980; Theler 1987) and other studies showing its decline (e.g., Dineen 1971; Hoeh and Trdan 1984; Klippel et al. 1978; Parmalee 1956; Starrett 1971; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; White 1977), an apparent result of water pollution (e.g., Hoeh and Trdan 1984; Taylor and Hughart 1981). In Mississippi, the species is known from the Mississippi River North and Yazoo drainages (Jones et al. 2005).

Figure 19A. Exterior right valve of Epioblasma penita from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Epioblasma penita. The southern combshell is listed as endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1 species (critically imperiled) in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005) due to impacts from the Tombigbee Waterway and other modern “improvements” (Stansbery 1983a). It has maintained in tributary streams such as the Buttahatchee River (Hartfield 1987). McGregor (2000) reported the species from the lower Buttahatchee River in Mississippi; it was earlier reported from the Buttahatchee by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991). McGregor and Haag (2004:21) report a new tributary record for Town Creek in Monroe County, where the species was found as weathered shells. They note that “the lower Buttahatchee River supports what is probably the last remaining population of this species” (McGregor and Haag 2004:21). They further note that it was “formerly widely distributed in large-river habitats in this region” (McGregor and Haag 2004:21). Miller and Hartfield (1988) reported a fresh shell of the species in the East Fork of the Tombigbee River near the confluence of Bull Mountain Creek. It was present only as relict shells in a survey of the Noxubee River (Jones et al. 1996) and as a few subfossil shells in a survey of the Tombigbee River in western Alabama (Hartfield and Jones 1989b).

Figure 18A. Eexterior left valve of Elliptio dilatata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County.

Figure 18B. Interior left valve of Elliptio dilatata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County. Prehistorically it was widespread, if not especially common, in the Yazoo and Big Black drainages (Figure

This Tombigbee River drainage species may have been present throughout the upper to central Tombigbee

25

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi description of morphological McCullagh et al. [2002:6]).

watershed, as it has been found archaeologically (Figure 19) on the main stem of the river, on Tibbee Creek, and on tributaries of the Noxubee River (Table 2; Map A-11). It may have been locally abundant; for example, it made up nine percent of the large shell assemblage from site the Shell Bluff site (22LO530) on the Tombigbee River. Its presence at the Curry site, 22OK578 (Table 2) represents a new Noxubee River tributary record, although it is unknown whether the shell was obtained from Jordan Canal or Hollis Creek. A few valves were reported from a site on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama by Peacock (2009); the absence at other sites there (McGregor and Dumas 2010) is likely the result of smaller samples sizes.

characteristics

in

The southern pigtoe was not found during a recent survey of Tibbee Creek, despite its presence in earlier collections from that stream (Jones et al. 1997). Jones and Majure (1999) reported it as common in Bull Mountain Creek. Miller (2001) reports the species in Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage of east-central Mississippi, while McGregor and Haag (2004) found it to be widespread and abundant in the Upper Tombigbee River drainage, including the Sipsey, Buttahatchee and Noxubee rivers, Bull Mountain Creek, and “several small creeks” (McGregor 2000:13). Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991) also found it to be common in the Buttahatchee, although its numbers varied considerably with stream reach. Hartfield and Jones (1989a) report it from the East Fork Tombigbee River. It was found in the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996). One specimen was reported from the main stem of the Tombigbee River where F. ebena was common (Hartfield and Jones 1989b). A few specimens were reported from Tombigbee and Alabama river tributaries in southwest Alabama (McGregor et al. 1999). Brown and Curole (1997) report it from the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana.

Figure 19B. Interior right valve of Epioblasma penita from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Fusconaia cerina. The southern pigtoe is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). There is some debate about the veracity of F. cerina as a species separate from Fusconaia flava. Some genetic testing suggests that the separation is legitimate (Campbell et al. 2005), although “the level of genetic variation between these two species…is at the low end of values reported for interspecific comparisons in unionids” (Burdick and White 2007:368). Other tests suggest that “F. cerina specimens in the Yellow Creek (Mississippi) and Sipsey River (Alabama) localities may actually be F. flava” (Burdick and White 2007:374. Such arguments are beyond our areas of expertise, but it is worth noting that the archaeological specimens examined by the senior author are quite distinct from both archaeological and modern shells of F. flava, being much more compressed and having markedly sharper umbos and pronounced surface ridges. This is especially true with upstream distance, and the large numbers of F. cerina from the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520), on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County are extremely pronounced in these shell characteristics (Figure 20; see also the

Figure 20A. Exterior right valve of Fusconaia cerina from an archaeological site on the main stem of the Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Note the different shell morphology between the downstream (A and B) and upstream (C and D) ecophenotypes. The species was widespread and moderately common in the Tombigbee River drainage prehistorically (Figure 20), having been present in headwater streams to the main river channel (Map A-12). McGregor and Dumas (2010) and Peacock (2009) report it from sites along the Lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama. It is present, though rare (less than half a percent of the total 26

Discussion of Species River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be rare and limited to riffle areas in the Sipsey River, while McGregor et al. (1999), in their survey of the primary tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers, report only a single specimen from the Sucarnoochee River. It is known from the Tombigbee River proper (e.g., van der Schalie 1939). This species has exhibited variable responses to different forms of stream alteration, with some instances of population maintenance or increase (e.g., Isom 1969; Payne et al. 1994) and some instances of decrease (e.g., Coon et al. 1977; Grace and Buchanan 1981; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Parmalee 1956; Starrett 1971; Theler 1987).

identifiable shell), in the Bilbo Basin assemblage (22GE512) from the Pascagoula River (Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5).

Figure 20B. Interior right valve of Fusconaia cerina from an archaeological site on the main stem of the Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Figure 20D. Interior right valve from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 20C. Exterior right valve from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Fusconaia ebena. The ebonyshell is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005; see also Hartfield and Rummel 1985). Haag and Warren (1998a) report only relict shells from a survey of streams in the Delta National Forest, while Hartfield (1993:Table 1) lists it for the Yazoo and Big Black Rivers. Miller and Payne (2004) found it in one stretch of the Big Sunflower River. Jones et al. (1996) report it from the Noxubee River. McGregor and Haag (2004:21) found it in eastern tributaries of the Tombigbee River and note that it “is common and widespread but…restricted to large-river habitats” (see also McGregor 2000:13). It was reported in low numbers from the Buttahatchee

Figure 21A. Exterior left valve of Fusconaia ebena from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi 2004:Table 2), although Miller and Payne (2001) report it from one small bayou in the Yazoo Basin, where it was rare. It occurs west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Again, there is a mixed record in terms of this species’ response to modern pollution and other forms of alteration (e.g., Blaylock and Sickel 1996; Dineen 1971; Klippel et al. 1978; Metcalf 1980; Starrett 1971; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; Theler 1987).

Figure 21B. Interior left valve of Fusconaia ebena from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. The ebonyshell is recorded archaeologically (Figure 21) from the Yazoo, Big Black, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (Map A-13). In the Tombigbee drainage, it seems to have been a large-river species (Table 2) and was not particularly abundant in prehistoric times in the upper to central reaches. However, it was by far the most common species in the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama, where it constituted half or more of all identifiable shells (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009); it also extended down into the Mobile-Tensaw Delta (Quitmyer 2003). It was quite common in the Yazoo Basin, however, making up 27 percent of all the identified archaeological shell from that drainage (Table 4). From the single Pascagoula River assemblage, it was the second most common species at 29 percent of the total identified shell. Its presence at the Pocahontas site (22HI500; Table 3) shows that it occasionally occupied smaller watercourses, at least in the Big Black River drainage (Peacock and James 2002). It was the dominant species at a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana (Peacock and Chapman 2001) but rare at the Watson Brake site (Saunders et al. 2005), which may be due to sample-size differences. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. Peacock et al. (2011) found it to be very rare in sites along Bayou Bartholomew in southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 22A. Exterior right valve of Fusconaia flava from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 22B. Interior right valve of Fusconaia flava from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Fusconaia flava. The Wabash pigtoe is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005) (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Miller et al. 1992). It is primarily a larger-river species (e.g., Miller and Payne

This species is confined to the Mississippi River drainage; archaeologically (Figure 22), it is found in the Yazoo and Big Black River drainages (Map A-14). In the Yazoo drainage it was relatively common, making up ten percent of the identifiable shell (Table 4). It was

28

Discussion of Species especially common (21 percent) in the assemblage from the Pocahontas Mound A site (22HI500) in the Big Black drainage (Table 3). Peacock and Chapman (2001) report it from a Ouachita River site in Louisiana, while Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. It was common in sites along Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas (Peacock et al. 2011).

Gordon (1983) noted the pre-European occurrence of the species from an archaeological site in Drew County, Arkansas. In Mississippi (Figure 23), the species is present at archaeological sites in the Yazoo, Big Black, and Pascagoula (Map A-15). It was not present in the central Tombigbee River drainage, but does occur at sites along the lower Tombigbee in southwest Alabama (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). It may have been rare in the Big Black drainage, with only a single valve from the Pocahontas Mound A site (22HI500 – Table 3). Hartfield (n.d.) identified 23 valves in a small collection (36 valves) from the Acree site (22BO551) (Table 4). It made up far less than one percent at the Bilbo Basin site (22GE12) on the Pascagoula River (Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Peacock et al. (2011) report two valves from a site on Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Glebula rotundata. The round pearlshell is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Big Black, Yazoo, Pearl, and Pascagoula drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985). It was present but rare in surveys of the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004). Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. Howells et al. (1996) report it from a few drainages in eastern Texas.

Lampsilis cardium. The plain pocketbook is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and an S3S4 species by Jones et al. (2005). This species may be difficult to distinguish archaeologically from related forms in the “Lampsilis ovata complex” (Parmalee and Bogan 1998:126-128); e.g., Lampsilis satura (Howells et al. 1996:64). The tendency with archaeological materials is to place uncertain specimens into whatever is the agreed-upon local variant in modern populations, but this practice represents a self-fulfilling prophecy. Eight valves of L. cardium were identified at the Walford site (22SU501) on the Sunflower River by the senior author (Table 4). These shells lacked the pronounced sharp angle of the posterior ridge found in L. ovata, so that an assignment to L. cardium seemed justified. This is the only archaeological assemblage in Mississippi where such an identification has been made (Map A-16). In general, members of this complex appear to have been relatively rare in the Yazoo Basin prehistorically, although they may be underrepresented due to the thin nature of the shells. Peacock and Chapman (2001) report a single valve from a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas and Peacock et al. (2011) note it in middens along Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 23A. Exterior left valve of Glebula rotundata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County.

Lampsilis hydiana. The Louisiana fatmucket is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) but is an S2 species (imperiled) in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005), where it is listed for the Yazoo and Big Black drainages (contra an earlier listing that included Tibbee Creek – Hartfield 1987:139). Miller and Payne (2004:Table 2) note a rare occurrence in the Big Sunflower River, where it was restricted to nearshore habitats. Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. It occurs west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996).

Figure 23B. Interior left valve of Glebula rotundata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County.

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) within Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who show it as occurring in the Lake Pontchartrain, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages. Brown and Curole (1997) report it from the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. Jones et al. (1996) report it from the Noxubee River. It was not recovered in a recent survey of Tibbee Creek, despite having been there historically (Jones et al. 1997). Miller (2001) reported 14 specimens from Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee drainage in east-central Mississippi. McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be abundant in the middle and lower Sipsey River. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), Jones (1991), and McGregor (2000) report it from several stations on the Buttahatchee River, and McGregor (2000) also found it in the Sipsey. McGregor and Haag (2004) report it from a number of Tombigbee River tributary streams, including one station on Coonewah Creek, in Lee County, Mississippi. It was well represented in the East Fork Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989a). McGregor et al. (1999) report a few specimens from tributary streams in southwest Alabama.

Figure 24A. Exterior left valve of a female Lampsilis hydiana from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 24B. Interior left valve of a female Lampsilis hydiana from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Archaeologically (Figure 24) it has been identified only in the Yazoo drainage, mostly in assemblages analyzed by the senior author (Table 4). Based on the limited information available, it may have been present in mostly small to medium-sized rivers prehistorically (Map A-17). The specimens identified by the senior author, and verified by Bob Jones and Paul Hartfield, are quite distinct. None were identified in the single assemblage from the Big Black River drainage. Peacock and Chapman (2001) did not distinguish it from L. siliquoidea at a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana; however, Saunders et al. (2005) do report it from the Watson Brake site. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas; however, Peacock et al. (2011) did not identify this species in large samples from prehistoric middens along Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 24C. Exterior left valve of a male Lampsilis hydiana from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 24D. Interior left valve of a male Lampsilis hydiana from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Lampsilis ornata. The southern pocketbook has a fairly restricted historical range in the lower Mid-South (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). It is listed as a species of

30

Discussion of Species subspecies for the Big Black River. Hartfield (1993:Table 1) also lists it for the Yazoo and Big Black Rivers.

Figure 26A. Exterior left valve of Lampsilis ovata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County.

Figure 25A. Exterior left valve of Lampsilis ornata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River, Lowndes County.

Figure 26B. Interior left valve of Lampsilis ovata from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County. This species has been identified archaeologically (Figure 26) in the Yazoo Basin (Table 4; Map A-19) by the senior author and by Bogan (1987), both of whom separated the species based on a pronounced, sharply breaking posterior ridge and a high umbo. Peacock et al. (2011) also list two valves from a prehistoric midden on Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. These reports represent a significant range extension from some published maps (e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998:132). As with other members of the genus, there likely is a relatively high degree of preservation bias affecting the identification of this species, which cannot be reliably separated from similar members of the genus without the posterior ridge being present.

Figure 25B. Interior left valve of Lampsilis ornata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River, Lowndes County. Archaeologically (Figure 25), L. ornata has been identified in the Tombigbee River drainage, from waterways of various sizes (Map A-18), including Line Creek (site 22OK520) and either Hollis Creek or Jordan Canal (site 22OK578 – Table 2), both of which are new records. It apparently was not common, making up less than one percent of the total identified shell from the drainage; however, there may be substantial preservation bias against this relatively thin-shelled species. The species also may be buried deep in the substrate (e.g., McCullagh et al. 2002:6), which may contribute to its rarity in archaeological assemblages. Peacock (2009) reports a few valves from a site in Clarke County, Alabama, on the Lower Tombigbee River.

Lampsilis perovalis. The orangenacre mucket is listed as Threatened by Williams et al. (1993) and an S1 species (critically imperiled) in Mississippi, where it is listed for the Tombigbee River sytsem by Jones et al. (2005). According to Hartfield (1987:136), the mussel “is known to exist in only four of the larger tributaries of the Upper Tombigbee River: the East Fork Tombigbee River, the Buttahatchee River, Bull Mountain Creek, and the Sipsey Creek.” Its presence in the Buttahatchee was also noted by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). McGregor (2000) also notes its presence in Coal Fire Creek and Trussells Creek. Miller (2001) reports it from Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage

Lampsilis ovata. The pocketbook is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species (rare or uncommon) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). Hartfield and Ebert (1986) note L. ovata ventricosa for Bayou Pierre in southwest Mississippi, while Hartfield and Rummel (1985) note the same 31

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi did not distinguish between L. hydiana and L. siliquoidea at a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana; however, Peacock et al. (2011) did report L. siliquoidea from sites along Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

of east-central Mississippi. McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) note it in a number of eastern tributaries of the Upper Tombigbee River, including Bull Mountain Creek (see also Jones and Majure 1999) and Yellow Creek in Mississippi. They note that the species “is widely distributed…but is rare where it occurs” (McGregor and Haag 2004:21). Conversely, McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be “fairly common” in the Sipsey River, which seems to be an unusual situation. It was rare in the East Fork Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989a). A few specimens were reported from tributary streams in southwest Alabama by McGregor et al. (1999). Roe and Hartfield (2005) suggest, based on marsupial characteristics, that this species be combined with other forms into a new species, Hamiota perovalis. It has been found archaeologically at four sites in the Tombigbee River drainage (Table 2; Map A-20), three on the main stem of the Tombigbee River and one on Line Creek (a new record). It also was found at a site on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama by Peacock (2009). Based on these collections, all of which are substantial, this species was very rare prehistorically. This historical rarity may be related to reproductive characteristics. Haag and Warren (1997) found that sunfish (primarily basses) serve as host fish for L. perovalis glochidia, which are packaged in minnow-shaped superconglutinates (Haag et al. 1995) “that may attract piscivorous fish and be too large to be ingested by most fishes” other than bass or pickerel (Haag and Warren 1997:584).

Figure 27A. Exterior left valve of Lampsilis siliquoidea from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County.

Lampsilis radiata. The eastern lampmussel has a rather confusing taxonomic history (Parmalee and Bogan 1998:133-135), often being confused with Lampsilis siliquoidea. Hartfield and Ebert (1986) note the presence of this species in Bayou Pierre in southwest Mississippi, while Hartfield and Rummel (1985) report Lampsilis radiata luteola from the Big Black River.

Figure 27B. Interior left valve of Lampsilis siliquoidea from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Big Sunflower River in Coahoma County. Lampsilis straminea claibornensis. The southern fatmucket is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi, Big Black, Lake Pontchartrain, Coastal Rivers, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Jones and Majure 1999; Jones et al. 1997; McCullagh et al. 2002; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller 2001). Cooper and Johnson (1980) report it (“Lampsilis claibornensis”) from the Yalobusha River. Brown and Curole (1997) list it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. It was common in a survey of the Buttahatchee River (Hartfield and Jones 1990) and is found in the main channel of the Tombigbee River (e.g., Hartfield and Jones 1989b). McGregor et al. (1999) found it to be common in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers. Archaeological specimens (Figure 28) are limited to the Tombigbee River drainage and the Pascagoula River drainage in Mississippi (Map A-23); it also was present in the lower Tombigbee in southwest Alabama (McGregor and

Archaeologically, Hartfield (n.d.) identified a number of valves of this species at the Shady Grove site (22QU525) in Quitman County. It was also identified by Bogan (1987) at the Milner and O’Neil Creek sites in Yazoo County. It is not listed by Jones et al. (2005), who instead list Lampsilis siliquoidea, an S3S4 species in Mississippi. Archaeological valves identified as L. radiata are confined to the Yazoo Basin (Map A-21). Lampsilis siliquoidea. Haag and Warren (1998a) report relict shells of this species from streams in the Delta National Forest in the Yazoo River drainage, while Hartfield (1993:Table 1) lists it for the Yazoo, Big Black, and Homochitto Rivers and Bayou Pierre in southwestern Mississippi. Twenty-seven valves of the fatmucket (Figure 27) were identified at the Oliver site (22CO503) on the Sunflower River by the senior author (Peacock n.d.) (Table 4; Map A-22). Peacock and Chapman (2001)

32

Discussion of Species (1991) does not distinguish subspecies in his report from the Buttahatchee River or from the Noxubee River (Jones et al. 1996), where the species was represented only by relict shells. McCullagh et al. (2002:6) describe some specimens of L. s. claibornensis from the Sipsey River in Alabama as having “periostracum resembling the striated surface texture of L. s. straminea, which may be an ecotype.” McGregor et al. (1999) found the species to be common in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers.

Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). This species was not particularly common prehistorically.

Figure 28A. Exterior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea claibornensis from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Figure 29A. Exterior right valve of a female Lampsilis straminea straminea from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 28B. Interior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea claibornensis from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Lampsilis straminea straminea. The rough fatmucket is a distinctive subspecies found in the smaller streams of the Tombigbee River drainage. It is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species, rare or uncommon, by Jones et al. (2005). According to Hartfield (1987:136):

Figure 29B. Interior right valve of a female Lampsilis straminea straminea from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

The total distribution of the rough fat mucket is recorded by Simpson (1909) as southern Alabama and southern Mississippi. All MMNS specimens are from small creeks in the Tombigbee drainage, including Chewawah, Tibbee and Bull Mountain Creeks. It is a very uncommon species.

The rough fatmucket (Figure 29) has been identified at five archaeological sites by the senior author (Table 2); all of these sites are in the Black Prairie physiographic province. In particular, substantial numbers of this distinctive shell (299 valves, or 32.5 percent of the identified shell) were found at the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County, a new record. Shell preservation at Lyon’s Bluff was quite good, and recovery was systematic, so it is assumed that this represents an approximately natural proportion for this species in the prehistoric mussel communities being exploited by site inhabitants. A single valve of L.

McGregor and Haag (2004:21-22; see also McGregor 2000:14; McGregor et al. 1999) describe the morphological differences between the two subspecies of L. straminea, and note that L. s. straminea was found “only in streams in the BB [Black Belt] district in Clay, Lee, Lowndes, and Monroe Counties, Mississippi.” Jones

33

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi southeastern Louisiana, and it is widespread in streams of central and eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). It seems to be relatively tolerant of silty conditions, contra Ellis’ (1936) laboratory experiment results; for example, Miller and Payne (2001) found it in shallow, silty, low-current bayous in the Yazoo Basin. Jones et al. (1996) report a few specimens from the Noxubee River, and a single specimen was found in Tibbee Creek (Jones et al. 1997). Miller and Hartfield (1988) found it to be a dominant species in the upper reaches of the East Fork of the Tombigbee River; it was also reported from that waterway by Hartfield and Jones (1989a). It varied considerably in abundance at different stations along the Buttahatchee River in surveys by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) show its widespread occurrence in the Upper Tombigbee River Basin, while McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be common in the middle and lower Sipsey River. It is found in the main channel of the Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989b; van der Schalie 1939 [who lists it as “Lampsilis anodontoides”]). McGregor et al. (1999) found it to be common in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers.

straminea claibornensis from the site was conspicuous for its larger size and smooth surface; this valve was found with a burial. As noted in Chapter 3, chemical testing indicates that this shell was obtained prehistorically from Line Creek. The relative proportions of the two forms suggest that the site is located at the westernmost edge of the occurrence of L. straminea claibornensis. The collection of L. straminea straminea from the site provides an outstanding example of the pronounced morphological characteristics of the subspecies.

Figure 29C. Exterior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea straminea from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 30A. Exterior left valve of Lampsilis teres from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 29D. Interior right valve of a male Lampsilis straminea straminea from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Lampsilis teres. The yellow sandshell is listed by Williams et al. (1993) as Currently Stable, while Jones et al. (2005) list it as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi. They list it as occurring in every drainage in the state except for Coastal Rivers (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; Miller 2001). It is present in some stretches of the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004). Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in

Figure 30B. Interior left valve of Lampsilis teres from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. The species was similarly widespread in prehistoric times, being identified in archaeological shell (Figure 30) from the Yazoo, Big Black, and Tombigbee River drainages (Map A-25). It was reported in low numbers

34

Discussion of Species from sites along the Lower Tombigbee by McGregor and Dumas (2010) and Peacock (2009). Interestingly, a single valve of this species also was present in the assemblage from the Bilbo Basin site (22GE512) on the Pascagoula River (Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5). Peacock and Chapman (2001) and Saunders et al. (2005) report it from the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas; it was found in sites along Bayou Bartholomew by Peacock et al. (2011).

Figure 31B. Interior right valve of Lasmigona complanata alabamensis from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Leptodea fragilis. The fragile papershell is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species (Demonstrably Secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for every drainage in the state except the Pascagoula (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; Miller et al. 1992). Miller and Payne (2001) found it in relatively low numbers in small, turbid bayous in northwest Mississippi; it was also present, though not especially common, in the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004). It was found in the Yalobusha River by Cooper and Johnson (1980). Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana and in several drainages of central and eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). A number of dead shells were noted in the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996) and in Tibbee Creek by Jones et al. (1997). Jones and Majure (1999) report a single specimen from Bull Mountain Creek in the upper Tombigbee River drainage. McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) note its widespread occurrence in the Upper Tombigbee drainage, including small tributary streams. It was widespread in surveys of the Buttahatchee River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). It was found to be a dominant species in the upper reaches of the East Fork of the Tombigbee River in 1987, where the substrate was sand and mud (Miller and Hartfield 1988); however, Hartfield and Jones (1989a) collected only a single specimen from that waterway in 1988. McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be common and widespread in the Sipsey River, and it is found in the main channel of the Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989b), although it seems to have been historically rare there (e.g., van der Schalie 1939). McGregor et al. (1999) report it from a number of stations at tributary streams in southwest Alabama. Most records indicate that this species is tolerant of a wide range of conditions and habitat alteration (e.g., Bates 1962; Brown and Curole 1997; Isom and Yokley 1968a; Klippel et al. 1978; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller et al. 1994; Parmalee 1956, 1988;

Figure 31A. Exterior right valve of Lasmigona complanata alabamensis from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Lasmigona complanata alabamensis. The Alabama heelsplitter is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005) who list it for the Tombigbee River drainage. McGregor (2000) reports it from the Sipsey and Buttahatchee rivers, while McGregor and Haag (2004) add the Noxubee River (no subspecies is designated in specimens from the Noxubee River reported by Jones et al. [1996]). It presumably is the subspecies represented in the Buttahatchee River data presented by Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991; see also Yokley 1978). Hartfield and Jones (1989a, 1989b) report L. complanata from the East Fork Tombigbee River and the main stem of the Tombigbee River but do not designate a subspecies. McCullagh et al. (2002) note L. complanata alabamensis from the lower Sipsey, where it was uncommon. Three specimens were reported from Bogue Chitto Creek by McGregor et al. (1999). A single valve of this distinctive subspecies (Figure 31) was identified from the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County by the senior author (Table 2; Map A-26), a new record. Because of its apparent rarity in the past, questions concerning its range (Hartfield 1987:138-139) require that more and larger samples of archaeological shell be analyzed from different drainages in the state.

35

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi historically rare in the Tombigbee (e.g., van der Schalie 1939).

Parmalee and Hughes 1993; Parmalee et al. 1982; Starrett 1971; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; but see Coon et al. 1977 and Stansbery 1964).

The species (Figure 32) seems to have been widespread, if similarly uncommon, prehistorically, being found in very low numbers from sites along a variety of waterways in the Yazoo, Big Black, and Tombigbee River drainages (Map A-28) (see also Peacock 2009; Peacock and Chapman 2001). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas (see also Peacock et al. 2011).

As the name implies, this species is rarely found archaeologically, likely due to preservation bias. But there are exceptions; Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Peacock et al. (2011) report large numbers from a site beside Bayou Bartholomew in southeastern Arkansas. In Mississippi, only five valves have been recovered, all from the Tombigbee River drainage and all from assemblages with a considerable amount of shell, two on the main stem of the river and one on Tibbee Creek (Table 2; Map A-27).

Ligumia subrostrata. The pondmussel is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi North, Big Black, Yazoo, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller and Payne 2001). It was not identified in a recent survey of Tibbee Creek despite its earlier known presence there (Jones et al. 1997). It occurs west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996).

Figure 32A. Exterior left valve of Ligumia recta from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 33A. Exterior left valve of Ligumia subrostrata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an abandoned channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County.

Figure 32B. Interior left valve of Ligumia recta from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Ligumia recta. The black sandshell is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and an S2 species, imperiled, for Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). The latter authors and Hartfield (1993) note the archaeological occurrence of this species in the Yazoo Basin, and list it for the Tennessee, Pearl, and Tombigbee drainages today (see also Hartfield 1987). Hartfield (1987:140) notes that “The black sand shell is very uncommon in Mississippi,” while McGregor and Haag (2004:22) state that it is “extremely rare in the Upper Tombigbee River system,” from where they report only three individuals (following on two records by McGregor [2000]). Similarly, McCullagh et al. (2002) report only one live specimen in the Sipsey River, Hartfield and Jones (1989a) a single specimen from the East Fork Tombigbee River, and Hartfield and Jones (1989b) only one specimen from the Gainesville Bend area of the Tombigbee River. It seems to have been

Figure 33B. Interior left valve of Ligumia subrostrata from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an abandoned channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County. This species was reported from middens alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas, by Peacock et al. (2011). In Mississippi, only six valves of the pondmussel been identified archaeologically (Figure 33), all by 36

Discussion of Species Warren 1998b), although the association is not a particularly strong one.

Hartfield (n.d.) from the Acree site in Bolivar County. This relative rarity may be due to preservation bias; it also may be due to prehistoric peoples not exploiting slack-water species (but see discussion of cultural bias in Peacock [2010]).

The species (Figure 34) was present prehistorically, albeit rare, in the Tombigbee drainage. Only five valves have been identified in archaeological shell, all from the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) located on Line Creek (Table 2; Map A-30). This is a new record for that waterway. Prehistoric collection bias could be invoked to explain its rarity (e.g., “Owing to its diminutive size and resulting difficulties in finding specimens, the Alabama moccasinshell may persist at historic localities and may be collected at new localities with proper technique” [McGregor 2000:11]; “This…small species…is easily overlooked in [modern] mussel surveys” [McGregor and Haag 2004:22]; “the paucity of records is likely due to the difficulty of finding such a diminutive species in turbid water” [McCullagh et al. 2002:7]), but it should be noted that shells far smaller than adult M. acutissimus are routinely recovered at archaeological sites across North America (Peacock 1998b, 2000, 2010). It is more likely that its apparent rarity in archaeological assemblages reflects a bias toward large sites on major rivers, where such a headwater species (see also McCullagh et al. 2002:7) is unlikely to have occurred in the past.

Figure 34A. Exterior right valve of Medionidus acutissimus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 34B. Interior right valve of Medionidus acutissimus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Medionidus acutissimus. The Alabama moccasinshell is listed as Threatened by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). This species is confined to the Tombigbee River drainage historically (Hartfield 1987; van der Schalie 1939), where it uses darters and topminnows as hosts for its glochidia (Haag and Warren 1997). McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004:22) found it at a number of stations, particularly in the Buttahatchee and Sipsey rivers (see also McCullagh et al. 2002). Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) also reported it from the Buttahatchee, although it was not common. Jones and Majure (1999) reported it from Bull Mountain Creek as a new record. McGregor (2000) reported new tributary records from Trussell’s Creek and Lubbub Creek. Van der Schalie (1939) reported two specimens from the Tombigbee River in western Alabama. Other records from Alabama indicate that it is a headwater species (e.g., Haag and

Figure 35A. Exterior left valve of subadult Megalonaias nervosa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Megalonaias nervosa. The washboard is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4S5 species by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Big Black, Yazoo, Tennessee, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; McCullagh et al. 2002; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller et al. 1992). It has been found in large rivers and in small bayous in the Yazoo Basin (e.g., Miller and Payne 2001), although it was “extremely uncommon” (Miller and Payne 2001:7) in the latter. It was more common with downstream distance in the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004:Table 2). Brown and Curole (1997) report it (as M. gigantea) for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana.

37

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Black, Yazoo, Tennessee, Pearl, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; McCullagh et al. 2002; Miller and Payne 2004; Miller et al. 1992). It occurs in the Yalobusha River (Cooper and Johnson 1980), and Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. It is found west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). McGregor and Haag (2004:22) state that in the Upper Tombigbee drainage, the species was found “only in the Sipsey, Buttahatchee, and Noxubee Rivers.” Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991) also had reported it from the Buttahatchee. It was found to be common in the Noxubee by Jones et al. (1996) and in the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a). It currently is common in the main channel of the Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989b; McGregor 2000:15), which may represent an historical increase (e.g., van der Schalie 1939.) However, McGregor et al. (1999) report only two specimens from a single tributary stream (Bogue Chitto Creek) in southwest Alabama. Historically, the species seems to have tolerated habitat alteration relatively well (e.g., Brown and Curole 1997; Isom and Yokley 1968a; Klippel et al. 1978; Metcalf 1980; Miller et al. 1994; Parmalee and Hughes 1993; Parmalee et al. 1982; Payne et al. 1994), with a few exceptions (e.g., Ahlstedt 1984; Starrett 1971).

It is found west into eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). It was the second most abundant species reported from the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996) and Tibbee Creek by Jones et al. (1997). It was reported from the Buttahatchee River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) and as a dominant species in the East Fork of the Tombigbee River (Miller and Hartfield 1988), especially in the upper reaches (Hartfield and Jones 1989a:8). It was the most common mussel found in a survey of the main Tombigbee River channel in western Alabama by Hartfield and Jones (1989b); see also van der Schalie (1939). This species seems to be relatively hardy and able to tolerate changed waterway conditions resulting from Historic-period impacts (e.g., Blaylock and Sickel 1996; Brown and Curole 1997; Coon et al. 1977; Isom 1972; Isom and Yokley 1968a, 1968b; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Parmalee 1956; Parmalee et al. 1980; Parmalee et al. 1982; Scruggs 1960; Taylor 1989; Theler 1987; see Miller et al. 1994 for an exception from the lower Green River, Kentucky).

Figure 35B. Interior left valve of subadult Megalonaias nervosa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. The species was widespread prehistorically. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, and Peacock et al. (2011) as present alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. In Mississippi, the washboard (Figure 35) was widespread prehistorically, being present in at least the Yazoo, Big Black, Tombigbee, and Pascagoula River drainages (Map A-31) from waterways of various sizes. It apparently was not common, however. Peacock (2009) reports 16 specimens from the Lower Tombigbee River, Alabama. It also has been reported from sites in northern Louisiana (e.g., Peacock and Chapman 2001; Saunders et al. 2005).

Figure 36A. Exterior left valve of Obliquaria reflexa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Breakage along posterior margin is typical for much archaeological shell, and probably represents intentional breakage for removal of the meat.

Obliquaria reflexa. The threehorn wartyback is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi South, Big

In Mississippi, archaeological specimens (Figure 36) have been found at sites in the Yazoo, Big Black, and Tombigbee River drainages along waterways of various sizes (Map A-32). Its presence in Line Creek (site

38

Discussion of Species sites alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. Jones et al. (2005) note the archaeological occurrence of O. jacksoniana in the Yazoo drainage. Reliable identifications (Figure 37) have been made for four sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4) and one site in the Tombigbee River drainage (Table 2; Map A33). Peacock (2009) also distinguishes O. jacksoniana and O. unicolor at site 1CK56 on the lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama, whereas McGregor and Dumas (2010) note O. unicolor from only two sites along that reach.

22OK520: Table 2) is a new record. It was found at Lower Tombigbee River sites in southwest Alabama by McGregor and Dumas (2010) and Peacock (2009), and at sites in Louisiana (e.g., Peacock and Chapman 2001; Saunders et al. 2005). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Peacock et al. (2011) found it alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. Though widespread, this species was not particularly abundant prehistorically, making up at most about five percent of any assemblage.

Figure 37A. Exterior left valve of Obovaria jacksoniana from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Figure 36B. Interior left valve of Obliquaria reflexa from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Obovaria jacksoniana. The southern hickorynut is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005) who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, Lake Pontchartrain, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Hartfield and Jones 1989a, 1990; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones 1991; Jones et al. 1997; McCullagh et al. 2002; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller 2001; Yokley 1978). It has been reported as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Hartfield (1993) notes it for the Yazoo River. One dead shell was reported from the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996), while one live specimen was reported from Alamuchee Creek in southwest Alabama by McGregor et al. (1999).

Figure 37B. Interior left valve of Obovaria jacksoniana from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Obovaria olivaria. The hickorynut is not listed as a Mississippi species by Jones et al. (2005), but two valves were identified from the Pocahontas Mound A site in Hinds County, the Big Black River drainage, by the senior author (Table 3; Map A-34). These valves were distinguishable from other members of the genus at the site by their pronounced elliptical shape. If correct, this

Members of the genus Obovaria can often be difficult to distinguish among archaeological specimens, but it is possible with particularly well-preserved assemblages of shell. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports O. jacksoniana as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. Similarly, Peacock et al. (2011) found it at

39

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi McCullagh et al. 2002; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004; van der Schalie 1939; Yokley 1978).

would be a new record for the species in Mississippi. Peacock and Chapman (2001) also identified it from a site in northern Louisiana, on the Ouachita River, while Peacock et al. (2011) found it in middens alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. Obovaria retusa. The ring pink is not listed as a Mississippi species by Jones et al. (2005). As discussed in Chapter Three, two occurrences have been noted in archaeological shell from Mississippi (Map A-35): 31 valves from the Palusha Creek #2 site in Leflore County (22LF649 – Brown and Athens 1994) and one valve from the Lake George site in Yazoo County (22YZ557–Barber 1983). These identifications should be considered suspect, as the ring pink was not present in any of the large Delta collections analyzed by the senior author and other researchers in recent years, and as its presence there would mean a major range extension for the species (e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998:166).

Figure 38B. Interior right valve of Obovaria subrotunda from the Greg Sheely site, 22TL1131, on the Tallahatchie River in Tallahatchie County.

Figure 38A. Exterior right valve of Obovaria subrotunda from the Greg Sheely site, 22TL1131, on the Tallahatchie River in Tallahatchie County. Obovaria subrotunda. The round hickorynut is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005) who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, and Yazoo drainages (see also Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985). Hartfield (1993) also lists it for Bayou Pierre in southwest Mississippi. Archaeologically (Figure 38), it has been identified in the Yazoo and Big Black drainages (Map A-36).

Figure 39A. Exterior left valve of Obovaria unicolor from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Archaeologically (Figure 39), O. unicolor has been noted at the Bynum Mounds site (22CS503) in Chickasaw County by Morrison (1951) and at the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County by the senior author (Table 2). Peacock (2009) also reports it from the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama. Hartfield (n.d.) noted 14 valves at the Shady Grove site (22QU525) in Quitman County (Table 4; Map A-37).

Obovaria unicolor. The Alabama hickorynut is listed as a species of Special Concern in Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species, rare or uncommon, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it in the Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Hartfield and Jones 1989a, 1990; Jones 1991; Jones et al. 1996; 40

Discussion of Species al. (2005) who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; Miller et al. 1992). Miller and Payne (2001) reported it from small bayous in northwest Mississippi, where it also occurs, often in large numbers, in large rivers (e.g., Miller and Payne 2004). Cooper and Johnson (1980) report it from the Yalobusha River. Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana, while Howells et al. (1996) show its occurrence in eastern Texas. A few specimens were found in the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996) and Tibbee Creek by Jones et al. (1997). Interestingly, McGregor and Haag (2004) do not report it from the Upper Tombigbee drainage, although Pierson (1991) found a dead specimen in the lower Sipsey River, while a single specimen from the lower Sipsey is present in the MMNS collection (McCullagh et al. 2002:7). A few specimens are recorded from the Buttahatchee River by Hartfield and Jones (1990) and Jones (1991). McGregor (2000:15) reports “relict material at one main channel station at the mouth of Noxubee River…in the old channel of the Tombigbee River,” while van der Schalie (1939) and Hartfield and Jones (1989b) found it to be present, if not especially abundant, in the Tombigbee River main channel. They also report a few valves from the East Fork Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989a). It is generally recognized as a silt-tolerant species (e.g., Brown and Curole 1997; Miller et al. 1992).

Figure 39B. Interior left valve of Obovaria unicolor from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Archaeologically (Figure 40), the bankclimber has been reported from the Yazoo, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (Map A-38). It was relatively common in the Yazoo and Pascagoula drainages (Tables 4 and 5), in streams of various sizes. It is common at archaeological sites in Louisiana (e.g., Peacock and Chapman 2001; Saunders et al. 2005). In the Tombigbee River drainage, it seems to have been restricted to the main stem of the Tombigbee River (Table 2). Peacock (2009) reports it as abundant from a site on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama; however, it was not found there by McGregor and Dumas (2010). This cannot be a case of mistaken identification; the contrasting results are due to either sampling error or microhabitat differences between the study sites. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, and Peacock et al. (2011) from Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 40A. Exterior right valve of Plectomerus dombeyanus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Plethobasus cyphyus. The sheepnose is listed as Threatened by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). Hartfield (1993) notes its fossil (archaeological) presence in the Yazoo River drainage, and Jones et al. (2005) note that it occurs only in the Big Sunflower River today but was present archaeologically (Figure 41) in the Big Black drainage as well (see also Peacock and

Figure 40B. Interior right valve of Plectomerus dombeyanus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Plectomerus dombeyanus. The bankclimber is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et

41

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi archaeological occurrence documented (Figure 42) is from the Bilbo Basin site (22GE512) on the Pascagoula River (Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5; Map A-40), where it made up about one percent of the total identifiable shell.

James 2002). Miller and Payne (2004) also list its rare occurrence in the upper reaches of the Big Sunflower River. One result of this report is to confirm that the species was widespread, though rare, in the Yazoo Basin prehistorically (Table 4; Map A-39).

Figure 42A. Exterior right valve of Pleurobema beadlieanum from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GR512, on the Pascagoula River in George County. Figure 41A. Exterior right valve of Plethobasus cyphyus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 42B. Interior right valve of Pleurobema beadlieanum from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GR512, on the Pascagoula River in George County. Pleurobema cordatum. The Ohio pigtoe is not listed as a Mississippi species by Jones et al. (2005). Its reported occurrence at three archaeological sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4; Map A-41) is probably erroneous. It is more likely, based on comparison with recent analysis of Delta assemblages, that the species represented is P. rubrum, the beak cavities of which vary from absent to present but shallow in archaeological specimens. Alternatively, they could be mistaken specimens of Fusconaia ebena.

Figure 41B. Interior right valve of Plethobasus cyphyus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Pleurobema beadleianum. The Mississippi pigtoe is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species, rare or uncommon, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Lake Pontchartrain, Coastal Rivers, Pearl, and Pascagoula River drainages (see also Hartfield 1987). The only

42

Discussion of Species der Schalie 1939). The animal also was widespread in the past, being found from headwater streams to the main river (Map A-42); its presence in small, western Tombigbee River drainage tributaries is a new finding.

Pleurobema decisum. The southern clubshell is listed as Endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1S2 species in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). This Tombigbee River drainage species was severely impacted by the Tenn-Tom Waterway project (see Athearn 1970) and now is restricted to Tombigbee River tributaries in Mississippi (Hartfield 1987). Miller (2001) reports it in Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage of east-central Mississippi, while McGregor and Haag (2004) reported it in eastern tributaries of the Tombigbee, noting especially its relatively high abundance in the Sipsey and Buttahatchee rivers. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) also found it to be abundant in the Buttahatchee, although this varied greatly between stations. Jones and Majure (1999) report it from Bull Mountain Creek. McGregor (2000) notes it in Lubbub and Bull Mountain creeks and as “subfossil material” in Bogue Chitto Creek (see also McGregor et al. 1999). McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be the second most abundant species in the Sipsey, occupying a range of substrate types in different water conditions; McGregor (2000) also noted it as abundant in the Sipsey. It was noted only as subfossil material in the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996). Hartfield and Jones (1989a) report only two specimens from the East Fork Tombigbee River.

Figure 43B. Interior left valve of Pleurobema decisum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Pleurobema marshalli. The flat pigtoe is listed as Endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as a species of known “historical occurrence” within Mississippi (in the Tombigbee River drainage) by Jones et al. (2005). Habitat for this species was greatly altered by emplacement of the Tenn-Tom Waterway, causing its extirpation in Mississippi (Hartfield 1987; Stansbery 1983b). McGregor and Haag (2004:23; see McGregor 2000:11) found only weathered, dead shells in Bogue Chitto Creek “near its confluence with the Tombigbee River” in Pickens County, Alabama. Similarly, Hartfield and Jones (1989b) report only a single subfossil valve in the Tombigbee River in western Alabama. Van der Schalie (1939) lists “Pleurobema cordatum plenum” and “Pleurobema tombigbeanum” for the Tombigbee River, either or both of which may have been P. marshalli.

Figure 43A. Exterior left valve of Pleurobema decisum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Only two valves of this species have been identified archaeologically, both by the senior author (Peacock 1998b) at a site on the Tombigbee River (Table 2; Map A-43). Peacock (2009) also reports a few valves from a site on the Lower Tombigbee in Alabama.

Archaeological records (Figure 43) show that P. decisum was by far the most common mussel in the drainage, making up 45 percent of the 47,324 valves recorded (Table 2), and that it was the most common species in the main stem of the upper-central Tombigbee River prehistorically (Peacock 1998b, 2000, 2002b, 2010; Peacock and Seltzer 2008; Robison 1983). It also was common in the Lower Tombigbee River, constituting from 5 to 13 percent of identifiable shell at sites on that waterway in southwest Alabama (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). This condition apparently had changed by the early 20th century, when the species was present but relatively uncommon in the river (e.g., van

Pleurobema perovatum. The ovate clubshell is listed as Endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1 species (critically imperiled) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). It has diminished in Historic times (e.g., Athearn 1970). McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be common in the lower Sipsey River. Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) found it in the Buttahatchee River. McGregor and Haag (2004; see also McGregor 2000) report it from 21 stations in the Upper Tombigbee River system, including records in Itawamba, Monroe, and Lowndes counties, Mississippi. They also note its intolerance for channelization and erosion stemming from headcutting. McGregor et al.

43

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi survey of streams in the Delta National Forest. Miller and Payne (2004) show it [P. pyramidatum] as relatively uncommon in the Big Sunflower River. Hartfield (1987:137) notes:

(1999) report a single specimen from the Sucarnoochee River in southwest Alabama.

The pyramid pigtoe is historically known from the Ohio, Cumberland, Tennessee and Mississippi River systems. In 1980 it was collected in Mississippi in the Big Black River. Subsequent surveys have found dead shells along a 40 mile reach of the main channel. Live pyramid pigtoes have been collected in the Big Black from a single mussel bed in gravel substratum and strong to moderate currents. Samples of fossil shell middens indicate that this species was once abundant throughout the Mississippi delta. Figure 44A. Exterior right valve of Pleurobema perovatum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 44B. Interior right valve of Pleurobema perovatum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 45A. Exterior right valve of Pleurobema rubrum from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

This Tombigbee River drainage species (Figure 44) has been identified archaeologically at six sites, five on the main stem of the river and one on Line Creek (Table 2; Map A-44), the latter a new record. It was also present in the Lower Tombigbee River (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). It was never common, making up less than one percent of the total identified shell from the drainage, a pattern noted for Historic times as well (Hartfield 1987:136).

This species (Figure 45) was indeed widespread in the Yazoo River drainage prehistorically (Table 4; Map A45), mirroring its distribution in southeastern Arkansas streams (Harris and Gordon 1987). It was also abundant, making up over 14 percent of the total identified shell from the Delta. It was even more abundant at the Pocahontas Mound A site (22HI500) in the Big Black drainage, constituting over 26 percent of the total identifiable assemblage there (Table 3). It was the second most common species at a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana (Peacock and Chapman 2001), although it was rare at the Watson Brake site in the same part of the state (Saunders et al. 2005). This is probably due to sample size differences. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Peacock et al. (2011)

Pleurobema rubrum. The pyramid pigtoe is listed as Threatened by Williams et al. (1993) and an S1 species (critically imperiled) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Yazoo and Big Black River drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985). It was rare in a survey of the Big Sunflower River conducted by Miller et al. (1992), while Haag and Warren (1998a) report only relict shells from a

44

Discussion of Species species (imperiled) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Tennessee River drainage. Similarly, Hartfield (1987:140) notes that the species is confined to “the extreme northeastern portion of the state.”

found it in middens alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas.

Figure 45B. Interior right valve of Pleurobema rubrum from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 46A. Exterior right valve of Pleurobema taitianum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Pleurobema taitianum. The heavy pigtoe is listed as Endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as an SH species (known historical occurrence) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). It was drastically affected by emplacement of the Tenn-Tom Waterway (McCullagh et al. 2002:8; Stansbery 1983c; Williams et al. 1992); Hartfield (1987:135) notes, “The only remaining known habitat for this species in Mississippi is in the Buttahatchee River above impoundment influence, and the East Fork, Tombigbee River” (see also Hartfield 1993:138). A few specimens were noted in the Buttahatchee by Yokley (1978) but not in a subsequent survey by Jones (1991). Pierson (1991) reported it from the lower Sipsey River, but it was not found in subsequent surveys (McCullagh et al. 2002:8). McGregor (2000; McGregor and Haag 2004:23) found weathered, dead shells in Bogue Chitto Creek, Pickens County, Alabama near its confluence with the Tombigbee River, and Hartfield and Jones (1989b) found two subfossil valves in the main stem of the Tombigbee, where van der Schalie (1939) noted its occurrence in 1906. This Tombigbee River drainage species (Figure 46) has been identified at five archaeological sites, all on the main stem of the Tombigbee River (Table 2; Map A-46). McGregor and Dumas (2010) and Peacock (2009) report a few specimens from sites along the Lower Tombigbee in southwest Alabama.

Figure 46B. Interior right valve of Pleurobema taitianum from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Potamilus alatus. The pink heelsplitter is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2

Two valves of this species were identified at the Walford site (22SU501) on the Sunflower River and one valve at 45

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana, while Howells et al. (1996) show it as widespread in central and eastern Texas. The species’ response to modern habitat alterations is mixed (e.g., Brown and Curole 1997; Coon et al. 1977; Metcalf 1980; White 1977).

the Pocahontas Mound A site in the Big Black River drainage by the senior author (Tables 3 and 4; Map A47). These identifications, which were based on fragmentary, umbonal portions of shells, should be considered tentative. If correct, they would represent a major southward range extension for the species (e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998:197).

Archaeologically, the bleufer (Figure 47) has been found at a number of sites in the Yazoo and Tombigbee River drainages of Mississippi (Tables 2 and 4; Map A-48). It was present, but rare, in the Lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas (see also Peacock et al. 2011).

Figure 47A. Exterior left valve of Potamilus purpuratus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 48A. Exterior left valve of Quadrula apiculata from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GE512, on the Pascagoula River in George County. Quadrula apiculata. The southern mapleleaf is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for all but the Lake Pontchartrain and Coastal Rivers drainages in the state (see also Hartfield and Rummel 1985; McGregor and Haag 2004); however, Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana, while Howells et al. (1996) show it as widespread throughout central and eastern Texas. It has been found in the Noxubee River in low numbers (Jones et al. 1996:5). It was not recovered in a recent survey of Tibbee Creek despite its earlier occurrence there (Jones et al. 1997). McCullagh et al. (2002) list it for the Sipsey River but note that it may intergrade with Q. rumphiana (see discussion below). Hartfield and Jones (1989b:9) used “Quadrula apiculata spp.” for their survey of the main Tombigbee River channel in western Alabama, subsuming “several forms of mussel in the Quadrula quadrula complex…including Q. rumphiana, Q. apiculata aspera, and Q. quadrula.” McGregor (2000:16) also notes that Q. apiculata may be

Figure 47B. Interior left valve of Potamilus purpuratus from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Potamilus purpuratus. The bleufer is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for every drainage in the state except for the Tennessee and Coastal Rivers (see also Cooper and Johnson 1980; Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Jones 1989a, 1989b, 1990; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones 1991; Jones et al. 1996, 1997; McCullagh et al. 2002; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004; Miller 2001; Miller and Payne 2001, 2004; van der Schalie 1939). Haag and Warren (1998b) report it as increasing with downstream distance in Sipsey Fork and Brushy Creek in the Black Warrior River system, Alabama. McGregor et al. (1999) report it as common in Lower Tombigbee and Alabama River tributaries in southwest Alabama. Brown

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Discussion of Species Jones et al. (1996). Conversely, it was relatively rare in Tibbee Creek (Jones et al. 1997). Hartfield and Jones (1989a) found it to be common in the East Fork Tombigbee River, and present, but uncommon, in the main stem of the Tombigbee River in western Alabama (Hartfield and Jones 1989b; see also Q. pustulosa and Q. aspera in van der Schalie 1939, probably both Q. asperata). Haag and Warren (1998b) found that the species increased with downstream distance in the Sipsey Fork and Brushy Creek drainages, Alabama. McGregor et al. (1999) found it to be common in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers.

confused with Q. quadrula, but can “be distinguished by the presence of pustules over the entire disc.” McGregor et al. (1999) also discuss the difficulties in distinguishing these forms; they report two freshly dead specimens, one each from Big Flat Creek and the Sucarnoochee River in southwest Alabama.

Figure 48B. Interior left valve of Quadrula apiculata from the Bilbo Basin site, 22GE512, on the Pascagoula River in George County. Archaeologically the species (Figure 48) has been noted in the Yazoo, Tombigbee, and Pascagoula River drainages in Mississippi (Tables 2, 4, and 5; Map A-49). It is an exceedingly rare species in all cases. It seems to have been somewhat more common in the Lower Tombigbee River (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009), and also occurred in the Mobile-Tensaw delta (Quitmyer 2003). Peacock and Chapman (2001) report a single valve from a Ouachita River site in northern Louisiana; Saunders et al. (2005) report two valves from the Watson Brake site. Peacock et al. (2011) did not find it in sites alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas, despite its recorded historic presence there.

Figure 49A. Exterior right valve of Quadrula asperata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. This species has been identified archaeologically (Figure 49) at nine sites (Table 2; Map A-50). Although a few valves have been found at sites on medium-order streams, its primary occurrence prehistorically seems to have been in the main stem of the Tombigbee River. While abundant prehistorically, it was not the most common species in the Tombigbee River; as mentioned above that distinction goes to Pleurobema decisum. However, it was the second-most common species in the Lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama (McGregor and Dumas 2010; Peacock 2009).

Quadrula asperata. The Alabama orb is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005; see also Jones et al. 1997; Miller 2001). Hartfield (1987:139) describes it as “one of the most common mussels in the [Tombigbee River drainage] system before construction of the Tenn-Tom Waterway,” and notes that “populations are now in decline.” A survey by McGregor and Haag (2004:24) found it to be “the most abundant species” in the Upper Tombigbee River system, echoing earlier findings by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), Jones (1991), Jones and Majure (1999), McGregor (2000) and McCullagh et al. (2002:8). It was the most abundant species in a survey of the Noxubee River by

Quadrula cylindrica. The rabbitsfoot mussel is listed as Threatened by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Big Black, Yazoo, and Tennessee River drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985). Miller and Payne (2004) mention its presence in the upstream reaches of the Big Sunflower River.

47

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Big Black River drainage (Table 3; Map A-51). Hartfield (1987) notes that “Fossil shells from indian [sic] middens in the Delta indicate that the rabbit’s foot was once common in the Yazoo and Coldwater rivers.” The species (subspecies Q. cylindrica cylindrica in all cases examined by the senior author) appears to have been rare prehistorically in the Yazoo River drainage. Its distribution in Mississippi River tributaries mirrors the pattern noted for Arkansas (Harris and Gordon 1987). It was reported from a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana by Peacock and Chapman (2001), where it was extremely rare. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. In Mississippi, its highest occurrence archaeologically is at the Pocahontas Mound A site (22HI500) in the Big Black River drainage in Hinds County, where it constituted five percent of the total identifiable shell (Table 3).

Figure 49B. Interior right valve of Quadrula asperata from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Figure 50A. Exterior left valve of Quadrula cylindrica from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 51A. Exterior right valve of Quadrula metanevra from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Quadrula metanevra. The monkeyface is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an SH species, of known historical occurrence, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Tombigbee River drainage and as an archaeological occurrence in the Yazoo River drainage. Hartfield (1987) earlier had reported, “Its distribution in Mississippi is limited to the Tombigbee River and the lower Buttahatchee River.” McCullagh et al. (2002:8) mention a single historical record from the Sipsey River, where they did not find it; they do note its presence in the Tombigbee River. McGregor (2000:16) notes its presence in Upper Tombigbee tributaries as being limited to subfossil material in Bogue Chitto Creek. The historical records for the species are mixed, with some studies showing tolerance for altered habitat conditions (e.g., Ahlstedt

Figure 50B. Interior left valve of Quadrula cylindrica from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Archaeologically, the species (Figure 50) has been identified at a number of sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4) and at the one site investigated in the

48

Discussion of Species Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for Pearl and Pascagoula River drainages. The only documented archaeological occurrence of this species in Mississippi is at the Bilbo Basin site (22GE512) on the Pascagoula River (Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5; Map A-53) where it was rare, making up far less than one percent of the total identifiable shell. Peacock (2009) also reports a few valves from the Lower Tombigbee River in southwest Alabama. It was not noted at sites there by McGregor and Dumas (2010), but this is likely due to smaller sample sizes.

1984; Klippel et al. 1978; Miller and Obermyer 1997; Miller et al. 1994; Parmalee 1956; Parmalee et al. 1980; Parmalee et al. 1982) and some showing Historic-period declines (e.g., Coon et al. 1977; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Starrett 1971; Theler 1987), primarily due to impoundment (e.g., Hartfield 1987:137). Van der Schalie (1939) lists it for the Tombigbee River, but McGregor and Haag (2004:24) state that “due to elimination of large-river habitat by the construction of the Tenn-Tom Waterway, this species is likely extirpated in the Upper Tombigbee River system.”

Figure 52A. Exterior left valve of Quadrula nodulata from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 51B. Interior right valve of Quadrula metanevra from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. This distinctive species has been noted archaeologically (Figure 51) at three sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4): the Louise Henry site (22QU1013) on the Coldwater River, the Oliver site (22CO503) (Peacock n.d.) on the Big Sunflower River, and the Milner site (22YZ515) on the eastern edge of the Yazoo Basin (Bogan 1987). The Coldwater River occurrence is a new record for the Monkeyface, which seems to have been rare in the Yazoo drainage prehistorically. It also has been reported from sites in northern Louisiana (e.g., Peacock and Chapman 2001). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) also report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. It has been noted at five sites in the Tombigbee River drainage, four on the main river stem and one on Tibbee Creek (Table 2; Map A-52), where it also apparently was quite rare. A few valves are reported from archaeological sites on the Lower Tombigbee River by McGregor and Dumas (2010) and Peacock (2009).

Figure 52B. Interior left valve of Quadrula nodulata from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Quadrula nodulata. The wartyback is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species, rare or uncommon, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, and

Quadrula nobilis. The Gulf mapleleaf is not ranked by Williams et al. (1993), nor is it listed in Turgeon et al. (1998). It is listed as an S3 species, rare or uncommon, in

49

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi 2004; Miller et al. 1992). It is found in streams of various sizes down to small, shallow bayous with little current (e.g., Miller and Payne 2001). Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana, while Howells et al. (1996) show it in northern Texas. This species is known to be relatively tolerant of changed water conditions (e.g., Bates 1962; Blaylock and Sickel 1996; Brown and Curole 1997; Coon et al. 1977; Isom 1969; Isom and Yokley 1968b; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Metcalf 1980; Parmalee 1955b; Starrett 1971; Taylor 1989; Taylor and Spurlock 1982).

Yazoo River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Miller et al. 1992; Miller and Payne 2004). It has been recorded as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Historic records for this species’ success are mixed (e.g., Blaylock and Sickel 1996; Coon et al. 1977; Starrett 1971). Archaeologically (Figure 52) it has been tabulated from sites in the Yazoo and Big Black River drainages (Map A-54). Hartfield (1987:137) notes that “shells of the wartyback have been found only in the Big Black River between MS Hwy 27 and I-55. It has been collected alive on a single gravel bar… Examinations of prehistoric shell middens along the Yazoo and Coldwater Rivers indicate that it was once widespread throughout the Mississippi delta.” It constitutes about two percent of the identified shell from the Yazoo drainage (Table 4) and less than one percent of the one Big Black drainage assemblage (Table 3); apparently it was a widespread but relatively rare species prehistorically (see also Peacock and Chapman 2001; Peacock et al. 2011; Saunders et al. 2005; Vidrine 2008). Quadrula pustulosa. The pimpleback is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi North, Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, and Tennessee River drainages (see also Cooper and Johnson 1980; Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Miller and Payne 2004; Miller, Payne and Hartfield 1992). It has been reported as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Historic records for this species’ tolerance to changed water conditions are mixed (e.g., Ahlstedt 1984; Coon et al. 1977; Dineen 1971; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Metcalf 1980; Miller and Payne 1995; Miller et al. 1994; Parmalee et al. 1980; Parmalee et al. 1982; Payne et al. 1994; Starrett 1971; Taylor and Hughart 1981; Theler 1987).

Figure 53A. Exterior right valve of Quadrula pustulosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Archaeologically the pimpleback (Figure 53) has been identified in the Yazoo and Big Black River drainages (Map A-55). It was moderately common in both drainages prehistorically (Tables 3 and 4). It was a common species in the Ouachita River drainage in northern Louisiana (Peacock and Chapman 2001; Peacock et al. 2011; Saunders et al. 2005). Vidrine (2008) reports both Q. p. mortoni and Q. p. pustulosa from Indian middens in northern Lousiana/southern Arkansas. Figure 53B. Interior right valve of Quadrula pustulosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Quadrula quadrula. The mapleleaf is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, and Tennessee River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Miller and Payne

Archaeologically the mapleleaf (Figure 54) has been identified at numerous sites in the Yazoo River drainage

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Discussion of Species and at the one Big Black River drainage site investigated (Tables 3 and 4; Map A-56). It was moderately common in the Yazoo drainage, but rare in the one Big Black drainage assemblage analyzed. It was by far the most common species reported from the Watson Brake site in Ouachita Parish, Louisiana (Saunders et al. 2005). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas.

Pascagoula River drainages. Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. Archaeologically it has been identified at the one Pascagoula River drainage site investigated, the Bilbo Basin site (22GE512 – Peacock and Mistak 2008) (Table 5; Map A-57), where it was by far the most dominant species (60 percent of the total identifiable shell).

Figure 55A. Exterior left valve of Quadrula rumphiana from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Figure 54A. Exterior right valve of Quadrula quadrula from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County.

Figure 55B. Interior left valve of Quadrula rumphiana from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Quadrula rumphiana complex. This category was used by the senior author (Peacock 1998b) in a study of archaeological shell from the Tombigbee River valley. There are various related phenotypes in this group (e.g, Neel 1941), many of which are diffcult to distinguish archaeologically. The ridged mapleleaf, historically confined to the Tombigbee River drainage, is listed as a species of special concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al.

Figure 54B. Interior right valve of Quadrula quadrula from the Kinlock site, 22SU526, on the Sunflower River in Sunflower County. Quadrula refulgens. The purple pimpleback is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3S4 species in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Lake Pontchartrain, Pearl, and 51

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi (2002) and McGregor and Haag (2004) believe the species to be extinct.

(2005). Jones et al. (1996) report a few specimens from the Noxubee River. A single specimen was recently reported from a survey in Tibbee Creek (Jones et al. 1997), while Miller (2001) reports it from Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage of east-central Mississippi. McGregor and Haag (2004) note that its range in the Upper Tombigbee River system has been reduced; they found it alive only in the Buttahatchee and Sipsey rivers (see also McGregor 2000). It was moderately common in surveys of the Buttahatchee by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). McCullagh et al. (2002:8) found it to be “very common” in the Sipsey. It also was common in the East Fork Tombigbee River (Hartfield and Jones 1989a) and present, if rare, in the Tombigbee itself (e.g., van der Schalie 1939). McGregor et al. (1999) report it from three tributary streams in southwest Alabama.

Archaeologically, Q. stapes has been identified (Figure 56) at six sites, five on the main Tombigbee River and one on Tibbee Creek (Table 2; Map A-59). Twenty-one valves are reported from a Lower Tombigbee River site by Peacock (2009). It seems to have been a rare species prehistorically.

The Quadrula rumphiana complex (Figure 55) has been recognized at eight sites, six on the main Tombigbee River, one on Tibbee Creek, and one on Line Creek (Table 2; Map A-58). Peacock (2009) also reports 28 valves from site 1CK56 on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama.

Figure 56B. Interior right valve of Quadrula stapes from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County.

Figure 56A. Exterior right valve of Quadrula stapes from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Lowndes County. Figure 57A. Exterior left valve of Strophitus subvexus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Quadrula stapes. The stirrupshell mussel is listed as Endangered by Williams et al. (1993) and as an SH species, of known historical occurrence, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who note that it no longer occurs in the state (see also Athearn 1970; Hartfield 1987), having been extirpated by impoundment of the Tombigbee River (McGregor and Haag 2004:24; Stansbery 1981; Williams et al. 1992) where it was once “fairly common” (McCullagh et al. 2002:9; see also van der Schalie 1939). McGregor (2000:13) reported subfossil shells in Bogue Chitto Creek. McCullagh et al.

Strophitus subvexus. The southern creekmussel is listed as a species of Special Concern by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005). Hartfield and Ebert (1986) report it from Bayou Pierre in southwest Mississippi, while Hartfield (1993:Table 1) lists it for the Yazoo River. Hartfield (1987:138) notes that “In Mississippi it is found in the Tombigbee drainage in small to medium rivers with gravel substratum.” McGregor and Haag (2004) found it

52

Discussion of Species Starrett 1971). It is known from the Mississippi South, Yazoo, and Tennessee River drainages in the state (Jones et al. 2005), but it is rare; for example, Hartfield (1987:136) notes that “The only recent collection in Mississippi is a single specimen from a gravel riffle in the Upper portion of Bayou Pierre, Copiah County.” It occurs as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996).

at several stations in the Upper Tombigbee River system, where it was rare to uncommon, although McGregor (2000:16) reports it from eight of ten stations in the Bull Mountain Creek system, while Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) found it at several stations on the Butthatchee River. McCullagh et al. (2002:9) found it to be “extremely rare” in the Sipsey River. Two specimens were reported from the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a). Haag and Warren (1998b) found it to be primarily a headwater species in Black Warrior River tributaries in Alabama.

Figure 58B. Interior right valve of Strophitus undulatus from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County. Archaeologically, it has been identified (Figure 58) at only one site in the Yazoo River drainage, the Oliver site (22CO503) on the Big Sunflower River (Peacock n.d.) (Table 4; Map A-61), where it is rare. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas.

Figure 57B. Interior left valve of Strophitus subvexus from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. This species has been identified archaeologically (Figure 57) at four sites, two on the main stem of the Tombigbee River, one on Tibbee Creek, and one on Line Creek (Table 2; Map A-60). It seems to have been quite rare prehistorically, which is somewhat surprising, given that it uses “a taxonomically wide array of fish species” as hosts for its glochidia (Haag and Warren 1997).

Toxolasma parvum. The lilliput shell is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for every drainage in the state except the Big Black and Coastal Rivers drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Jones 1991; Jones et al. 1996, 1997; Miller 2001; Miller and Payne 2001; Yokley 1978). Cooper and Johnson (1980) report it for the Yalobusha River, while Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana and Howells et al. (1996) show it as occurring in eastern Texas. McGregor and Haag (2004:24) discuss the “unresolved” systematics of the genus, noting that specimens in the Upper Tombigbee River system “are referable to the parva/paulus/texasensis group,” although McCullagh et al. (2002) describe historical specimens from the Sipsey River as T. parvus. McGregor (2000:16) described specimens from Cedar Creek as being “beyond positive identification” which he “presumed to be T. parvus,” while McGregor et al. (1999) did not designate species in their survey of Lower Tombigbee and Alabama River tributaries. Hartfield and Jones (1989a) report T. parvum from the lower reaches of the East Fork Tombigbee River. Van der Schalie (1939) notes an early 20th century occurrence in the Tombigbee River near Columbus, Mississippi, while Hartfield and Jones (1989b) identified two specimens of T. parva from the Tombigbee River in western Alabama. Most records indicate a tolerance for altered habitat conditions (e.g.,

Figure 58A. Exterior right valve of Strophitus undulatus from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County. Strophitus undulatus. The creeper is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) but is an S1 species, critically imperiled, in Mississippi (Jones et al. 2005). Limited studies available for this species show apparent Historic-period establishment of populations (Taylor and Spurlock 1982) as well as declines due to pollution and impoundment (e.g., Metcalf 1980; Stansbery 1964;

53

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi this small shell in archaeological assemblages (see references in Peacock 2010) is evidence that size selection (conscious or unconscious) was not a critical factor in the collection of mussels prehistorically (Peacock 2000, 2010).

Bates 1962; Brown and Curole 1997; McGregor and Haag 2004:24; Parmalee and Hughes 1993; Taylor and Spurlock 1982; Theler 1987; but see Matteson and Dexter 1966).

Toxolasma texasiensis. The Texas lilliput is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, Lake Pontchartrain, Pearl, and Pascagoula River drainages (see also Haag and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986). As the name suggests, it is a common species in eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Miller and Payne (2004) list it as present, but rare, in the Big Sunflower River, where it was found in nearshore habitats. McGregor and Haag (2004:24) discuss the systematics of the genus. For the Upper Tombigbee River system, they choose to combine specimens under Toxolasma sp.

Figure 59A. Exterior right valve of Toxolasma parvum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 60A. Exterior right valve of Toxolasma texasiensis from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 59B. Interior right valve of Toxolasma parvum from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22OK520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports T. parvum as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Peacock et al. (2011) report it from sites alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. In Mississippi, this species has been identified archaeologically (Figure 59) at four sites in the Yazoo Basin (Table 4) and two sites in the Tombigbee River drainage (Table 2; Map A-62). It is rare in most cases, but makes up almost six percent of the valves from the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. Only a single valve was reported from a large assemblage on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama by Peacock (2009). The small size of this mussel is sometimes invoked as a reason why it can be missed in modern surveys (e.g., McCullagh et al. 2002:9), a caveat that might be extended to prehistoric shellfishers as well. However, the common presence of

Figure 60B. Interior right valve of Toxolasma texasiensis from the Louise Henry site, 22QU1013, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Archaeologically, T. texasiensis has been identified (Figure 60) at four sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4; Map A-63). A single valve was reported from a 54

Discussion of Species been reassigned to the genus Quadrula by Serb et al. (2003).

northern Louisiana site on the Ouachita River by Peacock and Chapman (2001). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, while Saunders et al. (2005) found it to be more common at the Watson Brake site. A single valve was identified by the senior author from the Curry site (22OK578) in the Tombigbee River drainage in Oktibbeha County (Table 2), based on size and shell morphology. This identification should be considered tentative; if correct, it would represent a major range extension for the species (e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998:234).

The pistolgrip (Figure 61) was widespread in prehistoric times, being present at many sites in the Yazoo River (Table 4) and Tombigbee River (Table 2) drainages (see also Peacock 2009) and at the one Pascagoula River site examined (Table 5; Map A-64). Vidrine (2008: Table 1) and Peacock et al. (2011) report it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas. Though widespread, the species apparently was not common prehistorically (see also Peacock and Chapman 2001).

Tritogonia verrucosa. The pistolgrip is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for every drainage in the state except for the Coastal Rivers (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Jones et al. 1997; Miller 2001). It is present, but rare, in the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004:Table 2). It was reported from Bayou Pierre in southwest Mississippi by Hartfield and Ebert (1986), while Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana and Howells et al. (1996) show it in central and eastern Texas. Haag and Warren (1998a) reported only relict shells from a survey of streams in the Delta National Forest. It was present, but not common, in a survey of the Noxubee River (Jones et al. 1996). Jones et al. (1997) report a single specimen from Tibbee Creek. McGregor and Haag (2004:24) record it as the fourth most abundant species in the Upper Tombigbee River system (see also Jones and Majure 1999), noting, however, that “populations were restricted mostly to eastern tributaries…in stable streams not affected by channelization or headcutting.” McGregor (2000:16) had earlier noted it as being “the dominant species in the upper Sipsey River collections.” McCullagh et al. (2002) found many specimens in the Sipsey River, noting their unusually small size. It also was reported as quite common in the Buttahatchee River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991) and in the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a). Haag and Warren (1998b) found it to increase with downstream distance in Sipsey Fork and Brushy Creek, Alabama. Conversely, it was extremely rare in a survey of the main Tombigbee River channel by Hartfield and Jones (1989b), who report only a single specimen. Van der Schalie (1939) reported 44 specimens from the river in 1935, but no records from earlier surveys at stations near Columbus, Mississippi, and Epes, Alabama. McGregor et al. (1999) report it from a number of stations on tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers in southwest Alabama. Modern records for this species’ success are mixed (e.g., Coon et al. 1977; Isom and Yokley 1968b; Metcalf 1980; Matteson and Dexter 1966; Parmalee et al. 1980; Parmalee et al. 1982; Starrett 1971; Theler 1987; White 1977; Williams et al. 1992). The species has recently

Figure 61A. Exterior right valve of Tritogonia [=Quadrula] verrucosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 61B. Interior right valve of Tritogonia [=Quadrula] verrucosa from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Truncilla donaciformis. The fawnsfoot is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Yazoo, Tennessee, Pearl, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Hartfield 1987:137; Miller et al. 1992). It has been reported as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). It is present but rare in lower stretches of the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004). Hartfield and Rummel (1985) recorded this species in a 1980 survey of the Big Black River, where it is also listed by Hartfield (1993:Table 1). Jones and Majure (1999) reported a new record from Bull Mountain Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage. McGregor and Haag (2004) found it at several stations in the Upper Tombigbee River system, noting its preference for larger streams; it was

55

Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi in western Mississippi.” Shells (Figure 62) have been tabulated from a few archaeological sites in the Yazoo Basin (Table 4), the Big Black (Table 3), and the Tombigbee River (Table 2) drainages (Map A-66). Peacock and Chapman (2001) and Saunders et al. (2005) also report it from the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana. Vidrine (2008: Table 1) reports it as present in Indian middens in northern Louisiana/southern Arkansas, as do Peacock et al. (2011). The one valve from the Tombigbee River was identified by the senior author from site 22OK905, located near a headwater stream on the western edge of the Black Prairie physiographic province. This should be considered a tentative identification; the specimen is more likely T. donaciformis (although van der Schalie [1939] did report T. truncata from an early 20th century collection from the Tombigbee River).

uncommon to rare in their survey (see also McGregor 2000:16). The preference for large rivers was also noted by McCullagh et al. (2002:9) who found only a single relict shell in the Sipsey River. It was found in the Buttahatchee River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991), in the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a), and in the main Tombigbee River channel by Hartfield and Jones (1989b), where it was rare (see also van der Schalie 1939). Archaeological records also are rare, with only 71 valves being recorded from the state, mostly from sites in the Tombigbee River drainage, on or near the main stem of the river (Table 2; Map A-65). Three valves were recorded by the senior author from the Oliver site (22CO503) on the Big Sunflower River and one valve from the Pocahontas Mound A site (22HI500) in the Big Black drainage. The latter should be considered a tentative identification; if correct, it would be a new record for the species. Saunders et al. (2005) note a few valves from the Watson Brake site near the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana. It reached up to 3.4 percent of the valves from a site on Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas (Peacock et al. 2011).

Figure 62B. Interior left valve of Truncilla truncata from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County.

Figure 62A. Exterior left valve of Truncilla truncata from the Shady Grove site, 22QU525, on the Coldwater River in Quitman County. Truncilla truncata. The deertoe is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S3 species (rare or uncommon) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Big Black, Yazoo, and Tennessee River drainages (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; Miller and Payne 2004; Miller et al. 1992). It occurs as far west as eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996).

Figure 63A. Exterior left valve of Uniomerus declivus from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County. Uniomerus declivis. The tapered pondhorn is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S2 species, imperiled, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, Pearl, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Haag

Hartfield (1987) states that the species is known from the Big Black and Quiver Rivers, and that “prehistoric shell middens indicate that this species was once widespread

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Discussion of Species and Warren 1998a; Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Miller et al. 1992). It occurs west into central and eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). Miller and Payne (2001) found it in a small bayou in the Yazoo Basin, where it was rare; it was also rare in the Big Sunflower River, where it was restricted to nearshore habitats (Miller and Payne 2004). McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) found it at several stations in the Upper Tombigbee River system, where it was largely restricted to smaller, mud-bottomed streams in the Fall Line Hills district. McGregor et al. (1999) report it from a number of stations in tributary streams in southwest Alabama.

Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985; McGregor and Haag 2004). It occurs west into northern and eastern Texas (Howells et al. 1996). It was very rare in a series of surveys on the Big Sunflower River (Miller and Payne 2004:Table 2), where it was restricted to nearshore habitats. Cooper and Johnson (1980) report it for the Yalobusha River. McCullagh et al. (2002) did not find it in the Sipsey River, but noted a few valves collected by an earlier researcher. Yokley (1978) reported a single specimen from the Buttahatchee River. A single relict shell was reported from Bogue Chitto Creek by McGregor et al. (1999).

Figure 63B. Interior left valve of Uniomerus declivus from the Acree site, 22BO551, on an old channel of the Mississippi River in Bolivar County.

Figure 64B. Interior left valve of Uniomerus tetralasmus from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Clay County.

The tapered pondhorn mussel has been recorded archaeologically (Figure 63) at three sites in the Yazoo River drainage (Table 4) and at one site in the Tombigbee River drainage (Table 2; Map A-67). Peacock and Chapman (2001) report a single valve from a Ouachita River site in northern Louisiana, while Peacock et al. (2011) found nine valves at a site alongside Bayou Bartholomew in southeastern Arkansas.

Only one valve of this species (Figure 64) is reported from archaeological contexts, from a site on the main Tombigbee River channel (Table 2; Map A-68). Its near absence may be more a reflection of the general non-use by Indians of still-water species than of its true prehistoric abundance (but see Peacock 2010). Peacock et al. (2011) found it at two sites alongside Bayou Bartholomew in southeastern Arkansas, where it was quite rare.

Figure 64A. Exterior left valve of Uniomerus tetralasmus from an archaeological site on the central Tombigbee River in Clay County.

Figure 65A. Exterior right valve of Villosa lienosa from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County.

Uniomerus tetralasmus. The pondhorn is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi North, Mississippi South, Big Black, Yazoo, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages (see also Hartfield 1993;

Villosa lienosa. The little spectaclecase is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S5 species, Demonstrably Secure, in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for every drainage in the state

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi Brown and Curole (1997) report it from the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana. It was not found in a recent survey of Tibbee Creek despite its known historic occurrence there (Jones et al. 1997). However, McGregor (2000) and McGregor and Haag (2004) report it from several stations in the Upper Tombigbee River system, mostly along streams in the Fall Line Hills district. Yokley (1978) reported it as a rare species in the Buttahatchee River. McCullagh et al. (2002) found it to be rare in the Sipsey River, while Hartfield and Jones (1989a) report a single individual from the East Fork Tombigbee River. A few specimens are reported from tributary streams in southwest Alabama by McGregor et al. (1999).

except the Tennessee River drainage (see also Hartfield 1993; Hartfield and Ebert 1986; Hartfield and Rummel 1985). Cooper and Johnson (1980) report it from the Yalobusha River. Brown and Curole (1997) report it for the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana, while Howells et al. (1996) show it in eastern Texas. One dead and two relict valves were reported from the Noxubee River by Jones et al. (1996). It was not found in a recent survey of Tibbee Creek, despite its known historical occurrence there (Jones et al. 1997). Miller (2001) reports it in Luxapalila Creek in the Tombigbee River drainage of east-central Mississippi, while it was common in a survey of the Upper Tombigbee River system, in streams of all sizes and conditions (Jones and Majure 1999; McGregor 2000; McGregor and Haag 2004), including the Sipsey River (see also McCullagh et al. 2002). It was sporadically common in surveys of the Buttahatchee River by Yokley (1978), Hartfield and Jones (1990), and Jones (1991). A single specimen was reported from the East Fork Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989a) and from the main-channel Tombigbee River by Hartfield and Jones (1989b); similarly, van der Schalie (1939) reported only three specimens from the Tombigbee. It was common in tributaries of the Lower Tombigbee and Alabama rivers in a survey by McGregor et al. (1999).

Figure 66A. Exterior right valve of Villosa vibex from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22Ok520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County.

Figure 65B. Interior right valve of Villosa lienosa from the Oliver site, 22CO503, on the Sunflower River in Coahoma County. This relatively small species (Figure 6) is present at several archaeological sites in the Yazoo and Tombigbee River drainages (Tables 2 and 4; Map A-69). Peacock and Chapman (2001) report a few valves from a site on the Ouachita River in northern Louisiana, while Peacock et al. (2011) found it in fairly large numbers at sites alongside Bayou Bartholomew, southeastern Arkansas. Twenty-seven valves are reported from a Lower Tombigbee River site by Peacock (2009).

Figure 66B. Interior right valve of Villosa vibex from the Lyon’s Bluff site, 22Ok520, on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County. This fragile-shelled species (Figure 66) is probably underrepresented in archaeological collections. However, it made up over four percent of the assemblage from the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520) on Line Creek in Oktibbeha County (Table 2), while Peacock (2009) reports nine valves from site 1CK56 on the Lower Tombigbee River in Alabama. A single valve was identified from the Louise Henry site (22QU1013) on the Coldwater River (Map A-70). This should be considered a tentative identification of what is generally a Gulf Coast drainage species.

Villosa vibex. The southern rainbow is listed as Currently Stable by Williams et al. (1993) and as an S4 species (widespread, abundant, and apparently secure) in Mississippi by Jones et al. (2005), who list it for the Mississippi North, Lake Pontchartrain, Coastal Rivers, Pearl, Pascagoula, and Tombigbee River drainages.

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Chapter 5

Summary and Conclusions If verified that many or most of the rings are Late Woodland in age, this would provide an interesting perspective on the shell ring phenomenon in general. Debate about coastal shell rings and shell mounds has become dominated by agency-based interpretation rather than scientific explanation. As Marquardt (2010:566) puts it:

As recently discussed by Peacock and Jenkins (2010), there is a range of archaeological sites of different sizes, ages, and geographical locations in Mississippi that contain shell, from those with a few, scattered valves to large sites with huge numbers of shells. This is true across the nation, and exploring variability in shell use along the three main archaeological dimensions of space, time, and form is a worthy enterprise involving questions related to subsistence, paleodemographics, site function, site seasonality, settlement patterns, social structure, community patterns, and a host of other issues. As of yet, synthetic works regarding shell use are few, but some shell-bearing sites are receiving renewed interest stemming from current debates about mound construction and other signs of cultural complexity during the Archaic period. To date, however, research efforts have focused primarily on coastal sites (e.g., the papers in Thomas and Sanger 2010) or on the large shell mounds of the Tennessee and Green rivers (e.g., Claassen 2010; the papers in Marquardt and Watson [2005] and references therein). Attention to woodland-period exploitation of freshwater shellfish has begun (e.g., Peacock 2002b), but, perhaps due to lingering normative concepts like the “shell mound Archaic,” relatively little attention is being paid to this topic (Claassen 1991b). Even less attention is being paid to Mississippian-period exploitation of unionids; for example, no mention of mussels is found in two major studies of late prehistoric subsistence practices in eastern North America (Smith 1975, 2009).

There has been a recent trend toward explaining mound building in the Southeast as motivated principally by political posturing or mystical ceremonialism. This leads to a kind of ‘mumbo jumbo’ archaeology that attributes sociopolitical and ceremonial complexity to Archaic and Woodlandperiod peoples while simultaneously denying them the ability to solve practical problems communally by applying ecologically sound engineering principles…Many interpretations of shell mounds as architectural features, temple mounds, and feasting locales are based on unsubstantiated inference. There are often environmental reasons for the increased availability of certain foods and the decreased availability of others, as well as for the shape and placement of various mounded shellbearing topographic features. In this regard, if shell rings appear, disappear, and reappear over time and space, they can be considered functional in nature; i.e., as something under selection (Dunnell 1978). As Meltzer (1981:314) states:

At one level, mussel exploitation and the resulting shell deposits seem a mundane area of research (“they gathered shellfish; they ate shellfish; we find the shell”). That such an attitude is unwarranted is exemplified by the astonishing shell rings that apparently are widespread in the Mississippi Delta. We are only at the very beginning of understanding the nature of these sites, and many fundamental questions remain unanswered. Basic questions of chronology clearly need further investigation. Artifacts dating from the Late Archaic to Mississippian periods have been identified from surface contexts at shell ring sites (e.g., Carlock and Rafferty 2009; Chapman et al. 2004). However, only two of the known 67 shell ring sites have not produced Late Woodland period artifacts (site cards on file, MDAH), and limited excavations at a few sites point to a Woodland association for these rings. Clearly, more direct dating of shell middens is needed, and the plea by Peacock and Feathers (2009) for additional paired dates on shell and associated organic remains is worth repeating in this regard. With enough paired dates, the magnitude of a freshwater reservoir effect can be determined and a correction factor applied to dates on shell collected from site surfaces.

Function…includes those elements that directly affect the Darwinian fitness of the populations in which they occur. These elements are traits that can be accounted for by selective factors. For this reason, functional similarity, while it may be homologous, may also be analogous, the result of similar activities or adaptations in similar environments. This argument is distinguished by including what is missing from much of the debate on coastal rings: an explicit link to an overarching scientific theory. Regardless of one’s theoretical stance, however, better information on past environmental conditions and paleodemographics is needed to test competing hypotheses related to the nature of coastal and inland shell-bearing sites, especially those with geometrical layouts. Further exploration of the Delta shell rings has the potential to contribute in a major fashion to such research. Additional excavation also is essential to examine possible structures and other facilities associated with the rings. If structures are present on the rings, basic architectural information is required to determine construction techniques and structure variability and to

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Archaeology and Biogeography of Prehistoric Freshwater Mussel Shell in Mississippi be particularly welcome, as would collections from streams in the interior of the state. Finding and identifying shell from other existing archaeological collections, and identifying and testing sites on targeted waterways to retrieve new shell assemblages, would be worthwhile projects for funding by federal and state agencies involved with mussel conservation. It also would be helpful to focus attention on shell-bearing archaeological sites on smaller waterways. To give one example, Haag et al. (2002) reported the occurrence of Anodontoides radiatus, the rayed creekshell, in the upper Yazoo Basin. This species previously was believed to be restricted to Gulf Coast drainages. It is a rare species today, and no archaeological specimens currently are known from the state. However, if the species was present in the state prehistorically, there is reason to expect to find it if assemblages are obtained from sites on smaller waterways in the Delta. Such a finding would help verify hypothesized stream capture events between the Tombigbee and Mississippi River drainages (Haag et al. 2002).

document associated features. Additional spatial analysis, including controlled surface collection and geophysics, is needed to determine whether intra-site patterns exist that can be related to ring morphology or other factors. Another topic needing further research is spatial patterning in the Delta shell rings. As noted by Connaway (1981:29-31), there are spatial patterns in the density of shell-bearing sites in general in the Delta, and it is clear (Figure 4) that shell rings are concentrated along the Tallahatchie/Yazoo drainage as compared to the Sunflower/Mississippi drainage to the west. There is no apparent environmental reason why this should be the case, but it may have something to do with relative abundances of shellfish in different streams in the past. This hypothesis can be tested by the recovery of more assemblages and detailed taxonomic comparisons (e.g., shoal vs. soft-substrate favored species). In general, systematic pedestrian survey of the surrounding landscape is needed to place the rings within a broader settlement pattern context.

It is hoped that this report will increase recognition of the importance of archaeological shell data for conservation biology. Recent compilations on mussels (e.g., Cummings et al. 1993, Cummings et al. 1997; Strayer 2008; Williams et al. 1993) do not include archaeological data, with some exceptions (e.g., Hartfield 1993) that are largely anecdotal in nature. Other recent compendiums do employ archaeological data in the generation of range maps (e.g., Parmalee and Bogan 1998; Williams et al. 2008), but do not present those data, so that relative abundances prior to Historic times are unknown, as are the contexts and conditions of the shell assemblages. As this report demonstrates, high-quality, quantifiable data on prehistoric mussel communities currently are available, and more can be gathered with relative ease. The presence of “Ozarkian” and “Ohioan” faunas in archaeological assemblages from Mississippi illustrates how poorly current range maps and traditionally recognized faunal provinces may reflect what shellfish communities were like prior to modern impacts (see also Bogan 1990; Haag 2009b).

Beyond the issues mentioned above, the use of freshwater shell as a raw material (for hoes, beads, pottery temper, etc.) certainly is worthy of further exploration. More work also should be conducted on sourcing pottery via chemical analysis of shell temper (Peacock et al. 2007) or sourcing artifacts such as beads or shell spoons (Peacock et al. 2010). Far from being a “mundane” material, freshwater mussel shell has the potential to inform on a vast range of topics of archaeological importance. This is fortunate, as the material often is recovered in abundance. In the past, mussel shell has sometimes been casually discarded with little or no analysis. Whether shell is present or absent at sites has not even been noted in many surveys. We hope that this volume will aid in remedying such unfortunate practices. From an applied perspective, it is evident from data compiled in this report that massive changes in the faunal composition of waterways have taken place in Mississippi in Historic times. (Compare, for example, the impoverished mussel fauna of Tibbee Creek [Jones et al. 1997] to the assemblage from the Yarborough site [22CL814], located on that waterway [Hanley 1982]). Better knowledge of original distributions of species has been generated from the work reported herein (e.g., Cyprogenia aberti, Quadrula metanevra, Quadrula nodulata). While many rare species were similarly rare in the past, some that are rare today (e.g., Lampsilis straminea straminea – Hartfield 1987) were once locally abundant, as at the Lyon’s Bluff site (22OK520). Data on the distribution of particular forms may play into current debates on the geographic, and perhaps the taxonomic, status of such forms.

We have much to learn on other fronts as well. For example, Haag and Warren (1998b) found no distinct patterns between current mussel community composition and microhabitat in streams in the Black Warrior River drainage, Alabama. Instead, “patterns of host-fish use and [glochidial] infestation strategy among mussel species may explain some of the patterns of mussel distribution and abundance in our study streams” (Haag and Warren 1998b:304). This hypothesis was not supported with data from headwater mussel sampling stations, however. Mynsberge et al. (2009) undertook a sophisticated GIS analysis employing a large number of environmental variables in modeling current distributions of Elliptio complanata and E. dilatata in the Appalachian Mountains, with disappointing results. The authors

There is a clear need to document archaeological mussels from sites along other streams in the state. Samples from southwest Mississippi (Hartfield and Ebert 1986) would

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Summary and Conclusions This ahistorical approach is understandable from a political viewpoint (e.g., “critical” habitat may be excluded if “the [economic] benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of including the areas within critical habitat, provided the exclusion will not result in extinction of the species” [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2010]). However, it disregards the dangers of “refugium management” outlined above, and ignores the fact that current knowledge about freshwater mussel biogeography is seriously biased (Peacock 2010). For example, it is only through archaeological data that the one-time presence of Cyprogenia aberti in the Mississippi River drainage of western Mississippi is known. This “Ozarkian” species apparently is capable of occupying habitats far different from its location today, something that is not “speculation” but demonstrable fact. To ignore such data is to disregard the repeated calls from numerous conservation and scientific groups to include long-term, “historical” data in conservation assessments and plans (e.g., Bogan 1993; Cummings and Bogan 2006; Lydeard et al. 2004; NNMCC 1998; Strayer 2008). A new, long-term approach to natural resource management is needed, and archaeological remains have an obvious role to play in this regard. Political and logistical considerations arising from such a new approach are further discussed in Peacock (2010).

discuss potential problems in choosing measured variables and appropriate scales of analysis, survey bias, and other complicating factors. Incorporating archaeological data into such analyses would be one way of looking at faunal compositions in relation to environmental parameters over the long term. Standard plans for the conservation/management of mussels follow steps that can be taken under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (as amended). Critical habitat, including portions of the Tombigbee River drainage in Mississippi, has been designated for a number of species discussed in this report, including Lampsilis perovalis, Medionidus acutissimus, Pleurobema decisum, and Pleurobema perovatum. This action alone is insufficient, however; as Haag (2009a) and others (e.g., Peacock 2010) have noted, tributary streams have become isolated refugia, so that a single major erosional episode, chemical spill, or other negative impact can result in the loss of entire taxa (Hartfield 1993; Warren and Haag 2005). Federal listing and critical habitat designation do not solve this problem, as such designations provide protection from Federal actions but may not extend protections from state or private actions (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2010). As Warren and Haag (2005:1397) note for the demise of the mussel fauna in the Little South Fork of the Cumberland River, “The decimation of this important mussel refugium calls into question the adequacy of the environmental safeguards that are legislated to prevent such losses” and “is the outcome of competing interests of resource extraction and biodiversity conservation, coupled with trenchant institutional fragmentation of responsibilities for water-related resources.” From a conservation viewpoint, there are other constraints emerging from the regulatory process:

From a cultural resource management standpoint, we would argue that shell-bearing archaeological sites in areas of Mississippi poorly represented in this report can automatically be considered to be significant regardless of the degree of disturbance. The precise context/age of the shell is useful information, but such information is not necessary for all purposes (e.g., the generation of range maps). For any project in which shell-bearing sites are subjected to testing or mitigation excavations, experts on shell identification should be involved, and the data should be provided both to MDAH and the MMNS.

Within the geographic area of the [endangered or threatened] species, we will designate only currently known essential areas. We will not speculate about what areas might be found to be essential if better information became available, or what areas may become essential over time. If the information available at the time of designation does not show that an area provides essential life cycle needs of the species, then the area will not be included in the critical habitat designation. Our regulations state that, ‘The Secretary shall designate as critical habitat areas outside the geographic area presently occupied by the species only when a designation limited to its present range would be inadequate to ensure the conservation of a species (50 CFR 424.12(e)). Accordingly, when the best available scientific data do not demonstrate that the conservation needs of the species require designation of critical habitat outside of occupied areas, we will not designate critical habitat in areas outside the geographic area occupied by the species (U.S Fish and Wildlife Service 2010; emphasis added).

As stated in Chapter One, we hope continually to update our website (www.mississippimusselbiogeography.com) as new data become available. We encourage archaeologists to contribute to this effort, and encourage other scientists will make use of the data. While our work is confined to Mississippi, it provides a model that could be profitably followed in every state, with consequent potential for regional- and continental-scale biogeographical analyses. The MMNS is to be commended for recognizing the importance of archaeological shell remains, for supporting this first-ofits-kind effort, and for taking the lead in bringing important, long-term data to bear on contemporary issues of mussel conservation.

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62

Appendix A

 

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  SITE NUMBER

22HI500

SPECIES Amblema plicata Cyprogenia aberti Ellipsaria lineolata Elliptio crassidens Elliptio dilatata Fusconaia ebena Fusconaia flava Glebula rotundata Lampsilis teres Lampsilis sp. Ligumia recta Megalonaias nervosa Obliquaria reflexa Obovaria olivaria Obovaria subrotunda Plethobasus cyphyus Pleurobema rubrum Potamilus alatus Quadrula cylindrica Quadrula nodulata Quadrula pustulosa Quadrula quadrula Quadrula sp. Truncilla donaciformis Truncilla truncata Total Identfied Valves

83 152 3 2 33 51 306 1 1 10 1 1 30 2 166 28 388 1 72 9 87 6 8 1 12 1454

  Table 3. Taxonomic data from Big Black drainage basin sites 

 

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  SITE NUMBER

22GE51 2

SPECIES Amblema plicata Elliptio crassidens Fusconaia cerina Fusconaia ebena Glebula rotundata Lampsilis straminea claibornensis Lampsilis teres Megalonaias nervosa Plectomerus dombeyanus Pleurobema beadleianum Quadrula apiculata Quadrula nobilis Quadrula refulgens Tritogonia verrucosa Total Identfied Valves

398 210 72 5160 20 3 1 3 796 181 1 111 10598 8 17562

  Table 5. Taxonomic data from Pascagoula drainage basin sites

 

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Appendix B: Range Maps

Map A-1. Known mussel-bearing sites in Mississippi

 

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Map A-2. Actinonaias ligamentina

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-3. Amblema plicata

 

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Map A-4. Arcidens confragosus

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-5. Cyprogenia aberti

 

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Map A-6. Ellipsaria lineolata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-7. Elliptio arca

 

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Map A-8. Elliptio arctata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-9. Elliptio crassidens

 

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Map A-10. Elliptio dilatata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-11. Epioblasma penita

 

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Map A-12. Fusconaia cerina

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-13. Fusconaia ebena

 

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Map A-14. Fusconaia flava

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-15. Glebula rotundata

 

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Map A-16. Lampsilis cardium

 

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Map A-17. Lampsilis hydiana

 

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Map A-18. Lampsilis ornata

 

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Map A-19. Lampsilis ovata

 

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Map A-20. Lampsilis perovalis

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-21. Lampsilis radiata

 

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Map A-22. Lampsilis siliquoidea

 

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Map A-23. Lampsilis straminea claibornensis

 

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Map A-24. Lampsilis straminea straminea

 

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Map A-25. Lampsilis teres

 

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Map A-26. Lasmigona complanata alabamensis

 

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Map A-27. Leptodea fragilis

 

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Map A-28. Ligumia recta

 

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Map A-29. Ligumia subrostrata

 

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Map A-30. Medionidus acutissimus

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-31. Megalonaias nervosa

 

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Map A-32. Obliquaria reflexa

 

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Map A-33. Obovaria jacksoniana

 

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Map A-34. Obovaria olivaria

 

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Map A-35. Obovaria retusa

 

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Map A-36. Obovaria subrotunda

 

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Map A-37. Obovaria unicolor

 

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Map A-38. Plectomerus dombeyanus

 

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Map A-39. Plethobasus cyphyus

 

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Map A-40. Pleurobema beadleianum

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-41. Pleurobema cordatum

 

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Map A-42. Pleurobema decisum

 

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Map A-43. Pleurobema marshalli

 

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Map A-44. Pleurobema perovatum

 

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Map A-45. Pleurobema rubrum

 

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Map A-46. Pleurobema taitianum

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-47. Potamilus alatu

 

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Map A-48. Potamilus purpuratus

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-49. Quadrula apiculata

 

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Map A-50. Quadrula asperata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A.51. Quadrula cylindrical

 

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Map A-52. Quadrula metanevra

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-53. Quadrula nobilis

 

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Map A-54. Quadrula nodulata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-55. Quadrula pustulosa

 

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Map A-56. Quadrula quadrula

 

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Map A-57. Quadrula refulgens

 

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Map A-58. Quadrula rumphiana complex

 

126

Appendix 2

Map A-59. Quadrula stapes

 

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Map A-60. Strophitus subvexus

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-61. Strophitus undulatus

 

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Map A-62. Toxolasma parvum

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-63. Toxolasma texasiensis

 

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Map A-64. Tritogonia verrucosa

 

132

Appendix 2

Map A-65. Truncilla donaciformis

 

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Map A-66. Truncilla truncata

 

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Appendix 2

Map A-67. Uniomerus declivis

 

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Map A-68. Uniomerus tetralasmus

 

136

Appendix 2

Map A-69. Villosa lienosa

 

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Map A-70. Villosa vibex

 

138

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Peacock, Evan 2008 Paleoenvironmental Modeling in the Lower Mississippi River Valley: Past and Future Approaches. In Time’s River: Archaeological Syntheses in the Lower Mississippi River Valley, edited by Janet Rafferty and Evan Peacock, pp. 69-98. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

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Peacock, Evan 2009 Analysis of Molluscan Remains from 1CK56. In Archaeology on the Tombigbee River: Phase III Data Recovery at 1CK56, the Corps Site, Clarke County, Alabama, edited by Sarah E. Price, pp. 196-216. Draft report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, by the Center for Archaeological Studies, University of South Alabama, Mobile.

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Peacock, Evan 2010 Archaeological Freshwater Mussel Remains and Their Use in the Conservation of an Imperiled Fauna. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Ethnobiology, Victoria, British Columbia. Under review in Zooarchaeological Perspectives on Issues in Conservation Biology, edited by Steve Wolverton, R. Lee Lyman, and Charles R. Randklev. Submitted to University of Arizona Press.

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Ceramics: Test Cases from Mississippi, Southeastern U.S.A. American Antiquity 74:351-369. Peacock, Evan, and Jochen Gerber 2008 Using Land Snails and Freshwater Mussels to Chart Human Transformation of the Landscape: An Example from Northeast Mississippi, U.S.A. In Case Studies in Environmental Archaeology, 2nd edition, edited by Elizabeth J. Reitz, C. Margaret Scarry, and Sylvia J. Scudder, pp. 123-141. Springer Science Business Media, London.

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Peacock, Evan, and S. Homes Hogue 2005 A New Series of Absolute Dates from Lyon’s Bluff (22OK520), EastCentral Mississippi. Southeastern Archaeology 24:46-58.

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Peacock, Evan, and Rebecca Melsheimer 2003 Terrestrial Gastropods from Archaeological Contexts in the Black Belt Province of Mississippi. In Blackland Prairies of the Gulf Coastal Plain: Nature, Culture, and Sustainability, edited by Evan Peacock and Timothy Schauwecker, pp. 27-47. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

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Contributors Evan Peacock is a Professor of Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures and a Senior Research Associate with the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Mississippi State University. Cliff Jenkins is the State Cultural Resources Specialist for the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Jackson. Paul Jacobs is Head of the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures and a Senior Research Associate with the Cobb Institute of Archaeology, Mississippi State University. Joseph Greenleaf is a graduate student in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures, Mississippi State University.

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