Prehistoric and Roman Archaeology of North-East Yorkshire 9780860541813, 9781407317120

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Prehistoric and Roman Archaeology of North-East Yorkshire edited by D.A. Spratt With contributions by

M.A.Atherden, P.R. Cundill, B.R. Hartley, J.E. Hemingway, J.B. Innes, R. L. Jones, I. G. Simmons, D.A. Spratt

BAR British Series 1982

104

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A ., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.104, ·1982: 'Prehistoric and Roman Archaeolog y of North-East Yorkshire' © The Individual Authors, 1982

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541813 paperback ISBN 9781407317120 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541813 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

The editor and contributors dedicate this volume to RAYMOND H. HAYES M.B.E. F.S.A., in gratitude for his fifty years of archaeological research in Northeast Yorkshire. And in memory of our friend ROLAND S. CLOSE of Kildale.

CONTENTS P age I ntroduct ion 1 Genera l 2 P resentation

1 2

Chapter 1 Geo logy a nd Topography W.E. Hem ingway) Chapter 2 Preh istor ic A therden, J ones)

Env ironments P . R. Cundi l ,

o f

Nor th-east

Yorksh ire 7

( I.G S immons, J .B. I nnes a nd

M . R .L. 3 3

Chapter 3 The Upper P a laeo l ith ic a nd Meso l ith ic P er iods 1 The L ate Upper P a laeo l ith ic ( 10,000-7,600 b .c.) 2 The E ar ly Meso l ith ic ( 7,600-6,600 b .c.) 3 The Late Meso l ith ic ( 6,600-3,500 b .c.) Chapter 4 The Neo l ith ic P er iod 1 The E ar ly Neo l ith ic ( 3,500-2,500 b .c.) 2 The L ate Neo l ith ic/ E ar l iest Bronze ( 2,500-1,700 b .c.)

1 00 1 01 1 02 1 11 1 17 1 23

Age 1 27

Chapter 5 The Bronze Age 1 The E ar ly Bronze Age ( 1,700-1,300 b .c.) 2 The L ate Bronze Age ( 1,300-600 b .c.)

1 39 1 67

Chapter( ) The I ron Age ( 600 b .c.

1 85

-

Chapter (7) The Roman P er iod ( w ith 7 0-410) 1 C iv i l S ett lement 2 M i l itary Act iv ity

A . D. 7 0) B . R.

Har t ley)

( A. D. 2 05 2 06 2 11

Append ix 1

Or thostat ic Wa l ls

2 19

Append ix 2

P reh istor ic Trackways

2 20

THE CONTR IBUTORS Dr M . A therden, B . A., PhD. D epar tment o f G eography, R ipon a nd York S t J ohns, R ipon, North Yorksh ire. Dr P . R. Cund i l l , B .A., PhD. Depar tment Un iversity o f S t Andrews, S t Andrews, S co t land. Mr B . R. Har t ley, Univers ity o f L eeds,

M . A., L eeds.

F .S . A.

Depar tment

Emer itus P rofessor J .E. H em ingway, Ph.D., Road, Newcast le-upon-Tyne, NE3 4DE.

o f o f

F .G.S.

Mr J .B . I nnes, M .A., M .L itt. Depar tment o f Un ivers ity o f Durham, S outh Road, Durham, DH1 3 LE. Dr R .L. J ones, B .Sc., Po lytechn ic , Coventry.

Ph.D.

Geography

S ect ion,

Co l lege o f

Geography, Archaeo logy, 3 5

Hawthorn

Geography, L anchester

Professor I . G. S immons, Ph.D., F. S. A. D epar tment o f Geography, Un ivers ity o f Durham, S outh Road, Durham, DH1 3 LE. Dr D .A. Spratt, York, Y03 6YH.

Ph. D.,

A . R.C.S.,

F .S. A.

1 3 The Va le,

Ske lton,

L IST OF F IGURES 1 2 3 4

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

Date s pans o f p ost-meso l ith ic a r tefacts Topography o f Nor theast Yorksh ire Geo logy o f Nor theast Yorksh ire Genera l ised s uccess ion a nd l i tho logy o f t he Jurass ic r ocks o f Nor theast Yorkshire S cheme o f c hrono logy, t erm ino logy a nd v egetationa l c hange o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors The l im it o f g lac iat ion dur ing t he l ast ( Devens ian) ma jor g lac iat ion i n Br ita in Re l ief map o f n or thern p ort ion o f t he Moors s howing p o l len s ampl ing s i tes Matr ix t ab le g iv ing d eta i ls o f i nwash s tr ipes o f m inera l mater ia l The p o l len d iagram a t Ewe Crag S lack P oss ible s easona l u se o f e nv ironmenta l r esources o f l ater Meso l ith ic c ommun it ies A s impl if ied s cheme o f t he p o l len a nd s trat igraphy a t Bonf ie ld G i l l Head Map o f s i tes o n t he moors s how ing f orest r ecess ion dur ing t he o ak f orest p er iod Extract f rom p o llen d iagram a t G la isda le Moor Extract f rom p o l len d iagram a t S eamer Carr ( Stokes ley) Summary p o l len d iagram a t S t. He lena P art ia l p o l len d iagram a t Yar isey Moss P art o f po l len d iagram a t F en Bogs A s impl if ied p o l len d iagram a t F en Bogs A p o llen d iagram a t S imon Howe Moss A po l len d iagram a t Ewe Crag S lack, s how ing i nwash s tr ipes D istr ibu tion o f E ar ly Meso l ith ic S ites ( af ter R . M. J acobi) Compar ison o f E ar ly a nd Late Meso l ith ic m icro l iths D istr ibut ion o f L ate Meso l ithic S ites D istr ibu tion o f Neo l ith ic s tone a xes D istr ibut ion o f Neo l ith ic p ottery, f l ints a nd l ong b arrows

2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1

D istr ibut ion o f b eaker p ottery a nd s tone c irc les The s tone c irc le a t S ledda le ( after W . P earson) The s tone c irc le a t Har land Moor ( af ter R .H. Hayes) D istr ibu tion o f c up- a nd c up-and-r ing s tones D istr ibut ion o f bronze d aggers a nd f lat a xes Barrow s urvey i n C leve land ( after G . M. Crawford)

3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2

D istr ibu t ion o f f ood v esse ls D istr ibu t ion o f Cremation Urns R ing c a irn a t S ledda le ( after W . P earson) D istr ibut ion o f s tone a xe h ammers D istr ibut ion o f s tone b att le a xes D istr ibu tion o f c a irnf ie lds Ca irnf ie ld a t I ron Howe ( af ter R .H. Hayes) Ca irnf ie ld a t Bumper Moor ( after R .H. Hayes) Ca irnf ie ld a t Near Moor ( af ter R . I nman) Orthostat ic e nc losure a t Near Moor ( af ter R .E. Goddard) Va l ley s ett lement a t Wheat Beck ( Leeds Un ivers ity Extra-Mura l

4 3 4 4

C lass) P reh istor ic s i tes i n t he S n i lesworth a rea Proposed Bronze Age boundar ies i n t he Sn i leswor th a rea

5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

4 5

Mode l o f Yorksh ire

4 6 4 7

Modern t ownsh ip boundar ies i n t he S n i leswor th a rea L ines o f r ound barrows a long watersheds i n Yorksh ire

4 8 4 9 5 0

D istr ibut ion o f bronzes o f t he L ate Bronze Age L inear e ar thworks a nd p it a l ignments i n Northeast Yorksh ire The C leave Dyke System

5 1 5 2 5 3

The dykes o n L ev isham, L ockton L ow a nd Gr ime Moors The dykes o n S eamer Moor The dykes a t S camr idge

5 4

D istr ibut ion o f b eeh ive querns p lotted o n a rable l and s hown o n 1 945 Land U ti l isa tion Survey ( af ter Hayes, Hem ingway a nd Spra tt) D istr ibu tion o f I ron Age s i tes, e nc losures, barrows a nd f orts The I ron Age s i tes a t H oxby The 1 728 map o f Roxby p ar ish a lso s howing I ron Age Hu ts The u ndated e nc losure a t P enh i l l , Kepw ick D istr ibu t ion map o f Roman s i tes a nd f inds Roman f or t a t L ease R igg ( B. R. Har t ley) Roman s igna l s tat ions a t Huntc l iff ( Sa i tburn) a nd Go ldsborough ( R. I nman) D istr ibution o f med ieva l s ett lements

5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2

Bronze

Age

t err itor ia l

-

o rgan isation

i n

Northeast

Nor theast

L IST OF TABLES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 i i 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3

3 4 3 5

C erea l p o l len o f Bronze Age d ate E ar ly Meso l ith ic s i tes L ate Meso l ith ic s i tes Very l ate Meso l ithic s i tes L ater f l ints o n Meso l i th ic f l int s i tes Neo l ith ic a xes L ong barrows Gr imston ware P eterborough ware Grooved ware Beaker p ottery F lat bronze a xes Bronze d aggers Cupstones a nd c up-and-r ing s tones F ood v esse ls Co l lared u rns a nd a ccessory c ups R ing c a irns C a irnf ie lds Va l ley s ett lements Axe h ammers Batt le a xes F langed bronze a xes a nd p a lstaves Bronze s pearheads S ocketed bronze a xes Bronze swords Bronze h oards M isce l laneous bronze a ge o b jects L ate bronze a ge p ottery i n r ound barrows E ar ly l inear e ar thworks P it a l ignments P re-Roman I ron Age s i tes S quare b arrows Roman s ites a nd f inds 1 M i l itary 2 C iv i l s ett lement 3 Co in h oards 4 O ther f inds S quare e nc losures Orthostat ic wa l ls

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Archaeo logica l a ct iv ity i n Nor th E ast Yorksh ire h as b een c haracter ised by i ts c o-operative s p ir it , ma in ly due t o t he benevo lent a pproach o f R aymond Hayes o ver many y ears. Th is r epor t wou ld h ave b een i mposs ible w ithout s uch c o l labora t ion a nd n ear ly a l l s er ious workers i n t he a rea dur ing t he p ost-1945 p er iod have c ontr ibu ted t o e ither t he d ata o r t he t ext, a nd s omet imes t o bo th. I am v ery g ratefu l i ndeed t o Professor J ohn Hem ingway f or Chapter 1 , a nd t o Professor I an S immons a nd h is c o l leagues ( Dr Margaret A therden, Dr P eter Cund i l l , J ohn I nnes a nd Dr Bob J ones) f or Chapter 2 . Dr Roger J acobi a nd Dr P au l Me l lars c ommented o n d raf ts o f Chapter 3 , a nd much o f t he d ata f or t h is c hapter was prov ided by t he f ormer , a nd by Mr a nd Mrs G .V. Tay lor. Terry Manby p rov ided a nd c hecked mater ia l f or Chapter 4 a nd c ommented o n t he d raf ts. The E ar ly Bronze Age c hapter wou ld h ave b een i mposs ible w ithout Margaret Sm ith g enerous ly a l lowing me t o work f rom h er e xtens ive a nd t horough c omp i la tion o f t he d ata o n e xcavated barrows. P am Browarska a nd J ohn Barrett k ind ly prov ided i nformation o n t he Wheat Beck s ite. Dr I an Co lquhoun o f Newcast le Un ivers ity s uppl ied d ata o n t he bronze i ndustr ies, a nd Dr Margaret Ehrenburg o f L eeds Un ivers ity a lso r ead t he draf t o f Chapter 5 .2. Doug las Sm ith (Ryeda le F o lk Museum) a nd J im Rutter ( ex-Scarborough Museum) prov ided much i nformat ion o n l inear e ar thworks f or t h is c hapter , a nd D err ick R i ley, Tony Pac itto a nd Dom in ic Pow les land h e lped o n t h is a nd o ther a spects f rom t he ir a eria l pho tograph ic work. F or Chapter 6 I u sed mater ia l prov ided by Raymond Hayes o n L ev isham Moor , a nd my c o-workers a t Roxby, Denn is Brown , R eg Goddard a nd Roger I nman a l lowed me t o u se i nformat ion pr ior t o publ icat ion. Chapter 7 was wr itten i n c on junct ion w ith Mr Br ian Hart ley o f L eeds Univers ity, Roger I nman a nd Raymond Hayes prov ided much o f t he d ata , a nd Tony P ac itto s uppl ied f acts pr ior t o publ ica t ion o n Bead lam r oman v i l la. B la ise Vyner , C leve land County Archaeo logist, h as g iven i nformation f rom h is r ecent work a t t he S treet House Long Barrow a nd I ng leby Barw ick r oman s i te, a nd has a l lowed me t o u se a map f rom G i l l Crawford ts b arrow s urvey. T im S chad la-Ha l l a nd h is c o-workers Dr Ed C loutman a nd Dr Ju l iet C lutton-Brock h ave g iven r ecent i nformat ion i n a dvance o f pub l icat ion o n t he e xcavat ion a nd e nv ironmenta l work a t S eamer Carr ( Scarborough). B i l l P earson k ind ly p rov ided F igures 2 7 a nd 3 4. M ike Gr iff iths, North Yorksh ire County Archaeo logist, a nd h is s taff , par t icu lar ly P au l Chadw ick, who h as worked c lose ly w ith t he r epor t, h ave d iscussed t he who le work , a nd prov ided t yp ing o f t he d raf ts. The Roya l Comm iss ion o n H istor ica l Monuments ( Eng land) h ave s uppor ted t he p ro ject, p ar t icu lar ly t he f i e ldwork, a nd t he c ar tograph ic work by Br ian Drummond, whose s k i l l a nd i nterest c ombined h ave e nhanced t he r epor t. The w i l l ing h e lp o f a l l t hese f r iends h as a dded much t o t he p leasure o f t he t ask , a nd I am most g ratefu l t o t hem a l l. W ith s uch h e lp a s t h is, t he i mperfections must b e l a id a t t he d oor o f t he ma in a uthor a nd e d itor.

I NTRODUCTION 1

GENERAL Nor theast

Yorksh ire

i s

o ne

o f

t he

most

i nterest ing

a nd

i nformat ive a reas f or Br it ish p reh istory, c onta in ing p ro l if ic r ema ins o f a l l t he post-glac ia l preh istor ic p er iods e xcept t he u pper pa laeo l ith ic , wh ich i s b are ly r epresented. J acquetta Hawkes ( 1951) c onc luded h er s urvey o f t he a rea " There i s n oth ing magn if icent, p erhaps; noth ing e ven wh ich i s i nd iv idua l ly s pectacu lar , y et t here i s no o ther t err itory where t he r ema ins l ef t by preh istor ic m an have b een l ess d isturbed o r where o ne g ets a c learer i mpress ion o f a c ountrys ide wh ich b e longs t o h im." The a rea c ompr ises ma in ly h i l l c ountry, bo th o f i nfer t i le s andstone t erra in o f t he n or thern a nd c entra l p ar ts a nd o f t he much more p roductive l imestones i n t he s outh, w ith r ich p astora l v a l leys, a nd s urrounded by a gr icu ltura l l ow land. I t l i es between t he b enevo lent l ow lands o f e astern Eng land a nd t he n or thern h igh land z one w ith i t s p oorer s o i ls a nd h arsher c l imate, a nd i s t hus i n s ome ways a br idge a rea f or understand ing Br it ish p reh istory. I t s hows t hroughout t he post-g lac ia l p er iod e xce l lent s amples o f t he i nterre la t ion b etween l ow land a nd h igh land s ubs istence a ct iv it ies. I t a lso p rov ides c ase s tud ies o f g reat c lar ity o n t he d eve lopment o f s ett lement o n d ifferent g eo logica l t erra ins, wh ich c an be c ompared r a tiona l ly w ith one a no ther , o ther g eograph ica l f actors b e ing f a ir ly c onstant. I t i s, i n G . W. D imbleby 's words, ' a l aboratory o f a rchaeo logy '. I ts a na lys is t herefore h e lps t o bu i ld a br idge o f understand ing between t he " south c ountry" a rchaeo logy o n t he l imestone t erra in i n t he s outhern p art, w ith i ts r e lat ive ly r ich preh istor ic c u ltures -

a nd e laborate boundary s ystems, a nd t he t yp ica l " northern" a rchaeo logy o f t he h igh s andstone moors o f t he c entra l a nd nor thern par ts, w ith s parser s ett lement s ites a nd p oorer a r tefacts but pro l if ic c a irnf ie lds a nd barrows. The a rea h as n o t b een r ev iewed i n d eta i l s ince t he pub l ica t ion f i fty years a go o f Dr E lgee 's f amous ' Ear ly Man i n North E ast Yorksh ire ', a l ead ing work o f f ie ld a rchaeo logy. The b ook i s s t i l l a n i nva luab le s ource o f d ata , bu t i ts i nterpretat ions a re n ow ma in ly o f h istor ica l i nterest. I n t he i nterven ing y ears t he d ata have i ncreased, f or s ome p eriods by a n o rder o f magn itude, i ntens ive p a laeobotan ica l work h as b een publ ished a nd t he n at iona l f ramework a ga inst wh ich t o a ssess t he n ew d ata h as V ast ly c hanged. S ome o f t he d ata f or t he a rea a re f a l l ing i nto i mpor tant patterns, e spec ia l ly i n r espect o f preh istor ic boundar ies a nd s ubs istence s trateg ies, a s w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he r e levant c hapters. I t s eems a n a ppropr iate t ime t herefore, n ot o n ly t o a ssemble t he d ata c urrent ly a va i lable, bu t t o d escr ibe t hese patterns a nd d ef ine t he g aps a nd uncer ta int ies wh ich n eed t o b e f i l led by f ur ther r esearches, i nto b oth t he a rchaeo logy a nd e co logy o f t he a rea. " There i s n o Truth i n a rchaeo logy; bu t t here a re better a nd b etter t ruths a s n ew ev idence i s a cqu ired a nd n ew a nd e conom ica l i nterpretat ions a re a pp l ied t o i t" (Gou ld,

1

1 980).

2

PRESENTATION

The b as ic s trategy o f t he r epor t i s f irst t o prov ide t he max imum amount o f d ata o n t he p reh istory o f t he a rea , a nd t hen t o c onstruct what a ppears c urrent ly t o b e t he most a cceptab le s er ies o f s e lf-cons istent e xp lanations o f t h is a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n t erms o f t he p a laeo-env ironment, a nd t he s ubs istence, t echno log ica l a nd s oc ia l a ct iv it ies o f t he human p opu lat ions wh ich c reated t he r ecord. The r epor t l ooks t o t he p ast i n c omp i l ing a s urvey o f what has b een r ecorded by workers i n t he a rea; i t a lso l ooks t o t he f uture i n prov id ing hypo theses wh ich a re c apable o f b e ing a ssessed by o ngo ing work. The hypotheses a re o f n ecess ity t hose wh ich t he a uthor b e l ieves, o n t he who le, prov ide t he most c onv inc ing f ramework a ga inst wh ich t o s et t he d ata. But o f c ourse, j udgements i n t hese matters v ary, a nd t he a im h as b een t o g ive s o c omplete a s et o f d ata , t hat a rchaeo logists may u se t hem w ith c onf idence t o make t he ir own i nterpretat ions. By s uch a process o f r e-formu lat ion o f i deas a nd c heck ing t hem f acts we c an c ont inue t o d eepen o ur u nderstand ing.

a ga inst

t he

The e nv ironmenta l mater ia l n ecessary f or a p roper i nterpretat ion o f t he p reh istory i s g iven i n t he f irst t wo c hapters, t he g eo logy by Professor Hem ingway, a nd t he p a laeo-envi ronment by Professor S immons, i n c o-operat ion w ith h is f our c o-workers i n t his a rea. The a rchaeo logica l d ata , d rawn f rom many s ources, i s g iven i n Tables 2 t o 3 5, a nd d isplayed o n t he maps a nd d iagrams. I n t abu lat ing a nd mapping t he mater ia l i n t h is way, i t h as b een poss ible t o m in im ise t he d escr ipt ive matter i n t he t ext, c ons istent w ith c lar ity, s o t hat t he emphas is i n t he a rchaeo logica l c hapters i s upon i nterpretat ion. The o ne l arge g ap i n t he d ata i s t he p rov is ion o f a s urvey o f r ound b arrows t hroughout t he a rea. Th is h as b een d one by Crawford ( 1980) f or County C leve land, t he n or thern s ector o f t he s tudy a rea , but t he t ask was t oo v ast f or t he a pprox imate ly 2 ,000 s quare k i lometres o f t he s tudy a rea f or i t t o be a ttempted w ith in t he c ompass o f t h is r epor t. We h ave t o d epend ma in ly o n t he Ordnance Survey maps f or t h is i nformat ion, s upp lemented where n ecessary. The r epor t r e l ies h eav i ly o n a r tefact d istr ibu tion maps, i n t he a lmost c omplete a bsence o f proven Neo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age s ett lements o r o f t hose o f t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he I ron Age. I t i s t herefore n ecessary t o make s ome g enera l c omments o n t he ir v a l id ity, a nd t he l im itations wh ich must b e o bserved i n t he ir i nterpretation. I n g enera l t hey r esu lt f rom t he work o f many p eople o ver t he p ast c entury a nd more, a nd prov ide a f a ir p icture o f o vera l l d istr ibut ions. But t hey a re n o t r e l iable i n f ine d eta i l , a nd must be s tud ied w ith s evera l r eservations i n m ind. The r es idence o f a ctive a rchaeo log ists h as produced c oncentrat ions o f f inds i n c er ta in a reas, Hayes a nd t he He lms ley Group i n C entra l a nd Western Tabu lar H i l ls, t he S carborough g roups i n t he e astern Tabu lar H i l ls, E lgee, C lose a nd o thers i n C leve land. There h as been a ct ive a rchaeo logy a t Wh itby, but u nfortunate ly n ot a l l f inds, p ar t icu lar ly f l int s ites, a re p rovenanced. On t he o ther h and, t here has b een a l ack o f l oca l a rchaeo log ists o n t he n orth-western f r inge, wh ich t ends t o b e p oor ly r epresented o n a l l maps. The map o f t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic s i tes i s b ased o n t he work o f a sma l l t eam ,

2

a nd t herefore d epends upon t he s earch s trategy o f t hat p ar ticu lar group. S econd ly, t he n a ture o f t he t erra in h as a ffected r ecovery. I n t he p lough iands, a nd o n t he h igh moors where r egu lar burn ing o f h eather a nd e ros ion h ave e xposed t he s ub-so i l , r ecovery h as been p oss ible, i f n o t a lways r epor ted. Thousands o f f l ints h ave been c o l lected w ith n o r ecord. And o n t he med ieva l p lough iands many p reh istor ic s ites h ave b een t ota l ly d estroyed. I n t he a reas, part icu lar ly i n t he s outh-east o f t he a rea , where t here h as b een extens ive s tate f orestation s ince t he 1 920s, l arge t racts o f l and have b een o bscured. And i n t he moor land v a l leys, t he h i l lwash o f t he p ast t wo mi len ia , c lear ly v ery c ons iderable but s o f ar l i tt le s tud ied , a nd unquantif ied, must h ave c overed many s i tes a nd a rtefacts. F ina l ly, t he i naccuracy o f r ecord ing c reates a c ons iderable p roblem, p art icu lar ly w ith o b jects s uch a s s tone a xes a nd bronzes s tud ied i n museum c o l lect ions. They a re u sua l ly i dent if ied by a l abe l w ith a v i l lage o r t own n ame. I f t h is r efers t o a sma l l l ow land t ownsh ip o n a h omogeneous t erra in, t h is d oes n ot c reate much uncer ta inty a bout t he l ocat ion o r i ts i nterpretat ion. However , s ome o f t he moor land t ownsh ips a re v ery l arge. A l lerston, f or e xamp le, s ome t h irteen k i lometres i n land f rom S carborough, c ompr ises a n or th-south s tr ip s ome t wenty k i lometres i n l ength, t he n or thern t hird b e ing o n t he Jurass ic s andstone moors, t he c entra l h a lf o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls, a nd t he s outhern o ne-s ixth o n c arr l and i n t he Va le o f P icker ing. A l abe l may b e more e xp lana tory ( e.g. A l lerston H igh Moor , A l lerston Carr), but where i t s imply bears t he n ame o f t he t ownsh ip, t he f ind i s a l located t o t he most l ike ly p lace i .e. t he p lough iands o f t he v i l lage. Casua l f inds o f a l l d escr ipt ions, a part f rom f l ints, a re r are o n t he h igh moor lands a nd h ave n ot been p laced t here un less t here i s s pec if ic e v idence, f or e xample t hat t hey a re l abe l led ' H igh Moor ' o r provenanced f rom a known barrow. The s ituat ion i s n ot c omplete ly s at isfactory, but o n t he o ther h and d oes n ot l ead t o d istr ibut ion maps wh ich a re e nt ire ly m is lead ing i f t hey a re r ead w ith a p roper u nderstand ing o f t he ir l im itat ions. For t he Neo l ith ic a nd Bronze Ages we h ave t o d raw d educt ions a bout t he s ett lement p attern f rom t he a r tefact d istr ibu t ions, but t here have been f ew d iscover ies a nd n o unequ ivoca l d at ing o f s ett lements by wh ich t o v er ify t he p attern o f c asua l f inds. I n t he l ate I ron Age a nd Roman p er iods h owever , we have a v er if ica tion o f t he s ett lement p attern d educed f rom t he f inds o f beeh ive querns. R eference t o F igures 5 5 a nd 5 9 o f I ron Age a nd Roman s ett lements s hows t ha t t he ir o vera l l p attern c orresponds qu ite we l l w ith t hose o f t he querns s hown o n F igure 5 4. I n s ummary, t herefore, o ne may h ave r easonable c onf idence i n g enera l broad c onc lus ions drawn f rom t he a rtefact d istr ibu tion maps, but t hey must n ot b e u sed f or d eta i led c ompar isons o ut o f c ontext a nd o ne must b e e xtreme ly c aut ious i n d rawing quantitat ive c onc lus ions f rom t hem. nto c oherent c hrono logica l The t ask o f o rder ing t he d ata i s a l l a uthors o f preh istor ic p er iods i s a lso n ot w ithout p roblems, a his r epor t h as c ons isted i n s yntheses d iscover. The a pproach i n t t he a rchaeo logica l a nd mak ing t empora l d iv is ions where hanges i n t he s ubs istence e nv ironmenta l e v idence i nd icate ma jor c t o s ay f or e xamp le t hat o r t echno log ica l methods; t hat i s

3

s uperf ic ia l

c hanges

s uch

a s

t hose

o f

p ottery

s ty le

o r

d es ign

o f

bronze a r tefacts a re n ot s uff ic ient t o warrant s eparating o ut a d iscrete p er iod f or d iscuss ion. The f actua l b as is f or t he s ubd iv is ions a re g iven f or p ost-Meso l ith ic a r tefacts i n F igure 1 , a nd f or t he e nv ironment i n Chapter 2 ; t hey a re d iscussed i n d eta i l i n e ach a rchaeo log ica l c hapter. I n s ummary, t hey a re a s f o l lows:P er iod Upper P a laeo l i th ic Ear ly Meso l i th ic

Date Span b .c./A. D. t o 7 ,600 7 ,600 t o 6 ,600

Chapter 3 .1 3 .2

L ate Meso l ith ic E ar ly Neo l ith ic L ate Neo l ith ic!

6 ,600 t o 3 ,500 3 ,500 t o 2 ,500

3 .3 4 .1

E ar l iest Bronze Age E ar ly Bronze Age L ate Bronze Age

2 ,500 t o 1 ,700 1 ,700 t o 1 ,300 1 ,300 t o 6 00

4 .2 5 .1 5 .2

I ron Age Roman

6 00 t o A.D. 7 0 A . D. 7 0 t o 4 10

6 7

I n t he c ases when a n a r tefact i s f ound i n more t han o ne o f t hese per iods, i t i s d iscussed i n t he p er iod o f i t s f irst o ccurrence. And o f c ourse, what t h is r epor t d escr ibes i s t he c ont inuous e vo lution o f hunter/ g atherers t o h igh ly d eve loped , s ett led , m ixed f armers, i n wh ich d ifferent f acets o f l i fe c hanged a t d ifferent r a tes. The per iods f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he Neo l ith ic t o t he e nd o f t he I ron Age h ave l i tt le a bso lute mean ing; t hey a re a f ramework i n wh ich t he a uthor c an p lace t he d ata a nd wh ich l abe ls i t f or t he r eader. Th is

problem

h as

b een

r ecogn ised bu t

n ot

e nt ire ly

s o lved i n

modern s yntheses, i f i ndeed i t i s c apable o f a c omplete ly s at isfactory s o lut ion. I n t he ir n at iona l s urvey, f or e xample Megaw a nd S impson ( 1979) u sed a s ystem o f o ver lapp ing p er iods. E ar ly Neo l ith ic Late Neo l ith ic Ear ly Bronze Age Later Bronze Age I ron Age

b .c./A. D. 3 ,500-2,500 2 ,500-1,700 2 ,000-1,300 1 ,400-500 6 00-200 A. D.

Such o ver laps may we l l b e j ustif iable i n a n a rea a s l arge a s t he Br it ish I s les, but t hey a re n ot a ppropr iate t o a sma l l a rea. Aga in, t he ir d iv is ion o f t he Bronze Age i nto e ar ly a nd l a te m ight a rguably be t he b est method o f p resenting t he n at iona l d ata , but o n t he North Yorkshire s cene , i t i s n ecessary t o i so late a nd d iscuss a med ian p er iod 1 700-1300 b .c., b ecause t h is embraces much o f t he a ctiv ity o n t he moor lands, a nd t o t erm i t t he E ar ly Bronze Age, i n c onform ity w ith c urrent p ractice. I t t hen s eems n ecessary t o g ive t he hybr id n ame L ate Neo l ithic/ E ar l iest Bronze Age t o t he preced ing p er iod 2 500-1700 b .c., i n r ecogn it ion t hat i t c onta ins bo th Neo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age c haracter ist ics. Dates t hroughout t he v o lume a re g iven a s r ad iocarbon y ears t ak ing C 14 h a lfl ife a s 5 568 y ears. Wh i le c a l ibration d ata f or c onver t ing r ad iocarbon t o c a lendar y ears h as n o t b een f ina l ly a greed, t h is s eems t o b e t he b est method o f o bta in ing a c ons istent t ime-sca le, wh ich i s s imp le t o c onvert a s n ew c a l ibration d ata become a va i lab le i n f uture.

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CHAPTER 1 GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF NORTH-EAST YORKSHIRE J .E. 1 2 3

4

5

6

Hem ingway

I ntroduction The Jurass ic S equence Ter t iary Deve lopments The Ter t iary P enep lane The D issection o f t he Reg ion The Dra inage P attern D ifferent ia l Eros ion o f t he Surface S carp Recess ion Res idua l F eatures G lac ia l I nf luences E ar ly G lac iat ions G lac ia l Eros ion G lac ia l Depos it ion L ate G lac ia l a nd Recent Changes Me lt-water E ffects S o l if luction Depos its S ealeve l Osc i l lations C l iff Eros ion Geo log ica l P otent ia l o f t he Region t o E ar ly Man

7

1 I NTRODUCTION The e xtent t o wh ich t he g eo log ica l e vo lut ion o f a r egion i nf luences i ts a rchaeo logica l h istory h as n o t a lways b een a pprec iated. Not o n ly d oes g eo logy c ontro l t he d istr ibut ion a nd r eady a va i labi l ity o f t hose r aw mater ia ls d es irab le o r e ven e ssent ia l t o t he pr im it ive c u ltures o f e ar ly man a nd t o t he ir s ubsequent d eve lopments: i t a lso mou lds t he t opography o f t he a rea , t he d istr ibut ion a nd f orm o f h igh a nd l ow g round , t he l ocat ion a nd water s upp ly o f d efens ive a nd s ett lement s ites, a nd t he v ery s o i l upon wh ich t he c u ltures were f ounded a nd d eve loped. The

r egion

o f

t h is

s tudy,

n or th-east

Yorksh ire*,

e pitom ises

t hese f actors i n i ts a rchaeo logica l e vo lut ion. An i so la ted u p land a rea o f Jurass ic r ocks, bas ica l ly t r iangu lar i n f orm, i t i s b ounded t o t he e ast f or t he most p art by h igh s ea-c l iffs a nd t o t he west by a n e qua l ly h igh west-fac ing e scarpment, t he n orthern p ar t o f wh ich i s known a s t he C leve land H i l ls ( F ig.2). The e scarpment a lso f ronts o ver t he Va les o f York a nd Mowbray, wh ich a t t he ir northern e nd s w ing e astward t o j o in t he broad e stuary o f t he r iver Tees t o f orm a n a rea s omet imes known a s t he P la in o f C leve land. To t he up land a rea i n g enera l t he t rad it iona l n ame o f C leve land ( c l iffland) was we l l a pp l ied. The c entra l a rea , made u p o f many l oca l ly d es ignated ' moors ', i s h owever t oday c o l lect ive ly r eferred t o a s t he North Yorksh ire Moors, a t erm wh ich h as r ep laced t he h istor ic a nd more v iv id B lackamore, o nce u sed f or t he e astern s ector. The

r eg ion

r ises t o a max imum o f 4 54m

OD o n

Urra Moor ,

a t

t he western e nd o f t he watershed wh ich e xtends t o Cock Heads ( F ig . 2). From t h is med ia l be lt t he moors f a l l g ent ly i n a l l d irect ions, t hough d issected by broad , f er t i le v a l leys wh ich r ad iate f rom i t . To t he n or th t he u pland i s a lso b isected by t he L even-Esk t hrough v a l ley, whereas, by c ontrast, t o t he s outh i t f a l ls g ent ly t hrough t he Hambleton, Tabu lar a nd Hackness H i l ls t o t he l owlying Va le o f P ickering.

* I n t h is a ccount t he t erms ' nor th-east Yorksh ire ' a nd ' Cleveland ' a re u sed i n t he t rad it iona l s ense. I t s hou ld b e n o ted, however , t hat t he C leve land H i l ls, a s o r igina l ly d es ignated , a nd much o f t he C leve land d yke l i e o uts ide t he c ounty o f C leve land a s bureaucratica l ly d ef ined.

8

9

2 THE JURASSIC SEQUENCE (Age:

1 36 t o 1 90-195 m i l l ion y ears)

The s o l id r ocks o f t he r egion f a l l i nto t hree s ubd iv is ions wh ich a re we l l-def ined both g eo log ica l ly a nd t opograph ica l ly ( F ig.3). The o ldest r ocks, t he L ias ( Lower Jurass ic) f orm a s uccess ion o f g rey a nd b lack s ha les w ith s ome f laggy s andstones, a s we l l a s t he mass ive C leve land I ronstone F ormat ion. The s equence ( c. 4 00m) i s mar ine t hroughout a nd y ie lds a n a bundance o f f oss i ls. One t hin b ed ( 8m) y ie lds t he t ough ' hard ' j et n orma l ly a ssoc iated w ith Wh itby, t hough o n ly f ragments washed o n t o t he beaches were u sed by e ar ly man. The L ias f loors t he u pland va l leys o f t he r iver E sk a nd i ts t r ibu tar ies, a s we l l a s t he c omplementary d a les wh ich d ra in s outh o ff t he ma in watershed. I t a lso f orms t he base o f both t he c oasta l c l iffs n or th-westwards f rom Robin Hood 's Bay, a s we l l a s t he f oot o f t he e nt ire w est-fac ing e scarpment. The s ucceed ing M idd le Jurass ic was i n it iated by a m ar ine e pisode , when t he t h in, v ar iable, i ron-r ich Dogger F ormat ion was l a id d own. I n t he ma in, h owever , t he M idd le J urass ic i s a s equence o f ye l low-buff t o brown s andstones, p a le g rey s i l . tstones a nd c lays, w ith t h in i ronstones a nd c oa ls. I t c aps much o f t he c oasta l c l iffs a nd d om inates t he upper s lopes o f t he n or thern d a les a nd t he moor land b e lt a bove. I t i s a bout 2 00m t h ick, t he p roduct o f a l luv ia l , marshy a nd m inor d e lta ic c ond it ions. The s andstones a ccumu lated i n meander ing r iver c hanne ls wh ich c rossed t he a l luv ia l f lats a nd n ow f orm mass ive l ent icu lar un its u p t o 2 0m t hick. The s i l ty c lays i n p ar ticu lar f ormed s o i ls f or t he r ich c ontemporary f lora , wh ich i n t he ir t urn f ormed o n ly t h in c oa ls, r est ing o n g ood f irec lays ( Fig.4). These c ond it ions were i nterrupted t hree t imes by mar ine i ncurs ions wh ich f looded t he s ubaer ia l s urfaces a nd p roduced t h in, s he l ly d epos its o f s and a nd mud, s ome l imy a nd o thers r ich i n i ron, but e ach o n ly a f ew metres t h ick o vera l l. Thus t he E her Beck Format ion i s n ow made u p o f t wo o r t hree t h in n odu lar b eds o f c lay i ronstone ( s ider ite mudstone) i n s ha le, over la in by a r ipp le-marked f laggy s andstone. S im i lar ly t he s ucceed ing Scarborough Formation ( c. 1 6m) i nc ludes t hin, n odu lar s he l ly i ronstones ( used a t t he Roxby s i te a nd probab ly e lsewhere), t ogether w ith a med ium-coarse s andstone , t he Cr ino id Gr it ( c. 6m). Th is l atter proved t o b e a v a luable s tone f or t he mak ing o f querns ( p.28). The s ucceed ing c lose ly c emented quar tzite, t he Moor Gr it, was l i tt le u sed f or t his purpose. The c hanne l s andstones were, h owever , t he most w ide ly u sed, a l though t hey wore r e lat ive ly qu ick ly. Above t he Moor G r it t he u ppermost p art o f t he M idd le Jurass ic ( c. 5 5m) i s ma in ly s i l iceous s i l ts a nd s andstones, wh ich t oday f orm t he most s ter i le p ar t o f t he moor land be lt. The t h ird o f t he ma in s ubd iv is ions, t he Upper J urass ic s equence ( 350m), i s i n o r ig in mar ine t hroughout, i n c ontrast t o t he marshy, f reshwater e nv ironment o f t he M idd le Jurass ic. I t r epresents a phase o f d om inant ly s ha l low, warm-water d epos it ion o f t h ick s ha les, c a lcareous s andstones a nd l imestones. The K e l laways Rock, a f erruginous s andstone n ear t he b ase, i s s ucceeded by t he

1 0

1 1

s ha les a nd s i l tstones i r onstones a nd s ha les s andstones c a lcareous s andstones

-200 m

l imestones

K immer idge C lay -0

U pper J urass ic

Oxford C lay Ke l la ways R ock

Cornbrash

M idd le J urass ic

Moor G r i t -Cr ino id G r i t S carborough F ormat ion


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mode o f

r esources f or t he ir own

ENVIRONMENTAL MANIPULATION DURING THE ATLANTIC I n t erms o f r esource p o tent ia l a nd f ood-w inn ing o ppor tun it ies, t he d ec iduous f orests o f F landr ian I were d ep leted i n c ompar ison w ith t he more d iverse e cosystems o f F landr ian I . Wood land c anop ies were g enera l ly d ense a nd c ontinuous, r educ ing t he i nput o f l ight t o t he f orest f loor a nd w ith i t t he qua l ity a nd quantity o f a va i lab le r esources i n t erms o f bo th p lant a nd a n ima l f oods. The e nv ironmenta l c haracter ist ics o f F landr ian I ( eco log ica l s tab i l ity, f orest i ner tia a nd much r educed p lant a nd a n ima l r esource d ivers ity) wou ld p lace t he e xtract ive s ystems o f t he Meso l ith ic under i ncreas ing pressure. The c onsequences f or a hunting a nd g ather ing c ommun ity o f a s teady d im inu tion o f e xp lo itab le v egetab le f oods, a nd c onsequently o f g ame a n ima ls, were l ike ly t o b e i ncreas ing ly s evere. I t i s t o b e e xpec ted, t herefore, t hat man 's r esponse was ( a) t o e xp lo it preferentia l ly t hose p ar ts o f t he r eg ion which n atura l ly r eta ined v egetationa l d ivers ity, a nd ( b) i f c u ltura l ly a nd t echno log ica l ly f eas ib le, t o e ncourage t h is d ivers ity by a r t if ic ia l means, i n p ar t icu lar by f ire c learance o f wood land i n f avoured l ocations, g enera l ly by f orest-edge, s pr ing-head, l akes ide o r f oreshore, where n atura l c oncentrat ions o f g ame a re most l ike ly t o b e f ound. The d e l iberate u se o f f ire , pre -a gr icu ltura l man 's most p otent e co log ica l t oo l, a s a n i nstrument o f e conom ic p o l icy i s we l ld ocumented f rom e thnographic r ecords o f hunter-ga therer c ommun i t ies ( Stewar t 1 956) a nd wh i le t hese a re n ot s tr ic t ly a na logous w ith t he Meso l ith ic s ituat ion, i nferences may b e made wh ich may e xp la in t he e xtens ive c oncentra t ions o f c harcoa l wh ich a re f requent u pon t he up land r eg ions o f t he moors i n a p re-e lm d ec l ine c ontext, b oth i n a ssoc iat ion w ith f l int s catters a nd i n i so lation. I t h as b een p o inted ou t a bove t hat t he Moors i n F landrian I c arr ied a l ighter , more o pen wood land i n wh ich t he d om inant o ak was a ccompan ied by a g reat d ea l o f h aze l. I t r ema ins t o b e s een whether t h is a ssoc iation was a n atura l o ne f or a n u p land a rea w ith a f a ir propor t ion o f s andy s o i ls, o r whether t he i mpor tance o f h aze l was a r esu lt o f c ont inued e nv ironmenta l man ipu la tion by Meso l ith ic man a nd, t herefore , c u ltura l ly i nduced. There i s p ersuas ive p a laeoenv jronmenta l e v idence t hat t he l a tter may, i t l east p ar tia l ly, be t he c ase. The f irst i nt imat ion t hat Meso l ith ic man may h ave b een i mp l icated i n e nv ironmenta l c hange, a nd i n p ar ticu lar i n t he a lterat ion o f v egetat iona l c ommun it ies, was r ecogn ised i n t he p o l len a na lys is o f s o i l p rof i les f rom t he h ighest p ar ts o f t he Moors ( I ) imh leby, 1 961, 1 962). D imb leby a na lysed t he p o l len c ontent o f s e l l i mmed iate ly b e low a p ro l if ic f l int s catter a ssoc iated w ith c harcoa l a t White G i l l o n Westerda le Moor , a nd c onc luded , o n t he b as is o f a v ery l ow propor tion o f n on-tree p o l len t o t ree p o l len ( TP/Tp = 3 9%) t hat t he l andscape a t t he t ime o f t he Meso l ith ic o ccupat ion h ad b een d ense ly wooded. I n t he s amp le a bove t he e pat ion l ayer , h owever , t h is f igure h ad r isen t o 1 04% , wh i le

5 8

b irch, h aze l a nd h eather h ad b ecome much more p rom inent. Th is i nd icates t ha t a more o pen t ype o f wood land h ad c ome i n to e x istence , which wou ld h ave b een a c hange much t o t he b enef it o f Meso l ith ic man, a nd o ne f or wh ich t he c harcoa l a nd f l ints s uggested t o D imb leby t ha t human a c tiv ity may we l l h ave b een r espons ib le. The

i nferred

f orest

c learance

a c tiv ity

a t

Wh ite

G i l l i s

g iven

more d eta i led e xpress ion i n t he e v idence f rom Nor th G i l l o n G la isda le Moor wh ich i s a s pr ing-head s i te a t h igh a l titude, a lthough i n a dd it ion h av ing a s ou ther ly a spec t which may h ave i ncreased i ts a ttractiveness t o hunting g roups. Accumu lat ion o f o rganic d epos its c ommenced e ar ly i n F landr ian I a nd p o l len a na lys is o f t he p eat ( Simmons, 1 969a , 1 969b), t ogether w ith t he s trat igraph ic s uccess ion s uggested t hat human a ct iv ity w as a ntecedent t o a nd p erhaps r espons ib le f or p ea t i ncept ion, a nd t ha t l oca l ised e nv ironmenta l mod if ication c ontinued t hroughou t F landr ian I. S evera l c ent imetres o f c harcoa l-r ich p eat o ccurred a t t he b ase o f t he p rof i le a nd c onta ined a p o l len a ssemb lage c harac ter ised by a r ange o f r udera l h erb t ypes, among wh ich were Ar tem is ia, Rumex , Ur tica ( nett le) a nd Me lampyrum. Va lues f or Quercus a nd A lnus were d epressed wh i le t here was a g rea tly i ncreased r epresentation o f t axa f avoured by f ire ( Pter id ium, Cory lus a nd P inus) a nd by i ncreased l ight ( Sa l ix, Frax inus a nd Betu la). I n a dd it ion, t he b asa l p eat l ayers were f ormed l arge ly f rom t he moss P o lytr ichum, a p ioneer c o lon iser o f n ew ly burned g round ( Viro , 1 969). Such e v idence i s c ons istent w ith t he c reat ion o f c learings i n t he d ec iduous f orest by f ire, a nd t he ir s ubsequent r egenerat ion t o wood land. This b asa l c learance phase i s r ad iocarbon d ated t o 6 ,316 ± 5 5 bp ( BM-425). The p resence o f r udera l p o l len a nd c harcoa l a t t he v ery base o f t he p ea t, a s i tuat ion r epeated a t o ther s i tes o n t he Moors, p o ints t o a p oss ib le r e la tionsh ip b etween t he a ct o f c learance a nd t he i n it iat ion o f p eat f orma tion, a n hypo thes is t hat we s ha l l r eturn t o l a ter. Towards t he e nd o f F landr ian I, f luc tuations o f a s im i lar n ature a re r ecorded a t Nor th G i l l ( Simmons, 1 969a), r ef lect ing t he t emporary r ep lacement o f wood land by o pen h ab itat t axa; t h is phase o f f orest r ecess ion was a ccompanied by c harcoa l a nd by a l ayer o f f ine s i lt p ar t ic les, s uggesting t hat s o i l e ros ion h ad f o l lowed t h is r enewed c learance. Recent r e-exam ina tion o f t he d epos its a t Nor th G i l l h ave b o th c onf irmed a nd ampl if ied S immons ' c onc lus ions r egard ing t he e nv ironmenta l s equence r ecorded t here, a nd e xtens ion o f t he a rea s ub jec ted t o p o l len a nd s tratigraph ic a na lysis h as a l lowed f ur ther a ssessment o f t he c haracter a nd s patia l e x tent o f t he F landr ian I t c learance t o b e made. The b asa l c harcoa l b and w ith wh ich wood land c learance a nd p eat i nception a re a ssoc iated h as b een t raced a cross t he s i te a nd p o l len s tud ies h ave b een under taken i n d ifferent p ar ts o f t he a rea , a l l s pr ing-head a nd i ts i mmediate c learance e vent.

o f wh ich e nv irons

t end t o a s t he

emphas ise f ocus o f

t he t he

Ev idence f or r ecurrent burn ing o f wood land a t s pr ing-head l ocations i s n o t c onf ined t o Nor th G i l l , f or e qua l ly i l lum inat ing e xamp les may b e quo ted f rom o ther a reas o f t he Nor th Yorksh ire Moors. One i n p ar t icu lar , t he s i te o f Bonf ie ld G i l l Head o n B i lsda le

5 9

E ast

Moor

( Simmons

and

I nnes,

1 981)

w i l l a lso

b e b r ief ly r eferred

t o h ere, f or i t i l lustrates t he p er iodic a nd t rans ient n ature o f t he c learance a ctiv ity s uggested by t he e v idence f rom North G i l l. The s trat igraph ic and p a laeobotanica l s equence f or t he b asa l e ighty c entimetres o f t he Bonf ie ld G i l l Head p rof i le i s d isp layed i n c onspectus f orm a s F ig.11. The p alaeobotan ica l r ecord i s d iv ided i nto po l len z onu les i ndicative o f wood land i nterference ( I) o r r egenerat ion ( R), t ogether w ith t he ir d iagnostic t axa a nd whether character ised by a rborea l (AP) o r n on a rborea l ( NAP) p o l len. These z onu les may be c ompared w ith t he s trat igraph ie un its a nd descr iptions a lso s hown upon t he d iagram. A and

c lear

s ynchronometry

i nterference

z onu les.

e xists

The

b etween

c harcoa l

s tratigraph ie

l ayers

o f

c harcoa l

s tratigraph ie

un its d , g and i a re r ef lected i n p o l len z onu les 2 , 4 a nd 6 b y dec l ines i n a rborea l p o l len va lues, p art icu lar ly Quercus a nd A lnus, s harp

i ncreases

i n

Cory lus

and

P ter idium

f requenc ies

a nd

t he

o ccurrence o f a w ide r ange o f r udera l h erb t ypes i nc lud ing Me lampyrum, Artemis ia and Rumex. The r egeneration phases wh ich i ntercalate t hese i nterference e p isodes r ecord p er iods when wood land was a ble t o r e-establ ish i tse lf o n, o r n ear, t he s ite. Th is i s s hown not on ly by i ncreased a rborea l p o l len v a lues, p art icular ly f or

Betula

and

Quercus,

but

a lso

by

t he

appearance

o f

Betu la

wood i n t he s trat igraphy a t t hese l eve ls. We s eem t o h ave e v idence h ere o f r otationa l burn ing o f t he s ame s ite, w ith woodland r eco lon isation when c learance p ressure was r e laxed. The e lm (Ulmus) dec l ine i s r ecogn ised a t t he beg inn ing o f p o l len z onu le 8 and t hus t he s equence o f c learance and r egenerat ion r ecorded i n z onu les

1 t o

7 i s

a ss igned

t o

chronozone

F landr ian

I

a nd

t o

a n

i mp l ied Meso lith ic cu ltura l c ontext. A l arge Betu la ( b irch) t ree s tump o ccurs i n t he p rof i le a t t he b ase o f t he s trat igraph ie un it j , wh ich c orre lates w ith t he beginn ing o f p o l len z onu le 9 , a nd i s ev idence o f ma jor woodland r eco lon isation o f t he b lanket p eat a t t he beginn ing o f F landr ian II. E l imination o f human p ressure upon t he e nvironment may h ave been i nstrumental i n p ermitt ing t he r egrowth o f t rees. M icroscop ic charcoa l p artic les a re p resent t hroughout t he F landr ian I peat d epos its, a nd wh i le t hey a re most abundant i n a ssoc iation w ith t he d iscrete c harcoa l l ayers wh ich o ccur dur ing t he I phases, a s wou ld be e xpected, t hey a re a lso present

a t

a l ow

but

c learance a ct iv ity i s Th is s uggests t hat

c onstant

l eve l

dur ing

t he

R

phases,

when

c ons idered t o h ave b een a bsent f rom t he s ite. burn ing o f t he v egetation was t ak ing p lace

s omewhere i n t he r eg ion a t a l l t imes dur ing t h is p er iod, s o t hat a background ' fa l lout ' o f charcoa l s oot was c onstant ly p resent. I n t h is r espect t h is s ite r esemb les many o ther up land p eat p rof i les f rom t he Moors, s uch a s Loose Howe a nd Trough House ( Simmons and

Cundi l l ,

1 974a),

wh ich

i ncorporate

c harcoa l

t hroughout

F landr ian l E. A t Bonf ie ld G i l l Head t he F landr ian II depos its a re devo id o f both charcoa l a nd ' soot '. Th is f act , a nd t he r eforestat ion o f t he up lands, s uggests t hat e ither t he f orm o f l and-use wh ich r equires man ipu lation by f ire o f t he e cosystem was n o l onger employed o r t hat a c omp lete w ithdrawa l o f h uman p resence f rom t he up lands

o f

t he

Moors

t ook

e vidence f or t he c essation t he e nd o f t he Meso l ith ic.

p lace. o f

I n

burn ing

6 0

e ither

c ase

p ract ices

o n

we t he

h ave

c lear

u pland

a t

E

0

B r o c l ' e n H a z e l

H a z e l

a -

E

-

E

-

B r a c k e n

-

R u d e r n l

R u d e

a l s

[ H O N Z O N E

LL

a--

P A L A E O B O T A N Y

a -

C'

0

CO

Li

—

c ' . J

L /

cr

—

—

> — II > > > -

I

-

-

[ v v i

—

-

-

E

-

—

>Ii > > >

> _ -

•I .

H > > > I . 1 1

>Ii > > >

•I .

0

a )

M i c r o s c o p i c c h a r c o a l )

D E S C R I P T I O N

S T R A T I G R A P H Y

C ,

6 1

LI

3

C

The and

i mpl icat ions

Bonf ie ld

G i l l

o f

Head

t he a re

t ype

o f e v idence we

c lear:

r epeated

f ir ing

s ee a t North G i l l o f

t he

woodland

was t aking p lace i n F landr ian I on t he North Yorksh ire Moors. A lthough natura l f orest f ires a re n ot d iscounted, i t i s c ons idered t hat t he o ccurrence o f s uch n atura l e vents, by l ightn ing s tr ike f or example, wou ld not be g reat i n t he d amp o ak-haze l -a lder wood land under t he i ncreased humid ity and p rec ip itation o f t he At lant ic c l imatic r eg ime. An anthropogen ic o r ig in f or t he ma jor ity o f t hese f orest burns s eems much more l ike ly f or a number o f r easons: ( a) o ften c harcoa l s preads a re a ssoc iated d irect ly w ith f l int a rtefacts; ( b)

a t

s evera l

l ocations

t here i s

e v idence

f or

r epeated burn ing o f

t he s ame s ite, e spec ia l ly a t a f avoured l ocation s uch a s a s pr ing head a rea; ( c) numerous e thnograph ic p ara l le ls f or s uch a ct ion f rom r ecent hunter-gatherer c ommun it ies t hroughout t he wor ld; and ( d) t he a dvantages t hat wou ld a ccrue t o s uch c ommun it ies f o l lowing t h is k ind o f e nv ironmental management. I f upon

t he t he

Meso l ith ic e conomy were based, a t l east s easona l ly , explo itation o f t he l arger ungulate popu lations,

s upp lemented by sma l ler a n ima ls a nd v egetable f oods, i mprovement o f f ood s tocks and i ncreased e ase o f p rocurement wou ld f o l low f orest burn ing. l t h as been s hown g razing and brows ing o f woodland qua l ity and

quantity,

(Me l lars 1 975, 1 976) i s much i ncreased,

t hat t he both i n

a fter f ire and t hat ungu late p opu lations t end

t o i ncrease and t o become c oncentrated i n t he c leared a rea. Deer a re a ttracted t o t he f resh ly-burned g round by t he l ush g rass a nd herb c arpet wh ich deve lops, a nd a lso t o t he a sh wh ich t he f ire c reated. B irds and sma l l mamma ls a re a lso a ttracted t o t he a rea (Ah lgren,

1 966),

and

wou ld

f orm

a n

a dditiona l

f ood

s upp ly

f or

humans. I ncreased s prouting o f s hrubs i s s ure t o o ccur , a nd o f particu lar r e levance h ere i s h aze l, wh ich i s t o lerant o f a l l but t he h ighest i ntens ity f ires. I ncreased a ccess o f l ight t o t he c leared a rea c ou ld s timu late t he f lower ing o f Cory lus ( haze l) and t herefore nut p roduct ion , and a s t he s hrub may be e xpected t o s prout f rom i ts b ase a fter f ire, t he d eve lopment o f h aze l s crub may we l l e nsue. O ther f ru it and berry p roduc ing s hrubs wou ld be e ncouraged a lso. Th is i nduced s uccess ion o n c leared a reas, p robably c u lminating i n haze l s crub c ons iderable

w ith h eavy r eservo ir o f

nut p roduction, wou ld p lant f ood r esources,

prov ide l ead ing

a t o

c ommensurate mu lt ip lication o f g ame a n ima l r esources f or Meso l ith ic man. I f f orest burn ing were a s r egu lar a n o ccurrence a s o ur evidence appears t o s how, t he o ak-haze l wood land wh ich t he p o l len d iagrams s uggest character ised F landr ian I on t he Moors may we l l be a t l east p art ia l ly a man-produced o r c u ltura l vegetation. Ev idence o f environmenta l d isturbance o f t h is k ind i s f orthcoming f rom a number o f s i tes o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors dur ing F landr ian I, t aking t he f orm o f smal l , t emporary o pen ings i n t he woodland wh ich may be a ttr ibutable t o t he a ctions o f Meso l ith ic c ommun ities. F ig. 1 2 r ecords t he d istr ibution o f t hese i nstances o f F landr ian c oncentrat ion o f s ites on

I t he

f orest r ecess ion, and s hows a h igh watershed a rea o f t he Moors,

g enera l ly on t he h eadwaters o f s treams a bove 3 00m OD, a lthough Co l l ier G i l l and May Moss a re r ather l ower a t 2 75m. I t i s i nterest ing, however , t hat a s ign if icant number d o o ccur a t i ntermediate a l ititude ( c. 1 50m OD), p articu lar ly o n t he l ower

6 2

2 30

i n

O D c ontour t i ne

L und a bove 3 05

A map

s howing

r ecorded dur ing J .B. I nnes.

t he

o ak

s ites

o n

f orest

O D

S i tes r e cord ing F t undr ion I f o rest r ecess ion 1 . SEA MER CARPS 2 FEN BOOS m ts 3 TRANMIRE SLACK 4 MOSS SWANG ILOALE H ALL 5 K 6 WEST HOUSE MOSS 7 LADY BRIDGE SLACK 8 , EWE CRAG SLACK 9 , MAY MOSS 1 0 COLLIER G ILL ( 1928) 1 COL.LIER G ILL H EAD 1 2 COLLIER D ILL 1 3 BOTANY BAY 4 . BONFIELD D ILL H EAD 1 5 . NORTH G ILL 1 6 . GLAISEJALE MOOR 1 7 BLUE WATH BECK HEAD 1 8 . WHITE G ILL 1 9 . WHITE G ILL A 2 0 . SMALL HO WE 2 1 TROUGH HOUSE 2 LOOSE HO WE

1 25 r n OD

F ig.12.

i n

t he Moors where f orest p er iod,

6 3

F landr ian

I.

r ecession h as b een

Unpubl ished

work

by

watershed s uggested

o f t he C leve land p lateau, a nd a f or t he l ow land l akes ide s ite

s ing le i nstance i s o f S eamer Carr

( Stokes ley). At t h is s ite J ones ( 1976a) r ecords F landr ian I L dur ing wh ich t he s tab i l ity o f t he

a phase i n e ar ly broad-leaf f orest

s urrounding t he l ake was d isturbed and a number o f h e l iophyte ( shade-into lerant) t axa i ncreased t heir p o l len r epresentation. P eaks o f Cory lus, P ter idium and P inus and t he b eg inn ing o f a c onstant Frax inus presence c ombine w ith t he appearance o f Artemis ia (mugwort), P lantago ma jor ( greater p lanta in), Rumex ( sorre l), Cruc iferae and Tubul if lorae, t o s uggest t he c reation o f open-ground a nd

s crub c ommun ities n ot f ar f rom t he l ake.

S imi lar ly, t he d epos its a t Ewe Crag S lack, i n a watershed s ituation a t 2 45m OD ( Jones, 1 978), r ecord t wo e p isodes dur ing wh ich r eductions i n t ree po l len va lues a re c o inc ident w ith t he i ntroduction t he po l len

o f h erbaceous i ndicators s pectra, i n p art icu lar

o f f resh ly c leared Me lampyrum and

g round t o Artem is ia.

He liophyte s hrubs were a lso encouraged, w ith Cory lus, S a l ix, Sorbus ( rowan), Frax inus and Rosaceous t ypes r ef lect ing t he more open n ature o f t he wood land. The c learance o f a reas t he m ire r esu lted i n s o i l e ros ion a nd t he d epos it ion o f t he a re

a d jacent t o s ed iment i n

f orm o f i nwash s tr ipes o f m inera l materia l. S imi lar phenomena r ecorded f rom Fen Bogs ( Atherden, 1 976a), Moss Swang a nd

Lady

Br idge

S lack

( Simmons,

1 969a)

and

West House

Moss

( Jones,

1 977a), where d islocation o f wood land e cosystems and t he c reation o f open a reas a re r epresented by t he i ncreased c ontr ibution o f rudera l and r egeneration t ypes t o t he po l len a ssemb lage, a ccompan ied on o ccas ion by t he d epos it ion o f s i lt i nwash a nd charcoa l i n

t he

Me lampyrum, Cruc iferae

m ire.

Character istic i ndicators o f c learance i nc lude

Artemis ia, Rumex, S te l lar ia ho lostea, Compos itae, a nd Chenopodiaceae. The l ower a ltitude

pa laeoenvironmenta l e v idence r epresented by t hese s ites i s c omparab le i n demonstrating r ather l ess i ntens ive c learance t han f rom t he h igher p arts o f t he moors, p robably r ef lect ing t he greater

wood land

dens ity

i n

t hese

a reas.

I n

l owland

c learance

phases a rborea l p o l len f a l ls f rom a n a verage o f a bout 7 0% o f t ota l po l len t o a bout 5 0% a nd c learance i ndicators, wh i le p resent i n t he s ame r ange a s up land e xamples, d o n ot s how s uch h igh f requenc ies. An except ion t o t h is i s a l ate-Flandr ian I f orest r ecess ion a t Tranmire S lack ( Jones , 1 978) dur ing wh ich a rborea l po l len f a l ls f rom 7 0% t o 3 0% o f t ota l p o l len. The f u l l a ssemb lage o f r udera l t ypes mentioned above i s j o ined by P lantago l anceo lata ( r ibwort p lanta in), P lantago c oronopus ( stagshorn p lantain) and Epi lobium P ter id ium,

( f ireweed o r r osebay w i l low h erb), wh i le p eaks o f g rasses, Frax inus and Cory lus o ccur. The d epos it ion o f

a l arge i nwash s tr ipe i n t he m ire a gain a ccompan ies c learance. The i ntens ity o f t h is c learance phase i s a nalogous w ith t hose r ecorded f rom t he h igh Moors, o f wh ich t he s i tes o f North G i l l a nd Bonf ie ld G i l l Head a lready d escr ibed a re t yp ica l e xamp les, t ree po l len f a l l ing f rom a n a verage o f a bout 5 0% t o l ess t han 3 0% f o l lowing c learance. I n a ddit ion t o t he c ontrast ing d ens ity o f wood land

i n

wh ich

c learance

t akes

p lace,

o ther

d ifferences

a re

apparent between up land and l owland e xamples, a lthough both r ecord a f undamenta l ly s imi lar e vent. Charcoa l i s p resent i n e very c ase i n upland c ontexts both a s d iscrete c oncentrated l ayers a nd

6 4

s uffused

t hroughout

t he

p rof i le ,

i nd icat ing

t hat

f ir ing

o f

t he

v egetat ion was a c ommon a nd p erhaps e ven r eg iona l ly c ont inuous e vent. Charcoa l i s n ot i n e very c ase r ecovered f rom t he s trat igraphy a t l ow land c learance h or izons , but t he u se o f f ire i s i mp l ied by t he a lmost un iversa l e xpans ion o f t axa h e ld t o b e c haracter ist ic o f s uccess ion a fter f ire, i n p ar icu lar Me lampyrum ( Berg lund, 1 966; Mamakowa , 1 968), Artem is ia , P ter id ium a nd Cory lus (Ah igren , 1 974). S evera l s i tes e xh ib it more t han o ne c learance h or izon , a nd s o were f oc i o f a ct iv ity a t i nterva ls t hroughout F landr ian I, but t hose i n t he u p land a ppear t o h ave b een v is ited r ather more o ften , a l though t h is may b e i l lusory d ue t o up land s i tes h av ing h ad a g reater p o l len c atchment a rea t han t hose i n t he more d ense ly wooded l owland. Ca l luna ( heather) f igures s trong ly i n t he c learance a ssemb lage o f l ate F landr ian I i n t he up lands but i s p oor ly r epresented i n l ow land s i tuat ions , p erhaps i nd icating c ontrast ing s o i l d eve lopment a fter c learance i n t he t wo a reas. l t i s p otent ia l ,

c lear t hat a s we l l a s e xp lo it ing z ones o f h igh Meso l ith ic man was c apab le o f i ncreas ing t h is

r esource p otent ia l

t hrough f ire c learance o f t he h igh f orest v egetation , w ith i ts a ttendant e conomic b enef its. C learance a ct iv ity t ook p lace i n v ary ing l ocat ions t hroughout t he r eg ion , a lthough a l l a re c omparab le i n h av ing i mmed iate a ccess t o t he water , whether s tream o r l ake, wh ich i s a l og ica l f ocus f or human a nd a n ima l a ct iv ity. The most r eward ing z one f or s uch man ipu lat ion , h owever , wou ld b e t he upper e dge o f t he f orest wherever a n ima ls m ight n atura l ly c ongregate n ear water s upp ly , a d escr ipt ion t hat f i ts a l l o f t he h igh a lt itude s i tes s hown o n F ig. 1 1 v ery we l l. Further r esearch i s r equ ired t o c lar ify t h is d istr ibut ion. The s pat ia l d imens ions o f a l ate Meso l ith ic c learance e vent a re d iff icu lt t o d educe. l t i s c lear , h owever , t hat t here must h ave been a n o pt imum i ntens ity o f burn a nd t ime o f e xecut ion t o p roduce t he max imum b enef it i n i ncreased v egetab le a nd d eer y ie lds. Me l lars ( 1976) h as c ons idered t h is quest ion a nd quotes a number o f a uthors who s tate t hat max imum d eer p opu lat ions a re t o b e f ound o n a r e lat ive ly sma l l c leared a rea. D ivers ity i s t he k eyword o nce a ga in, f or f orest e dge v egetation i s a s i mportant a s t he c leared a rea i tse lf. The p rov is ion o f c over ( both f or d eer a nd hunter) i s a lso a v ita l c onst ituent o f t he a rea i n quest ion , f or d eer w i l l n o t r ead i ly o ccupy t oo l arge a n a rea o f b are g round. Too s ma l l a c lear ing i s e qua l ly unsat isfactory but a c omb ination o f b are g round, c over a nd r egenerat ing b rowse s upp ly i s i dea l. The c onsensus o f o p in ion s eems t o b e t hat t he o pt imum d iameter f or t he c lear ing may be r ather l ess t han 4 00 metres. I f t h is i s s o , i t c orresponds v ery n eat ly w ith o ur e v idence f rom North G i l l , where t he c harcoa l l ayers e xtend a long t he s tream e dge f or a l i tt le more t han 3 75 metres. Before f ina l c onc lus ions may b e made , h owever , we r equ ire r ather more e v idence r egard ing t he c haracter a nd d istr ibution o f Meso l ith ic c learance o ver t he Moors a s a who le. We h ave a lready d escr ibed phenomena o f t he k ind o ut l ined a bove a s ' t emporary ' c learance phases. I t r ema ins t o c ons ider what l ast ing c hanges, i f a ny , Meso l ith ic man may h ave wrought u pon t he l andscape dur ing F landr ian I. A l ong-term r etract ion o f t he e xtent

6 5

o f

f urest

c over

s eems

a p oss ibi l ity.

Po l len

a na lys is

s uggests

t hat

t he c entra l watershed o f t he Moors d id not c arry h igh f orest dur ing t he At lantic , but may h ave s upported a t b est s crub o r open c ommun ities on ly. There i s n o r eason why t h is s hould b e s o , f or we h ave noted a bove t hat p roven t ree l ines i n o ther p arts o f t he c ountry were a t t h is t ime a ltitudina l ly f ar i n e xcess o f t he h ighest p arts o f t he Moors. l t s eems l ike ly t hat r epeated f ir ing o f t he woodland a t h igh a ltitude, p lus t he c onsequent h eavy brows ing pressure ( both v ery d estruct ive a nd proh ibitive o f r egeneration) c ou ld h ave l ed t o r emova l o f woodland e nt ire ly. Man-induced ,

p ressure

o n

t he

g radua l ly moved t he t ree-l ine t o r egenerate. Certain ly, t he wou ld

h ave

been

t he

c ase

f orest

marg in

may

we l l

t ree h ave

d ownh i l l a s t he c leared a reas f a i led wood land was kept more o pen t han

h ad

human c ontro ls

n ot b een o perative.

I f human p ressure was c ontinuous f rom e ar ly F landr ian I t imes, woodland may e ven h ave been p revented f rom f orming a t t hese h ighest

a reas

a t

a l l.

The

e ar ly F landr ian

II

b irch

t ree

s tumps a t

Bonf ie ld G i l l Head, and s imi lar wood r ema ins f rom G la isda le Moor , s uggest t hat t he t ree-l ine was i ndeed k ept a t a n a rtif ic ia l ly l ow a ltitude dur ing t he Meso l ith ic cu ltura l p er iod. Nor s hou ld we neg lect t he poss ibi l ity o f p ermanent ly o pen a reas a t l ower a ltitude , f or we do h ave r ecords o f c learance a t t hese l eve ls. Unt i l f urther evidence i s f orthcoming, h owever , i t i s p erhaps p rudent t o a ssume s uccessfu l

r egeneration

a t

l ow

a lt itudes,

due

t o

b etter

s o i ls

a nd

denser woodland. The

most

s er ious

e ffects

o f

Meso l ith ic a ctiv ity

may

h ave b een

i n r e lat ion t o s o i ls. Deve loped o n nutr ient-poor p arent r ock, a nd exposed t o h eavy r a infa l l p ressure dur ing F landr ian I, t he mature up land s o i ls o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors h ave a lready b een under s ome s tress, a nd may e ven be c haracter ised a s marginal. Heavy l each ing wou ld make t hem prone t o a c idif ication. C learance o f wood land o f ways. l ost, a s

wou ld a cce lerate t h is t rend t owards a c idity i n a number Much o f t he nutr ient s tore o f t he e cosystem wou ld b e v egetat ion c ombusted and a sh and c harcoa l were

t ransported away. l each ing , f urther r epresented o f I t

a t

I ncreased r a infa l l e ffectiveness dep leting t he s o i l. A r ise i n

both

North

G i l l a nd

Bonf ie ld

G i l l

wou ld p romote s o i l a c id ity i s

Head

by t he

r ise

b irch and h eather a nd d ec l ine o f a lder f o l lowing l ater F landr ian i nterference phases. We h ave e v idence o f F landr ian I t s o i l

d eter ioration f rom o ther r eg ions i n a ssoc iation w ith a (Rank ine e t a l., 1 960). dryness e ros ion , f rom both

( Crampton a nd Webley,

1 966) o ften

Meso l ithic presence, a s a t Oakhanger I n a ddition, i ncreased t emperature a nd

o f s o i l a fter f ire i ncreases s o i l f r iab i l ity, e ncourag ing s o i l e spec ial ly under c ondit ions o f g reat ly i ncreased r un-off

c leared s lopes. We h ave phys ical e v idence o f s uch e ros ion, a t a ltitude ( North G i l l , B luewath Beck Head) and l ower d own

(Tranmire S lack, Ewe Crag S lack, Moss Swang) ( Simmons e t a l., 1 975) i n t he f orm o f i nwash s tr ipes o f m inera l mater ial a t Meso lith ic c learance h or izons. S evera l e xamp les f rom quoted, e .g. Bodmin Moor ( Conno l ly e t Cumber land l ow lands may

(Wa lker ,

o ther r egions may b e a l., 1 950), a nd t he

1 966).

We h ave a lready mentioned t he p oss ibi l ity t hat Meso l ith ic man h ave i n it iated t he i ncept ion o f p eat g rowth. Ev idence o f

6 6

c learance i s o ften f ound a t t he b ase o f t he b lanket p eat i n t he f orm o f r udera l p o l len o r c harcoa l , a s t hough t he c reat ion o f o pen g round was t he s timu lus f or i ts g rowth. C learance o f wood land r e leases v ast quant it ies o f water i nto t he e cosystem wh ich wou ld p rev ious ly h ave b een bound up i n t he v egetat ion. Excess water may n o l onger b e r emoved by t ransp irat ion a nd, i n a t ime o f h igh r a infa l l s uch a s F landr ian I, water logg ing o f t he s o i l may we l l o ccur , p art icu lar ly i f c ompact ion o f t he s o i l s urface h as f o l lowed t ramp l ing o f t he s i te by t he c oncentrat ions o f a n ima ls t hat t he c learance i s d es igned t o a ttract. Ac id if icat ion o f s o i ls a nd i mpedence o f d ra inage under h igh r a infa l l a re c ond it ions s u itab le f or p eat f ormat ion. The a reas o f b og i nterspersed i n t he wood land m i l ieu • wh ich we h ave p ostu lated f or F landr ian I, may we l l h ave s erved a s t he i n it ia l nuc le i o f m ire f ormat ion. I f t he a bove mechan ism o perated o n a ny s ca le , we s hou ld a lso e xpect t he s i lt l oad a nd water v o lume e nter ing t he r eg ion 's s treams t o b e much g reater t han wou ld n atura l ly h ave b een t he c ase, p erhaps l ead ing t o f lood ing a nd s ed iment d epos it ion i n t he ir l ower c ourses o f a r ecurrent a nd i ntense n ature ( R ichards, 1 981). Any s uch c hange i n t he r eg ime o f t he r eg ion 's watercourses may we l l h ave h ad r epercuss ions upon f ish a nd a quat ic p lant r esources. I n

c onc lus ion ,

t herefore ,

we

s uggest

t hat

F landr ian

I upon

t he North Yorksh ire Moors was n ot c haracter ised by t he h omogene ity o f c onvent iona l w isdom, but a t endency t owards e co log ica l i nstab i l ity a nd b iot ic d ivers ity. The l andscape a ppears t o h ave b een a mosa ic o f o pen wood land a nd r egenerat ing s era l c ommun it ies, w ith in wh ich s em i-permanent a reas o f o pen g round, bog a nd h eath land e x isted. The t echn iques o f e nv ironmenta l mod if icat ion emp loyed by man wh ich ma inta ined t h is d ivers ity o f l andscape may a lso h ave l ed l oca l ly t o e co log ica l d egenerat ion o f a s evere a nd p ermanent n ature.

6 7

T hE I MPACT OF NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE CULTURES ON THE ENVIRONMENT I NTRODUCTION The Br it ish Neo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age a re g enera l ly r ecogn ised a s h av ing e x isted f rom a pprox imate ly 5 ,500 t o 2 ,650 y ears bp. Th is p er iod o f t ime was t he f irst i n wh ich f arm ing p ract ices were t he d om inant f orm o f s urv iva l f or t he p opu lat ion a nd t hese p ract ices h ad a number o f s ign if icant i nf luences o n t he v egetat ion a nd s cenery o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors. W ith in t he Neo l ith ic and Bronze Age s evera l d iscrete v egetat iona l a nd e nv ironmenta l phases may b e i dent if ied a nd i t i s t hese t hat p rov ide t he d iv is ions f or t he d iscuss ion t hat f o l lows. THE ELM DECLINE A r ap id r educt ion i n e lm p o l len a t t he b oundary b etween t he m idd le and l ate F landr ian p er iods ( chronozones F l I l/Ill) i s a d istinct ive f eature o f n orth west European p o l len d iagrams ( e.g. Godw in, 1 975; P enn ington , 1 969) a nd p robab ly f orms t he most s ign if icant h or izon i n p o l len d iagrams o f t h is a ge. I n it ia l ly t he e lm d ec l ine was r ecogn ised a s h av ing t wo e lements; f irst ly what w as d escr ibed a s a p r imary d ec l ine i n wh ich o n ly e lm p o l len v a lues were r educed , a nd s econd ly a ' l andnam ' o r wood land c learance phase i n wh ich s evera l wood land t axa were r educed i n a dd it ion t o e lm ( Iversen , 1 941). I n Br ita in f ew p a lyno log ists h ave b een a b le t o i dent ify b oth phases and more o ften t he t wo phases o ccur t ogether , a s o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors p o l len d iagrams. P erhaps t he most r emarkab le f eature o f t he e lm d ec l ine i s i ts r e lat ive ly s ynchronous r adiocarbon d ates f rom d ifferent p arts o f Br ita in; t he ma jor ity o ccur a round 5 ,100 y ears bp ( Sims , 1 973) a lthough t here a re a number o f e ar l ier a nd l ater d ates. On t he North Yorksh ire Moors t he e lm d ec l ine h as b een d ated t o 4 ,767 ± 6 0 bp ( B M-426) a t North G i l l ( Jones , Cund i l l a nd S immons , 1 979) a nd 4 ,720 ± 9 0 bp ( T-1084) a t F en Bogs ( Atherden , 1 976a, 1 976b). The p o l len d iagram f rom G la isda le Moor ( F ig.13, S immons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974a) i l lustrates t he n ature o f t he e lm d ec l ine o n t he h igher g round o f t he moors , wh i le t hat f rom S eamer Carr ( Stokes ley) ( Fig.14, J ones 1 976a) s hows t he s ame p er iod f or a l ow land s i te a d jacent t o t he Moors. A lthough i t i s o ften p oss ib le t o i dent ify a n e lm d ec l ine i n p o l len d iagrams f rom t he North Yorkshire Moors, t here a re s ome s i tes where a c lass ic e lm d ec l ine i s d iff icu lt t o r ecogn ise b ecause o f t he v ery v ar iab le n ature o f t he e lm p o l len curve. I n p art icu lar t he s i tes o n t he s ides o f t he moor land d a les s uch a s S t. He lena ' B ' ( Simmons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974b), a nd i n t he C leve land a rea l ike Tranm ire S lack ( Jones , 1 978) a ppear t o h ave t he l east c lear e lm d ec l ines. The p oss ib le r easons f or s uch v ar iat ions w i l l b e e xp lored l ater. NATURE OF WOODLAND ALTERATION The e lm d ec l ine i s n oted n ot o n ly f or a d ist inct ive r educt ion i n t he v a lue o f e lm p o l len but a lso f or a g enera l c hange i n t he c ompos it ion o f wood lands i n Br ita in. The d ecrease i n t he n umbers o f e lm t rees a l lowed o ther p lant s pec ies t o i nvade t he v acated

6 8

- I

f e a t u r e o f t h e d i a g r a m i s t h e

-

1 . 1

L)

LU

L L )

7 0

- 4

0

a reas a nd i t h as b een a rgued f or s ome t ime t hat t he wood land c anopy b ecame l ess d ense. Th is a l lowed t he e xpans ion o f t he more l ight d emand ing wood land t ree s pec ies s uch a s Frax inus ( ash), a s we l l a s e ncourag ing t he e xpans ion o f b irch a nd h aze l. Such c hanges may b e i dent if ied o n many o f t he p o l len d iagrams f rom t he l ow land a reas o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors , a l though t he h igher g round o f t he moors h ad a sh a nd f a ir ly h igh v a lues o f b irch a nd h aze l b efore t he e lm d ec l ine. Wh i le a r educt ion i n e lm must h ave h ad a n o t iceab le e ffect o n t he c ompos it ion o f t he wood land, i t c an b e a rgued t hat t he c hanges i n p o l len p ercentages o f o ther t ree t axa may n ot i nd icate a c hange i n t he ir p opu lat ions i n t he e cosystem. F or e xamp le , i t i s p oss ib le t hat a n o pen ing up o f t he wood land c anopy may h ave a l lowed a p o l len r a in d er ived f rom a l arger a rea t o b e d epos ited, a p o l len r a in wh ich c onta ined g reater p ercentages o f o ther t ree t axa. The a ppearance o f F agus ( beech) i n s ome North Yorksh ire Moors p o l len d iagrams a t t h is t ime may b e a r ef lect ion o f t he o pen ing o f t he wood land c anopy. One unusua l f eature wh ich i s r ecorded i n s ome o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors p o l len d iagrams i s a n i ncrease i n T i l ia ( l ime) a t t he s ame t ime a s t he e lm d ec l ine. Th is f eature i s more a pparent i n t he b lanket p eat ( e.g. G la isda le Moor , F ig.13) a nd g lac ia l d ra inage c hanne l s i tes o n t he h igher g round o f t he moors ( Simmons , 1 969a; S immons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974a). H igh v a lues o f l ime a re a lso f ound i n t he Va le o f York a nd t he Tees b as in a nd h ave b een a ttr ibuted t o o ptimum c l imate a nd e daph ic c ond it ions f or i ts g rowth o bta in ing i n t hese a reas ( Simmons , 1 969a). I t may b e s uggested h owever t hat i t i s a lso p oss ib le t hat i ncreased v a lues o f l ime p o l len were r each ing bog s urfaces a t t he e lm d ec l ine b ecause o f t he r educt ion i n e lm t rees. Th is e xp lanation wou ld n ot r equ ire a n i ncrease i n t he l ime t ree p opu lat ion. EXPLANATION OF THE ELM DECLINE A lthough t he e lm d ec l ine i s a d ist inct ive f eature o f p o l len d iagrams f rom n orth west Europe , n o t ota l ly s atisfactory e xp lanat ion o f what c aused i t h as b een f orthcoming. A number o f p oss ib le e xp lanations h ave b een put f orward, i nc luding c l imat ic c hange , wh ich h as b een ma in ly s uggested by c ont inenta l workers. They p o int t o c hanges i n t he n ature o f wood land a t t he e lm d ec l ine , i n p art icu lar t he d isappearance o f f rost s ens it ive s pec ies s uch a s U lmus m inor ( smooth e lm), Hedera h e l ix ( ivy) a nd V iscum a lbum ( mist letoe) a s e v idence f or a d eter iorat ion i n c l imate ( e.g. Troe ls-Smith , 1 960). However , t here i s n o e v idence o f t h is k ind i n Br it ish p o l len d iagrams a s , f or e xamp le , t he o n ly e lm g row ing i n Br ita in a t t h is t ime was U lmus g labra ( Wych e lm) a nd t he r ecord f or Hedera ( ivy) c ont inues a fter t he e lm d ec l ine. Even i n t he d r ier a nd more c ontinenta l a rea o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors t he f inds o f i vy p o l len a re j ust a s f requent a fter t he e lm d ec l ine a s b efore t he e lm d ec l ine ( F igs.13 a nd 1 4). Another e xp lanat ion f or t he e lm d ec l ine i s t hat o f d isease a nd a lthough Rackham ( 1980) a rgues t hat d isease was p robab ly a f actor , a t t he p resent t ime t here i s n o d irect e v idence t o s upport t h is s uggest ion. Therefore i t h as t o r ema in o n ly a p oss ib i l ity.

7 1

P erhaps t he most w ide ly a dopted e xp lanat ions f or t he e lm d ec l ine i n n orth west Europe a re t hose wh ich i nvo lve t he a ct iv it ies o f man. Anthropogen ic e xp lanat ions h ave t ended t o b ecome p opu lar b ecause v ery many e lm d ec l ines h ave c lear s igns o f wood land d estruct ion ( and e xpans ions o f t axa s uch a s Gram ineae ( grass), P lantago ( p lanta in), P ter id ium ( bracken) wh ich a re i nd icat ive o f o pen o r d isturbed h ab itats) a nd s omet imes t he g rowth o f c erea ls. I nvest igat ions and r ad iocarbon d ates f rom e ar ly Neo l ith ic s i tes h ave d emonstrated t hat t he f irst c lear ly i dent if iab le f arm ing c u lture a rr ived i n Br ita in a t a bout 5 ,000 5 ,500 y ears bp ( Sm ith , 1 974; Evans , 1 975). The l ink ing o f t he e lm d ec l ine w ith a nthropogen ic a ct iv it ies t herefore s eems l og ica l. Troe ls-Sm ith ( 1960) h as g one f urther a nd a rgued t hat Neo l ith ic man u sed e lm l eaves a s a n ima l f odder wh ich r esu lted i n e lm t rees b e ing p o l larded t hus r educ ing t he o utput o f e lm p o l len. To t h is a rgument Rackham ( 1980) h as a dded t he f actor o f d isease wh ich h e b e l ieves s pread r ap id ly i n t he p o l larded t rees, f orc ing t he Neo l ith ic f armers t o s eek unaffected s pec imens. He s uggests t hat t h is c omb inat ion o f man a nd d isease wou ld h ave b een more p owerfu l t han e ither o f t hese f actors o n t he ir own i n b r ing ing a bout t he e lm d ec l ine , a lthough t here i s n o d irect e v idence o f d isease t o s upport t h is hypothes is. -

Any a ttempt t o a pp ly a d irect l ink b etween Neo l ith ic f arm ing p ract ices a nd t he e lm d ec l ine o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors p oses a number o f p rob lems. l t h as b een n oted a lready t hat t he e lm d ec l ine i s most c lear ly s een i n p o l len d iagrams f rom h igh g round and a lso f rom a reas p er iphera l t o t he moors. The l atter s i tuat ion i s i n k eep ing w ith t he d istr ibut ion o f Neo l ith ic a xes , s hown i n F ig.24, t o b e p er iphera l t o t he h igh moors , i .e. o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls, i n t he va l leys a nd o n t he Bou lder C lay l ow lands a nd c oast. On t he h igher g round Neo l ith ic a ct iv ity i s r epresented a lmost e ntire ly by f l int s i tes wh ich a re o ften a t t he s ame s i tes a s t he Meso l ith ic hunt ing c amps. I t i s t herefore l ess e asy t o s uggest a l ink b etween Neo l ith ic f arm ing a nd t he e lm d ec l ine o n t he h igh moors t han i n p laces s uch a s t he Tabu lar H i l ls a nd t he p er iphera l l ow land. I ndeed D imb leby ( 1962) a nd Rad ley ( 1969) h ave s uggested t hat t he l ate Meso l ith ic p eop les p ers isted we l l i nto Neo l ith ic t imes on h igher g round ( see a lso Chapter 4 ), a nd t h is l ine o f r eason ing h as b een u sed by Spratt a nd S immons ( 1976) t o wonder whether t he e lm d ec l ine i n t hese a reas o ught t o b e a scr ibed t o t he t erm ina l Meso l ith ic r ather t han t he e ar ly Neo l i th ic. Th is i s f eas ib le , a lthough s uch a s uggest ion p oses a number o f quest ions a bout t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween Meso l ith ic a nd Neo l ith ic man wh ich a re d iff icu lt t o a nswer. Whoever i n it iated t he e lm d ec l ine o n t he h igher g round o f t he moors , i t i s c lear t hat t hey d id n ot d o i t i n o rder t o g row c erea ls. No c erea l p o l len h as b een f ound a nd i n g enera l t he f ew r udera l p o l len t axa a re more i nd icat ive o f p astora l f arm ing t han a rab le f arm ing. I t m ight b e a sked why wood land was c leared i f t he l and was t o b e u sed f or p astora l f arm ing o n ly. I t m ay b e p oss ib le t hat s ma l l s ca le burn ing o f wood land was c arr ied o ut i n o rder t o i ncrease a nd i mprove t he b rowse a va i lab lo f or d omest ic s tock. I n a ddit ion t he i ncrease i n t axa s uch a s Cory lus ( haze l) a t t he e lm d ec l ine may n o t b e j ust t he r ef lect ion o f r egenerat ion o f wood land a fter wood land c learance , but may b e p art o f a d e l iberate

7 2

po l icy

t o

i ncrease

browse

and

t o

p rov ide

a n

i ncreased

s ource

o f

f ood f rom nuts f or t he human p opu lation. IMP ACT OF THE NEOLITHIC ON POST ELM-DECLINE WOODLAND A lthough t he e lm d ec l ine i s r ecogn ised a s a d istinct f eature i n a number o f p o l len d iagrams f rom t he North York Moors, a s a woodland c learance phase i t was o f s hort duration. Even t he v a lues o f e lm r ecover t o s ome e xtent a fter t he d ec l ine a lthough t hey d o not a ttain p re-dec l ine va lues ( Figs.13 and 1 4). However, i t i s a lso apparent f rom most o f t he p o l len d iagrams f rom t he h igher g round o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors t hat t he e lm d ec l ine h eralds a p er iod o f

g radua l ly

d imin ish ing

t ree

c over.

W ithin

t h is

p er iod

o ccas iona l

wood land c learance phases o f Neo l ith ic a ge may b e i dent if ied s uch a s t he one a t Co l l ier G i l l wh ich h as been d ated t o 3 ,886 ± 7 9 bp ( B M-428) ( Simmons , 1 969; Spratt and S immons, 1 976; J ones, Cundi l l a nd S immons, 1 979). F ew s uch d iscrete p er iods o f woodland destruction may be i so lated f rom t he g radua l r eduction i n woodland, a lthough t he g radua l r eduction i tse lf may b e t he r esu lt o f c ontinu ing f arming p ressure on t he h igher g round a s i ndicated p erhaps by c ontinuous f inds o f r udera l p o l len. I n more s he ltered and l ower a ltitude p laces s uch a s Moss Swang ( Simmons, 1 969a) and S t. He lena ( Simmons and Cund i l l , 1 974b), t he p ost e lm-dec l ine wood land appears t o be l i tt le d isturbed ( Fig.15). Th is h as l ed t o t he s uggestion (Atherden , 1 976b) t hat l imited woodland destruction, p erhaps on a s poradic s ca le, was t ak ing p lace. The t ota l e vidence i n Chapter 4 p resents a p icture o f p astora l ism w ith in t he f orest o n t he l ower g round o f t he northern p art o f t he moors, wh i le h igher g round was be ing u sed f or hunting; on t he Tabular H i l ls

t here

was

much

more i ntens ive Neo l ith ic

s ett lement,

p robab ly

f or m ixed f arming. FORMATION OF

BLANKET

PEAT DURING THE

NEOLITHIC

The on ly extens ive a reas o f b lanket p eat o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors a re f ound on t he h igher g round known a s Egton H igh Moor , G la isda le Moor and Danby H igh Moor. O ther more r estr icted a reas o f s uch p eat o ccur o n l ower g round p r inc ipa l ly a t May Moss (Atherden, 1 979) and Harwood Da le Moss ( Erdtman, 1 928). I n many r espects t he b lanket p eats o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors a re not a s we ll P enn ines o r Dartmoor. c ondit ions w ith h ighest g round 1 973). The t hat t here

d eve loped a s t hose , f or e xamp le, o n t he Th is i s p robably because o f t he d r ier

on ly a bout 1 000mm o f r a infa l l o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors

e ach y ear o n t he ( Eyre a nd P a lmer,

ma in r eason f or d iscuss ing b lanket p eat a t t h is p o int i s a re a number o f s ites where p eat f ormation s tarts

dur ing t he Neo lith ic ( Cundi l l , 1 977; S immons a nd Cundi l l , 1 974a; A therden, 1 979). Co m mencement o f p eat a ccumu lation a t t h is t ime i s

n ot

un ique

t o

t he

North

Yorkshire

Moors

a s

Moore

( 1973)

h as

r ecogn ised a s imi lar phenomenon f rom b lanket p eat s i tes i n c entra l Wa les. The Neo l ith ic i s not i dent if ied a s a p er iod o f i ncreas ing o cean ic ity

a nd

t h is

h as

l ed

t o

s pecu lation

t hat

h ave h ad s ome i nf luence i n t he i nception o f Whether t h is p rocess c ou ld operate under Neo lith ic

wood land

c learance

i s

d iff icult

t o

Neo l ith ic

j udge,

but

absence o f pos it ive e v idence f or a wetter r eg iona l c l imate,

7 3

man

may

b lanket p eat g rowth. c onditions o f l imited i n

t he

e ven t he

S T . . H ELENA D epth ( m) 3 . 504 .004 .505 . 005 . 50 6 . 00 6 . 50

-

-

E LM

-

I t

I

I

I

I

I

I I

0

I

D ECL INE

j

1 00

P ERCENTAGES O F T OTAL P OLLEN ( EXCLUD JNc 3 S PORES)

F ig.15. A s ummary p o l len d iagram f or t he b og b eh ind a l ands l ip a t S t. He lena. The d iagram b eg ins n ear t he e lm d ec l ine a nd t hen c overs a c ons iderab le s tretch o f l a ter p reh istory, marked by f luctuations o n t he r e lative f requenc ies o f t ree, s hrub a nd o ther po l len. A f ter S immons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974b.

7 4

l im ited i nd icat ions o f t he p resence o f man p rov ides a a ttract ive e xp lanat ion f or t he s tart o f b lanket p eat g rowth. BRONZE AGE

more

I MPACT ON WOODLAND

Wh i le i t h as b een r ecogn ised t hat l imited i mpact o n wood lands t ook p lace dur ing t he Neo l ith ic , i t h as b een a rgued t hat dur ing t he Bronze Age t he f irst s ign if icant d estruction o f t he t ree c over o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors t ook p lace ( e.g. J ones , Cundi l l a nd S immons , 1 979). I n it ia l ly much o f t h is a rgument was b ased o n t he i nference t hat b ecause Bronze Age r ema ins , d escr ibed i n Chapters 4 t o 6 , a re a bundant o n t he moors , t h is c u lture must h ave h ad a s ubstant ia l i mpact o n t he e nv ironment. I n r ecent y ears a n umber o f r ad iocarbon d ates h ave b een o bta ined f or t he f irst ma jor wood land c learance r ecogn ised i n p o l len d iagrams a nd t hese c lear ly s how t hat t he e vent d id o ccur i n t he Bronze Age. F or e xamp le , t he d ates o f ± 3,210 bp ( Gak-2712) a t Whee lda le G i l l ( Simmons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974a; Spratt a nd S immons , 1 976) a nd 3 ,400 ± 9 0 ( T-1150) y ears bp f or a c learance phase a t F en Bogs ( Atherden ‚ 1976a) a re w ith in t he Bronze Age. The n ature o f t he wood land c learance phase c an b e s een i n t he p o l len d iagram f rom Yar isey Moss ( Fig.16) where i t i s n ot d ated ( Simmons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974a) a nd P en Bogs ( Fig-17) where i t i s d ated ( Atherden, 1 976a). P o l len d iagrams h ave b een p roduced a lso f rom s o i ls bur ied b eneath Bronze Age bur ia l mounds ( Dimb leby , 1 961, 1 962) a nd p rov ide f urther e v idence o f s ubstant ia l d estruct ion o f wood land. F or e xamp le , D imb leby ( 1962) d emonstrated t hat o f t wo Bronze Age b arrows a t Burton Howes , o ne h ad b een c onstructed i n a wood land wh i le t he o ther ( of a l ater d ate) h ad b een c onstructed i n a n e xtens ive a rea o f o pen l and w ith in a wood land. C learance o f f orest dur ing t he Bronze Age i s r ecogn ised f rom a lmost a l l p o l len d iagrams f rom t he North Yorksh ire Moors , whether f rom t he h igher g round o r l owlands. The o n ly e xcept ions a re f rom t hose s i tes l ocated b eh ind l ands l ips o n t he s ides o f t he moor land d a les ( Simmons a nd Cund i l l , 1 974b). However , i t i s l ike ly t hat t he l ocat ion o f t hese s i tes o n v ery s teep s lopes made t hem unattract ive f or f arm ing purposes a nd e nsured t hat t hey r ema ined wooded t hroughout t he Bronze Age. NATURE OF BRONZE AGE FARM ING F lem ing ( 1971) h as t ypes o f f arm ing c arr ied

e xamined i n d eta i l t he o ut o n t he North York

e v idence f or t he Moors dur ing t he

Bronze Age. He b ased h is e v idence o n p opu lat ion s ize wh ich i n t urn h ad b een b ased i n t he number a nd d istr ibut ion o f bur ia l s i tes , a nd h e a rgued t hat Bronze Age p eop le u t i l ised t he North Yorksh ire Moors f or c erea l g row ing. H is a rguments were a lso p art ly b ased o n a na log ies w ith Afr ican a gr icu ltura l p ract ices a nd Dan ish a gr icu ltura l e xper iments u s ing p reh istor ic i mp lements a nd t echn iques. F leming d isputed t he i dea p ropounded by D imb leby ( 1961) t hat wood land was p r imar i ly c leared f or p astora l f arm ing. S ince 1 971 a c ons iderab le amount o f p a laeobotan ica l e v idence h as b ecome a va i lab le a nd t h is p erhaps h as h e lped t o c lar ify t he s i tuat ion.

7 5

C

O D ( 1 )

4 -, 4-

Some

var iation

i n

t he

n ature

o f

t he

p a laeobotan ica l

e v idence

f rom s ite t o s ite i s a pparent p articular ly i n t erms o f t he p resence o f c erea l p o l len. Table 1 demonstrates t h is v ar iab i l ity a nd i n particu lar t he s ites o f Atherden ( 1976a, b , 1 979) h ave no c erea l po l len

a t

t he

l eve l

o f

t he

Bronze

Age

a ct iv it ies.

However,

e ven

f rom o ther work t here a re s igns o f v ery l ocal v ar iations i n c erea l po l len p roduction w ith , f or e xamp le, r ecords o f c erea l p o l len a t Yar isey Moss but n one a t Whee ldale G i l l , o nly a matter o f a f ew hundred expected

metres t o t he s outh. Th is k ind o f var iation may b e when i t i s r ecogn ised t hat c erea l p o l len p roduction a nd

d ispersa l

i s

l imited,

a nd

i n

t he

p art icu lar

c ase

o f

Whee lda le

G i l l ,

more wood land e x isted wh ich may h ave p revented c erea l p o l len f rom r each ing t he bog s urface. Overa l l , r ecords f rom h igher g round s how a v ery var iable p attern w ith many s ites h av ing n o e vidence o f c erea l c rop g row ing dur ing t he Bronze Age. On l ower g round and p articu lar ly i n t he a rea e xamined by J ones ( 1977a, 1 978) t here i s a p icture o f more p ers istent c erea l c rop g rowing, i nc luding t he c ultivat ion o f Tr it icum d icoccum ( emmer wheat), a nd Hordeum ( bar ley) dur ing Bronze Age t imes. A lthough F leming ( 1971) a rgues f or c erea l g rowing a s t he r eason f or Bronze Age v oodland c learances, h e does make t he p o int t hat i t wou ld be r easonable t o a ssume t hat s uch c rop g rowing wou ld h ave b een s uccessfu l

on ly

up

t o

an

a ltitude

o f

a bout

3 00m

a nd

h e

s uggests

t hat a bove t h is a ltitude p erhaps o n ly one c rop was p oss ible b efore t he s o i l were e xhausted and s o i l e ros ion s et i n. l t may be p oss ib le a lso t hat a s ing le phase o f c rop g rowing o n t he h igher g round may h ave been m issed i n t he p o l len d iagrams b ecause a s ing le p o l len s ample

c overs

a r e lat ive ly

l imited

p er iod

o f

t ime

a nd

many

p o l len

d iagrams a re c onstructed f rom s amples t aken a t 5 o r 1 0cm i nterva ls. Therefore i n t he p o l len r ecords h av ing no c ereal p o llen i t c annot b e a ssumed t hat no g ra in f arming h ad b een c arr ied o ut c lose

t o

t he

s ite

a nd

because

o f

t h is

F lem ing 's

s uggestions

c annot

be d iscounted. However, i t a lso s eems l ike ly t hat wh i le c erea l g rowing was p ract ised on t he North Yorksh ire Moors dur ing t he Bronze Age, o ther f arming p ractices were a dopted a s we l l a nd t hese l ed t o c learance o f wood land. A c lue t o t hese o ther f arming practices i s t o be f ound i n t he r ange o f r udera l p o l len t ypes f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith c ereal p o l len. Spratt a nd S immons ( 1976) be l ieve t hat

t hese r udera l p o l len t ypes i ndicate t hat t he d ominant l and u se

was p astora l f arm ing. They c ome t o t h is c onc lus ion by u sing t he a rable/pastora l i ndex o f Turner ( 1965), a lthough e ven t he u se o f Godwin 's ( 1968) p astora l/arable l i sts o f r udera l p o l len t axa wou ld l ead t o t he s ame c onc lus ion. F leming ( 1971) a rgued a ga inst t he i dea o f p astora lism b ecause h e c ou ld n ot r econc i le p astora l f arming w ith woodland c learance. Perhaps h e d id not a pprec iate t he i mportance o f g raz ing i n woodlands a s a n a id t o woodland c learance (Dimbleby, 1 967) and c erta in ly s uch a ct iv ity c oup led w ith t he f ir ing o f encourage method o f

woodland dur ing dry p er iods ( perhaps o stens ibly t o l ow-growing f resh browse) may h ave b een a n e ffect ive woodland d estruction. l t i s p robable t hat t he wood land

on t he up lands was o f a ' poor ' n ature by t h is s tage, h av ing a lready b een d isturbed by Meso l ith ic and Neo l ith ic man and i t may h ave r equ ired l ess e ffort t o d estroy i t t han F leming e nv isaged. Neverthe less F leming d id r ecogn ise t hat p astora lism p robably c ame i nto a reas a fter c ultivation a nd t h is p attern o f e vents wou ld n ot

7 7

c onf lict

w ith

t he

p o l len

e v idence

f rom

l ower

g round,

p articu lar ly

f rom t he C leve land a rea. SOIL DETERIORATION D imbleby 's mounds

work

( Dimbleby,

on

bur ied

s o i ls

1 962)

was

1 961,

beneath t he

Bronze

f irst

t o

Age

bur ia l

h ighl ight

t he

n ature o f s o il d eter ioration on t he North Yorksh ire Moors. I t was t he c ontrast between s o i ls b eneath t wo bur ia l mounds o f d ifferent ages t hat i n it ia l ly p rov ided t he ev idence. The more r ecent work o n t he p eat d epos its o f t he moors h as n ot s pec if ical ly e xamined s o i ls, but by p rov iding a t horough p icture o f what was h appening t o t he v egetation i t i s p oss ible t o s pecu late a bout s o i l c ond it ions. I t d oes appear t hat s o i ls on t he moors, e ven on t he h igher g round were i n it ia l ly Brown Earths ( Dimb leby, 1 962) and d esp ite t he i mpact o f Meso l ith ic a nd Neo lith ic man o n t he v egetation i t wou ld s eem t hat c ons iderable a reas o f Brown Earth s o i ls e x isted, when Bronze Age man c ommenced h is f arming a ctiv it ies. However, i t may b e r easonab le t o s uggest t hat t he Brown Earth s o i ls o n h igher g round wou ld h ave b een t h in and a c idic and t hat a ma jor d estruction o f woodland l ike t hat a ttr ibuted t o t he Bronze Age wou ld h ave r esu lted i n: ( i) s o i l e ros ion, because t he s urface was n o l onger protected

by

woodland;

( i i)

s o i l profi le, b ecause t he broken t he nutr ient c yc les

l eaching

o f m inera l

nutr ients f rom

t he

d estruction o f wood land wou ld h ave t hat e xist between d ec iduous woodland

and s o i ls. There i s c ertain ly c ons iderable s upporting e v idence f or s o i l e ros ion dur ing t he Bronze Age a s a number o f m inera l i nwash s tr ipes ( mineral matter wh ich was e roded f rom t he moor land s lopes and washed a cross t he s urfaces o f t he p eat bogs a ccumu lating i n g lac ia l d ra inage a ttr ibuted t o t h is 1 975;

J ones,

c hanne ls and beh ind l ands lips) h ave b een p er iod ( Simmons, A therden, Cundi l l a nd J ones,

1 978).

Ev idence

f or

p odzo l isation i s

c onta ined

w ithin

D imbleby 's work ( 1962), a nd t he i ncreas ing ly a c idic n ature o f t he s o i ls dur ing t he Bronze Age wood land c learances i s i ndicated i n po l len d iagrams f rom p eat s ites by t he s ign if icant i ncreases i n Cal luna va lues. WOODLAND

REGENERATION

AFTER

BRONZE

AGE

WOODLAND

CLEARANCE On many po l len wood land c learance i s

d iagrams t he p er iod a fter t he Bronze Age marked by a l ow a nd v ery l imited r ecovery

i n t ree and s hrub p o l len p ercentages. Neverthe less , i t d oes a ppear t hat pressure on woodland s lackened t owards t he e nd o f t he Bronze Age a nd a l lowed l imited r egeneration o f wood land. The s low r ate o f r ecovery o f t rees a nd s hrubs r eduction but not c omp lete c essation

may b e due t o a s ubstant ia l o f f arming a ct ivit ies. When

one c ons iders t he h igher g round a nother p oss ibly s ign if icant f actor c omes i nto p lay, t hat o f s o i l c ondit ion. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he e roded and l eached s o i ls on h igher g round may h ave b een unsu itable d iff icult

t o

f or

r eco lon isation

a ttr ibute

t oo

by

much

t ree

s pec ies.

s ignif icance

t o

However, t h is

i t may

b e

e xplanation

a s

D imbleby ( 1952) h as d emonstrated t hat a t t he p resent d ay moor land s o i ls w i l l s upport n atural ly r egenerating wood land v egetation ( and t hereby i mprove t he s o i ls),

p roviding t hat t he l and i s n ot burnt o r

7 8

g razeu; h is t ree p lant ing e xper iments a t Broxa c onf irm t h is p o int o f v iew. The p a laeobotan ica l e v idence f rom t he North Yorksh ire Moors s uggests t hat a t t he e nd o f t he Bronze Age h eath a nd b og were d om inant o n t he h igher g round w ith s i l iceous s ubstrates i n t he a rea but s ubstant ia l t racts o f wood land s urv ived o n s teeper s lopes a nd p robab ly o n t he wetter l and i n t he d a les a nd i n t he l owlands a round t he moors. Wood land d estruct ion h ad b egun i n e arnest a nd h ad s ubstant ia l ly s tarted t he p rocess o f c onvert ing t he a rea i nto h eather c lad up lands a nd f armed l owlands , but s ome qu ite c ons iderab le e lements o f m id-Flandr ian wood land s urv ived, a lbe it i n a n a ltered s tate.

7 9

Author

P o l len S ite

P resence o f C erea l Po l len ( ind icated by C )

A therden 1 976a, A therden 1 979

b

F en Bogs Ga le F ie ld May Moss Moss S lack , Goath iand S imon Howe Moss J ones 1 976 S eamer Carr ( Stokes ley) J ones 1 977 West House Moss J ones 1 978 Ewe Crag S lack A Ewe Crag S lack B Tranm ire S lack S immons 1 969 Co l l ier G i l l L adybr idge S lack Moss Swang North G i l l S immons a nd Cundi l lG la is d a le Moor 1 974a Howda le H i l l Loose Howe Whee lda le G i l l Wh ite G i l l Yar isey Moss S immons a nd Cundi l lBlakey L ands l ip 1 975b S t. He lena A S t. He lena B Tab le 1 . Cerea l p o l len North Yorksh ire Moors

o f Bronze

8 0

Age i n

C C C C C C C C C C

C C C

p o l len

d iagrams

f rom

t he

THE

I RON AGE AND

DEFINITION OF The

I ron

ROMANO-B RITISH PERIODS

THE T I ME PERIOD Age

a nd

Romano-Br it ish

p er iods

may

b e

t aken

t o

c over t he t ime p er iod f rom a bout 7 00 b e t o AD 4 10. Th is p er iod c orresponds w ith t he f irst p art o f Godw in 's p o l len z one V III f or Eng land and Wa les ( Godw in, 1 940), a nd i ts b eg inn ing h as b een c orre lated w ith t he c l imatic d eter ioration f rom Sub-borea l t o Sub-at lantic , or ig ina l ly r ecognised i n S candinavia by B lytt a nd Sernander. I n many p arts o f Br ita in t here i s e v idence a t t h is t ime f or a n i ncrease i n wetness , r ef lected i n t he p o l len d iagrams by a n i ncrease i n r ecords f or a quatic a nd o ther wet-to lerant s pec ies. O ther v egetational c hanges n oted by Godwin i nc luded a d ecrease i n l ime and more s ubstant ia l r ecords f or beech and h ornbeam ( Carp inus). However , t he l ime d ec l ine h as b een s hown t o h e d iachronous (Turner , 1 962) and beech a nd h ornbeam a re n ot a lways p resent i n s uff ic ient quantities i n n orthern Eng land t o f orm u sefu l i ndicator s pec ies. West 's z on ing s cheme ( 1970) r ecogn ises n o ma jor b oundary w ithin F landr ian II a t t h is p o int a nd many modern workers V III.

n o

l onger

Desp ite

t hese

d ifferentiate p roblems,

b etween

f eatures

Godw in 's

s uch

a s

a n

z ones

V llb

i ncrease

i n

a nd t he

po l len o f a quatics and a r ise i n t he c urve f or b eech ( as s een, f or i nstance, o n t he Fen Bogs d iagram, F ig.18) do make p oss ib le s ome degree o f c orre lation b etween d iagrams f rom t he North Yorksh ire Moors and a lso w ith t hose f rom o ther p arts o f t he c ountry. Th is i s p articular ly necessary f or t his p er iod, a s s o f ew r adiocarbon d ates a re a va i lab le. The o n ly p o l len d iagram f rom t he a rea w ith a r ea l ly good s et o f g eochronometr ic d ates s panning t he p er iod i s t hat f rom Fen Bogs ( Figs.17, 1 8), where d ates f or t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd o f t he ma jor c learance phase o f FB 6 c orrespond r espective ly t o t he e ar ly I ron Age and t he e nd o f t he Romano-Br itish p er iod. THE

FEN BOGS

D IAGRAM ( Figs.17,

The s ummary s hrubs and h erbs, FB

5 ,

wh ich

a re

1 8)

d iagram s howing r e lative p roport ions o f t rees, s hows a s er ies o f s ma l l t emporary c learances i n analogous

t o

t he

d escr ibed i n t he p rev ious s ection ( T-115) and 3 ,210 bp ( Gak-2712).

Bronze a nd The

Age

c learance

phases

d ated a t 3 ,400 ± 9 0 bp c ontrast i n s cale b etween

t hese sma ll c learance phases and t he mass ive c learance o f FB 6 i s one o f t he most marked f eatures o n t he d iagram. Dur ing FB 6 non-tree po l len r eaches o ver 8 0% o f t he t ota l a nd i s c omposed most ly o f g rasses but w ith s ign if icant c ontr ibutions f rom s edges, h eather and s ome weed s pec ies, e . g. p lanta in. At t he s ame t ime a ma jor d ecrease i s s een i n t he t ree p o l len c urves , s hown most c lear ly i n t he c ases o f o ak, a lder a nd h aze l. The o n ly t rees o r s hrubs t o i ncrease i n r e lative i mportance dur ing t h is z one a re beech a nd w i l low. The t endency f or beech t o i ncrease a t t he b eg inning o f Godwin 's Z one V ILE h as a lready b een n oted, a nd t he r ise i n t he w i l low c urve a nd s ign if icant r ecords f or a quatics wou ld s eem

t o c onf irm a d ate w ith in t he Sub-at lantic p er iod.

f orm

Deta i led e xamination o f t he weed s pectra ( shown i n s imp l if ied on ly o n F ig. 1 8) r evea ls a l arge r ange o f s pec ie- r ecorded,

8 1

0 LA 0 co . i L LU L L

E

CD

[

T h e l m d e c l i n e s e p a r t e s F B 3 a n d F B 4

I '

P O L E N ( E X C L U D I N G S P O R E S )

UJ

P E R C E N T A G E S

( I )

u . J > —

Lf) (4

+1

Co

CD

cy o -

1 7

s uch

a s

p lanta ins

( Plantago),

s orre l

( Rumex),

buttercup

(Ranunculaceae), vetch ( Vic ia), s cab ious ( Succ isa), n ett le ( Urt ica), c ornf lower ( Centaurea cyanus) and members o f t he d aisy ( C ompos itae), p ars ley ( Umbe l l iferae), g oosefoot ( Ch enopodiaceae) and mustard ( Cruc iferae) f ami l ies. The l i st i nc ludes i ndicators o f both

a rab le

and

p astora l

f arming,

a nd

t he

c ultivation

o f

c rops

i s

c onf irmed by t he r egu lar r ecords f or c erea l p o l len dur ing t he z one ( not r ecorded b efore t he I ron Age a t t h is s ite). App lication o f Turner 's ( 1965) a rab le/pastora l i ndex g ives f igures o f 8 7%, 6 9% and 8 7% r espect ive ly f or t he b eg inn ing , m idd le and e nd o f t he c learance phase. These f igures a re a l l we l l w ith in t he p astora l c ategory but s uggest f arming i n t he m idd le o f t he z one. OTHER POLLEN D IAGRAMS be

a t rend

t owards

more

m ixed

FROM THE EASTERN-CENTRAL AREA

Two o ther p o l len d iagrams f rom s ites c lose t o Fen Bogs may c orre lated t o t h is d iagram f a ir ly e as i ly. A t May Moss a s im i lar

s equence c learance

o f p o l len a ssemblage z ones i s f ound, w ith a mass ive i n MM 6 , t he d etai ls o f wh ich c orrespond c lose ly t o t he

p icture s een a t Pen Bogs. Th is s ite i s o n ly 2 km away . but i s s ituated a t a g reater a ltitude and, a s t he s i te i tse lf was n ever wooded,

i t i s b e l ieved t o h ave r ece ived a v ery r eg iona l p o l len r a in

(Atherden, 1 972). The e v idence f rom F en Bogs a nd May Moss t ogether t herefore s uggests an i mportant c hange i n t he r eg iona l var iation dur ing I ron Age a nd Romano-Br itish t imes. S imon Howe Moss

i s

t he

s ite

where

t he

c learance

phase

i s

marked. Th is d iagram ( Fig.19) c orresponds v ery upper p arts o f t he o ther t wo and t he c learance

p erhaps

most

c lose ly w ith t he o f SU M 2 i s s o

marked t hat t ree and s hrub p o l len v a lues a re r educed t o l ess t han 1 0% o f t ota l p o l len a t i ts p eak. Grasses a nd s edges a gain make up most o f t he non-tree p o l len, w ith many r ecords f or weed s pec ies but on ly one r ecord f or c ereal p o l len a t t h is s ite. The i ncrease i n aquatics and t he s imi lar ity t o t he t op p art o f t he Fen Bogs d iagram makes

i t

a lmost

c erta in

t hat

t he

s ame

c learance

phase

h ere a s a t t he o ther t wo s ites, wh ich r e inforces t he a l arge-sca le i mpact on t he l andscape a t t he t ime. D IAGRAMS

n o o ther p o l len d iagrams f rom t he r eg ion where t he

Age/ Romano-Br itish

Whee lda le Rudera ls beg inn ing

r ecorded

FRO M OTHER PARTS OF THE NORTH YORK MOORS

There a re I ron

i s

s uggest ion o f

phase

c an

be

r e l iably

d ated.

The

G i l l d iagram h as a ma jor c learance i n t he Heather( p lants o f o pen and d isturbed g round) Zone , t he o f wh ich i s d ated a s 1 ,570 ± 9 0 bp, i .e. l ate Roman

( Simmons and Cundi l l , 1 974b). The r adiocarbon d ates f or t he s i te s uggest t hat t he I ron Age/ Romano-Br it ish phase f a l ls w ith in WH 1 , a z one

o f

r e lative ly

r adiocarbon

l ow

c learance

d ates i s o ut o f

phenomena,

s equence ,

but

wh ich t hrows

o ne o f t he f our s ome d oubt o n

t he i nferred c hrono logy. A lso , i t may b e n oted f rom t he p o l len d iagram t hat t he c learance a ctua l ly b eg ins b efore t he p o int where t he z one boundary i s d rawn, s o i t i s p oss ib le t hat t he l atter p art o f t he p er iod

Heat h er-Ruderals i n question. A t

G la isda le

Moors

a rea

Zone d oes i nc lude a t l east s ome o f t he s evera l o ther s i tes i n t he Egton a nd

t here

i s

e v idence

8 4

f or a n

i ncrease

i n

wetness

c orresponding

w ith

t he

ma jor

c learance

o f

t he

Heat h er- Rudera ls

Z one. At S t. He lena Sphagnum ( bog-moss) and bur-reed ( Spargan ium) i ncrease, a t B lakey l ands l ip s edges i ncrease a nd Sphagnum i s h igh , a t Loose Howe bur-reed a nd meadow-sweet a re h igh , wh i le a t Howda le H i l l t here i s a s l ight r ise i n Sphagnum. A l l t h is s uggests a Sub-at lantic d ate f or t he Heat h er- Rudera ls z one , wh ich p robab ly b eg ins dur ing t he c l imat ic d eter ioration o f t he I ron Age, a lthough i t may a lso i nc lude l ater c learances, s uch a s Medieva l ones. To t he north o f t he Esk va l ley t here i s a s imi lar l ack o f r adiocarbon d ates f or t he p er iod. A t t he Seamer Carr ( Stokes ley) f ormer l ake s ite, t he f irst ma jor c learance, w ith s igns o f both a rab le and p astora l a gr icu lture , c omes i n SC 1 3, t he Oak-AlderRudera ls Zone. J ones ( 1976a) i nfers a l ate p reh istor ic c ontext f or t h is

c learance

e spec ia l ly

I ron

a ctivity: Age

" It

i s

i nferred

i nhab itants

were

t hat...

Bronze

r espons ib le

f or

Age t he

a nd

i n itia l

ma jor phases o f wood land r emova l." S imi lar ly , a t West House Moss t he ma jor c learance o f WH 9 ( the Heather- Ruderals Zone) i s i nterpreted a s I ron Age o nwards i n d ate ( Jones, 1 977a). On t he C leve land Moors, t he Heather-Rudera ls Zone i s aga in t hought t o b eg in i n t he I ron Age and p oss ibly i nc ludes t he Romano-Br it ish p er iod ( Jones, 1 978). The d iagram f rom Ewe Crag S lack ( F ig.20) p erhaps i l lustrates t he c learance b est, w ith z one EB 3 s howing i ntense agr icu ltura l a ctivity , i nc luding r ecords f or bar ley , w ith c harcoa l d epos its and e v idence o f s o i l e ros ion. SU MMA RY The

t ogether

OF THE PALYN OLOGICAL EVIDENCE p a lyno log ica l

e v idence

f or

t he

I ron

Age

a nd

Romano-

Br itish per iods may b e s ummar ised a s f o l lows. There i s v ery g ood ev idence f or a ma jor c learance phase i n t he e astern-centra l a rea o f t he Moors, c lear ly d ated t o t he p er iods I ron Age a nd RomanoBr it ish a t Fen Bogs and l abe l led t here a s t he Grasses-Rudera lsAquatics Zone. There i s e v idence f or a ma jor c learance phase e lsewhere on t he Moors i n t he Heather- Rudera ls Zone, t ogether w ith s ome e v idence f or a c l imatic d eter ioration, wh ich i s p robab ly f rom t he I ron Age and Romano-Br it ish p er iods , a lthough a t Whee lda le G i l l i t may be s l ight ly l ater. A t o ther s ites i n t he r eg ion , s uch a s t hose d escr ibed by S immons ( 1969a), n o f irm c onc lus ions may be r eached a bout t he c orre lation o f p o l len z ones w ith t hese t ime p er iods. Taken t ogether t hese l ines o f e v idence i nd icate a s ign if icant a nd w idespread i mpact o n t he e nvironment o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors dur ing t h is p er iod a nd a t Fen Bogs t h is i mpact r epresents t he f irst ma jor c learance phase i n t he r eg ion wh ich c an b e f irm ly d ated by r adiocarbon a ssay. THE

MECHANIS M OF CHANGE

and

The mechan ism o f e nv ironmental c hange dur ing t he I ron Age Romano-Br it ish p er iods i s l ike ly t o h ave b een more i ntensive

t han

i n

t he

c ase

o f

t he

p reced ing

Bronze

Age

c learances.

p rof i les ana lysed by M . A. A therden, t he c ontrast c learance b eg inning i n t he I ron Age i s s tr ik ing. d istingu ishes c learances"

" sma l l a ccord ing

t emporary t o

t he

c learances"

r e lative

8 5

f rom

i mportance

I n

t he

w ith t he ma jor Turner ( 1965) o f

" extens ive t he

g rass

c urve, and app l ication question t o be t he f irst

o f t h is c r iter ion s hows t he phase i n z one wh ich may b e c a l led a n " extens ive

c learance". A s usta ined and l arge-sca le i mpact i s i mp l ied, s uch a s m ight h ave been a ssoc iated w ith p ermanent s ett lement a nd s edentary agr icu lture. The s ettlement s ites f or t he I ron Age t end t o b e p er iphera l t o t he h igh moors ( e.g. Roxby, L ev isham Moor), i n p laces wh ich would h ave e nabled l onger-term f arming t o t ake p lace , f or i nstance on t he more f erti le s o i ls d eve loped o ver t he Upper

Jurass ic

Cora l l ian

S er ies

i n

t he

s outh

o f

t he

c ontrast between t hese more b ase-r ich r ocks i n t he more a c idic s andstones and s ha les f urther n orth

r eg ion.

The

s outh a nd t he h as been a n

i mportant one t hroughout t he h istor ical p er iod a nd t here i s g ood r eason t o s uppose t hat i ts s ignif icance was a pprec iated a s e ar ly a s t he I ron Age and p robab ly much e ar l ier. From p ermanent f armsteads o r g roups o f f arms on t he marg ins o f t he r eg ion d escr ibed i n Chapter 6 , I ron Age i nhabitants wou ld h ave b een we l l p laced t o e xplo it both t he s o i ls s u itable f or a rable c u ltivation o n t he l ower g round and t he e xtens ive g raz ing l ands o f t he c entral moors. There i s no n eed t o p ostu late d e l iberate c learance o f wood land f or g razing on t he h igh moors , a s s heep o r c att le g razing wou ld e ffective ly p revent wood land r egeneration w ithout r esort t o t he u se o f t he axe. The e v idence f rom t he p o l len d iagrams s uggests j ust s uch a m ixed agr iculture , w ith a g reater overa l l emphas is on p astora l a gr icu lture , wh ich i s i n k eep ing w ith t he a rchaeo log ical e vidence f or l and u se. The d eve lopment o f v i l las o r n ative f arms i n t he Romano-Br itish p er iod, p robab ly s timu lated by

t he

p resence

o f

g arr isons

a t

Ma lton

and

York,

m ight

a ccount

f or t he i ncreased emphas is on a rable agr icu lture n oted e ar l ier a t Fen Bogs t owards t he m iddle o f z one FB 6 . Again, t he emphas is was on t he Cora l l ian b e lt i n t he s outh o f t he r eg ion. Another s ign if icant f actor i n t he I ron Age a nd Romano-Br it ish p er iods wou ld h ave been t he d eve lopment o f i ron sme lting a s descr ibed i n Chapter 6 . Forges, Moor , wou ld h ave r e liance on

s uch a s charcoa l

t hose f ound a t Lev isham f or f ue l. l t h as b een

s uggested ( Atherden, 1 976a) t hat t h is m ight h ave i nvo lved c lear-fe ll ing o f s ubstantia l a reas o f wood land, l eading t o t he s udden and dramatic d ecrease o f t ree p o l len s een, f or e xamp le , a t S imon Howe Moss. On t he o ther h and, i t must b e r emembered t hat s uch f orges may h ave s erved a very l imited a rea, a nd may we l l h ave t han

b een l ess i mportant i n t heir i mpact o n t he l oca l woodlands t he d emand f or f ue l-wood f or domestic u se by a g rowing

population. The i nteresting p oss ib i l ity a r ises a lso t hat wood lands were b e ing managed by d e liberate c opp ic ing t o p rov ide wood f or a v ar iety o f purposes on a s usta ined y ie ld b as is. Th is wou ld h ave s uppressed

f lower ing

o f

t he

t ree

and

s hrub

s pec ies

a nd

wou ld

b e

r eg istered on t he p o l len d iagrams a s a d ecreas i n t ree a nd s hrub po l len. Whatever t he e xact mechanism o f c hange i n t he I ron Age and Romano-Br itish p er iods, t he s ca le o f i mpact o n t he r eg iona l vegetation c lear ly i ndicates an i ncreas ing p opu lation a nd w idespread e xp lo itation o f both up land and d a le. CHANGES

I N

THE

SOILS

The changes i n vegetation c hanges i n t he s o i ls, a lthough

8 6

must h ave b een a ccompan ied by t he e v idence f or t hese i s l ess

d irect. D imbleby 's p ioneer ing work on s o i ls bur ied b eneath Bronze Age barrows on t he h igh moors e stabl ished t he n ature o f t he c hange f rom p re-barrow f orest s o i ls, s howing l i tt le s ign o f l each ing , t o t he podzo l ised prof i les character istic o f t he a rea t oday , many o f wh ich s how s econdary f eatures o f s urface g ley ing. However , t his c hange c annot be d ated e xact ly a nd t here i s n o e v idence a s t o whether i t s tarted a s e ar ly a s I ron Age t imes o r e ven e ar l ier. I t s eems p robable, h owever , t hat t he l arge s ca le d eforestation o f t he I ron Age and Romano-Br itish c learances wou ld h ave i ncreased l eaching o f t he s o i ls I n s ome a reas s o i l d eter ioration may Age,

a s

i s

s uggested

by

bur ied

and i n it iated h ave s tarted

p odzo lised

s uch a c hange. b efore t he I ron

p rof i les

under b arrows

on Cowesby Moor. Once l each ing was a cce lerated, t he nutr ient s tatus o f t he s o i ls wou ld qu ick ly d ecrease a nd a f a l l i n pH v a lue wou ld f o l low. This i n t urn wou ld l ead t o l ess f avourab le c ondit ions f or t he s o i l m icro-organ isms and a s ubsequent a ccumu lation o f r aw l i tter, t he

wh ich wou ld f urther i ncrease t he p odzo l isat ion p rocess.

I ndirect e vidence h eather c urve on

f or t he

t he onset o f p odzo l isation c omes f rom p o l len d iagrams , a s t he d ominance o f

h eather n ear ly a lways l eads t o t he d eve lopment o f a p odzo l ised s o i l. Examination o f t he Fen Bogs d iagram s hows a s ign if ica iit r ise i n h eather po l len a t t he e nd o f t he Romano-Br it ish s imi lar e xpans ion o f moor land v egetation i s

( Fig.17), a nd a s een i n t he

c orresponding z one a t S imon Howe Moss ( Fig.19). The r ise o f t he h eather curve i n t he t op p art o f z one EB 3 a t Ewe Crag S lack may a lso be observed c lear ly ( Fig.20). Podzo l isation under a h eather c over f requently l eads t o t he d eve lopment o f a n i ron p an. Once f ormed, s uch a p an t ends t o i mpede t he f ree d ra inage o f water down t he p rof i le, l eading t o s urface-water g ley ing. Th is e v idence s trong ly whether

i ndicates by

t hat

de liberate

t he

f e l l ing

l ong-term o r

by

e ffects

g razing

o f

d eforestation,

p ressure a lone ,

were

t o l ead t o t he s pread o f h eath iand vegetation on t he up lands a nd t he d egradat ion o f s o i ls, i nvo lv ing a l oss o f b ase s tatus a nd a d eter ioration o f d ra inage c haracter istics. CONCLUSION

most

Thus t he I ron Age and Romano-Br it ish p er iods emerge a s t he s ign if icant o f a l l t he p reh istor ic p er iods f or man 's i mpact o n

t he v egetation and s o i ls o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors. They may i ndeed r epresent t he f irst e xtens ive , l ong-term c learance i n p arts o f t he r eg ion and c hanges were i n itiated dur ing t hese p er iods wh ich

h ave

not

b een

r eversed.

After

t hese

p er iods,

r egeneration o f t rees and s hrubs i s s een on t he p resumably c oncentrated i n t he v a l leys, but t he

a l imited

p o l len d iagrams , r ise o f moor land

p o l len t ypes s hows c lear ly t hat much o f t he h igher g round r ema ined open and h as n ever b een r eco lon ised by woodland. By t he end o f t he p er iod s ometh ing l ike t he moor land l andscape o f t oday was beg inn ing t o emerge, a lthough f urther p er iods o f d eforestation f o l lowed, f or e xamp le dur ing Med ieva l t imes. I t wou ld b e e asy, h owever , t o o ver-estimate t he i mportance o f t he I ron Age and Romano-Br itish c u ltures t hemse lves. I t must b e r emembered t hat t here i s e v idence f or a c l imatic d eter ioration a t t he s ame t ime and t hat e ar l ier c u ltures , s uch a s t he Bronze Age, h ad i n it iated t he

p rocess

o f

w idespread

vegetation

8 7

c hange.

The

I ron

Age

a nd

t h e d i a g r a m i s t a c k e d b u t i t 0 rD

rD 0

0 0

&

L n

a ..

L

0

0 C ,

0

-

C l E

' ='

C ) _

L(

b

C

D

c

C

>

U

r

i

j

ri i

Cl

0 Lf l

o

o

D

:‚ -

C )

0 0

U

I f-i

= ( 11

Lf l

0 0

0 Ui

o

C,

0 Ui

0 0

-

c n

c o

c o

c o

s ;9

&

A

LA

—

—

—

A &k . I

L _

_

f n S

S S S •

[

S

Li

( _ T ) 4/ 0 '

L

P E R C E N T A G E

Li

L tI LU

Romano-Br it ish p er iods may t hus b e v iewed a s t he c u lm inat ion o f s evera l m i l len ia o f i ncreas ing human i mpact o n a n up land a rea.

9 0

CODA The ma in out l ine o f o ur s tory, whose d eta i l i s F ig.5, i s c lear: t here a re t hree ma in phases t o i t : 1 and t rees 2 o f

A pre-forest phase i n wh ich t he vegetation was l arge ly o pen h eath like but wh ich became f orested most ly w ith d ec iduous i n r esponse t o t he ame l ioration o f c l imate. A s tab le s tate d ec iduous f orest phase , e stabl ished a t t he t ime

o ptimum

c l imate

dur ing

F landr ian

I.

Th is

up land Br ita in, b eing dominated by o ak most i f not a l l o f t he up land , t hough we t ota l was t he c ovet. 3

A

d isforestation

t ime

o f

c l imatic

o f

s ummar ised i n

t he

f orest

phase

worsening , o n

t he

when was

up land

human

a ct iv ity,

r espons ible p lateaux

f orest

was t yp ica l o f

and h aze l , a nd c overed a re n ot c erta in j ust h ow p oss ib ly

i n

a

f or t he d em ise o f most

and

s ome

o f

t he

v a l ley

wood lands a lso , r ep lac ing i t w ith a gr icultura l l and o n a s h ift ing o r p ermanent bas is, by g rass land and h eath, and a l lowing t he f ormat ion o f b lanket b og.

( 8400

One f eature bc), t he

c omplex,

un ites t hese phases: d ate o f the K i ldale

a t n o t ime s ince 1 0,350 bp Ha l l a urochs - m ire- c harcoa l

c an we b e s ure t hat man h ad not b een c apable o f a l ter ing

t he e co logy o f c erta in o f t h is,

t he r eg ion. For s ome p er iods we a re v irtual ly o f c ourse : t he l ater Meso l ithic , t he Bronze a nd

I ron Age and t he Romano-Br itish p er iod. But f or o thers, t he ev idence i s t h inner , more t entative a nd r ather t antal is ing; no more s o t han i n i nterference

t he w ith

e ar l ier Meso l ith ic v egetation dur ing

where we i ts p er iod

p ick up h ints o f o f s uccess ion f rom

h eath t o h igh f orest. And t he more we l earn a bout t he a rchaeo logy o f t he e ar l ier Meso l ith ic , t he more s ome man-directed c hange i n among t he n atural s uccess ions, s eems l ike ly. Aga in, t he p icture f or t he Neo l ith ic i s p atchy and not we l l d ifferentiated f rom t he t erminal Meso l ith ic a nd we c ou ld d o w ith more c lose ly d ated p o l len ana lyses h ere. Po l len d iagrams f rom o pen and n ear-open uplands a re d iff icult t o i nterpret but e ven s o we c an s uggest t hat t he I ron Age was w ithout doubt t he t ime o f most e xtens ive f orest c learance. We a re a s y et uncerta in a s t o whether t he Bronze Age i s a t ime o f s ma l l o r e xtens ive c learances, o r i ndeed both, but we d o n ot t h ink t hat i t e xceeded t he I ron Age i n i ntens ity. Be t hat a s i t may , t he d iv is ion o f p reh istor ic t ime i nto a ny s et o f p er iods must n ot o bscure t he f act t hat e nvironmenta l c hange was v irtua l ly c ontinuous, e ither f rom n atura l o r man-made c auses o r a c ombination o f both, w ith p erhaps t he p er iod o f s lowest change i n t he w i ldwood o f F landr ian I. Thereafter t he magnitude o f c hanges o f vegetation and s o i l t ype a re h igh a nd make t he present l andscape a n uncerta in f oundation f or b ackward p ro ject ion o f f actors o f s ite, s i tuation and e nvironment: wherever p oss ible , d irect

s ite-re lated

p a laeoenv ironmenta l

e v idence

must

b e

s ought,

r ather t han mak ing e xtrapo lated a ssumpt ions a bout t he d istr ibution o f phenomena i n t he p ast. Even t he s hapes o f t he va l ley f loor may h ave c hanged i n p reh istor ic t imes: a s K .S. R ichards ( 1981) s hows i n S ta inda le, f luvia l g rave ls 1 .5m t h ick h ave a ccumu lated a bove a n a lder s tump d ated t o 6 ,270 bp ( HAR - 3 324), which may b e

9 1

c a l ibrated Meso l ith ic

t o t he 5 th m i l len ium B .C . p eop le may h ave a ltered e ven

S o Meso l ith ic a nd p ost t he g eomorpho logy o f t he

r eg ion: n ot s urpr is ing i f we c ons ider t he c hanges b a lance and r unoff r esu lt ing f rom f orest r emova l.

i n

s o i l

w ater

S o we know a l ot , y et t here i s much t o b e f ound o ut. But we c an b e c onf ident when we s ay t hat n ot o n ly a re t he Nor th Yorksh ire Moors n ow a man-made l andscape but t hat t hey were c erta in ly s o i n Roman t imes , a nd i n t he I ron a nd Bronze Ages , b ecom ing s o i n Neo l i th ic a nd l ater Meso l ith ic t imes , a nd p oss ib ly chang ing i n t hat manner i n t he e ar l ier Meso l ith ic a nd t erm ina l P a laeo l ith ic . I n h is p oem Moors , Ted Hughes ( 1979) s ays t hat t hey Are a s tage f or t he p erformance o f h eaven Any a ud ience i s i nc identa l But, i n f act , t h is a udience h as h ad a ma jor r o le i n mak ing t he s cenery.

9 2

LOCALITIES 1 . P o l len s ampl ing s i tes Bonf ie ld G i l l SE 5 98958 B lakey L ands l ip SE 6 74996 B luewater Beck Head 4Z 7 35011 Burton Howes NZ 6 07033 Co l l ier G i l l NZ 7 86009 Ewe Crag S lack NZ 6 95110 F en Bogs S E 8 53977 Ga le F ie ld NZ 8 32005 G la isda le Moor NZ 7 28015 Harwood Da le Moss SE 9 596 Howda le H i l l NZ 6 46021 K i lda le Ha l l NZ 6 09097 L ady Br idge S lack NZ 8 04018 L oose Howe NZ 7 03009 May Moss S E 8 76960 Moss Swang NZ 8 06035 North G i l l NZ 7 26007 S eamer C arr ( Scarborough) TA 0 40830 S eamer Carr ( Stokes ley) NZ 4 86097 S imon Howe Moss SE 8 34978 S tar Carr TA 0 27810 S t. He lena Tranm ire S lack Trough House West House Moss Whee lda le G i l l Wh ite G i l l Yar isey Moss

NZ NZ NZ NZ SE NZ NZ

I N CHAPTER 2 2 . O ther p laces B i lsda le E ast Moor Broxa Danby Low Moor Egton H igh Moor K i lda le L ev isham Moor Roxby S ta inda le Westerda le Moor

6 83038 7 66119 7 04020 6 35095 7 60997 6 39026 7 62005

9 3

SE SE NZ NZ NZ SE NZ SE SE

5 997 9 491 7 010 7 500 6 009 8 292 7 616 8 790 8 690

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9 9

THE

CHAPTER 3 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC PER IODS

A s easona l p attern o f g roup a ggregat ion a nd d ispers ion i s a v ery w idespread c haracter istic o f t he k ind o f h unter/gatherer s oc iet ies who f irst i nhab ited t he a rea a fter t he r etreat o f t he i ce. Mart in ( 1974) f ound t h is t o b e t he d ominant p attern f or a n e thnograph ic s amp le o f 9 0 s uch s oc iet ies. A lthough i t i s b y n o means un iversa l , we s ha l l bu i ld o ur i nterpretations o f Meso l ith ic s ites i n Yorksh ire o n a ggregat ion/ d ispers ion p atterns, f or i t i s d iff icu lt t o i nterpret many o f t hem o ther t han a s s easona l c amps o f v ar ied s izes. We a re f or tunate t hat o ver much o f t he a rea t here i s s uff ic ient e nv ironmenta l e v idence t o make p laus ib le r econstruct ions o f t hese p atterns , b as ing t hem o n t he e stab l ished d ata o f p lant a nd a n ima l l i fe a nd t he s easona l c a lendar o f p lant y ie ld a nd a n ima l b reeding a nd movement, a s g iven i n Chapter 2 a nd F igures 5 a nd 1 0. However , wh i le s uch an e co log ica l i nterpretation i s c lear ly b as ic t o o ur understand ing , i t i s n ot t he who le s tory. To b e s ure , i f t he s ett lement p attern d oes n ot e nab le t he m in imum s ubs istence r equ irements o f t he g roup t o b e met , t hen i t must d ie i n t he s hor t t erm. But t he p attern must a lso a l low t he s oc ia l r equ irements t o b e f u lf i l led , t hat i s t he a rrangements f or marr iage a nd g enera l c ommuna l h armony , i f t he g roup i s t o s urv ive i n t he med ium a nd l onger t erms. Pr ice ( 1978) d iscussed t he f actors g overn ing t he optimum s ize o f work ing hunt ing g roups. The m in imum s ize must b e l arge e nough t o f orm a r eproductive unit , but l arger t han a nuc lear f ami ly b ecause o f unpred ictab le f luctuations i n numbers. l t must n ot b e s o l arge a s t o e xhaust l oca l r esources a nd make i mposs ib le d emands o n mob i l ity. But , P r ice c ont inued, ' a s ubs istence un it c annot e x ist a lone , h owever , i t must f unct ion a s a p art o f a l arger b reed ing p opu lation t o s ecure a n a dequate number o f mates '. Th is v iew r ece ives much s upport f rom a nthropo logy. Conkey ( 1980) c omments , ' There i s more t o a ggregation/ d ispers ion t han s ubs istence e co logy.., t he s oc ia l a nd r itua l c omponents o f aggregat ions s hou ld n ot b e m in imised. ' I t i s

c lear t hat

f or

s evera l

r easons

we c annot a ssess s i tes o f

t hese p er iods i n i so lation , but o n ly i n r e lat ion t o w ider s ett lement p atterns. Th is i nc ludes t he p attern o f t he n orthward a dvance o f s ett lement a s t he hunter/ g atherers c o lon ised f rom t he s outh. A t t he i nterface b etween p ermanent ly s ett led a reas a nd v irg in t err itory we s hou ld e xpect t o s ee t hree g eograph ica l z ones , n ot n ecessar i ly i n s imp le g eometr ic p atterns: ( A) The S ett led Z one w ith t erra in o ccup ied by b oth p ermanent a nd t emporary s ett lements. ( B) The Exp lo itat ion Z one , p erhaps s ome 2 5-75 k i lometres w ide , w ith t emporary s easona l c amps b ased o n t he p ermanent s ett lements o f t he s ett led z one. ( C) The Exp lorat ion Z one w ith a f ew r econna issance c amps o n ly. Un less we c an c once ive o f mass m igrat ions o f t ota l p opu lations o f hunter/ g atherers , t hen t he n eed o f t he m igrat ing h unt ing g roups t o b e long t o a l arger s oc iety c an o n ly b e a ch ieved by s ome s uch s ett lement s tructure. We s ha l l s ee i n t he f o l lowing s ect ions t hat t h is c onception d oes i n a f a ir d egree c orrespond t o t he p attern a s we n ow know i t i n North Yorksh ire.

1 00

3 .1

THE LATE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD ( 10,000

-

7 ,600 b .c.)

We h ave a t p resent n o r ecord o f Upper P a laeo l ith ic ( Creswe l l ian) f l ints f rom t he h i l ls. I t i s d iff icu lt t o b e c erta in o f t he ir a bsence b ecause o f t he i ndiscr iminate r emova l o f f l ints f rom moor lands , but t he i ntens ive s tud ies o f t he l ast d ecade h ave c erta in ly f a i led t o r evea l t hem. There a re , h owever , t wo s ma l l g roups o f f l ints f rom t he nor th-east c orner o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , f rom t he n e ighbour ing F l ixton a nd S eamer C arr n ear S carborough. The, n earest Creswe l l ian s i te i n e astern Eng land i s a t R isby Warren i n L inco lnsh ire ( Dud ley , 1 949; R i ley , 1 978) s ome 7 0 k i lometres s outh , t hough t he K irkhead Cave s i te i n Cumbr ia i s a t a l at itude s imi lar t o t he Nor th Yorksh ire Moors. The d iscovery a t F l ixton Carr ( Fig.21) i n 1 948 s howed t hat t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic hunters d id p enetrate a t l east i nto t he s outhern f r inges o f t he s tudy a rea ( Moore , 1 954). H ere a b acked f l int p iece was f ound i n a mud l ayer b e low a s o l if luct ion e arth i n a ssoc iat ion w ith t he b ones o f s evera l h orses. The s trat igraph ica l work o f Wa lker a nd Godw in ( 1954) a ss igned t he mud l ayer t o t he e ar ly p art o f p o l len Z one II o r t he p reced ing Z one i t , t he v egetat ion b e ing o f g rass land w ith b irch a nd p ine. A r ecent d iscovery o f a sma l l g roup o f f l ints wh ich a ppear t o b e o f Creswe l l ian c haracter a t S eamer Carr ( Scarborough) s eems t o c onf irm t he F l ixton o bservat ions ( Schad la-Ha l l , p ers. c omm.). I t s eems t herefore P a laeo l ith ic p eop le , t h is a ct iv ity b e ing c onf ined t o o n t he v ersati l ity o f t he v ar iety o f a n ima ls , l arge r e indeer, o pen g rass land

t hat i n r e lation t o t he L ate Upper a rea was i n t he Exp lorat ion Z one ( C), s porad ic f orays. Me l lars ( 1974) c omments Creswe l l ian hunters . They t ook a w ide a nd s ma l l , c o ld c l imate s pec ies i nc luding s pec ies s uch a s h orse , a nd r ed d e .er. i t

i s d iff icu lt t o b e l ieve t hat t hey c ou ld n ot h ave l ived s uccessfu l ly h ad t hey s o w ished i n t he o pen wood land o f n ortheast Yorksh ire wh ich s usta ined a p opu lat ion o f l arge a n ima ls , e spec ia l ly i n t he A l leröd warm p er iod. The l ack o f o ccupation o f t h is p er iod i n t he s tudy a rea t herefore s eems t o b e due t o a bsence o f p opu lation p ressure o r o ther i nc l ination t o i nduce t hem t o m igrate n orthward f rom L inco lnsh ire. The F l ixton/Seamer a rea , f irst e xp lored by t he L ate Upper P a laeo l ith ic hunters , was h owever t o b ecome a n i mportant h ab itation f or t he E ar ly Meso l ith ic p eop le many h undreds o f y ears l ater.

1 01

3 .2

THE EARLY MESOLITHIC PERIOD, C IRCA 7 ,600 6 ,600 b .c. -

The d ata o n t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic p er iod a re p resented i n Tab le 2 and p lo tted o n t he map i n F ig.21. E ar ly Meso l ith ic s i tes a re d ist ingu ished f rom t he l ater by t he d ifferences i n t he r n icro l iths i n t he f l int i ndustr ies , a s w i l l b e d iscussed i n more d eta i l. Br ief ly , t he e ar ly m icro l i ths a re g enera l ly l arger a nd h ave s imp ler ( 'non-geometr ic ') o ut l ines t han t he l ater o nes , a s s hown i n F ig.22. The e ar ly s i tes c an b e b road ly d iv ided i nto t wo c lasses , l owland a nd up land. The d ata o n t he f ormer c ompr ise ma in ly t hose f rom t he S tar Carr a nd F l ixton s i tes i nvest igated by C lark ( 1954 , 1 972) a nd Moore ( 1950, 1 954), wh ich a re t he most c omp lete ly p reserved Meso l ith ic s i tes e ver e xcavated i n Br ita in. They w ere f ound s evera l f eet b e low t he modern g round s urface o n t he n orth s hore o f t he p reh istor ic L ake F l ixton , a nd n o d oubt t hey a re r epresentat ive o f more s uch s i tes wh ich p robab ly e x ist i n t he h igh ly f avourab le s i tuation o n t he n or thern marg in o f t he Va le o f P icker ing f rom He lms ley e astward , a nd p robab ly e xtend ing o n t o t he a reas n ow o ccup ied by t he Nor th S ea. Recent e xcavations o n t he o ld s hore l ine a t S eamer Carr , n ear S tar Carr , h ave s hown a s catter o f e ar ly Meso l ith ic f l ints a nd o ne l arger c oncentrat ion ( Schad la-Ha l l , f or thcom ing). We c an r easonab ly h ope t hat more l ow land s ites w i l l b e f ound i n t he Va le o f P icker ing , a nd a lso i n t he v a les o f York a nd Mowbray b order ing t he h i l ls o n t he western s ide. One o r t wo m inor s urface s i tes h ave a lso b een f ound o n o r n ear t he Tabu lar H i l ls , but t he up land s i tes a re ma in ly c oncentrated o n t he s andstone moor lands , o n a nd t o t he s outh o f t he c entra l watershed. Data o n t hese were a ssemb led by Dr . J acob i , f rom h is own e xcavations , f rom t he e xcavations a nd s urface f inds o f Mr a nd Mrs G . V. Tay lor a nd Mr a nd Mrs P . S tonehouse , a nd f rom h is s tudy o f e ar l ier f l int c o l lect ions. F ig. 2 1 i s i n f act n ear ly i dent ica l t o t hat p resented r ecent ly by J acob i h imse lf ( 1978). We must b ear i n m ind t hat t he s i te d istr ibution o n t h is map i s b ased on t he work o f a v ery f ew a ss iduous f ie ld workers a nd t herefore b iased i n v ar ious ways, a nd t hat i t i s a lso l ike ly t o b e c ons iderab ly a ugmented i n f uture y ears. The d ate s pan f or t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic i n t he a rea i s a matter o f c ons iderab le uncerta inty. There a re f ew r ad iocarbon d ates f or t he s i tes , a nd i t i s n ot a t a l l c lear t o what e xtent t he c haracter ist ic f l int i ndustry o ver lapped i n t ime w ith t he p reced ing and s ucceed ing hunter/gatherer p er iods. The f ive d ates c urrent ly a va i lab le a re : S tar Carr 7 607±210 b .c. ( Lab No . Q -14) ( Me l lars, 1 974) S tar Carr 7 538±350 b .c. ( Lab No . C -353) ( Clark , 1 954) Money Howe , Nor th York Moors 7 480 390 b .c. ( Lab No . Q-1560) ( Jacob i , 1 978) S eamer Carr ( Scarborough) 7 380±85 b .c. ( Lab No. Car .197) ( Schad la-Ha l l , p ers. c omm.) S eamer Carr ( Scarborough) 6 670±80 b .c. ( Lab No . BM.1841) ( Schad la-Ha l l , p ers . c omm.) S eamer Carr ( Scarborough) 7 200 95 b .c. ( Lab No . C ar .196) ( Cloutman ,

Chap. 2 )

1 02

-4

b e 4-

44

1 03

F i g . 2 . C o m p a r i s o n o f E a r l y ( a ) a n d L a t e ( b ) M e s o l i t h i c m i c r o l i t h s .

•i

1 04

J acob i ( 1978) a rgues t he c ase f rom t hese f igures , c oup led w ith upper p a laeo l ith ic i ndustry d ates o f a bout 7 ,900 b .c. f rom Anston Cave i n South Yorksh ire , f or a r ather l ate s tart t o t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic p er iod i n North E ast Yorksh ire. L ate , t hat i s , by c ompar ison w ith t he e ar ly d ates o f t h is p er iod i n Southern Eng land ( e .g. Thatcham h as s ome d ates p r ior t o 8 ,000 b .c.), but c ontemporary w ith e ar ly Meso l ith ic s i tes o n t he P enn ines ( e.g. Lom inot S ite II 7 615±470 b .c. ( Lab No. Q -1187)). The w ide s tandard d eviations o f t hese d ates , h owever , p rec ludes a d ef in ite p roof o f a d ifference b etween n orthern a nd s outhern Eng land. The e nd o f t he e ar ly , Meso l ith ic p er iod c annot b e d ated f rom s i tes w ith in t he s tudy a rea , but , t ak ing Br ita in a s a who le , a d ate a s l ate a s 6 ,600 b .c. i s known f or a n e ar ly Meso l ith ic s i te i n Ang lesey ( Jacob i , 1 976). S ome l ate Meso l ith ic P enn ine s i tes d ate t o a bout t h is t ime ( Warcock H i l l S ite II 6 600±110 b .c. ( Q-789), Broomhead Moor V 6 620±110 b .c. ( Q-800) ( Sw itsur a nd J acob i , 1 975)), t hough F i lpoke Beacon i n County Durham a f ew m i les n orth o f t he s tudy a rea , d ates t o 6 810±410 b .c. ( Q-1474, J acob i, 1 976). A d ate o f 6 ,600 b .c. t hen , r easonab ly r epresents t he t rans it ion b etween t he e ar ly a nd l ate p er iods. Th is i s v ery a pprox imate ly t he d ate o f s ubstant ia l i nundat ions o f t he North S ea, t hough t he f ina l s everance o f Eng land f rom Continenta l Europe d id n ot o ccur unt i l l ater i n t he s eventh m i l len ium b .c. ( Too ley , p ers. c omm.). We n ow h ave i n Northeast Yorksh ire s ome 3 0-40 s i tes o f t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic e ra , d at ing 7 ,600 6 ,600 b .c. a pprox imate ly , wh ich i s p roport iona l ly c ommensurate w ith t he 10 1 20 r ecorded f or t he much l onger p er iod o f t he l ater Meso l ith ic ( 6,600 3 ,500 b .c.). We d o n ot t herefore s ee a t p resent a v ast d ifference i n t he r ate o f f ormation o f Meso l ith ic s i tes b etween t he e ar l ier a nd l ater p er iods i n t h is a rea , e spec ia l ly i f we t ake i nto a ccount t he l oss o f e ar ly c oasta l s i tes by s ubmergence i n t he North S ea. -

-

-

The l ow land s i te a t S tar Carr i s e xtreme ly we l l known a nd we l l d ocumented ( Clark , 1 954) s o t hat a d escr ipt ion i s unnecessary i n t h is r eport. The e xce l lent s tates o f p reservation o f f l int i ndustry a nd a n ima l a nd p lant r ema ins, a nd t he ir d eta i led r ecord ing make t h is t he o utstand ing s ource o f i nformat ion f or t he Br it ish e ar ly Meso l ith ic , s o t hat i t i s n ot s urpr is ing t o f ind i t u sed a s a s ource f or r einterpretation many t imes , by C lark h imse lf ( 1972) a nd i n v ar ious a spects by J arman ( 1972), Me l lars ( 1976b), J acob i ( 1978), Cau lf ie ld ( 1978), P itts ( 1979), Mounta in ( 1979), S immons e t a l. ( 1981) a nd Andresen e t a l. ( 1981). C lark 's i nterpretat ion o f t he s i te , i n t he o r ig ina l 1 954 r eport , was t hat i t was o ccup ied f or p er iods i n w inter a nd s pr ing a nd was a bandoned dur ing t he s ummer , t he e v idence f or s easona l ity b e ing g iven a s t he g rowth o f r eeds a bove t he o ccupat ion p latform o n t he l ake e dge , a nd t he p resence o f b oth s hed a nd unshed r ed d eer a nt lers wh ich i mp l ies o ccupat ion i n a bout Apr i l a nd October-Apr i l r espect ive ly. We must r emember , h owever , t hat a t S tar Carr we a ppear t o b e d ea l ing w ith a p artia l e xcavation , f or t he h igh c oncentrat ion o f f l ints o n t he n ortheast c orner o f t he s i te i s a n i nd icat ion t hat i t p robab ly e xtended f urther i n t h is d irect ion b eyond t he e xcavated a rea , a nd t here may we l l b e o ther i nterpretat ions Deduct ions on

o f t he s upposed ly man-made b irch S tar Carr a re t herefore s ub ject

1 05

p latform. t o t hese

uncerta inties. The r ed d eer was s a id by C lark t o b e t he most i mportant a n ima l hunted , f or f ood a nd f or p repar ing a nt ler b arbed s pearheads, but a w ide v ar iety o f r ema ins o f o ther a n ima ls w as a lso f ound, both l arge ( e.g. e lk , a urochs , r oe d eer) a nd s ma l l ( e.g. h are , f ox , b eaver). C lark r einforced h is i deas i n h is 1 972 a ppra isa l a nd s uggested t hat t he s ummer c amps o f t he g roup m ight h ave b een o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors , a n i dea wh ich w as s oon a fterward s uppor ted by J acob i 's ( 1978) work. C lark 's i deas h ave b een w ide ly a vccepted , among o thers by J arman ( 1972), Me l lars ( 1976b) and Mounta in ( 1970). J acob i 's ( 1978) v iews a re a lso i n g enera l a greement, but h e s uggests f rom a s imp le f auna l a na lys is t hat t he a n ima ls o n t he s i te h ad b een k i l led e lsewhere ; i n t h is c ase o n ly 2 5 d eer a re r epresented , c ompared w ith C lark 's e st imate o f 8 0, t he d ifference b e ing a r ef lect ion o f t he a nt lers a nd s ku l ls b rought t o t he s i te. J acob i a lso t hought t hat o ccupation c ont inued i nto e ar ly s ummer o n a ccount o f t he p resence o f n ew-born c a lves o f e lk a nd r oe d eer wh ich must h ave b een t aken i n May o r J une. C lark 's c onc lus ions h ave h owever c ome u nder more r ad ica l c ha l lenge i n r ecent y ears , b oth w ith r espect t o s easona l ity o f s ett lement a nd t he d ominance o f t he r ed d eer. S immon e t a l . ( 1981) doubt whether a bsence i n t he s ummer months c an b e c onv inc ing ly d emonstrated. e spec ia l ly b ecause o f t he p resence o f u nshed a nt ler o f r oe d eer , and t he b ones o f t he c rane , a s ummer m igrant. Cau lf ie ld ( 1978) r e-assessed t he f auna l r ema ins a nd s uggested t hat s evera l f actors i n C lark 's a ppra isa l t ended t o e xaggerate t he numbers o f r ed d eer , a nd t hat t he a urochs was t he most i mpor tant f ood s ource. H is a rgument t ends t o underm ine t he c onception o f hunters f o l low ing t he a nnua l r ed d eer m igrat ions b etween h i l ls a nd l ow land. P itts ( 1979) a lso t hought a urochs were i mpor tant a s a f ood s ource t han r ed d eer , o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat a nt lers o f t he l atter h ad b een b rought t o t he s i te e spec ia l ly f or work ing i nto b arbed s pearheads , a nd h e t oo quoted e v idence o f a ct iv ity o n t he s ite t hroughout t he y ear . Andresen e t a l. a ccepted P itt 's a na lys is o f t he f auna l r ema ins a nd s aw t he S tar C arr h unters a s ' genera l ist ' r ather t han ' spec ia l ist ' hunters , a nd f rom t he t ota l s i te e v idence , b e l ieved i t t o h ave b een o ccup ied s porad ica l ly t hroughout t he y ear. C lear ly t he s i te i s c apab le o f d ifferent i nterpretations, a nd t he d ata may n ot e nab le a d ec is ive c ho ice t o b e made b etween t hem, but we c annot n ow t ake f or g ranted t he o r ig ina l c oncept o f October-Apr i l o ccupat ion. But o f a l l t he r ecent c ommentators , J acob i a lone t ook i nto a ccount t he e xterna l e v idence , t hat i s t he s tatus o f s ites i n

S tar Carr c amp i n r e lation t o t he o ther t he a rea. Archaeo log ica l s tatus , a nd

e ar ly most

Meso l ith ic o nes , c annot b e understood i n i so lation. t herefore t urn t o t he e v idence o f t he up land s i tes.

Meso l i th ic c erta in ly We

must

Two i mpor tant p o ints n eed t o b e s tressed c oncern ing t he e nvironment o f t he h igh moors a t t h is t ime , i .e. a bout 7 ,500 b .c. F irst ly , n e ither t hey nor t he upper r eaches o f t he v a l leys w ere o ccup ied by c losed f orests , a s i s made c lear i n Chap.2. Whereas t he l owland c arr ied a t h ick f orest p redom inant ly o f b irch w ith w i l low, h aze l a nd p ine a s m inor c omp lements , t he up lands were o f b irch a nd h aze l s crub w ith a g round l ayer o f s ma l ler p lants , p art icu lar ly g rasses a nd b i lberry. Me l lars ( 1974) makes t he p o int t hat t he d ens ity o f a n ima l p opu lations i s g enera l ly much g reater i n

1 06

open t he

r ather t han i n a c losed f orest. e vident ly

g reat

a ttraction

o f

Th is may we l l b e a r eason f or

t he

North

Yorksh ire

Moors

t o

Meso lith ic p eop les and why, a s d iscussed i n Chap.2, t he hunters s ought t o k eep t he t erra in open by p er iodica l ly burn ing t he vegetation. The s econd p o int i s t hat, a lthough t he c l imate was i mproving r ap id ly i n t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic p er iod, t he o pen up lands wou ld s ti l l b e extreme ly unattractive f or much o f t he y ear owing t o t he

very

s ummer l owland

c o ld

and

e xposed

c ondit ions.

E stimates

o f

p reh istor ic

and w inter t emperatures a re g iven f or both h igh land a nd z ones by Tay lor ( 1975). A lthough t here must b e s ome

degree o f uncerta inty i n t he f igures, t here i s n o d oubt t hat average w inter a ir t emperatures were much l ower i n t he e ar ly Meso l i th ic p er iod t han a t present, by s ome 7° C , a nd t hat whereas t he d ifference between a verage s ummer a nd w inter t emperature i s a t p resent s ome 1 20 , i t was o f t he o rder o f 1 81 a t t hat p er iod. The

h igh

moors

wou ld

t o both men and l owland. Even a t

t herefore

h ave

b een

e xtreme ly

an ima ls i n w inter t ime c ompared t he p resent t ime, c onditions on

unattractive

t o t he n earby t he moors a re

o ften h arsh between e ar ly November and t he e nd o f Apr i l , a nd wou ld be s o i n e ar ly Meso l ithic t imes f or much l onger. I f a s easonal s ett lement p attern i s t aken a s t he n orm t hen i t s eems r easonab ly c ertain t hat t he up land c amps c ou ld on ly h ave b een o ccup ied f rom about June t o September i nc lus ive. Whether t he l owland s ites were u sed on ly i n t he w inter o r i ntermittent ly t hroughout t he y ear i s uncerta in a t p resent, but l ong a bsences i n t he w inter months s eem i mprobab le, un less t hey were c aused by m igrations

s outhward ,

an

un like ly

i ntrus ion

i nto

t he

hunting

t err itory o f o ther g roups. Our i nterpretation o f t he moor land

s ites must a t t h is s tage be

t entative o n a ccount o f t he i nter im, a nd a rchaeo l ist-re lated, n ature o f F ig.21. Those known a t p resent a re c oncentrated on t he h igh g round

( above

3 50

metres)

both

t o

t he

west

and

e ast

o f B i lsdale

and i n a ddition t here i s a s catter o f s ites a long t he watershed f rom Urra Moor t o S imon Howe. A good p roportion o f t hese s ites a lso c onta in c erta in

t he g eometr ic f l ints o f s imi lar ity b etween t he

t he l ater p er iod d istr ibutions o f

a nd l ate

t here i s a and e ar ly

Meso lith ic f l ints, a s w i l l b e s een by c ompar ings F igs.21 a nd 2 3. The ma in d ifference, a part f rom t he g reater numbers o f l ate s ites, i s t hat t he e ar ly s ites a re s ituated ma in ly o n and t o t he s outh o f t he watershed, whereas d isposed both north and

t he l ate s outh o f,

s ites a re a s we l l a s

more s ymmetr ical ly on , t he watershed.

The e ar ly s ites wh ich do l i e t o t he n orth o f t he watershed a s a t S eamer Carr ( Stokes ley) and S ledda le a re m inor o nes. I n p o int o f f act, t here a re very f ew e ar ly s ites i n n orthern Eng land n orth o f t he C leve land watershed. J acob i ( 1978) i s a ble t o e numerate on ly t hree s ites north o f t he R iver Tees f rom Monkwearmouth , Gateshead and doubtfu l o nes.

Sp ind leton, Northumber land, a l l m inor and r ather I t s eems t herefore t hat dur ing t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic

p er iod, Zone (A) o f p ermanent a nd t emporary s ett lement moved t o a n orthern l imit a t t he Va le o f P icker ing, Zone ( B), o f e xplo itation s ites on ly , extended north f rom h ere t o a bout t he l ine o f t he watershed, and Zone ( C), unoccup ied e xcept f or e xploratory s ites, p erhaps f or s ome 1 00 k i lometres n orthward. As w ith t he l ate upper Pa laeo lith ic s ituation, t here appears t o b e n o e nvironmenta l f actor

1 07

e nvironmenta l f actor wh ich wou ld h ave p revented t he h unt ing g roups f rom l iv ing f urther n orth , h ad t hey s o w ished, a nd a n a bsence o f p opu lat ion p ressure f or n orthward m igrat ion s eems a r easonab le d eduction. Wh i le t he d istr ibut ion o f s i tes i n t he n orth/south d irection s eems understandab le , t hat i n t he e ast/ west d irect ion i s n o t s o a t t he p resent s tage o f d iscovery. I f t he S tar C arr hunters m igrated t o t he h i l ls i n t he s ummer months , t hen o ne wou ld e xpect t he ir s ites t o b e f ound i n t he e astern p arts o f t he moors , where a t p resent t hey a re unknown. The a noma ly a ppears t o b e a f unction o f t he a reas c ons istent ly under s earch a nd r ecord ing , r ather t han a t rue r ef lect ion o f e ar ly Meso l ith ic a ct iv ity . J acob i ( 1978) h as g iven s ome d eta i ls o f t he e xcavat ions r esu lts o f t hree up land s i tes , f rom h is j o int work w ith Mr a nd Mrs G . V. Tay lor a t Po inted S tone 2 a nd 3 a t 4 10 metres a bove s ea l eve l , a nd f rom t he Tay lors ' a t Money Howe a t 3 40 metres , s ome t hree k i lometres s outh west a cross t he moor f rom P o inted S tone. A l l t hree s ites were a bout 3 0 s quare metres i n a rea , s catters o f f l int a nd b ou lders o n t he s andy s urface b e low t he e roded moor land p eat , a nd d iffer ing i n d eta i led g eometry. There were n o . s take h o les , a nd t he p resence o f h earths h ad t o b e i nferred f rom c oncentrations o f f ire-cracked f l int. They a re d iff icu lt t o i nterpret i f on ly f or t he r eason t hat i t i s uncerta in h ow many t imes t hey were o ccup ied. The i mportant i nformat ion t herefore c ons ists i n t he ana lyses o f t he f l int i ndustr ies , a bout 2 000 a nd 5 000 f l ints f rom Po inted S tone 2 and 3 r espect ive ly. The P o inted S tone s i tes h ave S tar Carr t ype m icro l iths , a bout 5 0% o b l ique ly b lunted p o ints , 2 0% t r iang les a nd 2 0% e longated t rapezes. There a re , h owever , v ery i mportant d ifferences b etween t he r at ios o f d ifferent worked f l ints b etween t he P o inted S tone a nd S tar Carr s i tes: ( 1) The m icro l ith/scraper r at io f or Po inted S tone 2 a nd 3 a re 1 5:1 ( 2)

( 3)

a nd 8 :1, c ompared w ith 0 .6:1 f or S tar C arr. The numbers o f m icro bur ins a t t he P o inted S tone s i tes a re c ommensurate w ith t he numbers o f m icro l iths , but a t S tar Carr t hey c ompr ise o n ly a bout o ne t enth o f t he m icro l ith numbers. Whereas t he number o f bur ins a t S tar Carr were c ommensurate w ith t he numbers o f s crapers a nd m icro l i ths, t here were n one a t Po inted S tone 2 a nd o n ly o ne f rom Po inted S tone 3 . Thus t here i s l i tt le e v idence o f b one o r a nt ler work ing a t Po inted S tone .

I t h as b een r easonab ly c onc luded by J acob i ( 1978) t hat whereas t he S tar Carr s i te was c oncerned w ith t he p reparat ion o f f ood a nd h unt ing e qu ipment, t he up land s i tes were c oncerned ma in ly w ith hunt ing , u s ing f l int e qu ipment made o n t he s i te , a nd w ith o n ly a s ma l l amount o f d omestic a ct iv ity. The a na lys is o f t he f l int i ndustry s carce ly h e lps s o lve t he p rob lem o f s easona l ity o f s ites , but i f t he up land c amps were c onf ined t o t he s ummer months, t hen t he l arge a n ima ls k i l led f rom t hem must s ure ly h ave b een c onsumed i n t he s ummer p art ly i n t he l owland s ett lements , f a i l ing s ome methods o f meat p reservation , f or e xamp le d ry ing a nd smok ing , a daptab le t o a l arge s ca le o ver p er iods o f many months.

1 08

The e ar ly

Money

Meso l ith ic

Howe

s ite,

i ndustry,

d ated

s l ightly

t o

about

d ifferent

7 ,500 f rom

b .c.,

S tar

h as

Carr ,

a n but

more s imi lar t o t hat e xcavated on t he s outhern Penn ines a t Deepcar (Rad ley and Me l lars , 1 964). The ' Deepcar ' m icro l iths c ompr ise a lmost e ntire ly ob l ique ly b lunted po ints, s ome o f wh ich a re d ifferent f rom t heir S tar Carr equiva lents i n h aving r etouch on both e dges o f t he p o ints, a nd s ome o f wh ich h ave r etouch a long a c omplete e dge o f t he m icro l ith , both f eatures m iss ing a t S tar Carr. l t was t hus p oss ible f or J acob i t o d istingu ish i n t he up lands t he t wo t ypes o f e ar ly Meso lith ic f l int i ndustry , t he ' Star Carr ' and t he ' Deepcar ' t ypes. l ie f ound s ome t en ' Star Carr ' s ites a nd a bout t wenty ' Deepcar ' s ites, but t here d oes not s eem t o b e a ny d ifference i n t he g eographical d istr ibution o f t he t wo t ypes. As w ith ' Star Carr ' s ites, t here a re i mportant d ifferences b etween t he f l int

i ndustries

o f

up land

and l owland ' Deepcar '

s ites,

a s

s hown i n

t he f o l lowing t ab le:

Name and l ocation

M icrol i ths

S crapers

Bur ins

M icrobur ins

Low land S ites Br igham, East Yorkshire W i l loughton, N . L inco lnsh ire

6 9

5 3 4 8

1 4

0

9

9

3 8 2

3 3 1 02

4 5

Upland S ites Money Howe,

3 3 7 7 2 4 2 4 3 2

15 North York Moors 1 6 8 Deepcar , Pennines 1 0 Lom inot 2 , Penn ines 3 4 Lominot 3 , Pennines 3 3 W indy H i l l , Pennines 6 0 Warcock H i l l , North Pennines

I t

i s

c lear

t hat

t he

Money

Howe

s ite,

2 2

0 8 5

w ith

i ts

2 7 2 3

h igh

m icro l ith/

s craper r atio, s hou ld be r egarded, a s t he Po inted S tone s i tes, a s a hunting c amp w ith l i tt le f ood p reparation , and i ts h igh p roportion o f m icro-bur ins i ndicates t hat t he m icro l iths were made on t he s ite. The up land s ites c ontrast s trong ly w ith t he l owland wh ich h ave e quiva lent numbers o f m icro l iths and s crapers a nd l ow numbers o f m icro-bur ins , c lose ly r esemb l ing t he numer ica l p roportions o f t he i ndustry a t S tar Carr i tse lf. Thus c oncerned

t here w ith

a re

f ood

i n and

northern weapon

Eng land

p reparation

both a nd

l owland up land

s ites

hunting

s tations o f both ' Star Carr ' and ' Deepcar ' t ypes. The l owland ' Star Carr ' s ites a re a t t he t ype s ite i tse lf a nd a t F lixton a nd p oss ibly a t S eamer Carr ( Scarborough), t hough t he l atter i s uncerta in a t p resent, and t here a re s evera l l owland s ites i n North L inco lnsh ire; t he up land ' Star Carr ' s ites a re on t he North York Moors a nd a t l east

o ne

i s

known

on

t he

P ennines

a t

Warcock H i l l South

and Me l lars, 1 964). The l owland ' Deepcar ' East Yorkshire ( Manby, 1 966) a nd

s ites a re a t W i l loughton

( Rad ley

Br igham i n i n North

L inco lnshire (Armstrong, 1 932); t here a re a number o f up land ' Deepcar ' s ites both on t he North York Moors a nd o n t he P ennines.

1 09

J acob i ( 1978) and Rad ley and Me l lars ( 1964) observe t hat t he ' Star Carr ' s ites u se t rans lucent f l int o f unknown o r ig in, wh i le o n ' Deepcar ' t ype s ites ma in ly t he opaque wh ite f l int o f E ast Yorksh ire and L inco lnsh ire was worked. The ' Deepcar ' and ' Star Carr ' hunters s eem t o h ave h ad s imi lar l owland t err itor ies a nd t he ir up land hunting s ites a re i n t he s ame a reas o f t he P enn ines a nd t he North Yorksh ire t o s uggest t hat

Moors. The f ew r adiocarbon d ates a va i lab le t end t he two g roups were c ontemporary. A poss ib le

exp lanat ion o f t he ir t err itor ia l o ver lap i s t hat i n t he e ar ly Meso lith ic we a re s ee ing a f ront ier s i tuation i n n orthern Eng land, s o t hat hunting was o f a n e ntrepreneur ia l c haracter i n t rue f rontier f ash ion, w ith no e stab l ished t err itor ia l d iv is ions. I f t h is i s s o we s hou ld expect a s omewhat Meso l ith ic p er iod when northeast n orthern l imit o f s ett lement. What

i s

s ett lement

i n

undoubted ly

t rue

i s

d ifferent p attern i n Yorksh ire was n ot t hat

t his a rea an e conomy was

f rom

t he

e stabl ished

t he o n

e ar l iest

l ate t he

human

wh ich e xp lo ited

t he who le r esource o f t he t erra in, both h igh land a nd l owland. We s ha l l s ee t h is r epeated i n d ifferent f orms f or a l l t he s ucceeding D er iods.

1 10

3 .3

t wo

THE LATE MES OLITHIC PERIOD,

6 ,600

3 ,500 b .c.

-

The l ong e ra o f t he l ate Meso l ith ic s pans t he g reater p arts o f c l imatic p er iods, t he Borea l a nd t he At lant ic, dur ing wh ich

t here was a v ast c hange i n t he e nvironment, a s d iscussed i n d eta i l i n Chapter 2 . The a verage t emperatures wh ich h ad s tarted t o r ise v ery r ap id ly i n t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic , c ontinued t h is t rend i n t he l ate Meso l ith ic. I n i ts l ast t wo m i l len ia, a t t he t ime o f t he ' opt imal ' post-g lac ia l c l imate, a verage t emperatures were i n f act o ne o r t wo d egrees c entigrade a bove t hose o f t he p resent d ay ( Taylor , 1 975). The

b irch

wood land

on

t he

moors

c hanged

f irst

t o

a p ine-haze l

f orest a nd f ina l ly i n t he At lantic p er iod ( 4,700 b .c. o nward) t o a mosaic o f o pen m ixed o ak wood land w ith t rans ient o pen a reas o f g rass and h eath l and i n wh ich t he c losed f orest d id n ot a pparent ly r each

t he

h ighest

g round.

I n

t he

va l leys

and

o n

t he

s urround ing

l ow l y ing a reas t here was a s imi lar a nd r ather e ar l ier d eve lopment, but h ere t he f orest was more var ied i n c ompos it ion a nd p robab ly f ormed a t h icker c anopy t han t he f orest o n t he h igher h i l ls. I nterference by l ate Meso l ith ic g roups i s more a pparent i n t he o pen b i l l woodland, where t here i s g ood e v idence o f r epeated f orest burn ing , s o i l beg inning o f a ctiv ity. The

e ros ion by wash down t he h i l l s lopes a nd t he p eat f ormation , p erhaps c onnected w ith human open h i l l wood land wou ld s eem t o b e t he most

p roductive f or

hunting

( Me l lars ,

1 976a)

and

p oss ibly f or

g ather ing

o f h aze l nuts, f or t he h aze l f lour ishes b est i n t he o pen wood land and r egenerates v igorous ly a fter burn ing. From a bout 6 ,000 b .c. t he c l imate on t he h i l ls wou ld and i ndeed f rom 5 ,000 b .c.

b e s imi lar t o t hat o f t he p resent d ay wou ld h ave b een warmer, s o t hat

a ctivit ies c ou ld b e e xtended t here o ver many months. Dur ing c omplete ly ( Bradley,

t he

l ate

Meso l ith ic

p opu lated, 1 978),

and

l eading,

i t

f or

p er iod i s

t he

e ven

e xamp le,

t o

Br it ish

a rgued, g reater

I s les

b ecame

o verpopu lated u se

o f

c oasta l

r esources. Northeast Yorksh ire was t herefore n o l onger a f ront ier z one and f e l l c omp lete ly i nto t he s ett led z one ( A) o f p ermanent a nd t emporary c amp s ites. Th is i s a pparently r ef lected o n t he l oca l s cene by a more b a lanced d istr ibution o f s ites i n t h is p er iod, a s s hown i n F ig.23. Compared w ith t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic p er iod, we h ave ma jor s ites t o t he north o f t he watershed, a s we l l a s o n, a nd t o

t he

s outh

o f

i t ,

and

t here

a re

ma jor

l ate

Meso l ithic

s ites

a t

i nterva ls a long t he Durham a nd Northumber land c oasts. The

l ater

Meso l ith ic

f l int

s i tes

a re

d ifferentiated

e ar lier by t he f orms o f t he m icro l iths; o ther t ypes a rtefacts a re not d iagnost ic. A d eta i led d escr ipt ion o f i ndustr ies

i s

n ot

n ecessary

i n

e ar ly and l ate m icro l iths i s r easons f or t he c hange f rom t he l ate smal l , var ied f orms t hey a re l ike ly t o b e c omp lex

t h is

r eview,

but

f rom o f t he

c ompar ison

o f

t he f l int f l int t he

g iven f or r eference i n F ig.22. The t he e ar ly l arge, s imp le m icro l iths t o a re n ot understood a t p resent, but i n v iew o f t he d iverse p oss ib le u ses

o f m icro l iths ( Clarke, 1 976). I t may p artly r ef lect a c hange f rom h eavy s tandardised pro ject i les t o l ighter more v ar ied ones, a nd t h is i n t urn may b e a f unct ion o f hunting t actics i n t he more d ense

f orest

c ondit ions

o f

t he

l ater

Meso l ith ic

a nd

p erhaps

more

r e l iance on t ak ing s ma l ler an ima ls a s p opulation p ressure g rew o r , a s s uggested by Me l lars ( 1976b), t he sma l l m icro l iths m ight h ave

1 11

1 12 F i g . 2 3 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f L a t e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e s .

b een u sed i n r eplacement o f t he e ar ly ant ler b arbs. I t i s a c omp lex prob lem wh ich m ight b e amenable t o i nvest igation by e xper imenta l s imu lation. There i s a lso s ome e vidence f or g reater u se o f m icro l ith ic r ods i n t he l ast s tages o f t he l ate Meso l ithic ( Switsur and J acob i, 1 975). Rocher Moss S ite I and Dunford Br idge B , both i n t he Penn ines, p roduced on ly r od m icro l iths a nd n o t r iang les, and were d ated 3 880±100 b .c. (Q-1190) a nd 3 430±80 b .c. (Q-799). S ites w ith p redominance o f m icro l ith ic r ods a re known o n t he

North

( Jacobi,

Yorksh ire

p ers.

S imon Howe The extent may be f or t he

( Hayes,

d ate

o f

Moors

C omm.)

p articu lar ly

a lso

a t

on

Westerda le

Bransda le ( Rad ley,

R idge

1 969)

and

f orthcoming).

s pan

o ver lap

and

o f

t h is

p er iod

w ith

t he

e ar ly

i s

s omewhat

Meso l ith ic

u ncerta in,

and

w ith

t he

a nd t he Neo l ith ic

c ons iderab le. A d ate a bout 6 ,600 b .c. s eems a ppropr iate c ommencement ( v ide s upra), a nd t he d ates g iven i n t he

p revious p aragraph i ndicate an o ver lap i nto t he Neo l ithic , wh ich i s now g eneral ly t aken a s s tarting a t a bout 3 ,500 b .c. Certa in ly t here i s much e vidence o f c ontinuous u se o f t he l ocations o f t he up land and l owland Meso l ith ic s ites, f rom t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic t hrough t he l ate Meso lith ic t o t he Neo l ith ic and e ven t o t he Bronze Age, a s s hown by t he p resence o f p ro jecti le f l ints o f a l l t hese p er iods on t he s ites ( see F ig.26 and Tables 2 -5). Their p resence c an h ard ly be f ortu itous, f or t he s ame i s f ound on t he Durham c oast Meso l ith ic s ites, An s carce ly

a ccurate p oss ible

unrecorded

and i ndeed w ide ly t hroughout Br ita in.

c lass if ication b ecause o f

r emova l

o f

o f t he l ate Meso l ith ic s ites i s t he i ndiscr iminate and u sua l ly

f l ints.

From

t he

p resent

d ata,

we

may

however a l locate t he s ites b road ly i nto t hree g roups. 1 .

VE RY LARGE Some

r ecords

o f

o f

MOORLAND FLINT AREAS

t he

s ites

c o l lectors ,

on

t he

h igh

and i t i s

moors

a pparent

r ecur t hat

r epeated ly i n

we a re

d eal ing

a reas wh ich were r e-v isited by t he hunters many t imes. f or e xample, i s a l arge amphitheatre c onta in ing many s ites ,

e ach

a f ew

metres

a cross ,

a lthough l arge

a lso f ound, f or e xamp le a t Nab End s ites a re r epeated ly r ecorded f rom

a reas

t he w ith

Wh ite G i l l , sma l l f l int o f

f l int

a re

Moor ( Rad ley, 1 969a). And Sneck Yat, B i lsda le West,

B i lsda le East, Bransdale Edge, Westerda le Moor , F arnda le Moor , G la isda le Moor , Egton Moor , S imon Howe and Mau ley Cross, a l l s ites

e xcept

t he

l ast

n amed

b e ing

on

t he

watershed.

The

Mau ley

Cross s ite i s a c oncentrated a rea o f f l ints 4 00 metres n orth-south, by 2 50 metres e ast-west. S imon Howe i s a lso a r estr icted a rea 1 50 metres s catters

by on

5 0 t he

metres. h igh

Hayes

r idges

( 1963)

a re

c omments

p lentifu l i n f l int

t hat

many

o f

t he

a nd w ith in a f ew

s quare f eet i n a rea. I nvestigators on t he P ennines h ave a lso s hown t hat many Meso l ith ic s ites o ccur ' i n g roups o r c lusters, s ometimes o f o ver 5 0 f ind s pots on a s ing le h i l ls ide ' ( Jacob i, Ta l us a nd Me llars, 1 976). These a uthors a lso r ecord a r educed f orest c over on t he s outhern Penn ine up lands, where t he Meso l ith ic s i tes a re c oncentrated, and e nvironment s imi lar

e vidence t herefore

o f p er iodic f orest burn ing, a n t o t he l ate Meso l ith ic i n n ortheast

Yorkshire.

1 13

Rad ley ( 1969a) r ecords c lass if ications o f s amp les o f t he f l int i ndustr ies f rom t hree o f t hese l arge s i tes. Out o f 7 ,700 f l ints c o l lected i n a n a rea 5 0 metres a cross a t Wh ite G i l l , 8 37 were m icro l iths , c ompared w ith 1 8 s crapers , 6 bur ins, 1 32 l ong b lades and 7 0 o ther t oo ls. A t F arnda le Moor , f rom 2 ,100 f l ints , 5 8 were m icro l i ths, 2 s crapers , 3 bur ins , 1 57 l ong p lades a nd 1 8 o ther t oo ls. F rom 2 ,000 f l ints a t Mau ley Cross 2 29 were m icro l iths , 8 s crapers , 2 bur ins, 1 5 b lades a nd 1 9 o ther t oo ls. C lear ly t here a re v ast p reponderances o f m icro l iths. Hayes ' ( forthcom ing) d escr iptions o f S imon Howe a nd Bransda le R idge s i tes a lso s how a g reat numer ica l p reponderance o f m icro l i ths o ver s crapers a nd o ther t oo ls. I n Me l lars ( 1976b) g enera l c lass if icat ion s cheme f or Br it ish Meso l ith ic s ites , we c an t h ink o f t hese a s e xtens ive c oncentrations o f Type I a nd Type I s i tes a nd w ith r egard t o t he ir i ndustr ies a s Type A ( micro l ith-dom inated a ssemb lages). 2

LOWLAND S ITES

The b est known l owland s i tes o f t he l ater Meso l ith ic a re t hose i n t he Up leatham c omp lex ( Spratt e t a l., 1 976). Though t hese c ompr ise o n ly p loughed-out f l int s i tes , t hey h ad n ot b een d iscovered p rev ious ly , a nd y ie lded g ood s amp les o f c omp lete i ndustr ies. They were b a lanced ( Me l lars Type B ) i ndustr ies , a nd t he v ar iety o f t oo ls g ave t he i mpress ion o f d iverse a ct iv it ies o n t he s ite o f wh ich f ood p reparation was i mportant, a s w itnessed a lso by t he l arge number o f f l int h ear th-stones. I t i s d iff icu lt t o a ssess t he o r ig ina l s ize o f p loughed-out s i tes , but whereas Up leatham I was a c onf ined c ircu lar a rea o f s ome 1 250 s quare metres , Up leatham I was 6 ,000 s quare metres. P oss ib ly t he f ormer h ad b een a sma l l C lass I s ite , t he l atter a C lass I. The f l int was ma in ly t he mott led g rey Wo lds f l int , s imi lar t o t hat f ound o n t he moor land s i tes. The s i tuat ion , o n t he c rest o f t he Up leatham H i l ls , a n or thern o ut l ier o f t he North Yorksh ire Moors , e nab led i t t o b e a v isua l l ink b etweem t he h igh moors , a nd t he Durham c oast, n orth o f t he R iver Tees. The Up leatham s i tes t hemse lves c an b e c lassed a s c oasta l , l y ing on ly 2 m i les i n land f rom t he p resent c oast l ine. O ther l owland s i tes o f t h is t ype a re o n t he E ston H i l ls, a n o ut l ier o f t he C leve land H i l ls. 3

R IVERINE AND LAKE S ITES

There i s a c erta in amount o f e v idence o f Meso l ith ic a ct iv ity f rom t he Tees b as in: a human s ku l l a nd r ed d eer b ones were f ound i n t he a l luv ium 1 0 metres O .D. b es ide t he r iver a t B i l l ingham, a nd p ar t o f a t ree t runk h o l lowed o ut by h uman a gency , p robab ly a f ire-mak ing d ev ice c ame f rom t he s ame l ayer a t Ormesby ( Agar , 1 954). S catters o f f l int, i nc luding m icro l i ths , h ave b een f ound o n t he h igh g round i mmed iate ly a d jacent t o t he f lood p la in o f t he r iver , b etween Thornaby a nd Yarm ( Spratt e t a l., 1 976). These a re d iffuse d ispers ions o f f l int, r ather t han e v idences o f ma jor s ett lement, more c ons istent p erhaps w ith -

p er iod ic v is its t o f ish t he s a lmon r uns. I t i s o f c ourse i mposs ib le t o know whether t h is i s t he o n ly k ind o f s i te o n t he r iver , s ince o thers m ight we l l e x ist we l l b e low t he p resent g round s urface , a nd i n a ny c ase most o f t he r iver b anks h ave b een h eav i ly u rban ised and i ndustr ia l ised. S earch a long t he b anks o f t he Leven, a n a lmost

1 14

e nt ire ly r ura l t r ibutary , h as h owever s o f ar o n ly y ie lded o dd f l ints o f uncerta in a ge. The s ame i mpress ion o f m inor a ct iv ity was g a ined f rom s earches a round t he s ma l l p reh istor ic l akes. West House Carr a t K i lda le y ie lded n o f l int f inds o f a ny k ind e ither o n t he s urface o r by p rob ing w ith a l arge a uger ; S eamer Carr n ear S tokes ley was s urrounded o n a l l s ides by s catters o f f l int, a nd t he n orth b ank g ave a S tar Carr t ype m icro l ith a nd a l ate Meso l i th ic p ick, but n o ma jor c oncentrat ions. The r ivers a nd s ma l l l akes t herefore s eem t o h ave b een v is ited s porad ica l ly a nd were n ot t he s cene domest ic s i tes , a s f ar a s o ur p resent knowledge g oes. S immons

( 1980)

h as

r ecent ly c orre lated

o f

s ett led

s ubstant ial ly t he s ame

s ite i nformat ion g iven a bove w ith t he p a laeoenv ironmenta l i nformat ion o f t he p er iod, s uggest ing a p attern o f a nnua l movement o f t he meso l ith ic g roups , a nd h as s ummar ised t he a rgument o n p age 5 6 a nd F ig. 1 0. I n t ota l i t i s a p attern o f a ggregation a nd d ispers ion s u itab le f or e xp lo it ing t he r esources o f t he who le t erra in, a na lagous t o t hat p roposed by J acob i ( 1978) f or t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic p er iod. Thus ,

t he

e co log ica l

a pproach

p rov ides

a r easonab le

a ccount

o f what we s ee i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f or t he Meso l ith ic p er iod , a nd i s c lear ly b as ic t o o ur understand ing. S ome a spects o f t he s ub ject a re n one t he l ess o pen t o f urther quest ion ing. Why a re t here s uch g reat c oncentrations o f s i tes where g roups s eem t o h ave r eturned r epeated ly? Were t hey a lways h unt ing t he s ame p rey and were t he a n ima ls a lways i n t he s ame l ocations? Why d id many o f t hese c amps c ont inue i n u se a t l east i nto t he b eaker p er iod ( 2,000-1,500 b .c.) when t he e nv ironment o f t he a rea a nd t he s ubs istence a ct iv it ies, wh ich a re b oth f undamenta l t o t he e co log ica l a rgument, h ad undergone g reat c hanges? Why a re s o many o f t he c amps p rec ise ly on t he watershed , i n t he v ic in ity o f t he l ater r ound b arrows , c onsp icuous p os it ions , o ne wou ld t h ink , f or t he hunters? The watershed l ocat ion o f f l int s i tes i s a f requent o ccurrence and c annot s imp ly b e r e lated t o t he e xposure o f moor land s i tes by e ros ion , f or i t a lso o ccurs w ith t he p loughed-out s ites o n t he Hambleton H i l ls. Another d imens ion t o s ett lement p attern i s i ts s oc ia l i mp l icat ions. I t h as b een a rgued t hat ( v ide s upra) hunt ing g roups c annot e x ist p ermanent ly i n i so lat ion f rom l arger p opu la tions, a nd t hat t h is i s a n i mportant f actor i n t he a ggregat ion a nd d ispers ion p attern. I n t he g reater p opu lation o f t he l ater Meso l ith ic we m ight e xpect t hat t here c ou ld b e t err itor ia l d iv is ions o f t he h unt ing t erra in , a f eature e v ident ly m iss ing f rom t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic s cene on t he North Yorksh ire Moors. The most l ike ly b oundar ies wou ld b e t he watershed d iv id ing t he s ectors f or g roups l iv ing o n

h i l ls , w ith n orthern a nd s outhern t hose s ides. The watersheds i n

addit ion t o b e ing t he most n atura l a nd e as i ly d ef ined b oundar ies wou ld b e i n t he most o pen p arts o f t he f orest. The c amps o n t he watersheds wou ld t herefore b e i n t he b est p os it ions f or s ummer a ssemb ly a reas when g roups wou ld c ongregate f rom t he s urrounding l ow-ly ing a reas. On t he who le t hey a re r ead i ly a ccess ib le f rom n orth a nd s outh f or g roups t rave l l ing up t he s purs on t o t he watershed. B i lsda le West, Bransda le , F arnda le a nd G la isda le Moors a re p articu lar ly we l l a ccess ib le , a nd Mau ley Cross

1 15

i s an i dea l meet ing p lace o n a ma in n or th-south c ommun icat ion r oute , l ater u sed by t he r oman r oad. The a ssemb ly a reas wou ld b e t he s cene o f t he v ery n ecessary a ct iv it ies o f marr iage mak ing , p eace-mak ing , t ransfer o f p eop le b etween hunt ing g roups , f ormat ion o f hunt ing s trateg ies , r i tua l a ct iv it ies , e xchange a nd b arter ( e.g. o f t he Wo lds f l int f rom t he s outh), a l l we l l a ttested i n t he e thnograph ic l i terature on hunter/ g atherers. ( Poss ib ly t he s ummer wou ld a lso b e t he b est s eason i n wh ich t o g ather f or t he c ontro l led burn ing o f t he o pen f orest o f t he h igh moor .) Th is c onception p rov ides a f u l ler understand ing o f t he l ocation a nd c ont inua l u se o f t he v ery r ich f l int a reas o n t he watersheds a nd g oes s ome way t o e xp la in ing t he ir p ers istent o ccupation i nto l a ter p er iods. Lowland s i tes b oth n orth a nd s outh o f t he moors a lso c ontinued i nto t he Neo l ith ic and b eaker a ges , f or e xamp le a t Barnaby o n t he Eston H i l ls a nd a t S eamer C arr n ear S carborough. I f t he annua l r ound o f a ggregat ion/ d ispers ion h ad a r i tua l a nd s oc ia l e lement i n i t , t hen i t was l ike ly t o p ers ist e ven a fter t he hunt ing h ad b ecome a nc i l lary t o t he ma in s ubs istence methods o f h erd ing and a gr icu lture. Brad ley ( 1978) h as p o inted o ut h ow hunt ing c an a ssume a r i tua l s ign if icance f or a gr icu ltura l c ommun it ies. I t s eems l ike ly t herefore t hat t he p ers istence a nd l ocat ion o f t he l arge up land s i tes c an b e p art ly e xp la ined by t he ir r o le i n s oc ia l i ntegrat ion b oth i n t he Meso l ith ic p er iod a nd a lso l ater , when t he hunt ing f or s ubs istence d ec l ined i n i mportance. A more t horough s tudy o f Meso l ith ic s i te f ormat ion a nd c ont inuation i s n eeded t o t est t h is t entat ive v iew. By t he e nd o f t he Meso l ith ic p er iod we s ee a t erra in f u l ly e xp lo ited by hunter/gatherer methods , c once ivab ly e ven o vere xp lo ited, i f we a ccept t he e v idence f or s o i l d eter ioration a t t h is t ime. I t was a s i tuat ion i n wh ich t he n eeds o f a g row ing p opu la tion c ou ld b e met by i ntroduc ing t he more l andintens ive Neo l ith ic s ubs istence methods.

1 16

CHAPTER 4 THE NEOLITHIC PER IOD,

3 500-1700 b .c.

I mmediate ly t o t he s outh o f t he s tudy a rea l i e t he c ha lk Wo lds o f E ast Yorksh ire , wh ich t ogether w ith Wessex r ank a s t he m a jor Eng l ish Neo l ith ic s ett lement t err itor ies. I ts l ong b arrows , o ccupat ion s i tes, p ottery a nd p ro l if ic s tone a xes h ave b een i ntens ive ly s tudied by Manby i n t he p ast 3 0 y ears ( Manby , 1 963, 1 974, 1 976, 1 979), a ma jor c ontr ibution t o Br it ish n eo l ith ic s tud ies. The s ett lement on t he l imestone Tabu lar H i l ls, o n ly a bout 1 0 k i lometres n orth o f t he Wo lds must b e s een a s p art o f t h is m a jor Neo l ith ic a rea , a nd t here i s e v idence o f a pprec iab le a ct iv ity a lso i n t he i nterven ing Va le o f P icker ing. The Neo l ith ic a rchaeo logy o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls i s s imi lar t o t hat o f t he Wo lds , t hough l ess i ntens ive , but t o t he n orth o f t hese h i l ls t he e v idence o f s ett lement i s c ons iderab ly more s parse a nd s eems t o b e o f a r ather d ifferent c haracter , a s w i l l b e s een l ater. The b est g enera l i dea o f t he p attern o f s ett lement f or t he t ota l Neo l ith ic p er iod ( i .e. 3 500-1700 b .c.) c an b e o bta ined f rom t he d istr ibution o f s tone a xes s hown i n F ig.24. The most s tr ik ing f eature , a bsence

a s o bserved by E lgee o f t hese a xes f rom t he

( 1930), i s t he a lmost c omp lete h igh moors. There i s a med ium

c oncentrat ion o n t he b ou lder c lay a rea t o t he n or th , t hough i t i s p oss ib ly s omewhat under-represented i n t he c oasta l a rea where t here i s o ther e v idence o f Neo l ith ic s ett lement. There a re apprec iab le numbers i n t he d a les , p art icu lar ly i n t he l ower r eaches o f E skda le a nd i n s outh-fac ing F arnda le a nd Roseda le. The d ensest c oncentrat ion i s o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls, p art icu lar ly o n t he e astern e nd, but i t i s a lso c ons iderab le i n t he c entra l a rea a round K irkbymoors ide a nd o n t he western e nd a t Bo ltby. There i s a s catter o f a xes a cross t he Va le o f P icker ing , w ith s evera l i n t he v ic in ity o f Ness. The d ate s pan o f metamorph ic s tone a xes i s f rom 3 ,250 b .c. t o 1 ,750 b .c. ( Sm ith I .F., 1 979), a nd a lthough p o l ished f l int a xes a re known i n e ar l ier c ontexts i n I re land a nd c ont inenta l Europe , t he g reat ma jor ity o f t hem a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced w ith in t he s ame p er iod. F o l lowing Manby ( 1979), d ens ity o f a xe f inds ,

i t

i s

i nstruct ive

a s i n t he f o l low ing t ab le.

1 17

t o

quant ify

t he

1 18 F i g . 2 4 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N e o l i t h i c s t o n e a x e s .

Average a xe f inds p er s quare k i lometre

P ercentage o f f l int a xes o f t ota l number

Bou lder c lay a rea L ower Esk Va l ley Tabu lar H i l ls Eastern a rea Tabu lar H i l ls Centra l a rea Tabu lar H i l ls Western a rea Va le o f P icker ing

0 .08 0 .20 0 .30 0 .20 0 .20 0 .08

2 4 6 4 0 3 5 2 1 2 5

Yorksh ire Wo lds

1 .70 0 .08 0 .04 0 .06 0 .12

1 7 2 6 1 4 2 3 6

( Manby ,

1 979)

L inco lnsh ire ( Moore , 1 979) L e icestersh ire ( Moore , 1 979) Nott inghamsh ire ( Moore , 1 979) Derbysh ire ( Moore , 1 979)

Thus , a lthough t he d ens ity o f a xe f inds o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls i s on ly a bout o ne s eventh o f t he f igures f or t he Yorksh ire Wo lds, t hey a re r ich by c ompar ison w ith t he North M id lands. The b ou lder c lay a reas a nd t he Va le o f P icker ing , l ess d ense t han t he Tabu lar H i l ls, c ompare a bout e qua l ly w ith t he North M id lands. The s andstone moor lands h ave o n ly o ne o r t wo a xes i n o f s quare k i lometres ; t hese a re f l int a xes , a s a t Whor iton Moor. A lthough

t hese

d istr ibut ions

s ome h undreds Wh ite G i l l a nd

must i n a g enera l way r epresent

t he d ens it ies o f Neo l ith ic a ct iv ity , i t i s by n o means c lear what t hese a ctiv it ies were. S impson ( 1979) a rgued t hat s tone a xes were more l ike ly t o b e u sed f or woodwork ing t han f orest c learance o n t he g rounds t hat burn ing a nd g raz ing wou ld b e a n e as ier method f or t he l atter. But t he a rgument i s more d iff icu lt t o s usta in i n Northeast Yorksh ire where f orest burn ing a pparent ly was c onf ined t o t he Meso l ith ic p er iod ( Chapter 2 ). Neverthe less i t s eems f rom t he a bsence o f a xes o n t he h igh moors , where t emporary c learances were i n p rogress t hroughout t he Neo l ith ic , t hat t he p r imary purpose o f a xes was n ot f or t ree f e l l ing. G iven t he p rest ige a nd e xchange v a lue o f a xes ( Clark , 1 965) i t s eems l ike ly t hat t hey wou ld b e k ept i n t he s ett lement a reas a nd u lt imate ly a bandoned t here when t hey were made o bso lete by meta l a xes a t t he e nd o f t he Neo l ith ic p er iod. Manby ( pers. c omm.) h as , h owever , s hown t hat t he d istr ibution o f t he c omp lete ly p o l ished s tone a xes , wh ich h e a l locates t o t he e ar ly Neo l ith ic p er iod , c orresponds w ith t he o vera l l d istr ibution o f a xes. Thus we c annot s ee a ny d ifference b etween t he d istr ibut ion o f e ar ly a nd l ate a xes. ( The d istr ibution p attern o f b ronze a xes i s a lso n ot d iss imi lar t o t hat o f s tone a xes.) Whatever t he u ses o f t he s tone a xes , whether a s a gr icu ltura l i mp lements o r woodwork ing , t hey s eem t o r epresent s ett lement d istr ibut ion. The a xes s eem t o b e i nseparab le f rom t he t ota l ity o f s ett led Neo l ith ic l i fe. I t i s worthwh i le , t herefore , t o e xamine t he l oca l d ens it ies o f a xe f inds i n more d eta i l , e spec ia l ly , a s w i l l b e s een i n s ubsequent c hapters , t he p attern o f s ett lement i nd icated by t he s tone a xes i s

1 19

r eproduced s im i lar ly f or l ater p reh istor ic p er iods by a v ar iety o f a rtefact a nd s ite d istr ibut ions. The ma jor f actors wh ich s eem t o d om inate e ar ly a gr icu ltura l s ett lement a re t hose o f c l imate a nd s o i l. O ther c ons iderat ions wh ich undoubted ly a ffect i nd iv idua l s ett lement l ocat ions, s uch a s a ccess t o r aw mater ia ls , water a nd c ommun icat ion r outes, a re n ot s o i mpor tant i n t he g eography o f t he g enera l p attern a s t hose wh ich d eterm ine t he p roduct iv ity o f t he b as ic s ubs istence t echn iques. W ith r egard t o c l imate , Tay lor 's ( 1975) g raphs i nd icate t hat , a lthough t he b eg inn ing o f t he n eo l ith ic p er iod was s omewhat warmer t han a t t he p resent d ay by one o r t wo d egrees c ent igrade , i t was a t ime o f f a l l ing t emperature , s o t hat f or t he e nd o f t he p er iod t he a verages a re a bout e qu iva lent t o modern t imes. There i s a c erta in amount o f e v idence , p ar t icu lar ly t he p ro l if ic p resence o f a lder i n t he l ow land f orests , t hat t he r a infa l l may h ave b een g reater t han a t t he p resent d ay ( Sm ith , 1 981). Thus t he c l imate wou ld h ave p erm itted g rowth o f c erea l c rops on t he h i l ls up t o 3 00 metres , a s o ccas iona l ly h appens t oday. The d amp c ond it ions wou ld t end t o a vo idance o f t he h eavy b ou lder c lay s o i ls a nd t he f loor o f t he Va le o f P icker ing f or a gr icu lture , but , i f c leared , wou ld make t hem a ttract ive f or p asture , t he l atter more e spec ia l ly i n s ummer . W ith r egard t o s o i l c ondit ions , t he we l l-dra ined l imestones wou ld b e e xceed ing ly a ttractive t o t he e ar ly f armers , a s e lsewhere o n t he c a lcareous a reas o f Eng land. The Tabu lar H i l ls c ou ld b e f armed o ver l ong p er iods by e ar ly methods , b ecause t he ir f ert i l ity c ou ld b e r estored by f a l lowing when n ecessary ; o n t he s andstone a reas , h owever , t he p oor d ra inage a nd a c id c ond it ions wou ld s oon l ead t o a n i rrevers ib le i nferti l ity. Not a l l t he Cora l l ian o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls i s e qua l ly a ttractive , f or i t c ompr ises a r ather c omp lex p attern o f l imestone a nd c a lcareous g r it. The a rea n ear Bo ltby , where t here a re a xe c oncentrations , f or e xamp le , i s l imestone , a nd t here i s a p art icu lar ly f avourab le o utcrop o f l imestone i n t he e ast b etween A l lerston a nd S eamer Carr , a p ro l if ic p reh istor ic a rea a t a l l p er iods. We may t herefore t abu late t he c l imate a nd g eo log ica l f actors o f t he v ar ious p arts o f t he s tudy a rea, s hown o ppos ite. The t ab le i l lustrates t hat t he most f avourab le a reas f or m ixed agr icu ltura l s ett lements a re o n t he l imestone h i l ls, p ar t icu lar ly o n t he l ow h i l ls a t t he e astern e nd. There was a pprec iab le Neo l i th ic a ct iv ity i n t he Esk va l ley , a nd t o a l esser d egree i n C leve land a nd t he Va le o f P icker ing , where c l imate a nd s o i l were n ot e nt ire ly unfavourab le. The s andstone h i l ls s eem t o b e d evo id o f p ermanent s ett lement where b oth a re a dverse. We s ha l l s ee t h is p attern r epeated many t imes i n t he d istr ibution maps f or o ther Neo l i th ic a rtefacts a nd f or t hose o f l ater p er iods. The c oasta l r eg ion i s a s ign if icant Neo l ith ic a rea, a l though axe f inds h ave b een c omparative ly s parse. The i mportant, r ecent ly d iscovered , l ong b arrow a t S treet House b etokens s ett lement o n t he c l iffed c oast b etween S a itburn a nd Wh itby. Between t he mouth o f t he Tees a nd S a itburn, t he o ff-shore p eat b eds were c reated by m inor f luctuat ions i n s ea l eve l i n t he n eo l ith ic p er iod, a s a t Hart lepoo l , j ust t o t he n or th ( p.25). The Hart lepoo l p eat b eds s how e vidence o f wood land c learance a nd p astora l a nd a gr icu ltura l a ct iv it ies i n t he Neo l ith ic ( Too ley , 1 978). The s ame i s p robab ly t rue o f t he p eat b eds s outh o f t he Tees , a nd t here i s a Neo l i th ic

1 20

-4

—4

Co

9 4

Co

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A n u a l r a i n f a l m *

A x e f i n d s p e r k i l o m e t r e s q u a r e

P o s i b l e N e o l i t h i c s u b s i t e n c e a c t i v t i e s

—4

c i

44

o

o

C l )

C l )

CD .

cq

c ö

a )

E

L I)

C) —4

C o

‚ c . . 1

4 —

S

f l4

S

r .

CD

S

c9 •

CD S

CD

CD

CD t C N I CD t r) F :-

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H e i g h t m e t r e s

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C I

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F :- F :

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a ) 0

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a ) —

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f l int s i te ( unpub l ished) o n t he s and dunes a t Marske , 3 k i lometres n orth west o f S a itburn. P a laeobotan ica l e v idence f or t he o ther p ar ts o f t he a rea a re r estr icted t o t he s andstone moors a nd t he bou lder c lay a reas , where ma in ly s ma l l r evers ib le c learances a re s een t hroughout t he Neo l ith ic. On ly l ate i n t he p er iod a re t here i nd icat ions o f s ma l l-sca le c erea l g row ing. There a re a t p resent n o po l len a na lyses f or t he Tabu lar H i l ls , a nd i n t he ir a bsence we h ave t o a ssume f rom t he g enera l c haracter o f t he Neo l ith ic a rchaeo logy t hat s ett led m ixed f arming was i n p rogress h ere , by a na logy w ith o ther s imi lar a reas o f t he Br it ish Neo l ith ic . The a rgument may n ot b e , t herefore , v a l id f or t he l ater Neo l ith ic , when t he e conomy i n Br ita in may h ave t ended t oward p astora l ( Sm ith , 1 974). The p a laeobotan ica l d ata a re c ons istent w ith t he s ubs istence a ct iv it ies p roposed i n t he r ight h and c o lumn o f t he t ab le a bove.

1 22

4 .1

THE EARLY NEOLITHIC PERIOD, The

axes,

d ata

i s

o n

t he

e ar ly Neo l ithic

3 500-2500 b .c.

p er iod,

a part

c onfined t o e v idence f rom b arrows ,

f rom

t he

p ottery f rom

s tone

p its and

d itches, and f l int s ites. There a re no known Neo lith ic h ouses t he a rea, no c ausewayed c amps o r c ursus. The e v idence

i n i s

c onveniently d ivided i nto t wo g roups. F irst t he b arrows a nd pottery wh ich c onvey a c oncept o f a s ett led l i fe-sty le w ith p ossibly c onnotat ions o f (Renfrew, 1 973),

t err itor ia l h ard ly a t

o rganisation o f f arming c ountry a l l c onnected w ith t he Meso l ith ic

c ulture. S econd ly , t he e x istence o f e ar ly Meso lith ic f l int a reas o n both h igh and l ow i ndicate

a

c ont inuation

o f

t he

Meso l ith ic

Neo l ith ic f l ints i n t he g round, wh ich s eem t o a ggregation/ d ispers ion

pattern and t hus i ntimate ly c onnected w ith t hat p attern o f l i fe. Rad ley ( 1969) and D imb leby ( 1962) h ave p rev ious ly s uggested t he c o-ex istence o f Neo l ithic and Meso lith ic c ultures i n t h is a rea. by

The l ong b arrows and c airns o f t he a rea h ave b een r ev iewed Manby ( 1970), and a re l i sted i n Table 6 and s hown on F ig.25,

wh ich a lso i nc ludes s ix r ecords o f e arthworks wh ich m ight p oss ib ly have been l ong b arrows, t hree o f t hem i n t he c oasta l a rea not f ar f rom t hey

t he a re

newly-d iscovered S treet not very i nformative.

r adiocarbon

dates

3 090±90

House l ong The d ating

b .c.

(NPL

7 3)

c a irn. As e v idences

f or

barrow, and t he f l int h oard o f l ater Neo l ith ic n ineteenth c entury i nvestigators, t hough t he

East

a g roup a re t he

Ayton

l ong

t ype f ound by t he modern e xcavation

r ema ins unpubl ished. The c urrent work on S treet House l ong c a irn w i l l h owever p rovide a g reat d eal o f i nformat ion ( Vyner e t a l., f orthcoming).

I t

was

d iscovered

be low

a

r ound

b arrow

i n

a

prominent pos it ion, v iewed f rom t he l andward s ide , o n t he c oast. Manby ( 1970) g ave f our e xamp les f rom East Yorksh ire o f l ong barrows

s urmounted

Newton Muigrave House l ong c airn

by

r ound

barrows

and

s uggested

t hat

t he

c a irn may a lso h ave t his s tructure. The S treet h ad a c oncave t imber f acade a t i ts e astern e nd,

and an except iona l ly produced r adiocarbon

we l l p reserved mortuary h ouse , wh ich h as d ates averag ing out a t 2 ,770 b .c. (Vyner,

p ers. c omm.); a f acade was a lso f ound a t East Ayton. The o ther i ndication o f d ate o f t he l ong c airn a t S treet House i s p rov ided by what a ppears t o b e Gr imston ware f rom t he f orecourt i n f ront o f t he f acade. There i nformation

i s f rom

o therw ise t h is a rea,

l i tt le s tructura l o r c hrono log ica l a part f rom t he i nterest ing c hambered

c airn on Great Ayton Moor ( Hayes, 1 967a). Th is was e xcavated i n t he 1 960s and f ound t o c ontain w ith in t he ma in c a irn a r ectangu lar chamber ( 5m f ound i n t he s ubso i l s tone s tone

i n

x 2 m) w ith an e ntrance p assage. No a rtefacts were c hamber but t here was c ons iderable burn ing o n t he

a p it.

Manby

( 1970)

s uggested

t hat

t he

c hamber

i s

a

vers ion o f t he norma l ly wooden mortuary h ouse , and t he ' tai l ' i s t o b e c ompared t o a l ong b arrow. Continued u se o f

t he s ite i s s een i n s econdary a ccessory c up c remations i n t he ma in c a irn, and c o llared u rn c remations i n t wo r ing c a irns bu i lt a d jacent t o i t . The c onf irm

g eographical

t he

Neo l ith ic

d istr ibution

s ett lement

o f

p attern

1 23

l ong

b arrows

i ndicated

by

t he

t ends

t o

p o l ished

0

c ' J

4 0 0

0-

1C

>

\

‚ - -

i S '

C

m

1 24

axes.

They

a re,

o r

r ather

were ,

most

numerous

on

t he

e astern

end o f t he Tabular H i l ls, l ess s o i n t he c entra l a nd western s ectors; t hey a re f ound on t he n orthern bou lder c lay a rea, a nd t here i s t he one examp le o f Great Ayton Moor i n C leve land. Desp ite t he ir p overty o f e v idence and d ating , t hey s uff ice t o c onf irm s ett led Neo l ith ic l i fe i n t hese a reas. L ike t he r ound barrows o f t he Bronze Age, s ome l ong b arrows must h ave b een destroyed i n t he medieva l p lough iands n ear t he v i l lages, a s s hown f or e xamp le by s evera l Langhows among medieva l f ie ld n ames. The

pottery

most

c lear ly

a ssoc iated

w ith

p er iod i s t he undecorated Gr imston ware 3 ,500-2,250 b .c. but p ers ists t o t he e nd o f

t he

e ar ly

Neo l ith ic

wh ich s pans ma in ly t he Neo l ith ic p er iod

t he P eterborough decorated ware 3 ,000-1,600 b .c. a lso o ver laps both t he e ar ly and l ate Neo l ith ic. The Gr imston ware f inds i n t he a rea a re l i sted i n Tab le 8 . Three o f t he f inds, f rom Pock ley, I rton and Amp leforth , a re f rom be low r ound b arrows , f ound i n t he l ast s tages o f e xcavation on t he o ld l and s urface o r i n p its a nd d itches be low wh ich

i t . They s eem t o b e unconnected w ith t he were o f l ater d ates, and p robab ly a re

barrow r itua ls t he r e l ics o f

o ccupation s ites. They a ppear t herefore t o r epresent l ong-l ived s ett lement a reas, and s how t hat s ome b arrows a t l east were c onstructed on o r near t he e ar l ier dwe l l ing s ites. Two f urther c o l lect ions o f Gr imston ware c ome f rom t he f orecourt a reas a t Ayton East F ie ld and S treet House , a nd a ppear t o be r e l ics o f t he r itua l p roceedings. Neo l ith ic

f l ints

h ave

been

f ound

o n

a number

o f

Meso l ith ic

s ites, unfortunate ly not i n a s tratif ied c ontext. L eaf-shaped a rrowheads h ave o ccurred on a l l t ypes o f l ate Meso l ith ic s i tes o n t he l owland s ite a t Up leatham, on t he l arge moor land s ites a t Mau ley Cross and Wh ite G il l , a nd a t t he i so lated s ites a t Ouseg i l l -

Head

and

Peat

Moss

( see

Table

aggregation/ d ispers ion p attern i n i ts e ntirety , i nsofar a s we

5 ).

Th is e vidence i mp l ies t hat t he

o f t he Meso l ith ic c ulture know i t a t p resent, i nto

c ontinued t he e ar ly

Neo l ith ic p er iod, i ndeed, a s we s hal l s ee , unti l t he e nd o f t he Neo l ith ic i n about 1 ,700 b .c. Manby ( pers. c omm.) makes t he f urther po int t hat t he c haracter ist ic e ar ly Neo l ith ic work ing t oo ls s uch

o n

t he

Tabu lar H i l ls; t he Neo l ithic f l int t echno logy a ssoc iated w ith Meso lith ic s ites i s c oncerned, i t a ppears , a lmost e ntire ly w ith

a s

l aure l

l eaf

b lades

and

s ick les

a re

c oncentrated

t he t he

a rrowheads. The

r ema ins

o f

t he

e ar ly

Neo l ith ic

p er iod

t herefore

c ompr ise

one s er ies c oncentrated ma in ly on t he more f ert i le l imestone s o i ls i ndicating p ermanent s ett lement; t hey a re t he l ong barrows a nd t he very f ew pottery s ites t ogether w ith t he many po l ished a xes. These s eem t o b e a lmost e ntire ly d ivorced f rom t he p receding Meso l ith ic cu lture and t hey a re ma in ly o n t erra in we l l s u ited t o s ett led m ixed f arming. None o f t he l ong b arrows h as y ie lded m icro liths. K i lham Long Barrow o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds p roduced l ate Meso l ith ic m icro l iths f rom p its be low t he o ld l and s urface, f rom an e ntire ly d ifferent e nv ironment f rom t hat o f t he Neo l ith ic f l ints (Manby , 1 976). A lfred 's Cave , a sma l l l imestone c ave n ear Ebberston, produced m icro l iths a nd sma l l s herds o f Gr imston ware , but t he s tratigraphy o f t he c ave d epos its i s n ot c lear ( Lamplough

1 25

and

L idster ,

1 959).

On

t he

o ther

h and

we f ind

Neo l ith ic f l ints on

t he h igh moors on t he Meso l ith ic hunting s tations a nd b oth f l ints and axes on t he l owland Meso l ith ic s ites, p articu lar ly Barnaby o n t he Eston H i l ls, a nd Seamer Carr a t Scarborough. But t here i s a not iceable absence o f Neo l ith ic p ottery f rom t he up land a nd l ow land f l int s ites. I t c ontinued, but

a ppears t hat t he aggregation/ d ispers ion p attern t he p artic ipants on ly a dopted t hose a spects o f t he

Neo lith ic t echno log ies c onnected w ith hunting. We s eem t herefore t o s ee t hree l i fe-sty les i n t he Neo l ithic. There was t he s ett led m ixed Neo l ith ic f arming o n t he l imestone h i l ls. As t here i s l i tt le e v idence o f c erea l c ulture i n t he many p o l len ana lyses f rom t he n orth o f t he a rea, one must t h ink t here o f a p redominant ly p astora l f arming p attern. And p eop le both f rom t he north o f t he a rea a nd t he s outh s eemed t o c ontinue i n t he t raditiona l Meso l ith ic s easona l m igrations, apparent ly l i tt le a ffected by t he Neo l ithic t echno logy a nd s ett led e conomy. I t i s worthwh i le t o c ons ider whether t he d ef in it ion o f t hese t hree s ubsistence p atterns t hrows any l ight o n t he method o f t ransfer o f Neo l ith ic l i fe t o t he Br it ish I s les g enera l ly. I n s p ite o f i ncreas ing hypotheses, c ons iderab le

s ceptic ism among a rchaeo log ists a bout i nvas ion i t d oes s eem n ecessary t o p ostu late t he movement o f numbers o f p eop le f rom c ontinenta l Europe t o e xp la in

our i nsu lar Neo l ith ic a rchaeo logy. There a re t hree ma in r easons f or t h is. F irst ly , t he f act t hat Neo l ith ic s ett lement o ccurred a lmost s imu ltaneous ly

t hroughout

t he

i s lands

i n

a bout

3 ,500

b .c.

a rgues

aga inst a s low d iffus ion mechanism ( Simpson , 1 979). S econdly , t hat s ome o f t he e ar liest Neo l ith ic s ett lements h ad a f u l ly mature a nd non - e xper imenta l m ixed f arming e conomy makes i t h igh ly l ike ly t hat t he s ystem was i ntroduced by s ett lers f rom Neo lith ic Europe 1 969). And f inal ly , t echno log ies being numbers o f people,

( Case ,

t hough i t i s p oss ib le t o c once ive o f who le n ew t ransferred w ithout t he movement o f l arge t he i ntroduction o f a very d ifferent l i fe-sty le

i nvo lv ing not on ly changes o f t echnica l a nd s ubs istence methods , but a lso t hose o f s oc ial a nd r e lig ious l i fe c ou ld h ard ly t ake p lace quick ly w ithout movement o f c omp lete and f a ir ly l arge s oc ia l un its. That

t he

Neo l ith ic

s ett lers

e stab l ished

m ixed

f arming

i n

t he

f avourable l imestone a reas a nd p astora l ism i n t he more d iff icult bou lder c lay a reas ( where c ereal c u lture i s b e low t he l imits o f p a lyno log ica l d etection) need h ard ly s urpr ise u s, f or Neo l ith ic f arming

was

p atchy

t hroughout

c ontinenta l

Europe

1 980). What a lso s eems t o h ave h appened i s g atherers c ontinued t he ir s easona l s ett lement

( e.g.

Ph i l lips ,

t hat t he hunterp attern m igrating

between t he l owland and t he h i l ls, a dopting t he Neo l ith ic f l int a rrowhead s ty le, but a pparently l i tt le e lse , o r a t l east l i tt le wh ich h as s urvived on t he a rchaeo log ical s ites. The e v idence f rom North Yorksh ire t herefore s upports t he i dea o f s ubstantia l i mmigrant g roups l iving a d ifferent l i fe f rom t he s urv iv ing Meso l ith ic g roups , and t o j udge f rom t he numbers o f s i tes c onnected w ith s easona l m igrat ion and t hose i mp ly ing p ermanent s ett lement, o ne m ight guess ( rather w i ld ly p erhaps) t hat t he numbers o f s easona l m igrants and o f s ett led f armers were o f t he s ame o rder o f magn itude.

1 26

4 .2

THE LATE NEOLITHIC / EARLIEST BRONZE AGE ( 2 ,500-1,700 b .c.)

Br itish p reh istor ians c urrent ly d iv ide t he e ar ly Neo l ith ic f rom t he l ater a t 2 ,500 b .c., b e ing t he a pprox imate t ime a t wh ich t he g reat l ong b arrows a nd c ausewayed e nc losures c eased t o b e bu i lt, a nd r ound b arrows a nd h enge monuments c ame i nto v ogue. I t wou ld s eem t o b e a t ime o f s oc ia l a nd r itua l r e-or ientat ion. Wh itt le ( 1978) a nd Brad ley ( 1978) h ave r ecent ly p o inted t o a n umber o f f orest r egenerations a t a bout t h is t ime o n t erra in wh ich h ad b een o ccup ied f or c ons iderab le p er iods by c erea l a gr icu lture a nd p asture , a nd Brad ley s uggests t hat t h is may b e i n a g enera l way r e lated t o t he d ec l ine o f t he bu i lding o f e nc losures a nd l ong b arrows , r ef lecting a l ess i ntens ive l and u se i n t he l ater Neo l ith ic. The p a laeobotan ica l e v idence f or t he r egenerat ion phases i s d rawn ma in ly f rom I re land a nd Western Eng land, a nd i t i s t herefore appropr iate t o r ev iew e v idence f rom Northeast Yorksh ire . Unfortunate ly , i t i s v ery t h in. We h ave n o p o l len a na lys is f or t he l ate Neo l ith ic i n o r n ear t he Tabu lar H i l ls , t he S tar Carr s ect ions t erminating a t t he a lder i ncrease i n t he e ar ly . Neo l ith ic. And we h ave n o l ong-term c learances f or t he e ar ly Neo l ith ic i n t he many a na lyses f or t he s andstone moor lands. To b e s ure , t here a re r egenerat ion phases o n t he moors , s uch a s a t Co l l ier G i l l 1 936±79 b .c. ( BM 4 28), but t hese a re r e-afforestat ions o f s ma l l t emporary c learances and n ot t o b e t aken a s e v idence o f ma jor c hanges o f s ubs istence s trategy. I f t here was e xcess ive p ressure o n t he r esources o f t he d ense ly o ccup ied Yorksh ire Wo lds by 2 ,500 b .c., t hen we wou ld e xpect t o f ind p a laeobotan ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idences o f a n o utward movement i nto t he North Yorksh ire Moors i n t he l ater Neo l ith ic p er iod f rom t h is d ate o nward. We h ave l i tt le s uch e vidences a t p resent; t he p a laeobotan ica l e v idence f or t he s andstone moors i s f or t he c ontinuation o f t emporary c learances i n t he l ate Neo l ith ic , w ith a m inor i ntroduct ion o f c erea l g row ing. Not unti l t he Ear ly Bronze Age i s t here e v idence f or a ma jor i ncrease i n p ressure i n t he Moors. The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he l ate Neo l ith ic , r ev iewed b e low, a par t f rom t he c essat ion o f t he l ong b arrows , n eed n ot b e i nterpreted i n a ny way o ther t han p rogress ive c u ltura l a nd e conomic d eve lopment. The numerous c orded b eakers f rom t he Ryeda le W indyp its m ight h owever b e t aken a s e v idence o f i ncreased s ett lement i n t he d a les i n t he l ate Neo l ith ic p er iod ( see b e low). The Wh itt le/Brad ley hypothes is d oes n ot t herefore f ind much s upport f rom n ortheast Yorksh ire , but f uture d eve lopments s uch a s r ad iocarbon d ates f or t he moor land c a irnf ie lds a nd f or t he p a laeobotan ica l d ata c ou ld a lter t h is p os it ion. The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he l ater Neo l ith ic p er iod c ompr ises t hat o f p ottery f inds , f unerary a nd r i tua l s i tes , l a te Neo l ith ic f l int t ypes a nd t he f lat b ronze a xes a nd d aggers wh ich a ppear c ontemporary w ith t he b eakers l ate i n t he p er iod. They a re l i sted i n Tab les 9 -14 a nd p lotted o n F igs.25-30. The Neo l ith ic s tone a xes , many o f wh ich a re f rom t he l ater p er iod , h ave a lready b een r eviewed.

1 27

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( AFTER W .PEARSON)

GR I D REFERENCE NO NZ 6 39 109

F ig.27. The s tone c irc le a t S ledda le ( after W . P earson).

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( AFTER R .H .HAYES )

GR ID R EFERENCE NO . S E 6 66927

F ig.28. The s tone c irc le a t Har land Moor ( after R . H.

1 30

Hayes).

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Ca irnf ie lds v ary c ons iderab ly i n s ize. S ome c onta in o n ly h al f a d ozen c a irns , a s o n Sn i lesworth Moor , o thers s uch a s t he f amous s ites a t Danby R igg , Crown End a nd I ron Howe h ave hundreds. Few h ave b een f u l ly s urveyed , t hough E lgee ( 1930) g ives p lans f or Danby R igg , Crown End a nd t he S ledda le a rea , a nd Hayes ( 1963) p rov ides a n e xce l lent s urvey o f I ron Howe , wh ich i s r eproduced a s F ig.38. Hayes ' s urvey o f Bumper Moor , h itherto unpub l ished, i s g iven a s F ig.39, a nd t he i nterest ing Near Moor s ystem a s F igs.40 and 4 1. The c a irnf ie lds do n ot s eem t o b e s i tes o f p ermanent s ett lement, f or hut c irc les a re r are ly f ound o n t hem, t wo a t I ron Howe wh ich a re w ithout h earths a nd m ight b e byres , o ne a t Thompson 's R igg a nd s evera l p oss ib le h ut p latforms a t Crown End. Absence o f p ermanent s ett lement i s c orroborated by t he p auc ity o f f inds; bronzes, s tone axes , a xe h ammers , b att le a xes a re a l l a bsent, t here a re f ew querns a nd r ock c arv ings a nd n ot many f l int a r tefacts. Hayes ( 1963) c omments , " The p eop le who o ccup ied t hese s ett lements a t i nterva ls p robab ly l ived i n more s he ltered p laces i n t he c rags o r d a les ides." Ne ither d oes t here s eem t o b e much f unerary a ct iv ity r e lated t o t he c a irnf ie lds. Many p eop le h ave e xcavated t he s ma l l c a irns a nd f ound n oth ing o ther t han c harcoa l , t hough t h is d oes n ot d isprove i nhumat ion. Very s e ldom h as t here been p os it ive e v idence , h owever ; Ashbee ( 1957) f ound a c ist beneath a s ma ll c a irn o n K i lda le Moor , a nd t here were c up-andr ing s tones, p resumab ly i nd icating s ome r itua l a ssoc iation , i n a sma l l c a irn o n Near Moor . Not

i nfrequent ly

t he

c a irn

s tones

a re

p i led

a ga inst

a n

e arthfast bou lder a nd i n v iew o f t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he c a irns w ith f ie ld wa l ls a nd l ynchets , i t s eems most l ike ly t hat t he ir ma jor purpose was f or f ie ld c learance. I ndeed i t i s o ften p oss ib le t o s ee d iscrete a reas c omp lete ly c leared o f b ou lders , a s s hown o n Near Moor ( Fig-40). We must t herefore i nterpret t he c a irnf ie lds a s f ie ld s ystems , n ot p ermanent ly o ccup ied. S ome o f t he c a irnf ie lds, p art icu lar ly t hose o n i nterf luv ia l s purs , a re d e l im ited by l inear e arthworks; e xamp les a re Danby R igg , Crown End a nd W i l l iam Howe ( Gla isda le). These c ross-r idge dykes a re t err itor ia l boundar ies a ppropr iate t o s pur t erra in , a nd w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he n ext c hapter; but a s t hey d o n ot i nteract w ith t he c a irns t he ir r e lative d ate i s uncerta in. The f arm ing o n t he c a irnf ie lds s eems t o h ave b een a m ixture o f a rab le a nd p astora l. The e v idence f or a rab le i s o f t he l ynchets , f requent ly o bserved i n c a irnf ie lds o n s lop ing g round , a s a t Near Moor a nd Har land Moor , a nd t he f a ir ly r egu lar l ayout o f s ome o f t he f ie ld wa l ls , e spec ia l ly marked o n s ome o f t he l arger c a irnf ie lds. Pastora l a ct iv ity i s i nd icated by t he d eep h o l low ways wh ich a re f ound a lmost i nvar iab ly l ink ing t he c a irnf ie lds t o t he n e ighbour ing va l ley a nd o ccas iona l ly , a s a t Near Moor , by p astora l e nc losures. The m ixed n ature o f t he f arm ing a t t h is t ime i s c onf irmed by t he p o l len a na lyses a nd h as b een d iscussed i n Chapter 2 . Ca irnf ie lds v ary b oth i n t he ir s izes a nd i n t he ir p roport ions o f wa l l ing t o c a irns ; t he Whee lda le Moor c a irnf ie ld c ons ists e nt ire ly o f c a irns , but Near Moor f or e xamp le h as f ew c a irns, but a n e laborate a nd e xtens ive wa l l s ystem. Presumab ly t he e ar ly a ct iv ity

1 51

F ig.38.

Ca irnf ie ld a t I ron Howe ( after R .H.

1 52

Hayes).

1 00

2 00 METRES

CA IRNS

R ING CA IRN

S

.

S

S

S .

T UMBLED WALLS -

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•

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S

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S S S

S

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BU MPER

F ig.39.

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CASTLE

Ca irnf ie ld a t Bumper Moor ( after R . H.

1 53

Hayes).

P lant a t , on

.

Lync S ets

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rry

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GR ID R EFERENCE NO

F ig.40.

AREAS -

SE474999

Ca irnf ie ld a t Near Moor ( after R .

1 54

-

I nman).

RES

0

O r t h o s t a i c e n c l o s u r e a t N e a r M o r ( a f t e r R . E G o d a r d ) ,

(0

L i 13 nI

a

1 55

c

0 0 0 0

0 0

B

0

0 0

00

I

dur ing wood land c learance was f ree-range p astora l ism, f or p o l len ana lyses s how t hat wood land c learance was i n p rogress l ong b efore t he a ppearance o f c erea l p o llen i n d etectab le amounts. F ie ld wa l ls wou ld b e n eeded when a rab le a ct iv ity s tarted , t o p ro tect t he c rops. Once t he s o i l h ad s tar ted t o e rode , e xpos ing t he b roken r ocky s ub-so i l , t here wou ld b e a l arge a mount o f s tone t o c lear , a nd bu i lding o f c a irns wou ld s tar t. As p lough a gr icu lture b ecame i ncreas ing ly i mposs ib le, f ie lds went o ut o f u se a nd we f ind, a s a t I ron Howe a nd Crown End, l arge c a irns i n t he m iddle o f s ma l l f ie lds , a nd a t Near Moor f or e xamp le o ne a rea h as b een k ept c lear by t hrow ing s tone h aphazard ly i nto a n e ighbour ing s ma l l f ie ld. The c a irnf ie lds a s we s ee t hem t oday a re a s t hey were l eft a t t he p o int o f f a i lure , t o b e f o l lowed by c entur ies o f f urther e ros ion , s o t hat many n ow s tand o n v ery b are r ocky t erra in. And o f c ourse s ome , e spec ia l ly t hose n ear r oads a nd t racks , h ave b een r obbed o ut , a s a t Cast leton R igg a nd W i l l iam Howe , mak ing t he ir i nterpretat ion i mposs ib le. S ome c a irnf ie lds a re h owever i n e xce l lent s tates o f p reservation, a nd i n s ome , e spec ia l ly when t he h eather i s b urnt , i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee t he s uccess ion o f s tone c learance o perat ions. Th is i s p articu lar ly we l l s een o n t he Near Moor p lan ( F ig .40), when b ou lders were u sed t o t hrown a s ide a t r andom.

c onstruct

wa l ls a nd

c a irns,

a nd l a ter

A ma jor p rob lem i s t he d ate s pan o f t he c a irnf ie lds. We m ight b e t empted t o a ssoc iate t hem w ith t he e ar l iest c erea l p o l len i n t he p a laeobotan ica l r ecord , but t hen we d o n o t know u nequ ivoca l ly t he

o r ig in o f t he c erea l p o l len . I t m ight b e a rgued , h owever , t ha t t hey a re n o t e ar l ier t han t he f i rs t a ppearance o f c erea l p o l len , t hat i s o n t he s ands tone m oor land d ur ing t he E ar ly B ronze Age . An E ar ly B ronze Age d ate i s a lso i nd icated b y c up-and-r ing s tones i n t he s tructure o f t he f i e ld w a l l a t N ear M oor , where a l arge r ound b arrow i s a lso i n tegrated i nto t he f i e ld w a l l . M os t o ther d a t ing e v idence i s b y a ssoc iat ion w ith r ing c a irns ( Tab le 1 7) a nd w i th r ound b arrows wh ich h ave p roduced t he E ar ly B ronze Age p o ttery , a s a t D anby R igg ( Lamp lough a nd B aker , 1 955; A tk inson , 1 863). E lgee 's ( 1930) c onc lus ion t hat t hese f i e ld m onuments h ave E ar ly B ronze Age o r ig ins h as t herefore b een s treng thened b y t he l a ter e v idence r ather t han w eakened . But t here i s n o d oubt t ha t a c t iv i ty c on t inued i nto t he I ron Age o n a t l e as t t wo o f t he m a jor c a irnf ie lds. The s tone e nc losure w a l ls a t C rown E nd h ave p roduced f urnace s lags o f I ron Age t ype ( Harbord a nd S pra tt , 1 975), wh i le o n Grea t Ayton M oor a s im i lar e nc losure n ear t he c a irnf ie ld w as b u i l t a bout 3 00 b .c . i n g rass land t erra in a nd s howed e v idence o f m ixed f arm ing i n t he l a te I ron Age ( T ink ler a nd S pra tt , 1 978). THE

VALLEY SETTLE MENTS

S ett lements h ave n o t o ften s urv ived i n t he d a les o f t he Nor th Yorksh ire Moors. One f actor i s t hat i n many o f t hem t he r ivers h ave e roded t hrough t he Jurass ic s andstone i nto t he l ower s ha les, wh ich h as r esu lted i n w ide a nd f ert i le f arm land i n t he d a le b ottoms , i n wh ich e ar ly s ett lements h ave b een o b l iterated by c entur ies o f p lough ing. Another f actor i s t he e xtent t o wh ich s o i l h as b een washed f rom t he h i l ls t o s ett le i n t he v a l leys. There a re s uff ic ient c asua l f inds i n t he d a les o f Neo l ith ic a xes , Bronze Age a r tefacts a nd I ron Age b eeh ive querns t o s how t hat t here c erta in ly

1 56

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1 57

U n i v e r s i t y a n d W E A

.

S

was p reh istor ic s ett lement i n t hem, a nd t hat i t c ou ld b e qu ite c ons iderab le i s s hown by t he l arge number o f p reh istor ic a rtefacts f ound i n t he w indyp its ( l imestone f issures) i n t he Rye Va l ley a bove He lms ley ( Hayes , 1 963). The s urv iv ing p reh istor ic v a l ley s i tes a re o ften f ound i n t he e xtreme h eads o f t he d a les. O f t hose g iven i n Tab le 1 9, S ledda le , North I ngs, Baysda le , Prodda le , Wheat Beck a nd Haze lshaw a re a l l n ear t he v a l ley h eads. The most p ro l if ic a rea f or v a l ley s ett lements i s i n t he Sn i leswor th-Hawnby a rea a nd t he l ast s even o f t he t we lve l i sted i n Tab le 1 9 a re f rom t h is a rea. The r eason f or t he ir s urv iva l i s t hat i n t h is p art o f t he moors , t he r iver h as n ot c ut i nto t he l ower s ha les, s o t hat t he l ess f erti le s andstone t erra in e xtends t o t he r ivers ide i tse lf , a nd t he v a l ley s ett lements h ave o n t he who le b een s ub ject t o l ess a gr icu ltura l d isturbance. The b est p reserved o f t hese i s a t Wheat Beck , wh ich s eems t o c ompr ise a c omp lete , t hough c omp lex a nd mu lt i-per iod, m ixed f arming s ett lement w ith a r ound hut, e nc losures , l ong f ie ld wa l ls , c learance c a irns a nd t umu l i . A p re l iminary s urvey i s s hown a s F ig.42. The d ates o f t hese v a l ley s ett lements a re n ot we l l e stab l ished. Morpho log ica l ly t hey c lose ly r esemb le t he c a irnf ie lds , a nd B i t Wheat Beck t here a re d oub le- o r th os tatic e nc losures o f s im i lar c onstruct ion t o t he e nc losure a t Near Moor , a nd t he r ound hut a nd s ma l l f i e lds h ere a lso i nd icate a p reh istor ic d ate. A f lat quern o f RomanoBr it ish t ype h as b een f ound i n t he Wheat Beck s i te , s o o ne must s uppose t hat t h is s i te i s c ontemporary w ith t he c a irnf ie lds b ut p ers isted a fter t hem. S ett lement h as o f c ourse c ont inued i n t he d a les unt i l t he p resent t ime a nd e ven i n t he r emo te v a l ley h eads unt i l t he 1 950s. A MODEL OF THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN

EARLY

BRONZE

AGE

ECONOMY

AND

For tunate ly t here e x ists i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he moors an a rea i n wh ich t he Bronze Age r ema ins a re s o c omp lete ly p reserved t hat i t i s p oss ib le t o r econstruct w ith s ome d egree o f a ssurance t he t err itor ia l p attern o f s ett lements a nd b oundar ies. Th is a rea i s t he t r iang le b ounded by t he r iver S eph o n t he e ast , wh ich r uns t hrough B i lsda le , t he upper Rye v a l ley o n t he s outhwest a nd t he n orthwest s carp o f t he b i l ls f rom Osmo ther ley t o t he h ead o f B i lsda le. I t i s s hown o n F ig.43 wh ich a lso g ives t he r ound b arrows , t he c a irnf ie lds a nd t he v a l ley s ett lements , t hem r e lat ive ly numerous a nd we l l-preserved i n t h is a rea.

a l l

o f

The e v idence g iven i n Chapter 2 f or t he e ar ly Bronze Age e conomy i s o f m ixed f arm ing , w ith a l arge e lement o f h i l l p astora l ism, w ith c onsequent d estruct ion o f p ar ts o f t he h i l l f orest r esu lt ing i n t urn i n p odso l isat ion a nd e ros ion o f p atches o f b i l l s o i ls, wh ich undoubted ly t ook p lace i n s ome p ar ts b efore t he c onstruct ion o f t he r ound b arrows ( D imb leby , 1 962). I n t he f ace o f t he r ise i n p opu lat ion wh ich may we l l h ave a ccompan ied t he i n it ia l e xpans ion o f a ct iv ity o n t he h i l ls a nd t he s ubsequent d ec l ine i n t he ir f erti lity , s ome k ind o f t err itor ia l o rgan isat ion wou ld s eem t o h ave b een n ecessary. We h ave d iscussed i ndicat ions o f t he u se o f watersheds boundar ies b efore t he Bronze Age a nd

1 58

i n p rev ious c hapters t he a s meet ing p laces a nd t hese wou ld b e n atura l

/

N

7

} )

••

Car lton

Moor

L ive Moor

(• C O

•

0

/

o

C /

•

/

•

Near

Moor

0

Whor ltcr r

Moor

A

• A rnsg i l A

Osmo ther ley

Sn iles worth

1 'OO

f

0

R idge

Moor

0

T h ln lb leby

Cow

Moor

P ar c

R idge

0

G i l l

0 I ron Wheat

Beck

0

Howe

P ry Wood A •

•

0

A Haze I shaw

I

H awn b y I-c

Moor \A

Heads

/

0

Bu mper

\ \

Moor

/

/

1

/

I

II

t A l 5/

k rv is

0

0

c a ir ‚ la nd

A

v a l ley

s i te

/

5

S

r ound

barro w

A

s tone

e nc losure

U

s quare

b arrow

F ig.43. Preh istor ic s ites i n t he Sn i leswor th a rea.

1 59

h l i lo,

boundar ies e conomy.

f or

any

These

g roups

were

w ith

now

a l arge

marked

p astora l

w ith

r ound

e lement

i n

t he ir

b arrows

i n

l ines

a long t he watershed, c onta in ing , a s h as been d iscussed, t he c o l lared urn c remations o f t he l oca l l eaders, a pparent ly o f s imi lar s tatus. Further , t he s treams and r ivers n ot o n ly f orm c lear boundar ies; i t was abso lute ly necessary t o s hare t heir waters i f t here was t o b e an e ff ic ient p astora lism. They wou ld b e v ita l a s boundary

f eatures,

and

a re

i ncorporated

i nto

o ther

p reh istor ic

boundary s ystems s uch a s t he Dartmoor r eaves ( F leming , 1 978) and t he C leave Dyke ( Chap.5.2). F ig.44 s hows t he watersheds a nd r ivers a s boundar ies, and i t i s s een t hat t hey d iv ide t he t erra in i nto s eparate t err itor ies, e ach, a s i t h appens, w ith a bout 8 s quare k ilometres o f g raz ing l and, e ach w ith a ccess t o t he v a l leys a nd s treams, and e ach w ith a c airnf ie ld. An i dea lised mode l o f t h is system i s s hown on F ig.45. We h ave a lready d iscussed h ow t he permanent s ett lements o f t he Bronze Age were e ssent ia l ly o n t he l owland, and t hat t he c airnf ie lds were n ot p ermanent ly o ccup ied f arms,

s o

t hat

i t

s eems

' shie lings ', t hat i s, t he warmer months

r easonable

s easona l ( Spratt ,

t o

t h ink

o f

t he

c a irnf ie lds

a s

f arms u sed f or a rable a nd p asture i n 1 981). l t i s worth n otic ing i n p ass ing

t hat t hese p roposed Bronze Age boundar ies a re s tr ik ing ly s imi lar t o t he modern t ownsh ip boundar ies wh ich r un a long t he watersheds and s treams ( Fig.46). I n f act where t he modern boundar ies d iverge f rom t he e ar lier ones , i t c an b e s hown t hat c hanges t ook p lace i n h istor ic t imes ( Spratt , 1 981). Watershed and s tream boundar ies s ubstantial wh ich s eems t he

a re

appropr iate

t o

p astora l a ct ivity.

s urvive t o h ave n ames

any

I t i s

p er iod

i n t he a rea a re a lmost been more i mportant t o

o f

boundary

i n

wh ich

s ignif icant t hat

f eatures

t he

t here

was

Ce ltic n ames

a l l o f r ivers and h i l ls. I t e ar ly p eop le t o h and d own

r ather

t han

t hose

o f

t he

s ett lements wh ich may h ave b een l ess p ermanent. Th is t err itor ial p attern i s r ead ily i dentif iable o n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he moors , but i t c an b e s een t o e xtend over t he who le s andstone a rea , i f i n a more f ragmentary way. The watershed barrows , s hown i n F ig.47, a re a f eature o f t he c entra l moor lands, and t he c a irnf ie lds l i e c haracter istical ly o n t he s purs o r o n t he p er iphery

o f

t he

h i l ls.

c airnfie lds i s apparent F ig.47, but i t b ecomes i nferti le moor lands a t 3 70-400 metres,

o f t o

The

s ame

r e lation

n ear t he o ther l ess d ef in ite a s

t he t he

o f

t he

b arrows

a nd

b arrow l ines s hown o n we move f rom t he h igh

n orthwest, where t he watershed s tands s outh e ast a bove Harwood Da le where i t

i s a t 2 30 metres. This may b e due t o t he g reater d estruction o f t he p reh istor ic monuments a t l ower a ltitudes, o r b ecause, a s s hown by Atherden 's ( p.81) work, t he i ntens ity o f Bronze Age c learance and agr iculture was n ot un iform a cross t he s andstone moor lands. CONCLUSION The

e conomy o f

t he e ar ly Bronze Age t herefore appears t o b e

s omewhat d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he p receding p er iod. The Neo lith ic p attern was o f l owland s ett lement a nd s easona l movement on t he wooded h i l ls f or p astora l ism, hunting , r itual a nd s ocial g ather ings. p attern o f s easonal

The e ar ly p ermanent

m ixed

Bronze Age s ett lement,

f arming

f armers, r eta in ing t he l owland u sed t he s andstone h i l ls f or

s h ie lings,

1 60

i ntens if ied

t he ir

p astora l ism

••

0

\ \ 0

-

R SH E D

N

• N

I i

N

1

/

I

\

I

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•

I

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1 1

J

\

• .

‚-

0

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/

J t\ \

O

\

/

0

/

/

/

\

\ /

•

‚ I ( I ( I ( I / 1

/.

/ ) 0

F ig.44. Proposed Bronze Age boundar ies i n t he Sn i leswor th a rea.

1 61

A

up land

u p land

v a l ley b ottom

• r ound

F ig.45.

A

b arrow

Mode l

Yorksh ire.

o f

c a irnf ie td

Bronze

Age

EJ va l ley

.

s i te

/ / / / h o l low way

t err itor ia l o rgan isation i n

n or theast

-

I

-

CA R LT O N

/

I

- -

•• --

-

•

-

•

•

/

/

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\ \

N

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\ BI L S OAL E

MI O CA BL E

W H ORLT ON

‚ -N

•5 5

S.

-

-

-

-

--

5

- --

/. ' S

-

•

5

/

/

S

/

\

-

/

OS M OTHERLEY

N

-

S

/ I

\

/

/

S

THI M BLE BY

/

I

/

ILES W O R T H

/

/

'5 -

• .

I

.

V\ y

I B I L S D A L Ei AR C E N

W EST

I

/

I ')

I

• 1 / 5

-

j l

/ I/ 1

\ / 7

5

0

/ 7

S I DE

km ,

F ig.46.

Modern t ownship boundar ies i n t he Sn i leswor th a rea.

1 63

1 64

w ide ly

a cross

t he

h il l

f orests ,

a nd ,

a s

t he

f orest

c ont inued

t o

d ec l ine , marked o ut t heir t err itor ies w ith c remat ion b arrows o n t he watersheds, where r itua l , a nd p oss ib ly s oc ia l , a ct iv it ies s t i l l c ontinued. Unfortunate ly t h is p ressure o n t he f rag i le e co logy o f t he h i l ls s et i n t ra in i rrevers ible e nv ironmenta l , p art icu lar ly p edo log ica l , c hanges wh ich r endered t he ir e conomy unstab le. F rom t h is p er iod we s ee i n s ome p o l len a na lyses a n i ncrease o f h eath vegetat ion t o a n e xtent f rom wh ich i t u sua l ly d id n ot s ubsequent ly r etreat. I n s ome a reas , t hen ; t he h i l l s o i ls h ad b ecome p odso l ised, a nd f ert il ity h ad c atastroph ica l ly d ec l ined , b eyond r eca l l. We h ave s een f rom t he e v idence o f t he r ound b arrows t hat t he s oc ia l O rgan isat ion a t t h is t ime i s o ne i n wh ich t he l oca l l eaders a re t he i mportant f igures. They a re c ommemorated i n c remat ions o f e qua l s tatus i n t he b arrows , a nd e v idence o f h igher s tatus bur ia ls i s qu ite e xceptiona l . And t he d educt ion f rom l andscape a na lys is i s o f t he d iv is ion o f t he t err itory i nto ' estates ' o f e qu iva lent t ype , by n atura l a nd r itua l b oundar ies. The s oc iety s eems t o b e n ot much d eve loped f rom t he a nthropo log ist Marsha l l S ah l ins ' ( 1968) d ef in it ion o f a ' segmentary t r ibe '. S ah l ins d oes n ot d iv ide t r ibes r ig id ly i nto c lasses a ccord ing t o t he ir s oc ia l o rgan isat ion; but s ees a c ont inuous r ange f rom ' segmentary ' t o ' ch iefdom ' t ypes. " At t he underdeve loped e nd o f t he s pectrum, b are ly c onst itut ing a n a dvance o ver hunters , s tand t r ibes s oc ia l ly a nd p o l it ica l ly f ragmented and i n t he ir e conom ies und ivers if ied a nd modest ly e ndowed." S ah l ins f urther d escr ibes t he t err itor ia l o rgan isat ion o f a ' segmentary ' t r ibe wh ich s eems s ingu lar ly p ert inent t o t he Ear ly Bronze Age s ituat ion o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors: " The e conomy o f t he s egmentary t r ibe i s a s a tom ist ic a s t he p o l it ica l s ystem. Product ion i s g enera l ly sma l l-sca le , w ith e nough manpower a va i lab le i n t he v i l lages , n ot t o s ay t he f am i ly , f or ma in t asks o f l ive l ihood. Bes ides, a s e ach c ommun ity p roduces t he s ame t h ings , n one i s s ubstant ia l ly d ependent o n a nother f or s pec ia l ised p roducts. The t r iba l e conomy i s n o t i ntegrated by a l bca l ised d iv is ion o f l abour a nd t he e xchange o f c omp lementary g oods. The r e lat ion o f t he p r imary s egment t o t he t r ibal l andscape p roc la ims i ts i ndependence. The c ommun ity 's d oma in l i es a cross t he g ra in o f n atura l r esources , i ncorporat ing t he r ange o f e nv ironments t o wh ich t he t r iba l t echno logy i s c ustomar ily a dapted. The m in imum p o l it ica l g roup h o lds f arming l and o f d ifferent t ypes , p asturage , hunting t err itory whatever i s d eemed n ecessary f or a h uman ( tr iba l) e x istence. The l oca l e conomy i s t he t r iba l e conomy i n m in iature. Each g roup , e xp lo it ing l ike e nv ironmenta l o ppor tun it ies, -

underwr ites,

by i ts e co log ica l c omp leteness i ts p o l it ica l a utonomy."

We c ou ld s carce ly h ave a more a pt d escr ipt ion o f t he l oca l e ar ly Bronze Age o rgan isat ion , r evea led b oth by s tudy o f t he bur ia l r ema ins a nd o f t he t err itor ia l o rgan isat ion , a nd c onf irmed by t he a bsence o f i dent if iab le c entra l p laces w ith in t h is a rea, a nd t he p auc ity o f c entra l c eremon ia l s i tes. The e v idence f or s egmentary t r iba l o rgan isation t herefore s eems r easonab ly c onv inc ing. I f s o , t he s oc iety was i l l-organ ised t o c ope w ith t he d iff icu lt ies e ngendered by o ver-exp lo itation o f t he h i l l f orests. The i rretr ievab le d isaster o f p artia l , a nd f ina l ly t ota l d esert if icat ion o f t he h i l ls was a s much a s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l f a i lure a s a n atura l phenomenon , a f a i lure o f l ocal g roups t o a l ign t he ir i mmed iate

1 65

s e lf-interests w ith t he l ong-term s tab i l ity o f t he e co logy , t he e conomy o f t he who le s oc iety wh ich d epended upon i t .

a nd

o f

F ina l ly , we s hou ld c ons ider t he f act t hat t he e v idences f or a s egmentary t r iba l o rgan isation c ome f rom t he s andstone moor land, i nhosp itab le t erra in o f r e lat ive ly p oor f erti l ity a nd r ather r emo te f rom e xterna l i nf luences. I t i s i n marked c ontrast , f or e xamp le , w ith t he c ontemporary Wessex s oc iety , s i tuated i n a f ert i le c ountry and s ofter c l imate , w ith g ood c ommun ications , i n wh ich h ad a r isen a r ich h ierarch ica l s oc iety. Many wr iters ( e.g. G i lman , 1 981) h ave c ommented o n t he emergence o f s trat if ied European Bronze Age s oc iet ies o n t he r icher f arming a reas. We s hou ld n ot t h ink o f t he Nor th Yorksh ire Moors s ituation , t herefore , a s t yp ica l o f e ar ly Bronze Age o rgan isation g enera l ly , t hough i t may b e r epresentat ive o f t he l ess f ert i le , h i l ly p arts o f t he c ountry. A t a l l e vents , we s hou ld n o t s eek un iform ity o f o rgan isat ion o ver w ide , a gr icu ltura l ly h eterogeneous a reas , s ay b etween t he Yorksh ire Wo lds a nd t he North Yorksh ire Moors. Even i n t he s ma l l a rea o f t h is s tudy we s ee r epeated e v idences o f a wea lth ier s oc iety o n t he l imestone h i l ls t han o n t he s andstone a nd b ou lder c lay a reas o f t he n orth. There i s w itness o f t h is i n t he Ear ly Bronze Age, where t he d aggers and f lat b ronze a xes o f t he e ar l iest p ar t o f t he p er iod , a nd t he f langed a xes o f t he l ater p art, a re c oncentrated on t he l imestone a reas. Th is d ichotomy t ends t o b ecome e ven more p ronounced i n t he Late Bronze Age.

1 66

5 .2

THE LATE BRONZE AGE,

1 300-600 b .c.

The Late Bronze Age i s i n s evera l i mportant r espects a f ormat ive t ime o f t he l ater p reh istor ic p er iods n ot o n ly i n t h is a rea , but i n Br ita in, i ndeed i n Northern Europe a s a who le. Loca l ly a nd n at iona lly we s ee t he v irtua l c essation o f r ound b arrow c onstruct ion , a nd o f t he f ood v esse l a nd u rn r i tua ls. I n many a reas o f Eng land t hese r ites were r ep laced by c remat ion i n f lat c emeter ies , but t hese h ave not b een i dent if ied i n Northeast Yorksh ire. ( There i s a p oss ib le c and idate a t E l lerby , n ear t he c oast ( NZ 8 02150), but t h is m ight b e a p loughed-out b arrow g roup.) A l l we k now o f t he bur ia l r ites i s t he o ccas iona l d epos it ion o f c remat ions i n t he r ound b arrows w ith t he d ist inct ive g lobu lar and bucket- a nd b arre l-shaped u rns o f t he L ate Bronze Age. A s w ith t he p receding Neo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age p er iods , we h ave n o h ab itat ion s i te i dent if ied t o t h is p er iod, a nd t he s ett lement p attern must b e d educed f rom t he b ronze a r tefacts wh ich h ave b een d iscovered a s s poradic f inds. W ith r egard t o l andscape a rchaeo logy , t he c onstructions b oth o f a s t err itor ia l b oundary markers , a nd

mass ive l inear e arthworks o f f or ts a nd e nc losures ,

a ppear t o s tart i n t h is p er iod , a nd a re p erhaps a s r evea l ing o f t he s tate o f s oc iety a s s tud ies o f t he sma l ler a r tefacts. Data o n a l l t he a rchaeo log ica l a spects o f t h is p er iod h ave f or e astern Yorksh ire by Manby ( 1980).

b een r ecent ly a ssemb led

METAL ARTEFACT D ISTR IBUTION The

d istr ibut ions o f

t he l ate

Bronze Age meta l work i s g iven

i n Tab les 2 2 t o 2 7 a nd p lo tted o n F ig.48. The c hrono logy o f t hese a rtefacts , t aken f rom Burgess ( 1979), i s g iven i n t he Tab les , a nd i n d iagrammat ic f orm o n F ig . 1 . Dates o f t hese b ronzes a re g iven i n t he s pec ia l ist p apers i n c a lendar y ears , f or b e ing a lmost i nvar iab ly unassoc iated w ith o ther mater ia ls, t hey h ave b een d ated ma in ly by methods o ther t han r ad iocarbon d eterm inat ions. I n a g enera l r ev iew , h owever , i t i s n ecessary t hat t he d at ing o f b ronzes b e c ons istent w ith t he o ther a rtefact d ata a nd t he c a lendar y ears h ave b een c onverted t o r adiocarbon 0 l ife 5 568 y ears) y ears s imp ly t o k eep a un iform t ime s ca le. The f lat b ronze a xes a nd d aggers f ade f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a t a bout 1 450 b .c., a t wh ich t ime t he e ar l iest o f t he f langed a xes make t he ir a ppearance , t o c ont inue i nto t he L ate Bronze Age a s w ing-f langed a xes unti l a bout 1 050 b .c. P a istaves , o f wh ich we h ave r emarkab ly f ew e xamp les , a re f irst made a bout 1 300 b .c. a nd c ont inu ing unt i l a bout 6 50 b .c. The s ocketed a xe a ppears a bout 7 50 b .c. i n Yorksh ire f or a r ather s hor t s pan o f a bout 2 00 y ears. The l atter f orm p ar t o f a l l t he b ronze h oards o f t he d istr ict wh ich a re t hus d ated t o t he l ast p ar t o f t he L ate Bronze Age. Poss ib ly t hey were d epos ited f o l low ing t he c onvers ion o f t he meta l lurg ica l i ndustry f rom b ronze t o ma in ly i ron, but h oards v ary w ide ly i n c ompos it ion a nd d ifferent i nterpretat ions a re P oss ib le. The h oards i n n or theast Yorksh ire c ompr ise a r t ic les u sed f or many purposes ; d ecorative b ronzes s uch a s p ins , a rm lets a nd b race lets , m i l itary u ses r epresented by swords a nd s pearheads a nd u ti l itar ian a s a xes , c h ise ls , h ammers , kn ives a nd g ouges a s we l l a s t he

bronze-smith 's

work ing

mater ia ls

1 67

a s

s heet

meta l ,

i ngots

o f

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b ronze a nd

c ast ing

mou lds.

They

p rov ide a p icture o f

t he

b ronze

i ndustry s erv ing t he s oc iety a t v ar ious l eve ls o rnaments f or a p rosperous a nd p robab ly e l ite g roup, e qu ipment f or t he m i l itary , t oo ls f or t he work ing c raftsmen. S pearheads o f v ar ious t ypes i n t he d ate r ange 1 450-550 b .c. a re f ound f a ir ly w ide ly a s c asua l f inds. There i s a r ather s ma l ler number o f s words wh ich a re a l l o f t he Ewart P ark phase , t hat i s t he v ery e nd o f t he L ate Bronze Age , 8 00 5 50 b .c. F ig.53 s hows t he d istr ibut ion o f f inds o f a l l t hese a rtefacts. Their a bsence f rom t he h igh s andstone moors i s a c haracter ist ic o f many o f t he p reh istor ic a rtefact d istr ibut ions d iscussed i n t h is r eport , but i n t he c ase o f b ronzes we s hou ld c ons ider whether t h is i s c aused by c orros ion i n t he moor land s o i ls. -

-

Ty lecote ( 1979) h as s hown t hat b ronzes r ema in uncorroded i n a c id p eat s o i ls, b ecause o f a p rotect ive a ct ion o f t he p eat , t hough t hey d o c orrode i n a c id s o i ls o f l ow o rgan ic c ontent. Bronzes s hou ld t herefore s urv ive we l l o n t he p eaty moor lands , but i n s ome a reas where t he p eat h as b een e roded , t hey m ight h ave b een d isso lved. That v ery f ew b ronzes h ave b een f ound i n t he C leve land bou lder c lay a rea may n ot h owever b e a ttr ibuted t o c orros ion , f or Rad ley ( 1974) h as r ecorded many f rom t he b ou lder c lay a reas o f t he Va le o f York. We c an t herefore r egard c orros ion o f bronze a s a m inor i nf luence a nd make r easonably we l l-founded d educt ions a bout t he l ate Bronze Age s ett lement f rom t he meta l a rtefact d istr ibut ion. The most o bv ious one i s t he r e lat ive ly p rosperous s tate o f t he i nhab itants o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls, e spec ia l ly i n t he c entra l a nd e astern s ectors. I f b ronzes must b e b ought o r e xchanged w ith a gr icu ltura l p roducts , t hen , a s we h ave o bserved f or t he Neo l ith ic a nd e ar ly Bronze Age p er iods, t he l ow, s outhf ac ing , we l l d ra ined, l imestone h i l ls a re l ike ly t o b e s een a s t he most p rosperous i n t h is a rea. They r ef lect t he ir wea lth i n t he a cqu is it ion o f b ronzes wh ich f urther e nhance p rest ige a nd m i l itary a b i l ity a nd , w ith b etter t oo ls , e nab le a more s oph ist icated a nd d ivers if ied e conomy. I t was a s i tuat ion o f " pos it ive f eed-back" b etween a p rosperous a gr icu lture a nd a meta l lurg ica l i ndustry wh ich l ed t o a marked a dvance i n t hese a reas o ver t he mater ia l , a nd p robab ly p o l it ica l , s i tuation e lsewhere i n t he r eg ion. The i mported g o ld t orc ( 1150-850 b .c.) f ound a t Coomboo ts n ear S carborough t ends t o c onf irm t h is i mpress ion. On ly a t Wh itby a nd i n i ts E skda le h inter land i s t here a ny c omparab le c oncentrat ion o f b ronze f inds. The bronze a rtefacts emphas ise , o nce a ga in , t he e ssent ia l ly l ow land n ature o f t he s ett lement p attern , wh ich , a s Rad ley ( 1974) s howed, e xtends w ide ly o n t o t he d ry r idges a nd r iver b anks o f t he Va le o f York. The c oncentrat ion o f a xes i n t he l owland f arm ing a reas l eads o ne t o t h ink t hat t he ir u ses were ma in ly i n c onstruction work f or f ences , b arns a nd h ouses o n t he f arms , r ather t han a p r inc ipa l a gent i n f orest c learance o n t he h i l ls. And p erhaps t he ir d istr ibut ion , s omet imes s how ing t he p laces where t hey were d iscarded a s o bso lete , r ef lect t he e ar ly p art o f t he I ron Age a s much a s t he l ast p art o f t he Bronze Age. I n s ome a reas i t i s p oss ib le t o make a more a ccurate a na lys is o f b ronze f inds o n v ar ious g rades o f a gr icu ltura l l and a nd d raw s ome c onc lus ions a bout t rends i n s ett lement movement a nd s oc ia l

1 69

O rgan isat ion, f or e xamp le i n L inco lnsh ire ( Gard iner , 1 980). Th is a pproach i s s carce ly f eas ib le i n North E ast Yorksh ire , b ecause a s d iscussed i n t he i ntroductory c hapter , t he b ronze f inds c annot u sua l ly b e l ocated t o t he n ecessary d egree o f a ccuracy . The b ronzes r epresented i n F ig.48 s carce ly a l low a ny g eograph ica l s eparat ion o f t he m i l itary a nd u t i l itar ian i tems , but t he r iver ine a nd c oasta l d istr ibut ion o f s ome l ate s pearheads a nd swords ( a l l Ewart P ark) i s a d iscern ib le f eature a t t he Tees a nd E sk, a nd a t t he S carborough c oast, wh ich m ight i nd icate t he p resence o f a m i l itary e l ite g roup o n t he c ommun icat ion r outes , a s s eems t o h ave b een t he s i tuation i n s outhern Eng land ( Row lands , 1 976). POTTERY AND BURIAL S ITES Manby ( 1980) h as l i sted t he l ate Bronze Age bucket-, b arre l-, a nd g lobe-shaped u rns r ecovered f rom r ound b arrows i n t he a rea , a nd t hese a re g iven a s Tab le 2 8. Unfor tunate ly n one o f t hem c ome f rom we l l-pub l ished e xcavat ions , a nd i t i s d iff icu lt t o b e s ure whether t hey were p r imary o r s econdary d epos it ions. Undoubted ly , a t S tanghow, Herd Howe , Hutton Busce l , a nd t he b arrow 2 m i les n or th o f P icker ing , t he l ater u rns were f ound i n t he s ame b arrows w ith c o l lared u rns a nd were t herefore p resumab ly s econdary , a nd t he bucket u rn a t Ebberston was a lso a s econdary f eature. I n t he Suff ie ld Moor b arrow, h owever , t he bucket a nd b arre l u rns s tood c entra l ly s ide by s ide , a nd a ppear t o b e p r imary. Thus t here may b e a nother i nstance o f l a te Bronze Age b arrow c onstruct ion , i n a ddit ion t o t hose o n Amp leforth Moor d ated by r adiocarbon by Wa inwr ight a nd Longworth ( 1959). Our i nformation a t p resent t hen s hows u s t hat t he u rn c remat ion r ite c ont inued i nto t he l ate Bronze Age , w ith u rns o f d ifferent s ty le , a nd , u sua l ly , o f i nfer ior f abr ic . None o f t hese l ater d epos its a re i n t he watershed b arrows wh ich f orm t he t err itor ia l b oundar ies, t hough Herd Howe a nd Court Green t umu l i wh ich c onta ined l ate Bronze Age p ottery were i n p rom inent p os it ions. The r e l ig ious a nd bur ia l r i tes f ade f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord dur ing t he l ate Bronze Age , r e-appear ing w ith t he s quare b arrows i n t he I ron Age. H ILL FORTS There

a re

f ive

e arthworks

i n

t he

a rea

wh ich

c an

b e

c a l led

h i u iforts i n t he c onvent iona l s ense , a nd t hey a re s hown o n F ig .55. E ston Nab Fort, i n a p os it ion c ommand ing t he Tees e stuary , i s a un iva l late f ort o f a rea 1. 3 h ectares o r ig ina l ly d escr ibed a s a ' doub le c irc le o f r ough l oose s tones ' ( Graves , 1 808). I t h as b een t w ice e xcavated, o nce i n 1 927-29 by E lgee ( 1930) a nd a ga in i n 1 966-67 by Aberg ( 1968). Both e xcavat ions i nc luded s ect ions o f t he r ampart a nd i nvest igat ions o f t he i nter ior . The p resent D-shaped r ampar t i s a dumped c lay b ank 5 metres w ide a nd s ome 4 00 metres i n l ength c urrent ly 2 metres h e ight a bove g round l eve l , b acked by a s tone wa l l 4 .3 metres w ide , a nd o r ig ina l ly c arry ing a s tone p a l isade; t he V-shaped d itch , 6 .6 metres w ide a nd 3 .3 metres d eep , h as a r ock-cut d ra inage c hanne l r ectangu lar i n c ross s ect ion 0 .3 metres d eep a nd 0 .6 metres w ide ( Aberg , 1 968). A s ma l l amount o f c oarse p ottery was f ound b eneath t he r ampart. About 5 0

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metres w ith in t he r ampart i s a l inear d itch , wh ich y ie lded p ottery on both e xcavat ions , a nd was i nterpreted by Aberg a s a p a l isade t rench. Th is p ottery h as b een d ated by l oca l a na log ies t o t he L ate Bronze Age by Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( 1975) who p rov ide t he b est a va i lab le a ssessment o f t he t wo e xcavat ions. There i s l i tt le d oubt o f t he Late Bronze Age d ate o f t he p a l isade , but t he s ing le r im f ound b eneath t he ma in r ampart d oes n ot e nab le a s ure d at ing o f i ts l ater c onstruct ion. A f ood v esse l s herd f ound by E lgee i n r ampart d itch a nd Meso l i th ic f l ints f rom t he i nter ior i ndicate u se o f t h is p rom inent s i te f rom e ar ly t imes. The

Bo ltby H i l l Fort ,

o n

t he

western

t he t he

s carp o f t he Hamb leton

H i l ls, o ver look ing t he Va le o f York , i s a un iva l late f ort , o r r ather was , f or i t was a lmost e nt ire ly d estroyed by p lough ing i n 1 958. I t h ad a D-shaped r ampart wh ich s tood o ne metre h igh , a nd e nc losed 1. 2 h ectares. Two r ound b arrows i n t he i nter ior , g o ld e arr ings o f t he b eaker p er iod f rom b eneath t he r ampart f ound i n Wi lmot ts ( 1938) e xcavation a nd Neo l ith ic p ottery ( Peterborough Ware) f ound i n t h is v ic in ity s how t hat t he s i te o f t h is f ort a lso was u sed i n e ar lier p reh istor ic p er iods. Cha l l is a nd Hard ing d ate t he r ampart i tse lf t o t he Late Bronze Age , f rom a s ing le r im s herd o f a bucket u rn f rom W i l lmo t 's e xcavat ion , wh ich i s s im i lar t o p ottery f rom t he Mam Tor H i l l Fort i n Derbysh ire. The

The t hree o ther f orts i n t he a rea h ave l i tt le d at ing e v idence. s ma l l p romontory f ort a t L ive Moor ( 0.8 h ectares) s tands o n

t he north-west c orner o f t he moors. I t h as a c ross-r idge r ampart a nd d itch , w ith a c entra l e ntrance , whence a h o l low-way r uns up t he h il l s lope t o t he L ive Moor c a irnf ie ld. Th is i s t he h ighest o f a ny o f t hese e ar ly f ie ld s ystems ( 315 metres) a nd a s s uch i s a rguab ly Bronze Age , un l ike ly t o p ers ist i nto t he I ron Age , wh ich m ight s uggest a n e ar ly d ate f or t he f ort. The f ort , o n ly r ecent ly d iscovered ( Smith , 1 979), h as n ot b een e xcavated, but l ike t he E ston Nab a nd Bo ltby Forts s hows n o s igns o f hut s tructures. The p romontory f ort a t Rou lston S car ( 20 h ectares) was d iscovered i n 1 969 when P ac itto ( 1970) e xcavated what a ppeared o n t he s urface t o b e a c ross-r idge dyke r unn ing a cross t he n eck o f t he s pur wh ich f orms t he l and ing f ie ld o f t he Yorksh ire G l id ing C lub. l t p roved t o b e a t imber-framed b ox r ampart, c ons istent w ith a d ate o f a bout 4 00 b .c. ( Cha l l is a nd Hard ing). Grange ( 1859) r eported i t a s 3m h igh a nd 1 2m w ide , w ith a d itch o f c orrespond ing d epth a nd w idth. There i s n o e v idence o f hut s tructures , but a s a t Bo ltby , t here were r ound b arrows w ith in t he f ort. The p romontory f ort a t Horn Nab i s i n a n unusua l p os it ion , o n t he west s carp o f Farnda le , o ver look ing t he d a le , a nd b eyond t o t he s outh , t he Va le o f P icker ing. The r ampart, s ome 3 00 metres l ong , 2 metres h igh and 6 metres w ide, h as a d itch o n t he n orthern s ide a bout 3 metres w ide. I t c uts o ff t he s outhern t ip o f a s pur , f orming a f ort 9 h ectares i n a rea , p rotected o n t he o ther s ides by s teep c l iffs , w ith a n a pproach t rack e nter ing f rom t he s outh. I t was s ect ioned by Hayes and Wh ittaker ( Hayes , 1 963), who f ound , h owever , n o d ating e v idence. A k erbed c a irn 1 7 metres d iameter s tands w ith in t he f ort , L ate

wh ich c onta ins n o o ther v is ib le f eatures.

Summar is ing t he e v idence o f t he f ive h i l lforts: we s ee , i n t he Bronze Age , a t l east t he s tart o f f ort if icat ion o f we l l-p laced

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h i l ltop s i tes , which h ad b een t he s cene o f e ar l ier p reh istor ic a ct iv ity. They n ow b ecame f orts , o f v ar ious s izes , but w ith n o i nd icat ions o f p ro longed s ett lement. S ome o ther h igh ly d efens ib le p os it ions a re o ccup ied by ( undated) p reh istor ic e nc losures , but a re l ack ing f orma l d efens ive e arthworks. Thus t here a re e nc losures a t t he s umm it o f P enhi l , Kepw ick ( Aberg e t a l., 1 977), s hown a s F ig.58, a nd a d oub le-d itched e nc losure o n a h i l l-top a bove S tonegrave Lodge ( R i ley A ir Photographs 9 81/1 a nd 2 , 1 974), b oth undated. The Th ieves Dyke o n t he l imestone s carp a t S i lpho Brow f orms w ith t he s carp a n e nc losed a rea o f 3 0 h ectares , o ver look ing t he c oasta l r eg ion n orth o f S carborough , a nd t he L ate Bronze Age/Iron Age s ett lement a t S carborough i tse lf i s o n a d efens ib le p os it ion a t Cast le H i l l ( Sm ith , 1 927), t hough t h is w as t he s cene o f p ermanent s ett lement. I t i s d iff icu lt t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he f unction o f h i l l f orts a nd t hose o f o ther h i l l-top e nc losures w ithout d efens ive works. We may h ave a s i tuation a na logous t o Wessex a nd t he South Downs ( Bradley , 1 971b) where e ar ly h i l l f orts s eem t o h ave d eve loped f rom p astora l e nc losures. -

I n t he s outhern c ha lk lands , p resumab ly h igher , many f or ts

where p opu la tion d eve loped o n t he

p ressure was h i l ls; i n n or th

e ast Yorksh ire, o n ly f ive f orts were bu i lt , l eav ing o ther o stens ib ly s u itab le s i tes unoccup ied o r f i l led by e nc losures n ot f ort if ied by l arge r amparts. THE L INEAR EARTHWORKS Two k inds o f l inear e arthwork c an b e s een i n t he a rea ( F ig.49), l ong dykes up t o 9 k i lometres wh ich a re g enera l ly f ound i n p lateau s ituations i n t he l imestone a reas , a nd, l ess c ommon ly , r unn ing a long s carp e dges o f t he s andstone moors , a nd t he c ross-r idge dykes f ound i n s pur t erra in , c utt ing a cross t he n arrow n ecks o f h i l l s purs , o r i nterconnect ing v a l ley h eads. Bo th t he l ong e arthworks a nd t he c ross-r idge dykes a re b est i nterpreted a s t err itor ia l b oundar ies, but t hat d oes n ot e xc lude t he p oss ib i l ity o f t he ir h av ing o ther f unct ions. I ndeed t he t wo e arthworks a t Rou lston S car a nd Horn Nab, wh ich m ight we l l h ave b een c lassed a s c ross-r idge dykes , h ave p roved o n e xcava tion t o b e d efens ive e ar thworks ( Pac itto , 1 970; Hayes , 1 963). A l though u sua l ly f ound i n d ifferent t ypes o f t erra in , t he l ong l inear e arthworks a nd c ross-r idge dykes a re o ccas iona l ly f ound t ogether , t he o utstanding e xamp le b e ing a t L ev isham Moor , where w ide moor lands a nd l ong s purs l i e c lose a t h and. The dyke bu i lders l a id out e arthworks a ccord ing t o t he n eeds n ature o f t he l and h o ld ings a nd t o t he i nf luenced b oth.

o f t he e conomy a nd t he t opography wh ich d eep ly

The p rob lem o f d at ing i s a d iff icu lt o ne.

As w i l l b e s een ,

t he

l ong e arthworks c an be d ated a s l ater t han t he r ound b arrows , a nd t here a re r easons , g iven b e low f or i ndiv idua l dykes , f or b e l ieving t hat c onstruct ion s tarted i n t he L ate Bronze Age a nd c ontinued i nto t he I ron Age. Manby ( 1980) g ives e v idence o f a s im i lar d ate r ange f or t he l inear e arthworks o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds. We h ave n o p os it ive d at ing e v idence f or t he c ross-r idge dykes , a nd we c an only s uppose t hem t o b e r ough ly c ontemporary w ith t he l ong e ar thworks, b e ing a na logous b oundary s ystems s u itab le f or s pur t erra in.

1 72

- 4

t o

x .4

1 73

L i n e a r e a r t h w o r k s a n d p i t a l i g n m e n t s i n N o r t h e a s t Y o r k s h i r e .

THE CROSS-RIDGE DYKES Cross-r idge dykes a re a ssoc iated w ith o n ly a f ew o f t he c a irnf ie lds o n t he s andstone a rea ( Fig.49). S ave f or a dyke o n Gerr ick Moor i nterconnecting t wo b oggy v a l ley h eads, t here a re none t o t he n or th o f t he Esk Va l ley. There i s o ne a t Benky H i l l o n t he h igh moors west o f B i lsda le , but n one o n t he h i l ls f lank ing t he e astern s ide o f t h is d a le. Near ly a l l t he s purs r unn ing n orthward i nto t he Esk Va l ley f rom t he h igh moors h ave t hem ( Crown End ( Westerda le), Cast leton R igg ( 2), Danby R igg ( one s ing le dyke , o ne d oub le dyke), G la isda le R igg a nd Egton Moor ( 2)). Here t hey d iv ide t he c a irnf ie ld a rea f rom t he empty moor land , a nd a s t hey d o n ot i ntersect t he c a irns o r a nc ient f ie ld wa l ls , i t i s n ot p oss ib le t o a ssess t heir d ates i n r e lation t o t he c a irnf ie lds. A t most o f t hese s ites t he c a irnf ie ld d oes n ot e xtend b eyond t he dyke o n t o t he moor , s o i t m ight s eem t hat t he c a irnf ie lds h ad e xpanded t o t he ir max imum e xtent b efore t he c ross-r idge dykes were bu i lt ( though t h is i s , o f c ourse , a rguab le). A t Egton Moor t he c a irnf ie ld d oes i n f act l i e p art ly o uts ide t he s outhern c ross-r idge dyke , a nd a t Fy l ingda les Moor a c ross-r idge dyke r an t hrough t he m idd le o f a very l arge c a irnf ie ld, l arge ly d estroyed i n 1 940-45. I t i s o ften p oss ib le t o d iscern a r e lat ion b etween t he c airnf ie lds, t he c ross-r idge dykes a nd t he l oca l r oads a nd t rackways. I f we s uppose t hat t he c ross-r idge dyke marked o ff a n a rea a t t he t ip o f t he s pur f or t he u se o f t hose l iv ing i n t he ma in va l ley , a nd t hat o n t he moor b eyond t he c ross-r idge dyke l ay t he t err itory o f t he f arms i n t he s ide v a l leys, t hen we s hou ld e xpect t o f ind t rackways b etween t he t ip o f t he s pur a nd t he ma in v a l ley and f rom t he v ic in ity o f t he c ross-r idge dyke i nto t he s ide va l leys. Th is e ffect i s i n f act p ar t icu lar ly we l l s een a t Danby R igg , Cast leton R igg , G la isda le R igg a nd Crown End. I t i s a lso we l l d isp layed a t Cau lk ley 's Bank where a c ross- r idge dyke e x ists a cross t he s pur n ear t he Nunn ington-Hov ingham r oad ( Ri ley A ir -

Photograph 7 43-11, 1 975), a nd a t rackway r uns d own t he p o int o f t he s pur t o West Ness. I n v iew o f t he i ntegrated up land/low land e conomy o f t he Bronze Age , i ndeed o f a l l t he p reh istor ic p er iods , we s hou ld e xpect t hese t racks i nterconnect ing v a l leys a nd h i l l tops t o b e among t he most a nc ient, a nd t he ir r e lation w ith t he c a irnf ie lds a nd c ross-r idge dykes s eems t o b e a d emonstration o f t h is. THE L INEAR EARTHWORKS I n d iscuss ing t he t err itor ia l a rrangements o f t he Ear ly Bronze Age p er iod, we h ave s een h ow t he b oundar ies a ppear t o b e b ased on t he n atura l f eatures o f watersheds a nd v a l leys , a nd h ow i ntegrated up land/lowland e state b oundar ies were marked o n t he watersheds by r ound b arrows. Thus t he d iv is ions s eemed t o r e ly o n r e l ig ious s anctions f or t he ir e ffect iveness , i n e ar ly s oc iet ies o ften s ynonymous w ith l ega l c onstra ints. W ith t he g rowth o f p opu lat ion, wea lth a nd c ompet it ion i n t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c. a nd apparent ly a d ec l ine i n t hat f orm o f r e l ig ious o bservance a ssoc iated w ith t he r ound b arrow i nterments , t hese b oundar ies were augmented by l inear e ar thworks, e spec ia l ly i n t he most p rosperous a reas. Th is r e inforced t he mora l s anct ion w ith a phys ica l b arr ier ,

1 74

i n s ome c ases a v ery c ons iderab le o ne. Thus we f ind t he l inear e arthworks i n t wo c haracter ist ic p os it ions , e ither o n t he watersheds o r s carp e dges , o r r unn ing f rom t hem d own i nto t he va l ley h eads, a nd not i nfrequent ly a ssoc iated w ith t he r ound b arrows o f t he e ar l ier s ystem. There a re a f ew s carp e dge e arthworks o n t he n orth s ide o f t he s andstone moor lands , a s a t Urra Moor a nd K i lda le P ark , where t he e ar ly e arthwork h as b een i ncorporated i nto t he 1 3th c entury d eer p ark, but t hese h ave n o a ssoc iations a nd a re a t p resent undateab le. S imi lar ly , t hree l inear e arthworks n ear t he c oast ( The Green Dyke, The War Dyke a nd S tone Da le Dyke ( Cloughton)) a ppear t o b e i so lated e arthworks , n ot p arts o f al arger t err itor ia l s cheme, a nd undated. The Th ieves ' Dyke, a lso , i n a p rom inent p os it ion o n t he s carp o ver look ing C loughton, a ppears t o b e a n i so lated e nc losure , t hough p loughedo ut dykes d isappear s o c omp lete ly o n t h is l imestone t erra in t hat i t i s i mposs ib le t o b e c erta in. There a re s evera l ma jor b locks o f dykes wh ich appear t o b e i ntegrated l and d iv is ion s ystems , The C leave Dyke s ystem o n t he Hamb leton H i l ls , t he dykes o n Lev isham and Lockton Moors , a nd t o t he e ast , s eparated by S ta inda le , t he e xtens ive s ystems wh ich o ccupy t he Tabu lar H i l ls a s f ar a s S eamer Moor , o ver look ing S carborough. There a re f ew dykes b etween B i lsda le on t he west a nd Rawc l iff Dyke n ear Newton Da le o n t he e ast, t he r eason f or t h is g ap b e ing unc lear . The dykes wh ich a re f ound i n t h is a rea a re i so lated e arthworks, a pparent ly n ot p art o f c oherent t err itor ia l s ystems , but i t i s p oss ib le t hat more may y et b e d iscovered by a ir photography. The C leave Dyke s ystem i s s hown o n F ig.50. A t t he p resent t ime , i t g ives, o f a l l t he e arthworks , most c lues t o d at ing , wh ich s ti l l r ema ins r ather i nsecure. The dyke s ystem i s r e lated t o t he b arrows i n t wo ways, o ne a d irect a ssoc iat ion , t he o ther i nd irect. F irst ly , t he dykes s omet imes i ncorporate b arrows , a s a t Casten Dyke Nor th , a nd a t Hesketh Dyke , where t he dyke c hanges s tructure a t a l arge r ound b arrow i ncorporated i n i t . And s econd ly , t he dykes a re s omet imes a l igned o n b arrows , a s a t Kepwick Dyke, o r t hey c hange d irect ion a t b arrows , a s t he C leave Dyke i tse lf o n Hamb leton Moor , o r t he b arrows s tand c lose a longs ide t he dyke, a s a ga in w ith t he C leave Dyke i n t he s ame a rea. There s eems l i tt le d oubt t herefore t hat t he dykes a re l ater t han t he r ound b arrows , a nd a ugment t he t err itor ia l s ystem wh ich was b ased on t hem, d escr ibed i n Chapter 5 .1. A f urther c lue t o t he d ate o f t he dykes i s t he r e lation o f t he C leave Dyke w ith t he Bo ltby H i l l Fort. A l l a ir photographs a nd a l l e ar ly maps s how t hat t here i s a g ap i n t he dyke i n t he s ect ion i mmed iate ly t o t he e ast o f t he f ort, p resumab ly t o a l low a ccess t o i t . The s ame c an b e o bserved w ith t he c onf igurat ion o f t he dykes t o t he e ast o f Rou lston S car p romontory f ort. S ince t he d ate o f t he r ampart a t Bo itby i s t hought t o b e a bout 1 000 b .c., a s d iscussed a bove , o ne m ight b e l ieve t hat t he dyke s ystem, b e ing i n u se dur ing t he l i fe o f t he f ort, d ates t o t he f irst h a lf o f t he f irst mi len ium. A t h ird, a nd e ven l ess d ef in it ive c lue , i s t he r e lat ion o f t he s ystem t o t he r oads a nd t racks. I t i s c lear t hat t he Hamb leton S treet r idgway c uts t he dyke o n Kepw ick Moor i n a way wh ich s hows t he dyke t o b e t he e ar l ier o f t he t wo . As we d o n ot know t he d ate o f t he Hamb leton S treet , t he o bservat ion i s n ot v ery h e lpfu l; i t s imp ly

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r evea ls t hat t he r idgway i s n o t a Neo l ith ic/ear ly Bronze Age f eature. On t he o ther h and, t he r e lat ion o f t he dykes w ith t he r oad r unn ing up t he s carp a t Sneck Yat s hows t h is r oad t o b e e ar l ier t han t he dyke. I t i s a nother i l lustrat ion o f t he e ar ly d ate o f t racks l ead ing b etween t he l owlands a nd t he h i l ls. Th is l andscape a na lys is o f t he C leave Dyke a rea h as b een pub l ished i n d eta i l e lsewhere ( Spratt , 1 982). The f unct ion o f t he dykes , l ike t hat o f t he e ar l ier t err itor ia l s ystem, i s t o d ef ine t he o uter l im its o f f arming un its , whose s ett lements and n o d oubt much o f whose a gr icu ltura l a ct iv ity were on t he l ower g round. A lthough a rab le f arm ing i s c onducted a t t he h igh a ltitude o f t he C leave Dyke a t t he p resent d ay , i t i s d iff icu lt t o i mag ine t hese l arge t racts a s o ther t han p astora l i n t he l a te Bronze Age, a nd t he f unct ion o f t hese dykes o ther t han a s l i near p astora l b oundar ies. The f act t hat p it a l ignments a re i ncorporated i n p arts o f t he dyke s ystem, a nd c an b e c lear ly s een a t p resent o n a ir photographs, i s c onf irmation o f t he e ssent ia l b oundary f unction o f t hese e ar thworks , s evera l o f wh ich c ontinue i n u se a s t ownsh ip boundar ies a t t he p resent t ime. About 8 k i lometres e ast o f t he C leave Dyke , o n t he e astern e nd o f t he Hamb leton H i l ls , a v ery l arge d oub le dyke i nterconnects t he va l ley h eads i n t he n or th a nd s outh s ides o f Sproxton Moor . l t does n ot s eem t o b e a ssoc iated w ith t he C leave Dyke s ystem , a nd i s p oss ib ly i nterpreted a s p art o f t he t r iba l b oundary b etween t he P ar is i a nd t he Br igantes, wh ich may c ontinue t hrough Ryeda le t o t he n orth s carp o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls ( Ramm , 1 978). I f s o , i t b e longs t o a n e ra when t he o rgan isat ion o f t he I ron Age t r ibes was f a ir ly a dvanced, a s d iscussed i n Chap.6. The dyke s ystem o n Lev isham a nd Lockton Moors , a l though not y ie lding much d ating e v idence , o r i nteract ing much w ith o ther f eatures i n t he l andscape , s eems t o p resent a f a ir ly c omp lete s urv iva l , o r a t l east , a r ecogn isab ly c oherent s ystem. The h igher p arts o f t he moor c ompr ise c a lcareous g r its , more s u itab le f or p astora l t han a rab le u se ( though much i s c urrent ly under t he p lough), wh i le t he l ower p arts, i n t he v ic in ity o f t he more f ert i le e nc losed medieva l f ie lds o f Lockton a nd Lev isham, c ompr ise Oo l it ic l imestone. These c ora l l ian g r its a nd l imestones l i e o n t he s oft Oxford c lay , s o t hat where t h is g ent ly s outhward s lop ing p lateau h as b een e roded , t here a re very s teep va l leys , a nd, s urround ing t he p lateau on t he west , n or th a nd e ast, a v ery s teep s carp. The d ispos it ion o f t he dykes i s s hown i n F ig.51, wh ich s hows t hree k inds o f e arthwork. F irst , a s er ies wh ich i nterconnects t he c rest o f t he p er iphera l s carp w ith t he h eads o f t he v a l leys; r eferr ing t o F ig.51, f rom west t o e ast , t hese c ompr ise t hree dykes o n Lev isham Moor , t he Ga l lows Dyke , t he Doub le Dyke a t Haze ihead , t wo dykes on Newgate Moor a nd t he Dargate Dykes. S econd ly , o n t he s purs i n t he c entre o f t he a rea a re t hree c ross-r idge dykes wh ich s ubd iv ide t he s purs ; t he Horness Dyke , F ar B lack Dyke a nd E ast Toft Dyke. These t wo k inds o f dyke d o n ot , u nfortunate ly , i n t h is a rea , i nteract w ith d ateab le f eatures o n t he l andscape , s o t hat we c annot e st imate t he ir c onstruct ion d ates. They p erform t he s ame f unct ions a s t he C leave Dyke s ystem i n d iv id ing t he t erra in i nto l arge f arm un its w ith a ppropr iate a ccess t o up land a nd v a l ley

1 77

1 78 T h e d y k e s o n L e v i s h a m ,

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p er iod , t hat i s , L ate Bronze Age t o I ron Age. The ir d ispos it ion i n i nterconnecting t he l ine o f t he watershed w ith t he va l ley h eads i s e xact ly t he s ame a s t hat o f t he C leave Dyke s ystem; t he d ifferences l i e i n t he t opograph ica l s i tuations. The t h ird s er ies, i s h owever a pprox imate ly d ateab le. These a re t he l inear e arthworks i nterconnecting t he I ron Age/Romano-Br it ish e nc losures o n t he l ower p art o f t he moor , t o t he n orth o f t he v i l lage f ie lds. Th is t erra in , on t he c a lcareous g r it , i s marg ina l l and , p loughed s porad ica l ly a t l east i n med ieva l t imes a s s hown by t he r igg andf urrow s tr ips o n t he moor land. Ev ident ly i t was i n u se i n t he I ron Age/ Roman p er iods when dykes were dug c onnect ing t he e nc losures w ith t he v a l ley h eads , t hus mak ing a f urther s ubd iv is ion o f t he moor. The s i tuation i s p ara l le l t o t hat r ecent ly o bserved a t Wetwang S lack o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds ( J. Dent , p ers. c omm.), where t he t erra in h ad b een marked by a n e xtens ive l inear e arthwork o n t he h igh g round wh i le l ower i n t he v a l ley a l a ter e arthwork was c onstructed t o mark t he l imits o f a s cattered I ron Age s ett lement a nd i ts bur ia l g round. Wh i le t he L ev isham Moor s ituation t herefore s hows t he u se o f dykes i n s ub-d iv id ing t he t erra in i nto ma jor e states , i t a lso r evea ls dykes , p robab ly l a ter i n d ate , w ith a d ifferent c oncept ion , more i nt imate ly c onnected w ith t he

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S carborough , t he b lock o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls c ompr is ing E ast Ayton, I rton a nd S eamer Moors h as a s er ies o f dykes r unn ing f rom t he s carp s outhward t oward t he v a l ley h eads , a s s hown i n F ig.52. A l l t he dykes a re p loughed o ut i n t he ir s outhern r eaches , s ome on ly s urv iv ing o n t he s carp e dge , s o t hat i t i s n ot e asy t o s ee where t hey t erm inated i n t he s outh. F our o f t he dykes c an r easonab ly b e i nterpreted a s t he e ar ly l and b oundary s ystem, d ividing t he t erra in i nto l arge b locks t he Ske l l Dyke , t he I rton Dyke, S eamer Beacon a nd S eamer Moor Dykes. The S eamer Beacon Dyke i s c omp l icated by b e ing c rossed by a l ater dyke s ystem , wh ich s eems t o d ef ine a s tretch o f t he moor a long i ts e astern -

f lank , p oss ib ly a l ater e nc losure o f S eamer Moor l and f or t he s ett lements b e low t he e astern s carp e dges. The f our s eem ing ly e ar ly dykes a re o f s imi lar c haracter t o o ne a nother , a nd t he a nt iqu ity o f t he S ea m er Moor Dyke i s s hown by t he p resence o f e nc losures a ttached t o i t , i n t he manner o f t he L ev isham Moor e nc losures ( Hinderwe l l , unpub l ished e d it ion H istory o f S carborough ,

1 824,

S carborough Museum).

We may a lso r ead t he mass ive dykes o f t he S camr idge a rea ( F ig.53) a s h av ing t he s ame c onf igurat ion o n t he l andscape a s t he C leave , L ev isham/Lockton a nd Ayton/Seamer s ystems , n ame ly t hat t hey r un d own f rom t he s teep s carp e dge a cross t he g ent ly s lop ing p lateau i nto t he v a l ley h eads. They h ave b een s tudied by Mort imer ( 1905) and Whee ler ( 1931), a nd i n more d eta i l by Rutter i n a s er ies o f p apers t o t he S carborough Archaeo log ica l S oc iety ( 1965-69). Mortimer s aw t he dykes o f t he Yorksh ire Wo lds a s boundary f eatures , ' admirab ly a dapted f or k eep ing c att le ', but t hought o f t he dykes o f t he S camr idge a rea a s l ess t han f or e nc losure , more f or mak ing h o l low-ways o f g reat d imens ions. He

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1 81

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s howed t hat a r ound b arrow i n t he l ine o f t he Cockmoor Dykes was i n p lace b efore t he dykes were bu i lt , by d emonstrat ing by e xcavation t hat t he dykes d id n ot r un b eneath t he b arrow. Whee ler s aw t hese dykes, h owever , unequ ivoca l ly a s b oundary s ystems a ppropr iate t o t he t opography , c omment ing t hat " the f ront iers om itted by n ature h ave b een s upp l ied by t he h and iwork o f m an". I t i s t rue t hat t he p os it ions o f t he dykes o n t he t erra in a re p erfect ly e xp l icab le i n t he t erms a ppropr iate t o o ther dyke s ystems we h ave d iscussed , n ame ly t hat t hey a ugment t he n atura l b oundar ies o f watershed a nd v a l ley h eads , a nd t hat t he s econdary dykes r unn ing ma in ly e ast t o west a re s ub-d iv is ions o f t he t err itory i n t he manner o f t he l ater L ev isham Moor Dykes , o fteh a s p it a l ignments. I t h as r ecent ly b een s hown by a ir photography t hat t he s ystem e xtends f or a bout a m i le s outhward f rom t he s urv iv ing up land dykes , t o t he v ic in ity o f t he p resent v i l lages ( Pow les land, p ers. c omm.). What i s n ot s o r ead i ly e xp l icab le i s t he mass ive c onstruct ion o f t hese e ar thworks; a t Cockmoor f or e xamp le t here a re s ome d ozen dykes r unn ing a longs ide o ne a nother i n a n e normous g roup , a nd t he S camr idge a nd Oxmoor Dykes a re mu ltip le dykes , e ach i ndiv idua l d itch a nd b ank b eing a f orm idab le e arthwork i n i ts own r ight. A t p resent we c an o n ly guess t he answer. The e astern a rea o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls where t hey l i e was a t a l l t imes t he most wea lthy , a nd t hat p resumably means t hat h ere t he c att le wou ld b e t h ick o n t he g round , a t arget f or t he l ess f ortunate. These e arthworks wou ld c erta in ly i nh ib it t he r ap id movement o f a n ima ls a nd men a cross t hem a nd i f t h ick ly p lanted w ith h awthorn f or e xamp le wou ld b e i mpenetrable t o t anks , e ven more s o t o c ows. Such an e xp lanation i s n ot e nt ire ly s atisfactory h owever. The h ost i l ity o f n e ighbour ing f armers must h ave b een b itter i ndeed t o warrant t he e rect ion o f s uch b arr iers , a nd i n a ny c ase , why a re t here s o many o f t hese mass ive dykes i n t he e astern Tabu lar H i l ls , but s o f ew i n t he ir c entre , a lso a f a ir ly p rosperous p reh istor ic a rea? Spectacu lar b oundary f eatures a re e xpress ions o f s ome a spects o f t he s oc iet ies wh ich c reated t hem; we may h ave t o understand much more a bout t he l ate p reh istor ic s oc iet ies o f t h is a rea b efore we c an c omprehend t he ir e arthworks , a nd t he ir p oss ib le mu lt ip le u ses. P IT ALIGN MENTS P it

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t he e arthworks, f or e xamp le i n t he C leave Dyke a nd i n t he Ebberston a nd S camr idge a reas ( Tab le 3 0). Occas iona l ly o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds, f or e xamp le , but n ot i n t he p resent s tudy a rea, we h ave e xamp les o f a p it a l ignment c ont inu ing i n t he s ame l ine b eyond t he t ermination o f a l inear dyke , e v ident ly f u lf i l l ing t he s ame f unct ion. They c an t herefore b e t reated a s b oundary f eatures ana logous t o t he dykes. There a re i n g enera l t hree k inds o f p it a l ignment i n t h is a rea. F irst ly t hose wh ich a re i n t he l ines o f t he l inear dykes , p art icu lar ly i n t he J ing leby/Sna inton/Ebberston s ystem where t here a re s ome f ine s urv iv ing p it a l ignments a nd i n t he C leave a nd S camr idge s ystems where t hey h ave n ot s urv ived s o w e l l. S econd ly

1 82

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Moor , l t i s

t he n ot

e nt ire ly e xp l icab le i n t erms o f a b oundary s ystem, f or i t i s n ot c ont inuous, a s ma l l p art o f i t l y ing s eparate f rom t he ma in a l ignment, o n B lack D ike Moor 2 00 metres t o t he e ast. l t i s c erta in ly i n a s u itab le p os it ion f or a b oundary marker , n ear a l ine o f t hree r ound b arrows , a nd a lmost o n t he E as ington/Lea lho lm t ownsh ip boundary. I t a ppears i n f act t o b e a n i ncomp lete b oundary mark. Two o ther f ragmentary d oub le p it a l ignments g iven i n Tab le 3 0 wou ld s eem t o c onf irm t h is i mpress ion. On Ugthorpe Moor , f our k i lometres e ast o f t he Eas ington a l ignment, t here a re f our f ragments o f d oub le p it a l ignment, p laced i n a l ine w ith g aps o f 2 30, 1 00 a nd 3 5 metres b etween t hem. They l i e p ara l le l t o a n e ighbour ing b arrow a l ignment. And o n t he c a irnf ie ld a t Danby R igg , t here i s a s ma l l f ragment o f p it a l ignment i mmed iate ly t o t he n or th o f a nd p ara l le l t o t he n orthernmost c ross-r idge dyke , a nd c lose t o a n a l ignment o f c a irns. The Ugthorpe a nd t he Danby f ragmentary a l ignments s eem t o b e , l ike t he E as ington l ines, unf in ished boundary f eatures. These t hree d oub le p it a l ignments a ppear , s uperf ic ia l ly , t o b e s imi lar t o t hat a t M i lf ie ld P la in i n Northumber land ( Hard ing , 1 981) but t here a re s ome. i mportant d ifferences. The p its a t M i lf ie ld a re 1 metre d iameter a nd c onta ined p osts 0 .2m i n d iameter. Cremated b one was f ound i n t hem a nd t hey were t hought t o b e a ssoc iated w ith t he n earby h enge monument w ith wh ich t hey a re c ontemporary , a s s hown by r ad iocarbon d ates. The p its a t Eas ington H igh Moor a re 2 .5-3.0 metres i n d iameter and t here a re n o r epor ts o f bones o r p osts. F ina l ly , t here i s o ne e xamp le o f a c ropmark o f a p it a l ignment o n t he f lat c arr l and o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , j ust t o t he s outhwest o f Brompton V i l lage. Recent work h as s hown t hat p it a l ignments a re p ro l if ic o n t he s outh s ide o f t he Va le ( Pow les land , p ers. c omm.), d iv id ing t he c arr l ands i nto qu ite sma l l a reas. Aer ia l photography h as n ot y et b een i ntens ive a long t he n orthern p art o f t he v a le, but i t i s r easonab le t o h ope t hat f urther work w i l l r evea l more a l ignments h ere a lso . I t i s a n i nd ication o f f arm ing p ressure on t he c arr l ands i n t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c., a p o int wh ich w i l l b e f urther d iscussed i n Chapter 7 . A f ew f ragmentary p it a l ignments ( Cropton, F admoor , A is laby , Lockton) s how t hat t hese a l ignments were qu ite e xtens ive ly u sed o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls i n a ddit ion t o t he l inear dykes , but l i tt le e v idence o f t hem s eems t o h ave s urv ived. I n t he S camr idge a rea t he p it a l ignments r ecorded on t he 1 854 Ordnance Survey maps h ave a l l b een d estroyed c omp lete ly . CONCLUSION Wh i le t he e v idence f or t he Ear ly Bronze Age o n t he s andstone moor lands s eems t o i ndicate a d ecentra l ised ' segmentary ' o rgan isat ion o f s oc iety , t here were s ome s igns i n a f ew r icher bur ia ls, a nd i n t he c oncentration o f b ronze f inds i n t he Tabu lar H i l ls , t hat a l eve l o f s oc iety a bove t he l oca l l eadersh ip was b eg inn ing t o emerge. The L ate Bronze Age s ees a more p ronounced movement t oward a r anked s oc iety , p ar ticu lar ly marked o n t he f erti le a nd p rosperous l imestone h i l ls. I t i s h ere t hat we s ee a c oncentrat ion o f b ronze a r tefacts , many o f t hem o f a m i l itary

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c haracter,

a nd

h ere

t here

was

a uthor ity

e nough

t o a ssemb le

t he

n ecessary l abour a t l east t o s tart work o n mass ive t err itor ia l e ar thworks. The g o ld t ore f ound i n t h is a rea i s a qu ite s pectacu lar i nd icat ion o f a wea lthy e l ite. The emergence o f a c h iefta in c lass i s much l ess o bv ious i n t he l ess f ert i le s andstone a nd b ou lder c lay t erra in, t hough t here was i ndeed work o n h i l iforts , a nd t he a lmost c omp lete d isuse o f t he r ound b arrow bur ia l s i tes i ndicates t hat , h ere t oo , t he o ld o rder was c hang ing . Poss ib ly t he f orest r egenerations t hat a re i nd icated a t t h is t ime i n t he p o l len a na lyses on t he moor lands ( Chapter 2 ) i nd icate a more r at iona l l and u se , l ess o f a f ree-for-a l l e xp lo itation , but i f s o , i t was a t emporary s lacken ing o f t he p ace o f d estruct ion o f t he wood land. I n t he L ate Bronze Age , t herefore , t here was a c ontinuat ion o f t he s ett lement p attern, Neo l ith ic i n o r ig in , o n t he l imestone h i l ls a nd t he v a l leys a nd p er ipher ies o f t he s andstone moors. S oc ia l t rends were e stab l ished wh ich were t o c u lm inate i n t he t r iba l o rgan isation o f t he I ron Age. The most a dvanced were t hose l iv ing o n t he f ert i le Tabu lar H il ls, where wea l th a nd s oc ia l o rgan isation l eft t he ir m arks i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord, both a s b ronze a nd e ven g o ld f inds, and a s t he mass ive e ar thworks wh ich s t i l l d om inate p arts o f t he l andscape.

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THE

CHAPTER 6 I RON AGE, 6 00 b .c.

-

7 0 A . D.

For many y ears t he n ature o f t he I ron Age s ett lement i n t he a rea r ema ined o bscure , a nd i t was t hought by many t hat t he Bronze Age c u lture s imp ly p ers isted unti l t he Roman p er iod. A c ons iderab le a dvance was made by Whee ler ( 1954), who i nvest igated t he 1 30 a cre e nc losed s ite a t S tanw ick , s ome 2 5 k i lometres west o f t he n or thwest c orner o f t he p resent s tudy a rea. He b e l ieved i t t o c ompr ise t hree p rogress ive ly l arger phases , a sma l l h i l l-fort d ated f rom A .D. 4 7-48, a l arger work t o A .D. 5 0-60 and t he f ina l mass ive ly bu i lt f ort if ied e nc losure , u nf in ished a t t he t ime o f t he Roman i ncurs ion. Recent i nvest igat ions a gree t he t ime s pan o f o ccupation but t end t o s ee t he s ite more a s a c iv i l c entre , i ts c onstruct ion l ess c onnected w ith t he m i l itary e vents o f A .D. 4 4-71 ( Ramm a nd Turnbu l l , p ers. c omm.). . F rom t he a bsence o f a nc ient f ie ld s ystems a nd s torage p its , p auc ity o f querns ( one o n ly), t he r e lative c rudeness o f t he n at ive p ottery a nd t he v ast a creage o f t he f ort, Whee ler p roposed a " crude, s em i-nomad ic e conomy... i n wh ich a gr icu lture p layed a s ubordinate p ar t". Whee ler 's analys is was a lso p art ly b ased o n t he m isconception t hat p re-Roman b eeh ive querns a re r are i n Yorksh ire. To b e s ure , t he Hunsbury ( p ierced) t ype i s n ot o ften f ound i n North Yorksh ire , but t here a re many hundreds o f t he Yorksh ire ( unp ierced) t ype wh ich d ate b road ly 2 00 b .c. A . D. 2 00. Th is f act a lone c ast e ar ly doubts on t he n omad ic- p astora l ist v iew o f I ron Age Yorksh ire , t hough i t p ers isted i n s ome l ess we l l-researched l i terature. What s ea led i ts f ate was both t he p a laeobotan ica l r esearch s how ing i ntens ive f orest c lear ing a nd m ixed a gr icu lture a t t h is p er iod, a nd t he d iscovery o f m ixed f arm ing s ett lements i n s evera l p arts o f Yorksh ire. -

W ith in t he s tudy a rea, e v idence f or t he e ar ly p art o f t he I ron Age r ema ins v ery s parse i ndeed. The o n ly s ett lement d ated t o t h is p art o f t he I ron Age i s o n t he Cast le H i l l a t S carborough , a c onsp icuous ly d efens ive s i te. Unfortunate ly t he e xcavation r ecords ( Sm ith , 1 927) h ave l eft i ts i nterpretation i n a s tate o f c onfus ion. The mater ia l f rom t he 4 2 e xcavated p its i s unprovenanced a nd t here i s uncerta inty whether t he b ronzes f rom t he o ccupation l eve l were a ssoc iated w ith t he p ottery o r e nt ire ly unconnected w ith i t . The b est d iscuss ion o f t h is p rob lem i s t o b e f ound i n Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( 1975). The ma in b ronze f inds were s ocketed a xes , a g ouge a nd a c h ise l , a b race let a nd p oss ib ly a s word h and le , a nd t here was s ome i nd ication o f b ronze c asting o n t he s i te. A l l were f rom t he o ccupation l eve l , but a n i ron r od i s s a id t o h ave o r ig inated f rom t he p its. Cha l l is a nd Harding were a b le t o d ifferentiate t wo k inds o f p ottery. F irst , t he mater ia l f rom t he p its c ompr is ing t a l l , r ounded, f lare-r im v esse ls , v esse ls w ith i nterna l ly b eve l led r im a nd t hose w ith f inger-t ipp ing , a l l o f wh ich h ave c ont inenta l c ounterparts a nd c an b e d ated t o t he s ixth c entury b .c . On t he o ccupation l eve l t he p ottery s ty les w ith a ngu lar p rof iles, i mitating meta l v esse ls o f c ont inenta l t ype , i s t hought t o d ate t o a bout m id-f ifth c entury b .c. A lthough , a s o n s ome o ther s ites, t he d at ings o f t he b ronze a nd t he p ottery d o n ot c o inc ide , t he s ocketed a xes b e ing d ated s omewhat e ar l ier t han t he p o ttery ,

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t he s i te c an s ure ly b e p laced a t t he v ery b eg inn ing o f i ron meta l lurgy i n t he 6 th c entury b .c. a s a median , w ith a b road d ate s pan a s s uggested by Manby ( 1980). There a re n o o ther s i tes i n t he a rea o f t he e ar ly p art o f t he I ron Age , a nd t he o n ly o ther e v idence i s t he Günd l ingen ( Ha l lstatt) sword a nd c hape f rom Ebberston , a nd t he b ronze b race lets o f Ha l lstatt t ype f rom S carborough ( Manby , 1 980) a nd Yearby ( Zea land , 1 973). As w ith t he e ar l ier p reh istor ic p er iods , t he h ouses o f t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he I ron Age r ema in undiscovered. The c onstruct ion o f d itches a nd e nc losures a round h ouses o f t he l ater c entur ies o f t he I ron Age h as l ed t o t heir d iscovery by f ie ld a nd a er ia l s urveys i n t he p ast t wenty y ears, o ften on marg ina l l and. P oss ib ly t he f orest r egenerat ion o n t he h i l ls i n t he Late Bronze Age , a nd t he l ack o f s ett lement f inds i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he a bandonment o f t he marg ina l l ands a t t h is t ime ,

I ron Age i mp ly t o b e r e-occup ied

i n t he l ater I ron Age. I n s p ite o f t he h iatus i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he I ron Age, t here c an b e v ery l i tt le d oubt t hat t hroughout t he f irst m i l lenn ium b .c. t here was a v ery c ons iderab le , a nd i ncreas ing , p opu la tion l iving i n t he t radit iona l s ett lement a reas , o n t he p er iphery , a nd i n t he v a l leys o f t he h i l ls, a nd o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls. The l owlands o f C leve land i n t he n or th a nd t he Va le o f P icker ing i n t he s outh were a lso we l l o ccup ied. The e v idence f or l arge numbers o f p eop le c omes both f rom t he p a laeobotan ica l e v idence o f m ass ive c learances a nd f rom t he g reat e arthworks o f t he f irst m i l lenn ium, b oth t he l i near boundary dykes a nd t he h i l iforts. The l ocat ion o f t he s ett lement i n t he l ater p art o f t he I ron Age i s s hown by t he d istr ibution o f b eeh ive querns , most o f wh ich a re c asua l f inds ( Fig.54). F or t h is p er iod, h owever , we h ave c orroborat ive e v idence t hat t he s ett lement p attern i ndicated by t he s poradic f inds b ears a r easonab ly g ood r e lationsh ip t o t he d istr ibut ion o f s ett lements a s t hey h ave b een d iscovered i n t he f ie ld. F igs.55 a nd 5 9 s how t he s ett lements o f t he I ron Age a nd o f Roman p er iod r espect ive ly. By c ompar ing t hese w ith F ig.54, wh ich s hows t he d istr ibut ion o f b eeh ive querns wh ich o ccur i n b oth p er iods , i t c an b e s een t hat t he quern f inds g ive a r epresentative p icture o f t he s ett lement p attern. A ll t hree s how t he a bsence o f s ett lement o n t he c entra l moor lands, a s f or t he p reced ing p er iods , t hough t hey d iffer f rom o ne a nother i n d eta i l. The l arge number o f b eeh ive querns i n t he Esk Va l ley , f or e xamp le, i nd icates a f a ir amount o f s ett lement , but f ew s i tes h ave b een l ocated. I n a dd it ion t o s ett lement e v idence , we h ave a number o f I ron Age b arrows , p art icu lar ly o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls. The d eve lopment o f l i near dykes a nd h i l l f orts , i n it iated i n t he L ate Bronze Age, c ont inued i nto t he I ron Age, but t he d at ing w ith in t he f irst m i l lenn ium i s s t il l v ery uncerta in. We s ha l l r ev iew t he e v idence f rom t hese s ub jects i n o rder. 1

BEEHIVE QUERNS Northeast

Yorksh ire

i s a p art icu lar ly f avourab le

a rea

f or t he

s tudy o f b eeh ive querns. There a re many o f t hem, most o f t hem made o f l oca l s andstone , s ome o f wh ich c an b e i dent if ied a nd e ven on o ccas ion a ss igned t o o ne o f t he t hree l oca l quern f actor ies ( Goath iand, Spaunton Moor a nd Bransda le). About o ne-e ighth o f t he querns a re o f m i l lstone g r it f rom t he P enn ines , but a s t h is

1 86

1 9 4 5 L a n d U t i l s a t i o n C 0

a

0 . . . ' 0

a ö..

a a

I.

Oi l

a

1 87

r ock i s n ot f oss i l iferous , t he s ource o f t he querns c an o n ly b e e st imated i n r ather b road t erms. The i nvest igation o f t he d istr ibution a nd l i tho logy o f t he querns i s d escr ibed by Hayes e t a l. ( 1980), whose work p rov ides t he b as is f or t h is d iscuss ion —. Beeh ive querns h ave b een f ound i n t we lve e xcavat ions i n t h is a rea, s o t hat t here i s s ome b as is f or d educ ing t he ir d ate s pan , t hough no t w ith a ny a ccuracy. The d ate o f t he ir i ntroduct ion i s l ate i n t he I ron Age , but s ince t h is r ests s o le ly o n p ottery a ssoc iat ions, a t rue d ate c an o n ly b e a n a pprox imat ion; 2 00 b .c . s eems t o b e a r easonab le guess , c ompared w ith 3 00 b .c. i n L inco lnsh ire t o t he s outh ( May , 1 976). They were d isp laced by f lat querns i n t he e ar ly p art o f t he Roman o ccupat ion , but i t i s n ot poss ib le t o g ive a d ate t o t h is, a s many b eeh ive querns a re f ound i n l ater c ontexts r e-used a s wa l ls a nd p av ing. About A . D. 2 00 s eems t o r epresent a pprox imate ly t he t ime o f t h is t rans it ion. Thus t he d istr ibution map r epresents s ett lement i n t he i mmed iate p reand p ostinvas ion p er iods. I t i s p lotted o n F ig.54 t ogether w ith t he a rab le l and a s s hown i n t he 1 945 L and U t i l isat ion Survey , s how ing a c lose c o inc idence. I t s eems r easonab le t o t h ink t hat t he g eograph ica l p attern o f a rab le f arm ing i n l a te I ron Age and e ar ly Roman p er iod was n o t v ery d ifferent f rom t hat o f modern t imes , e spec ia l ly a s t here i s s upporting ev idence f or t h is f rom o ther s tud ies. F irst, t he p attern o f s ett lement a s s hown by a ir photography a nd f ie ld work c onf irms t he p attern s hown by t he querns. S econd ly a s d iscussed i n Chapter 2 t he I ron Age/ RomanoBr it ish p er iod was o ne o f i ntens ive f orest c learance; much o f t h is must h ave b een o n t he l ow g round. And t h ird ly , t he p auc ity o f wood land c learance p lace-names i n t h is a rea i nd icates t hat much o f t he l ow g round h ad b een c leared b efore t he S axons n amed t he ir v i l lages. The e v idence i s s trong , t herefore , f or a l ate I ron Age/ Romano-Br it ish agr icu ltura l p attern on t he Tabu lar H i l ls , t he p er iphera l a nd v a l ley l owlands , a s a t t he p resent d ay. I ndeed o ne may we l l wonder whether t here was a ny v iab le a lternat ive f or t he e ar ly f armers ; we h ave s een t hat t h is p attern i s p ers istent f rom t he Neo l ith ic p er iod o nward. The

p attern o f d istr ibut ion o f querns f rom v ar ious

s ources i s

i nterest ing , a s g iv ing s ome i ns ight i nto t rade a nd e xchange. There s eem t o b e t hree s eparate p atterns:1 The m i l lstone g r it querns f rom t he P enn ines, a v ery g ood r ock f or m i l l ing , a re d istr ibuted ma in ly t o t he west o f t he a rea , w ith p rogress ive ly l ower d ens ity t oward t he c oast; 2 The querns p roduced f rom t he l oca l quern f actor ies a t Bransda le and Spaunton ( both o f t he f oss i l iferous s andstone) a nd f rom Goath iand

c r ino id g r it , a ( a M iddle Jurass ic

unfoss i l iferous s andstone) a re f ound o n t he a rab le l and w ith in 1 5-20 k i lometres o f t he f actor ies. These h ave med ium-qua l i ty m i l l ing p roperties. 3 The poor qua l ity querns f rom t he c ora l l ian r ocks o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls , h owever , s e ldom move away f rom t he a rea o f t he r ock o utcrop. There s eem t o b e, t herefore , t hree k inds o f d istr ibut ion ; a n o rgan ised t rade f rom t he P enn ines , a l oca l t rade i n t he q uern f actor ies o f t he r eg ion , a nd a h ome i ndustry f or t he c ora l l ian querns. I t i s n ot p oss ib le t o a ss ign d ate s pans t o t hese t rade

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p atterns, n or f or t hat matter t o t he s cu lptura l qua l ity o f t he querns wh ich r ange f rom a v ery c rude t o a b eautifu l ly s haped quern. There a lso s eems t o b e a w ide v ar iety o f u se o f t he querns, f or querns o f v ar ious r ocks a nd d ifferent f orms a re f ound on t he s ame s ett lement s i te. The a dvantage o f a b eeh ive quern c ompared w ith a s add le quern , i s n ot i ts g reater o utput p er h our , but t hat i t i s much l ess t ir ing t o operate , a nd c an t herefore b e u sed f or l onger t ime t o p rocess g reater quant it ies o f g ra in. The S tudy o f b eeh ive querns t herefore i nd icates a n i ntens if ication o f a gr icu lture i n t he l ast p ar t o f t he I ron Age a nd t he Roman p er iod , t o t he e xtent t hat s pec ia l quern f actor ies were e stab l ished a nd querns were b rought f rom t he P enn ines up t o 9 0 k i lometres. I t i s h ard ly p oss ib le t o r econc i le t hese f acts w ith t he i dea o f a n omad ic p astora l e conomy f or t he a rea. 2

SETTLE MENTS

The overa l l d istr ibut ion o f I ron Age s ett lements i s s hown o n F ig.55 a nd l i sted i n Tab le 3 1. The map g ives a c orrect o vera l l i mpress ion o f t he p redominant ly l owland n ature o f t he. I ron Age s ett lement, but i s m is leading i n t he s ense t hat i t s hows t he l argest c oncentrat ion o f s i tes i n t he C leve land a rea. Th is i s t he r esu lt o f r ecent i ntens ive f ie ld work and i s o f s i tes w ith I ron Age t ype pottery , but whose p resence i s u sua l ly f irst b etrayed by t he o bservation o f Roman s herds. Here we e ncounter a ma jor p rob lem i n d istingu ish ing I ron Age s i tes f rom Romano-Br it ish ; we d o n ot know t he e xtent t o wh ich t he l ate I ron Age p ottery f orms c ontinued t o b e made a fter A . D. 7 0, a nd t hus i t i s u ncerta in , when s ites c onta in unstratif ied m ixtures o f n ative ' Br igant ian ' a nd Roman p ottery , whether t hey p re-date t he i nvas ion. Thus we h ave a g ood g enera l c onception o f t he d istr ibution o f t he I ron Age s ett lement i n t he a rea, but unre l iab le i nformat ion o n l oca l c oncentrat ions, a nd s ome uncerta inty i n t he d ate s pan o f t he l oca l l ate I ron Age p ottery f orms ( Cha l l is a nd Hard ing , 1 975), a s o f t he b eeh ive querns. The s ett lements t hemse lves f a l l i nto t wo ma in t ypes , f irst t he unenc losed r ound h ouses , a nd s econd ly r ound h ouses s urrounded by an e nc losed a rea d e l im ited by a d itch and b ank. The unenc losed r ound h ouses a re u sua l ly f ound i n c lusters o f t wo o r t hree but , a s w i l l b e d iscussed l ater , s ing le h ouses a lso o ccur o n t he moor lands. The f irst e xamp le o f t h is t ype t o b e i nvest igated was t he g roup o n t he c rest o f P ercy R igg n ear 1 972). Here t here were p robab ly t hree phases o f h ouses o n t he r e lationsh ips. The

K i lda le ( Close , c onstruct ion o f

s ame s ite , d educed f rom t he ir h or izonta l p ottery c ou ld b e d ated t o t he l ate p ar t o f t he

I ron Age , by r eference t o t he work o f Cha l l is a nd Hard ing ( 1975). Th is e xtens ive c lass if icat ion work, wh ich f orms t he b as is o f a l l t he d ating i n t h is c hapter , was i n p rogress c oncurrent ly w ith t he P ercy R igg e xcavation. Cha l l is a nd Harding make t he p o int t hat P ercy R igg p ottery , w ith t hat o f S tanw ick, P a le End, C atco te ( near Hart lepoo l , unpub l ished e xcavation 1 964), Normanby a nd t o s ome e xtent Levisham Moor f orm a d ist inct ive g roup ( to wh ich we c an n ow a dd Roxby , d escr ibed l ater), f or wh ich t he a ssoc iat ion

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w ith i mported wares a t S tanw ick p rov ides r ough d at ing e v idence. At Percy R igg , t he p resence o f o ne b eeh ive quern b ase t ogether w ith n ine s add le querns a nd r ubb ing s tones s upports t he c ontinuat ion o f t he s ett lement i nto t he l ast phase o f t he I ron Age. The querns t ogether w ith h onestones a lso p rov ide e v idence o f t he a gr icu ltura l n ature o f t he s ubs istence. There was n o d irect e v idence o f p astora l a ct iv ity , p art ly b ecause unca lc ined b one d oes n ot s urv ive i n t he moor land s o i ls. Some o f t he huts d id n ot c onta in h earths, h owever , a nd m ight b e i nterpreted a s byres. Th is i s t he h ighest o f a l l t he I ron Age s ett lements c urrent ly known i n t he a rea ( 270 metres), a nd i t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i f t here were n ot p astora l a ctiv ity a t t h is h e ight. The huts a re a ssoc iated w ith a f ie ld whose boundar ies c ompr ise s ma l l l inear d itches , but i ts purpose , whether agr icu ltura l o r p astora l , i s unc lear . The o ther f inds f rom t hese we l l-constructed s tone huts a re s urpr is ing ly s parse ; a f ragment o f a j et b ang le i s t he o n ly h int o f al i fe-sty le o ther t han t hat o f b are s ubs istence; e vidence o f weav ing o r meta l lurgy i s a bsent a nd t here i s n o i mported p ottery o r g lass. I ndeed , t he p ottery i tse lf , c onta in ing f ragments o f t he l oca l C leve land Dyke i gneous r ock , a ppears t o h ave b een c rude ly f ired o n t he s ite. A p oor f arm o n marg ina l l and, o ne wou ld c onc lude , p erhaps e ven a s easona l o ne. The f act t hat s evera l h earths and a c ook ing p it were f ound externa l t o t he huts m ight s uggest u se o f t he s i te i n t he f a ir weather months, t hough n ot n ecessar i ly e xc lus ive ly s o. About

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t he b est e xamp les o f a n I ron Age e nc losure , o n Great Ayton Moor , s eparated f rom P ercy R igg by Lounsda le Va l ley. I t i s approx imate ly s quare i n p lan , w ith s ide l ength 6 0 metres, w ith t wo c orners s harp ly d ef ined r ight s ng les , a nd t he o ther t wo g ent ly curved t hrough t he r ight a ng le. The c haracter ist ic o f s harp a nd r ounded c orners o ften o ccurs w ith t he l ate I ron Age e nc losures wh ich a re i nc luded i n Tab le 3 1 ( Pre-Roman I ron Age S ites). They s eem t o b e d istinct f rom t he s ma l l s quare e nc losures l i sted i n Tab le 3 4, a nd wh ich a ppear t o b e c onnected w ith t he f arm ing a ct iv it ies i n t he Roman p er iod, a s w i l l b e d iscussed i n Chapter 7 . The e nc losures w ith t he p ronounced r ounded c orners , f or wh ich we h ave a ny i nformation , a ppear t o b e c onstructed i n t he l ast phase o f t he I ron Age. They a re a t Great Ayton Moor , Crown End ( Westerda le), Roxby Low Moor , Crathorne , Boxhi l ( Cast leton) a nd Lev isham Moor. Coomb H i l l ( Wykeham F orest) a nd S tudford R igg ( Hamb leton H i l ls) h ave t h is morpho logy but a re u ndated. Further a f ie ld , Thorpe Thew les ( a f ew k i lometres n orth o f t he Tees), be ing e xcavated by t he C leve land County Archaeo log ist , Brandon i n County Durham ( Jobey , 1 962) a nd Me ithar n Huddersf ie ld ( Toomey , 1 976) a re a l l I ron Age e nc losures w ith

n ow West n ear t h is

t ype o f g round p lan. I t i s, h owever , v ery un l ike ly t hat t here i s a d ef in it ive c hrono logy o f e nc losures wh ich c an b e f ramed f rom t he ir s hape. L ack ing a ny b etter i nformation , t he l arge e nc losures w ith r ounded c orners h ave b een i nc luded i n t he I ron Age l i sts , a nd t hose w ith r egu lar s quare p lans , most o f wh ich a re n ow p loughed out , i n t he Roman l i sts. But t here i s n o c erta inty i n t h is matter , a nd s ome may e ven d ate t o p ost-Roman a nd l a ter med ieva l p er iods. Some e nc losures d o n ot c orrespond w ith e ither o f t hese d escr iptions , f or e xamp le , t he k ite-shaped e nc losures a t Barnaby

1 91

and Sna inton, a nd Kepwick ( F ig. 5 8).

t he

i rregu lar

r ectangu lar

e nc losure a t P enhi l ,

The e conomy o f t he Great Ayton e nc losure a ppears t o h ave a p astora l emphas is. Pa laeobotan jca l s tudy o f t he s o i l b e low t he r ampar t s howed t hat t he e nc losure was bu i l t i n o pen g rass land , a t a bout t he m idd le p er iod o f t he I ron Age f rom t he p ottery e v idence. There were no querns o r h onestones f ound i n t he e xcavation o f a n o va l p aved hut i n t he i nter ior a nd t he i nterna l d itch a nd wa l l f oo tings o n t he i ns ide o f t he b ank s uggest t hat t he e nc losure was d es igned t o h o ld s tock. However , t he p a laeobotan ica l work i nd icated c erea l g row ing p r ior t o t he c onstruct ion o f t he e nc losure , a nd a f ie ld s ystem f ormed l ater a round t he p er iphery i nd icates agr icu lture a t a l ater d ate. Many p o l len d iagrams f rom t he p eat bogs i n C leve land s how c ontinuous c erea l c u lture i n t he I ron Age ( Chapter 2 ). The e nc losure a t Great Ayton Moor , t herefore , a lthough p r imar i ly p astora l i n purpose , h as e v idence o f a rab le a ct iv ity ; i n o ther words , i t i s a m ixed f arm, n ot e nt ire ly d iss im i lar f rom t he unenc losed h omesteads. I t i s p robab ly wrong t o t h ink o f t he s ett lements, e ither e nc losed o r unenc losed , a s c omp lete ly i ndependent f arming un its. They p robab ly f ormed p ar t o f i ntegrated m ixed f arm ing c omp lexes , t he unenc losed huts p oss ib ly were a gr icu ltura l i n emphas is , t he e nc losures w ith a more p astora l emphas is. The e nc losures a re no t c oncentrated e ither o n t he h igher o r o n t he l ower g round, f or t hey a re f ound a cross t he C leve land p la in , a nd o n t he l ower f oo thi l ls. S evera l p rom inent e nc losures o f I ron Age t ypes l i e o n Lev isham Moor s ome 5 00 metres n or th o f t he p resent c u lt ivated f ie lds, a nd a re i nterconnected by a s er ies o f dykes , a s d escr ibed i n Chapter 5 .2. They were i nvest igated by S carborough Archaeo log ica l Soc iety ( Rutter , 1 964b, 1 965, 1 966) a d iagram o f t he s ite b e ing g iven i n F ig.51. Enc losures A , B , C a nd D were p artia l ly e xcavated. A l l p roduced p ottery o f l ate I ron Age t ype , d rawn by Cha l l is a nd Hard ing , a nd i n a dd it ion , t here were a f ew Roman s herds. Enc losure A p roduced a mor tar ium r im o f Gi lam Type 2 40, d ated f rom t he l ate f irst t o t he e ar ly s econd c entury ; a nd a g lass b ang le c ame f rom e nc losure B , a lso d at ing t o a bout t h is p er iod. Enc losure A proved t o h ave a v ery d eep e xterna l d itch a nd, l y ing o n a s ma l l h i l l top , g ives a n i mpress ion o f a d efens ive purpose . Enc losure C , n ot v is ib le a s a n upstanding e ar thwork , s eemed t o b e a l ater e xtens ion o f A . Enc losure B c onta ined t wo l arge c ircu lar huts o f wood o r t urf c onstruct ion , a nd a c ons iderab le quantity o f I ron Age p ottery , s o t hat i t a ppears , w ith A , t o b e a ma in dwe l l ing a rea. S ite D proved t o b e a b loomery , s urrounded by a d itch, a nd e v ident ly r oofed. I t c onta ined a h emispher ica l b owl f urnace w ith a c lay d ome s ti l l i n p lace , a nd was t he o n ly unenc losed bu i ld ing i n t he a rea. The e nc losures l i e o n t he r e lat ive ly i nferti le c a lcareous g r it o f t he c ora l l ian s er ies , whereas t he p resent v i l lage a nd i ts f ie lds a re ma in ly o n t he f ert i le Oo l it ic l imestones, a nd i t wou ld s eem l ike ly t hat t he moor land e nc losures a re t he p er iphera l s i tes o f af arm ing c ommun ity wh ich o ccup ied t he more p roduct ive l and n ear t he p resent v i l lage. F or t he s ize o f t he c omp lex , quern f inds were s parse ( two b eeh ive querns a nd s evera l

1 92

s add le querns), p erhaps i ndicat ing , a s a t Great Ayton a nd Roxby ( see l ater) a ma in ly p astora l f unct ion f or t he e nc losures. The s ituations o f t he I ron a re on t he marg ina l l and on v i l lage, a re s im i lar t o t hose o f Roxby s i tes i s g iven i n F ig.56.

Age s ett lements a t Roxby, wh ich t he moor land s ide o f a med ieva l L ev isham Moor . A d iagram o f t he A s tudy o f t he med ieva l l ayout o f

t he v i l lage f rom t he 1 728 and 1 813 maps s hows c lear ly t hat a l l t he s urv iv ing I ron Age s i tes a re o n t he marg ina l l and wh ich was n ot c u ltivated i n t he m idd le a ges , a c onc lus ion c onf irmed by f ie ld o bservations. There a ppear t o b e t hree s ett lement t ypes , d isposed e ither s ide o f t he r oad l eading s outhward f rom t he v i l lage a cross t he moor t o t he Esk Va l ley n ear Danby Beacon. F irst, t here was a d itched e nc losure , o n wh ich a r escue e xcavat ion was p oss ib le a fter p lough ing i n 1 973. The d itch p roved t o b e qu ite s ha l low, a nd t here was n o s ign o f a p a l isade , s o t hat i ts s tructure p rov ided a c ontrast w ith t he d eep e xterna l d itch o f t he L ev isham Moor e nc losures, a nd w ith t he we l l-constructed d itch , wa l l a nd b ank f or s tock e nc losure a t Great Ayton Moor . The Roxby e nc losure d itch s eemed s imp ly t o d emarcate a n a rea f or h erd ing a n ima ls, a nd p erhaps was p lanted w ith a h edge. l t c onta ined t wo d itched huts , one o f wh ich was e xcavated and y ie lded ma in ly t h ick c oarse p ottery s im i lar t o S tanw ick c oarse wares , a nd s eemed t o c ompr ise s torage j ars p oss ib ly f or meat o r o ther a n ima l p roducts. The h ut a lso p roduced a s ma l l b arre l j ar , wh ich, a s d iscussed by Cha l l is and l ate

Harding , i s a l ate Bronze Age f orm wh ich s urv ives i nto t he I ron Age i n t h is p art o f Yorksh ire. On ly o ne quern f ragment

a nd n o h onestones were p roduced e ither i n t he e xcavations, o r p loughed up f rom t he e nc losure o r i ts v ic in ity. As w ith Great Ayton Moor e nc losure , o ne may t herefore t h ink o f a ma in ly p astora l emphas is f or t h is s i te. There were a lso g roups o f huts i n t he a rea , a nd o ne l inear g roup o f f our huts was e xcavated f rom 1 973 t o 1 981 ( pub l icat ion f othcoming). The f irst t hree huts p roduced p ottery whose s hape and f abr ic l eft n o d oubt o f i ts i dent ity w ith t he o ther l a te I ron Age s ites o f t he r eg ion. A l l t hree h ad a c omp lex h istory o f r ebu i lding , a nd a ppeared t o h ave s pec ia l ised u ses. One o f t hem c onta ined a s add le a nd a we l l-worn b eeh ive quern a nd h ad a c ircu lar a nnexe, wh ich, h av ing n o e ntrance a t f loor l eve l , s eemed t o b e a r a ised s torage r oom. Poss ib ly t he ma in a ct iv ity h ere was s torage a nd p rocess ing o f c erea l p roducts. A s econd hut c onta ined an i ron sme lting b owl f urnace a nd a number o f f urnace b ottoms ( s lag s o l id if ied t o t he s hape o f t he b ottom o f t he f urnace). There was a h onestone , s add le querns a nd p ot b o i lers i ndicative o f more g enera l a ctiv it ies. The t h ird h ut , c ontemporary w ith t he s econd, a s s hown by f urnace buttoms f ound i n t he d itch , h ad work ing h o l lows w ith meta l lurg ica l d ebr is, a nd m ight h ave b een u sed f or sm ith ing o perat ions, i n a ddit ion t o more g enera l u t i l ity. The f ourth hut, a l i tt le r emoved f rom t he o ther t hree , p roduced p ottery o f r ather l ater f abr ic , o f a s andy , g r itty t exture , u sual ly a ssoc iated w ith Romano-Br it ish wares , a nd f rom t he v ery l ast phase o f s i lting t he d itch n ear t he e ntrance d oorway , s herds o f Ang lo-Saxon ware o f t he s ixth c entury A . D. I t was s i tuated i n a n a rea o f c rossp lough ing o f p reh istor ic t ype , a nd was c lear ly t o b e d ated l a ter t han t he f irst t hree huts; i t i s uncerta in whether t here was a n

1 93

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1 94

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agr icu ltura l , t hough t he d iscovery o f t he h orns o f Bos l ong ifrons i n t he hut d itches i nd icates p astora l a ct iv ity a s we l l. A m ixed f arm ing e conomy f or t he a rea i s i n f act borne out by p a laeobotan ica l work a t Tranm ire S lack , a p eat b og a bout 3 k i lometres s outheast o f t he s i te ( Jones , 1 978). The c erea l a nd p astora l f arm ing p attern s eems t o h ave o r ig inated i n t he Bronze Age , a nd t here i s e v idence i n t he I ron Age o f qu ite i ntensive m ixed f arm ing , a ccompan ied by a r ap id s pread o f h eath land. Tree p o l len was a t t h is t ime a bout 1 0% o f t he t ota l , a nd p o l len f rom s hrubs was t he t erra in

a lmost n eg l ig ible. I n o ther words, was p robab ly n ot v ery d ifferent

t he a ppearance o f f rom t hat o f t he

p resent d ay , t hough p astora l ism c urrent ly d om inates t he s cene. The p a laeobotan ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idences f or m ixed I ron Age f arm ing a re t herefore i n g ood a greement. L ast ly , a t h ird s ett lement t ype i s c ompr ised by t he s ing le d itched r ound h ut o n a sma l l h i l lock i n t he moor land a rea n ear t he p reh istor ic t rack , a bout 1 500 metres s outh o f t he e nc losure. I t h as n ot b een e xcavated, but i s p robab ly b est i nterpreted a s a h erdsman 's hut. I f , a s h as b een d iscussed i n Chapter 5 , we c once ive o f t he l ate p reh istor ic f armers o perating i n d iscrete t err itor ies d ef ined ch ief ly by n atura l boundar ies , t hen i t i s e asy t o s pec ify t he t err itory o f t he Roxby I ron Age g roup , f or t he t erra in i s a lmost c omp lete ly s urrounded o n a l l s ides by moor land s treams i n qu ite d eep va l leys, i n f act t he c omb ined p resent-day t ownsh ips o f Roxby and Borrowby ( Fig.57). ( From t he n ature o f t he t ownsh ip boundar ies , Borrowby c an b e s een a s a l ater i ntrus ive t ownsh ip i nto Roxby t erra in, s ince t he b oundary b etween t he t wo f o l lows t he i rregu lar l ine o f t he e ar ly f ie lds.) On t he west t he t err itory i s bounded by Roxby Beck , o n t he e ast by B irchda le Beck , o n t he s outh a nd s outh-east by Harda le a nd Tranm ire S lacks. There a re t wo g aps i n t he n atura l b oundar ies p rov ided by t hese s treams , o ne on t he west, t he o ther o n t he e ast; t he b oundar ies h ere a re marked by s tones, s ome o f t hem o f v ery a nc ient weathered appearance, s ome o bv ious ly more modern. The t erra in d ef ined by t he b oundar ies wou ld g ive , i n t he I ron Age , a s a t l ater p er iods , s cope f or both a rab le a nd p astora l a ct iv it ies. And, a s i n t he med ieva l p er iod , t he p reh istor ic a rab le a ct iv ity wou ld t end t o b e c oncentrated o n t he more workab le b ou lder c lay t o t he n orth o f t he a rea. The p resent v i l lage i s a s urv iva l o f t he med ieva l s treet v i l lage, s urrounded by t he o ld o pen f ie lds where a g ood d ea l o f r igg and-furrow s tr ip i s s ti l l t o b e s een , w ith o ut ly ing f arms i n t he s outhern p art o f t he a rea Moor House ( near t he e xcavated -

huts), Ca la is House and H igh Tranm ire F arm, a l l p redominant ly p astora l f arms. There i s n ot much a rab le f arm ing a t t he p resent d ay , but i n t he medieva l p er iod t here was o bvious ly much p lough iand n ear t he v il lage , e xtend ing s outhward a lmost t o t he I ron Age s i tes, a nd p astora l ism o n t he r ough g raz ing a nd moor land i n t he s outh o f t he a rea. Th is s i tuation i s r eproduced i n t he I ron Age p attern. The m ixed f arm ing s ett lement a nd p reh istor ic p lough land i s i n t he n or th o f t he a rea l eft untouched by t he med ieva l p lough ing; t he p astora l a ct iv it ies s eem t o h ave b een f urther s outh a t t he e nc losure s i te a nd p resumably t he i so lated h erdsman 's hut o n t he h eather moor land. Unfortunate ly , n o

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s how ing

I ron Age

p reh istor ic mater ia l o r s ite h as s urv ived i n t he a rea n ear t he v i l lage , wh ich i s t he u sua l s i tuation i n t he medieva l f armlands , s o t hat we c annot know f or c erta in t he n ature o f t he I ron Age a ct iv ity t here. We c an h owever p ropose w ith a c erta in a ssurance an i ntegrated m ixed I ron Age e conomy f or t he a rea , w ith g roups o f huts h av ing d ifferent f unct ions i n t he e conomy , w ith a n a rab le emphas is t o t he north , a nd p astora l ism t o t he s outh o n t he moor lands. I t i s n ot a s i tuat ion o f t he f u l ly i ntegrated e conomy o f a med ieva l v i l lage, but p erhaps a n e ar ly e xamp le o f a ' po lyfoca l ' s ett lement a s d iscussed by Tay lor ( 1977), t hough o f c ourse we c annot b e c erta in , o ur e v idence f rom t he ma in p art o f t he p resent v i l lage h av ing d isappeared. Th is p attern i s , h owever , a lso f ound a t Lev isham, a s a lready d iscussed , a nd c an a lso b e s een i n t he med ieva l v i l lage o f L iverton a f ew k i lometres t o t he west o f Roxby. Here o n t he moor land s ide o f t he medieva l v i l lage was a n e nc losure o f I ron Age o r Roman t ype wh ich p roduced b eeh ive querns, a nd on t he h igher moor land t o t he s outh i s a n i so lated r ound hut , r eproduc ing t he Roxby p attern. I nd icat ions o f i nc ip ient nuc leation h ave b een o bserved i n r ecent I ron Age s tudies i n Yorksh ire , p art icu lar ly a t Wetwang S lack ( Dent , p ers. c omm.). Nuc leated I ron Age s ett lements h ave b een i nvest igated i n t he North a nd North M id lands i n r ecent d ecades ; Dragonby i n L inco lnsh ire ( May , 1 976) a nd Ledston i n West Yorksh ire ( Ke igh ley e t a l., 1 977) a re b oth nuc leated s ett lements d ating t o t he l ater p art o f t he I ron Age. A g ood c ompar ison w ith Roxby i s t he nuc leated I ron Age s ett lement a t Thorpe Achurch i n Nor thamptonsh ire ( R.C. H. M. Vo lume o n Northamptonsh ire , 1 975, 9 4-95). Here a l inear a rrangement o f I ron Age s ett lement d eve loped f urther i n t he Roman p er iod, a nd was s ucceeded a bout 2 00 metres d istance t o t he west by t he med ieva l v i l lage. There i s t he p rob lem w ith a l l t hese e xamp les whether , o r wh ich , huts o n t he s i te a re c ontemporary w ith o ne a nother. But a ssuming t hat s ome o f t hem a re , t hen i t m ight b e p oss ib le t o p ostu late t he o r ig ins o f s ome s imp le k ind o f c o-operative agr iculture i n t he l ate I ron Age , t hough p robab ly n ot w ith a ny h igh d egree o f o rgan isat ion. The Roxby s i te i s , w ith S tanw ick, t he most n orther ly e xamp le o f a nuc leated I ron Age s ett lement i n Yorksh ire. I t l i es, h owever , o n a n e xposed t erra in , w ith a h arsh c l imate a nd t ough bou lder c lay s o i l. I t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i f a s imp le t ype o f c o-operative e conomy was b eg inn ing t o b e e vo lved h ere , t hat i t s hou ld n ot h ave d one s o i n more f avourab le a reas i n North Yorksh ire. F ina l ly , we must d iscuss t he n ature o f t he I ron Age s ett lement i n t he c arr l ands o f t he Va le o f P icker ing. I n Chapter 5 .2, t he r ecent work on p it a l ignments was d iscussed, a s i nd icat ing i ntens ive f arming u se o f t he c arr l ands i n t he f i rst m i l lenn ium b .c., s uff ic ient t o warrant b oundary s ystems. F or t he l ater p art o f t he I ron Age a nd t he Roman p er iod , b eeh ive querns a re f a ir ly p lentifu l , u sua l ly b e ing f ound o n t he s ma l l h i l locks wh ich a re s cattered on t he f lat l ands o f t he Va le , p art icu lar ly t he K immer idge C lay o utcrops i n t he western p ar t. Thus t here s eems t o h ave b een an i ntens if icat ion i n t h is p er iod o f a s ett lement p attern g o ing b ack t o t he Neo l ith ic p er iod, a s s hown by t he s tone axe d istr ibution. There i s a lso a n e xamp le o f a l arge nuc leated s ett lement h ere , a t Costa Beck , a bout 3 .5 k i lometres s outhwest o f

1 97

F ig-58.

The

undated

e nc losure

a t

ou t).

1 98

Penh i l l ,

Kepw ick

( ploughed

t he c entre o f P icker ing. I t i s a t t he r ivers ide, a pparent ly bu i lt o n wooden p i les, i nvest igated a t t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury ( Duncombe, 1 899) and a ga in i n t he 1 920s , but w ithout a dequate pump ing e qu ipment t o e nsure g ood e xcavation c ondit ions ( Clark , 1 930). I n r ecent y ears , p ottery t ogether w ith querns, b ones , l oomwe ights and i ron s lag h ave b een r ecovered f rom a 1 00 metre s tretch o f t he r iver b anks ( Hayes , 1 979) a nd a er ia l photographs s hown a n i ntens ive e ar ly f ie ld a nd e nc losure s ystem t o t he n orth o f t he s tream, o n t he c arr l and 2 k i lometres n orth o f t he s i te ( R i ley , A ir Photograph 9 91/25, 1 976). The p ottery f rom t he e ar ly i nvest igations s eems t o d ate f rom t he l ast c entur ies o f t he I ron Age ( Cha l l is a nd Harding) a nd Hayes ' r ecent d iscover ies c onf irm t h is v iew. The a n ima l bones c o l lected i n t he 1 920s e xcavat ion p rov ide an i nterest ing i ns ight i nto t he I ron Age e conomy; t hey were c h ief ly o f Bos l on ifrons, but d og , r ed d eer , g oat o r s heep , p ig a nd h orse were a lso p resent , many b ones b e ing o f i mmature an ima ls. Quernstones f ound i n t he r ecent s earch ing i nd icate u se o f c erea ls , s o t hat t here s eems t o h ave b een a m ixed e conomy , a s f ound o n t he o ther I ron Age s i tes d escr ibed i n t h is c hapter. The a ir photographs o f t he Costa Beck a rea , s how ing b oth e nc losures and f ie lds , s eem t o p rov ide s ome c onf irmat ion o f t h is. The r ecent d iscovery o f a La Tene sword a t S eamer Carr ( Schad la-Ha l l , p ers. c omm.) i s a no ther s ign o f l ate I ron Age a ct iv ity o n t he c arr l ands. I RON AGE METALLURGY I n v iew o f t he r ead i ly a va i lab le i ron o res i n t he a rea , i t i s n ot s urpr is ing t o f ind s ome e xamp les o f p reh istor ic i ron work ing. Three s ites a re c urrent ly known. A t L ev isham Moor t here was p reserved, w ith t he c lay d ome i ntact, a b ow l f urnace wh ich was e v ident ly w ith in s ome k ind o f s imp le bu i ld ing. Sherds o f l ate I ron Age p ottery were f ound, a nd s lags o f t yp ica l ly h eterogeneous c ompos it ion, i ndicating a r ather unsoph ist icated s tandard o f t echno logy. I n o ne o f t he Roxby h uts t here was a s imi lar f urnace, d iameter a bout 3 0 cm, f i l led w ith f ragments o f t he c lay d ome a nd meta l lurg ica l d ebr is. The hut h ad undergone s tructura l a l terat ion dur ing i ts l i fetime , p oss ib ly t o a l low t he v ent i la tion n eeded f or f urnace o perat ion , wh ich p roduces c op ious amounts o f p o isonous c arbon monox ide. A number o f t yp ica l f urnace bottoms were f ound i n t he hut a nd a t t he e ntrance , a nd i n t he a d jacent h ut. The s econd hut h ad d epress ions i n t he f loor f i l led w ith meta l lurg ica l d ebr is wh ich m ight i nd icate t hat t he s econdary s mith ing o perat ions h ad b een d one t here. F ina l ly , t he t yp ica l h eterogeneous s lags were a lso d iscovered i n t he wa l l o f t he e nc losure a t Crown End, Westerda le ( Harbord a nd Spratt , 1 975) a nd t echn ica l e xaminat ion l eft l i tt le d oubt t hat t hey were t he p roducts o f e ar ly s me lting i n a sma l l bowl f urnace , but h ere t he o perat ion c ou ld n ot b e d ated. Our c urrent i nformation , t herefore , i s o f s ma l l-sca le b atch f urnace o perat ion i n t he l ate p art o f t he I ron Age, i n l ocations w ide ly s paced a cross t he a rea. I RON AGE

BURIALS

The d istr ibut ion o f s quare b arrows a nd t he c har iot bur ia ls o f t he I ron Age a re s hown i n F ig.55, wh ich d emonstrates t he ir ma in c oncentrat ion on t he e astern and c entra l p arts o f t he Tabu lar

1 99

H i l ls, j ust t hose a reas wh ich h ave p roduced t he r ichest p reh istor ic f inds f rom t he Neo l ith ic p er iod o nward. These bur ia ls, wh ich f orm p art o f t he East Yorksh ire Arras c u lture , d escr ibed i n d eta i l by S tead ( 1979), a re w idespread a nd p ro l if ic o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds, a nd t hose on t he Tabu lar H i l ls c ompr ise a s ma l l f ract ion o f t he t ota l known i n Yorksh ire. There i s a lso s ome e v idence o f t hese bur ia ls f urther t o t he n or th. Young ( 1817) r efers t o t he ' square o r o b long s quare ' barrows o n A is laby Moor n ear Wh itby , t he s ame d escr iption a s app l ied by H inderwe l l ( 1811) t o t he b arrows o n S eamer Moor n ear S carborough. There a re n o s quare b arrows d iscernab le among t he r ound b arrows o n A is laby Moor a t t he p resent t ime; t he c orners o f s quare b arrows t end t o b ecome e roded, g iv ing t hem t he a ppearance o f r ound b arrows , a nd when s quare b arrows h ave h ad a c entra l p it dug i nto t hem, t h is a lso wou ld t end t o make t hem s uperf ic ia l ly i nd ist ingu ishab le f rom r ound b arrows. The Wh itby h inter land r epeated ly s hows c oncentrations o f p reh istor ic f inds o n d istr ibut ion maps, i nc luding b eeh ive querns, s o i t may not b e s urpr is ing t o f ind I ron Age bur ia ls h ere r ather t han i n t he l ess p roduct ive p reh istor ic a reas. Another o ut ly ing examp le s urv ives i n a p rom inent p os it ion o n t he s umm it o f C anton Bank , a poss ib le l ocation f or a n i mportant bur ia l. And , f ur ther a f ie ld, a c har iot bur ia l o f t he f irst c entury b .c. was f ound a t S tanw ick f ort (Whee ler , 1 954). A f ew s quare b arrows s eem t o d ate f rom b efore 4 00 b .c., but t he ma jor ity o f t he Arras c u lture bur ia ls a re d ated t o t he s econd and f irst c entur ies b .c. ( Stead, 1 979). The t wo c art bur ia ls i n t he s tudy a rea a t Cawthorn Camps a nd P exton Moor d o n ot s eem t o b e d atab le t o a ny d egree o f p rec is ion , a s t hey c onta ined n o g rave g oods o ther t han i ron whee l h oops a nd p arts o f h arness i n p oor c ond it ion. There i s t herefore l i tt le d irect e v idence by wh ich t o d ate t he s quare b arrows i n t he s tudy a rea, but by a na logy w ith East Yorksh ire a nd S tanw ick t hey may b e t hought t o b e long t o t he l ast t wo c entur ies b .c. Ramm ( 1978) makes t he c ase f or r egard ing t he s quare b arrows a s t he i dent if ication o f P ar is ian t err itory i n E ast Yorksh ire. Thus t he b oundary b etween t he Br igantes a nd t he P ar is i wou ld l i e a long t he n or thern s carp o f t he l imestone h i l ls , a s f ar west a s t he R iver Rye wh ich wou ld f orm p art o f t he western b oundary , p erhaps i n c on junction w ith t he mass ive Doub le Dykes o n t he e astern e nd o f t he Hambleton H i l ls. Certa in ly s quare b arrows h ave n ot s o f ar been f ound i n a er ia l r econna issance o f t he Hamb leton H i l ls. The ma in d oubt w ith Ramm 's a rgument i s t hat by t he l ast p art o f t he I ron Age , p ermanent s ett lement i n Northeast Yorksh ire was ma in ly p er iphera l t o t he h i l ls a nd i n t he v a l leys. I n b oth t hese t erra ins t he d iscovery o f b arrows by a ir photography o f c ropmarks i s d iff icu lt a nd i t i s l ike ly t hat h ad more s quare b arrows e x isted t o t he n orth o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls , t hey c ou ld e as i ly h ave r ema ined und iscovered. However , t he known s quare b arrows d o a ppear i n t he more p roduct ive f arming a reas a nd i t may b e t hat t he s quare b arrow r itua l i s a mark o f t he more p rosperous e conom ies , p art icu lar ly p ro l if ic o n t he Wo lds, o r o f wea lth ier p eop le. Thus we g et a s imi lar d istr ibut ion o f s quare b arrows t o t he b ronze a r tefacts o f t he Late Bronze Age ( compare F igs.48 and 5 5).

2 00

L INEAR EARTHWORKS We h ave s een i n Chapter 5 .2 h ow t he d at ing o f many l inear e arthworks c an o n ly b e d ef ined b road ly a s l ate Bronze Age o r I ron Age. I n v ery g enera l t erms , t he s ubd iv is ion o f t he l and s eems t o o r ig inate i n t he Ear ly Bronze Age when t he watershed boundar ies were marked by r ound b arrows w ith u rn c remat ions, a nd f rom t he watersheds t he s treams were u sed a s l ines o f d iv is ion , n atura l , e ven e ssent ia l , t o p astora l a ct iv ity. S tarting i n t he L ate Bronze Age, t hese boundar ies were a ugmented o n t he Tabu lar H il ls by l inear dykes a long t he watershed , o r l ead ing f rom t he watershed t o t he v a l ley h eads. We d o n ot know h ow f ar t he p rocess was t aken b efore t he I ron Age , o r i ts r e lat ive p rogress i n d ifferent a reas. But i t s eems t hat by t he e ar ly p art o f t he I ron Age t he t erra in h ad b een d iv ided i nto s ubstantia l t err itor ia l un its , e ach l y ing a cross t he c ontours , s o c onta in ing e lements o f l ow a nd h igh g round, a nd a ccess t o s treams , t o e nab le m ixed f arm ing t o b e e ff ic ient. What a ppears t o h ave h appened a t a l ater d ate o n t he e astern p art o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls i s s ubd iv is ion o f t hese ma jor un its, p resumab ly a s p opu lation p ressure a nd a gr icu ltura l i ntens ity i ncreased. Th is d id n ot a ppear t o o ccur i n t he C leave Dyke s ystem where i ts h igh s ituation wou ld t end t o i nh ib it i ntens if ication o f f arm ing, but i t t ook p lace i n t he l ate p art o f t he I ron Age o r t he Roman p er iod o n L ev isham Moor , where t he l ater dyke i nterconnects t he l ate I ron Age/ Roman e nc losures. The l ater s ubd ivis ions i n t he a rea b etween P icker ing a nd S carborough c annot b e d ated s o s ecure ly , but s ome o f t he e ast-west dykes wh ich s ub-d iv ide t he e states c reated by t he ma in North-South dykes a lso h ave p reh istor ic o r Roman e nc losures a ttached o r n ear t o t hem. One o f t hese i s a n e nc losure w ith c ircu lar huts o n t he Moor Dyke i n Wykeham Forest ( Ordnance Survey 6 inch map, 1 854), n ow d estroyed s o t hat i ts d ate i s unknown , a nd t here were o thers a ttached t o t he e asternmost dyke o n S eamer Moor ( Hinderwe l l 1 824 manuscr ipt, S carborough Museum). The ma jor p r imary dykes s omet imes s erve a s t ownsh ip b oundar ies i n med ieva l a nd modern t imes , but t h is i s unusua l w ith t he l ater , s econdary dykes. H ILL FORTS We

h ave

r ev iewed

t he

e v idence

f or

t he

e ar ly c onstruct ion

o f

h i l iforts i n Chapter 5 .2. A t Bo ltby t he r ampart was bu i lt a t a bout 1 000 b .c. There was a l ater c onstruct ion o f t he ma in r ampart a t Eston Nab, s upp lement ing t he i nter ior p a l isade wh ich , f rom t he p ottery i n i ts v ic in ity , s eems t o b e o f t he s eventh c entury o r t hereabouts. Nowhere h ave we e v idence o f e ither n ew c onstruct ion o r s trengthen ing a n e x ist ing f ort i n t he l ast c entur ies o f t he m i l lenn ium. H i l ltops w ith p astora l e nc losures r ema ined unfort if ied; mu lt iva l lat ion o f e x ist ing f orts was n ot undertaken. Modern

i nterpretations

o f

h i l lforts

p ortray

t heir

v ar iety

i n

many r espects purpose , o ccupation , d ens ity i n t he l andscape , c onstruction a nd d ate. S ince n ear ly a l l t hese i nterpretations h ave b een c oncerned w ith t he f orts o f s outhern Eng land, wh ich d iffer i n -

most r espects o ther t han s uperf ic ia l a ppearance f rom t hose o f t he s tudy a rea, we s hou ld b e i l l-advised t o d raw p ara l le ls w ith t hem. Rather , i t s eems more p rof itab le t o t h ink o f t he d efence p rob lems 2 01

o f t he I ron Age p opu lation o f n or theast Yorksh ire , a s ubstant ia l one , a s we n ow r ea l ise , d isposed i n t he v a l leys a nd a round t he p er ipher ies o f t he c entra l moor lands a nd i nc luding t he Tabu lar H i l ls. I t n o l onger s eems p oss ib le t o t h ink o f t he f orts ma in ly a s r efuges, f or , w ith t he p oss ib le e xcept ion o f Rou lston S car , t hey wou ld a ccommodate on ly a m inute f ract ion o f t he p opu lation a nd t he ir c att le i n t he e vent o f a n a rmed a ttack. (Many s cho lars n ow t h ink o f I ron Age p opu lations a s c ommensurate w ith t hose o f t he Domesday p er iod , e .g. Fowler ( 1978).) And i n a ny c ase t he h i l iforts a re s paced o ut very t h in ly a nd wou ld p rov ide a n i nadequate a nswer t o t he s ecur ity p rob lem i n t erms o f r efuges. A lthough t he c oncept o f r efuge i s an unsat isfactory exp lanat ion o f t he l oca l h i l iforts , c onv inc ing a lternat ives a re n ot r ead i ly f orthcoming. A s tr ik ing f eature o f t he hi ifor ts i s , h owever , t hat b etween t hem t hey s urvey v isua l ly t he a pproaches f rom t he n orth , west a nd s outh west. I f o ne c ons iders t he m i l itary p rob lem o f d efend ing t he p opu lation ma in ly s pread o ut o n t he l ow g round p er iphera l t o t he moor lands, a nd i n t he v a l leys , t hen s ome c oncentration o f f orce wou ld b e necessary t o d efeat i nsurgent b ands, i f i ndiv idua l f arms were n ot t o b e o verrun o ne by o ne. I t m ight b e p oss ib le t o s uggest t he f orts a s c ommand s tations, r a l ly ing p o ints a nd s igna l p osts t o meet t he n eeds o f t h is m il itary s ituation. I f s o , i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee why n o f urther f orts were bu i l t i n t he l ate I ron Age , s ince t he e x ist ing f orts were a dequate f or t hese m i l itary n eeds. Mu ltiva l lation was unnecessary s ince t he f orts were no t r equ ired t o w ithstand s iege a nd i n a ny c ase i t i s t hought t hat t he Br igant ian c lans h ad by t he l a te I ron Age f ormed a f edera l t r ibe wh ich p robab ly m in im ised i ncurs ions. I f t he d efence s trategy h ad c ompr ised p rov is ion o f r efuge p laces t here wou ld p robab ly h ave b een c onstruct ion o f more a nd s tronger f orts i n t he l ast c entur ies o f t he I ron Age. The d igg ing o f t he g reat l i near e arthworks i n t he f irst m i l lenn ium s hows t hat t he e ffort t o b ui ld more f orts was a va i lab le h ad t hey b een wanted. The m i l itary n eeds s eemed n ot t o r equ ire t hem. SU MMARY F rom b e ing a lmost unknown t wenty y ears a go , t he I ron Age a rchaeo logy n ow s hows t he a rea t o b e h eav i ly p opu lated , c erta in ly i n t he l ater p ar t, a nd t he f orest c learances a nd m ixed f arm ing t o b e a t i ts most i ntens ive. The s ett lement p attern , e conomy a nd e nvironment r epresented a c u lmination o f t rends wh ich s tar ted e ar ly i n p reh istor ic t imes. The p attern o f l owland s ett lement o r ig inates i n t he Neo l ith ic p er iod , a s d oes t he m ixed f arm ing o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls. A t a l l t imes t he e astern p art o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls was t he most wea lthy a rea , a nd i t i s n o c o inc idence t hat h ere we f ind t he l argest c oncentrations o f b oth Neo l ith ic l ong b arrows and I ron Age s quare b arrows. The i ndications o f a r anked s oc iety w ith t he b est m i l itary e qu ipment c omes a lso f rom t h is p rosperous a rea , but by t he I ron Age i t s eems l ike ly t hat t he who le s tudy a rea was i nvo lved i n h ierarch ica l t r iba l c u ltures. A l though t here s eems t o b e a c ontinu ity o f s ett lement p attern t hrough p reh istor ic t imes , t here i s l i tt le i ndication o f c ont inu ity o n i ndiv idua l s ett lements. Thus on ly o ccas iona l ly , a s a t Spaunton Manor a nd Wykeham,

d o

we

h ave

i nd ications 2 02

o f

c ont inu ity

f rom

e ar ly

p reh istor ic t imes. I ron Age s i tes s uch a s Lev isham , Roxby a nd P ercy R igg h ave n o Bronze Age p redecessors. Cont inu ity o f t err itor ia l b oundar ies s eems much more u sua l , h owever. The s imp le Bronze Age s ystem i n t he Sn i lesworth a rea s eems t o h ave b een c ont inuous t o med ieva l t imes, a nd t he C leave Dyke s ystem , o r ig inat ing i n t he e ar l ier s ystem b ased o n r ound b arrow a l ignments, a lso s eems t o h ave c ont inued t o t he e nd o f t he p reh istor ic p er iod a nd i n p arts i nto t he medieva l. The h istory a nd f unction o f t he mass ive dyke s ystems i n t he e astern Tabu lar H i l ls h ave y et t o b e s tud ied i n d eta i l , but many o f t hese a ppear t o h ave f a l len i nto d isuse by med ieva l t imes.

2 03

/

F i g 5 9 . D i s t r i b u t i o n m a p o f R o m a n s i t e s a n d f i n d s .

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0 1

CHAPTER 7 THE RO MAN PER IOD, A.D.

7 0-410

By t he t ime o f t he Roman o ccupation t he h igh moors h ad b ecome i n much t he s ame barren c ond it ion a s we s ee t hem t oday , a nd Roman f inds o n t he moors a re v ery r are i ndeed. A s econdc entury g lass b ang le was f ound o n S tony R idge a bove F arnda le ( Hayes, 1 968b) a nd t here were c o in h oards f rom t he moor land a t Ugthorpe a nd G la isda le ( Tab le 3 3.3). A s catter o f Roman p o ttery n ear Wade 's Causeway ( F ig. 5 9) c omp letes t he f inds l i st f rom t he moors ( Hayes a nd Rutter , 1 964). The d istr ibution maps o f b eeh ive querns ( Fig.54) a nd o f Roman s ites ( F ig.59) s how t he f ami l iar p attern o f s ett lement o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls a nd l ow land v a l ley a nd p er iphera l a reas; t he s ett lement i n t he d a les i s e xemp l if ied by t he many Roman f inds i n t he Ryeda le W indyp its , n atura l f i ssures i n t he o o l it ic l imestone ( Hayes , 1 963). The

p reh istor ic

s ett lement

p attern

t herefore c ont inued i n

t he

Roman p er iod, a nd we c an t h ink o f a l i festy le o n t he n ative f arms s imi lar t o t hat o f t he l ate I ron Age, but p robab ly w ith f urther i ntens if icat ion o f t he p astora l a nd a rab le f arm ing. We c an d ea l w ith t he Roman p er iod under t wo ma in h eads , f irst t he s ett lement p attern o f n ative , r e lative ly unroman ised , f arms a nd v i l la f arms , wh ich were c omparat ive ly r oman ised, t ogether w ith t he ir e nc losures a nd f ie ld s ystems , a nd s econd ly t he Roman m i l itary s i tes a nd t he s trateg ies wh ich t hey r epresent.

2 05

7 .1 1

C IVIL SETTLE MENT NATIVE SETTLE MENT S ITES

The Romano-Br it ish s ett lement p attern i s v ery much a c ontinuat ion o f t hat o f t he I ron Age , a s s hown by a c ompar ison o f F igs.54 and 5 9. A l l t he known I ron Age s i tes , w ith t he e xception o f S carborough Cast le a nd t he h i l ifor ts , d ate t o t he l ast c entur ies o f t he p er iod , a nd many o f t hem c ontinue , a pparent ly un interrupted, i nto t he Roman p er iod. The h i l lior ts h ave g iven l i tt le e v idence o f be ing f requented a fter t he I ron Age , a nd s ome o f t he I ron Age s ett lement s i tes a lso s eem t o h ave f a l len i nto d isuse by t he Roman p er iod. Th is a pp l ies p articu lar ly t o s ett lements o n marg ina l l and , s uch a s t he P ercy R igg f arm a nd t he e nc losures o n Great Ayton a nd Roxby Low Moors , a nd may b e e xp l icab le by t he p ers isting d ec l ine o f f ert i l ity i n t hese a reas. Many o f t he c ont inu ing s i tes s eem t o h ave b een i nhab ited t hroughout t he Roman p er iod , but a n a pprec iab le number a ppear t o h ave b een a bandoned i n t he m idd le o f t he p er iod, dur ing t he s econd o r t h ird c entur ies. Occas iona l ly t h is c an a lso b e a ttr ibuted t o t he d ec l in ing a gr icu lture on t he h i l l marg ins, a s a t Crag Bank a t t he h ead o f K i lda le , but i t c an a lso b e o bserved i n f ert i le l ow land t erra in , a s a t Gu isborough , Brotton a nd Lackenby , a nd i s a f eature o f t he f inds f rom t he Ashberry W indyp it i n Ryeda le ( Hayes , 1 963). I t i s n ot unreasonab le , t herefore , t o t h ink i n t erms o f s ome l imited c hange i n t he l ow land s ett lement p attern i n t he m idd le y ears o f t he Roman p er iod , s ay about A . D. 2 00-250. On t he who le t hese were t he p eacefu l y ears o f t he o ccupat ion , a nd f arm ama lgamat ions o r o ther r eorgan isat ion s eems t he most l ike ly e xp lanat ion. Bran igan ( 1980) h as c ommented t hat n ear ly a l l t he v i l las o f t he Br igant ian a nd P ar is ian t err itory were f ounded i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he o ccupation , a nd t h is wou ld e nta i l s ome r earrangement o f t he n ative f arms. On t he o ther h and we h ave n o d ef in ite e v idence o f a v i l la e state i n t he C leve land a rea where t here were s ome t h ird-century changes i n t he n ative f arms. The p ottery s equence o n a l l t he o ther Romano-Br it ish s ett lements t erm inates a t t he e nd o f t he Roman p er iod, e xcept a t Roxby , S eamer a nd Wykeham ( Moore , 1 965) where we h ave s tamped Ang lo-Saxon p ottery o f a bout t he s ixth c entury. S ome a t l east o f t he f arms c ontinued t o b e o ccup ied, t herefore , a fter t he e nd o f t he Roman r eg ime , but i t i s d iff icu lt t o s ay what p roportion d id s o . The p rob lem i s p r imar i ly t he c o l lapse o f t he e conomy , a nd t he t endency f or f arms t o r eturn t o a s e lfc onta ined s ubs istence. As p otter ies s lowly c eased o peration , t here wou ld b e a r eturn t o t he c rude h ome-f ired wares , p oss ib ly i diosyncratic i n s ty le , a nd o ther s imp le mater ia ls. Thus we h ave a t p resent f ew a rtefacts t o d ate t he c ont inu ing o ccupation where i t o ccurred. There wou ld a lso b e a move away f rom c ash c rops p roduced f or t he i ntegrated Roman e conomy t o s ubs istence agr icu lture , t hough h ow f ar t hat wou ld r equ ire a r eorgan isat ion o f t he s ett lement p attern i s d oubtfu l. A t Thorpe Bu lmer , a f ew k i lometres n orth o f t he Tees e stuary , p a laeobotan ica l work s hows t hat " a lthough t he d eparture o f t he Romans may h ave l ed t o a p art ia l r eturn t o p astur ing , a rab le c u ltivat ion went o n" ( Bar t ley e t a l., 1 976). The e xtent o f c ont inu ity o f s ett lement s i tes a fter t he Roman p er iod i s t herefore a n o pen quest ion; i t h as b een r ev iewed

2 06

i n a w ider c ontext by F aul i ( 1977) f or Northumbr ia. The ma in p rob lem i n t he s tudy a rea i s l ack o f e v idence ; f or what i t i s worth , t he on ly t hree Ang lo-Saxon dwe l l ing s i tes known i n t he a rea a re o n e ar l ier s ett lements. 2

RO MAN V ILLAS

The a rea l i es a t t he n orthern l imit o f v i l la c onstruction a part f rom t hose a t P iercebr idge a nd O ld Durham, a nd o n t he f r inge o f t he c oncentrat ion o f v i l las wh ich l i e o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds ( Bran igan, 1 980). The o n ly v i l la t o b e p art ia l ly e xcavated i s a t Bead lam ( Stead , 1 971) s ome t wo k i lometres e ast o f He lms ley , a t t he s outhern e nd o f B i lsda le a nd i n a g ood p os it ion w ith r espect t o c ommun icat ion i n a l l d irect ions. Th is was a n e laborate v i l la w ith bu i ld ings o n t hree s ides o f a s quare , wh ich l ike most o thers was mod if ied f a ir ly o ften t hroughout i ts l i fe. We d o n ot know i ts d eta i led c hrono logy a t p resent. The c o in s er ies i ndicates a ct iv ity o n t h is s ite f rom t he e ar ly s econd c entury t o t he e nd o f t he Roman p er iod , but t he g reat ma jor ity o f c o ins a re o f t he f ourth c entury. An e ar ly o r m id-th ird c entury d ate o f t he f irst v il la bu i ld ings s eems l ike ly , a nd t he e xcavat ion s howed t hat t he west w ing f e l l i nto d isuse by t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury , a nd t he n orth r ange was a ltered c ons iderab ly i n t he 4 th c entury ( A.L. P ac itto , p ers. c omm.). We d o n ot know t he whereabouts o f t he f arm bu i ld ings, o r t he e xtent o f t he e state. There i s s trong e v idence o f a v i l la a t Hood , i n a b ou lder c lay embayment i nto t he s outh-west c orner o f t he Hamb leton H i l ls ( Wenham, 1 960). An i nscr ibed s arcophagus was d iscovered dur ing p loughing , o f a t ype wh ich i nd icates a we l l-tod o s ett ler ( Ramm, 1 978). About f i fty y ards t o t he e ast, r oof t i les h ave b een f ound a nd a s o i l mark a ppeared , i ndicating t he p resence o f a bu i ld ing. Co lour-coated p ottery f ound i n t he a rea s howed t hat i t h ad b een o ccup ied i n t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entur ies A .D. A s tone c off in, r eported a s Roman , was f ound a t Osgoodby Ha l l i n 1 862, t wo k i lometres t o t he s outh-west o f Hood. The a rea i s r e la tive ly r ich i n n at ive Roman s ites, but t he c off in h as unfortunate ly d isappeared , a nd i ts Roman o r ig in h as n ot , t herefore , b een c onf irmed. A t East Ness , h owever , we h ave a d escr iption o f t he i nscr ibed s tone c off in f ound i n 1 612 wh ich s hows i t t o b e o f a s im i lar t ype t o t he Hood Grange s arcophagus , i nd icating a wea l thy s ett ler , a nd p erhaps h is v i l la i n t h is g ood f arm ing c ountry. The s arcophagus was f ound i n f act o n ly a bout 4 k i lometres n orth-east o f t he v i l la a t Hov ingham, wh ich i s a t SE 6 62757, j ust t o t he s outh o f t he s tudy a rea. The l arge b ath h ouse o f t h is v i l la a nd a n earby mosa ic p avement, d iscovered i n 1 745, a re o f v ery f ine c onstruct ion ( Clark , 1 935), a nd t he c o in s er ies e xtends f rom t he m idd le o f t he s econd c entury t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth. There i s n o e v idence , h owever , t hat t he s arcophagus was c onnected w ith t he Hov ingham v i l la , a nd i t i s p oss ib le t hat a nother v i l la e x isted i n t he Ness a rea. I t i s a t f irst

s ight s urpr is ing t hat n o v i l la h as b een i dent if ied

on t he C leve land P la in , where r ecent work s hows t he p resence o f numbers o f n ative f armsteads. The s i te a t P ar ish Crayke , n ear S tokes ley , o r ig inal ly d iscovered i n 1 862 ( E lgee , 1 923), h as b een r ed iscovered i n r ecent y ears. The . o r ig ina l o bservation was o f a s ke leton i n what s eems t o h ave b een p art o f a hypocaust, wh i le t he r ecent f inds h ave b een o f p ro l if ic p ottery s herds d ating 2 07

t hroughout t he Roman p er iod. Trench ing i n t he a rea h as s o f ar r evea led n o s tructure. Unfor tunate ly t he s i te i s c lose t o t he R iver Leven wh ich , be ing f ed f rom t he n earby moor lands , h as unt i l r ecent ly b een s ub ject t o s udden s urg ing f loods , s o t hat l i tt le o r n one o f t he Roman bu i lding may s urv ive. Another p oss ib le l ocat ion f or a v i l la i s w ith in t he t own o f Gu isborough wh ich h as p roduced a number o f i so lated f inds , i nc luding , n earby , a Roman p arade h e lmet (Atk inson , 1 864a), wh ich may h owever b e bur ied l oo t. S ome o f t he n ative f arms i n t he v ic in ity s eem t o h ave c eased f unct ion ing i n a bout A . D. 2 00-250 , a s a lready d iscussed , wh ich m ight i nd icate t he k ind o f r eorgan isation wh ich wou ld a ccompany t he s ett ing up o f a v i l la e state o r e states. The i mpor tant Roman s i te a t Whor lton ( Tab le 3 3.2) wh ich i s p laced , l ike t he med ieva l c ast le wh ich s ucceeded i t , w ith c ommand ing v iews o ver t he Va le o f Mowbray t o t he P enn ines, a nd n orthward a cross t he Tees t o County Durham, h as n ot p roduced e v idence o f b e ing a v i l la . Bran igan ( 1980) h as po inted o ut t hat v i l las i n Yorkshire a re s i ted n ot o n ly w ith a v iew t o p rof itab le markets f or a gr icu ltura l p roducts , but a lso by t he n eed o f s ecur ity f rom a ttack. These may p oss ib ly b e t he r easons t hat t he v i llas i n n or th-east Yorksh ire l i e w ith in r each o f t he g arr isons a t Ma lton a nd York; i n C leve land t here wou ld h ave b een no s uch n earby markets a nd n o s uch p rotection c lose a t h and. I NDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY Few s i tes i n t he a rea h ave s hown e v idence o f manufacture o f p ottery , g lass o r meta ls , a nd i t i s c lear t hat t he a rea was s erved l arge ly by c heap i mports ; c erta in ly p ottery f rom t he f ourthc entury Crambeck k i lns i s f ound w ide ly t hroughout t he a rea, a nd i t i s r easonab le t o t h ink t hat o ther i ndustr ia l p roducts wou ld h ave b een t raded f rom East Yorksh ire ( Ramm , 1 978). Two p ottery k ilns h ave b een d iscovered a t Co ld Cam, o n t he s outh-west s carp o f t he Hamb leton H i l ls, i n a p os it ion we l l p laced t o s erve t he v i l las a nd f arms o f t h is a rea ( Hayes , 1 963). They d ate a pprox imate ly t o a bout A . D. 2 75-350 , a nd a s t heir p roducts ( mortar ia , bow ls , j ars and d ishes) a re d iff icu lt t o d ist ingu ish f rom Crambeck ware , t hey may i n f act b e w ide ly d ispersed , t hough u nrecogn ised, t hrough t he a rea. The s ite may h ave b een a b ranch f actory s et up by Crambeck-tra ined p otters. O ther i ndustr ia l a ct iv ity h as b een r are ly d iscovered , t he on ly s ign o f meta l lurgy b e ing t he i ron s lag a nd a sma l l f urnace a t Crossgates , S eamer ( Rutter a nd Duke , 1 958). I t s eems s urpr is ing t hat n o e v idence o f Roman i ron o re m in ing h as b een d iscovered. Ev idence o f s k i l led j et work ing was d iscovered a t t he Romano-Br it ish s i te a t Newb igg in ( Hayes , 1 968c), n ot f ar f rom Wh itby , a nd i ts un l ike ly t hat t h is i s un ique i n t he Wh itby a rea. Two quern f actor ies a re known wh ich p roduced t he e ar ly b eeh ive t ype a nd t he l ater f lat Roman querns , a t Goath iand a nd Spaunton. Their p roducts s eem t o h ave b een d istr ibuted l oca l ly , w ith in 1 5-20 k i lometres o f t he f actor ies ( Hayes e t a l., 1 980). 3

SQUARE ENCLOSURES

Sma l l e nc losures up t o a bout 7 0 metres s quare h ave b een f ound a s e ar thworks, o r r evea led a s c ropmarks by a ir photography , ma in ly i n t he c entra l a nd e astern p ar ts o f t he Tabu lar

H i l ls.

There

a re

a lso

t hree

2 08

g ood

e xamp les a t

t he e astern

e nd o f Cau lk leys Bank n ear Nunn ington. Th is k ind o f e nc losure o ccurs f requent ly i n t he North M id lands , s omet imes a ssoc iated w ith e xtens ive r ect il inear ( ' br ickwork ') f ie ld s ystems , where e xcavations h ave s hown t hem t o b e Roman ( D. N. R i ley , p ers. c omm.). There a re f ew l eft upstand ing i n o ur a rea , a nd where p ottery h as b een r ecovered a fter p lough ing , i t h as a lso b een Roman ( Tab le 3 4). Unti l f u l l e xcavations o f s ome o f t hese s quare e nc losures h ave b een undertaken, t here i s l i tt le t hat c an b e s a id a bout t hem. They s eem t o b e a f eature o f Roman f arm ing p ract ice i n t he more p rosperous a reas , f or n one h ave y et b een f ound o n t he Hamb leton H i l ls , a nd n one o n t he n or thern b ou lder c lay. 4

F IELD SYSTEMS

A ir photography ( ma in ly by North Yorksh ire County Archaeo logy S taff) a cross t he Tabu lar H i l ls a nd t he n orthern p art o f t he Va le o f P icker ing h as r evea led a number o f a reas o f f ie ld s ystems w ith t rackways and e nc losures , n one o f wh ich h ave b een d ated , but wh ich, by c ompar ison w ith s ystems i n o ther a reas , a re p robab ly b est i dentif ied a s Romano-Br it ish. I t wou ld b e m is lead ing t o p resent a l i st o r map o f t hose c urrent ly known , f or t hey were p robab ly very w idespread i n t he s ett lement a reas. They h ave b een r evea led e xtens ive ly o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls a t Cawthorn , p art icu lar ly near t he Roman c amps, a nd t here a re g roups n ear Canton a nd i n t he v ic in ity o f K irkbymoors ide , Hutton-le-Ho le a nd Spaunton. A " br ickwork" f ie ld p attern , wh ich i n t he Doncaster a rea a ppears t o d ate t o t he Roman p er iod, h as r ecent ly b een photographed ( D.N. R i ley) 2 .2 k i lometres n or th o f Sna inton v i l lage ( SE 9 22843). On t he n orthern p ar t o f t he Va le o f P icker ing f ie ld c rop-marks h ave appeared a t Harome , Womb leton , Wre lton , Thornton Da le , Brompton a nd West Ayton, c onf irm ing t he c ontinued work ing o f t he f lat c arr l ands. The Hamb leton H i l ls h ave n ot y ie lded v ery p ro l if ic r esu lts f rom a ir photography , but many c ropmarks o f f ie ld b oundar ies h ave a ppeared n ear , a nd t o t he west o f , O ld By land. Coup led w ith t he ' Ce ltic ' f ie ld s ystems a nd Roman f inds r epor ted f rom n e ighbour ing Co ld K irby ( Clark , 1 935) t hey i nd icate a rab le f arming o n t he l ower e astern s lopes o f t he Hamb leton H i l ls , p robab ly i n c on junct ion w ith p astora l ism o n t he h igher p arts , i n t he v ic in ity o f t he dyke s ystems.

2 09

L EASE P 1CC / 980

: n Il

H

50

0

4

1 0

F ig.60.

-

-

1

0

/ O c '

2 00 4

4

1

Roman f or t a t Lease R igg 2 10

M

R.

-‚

t eet

7 PM et r g s

Har t ley).

7 .2

M ILITARY ACTIVITY B .R . Hart ley

Whenever p oss ib le , Rome p referred t o make t reat ies w ith t r ibes o uts ide t he i mper ia l f rontiers , t o a vo id u s ing va luab le t roops i n h eavy g arr ison ing o f s uch f ront iers. S o i t was w ith t he Br igantes d own t o A . D. 6 9, when t he a nt i-Roman f act ion l ed by Queen Cartimandua 's f ormer c onsort Venut ius, g a ined c ontro l o f Br igantia. Eventua l Roman annexat ion o f t he North t hen b ecame i nevitab le, t hough t he n ecessary s teps c ou ld o n ly b e t aken i n A . D. 7 1, when Vespas ian was f irm ly i n c ontro l o f t he Emp ire. V irtua l ly a l l s tudents o f Roman Br ita in s eem t o a gree t hat Vespas ian 's s econd g overnor , C . P et i l l ius Cerea l is, f irst o verran t he P ar is i i n s outh-east Yorksh ire , e stab l ish ing ma jor g arr isons a t York a nd Ma lton e ither i n A . D. 7 1 o r 7 2 b efore a ttack ing Venut ius. There i s n o e v idence o f a ny a ttempt t o p enetrate n orth o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , a nd s uch a c ourse i s p erhaps un l ike ly a t t hat t ime. Desp ite t he c lear e v idence f or a c ons iderab le I ron Age p opu lat ion i n t he va l leys o f t he moors , i n C leve land a nd o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls, t here i s n o h int o f t he d estruction o f s i tes wh ich h ost i l ity t o Rome wou ld h ave p rompted. As i t was , t he n eed t o d ea l w ith Venutius wou ld s ure ly h ave b een g iven p r ior ity. I ndeed, e verywhere e lse i n Br igant ia, York a part, i t l ooks v ery much a s i f c onso lidat ion was d e layed unt i l t he g overnorsh ips o f F ront inus ( A. D. 7 4-78) and Agr ico la ( A.D. 7 8-84) ( Hart ley , 1 971, 5 6-7). Unfortunate ly t he o n ly e ar ly f or t i n t he a rea w ith much e xcavation , t he o ne a t H igh Burrows , L ease R igg , h as p roduced on ly meagre d at ing e v idence , n one n ecessar i ly e ar l ier t han A . D. 8 0. However , by Agr ico la 's t our o f duty , most o f Br igant ia h ad b een f irm ly g arr isoned a nd i t i s un l ike ly t hat t he bu i lding o f f orts wou ld b e f urther d e layed i n o ur a rea. Accord ing ly t he bu i ld ing o f L ease R igg , s i ted o n t he r idge b etween t he v a l leys o f t he Esk a nd Murk E sk c lose t o t he ir c onf luence , a nd i n a f ine p os it ion c ommand ing t he l ower Esk , i s a lmost c erta in t o b e long t o t he 8 0s. The f ort ( Fig.60) i s unusua l ly e longated b ecause i t h ad t o f i t o n t op o f a n arrow h i l lock o n t he r idge a t 1 54 metres a bove s ea l eve l , t hough i ts a nnexe s tretches d ownh il l t o t he west. A s ing le d itch s urrounded a t urf r ampart 5 metres w ide l a id o n a s tone b ase. A lmost a l l t he i nterna l bu i ld ings were t imber-framed a nd s evera l may b e i dent if ied, i nc luding t he h eadquarters ( F), c ommander 's h ouse ( E) a nd a g ranary ( C). The p resumed b arracks a nd s tab les ( D, H, G a nd J ) a re unusua l i n s ome ways a nd n eed t he k ind o f d eta i led a ppra isa l n ot p oss ib le i n t h is s urvey. However , i t i s c erta in t hat n o bu i lding e ver s tood b etween G a nd t he c entra l r oad and t here s eems t o h ave b een a s im ilar b lank west o f bu i ld ing L . I n o ther words, t he f ort n ever h e ld more t han a d etachment. The l atest f inds a re Hadr ian ic and i t i s e v ident t hat t he f ort was e vacuated when Hadr ian 's Wa l l was bu i lt, a nd j ust a fter a s tart h ad b een made o n r ebu i ld ing i n s tone ( bu i ld ing K ). Obv ious ly

a

f ort

l ike

L ease

R igg

c ou ld

n ot

b e

h e ld

i n

i so lation. The g ap b etween i t a nd Ma lton , o ver 4 0 k i lometres , i s r ough ly t wice t he n orma l s pac ing f or f orts. I t i s n o c o inc idence t hat t he d istance i s a lmost b isected by Cawthorn , where o ne must n ow s uspect t hat R ichmond 's Camp D was a lso a n a ux i l iary f ort , 2 11

r athe" t han a p ractice work ( R ichmond , 1 933, 7 0ff .), t hough t he t hree o ther e arthworks a re c lear ly c onnected w ith f ie ld e xerc ises a nd p ract ice i n c onstruct ion , a s R ichmond t hought. S imi lar ly , Lease R igg c ou ld s carce ly b e t he t erm ina l f ort o f a s ystem , a nd a c oasta l s i te w ith g ood h arbourage i s t o b e s ought f or t he n ext f ort. As t he s pac ing f rom Lease R igg i s l i ke ly t o b e o f t he o rder o f 1 3 k i lometres, t h is s i te may h ave h oused t he r est o f t he L ease R igg un it , wh ich was p robab ly a m ixed c ohor t w ith s ome o f t he t roopers a t Lease R igg. Ne ither Cawthorn n or Lease R igg h as y ie lded a nyth ing l ater t han t he e ar ly s econd c entury a nd t hey w i l l h ave b een e vacuated under Hadr ian when h is wa l l was bu i lt. The c oro l lary i s t hat t hey were n ot e ssentia l , f or Hadr ian d id k eep h inter land f orts i n a reas o f d oubtfu l l oya lty t o Rome. Nor d oes t he a pparent a bsence o f f orts e lsewhere i n o ur a rea s uggest a nx iety a bout l oca l a tt itudes e ven i n t he F lav ian p er iod. The f or ts wou ld h ave b een bu i lt i mmed iate ly a fter t he m i l itary o ccupation o f t he a rea, but t he p rov is ion o f t he r oad b etween t hem wou ld h ave b een e ssent ia l a nd wou ld h ave b een made i n t he c ourse o f t he n ext y ear o r s o. Wade 's Causeway ( Hayes a nd Rutter , 1 964) i s u sua l ly t hought t o h ave b ranched f rom t he m inor r oad f rom Ma lton t o Hov ingham a t Amo therby , t hough c onf irmation wou ld b e we lcome. S im i lar ly t here i s d oubt a bout t he r oad 's c ourse b eyond Lease R igg. I t i s u sua l ly t hought t o h ave c ontinued d own t he Esk Va l ley t o Wh itby , a s u itab le s ite f or a t erm ina l f ort. A lternat ive ly , t he o ld v iews o f a r oute c ross ing t he Esk Va l ley a nd a im ing f or Duns ley Bay o r t he Go ld s borough-Runsw ick Bay a rea a re n ot t ota l ly i mposs ib le. I ndeed , both r outes m ight h ave e x isted , but t here a re n o c onv inc ing t races o f e i ther. A lthough

t he

r oad was bu i lt f or t he a rmy ,

i t wou ld o bv ious ly

b e a g reat boon t o l oca l f o lk who n eeded t o j ourney o r t rade , a nd o nce i ts i n it ia l m i l itary purpose was o ver , i t i s most un l ike ly t hat t he r oad was d isused. S ome d egree o f t rad ing o f a n ima l p roducts , querns a nd i ron-ore o r c rude i ron , a s we l l a s t he a ttested t rade i n j et , may b e s uggested f or t he a rea. Transport i n o ne d irect ion t o t he putative h arbour a nd i n t he o ther t o t he markets a t York a nd Ma lton must b e e nv isaged. A fter t he Hadr ian ic e vacuation by t he m i l itary , t he a rea was p robab ly c omp lete ly p eacefu l d own t o t he f ourth c entury. I t i s t rue t hat Ma lton was r e-garr isoned a bout A .D. 1 60, but t here i s n o h int t hat s i tes t o i ts n orth were , a nd t h is s hows t hat t he moors were n ot i nvo lved i n t he s upposed Br igant ian r ebe l l ion o f t he 1 50s. When a rmy i nsta l lations d id r eappear , t hey d id s o b ecause o f e xterna l a nd n ot i nterna l t hreats. Coasta l r a id ing h ad b een g o ing on i n t he s outh-east o f Eng land f rom t he l ate s econd o r e ar ly t h ird c entury , a nd s hore f or ts h ad b een a ppear ing s ince t hat t ime. However , n o p rov is ion was made f or d efence o f t he Yorksh ire c oast unt i l a fter t he c oncerted b arbar ian r a ids o f A . D. 3 67. Count Theodos ius, s ent t o Br ita in t o s ort o ut t he r esu lting c haos , i s c red ited by most modern h istor ians w ith h is c omp let ion o f d efences on t he e ast c oast by t he a ddit ion o f t he f ort if ied t owers u sua l ly c a l led s igna l s tat ions. The s urv ivors o f t h is s er ies , f rom Huntc l iff i n t he n orth t o S carborough i n t he s outh , c anno t h ave b een 2 12

GOLDSBOROUGH 0

F ORTLET . 2. 0

°

‚

H UNTCL IFF

(R.

2 .5

1 0 0

f e e t

3O m" trps

F ORTLET . r

F ig.61.

2 .0

We I!

Roman s igna l s tation a t Huntc l iffe ( Sa itburn) a nd Go ldsborough

I nman). 2 13

i so lated, a nd c omparab le c oasta l s tations, n ot n ecessar i ly o f i dent ica l p attern, h ave b een p ostu lated f or t he Durham a nd L inco lnsh ire c oasts ( R ichmond, 1 969, 9 0; Wh itwe l l , 1 970, 4 9). l t h as r ecent ly b een s uggested t hat t he Yorksh ire t owers c ou ld h ave b een p ost-Theodos ian ( Casey , 1 979) t hough t hat s eems un l ike ly . The s tructures ( F ig.61) were d escr ibed i n a bu i lding i nscr ipt ion f rom Ravenscar a s t urrets o r f orts. The ir purpose was undoubted ly t o s pot p otent ia l r a iders a nd t o s igna l warn ings a long t he c ha in t o t he n earest f leet b ase a nd p erhaps a lso t o g et messages t o t he nearest ma jor f orce a t Ma lton. The b ear ing o f t h is on t he r oad s ystem r adiating f rom Ma lton i s i nterest ing , t hough h ere o n ly t he i mp l icat ion t hat Wade 's Causeway was b ound t o b e u sed n eed b e n o ted. F ina l d isasters o bv ious ly o vertook t he s i tes a t Huntc l iff a nd Go ldsborough , where t here i s c lear e v idence f rom t he human r ema ins ( Hornsby a nd S tanton , 1 912 , 2 12ff .; 1 932, 2 16-9). However, t he d ate o f t hese e vents i s unknown a nd i t i s a t l east a s l ike ly t o h ave b een a fter t he r emova l o f t he Br it ish F leet a nd a rmy a s b efore. Ne ither f or A. D. 3 67 n or f or t he e nd o f t he Roman p er iod i s t here any s ign o f d evastation i n o ur a rea. The a rmy o nce g one , t he Roman way o f l i fe s low ly a nd qu iet ly d isappeared. SUMMARY The s ett lement a rchaeo logy o f t he Roman p er iod s hows e xtens ive f arming o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls a nd o n t he a reas p er iphera l t o t he c entra l moor land , i nc luding t he d a les , C leve land a nd t he Va le o f P icker ing , i n much t he s ame p attern a s t he p resent d ay. On ly i n t he s outh-west s ector d o a f ew r oman ised v i l las a ppear , t heir l ocat ion a pparent ly b e ing d etermined by t he markets a fforded by Ma lton a nd York. Thus we s ee a c ont inuation o f t he p reh istor ic s ett lement p attern , modif ied p art icu lar ly i n t he t h ird a nd f ourth c entur ies by t he Roman t rading n etwork. The a rea, l ike E ast Yorksh ire and L inco lnsh ire , g ives t he i mpress ion o f a p eacefu l l i fe under t he Roman o ccupation , a nd t he o n ly s igns o f v io lence c ome a t t he e nd, w ith t he massacres a t t he s igna l s tations. What h appened a fter A. D. 4 10 i s s t i l l o bscure ma in ly b ecause s o f ew s ites o f t he Dark Ages h ave b een d iscovered. A l l t hree s i tes known f or t he i mmed iate p ost-Roman c entur ies a re i n f act o n e ar ly s ett lements. There c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he b as ic s ett lement p attern s urv ived f or i t c hanged l i tt le b etween t he t ime o f Neo l ith ic s ett lement a nd t he med ieva l p er iod, a s w i l l b e s een by c ompar ing t he d istr ibution o f Neo l ith ic s ett lement ( F igs.24 a nd 2 5) w ith t hat o f medieva l v i l lages ( Fig.62). I n t he r emoter a reas t oo , t here was a c ont inu ity o f t err itor ia l b oundar ies, a s i n t he Sn i lesworth a rea, but t h is i s n ot s o e v ident i n t he f ert i le l owland a reas. Here b o th boundar ies and t he s ett lements t hemse lves a ppear t o h ave b een r ather mob i le ,

unti l t he p attern c rysta l l ised i n med ieva l t imes.

2 14

2 15

CONCLUDING SU MMARY AND RESEARCH SUGESTIONS The

ma in

p o ints

emerg ing

f rom

t he

work

a re

s ummar ised

be low, i n c hrono log ica l o rder. I n t he Late Upper o ccas iona l ly v is ited

Pa laeo l ith ic p er iod t he by hunt ing g roups.

s tudy a rea was I t was i n a n

Exp loratory Z one. 2

I n t he Ear ly Meso l ith ic p er iod , t he a rea f ormed t he n orthern f rontier o f s ett lement i n E astern Eng land. I mpor tant s ett lements, p robab ly p ermanent , e x isted o n t he n orth s ide o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , a nd hunting, p robab ly s easona l , w as a ctive o n t he h igh moors. Occas iona l f orays were made t o t he n orth.

3

I n t he Late Meso l ith ic , t here was s ett lement t hroughout t he a rea, a nd t he s easona l movement t o t he h igh moors i s b as ica l ly e xp la ined o n e nv ironmenta l g rounds , t hough s oc ia l r easons were p robab ly a lso i mportant. The movements t o a nd f rom t he h igh moor land hunt ing s tat ions c ontinued unt i l a bout 2 000 b .c.

4

F rom t he a dvent o f a gr icu ltura l a nd p astora l f arm ing i n t he Neo l ith ic p er iod, t he e v idence i s o f a c ont inuous p attern o f o ccupat ion unt i l p ost-medieva l t imes. S ett lement was c oncentrated o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls, t he d a les , a nd t he p er iphera l l owland a reas o f t he Va le o f P icker ing a nd t he bou lder c lay t erra in i n t he e ast , n orth a nd west. The h i l ls were u sed f or hunt ing a nd p astora l ism i n t he Neo l ith ic , f or f ree r ang ing p astora l ism a nd m ixed f arming i n t he E ar ly Bronze Age, r everting t o p astora l ism a lone a s t he h il l t erra in b ecame i nferti le dur ing t he l ater p reh istor ic p er iod.

5

The f actors wh ich d etermine t he d ens ity a nd wea lth o f s ett lement i n d ifferent p arts o f t he a rea a re t hose wh ich d etermine f arming y ie lds , n ame ly s o i l f erti l ity a nd c l imate. The e v idence o f a l l p er iods s hows t he Tabu lar H i l ls t o b e t he most p rosperous a rea; t he p er iphera l a reas a nd v a l leys were l ess r ich , a nd t he s andstone moor lands were o n ly e xplo ited agr icu ltura l ly f or a c omparative ly s hor t p er iod s tart ing i n t he E ar ly Bronze Age , b efore t he ir f ert i l ity d ec l ined c atastrophica l ly . W ith in t he Tabu lar H i l ls, t he Eastern a nd Centra l a reas a ppear a t a l l t imes t o b e more p rosperous t han t he western p art, a nd t h is c an b e a ssoc iated w ith t he ir l ow a ltitude,

g iv ing

a b etter

c l imate

f or

b oth

a gr icu lture

a nd

p astora l ism. 6

I n t he Ear ly Bronze Age ,

p opu lation p ressure a nd ,

i n p arts ,

d ec l in ing s o i l f erti l ity , were met by e stab l ish ing a t err itor ia l s ystem b ased on t he n atura l f eatures o f r iver v a l leys a nd watersheds, t he l atter b eing marked by l ines o f r ound b arrows c onta in ing c o l lared u rn c remat ions. The b arrows o f t h is p er iod u sua l ly c onta ined p ottery but f ew o ther g rave g oods , a nd g ive t he i mpress ion o f c ommemorat ing l oca l l eaders o f e qua l s tatus. The o rgan isat ion s eems t o b e t hat o f a ' segmentary ' t r ibe, a nd t here a re f ew a nd i ns ign if icant s tone

2 16

c irc les o r o ther c ommuna l p laces. On ly o ne o r t wo r ich bur ia ls i nd icate a l eve l o f s oc iety h igher t han t he l oca l l eaders. 7

The Late Bronze Age g ives a much g reater i mpress ion o f a r anked t r iba l s tructure. The t err itor ia l s ystem o n t he watersheds a nd v a l ley h eads was a ugmented o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls by l inear e ar thworks, a nd b i l l f or ts were s tarted; both a ct iv it ies c ont inu ing i nto t he I ron Age. The r ichest meta l f inds a re o n t he e astern p art o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls, a s a re t he most i mpress ive e ar thworks.

8

There a re f ew s i tes a nd f inds d ating t o t he e ar ly p art o f t he I ron Age , but many t o t he i mmediate p re-Roman p er iod. Forest c learance a nd m ixed a gr icu lture were n ow e xtens ive and t here a re s igns o f nuc leated h am lets. The c art bur ia ls a nd s quare b arrows i ndicate a r anked t r iba l s oc iety a t l east i n t he e astern p art o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls. S igns o f m i l itary s tress a re s l ight , a s n o f urther h i l l f orts were d eve loped , a nd e x isting o nes were n ot s trengthened a pprec iab ly.

9

Many

I ron Age

There a re c orner o f

s ett lements

c ontinued

a f ew v i l las , i n t he t he a rea , a nd l arge

i nto

t he Roman

l owland o f s i tes w ith

p er iod.

t he s outh west p ro l if ic p ottery

s catters e lsewhere , p articu lar ly i n C leve land. S ome s ett lements were a bandoned i n t he s econd o r t h ird c entur ies, g iv ing a h int o f r eorgan isation a t t h is t ime. Roman m i l itary a ctiv ity i s c onf ined t o f orts a t Cawthorn a nd L ease R igg i nterconnected by a r oad f rom t he v ic in ity o f Ma lton t o L ease R igg i n t he E sk Va l ley , bu i lt i n A . D. 8 0 a nd a bandoned by A . D. 1 20 , a nd t he c ha in o f s igna l s tat ions o n t he c oast a t t he very e nd o f t he o ccupat ion. 1 0

F ew S axon s ites h ave b een e xcavated, s o t here i s l i tt le d ata by wh ich t o a ssess t he t rans it ion f rom Roman t o S axon s ett lement a nd e conomy. P lace-name e v idence i nd icates c ontinued a ctiv ity o n t he t radit iona l s ett lement a reas. The p reh istor ic t err itor ia l o rgan isat ion emerges a s t he med ieva l t ownsh ip b oundar ies i n r emote a nd i nferti le a reas , but i n t he more p rosperous a reas o f t he Tabu lar H i l ls, t he l inear e arthworks d o n o t s o f requent ly c ompr ise t ownsh ip boundar ies.

GAPS

I N OUR KNOWLEDGE There i s v ery l i tt le knowledge o f t he e xtent o f h i l iwash a nd va l ley a l luv iation i n t he North Yorksh ire Moors , a nd i t i s n ot p oss ib le t o make a p roper a ppra isa l o f t he p reh istor ic s ett lement p attern w ithout i t . A p ro ject i n t h is f ie ld wou ld n eed c o-operation o f g eomorpho log ists a nd a rchaeo log ists.

2

P a laeobotan ica l e v idence i s l ack ing i n t wo f ie lds. F irst , n ot know t he vegetation h istory o f t he Tabu lar

we d o H i l ls.

S econd ly , t he c hanges o f t he Bronze Age v egetation o n t he moors a re i nsuff ic ient ly d ated t o a l low c orre lation w ith in t he s evera l a rchaeo log ica l phases o f t h is p er iod, i n wh ich marked a lterations o f e nv ironment, s ubs istence methods , t echno logy and s oc ia l o rgan isation o ccurred.

2 17

3

W ith t he

p oss ib le

e xcept ion o f t he l ate

p ar t o f t he I ron Age ,

t he o verr iding a rchaeo log ica l n eed i s f or f or a l l p er iods , embrac ing f ie ldwork , e nvironmenta l work s pec if ic t o t he s i tes.

s ett lement s tud ies e xcavation a nd

4

A lthough most s ubstant ia l r ound b arrows h ave b een dug i nto i n t he p ast, much mater ia l must s t i l l b e i n t hem, a nd t hey s hou ld b e e xcavated o n a r escue b as is. There i s a lso t he f urther p oss ib i l ity t hat what a ppear t o b e r ound b arrows a re i n f act Neo l ith ic l ong b arrows o r I ron Age s quare b arrows.

5

The d at ing o f c a irnf ie lds i s s t i l l v ery uncerta in. Th is i s d iff icu lt matter a nd c an o n ly b e d one i n c on junct ion w ith s tudy o f c a irnf ie ld f ormation a nd a bandonment.

6

Dat ing o f l inear e ar thworks i s s t i l l a t b est w ith in v ery w ide t ime s pans. More f ie ldwork , a nd p art icu lar ly a ir pho tography ,

a a

i s needed t o S tudy t he ir l ayout a nd f unction; e xcavation a t c arefu l ly c hosen p o ints i s n eeded t o p rov ide d ating e v idence. 7

The f ie ld s ystems and s quare e nc losures , r evea led by a ir photography p articu lar ly o n t he Tabu lar H i l ls , a re p o tent ia l s ources o f i nformation f or t he Roman p er iod, a nd wou ld p rof it f rom i n-depth s tudies.

8

We h ave l i tt le understanding o f t he s urv iv ing o rthostat ic f ie ld wa l ls o r o f a nc ient t rackways i n t he a rea ( see Append ices 1 and 2 ). They a re b etter s tudied a s p arts o f t ota l l andscape ana lys is, r ather t han a s i so lated p ro jects.

2 18

APPENDIX 1 ORTHOSTATIC F IELD WALLS AN UNSOLVED PROBLEM -

A c onsp icuous f eature o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins o n t he North Yorksh ire Moors i s t he p resence o f many d ry s tone wa l ls c onta in ing o r thostats , f ound t hroughout t he s andstone a rea f rom A l lan Tofts i n t he e ast t o Sni lesworth i n t he West. S omet imes t hese l ines o f o r thostats a ppear r unn ing a cross t he o pen moor land, a s o n t he e arthwork r unn ing f rom Nor th I ngs t o Hob-on-the-H il l Commonda le NZ 6 45120 ( E lgee , 1 930 , p late XXII) o r t he Low Br idestones wh ich a re undoubted ly t he r ema ins o f a nc ient f ie ld wa l ls. A t Sn i leswor th a t NZ 5 13936 o rthostats f orm p art o f a r ectangu lar f ie ld, o ne s ide o f wh ich i s t he h ead dyke s eparating t he moor land f rom t he p asture , t he o ppos ite s ide r unn ing o n t he o pen moor land. Most o f t he o rthostatic wa l ls, h owever, f orm p art o f t he f ie ld wal ls i n c urrent u se , many o f t hem a s h ead dykes , a f ew, s uch a s a t Low Arnsg i l l NZ 5 23954 a s t he i nterna l wa l ls o f f arms. A l i st o f known o r thostatic wa l ls i s g iven i n Tab le 3 5. There were p robab ly many o thers , f or i t i s o ften f ound t hat d ry s tone wa l ls u se l ong s tone s labs a s f oundat ions a nd t hese may h ave b een o r thostats r e-used dur ing r econstruct ion. Th is e ffect i s o ften f ound i n t he v ic in ity o f s urv iv ing o rthostats s t il l i n v ert ica l p os it ions i n t he wa l ls. I n d ef in ing o rthostatic wa l ls i n Tab le 3 5 we n eed a m in imum o f t hree o rthostats , f or t he p resence o f t wo o n ly c an mean s imp ly t he i n-f i l l ing o f a n e ar ly g ateway. The i ntr igu ing a nd

unso lved

p rob lem i s

t he

d ate o f o r ig in o f

t hese wa l ls. I n s ome p arts o f t he Br it ish I s les , f or e xamp le t he Orkney I s lands, t h is t ype o f c onstruct ion was u sed i n r ecent t imes ( Fenton, 1 978). I f , a s we n ow b e l ieve , t here was f a ir ly e xtens ive s ett lement i n t he va l leys i n t he p reh istor ic p er iod , t hen t hese wa l ls c ou ld b e o f t hat d ate , f or t hey a re o ften s i tuated a s p art o f h ead dykes wh ich s tand on t he g eo log ica l boundary b etween t he s andstones o f t he m idd le Jurass ic a nd t he s ha les o f t he l ower J urass ic a nd t herefore a re a t t he j unct ion o f t he b arren moor land a nd t he f erti le s o i ls o f t he d a les. Orthostat ic wa l ls a re o f c ourse known t o b e u sed i n many c ontexts i n t he p reh istor ic p er iod, a nd i n t h is a rea a s wa l l ing f or p astora l e nc losures a s a t Near Moor a nd a t Wheat Beck , a nd t he s outhern c ross-r idge dyke o n Egton Moor i s o f d oub le-orthostatic c onstruction. The Hob-on-the-H i l l b oundary l ine a lso a ppears t o b e i n t he c ontext o f t he p reh istor ic b oundary s ystem. A t A l lan Tofts , t he s urv iv ing o r thostat ic wa l ls o f Hawthorn H i l l F arm a re i n c lose p rox im ity t o t he ' Ce lt ic f ie lds ' o n t he moor land , a nd may b e c onnected w ith t hem, t hough t h is r equ ires c arefu l i nvestigation. I n t ota l t hey a ppear t o b e t he s urviv ing f ragments o f a n e ar ly a nd w idespread s ystem o f wa l l bu i lding; t hey n ever a ppear f or e xamp le i n t he e xtens ive d rystone wa l l ing o f t he e nc losure p er iod. I f s ome o f t hem c ou ld b e d ated, i t m ight b e a p oss ib le way o f s tudy ing t he e stab l ishment o f t he e ar ly v a l ley f arms , f or wh ich t he e v idence i s s o f ragmentary o ver most o f t he a rea. Th is i s a d iff icu lt t ask , but Hodges a nd W i ldgoose ( 1980) h ave r ecent ly s ucceeded i n d at ing d oub le-orthostatic f ie ld wa l ls i n Derbysh ire t o a nd w ith in t he wa l ls.

t he

Roman

2 19

p er iod

by

p ottery

f inds

under

APPENDIX 2 PREHISTORIC TRACKWAYS I t i s p oss ib le t o i dentify t wo k inds o f t rackways i n t h is a rea wh ich a re a lmost c er ta in ly p reh istor ic i n o r ig in. F irst ly t here a re many l oca l t racks o f o ne o r t wo k i lometres l ength wh ich r un up and d own t he h i l ls ides , i nterconnect ing moor land a nd l owland, a nd s econd ly t here a re l ong-d istance t racks o f f i fteen t o t wenty k i lometres. The s hor t-d istance t racks must h ave b een i mportant a t a l l p reh istor ic p er iods , g iven t he i ntegrated l owland/up land e conom ies o f var ious k inds wh ich wou ld h ave r equ ired c onstant t rave l b etween t he moors a nd t he s urround ing l ow g round. We may we l l s uspect , t herefore , t hat s ome o f t hese s hort t racks a re o f very a nc ient o r ig in. The t rackway ( now t he Bo ltby-Hawnby r oad) up t he s carp a t Sneck Yat c an b e s hown t o b e o lder t hen t he C leave Dyke, d ated t o t he f irst m il lenn ium b .c. ( Spratt, 1 982). I n f act i t r uns up t o a v ery l arge Meso l ith ic/ Neo l ith ic f l int s i te a t t he t op o f t he s carp , a nd o ne may we l l s uspect a Meso l ith ic o r ig in o f t he t rack. The s ame may b e t rue o f t he t rack l ead ing f rom t he western s carp t o S teep le Cross , where t here a re a lso f l int s i tes a t t he s carp s ummit. (As d escr ibed i n Chapter 1 , t hese e ar ly . t racks make u se o f t he s tab le n abs o n t he western s carp.) Certa in ly many t rackways f rom t he p er iphera l l ow land a nd t he v a l leys l eading t o and f rom t he h i l ls must h ave b een i n u se c ontemporary w ith t he c a irnf ie lds, a nd t he ub iqu itous c o-ex istence i n t he l andscape o f c a irnf ie lds a nd t he h o l low ways i s s ure ly e v idence o f t h is. As been a rgued i n Chapter 5 .1, i t i s a lso f requent ly p oss ib le t o an a ssoc iat ion b etween c a irnf ie lds, c ross-r idge dykes a nd t rackways i n t heir v ic inity . There i s a t yp ica l s i tuation o f

h as s ee t he t h is

k ind a t Danby R igg; t here i s a t rack l ead ing f rom t he ma in v a l ley on t o t he s pur where t he c a irnf ie ld i s s i tuated, a nd t racks f rom t he s ide va l leys t o t he v ic in ity o f t he c ross-r idge dykes. I n s ome p laces, Cast leton R igg , f or e xamp le , t hese t racks h ave b ecome modern r oadways; i n o ther p laces , a s a t Danby R igg , t hey r ema in a s h o l low-ways. A t Cau lk ley 's Bank n ear Nunn ington , t he modern r oadway c rosses t he s pur w ith in a bout 5 0 y ards o f t he c ross-r idge dyke , a nd a n o ld t rackway r uns a cross t he p o int o f t he s pur t o West Ness. We c an r easonab ly t h ink o f t hese p atterns o f t racks i nterconnecting l owland a nd h igh g round i n t he v ic in ity o f Bronze Age s i tes a s d at ing b ack t o t hat p er iod. A c erta in amount o f c aution i s n eeded , h owever , b efore a ss ign ing a nc ient o r ig ins t o any p art icu lar t rack , f or c onstant u se c an wear a t rack o n a h i l ls ide i n a matter o f d ecades. On t he who le o ur p resent e v idence o f l ong-d istance r outes t ends t o d ate t hem s omewhat l ater , t hough i t i s p robab le f rom a rtefact d istr ibution t hat l ong-d istance t rave l o r ig inated f rom t he e ar liest t imes. There i s s ome e v idence o f l ate I ron Age o r Roman d ates f or t hree t racks, a l l o f t hem l y ing i n a n orth/south d irection. F irst t he Hamb leton S treet ( F ig.49), wh ich r uns p ara l le l t o t he s carp a long t he western s ide o f t he h i l ls. I t i s c lear ly l a ter t han t he C leave Dyke s ystem, f or a t Kepw ick Moor i t c uts t ransverse ly a cross t he dyke s ystem, but i t was c erta in ly i n u se by 1 209 when i t was ' the ma in r oad l eading t o C leve land ' ( Spratt , 1 982).

I t i nterconnects s evera l Roman s ites.

2 20

S econd , t he Gu isborough-Ra iph 's Cross t rack , wh ich i nterconnects I ron Age s ites a t P ercy R igg and Crag Bank ( K i lda le), c rosses Crown End s ett lement n ear t he c ross-r idge dyke and j o ins a t Ra lph 's Cross w ith t he s pur r oad o n t he c rest o f Cast leton R igg , a lready d iscussed a s a n e ar ly t rack. Th ird ly t he r oad r unn ing s outh f rom Roxby v i l lage wh ich h as I ron Age s ett lements d isposed e ither s ide o f i t , a nd c ontinues a s a moor land t rack t o t he v ic in ity o f Danby Beacon. I t wou ld s eem r easonab le t o d ate a l l t hese t racks a t l east a s f ar b ack a s t he Roman , a nd p robab ly i n t he c ase o f t he l ast t wo , t o e ar l ier p er iods. And by e xtens ion one m ight a rgue f or o ther l ong-d istance n orth-south t hrough-ways a lso t o b e p reh istor ic i n o r ig in, f or e xamp le t he P icker ing-Egton moor land r oad r unn ing t hrough t he e xtens ive Meso l ith ic s ite a t Mau ley Cross a nd t hrough t he s pur c a irnf ie ld o n Egton Moor , a nd t he t rack f rom Botton Howes d own Rud land R igg t o t he s pur c a irnf ie lds a t Har land Moor . Th is i s . a s f ar a s we may l eg it imate ly push t he e v idence o n t h is n otor ious ly e lus ive s ub ject. Chr istopher Tay lor ( 1979) c autions a ga inst t oo much r e l iance o n d ating by a ssoc iat ion , e spec ia l ly w ith r egard t o r idge-roads. On ly when t he r oads c onta in a rtefacts o r i nteract w ith f eatures s uch a s s ett lements, dykes a nd f ie ld s ystems d o we h ave r e l iab le d ating ev idence. Of t hese , t here a re unfortunate ly o n ly v ery f ew l oca l examp les. I n v iew o f t he l arge l ate p reh istor ic p opu la tion o ne c annot d issent f rom Tay lor 's ( 1979) v iew t hat ' by t he e nd o f p reh istor ic t imes a lmost a l l p arts o f t he Br it ish I s les were c r issc rossed by t rackways ' and t hat many o f t he r oads a nd t racks i n u se t oday d eve loped f rom t hem. I t i s s imp ly very d iff icu lt t o f ind d ef in it ive p roof o f t h is f or s pec if ic i nstances i n t he s tudy a rea.

2 21

L ITERATURE REFERENCES, (No te t hat t he on ly Archaeo log ica l J ourna l)

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H istory o f L inco lnsh ire

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2 33

Wh itby:

C lark a nd Medd.

T able 2 .

E arly M esolithic S ites

( North t o S outh)

P lace

O S G rid

D escription

R eference

H igh C liff S ummit G ui sb orough

N Z 6 10138

B lades, f lakes, m icroliths, s urface

E lgee, M iddlesbrough M useum

S leddale S ide, N orth I ngs

N Z 6 35115

B lades, f lakes, m icroliths, s urface

B urkitt C ollection

S tokesley, S eamer C arr W olf P it,

N Z 4 83098

M icrolith, p ick, s urface 1m icrolith s urface

S pratt

N Z 7 06037

M iddlesbrough

H owe G reenhowe

N Z 6 22025

M icro/blade c ore,

M useum T aylor

N Z 7 75021

b lades/flakes, 8 m icroliths B lades, f lakes,

W ins t anly

M oor E gton M oor

e t a l.

( 1976) E lgee,

s craper, m icroliths, t ranchet a xe, g ravers, m icro a nd T hree H owes

N Z 7 92014

Y arlsey M oss

N Z 7 59014

b lade c ores B lades, f lakes, s craper, 2 6 m icroliths, s urface 7m icro a nd b lade

T aylor

Y ork M useum

c ores, 1 000 b lades/flakes, 9 s crapers, a wl, 9 m icroliths, 7 m icro b urins B adger S tone

N Z

5 95013

B lades, m icroliths, m icro b urins

T aylor

U rra M oor

N Z 5 98012

T aylor

S cugdale

N Z 5 19002

B lades/flakes, 9 m icroliths, a lso g eometric t riangles M icroliths s urface

N ursery N A rnsgill

S E 5 15992

M icro/blade

T aylor

c ores,

T aylor

b lades, f lakes, s crapers, m icroliths, 4 s ites i n e rosion p atch

R idge

M icro a nd b lade c ore, b lades, f lakes, m icroliths,

A rnsgill R idge

S E 5 33982

S imon H owe

S E 8 31982

s urface A dze s harpening

P ointed S tone

S E 6 08975

E xcavated

T aylor

f lake

2 34

T aylor

P lace

O S G rid

D escription

R eference

B ransdale R idge

S E 6 06974

M icro a nd b lade

T aylor

c ores, b lades/ f lakes, 1 m icrolith, a lso g eometric f lints

B ransdale

S E 6 05973

R id g e B ransdale

S E 6 07966

T aylor

F lakes/blades, m icroliths, s crapers S urface f inds,

T aylor

m icroliths, b lades, f lakes, m icro a nd b lade c ores

E dge

B ilsdale W

S E 5 50962

S urface b lades, f lakes, m icroliths

T aylor

B ilsdale E

S E 5 90960

B urkitt

B ilsdale E

S E 5 90690

B lades/flakes, m icroliths F lakes, s crapers, g ravers, m icro a nd

B ilsdale W

S E 5 52960

B ilsdale W

M oney H owe

C ow R idge

C ollection T aylor

b lade c ores, b lades M icro a nd b lade c ores, b urins,

T aylor

S E 5 45955

f lakes, m icroliths, s urface 8m icrolithic a nd

T aylor

S E 5 95951

o thers, a lso g eometric f lints E xcavated s crapers,

T aylor

S E 5 26951

m icroliths, m icro/ b lade c ores, b lades F lakes, s crapers,

P ollard

g ravers, 2 7 icro m icroliths, m b urins B ilsdale E

B ilsdale W

G rouse H a i l

S E 6 04945

S E 5 58944

S E 6 90908

O x C lose

S E 7 10887

S eamer C arr

T A 0 40830

( 1) B lades, m icroliths, g eometric

f lakes, a lso

( 2) B lades, m icroliths ( 3) B lades,

f lakes, f lakes,

m ic roburi u s S urface, m icroblade c ores, b lades, f lakes, s crapers, 2 m icroliths 1m tcrolith s urface 1r n icrolith s urface S catter o f o ld

l ake

2 35

T aylor

f lints

s hore

o n

T aylor

R yedale F olk M useum R yedale F olk M useum S chad l a-Hall ( pers.comm .)

O S G rid

P lace F lixton S ite

A 0 40813 3 T

F lixton S ite

A 0 35810 1T

F lixton S ite

A 0 35810 2T

T A 0 27810

S tar C arr

R eference

D escription T ranchet

S carborough

a xes,

c ores, b lades, f lakes, m icroliths, s crapers B lades, f lakes, m icroliths, s crapers, c ores,

M useum ; M oore ( 1950, 1 954)

t ranchet a xes B lades, f lakes, m icroliths, s crapers W ide a nd p rolific v ariety. S ee C lark

C lark ( 1954)

( 1954)

N ote: a bbreviations m icro-core m eans c ore w ith m icrolith s cars, b lade-core' i s a c ore w ith b lade s cars, ' micro/blade c ore' h as b oth

t ypes

o f

s car,

' micro

a nd

b lade

c ore p resent)

2 36

c ores'

m eans

b oth

t ypes

o f

T able 3 .

0 .S .

P lace U pleatham S ites 1 a nd

G rid

N Z 6 36201 2

U pleatham S ite 3

N Z 6 22199

E ston N ab

N Z 5 68183

B arnaby

N Z 5 72167

L ate M esolithic S ites

C omment

R eference

P loughed s ite, m icroliths, s crapers,

S pratt, G oddard a nd B rown

c ores

( 1976)

P loughed s ite, i ncomplete. M icroliths, s crapers, c ores M icroliths a nd i n h illfort

lgee f lakes E

( 1930)

I nglehy

N Z 4 33133

B arwick

t o 4 37151

E lgee ( 1930) P rolific s ite, w ith N eolithic pratt, G oddard M icroliths, s crapers, S a nd B rown c ores, a bove f lood

C ommond a le

N Z 6 70124

p lain o f R . M icroliths,

T ees c ore

( 1976) B urkitt

E asington M oor

N Z 7 29120

M icroliths,

f lakes

c ollection S pratt ( unpublished)

C ommondale, B rown H ill D anby, S iss

N Z 6 74114

2 s ites, m icroliths, b lades, c ores M any m icroliths

N Z 7 04107

B rown H ill D anhy B eacon

( 1930)

A tkinson ( 1863);

C ross X ildale,

E lgee

N Z 6 23107

S everal

N Z 7 37093

b arrow M icroliths,

f lints

i n

s mall

E lgee

( 1930) A shbee a nd A psimon ( 1956) E lgee ( 1930)

N Z 6 31067

s ite S ingle m icrolith, i n c ollared u rn b arrow 1 4 m icroliths f rom

C lose c ollection C lose ( 1975)

S tockdale M oor

N Z 6 30038

a rrow M icroliths

W ins t anley/

I ngleby G reenhowe

N Z 6 04038

M icroliths a nd f lakes

E gton, G range H ead B urton H owes

N Z 7 78035

M icroliths / b lades

J acobi i nformation

S mall s catter,

C lose

H utton R udby, F olly H ill H oliday H ill

N Z 4 75072

N Z 6 07033

U nwin; C BA g azetteer H ayes ( 1963)

2 0

m icroliths

c ollection; H ayes ( 1963) H ayes

H asty B ank

N Z 5 75031

W hite G ill F arndale M oor

N Z 6 40027 N Z 6 36027

V ery l arge s ite M any p rolific s ites

t o 6 60005 N Z 6 33025

M any p rolific s ites

H ayes ( 1963) U nwin C BA g azetteer

N Z 6 30025

M icroliths

L eeds M useum

W e st er da le M oor S tony R igg

2 37

c ollection R adley ( 1969a) R adley ( 1969a);

P lace

O .S.

H owe M oor

I ngleby

G rid

C omment

R eference

N Z 5 19025

1 000 f lints, m icroliths

G ibsonM iddlesbrough M useum; H ayes

N Z 5 87023

M icroliths,

G reenhowe, R ound H ill. E gton

N Z 7 70023

2 r ods,

( 1963) C lose

7 t riangles

c ollection

L arge

W ir istanley/ U nwin; C BA

s ite

N Z 7 75021

g azetteer T horoley/Hayes; C BA g azetteer J acobi i nformation

W esterdale

N Z 6 40020

G laisdale/ D anhy

N Z 7 27019

M any s ites a rea M any s ites

D anhy H igh M oor U rra M oor

N Z 7 29016

M icroliths

H ull M useum

N Z 5 96015

S mall s catters o f f lint

M orris

Y arisey M oss

i n t his

E gton

N Z 7 59014 N Z 7 49006 N Z 7 50013

m icroliths

B illerhow

N Z 7 48014 N Z 9 14013

D ale C ock H eads

N Z 7 36013

1 0 s ites i n t his a rea m ainly w ith

B otton H ead

N Z

W ide s catter, m icroliths

F arndale M oor E gton H igh M oor

N Z 6 48010 N Z 7 54012 N Z 7 70010

S tone R uck

N Z 7 64008 N Z 7 18008

H ayes; C BA g azetteer S mall

s ites,

C BA g azetteer C BA g azetteer

m icroliths

E gton, Y arisey H ill U rra M oor, B road

5 93013

N Z 7 51007

H ayes

( 1963)

R adley ( 1969a) C BA g azetteer;

8 s ites i n t his g eneral a rea

R adley ( 1969a)

M icroliths, s crapers

J acobi

S mall

H ayes;

s ite

R adley

( 1969a) T aylor

N Z 5 85007

I ngs

E skletts

N Z 6 65007

E xcavated s ite, f lints, 1 0 m icroliths, s crapers

3 00

3

R adley ( 1969a); H ayes ( 1963; f orthcoming)

B ransdale

N Z 6 13007

C laisdale

N Z 7 17/29/

M any p rolific

H ayes

H igh M oor F arndale M oor

0 01/020 N Z 6 50007

i n t his a rea M any p rolific s ites

R adley ( 1969a);

1 45 f lints, m icroliths

J acobi C BA g azetteer; W illiams;

N Z 6 72001 S cugdale

S E 5 20000

s ites

( 1963)

C BA g azetteer

M iddlesbrough M useum

2 38

P lace

0 .S .

C ammon S tone

S E 6 27000

W idow H owe

S E 8 71998

M oor W heeldale S cugd a le

G rid

S E 7 73998 S E 5 26998

C omment

R eference

S mall s ite, m icroliths

H ayes T aylor

S mall s ite,

b lades,

S E 6 13996 S E 7 93996

F arndale B lakey

S E 6 60995 S E 6 79995

W horiton

S E 5 07993 S E 5 10993 S E 5 30983

S f1 l esworth

S E 4 95987

T aylor H ayes ( 1963); W illiams; Y orkshire M useum

f lakes

B ransdale E gton H igh M oor

( 1963)

H ayes hite 4 5 f lints, m icroliths W

( 1963) ( 1978)

H ayes H ayes

( 1963)

M icroliths a nd s craper

1 70 f lints, m icroliths

P ollard; M orris; C BA g azetteer D owey; C BA g azetteer T aylor

3

E 6 03982 N o f B ransdale S R idge S imon H owe O smotherley

S E 8 31982 S E 5 35981

M any p rolific

S tones O usegill H ead

S E 6 34981

E xcavated s ite, 1 00 f lints, 1 5 m icro—

s ites

C BA g azetteer T aylor H ayes ( forthcoming)

l iths, 1 0 s crapers, a xe, t rimming f lake S everal s mall s ites

H ayes

( 1963)

W horiton M oor

S E 5 00980

L illa R igg, G oath l and N ah E nd M oor

S E 8 70980

W hitby M useum

S E 5 80980

P ollard

C ow R idge B ransdale

S E 5 45977 S E 6 08976

M any p rolific s ites

S E 6 08975

T aylor M orris;

H ayes

( 1963);

T aylor

S E 6 04975 S E 6 06974 S E 6 08974 S E 6 07974 S E 6 09973 S E 6 09968 N orth o f C ow R idge C ow R idge

S E 5 47975

P rod H ills

S E 5 20970

H igh W oof H owe

S E 9 02968

T aylor T aylor

S E 5 48970 3m icrolith t ria ngles, l eaf a nd b arbed—and—tanged a rrowheads S E 9 04968

2 39

M orley ( 1970)

T aylor

0 .S.

N orth E nd o f

S E 5 24967

T aylor

A rnsgill A rnsgill R idge S E 5 28966 S E 5 22964

T aylor

C ow R idge

B ilsdale W est M oor S hooting H ouse M oor P arci G ill

B ilsdale E ast

G rid

C omment

P lace

S E 5 44966 S E 5 40962 S E 5 47961

R eference

l arge c rescentic m icroliths

S E 5 45960 S E 5 50960

Y orkshire M useum; T aylor T aylor

S E 5 53959 S E S E S E S E

5 58956 5 40956 5 37955 5 49954

S E 5 95955

H ayes ( 1963); T aylor

7 200 m icroliths

T aylor

M edium s ite,

C BA g azetteer

5 0

m icroliths B ilsdale W est

S E 5 46953

P eat M oss

S E 5 52952 S E 5 48952 S E 5 49952

T aylor; P ollard 5 000 f lints, m icroliths,

C larke

2 7

( 1973)

2 00

s crapers, B &T a nd l eaf a rrowheads P arci G ill

S E 5 53952

H awnby

S E 5 48952 S E 5 47952

P rolific

B ilsdale W est

S E 5 50960

S everal s ites

T aylor R adley ( 1969a); D ymond ( 1964) Y orkshire

B ilsdale E ast

S E 5 52951 S E 5 97950

S everal s ites

M useum; T aylor;

S mall s ite, m icro i it h

g azetteer C hambers; C BA g azet t eer

B lakey M oor, S al tersgate C ow R idge

S E 5 95955 S E 8 70950 S E 5 26950

s ites

M icroliths

1 a nd

S E 5 32947 S E 5 19945 P ickering, T rigger C astle

S E 7 93946

St ape

S E 7 96945

M auley C ross

S E 7 94944

S mall s ite, m icroliths

2

S mall

3

s ite,

S E 5 48943

L as t ingham

S E 7 25940

ayes ( 1963); f lakes H P ollard; T aylor R adley ( 1969a); S carboro u gh M useum H ayes;

m icroliths

M iddlesbrough M useum

V ery l arge s ite, c ollected o ver m any

R adley ( 1969a); C BA g azetteer; H ayes ( forthcoming)

y ears H awnby

T aylor CM

M edium s ite, 2 5 m icroliths 7 5 f lints, 2 m icroliths

2 40

R adley ( 1969a) H ayes; C BA g azetteer

P lace

O .S.

G rid

B lakey T opping

S E 8 73938

H utton-leH ole W ykeham

S E 7 08935 S E 7 10920 S E 9 22935

R eference

C omment 5 6 f lints,

H ayes

s everal

( 1967b)

m icroliths 1m icrolith a t e ach

C BA g azetteer

1 23 f lints,

R utter

3

( 1963);

S E 7 25910

1m icrolith

S carborough M useum H ayes ( 1964a)

S teeple C ross

S E 4 94902

M urton

S E 5 19878

M esolithic/Neolithic f lint S mall s ite, 2

D unn & S pratt ( unpublished) H ayes ( 1963)

m icroliths S paunton

S E 5 08877

m icroliths unn & S pratt; M esolithic/Neolithic, D H ayes ( 1963) l arge s ite, k nown

E bberston

S E 9 00860

s ince 1 905 S mall s ite, m icroliths

E bberston, A lfred's C ave

S E 8 98833

S utton u nder

S E 5 15830

S neck Y at

S E 5 56817

S cawton M oor

N otes:

Much

o f

S E 5 68813

t his

C BA g azetteer

1 4 f lints, 1 m icrolith S mall s ite, m icrolith,

W hitestone E dge W ass M oor

B ritish M useum

R adley ( 1969a)

s craper

O dd f inds o f f lints

R adley ( 1969a);

i ncluding m icroliths

H ayes H ayes

S mall s ite w ith m icroliths

i nformation

i s

i n

t he

G azetteer

S ites i n E ngland a nd W ales, C BA R esearch R eport J acobi k indly g ave a ccess t o h is r ecord c ards w here

n o

r eference

i s

g iven w ith

a n ame,

t his s ource.

2 41

t he

( 1963) ( 1963)

o f M esolithic

2 0 ( 1977). D r R .M . f or t he a rea, a nd

i nformation

c ame f rom

T able 4 . V ery l ate M esolithic s ites. ( Microliths c omprise r ods o nly)

P lace

O S G rid

D escription

R eference

H igh B rown H ill,

N Z 6 74114

m icro/blade c ores, b lades/flakes, m icroliths, m icro b urins 2 4 r ods

E lgee; M iddlesbrough M useum

C ommondale W esterdale

N Z 6 40020

M oor I I C ockayne

S E 6 25982

B lades, f lakes, 3 6 m icroliths, m icro b urins

T aylor

B ransdale F ootpath

S E 6 04976

M orris

N ear P ointed S tone B ransdale

S E 6 04975

B lades, f lakes, m icroliths 3 00 m icroliths, b lades, f lakes B lades, m icroliths

S E 6 05975

R adley ( 1969a)

T aylor T aylor

R idge B ransdale R idge

S E 6 09974

M icro/blade c ores, b lades, f lakes, m icroliths

T aylor

E ast B ilsdale M oor

S E 6 04974

M icro/blade c ore, b lades/flakes, g raves, m icroliths

T aylor

B ransdale R idge

S E 6 05973

B lades, f lakes, d ykes, m icroliths

T aylor

B ransdale R idge

S E 6 04973

M icro/blade c ores,

T aylor

B ransdale R idge B ransdale

S E 6 06973

a s

a bove

T aylor

S E 6 04973

a s

a bove

T aylor

S E 6 09968

o ver 5 0 r ods

R idge E ast B iisdale M oor

b lades/flakes, m icroliths

2 42

T aylor

T able

5 .

L ater F lints

o n M esolithic F lint

S ites

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

U pleatham

N Z 6 36201

L eaf-shaped a rrowhead S pratt,

R eference

B arnaby

N Z 5 72167

T ranchet

W hite G ill

N Z 6 40027

P etit

a rrowhead

t ranchet

d erivative a rrowh eads, p olished f lint a xe, l eaf a nd B &T

C ock H eads

N Z 7 29016

G oddard

& B rown ( 1976)

a rrowheads, p iano-convex k nife P etit t ranchet a rrowheads S everal p etit t ranchet

S pratt, G oddard & B rown ( 1976) R adley ( 1969a) a nd H ayes ( pers.comm .); S pratt ( 1974)

B artlett

( 1969)

F arndale M oor

N Z 6 48010

S imon H owe

S E 8 31982

L eaf-shaped a nd p etit t ranchet a rrowheads

N ab E nd M oor

S E 5 80980

O usegill H ead

S E 6 34981

L arge s crapers, p etit R adley'(1969a) t ranchet a rrowheads L eaf s haped a rrowhead H ayes

B ransdale W est

S E 6 03975

6 -8 B &T, 3 l eaf, B &T l eaf a nd t ransverse

P rod H ills

S E 5 20970

M orley ( 1970)

P eat M oss

S E 5 49952

B &T a nd l eaf a rrowheads B &T, t ranchet a nd l eaf a rrowheads

R adley ( 1969); H ayes ( forthcoming)

M auley C ross

S E 7 94944

2

T ranchet a rrowheads a nd p ossibly l eaf

H ayes ( forthcoming) H ayes ( forthcoming)

( forthcoming) H ayes ( forthcoming)

C larke

( 1973)

s haped, m any s crapers, 3 l eaf a rrowheads, S teeple C ross

S E 4 94901

A ppleton-leM oors

S E 7 44885

S neck Y at

S E 5 08877

m icro i it hs M esolithic/Neolithic s ite

D unn a nd S pratt ( unpublished)

M esolithic/Neolithic/ H ayes ( 1977) E arly B ronze A ge s ite V ery l arge D unn a nd M esolithic/Neolithic S pratt; O .S. 6 " s ite m ap

2 43

T able 6 .

N eolithic A xes.

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

D ormans t own

c N Z 5 57265

F lint

M iddlesbrough M useum

X ir kleatham S kelton S treet H ouse

N Z 5 93220 c N Z 6 60190 N Z 7 36196

G reens t one S tone S tone

S pratt ( 1979) E lgee ( 1930) V yner e t a l.

N Z 5 18172

S tone

( forthcoming) M iddlesbrough M useum

B arnaby M oor

c N Z 5 70170

S tone

T hornaby

c N Z 4 50170

G reenstone

T hornaby

c N Z 4 50170

I gneous

M iddlesbrough M useum

T hornaby

c N Z 4 30166

F lint

N Z 5 15161

S tone

E lgee ( 1930) ( annotation) P arks D ept.,

P ark E nd, M iddlesbrough

S tewart P ark, M iddlesbrough

M iddlesbrough M useum M iddlesbrough M useum

M iddlesbrough

G uisborough

c N Z 6 10160

I gneous

M iddlesbrough M useum

U ps al 1

c N Z 5 50160

F lint

E lgee ( 1930); M iddlesbrough M useum

A ck l am

c N Z 4 75157

S tone

M iddlesbrough

G ui sb orough

c N Z 6 38155

G reens t one

S pa W ood C oulby N ewham

N Z 5 06151

A ysdale G ate

N Z 6 51148

S tone

c N Z 4 80140

S tone

M u se m E lgee ( 1930); M iddlesbrough M useum B rown H ayes

( 1978)

( pers.comm .) S tainton M oor s ho i m Y ar m

c N Z 6 89136 N Z 4 18126

E lgee ( 1933) 1f lint, 1 g reenstone H ayes ( 1964a) S mall g reenstone C leveland C ounty

B arnby H ilton

c N Z 8 25125 N Z 4 56123

S tone S tone

S caling Y arm

c N Z 7 30120 c N Z 4 15120

S tone G reens t one

W hitby

c N Z 9 00110

9 s tone,

G reat A yton

G reens t one

B ankside F arm,

c N Z 5 60110 N Z 6 10100

X ii da l e H ighlights,

c N Z 9 28101

G reens t one

E lgee ( 1930) ( annotation)

S tone

S pratt

A rchaeologist W hitby M useum

1f lint

B rown ( 1974) W hitby M useum S heffield M useum Y orkshire M useum

G reens t one

S altwick T anton

N Z 5 27100

2 44

E lgee C lose

( 1930) ( 1974)

( 1977a)

P lace S eamer C arr,

C omment

R eference

N Z 4 82098

F lint

S pratt

N Z 6 97096

S tone

A gar ( 1973) M iddlesbrough

O S G rid

( 1978)

S tokes l ey D anby L ow M oor D anby

c N Z 7 10085

2 s tone

S leights

N Z 8 71084

S tone

C astleton

N Z 6 90080

S tone

M use u m H ayes ( pers.comm . H aves

C ast l eton—

N Z 7 00080

F lint

( pers.comm .) W hitby M useum

D anby H awske r B ottoms

N Z 9 36079

G reens t one

W hi t by M useum

S neaton

N Z 8 94078

S tone

H ayes ( pers.comm .) W hitby M useum Y orkshire M useum Y orkshite

N ewbiggin

c N Z 8 40070

S leigh ts

c N Z 8 65070

G reens t one 3 s tone

)

E gton

N Z 8 10065

2

L ing H ills, R obin H oods B ay T horpe, R obin H oods B ay

N Z 9 28060

S tone

E lgec

N Z 9 45050

F lint

W hitby M useum

I ngleby G reenhow

N Z 5 81046

S tone

M iddlesbrough

I ngleby G reenhow

N Z 5 75045

B orrowdale

S pratt

( 1977b)

I ngleby

N Z 5 77046

2 B orrowdale

S pratt

( 1977b)

N Z 5 70040

S tone

M iddlesbrough

N Z 9 10030 c N Z 8 20030 c N Z 8 30030

F lint S tone S tone

M useum

G reenhow I ngleby G reenhow F ylingdales M urk E sk A llan T ops I ngleby

( 1930)

M useum i nformation

M useum W hitby M useum E lgee E lgee

( 1930) ( 1930) ( 1964a)

N Z 6 01027

F lint

H ayes

G reenhow P eak

N Z 9 80025

3 f lint

Y orkshire

W hite G ill

N Z 6 40027

F lint

M useum H ayes ( pers.comm.)

F ylingdales W horiton M oor

N Z 9 10013

S tone

N Z 5 06012

F lint

H ayes ( 1965) M iddlesbrough M useum

T hornhill

N Z 8 33002

G reens t one

D odsworth

I ntake, G oathiand S tainton D ale N ear M ount G race P riory

( 1973) N Z 9 85001 S E 4 56988

G reenstone

R utter

F lint

H ayes ( pers.comm .)

2 45

( 1970a)

P lace

O S G rid

C loughton

R osedale F ar ndale

T A 0 02973

c S E 7 10970 S E 6 70970

H arwood D ale

S E 9 55958

C om ment

R eference

G reens t one

S carborough M useum; H ayes i nformation

3

E lgee H ayes

3 f lint, 4 s tone G reens t one 3 f lint, 1 s tone

( 1930) ( 1963)

2 f lint

W hitby M useum Y orkshire M useum S ca r boro u gh M useum E lgee

S E 7 54944

3 f lint

a nnotation; M iddlesbrough M useum H ayes

S E 6 53934

F lint

( pers.comm .) H ayes ( 1963)

S E 6 97927 S E 8 96915

F lint U npolished

S E 6 57913 S E 7 23911

F lint S tone

H ayes ( 1963) M iddlesbrough M useum

c S E 9 30910 S E 6 86907

F lint F lint

R utter ( 1964c) H ayes ( 1963)

S E 6 85906

G reens t one

H ayes

F ield C ropton

S E 7 62906

S tone

H ayes ( pers.comm .)

S paunton

S E 7 20904

S tone

H ayes

H ackness

c S E 9 70900

L ockton

c S E 8 43900

S tone

S E 6 85898 S E 8 68897 S E 7 70892

F lint G reens t one F lint

2

F lint

( pers.comm .) S carborough M useum

1s tone G roup V II

K een a nd R adley

1s tone

( 1971) Y orkshire M useum

S E 7 23884 S E 6 95880

G reens t one 2 f lint

H ayes H ayes

2

2 s tone

H ull M useum

1 f lint B ransdale

S E 6 12947

H artoft R udland, H ouse

B og

L astingham C rosscliff,

f lint

H ayes ( 1964b) R utter ( 1969)

A llerston F admoor S paunton W ykeham F arndale, L owna C ii lamoor, L owna M ill

G illamoor D alby C awthorn W est W ilsons W ood, S carborough S carborough

S paunton H utton-le-

c T A 0 30890

2 G reens t one

H ole

( 1964a)

( pers.comm .) L eeds M useum ; S carborough M useum W hitby M useum H ayes ( 1977) R ushton ( 1976) H ayes

( 1965)

( pers . c omm .)

2 46

O S G rid

P lace D aletown

S E 5 36885

R eference

C omment 4 s tone

( 2 G roup V I,

1 c oarse t uff, u nidentified)

1

K een a nd R adley ( 1971); ( 1963);

H ayes H ull

M useum N ova,

n ear

c S E 7 90880

F lint

E lgee

( 1933)

c T A 0 30880

G roup V I

K een a nd R adley

P ickering F alsgrave

( 1971); S carborough M useum K een a nd R adley ( 1971); H ull

c T A 0 40880

G reenstone

H utton / L astingham

S E 7 10879

2 s tone G reenstone

M useum L eeds M useum H ayes ( 1964a)

H utton ( Lingmoor)

S E 7 18874

F lint

H ayes

E bberston

S E 9 03873

G roup V I

K een a nd R adley

A ppleton-le-

S E 7 20872

G reenstone

( 1971) L eeds M useum

K frkbymoorside

S E 6 94872

G reenstone

H ayes

( 1969)

K irkbymoors ide, T inley G arth

S E 6 94866

G reenstone

H ayes

( 1963)

P ickering

S E 8 25866

1g reens t one

L eeds M useum

1f lint

H ayes ( pers.comm .)

S carborough

( 1964a)

M oor

G reenstone,

7m iles e ast o f P ickering

A ncat F arm K irkbymoors ide, P ark L ane

v essel

S tone

S E 6 98871

S tone

H ayes ( pers. c omm . )

G reenstone

K een a nd R adley ( 1971); S carborough

B oltby

c S E 5 00860

1

S camri d ge

c S E 8 90860

1f lint,

K irkbymoors ide, F ield

( 1971); S heffield M useum R utter ( 1964a)

S E 9 63865

c T A 0 20860

S eamer

ateman ( 1861); w ith f ood B K een a nd R adley

a xes 2 s tone

M useum 1 0 L eeds M useum 1 S ettle M useum E vans ( 1897); Y orkshire M use u m#

S E 6 98859

G reenstone

S outh

2 47

H ayes

( 1963)

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

H utton B uscel

S E 9 66858

F lint

S carborough M useum

P exton M oor H utton B uscel

S E 8 55857 S E 9 67856

B lack s tone L imestone

G reen ( 1968) K een a nd R adley

H utton B uscel

S E 9 69854 c S E 8 75855

G reens t one S tone

R utter ( 1964a) Y orkshire

W arren C ivendale, A llerston

c S E 8 80850

1s tone,

A yton E ast

c T A 0 00850

F ield Sa wdon

c S E 9 40850

4 f lint b arrow F lint

c S E 9 40850

S tone

( 1971) A llerston

S awdon B eck F arm T hornton D ale, N ab G ate T hornton D ale, M onklands H elmsley, S tilton H ouse I rton

M useum 1 g reenstone H ayes ( 1964a; p ers.comm .) i n l ong

E lgee

( 1930)

S E 8 69847

G reens t one

E lgee ( 1930) Y orkshire M useum H ayes ( 1968a)

S E 8 38846

F lint

H ayes

( 1968a)

S E 5 98846

F lint

H ayes

( f963)

T A 0 06942

1f lint

H ayes

1g reenstone

S carborough M useum M alton M useum

( pers.comm .)

B ea dl am B eadlam G range I rton H elmsley P ickering

G reenstone S E 6 42842 T A 0 10841 c S E 6 10840 c S E 8 00840

ayes ( 1967b) 1 f lint, 1 g reenstone H R utter ( 1969) U npolished f lint S carborough 1g reenstone 2 s tone

S cawton

c S E 5 50840

1f lint 1g reenstone

M useum K een a nd R adley ( 1971) Y orkshire M useum H ayes

( 1963)

Y orkshire M useum

c S E 6 80840

G reens t one

H ayes ( 1963); S carborough M useum

S eamer

T A 0 23835

G reens t one

K een a nd R adley

H elmsley

S E 6 14834

G reens t one

W elburn

M arton A llerston

S E 7 32833 c S E 8 80830

G reens t one 1s tone, 1 f lint

W yk e ham

c S E 9 60830

G roup V I

( 1971) H ayes ( 1963) H ayes ( 1965) Y orkshire M useum K een a nd R adley ( 1971); S carborough M useum

H utton B uscel

F lint

2 48

S carborough M useum

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

H utton B uscel

c S E 9 70830

G roup V I

K een a nd R adley ( 1971);

G roup V I

S heffield M useum K een a nd R adley

T A 0 26830

G roup V I

( 1971); Y orkshire M useum K een a nd R adley

S E 5 40830

2 g reenstone

M useum H ayes i nformation

S E 9 55830 T A 0 23829

1f lint F lint T uff

H ayes ( 1963) E lgee ( 1930) K een a nd R adley

H ambleton H ouse S eamer

S E 5 35828

S tone

T A 0 25828

S andstone

S eamer

T A 0 28824

G roup V I ( near)

S eamer

c T A 0 10830

S eamer

S cawton M oor S cawton R uston S eamer

( 1971); S carborough

( 1971); S carborough M useum H ayes ( pers.comm .) K een a nd R adley ( 1971); S carborough M useum K een a nd R adley ( 1971); S carborough

S eamer

5 f lint

M useum S carborough

S eamer

T A 0 26821

G roup V I

M useum K een a nd R adley

T A 0 67821

S tone

M useum K een a nd R adley

C ayton

( 1971); S carborough

( 1971) M anby ( 1965) Y orkshire M useum

E bberston S nainton

c S E 9 00820 c S E 9 20820

G roup V I S tone

B elow E bberston S eamer C arr

c S E 9 00820

F lint

E lgee

c T A 0 25820

F lint

Y orkshire

H ar ome B rompton

S E 6 50820 c S E 9 50820

3 s tone G roup X VIII

( 1930)

M useum H ayes ( 1963; p ers.comm .) K een a nd R adley ( 1971); S carborough M useum

2 49

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

B rompton

c S E 9 50820

G roup V I

B rompton C arr

M iddlesbrough M useum

c S E 9 50815

S tone

Y orkshire

c S E 7 35815

S tone

S E 5 97810

S tone

M useum E lgee ( 1930) H ayes ( 1963)

N ormanby S proxton, H ollin B ower O ldstead

c S E 5 20800

o sgoodby B arugh

c S E 4 90800 c S E 7 60790

K ilburn K irby

c S E 5 10790 c S E 7 80790

G roup V I

E vans

3 S tone

M isperton B yland

c S E 5 50790

T hirkiehy C ayton

c S E 4 80790

N unnington N ess

c S E 6 68790 c S E 6 90790

K een a nd R adley ( 1971); Y orkshire M useum ( 1897)

E lgee ( 1930); Y orkshire M useum E lgee ( 1930) Y orkshire M useum R adley ( 1974); S carborough M useum

F lint

E vans ( 1897) Y orkshire M useum

A mpleforth

7

2 p olished l imestone 4 s tone F lint

2 50

E vans E lgee

( 1897) ( 1930)

E lgee ( 1930); Y orkshire M useum

T able 7 .

L ong B arrows a nd C airns

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

S treet H ouse

N Z 7 36196

F ound b eneath B .A .

V yner e t a l.

r ound b arrow . M ortuary h ouse C 14 d ate 2 770 b .c.

( forthcoming)

N ewton

N Z 7 76143

A v ery m utilated

N Z 7 96139

c airn A p ossible

M ulgrave E llerby B ank T op B arnby

N Z 8 27130

l ong U npublished

l ong

1 856 O S M ap

b arrow P ossible l ong c airn, n ot n ow v isible

( 1955) H ayes ( 1967)

G reat A yton M oor

N Z 5 94115

C hambered c airn. f inds

D anby

N Z 7 15109

A p ossible b arrow

B ransdale

S E 6 08968

K epwick

S E 4 91903

C ropton

S E 7 67894

P robably 2 i n t his a rea

K irk H owe,

S E 6 84897

A p ossible

l ong

H ayes

( 1975b)

S E 6 81869

b arrow A p ossible l ong

H ayes

( 1963)

G illamoor K irkbymoorside

N o

O rdnance S urvey C ard I ndex

l ong

O rdnance S urvey C ard I ndex

( 1958) S tony c airn w ith H ayes ( 1963) o rthostats B urials. N o a rtefacts G reenwell ( 1877) E lgee ( 1930)

b arrow S camridge

S E 8 92860

H uman b ones c alcined a nd u ncalcined. N o

G reenwell ( 1866)

a rtefacts R utter

( 1967)

S camridge

S E 9 03860

R ob H owe. V isible a s a ir p hoto

S camridge

S E 9 03859

S mall

E ast A yton

T A 0 00864

a s a ir p hoto H uman b ones w ith

C onyngham

N eolithic

( 1849);

h oard. W ykeham F orest

W ass

b arrow .

utter V isible R

f lint

3 080±90 b .c.

S E 8 84843

( NPL 7 3) T rapezoid b arrow,

S E 5 63802

l ength, um B urials o n l owest

( 1967b)

V atcher

( 1961)

acitto 3 0m P ( p ers.comm.) w idth 7 m t o

l ayer. b elow

2 51

P lain p ottery

G reenwell ( 1877)

T able 8 .

G rimston W are

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

S treet H ouse

N Z 7 36196

V yner e t a l. ( forthcoming)

P ockley

S E 6 30881

F orecourt o f l ong b arrow I n p it b elow r ound

P acitto

( 1970b)

b arrow w hich c ontained a c offined i nhumation I rton, B arrow V

T A 0 05876

impson ( 1974); U ndecorated N eolithic S U niversity o f p ottery i n p it o r L eicester d itch b elow o val c airn w hich h ad f ood v essel c remation

A mpieforth

S E 5 80800

S eamer

T A 0 00864

W ainwright a nd O n o ld l and s urface ongworth b eneath r ound h arrows L w hich s eem t o b e o f ( 1969); Y orkshire L ate B ronze A ge d ate M useum S impson ( 1963); B owls s mashed o n U niversity o f r ound L eicester b arrow atcher ( 1961) P ottery f rom m ortuary V b urial a rea o f

A yton E ast F ield L ong B arrow E bberston,

T A 0 00864

e nclosure S E 8 98833

A lfred's C ave W ass

S E 5 63802

f orecourt.

3 080±90 b .c. ( NPL 7 3) L amplough a nd S mall s herds w ith L idster ( 1959) m icroliths G reenwell P lain p ottery, ( 1877) p robably G rimston, r ecorded b elow l ong b arrow

B arnby H owes

S E 8 30138

T owthorpe w are

A shbee a nd A psimon ( 1956)

J

2 52

T able 9 .

P eterborough W are

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

B oitby

S E 5 07859

M anby ( pers.comm .); S ettle M useum

B lansby P ark

S E 8 14865

F ound b y T L ord. E xact l ocation u nknown C entral h ollow b elow

W vkeham M oor

E 9 35859 1 S

r ound b arrow I n p it b elow o ld s urface o f r ound b arrow w hich

R utter

( 1973)

rewster l and B ( 1967); B ritish M useum

c ontained a n S 3 M onklands, T hornton D ale

S E 8 36846

N ear S carborough A mpleforth

S E 5 96797

b eaker D isturbed c entral a rea o f r ound b arrow

K irk ( 1912); M anby ( 1956);

w hich c ontained b eaker b urial P ottery f rom b arrow

Y orkshire M useum L amplough

n ear S carborough I n a p loughed f ield

( unpublished) W ilimot ( 1937, 1 938)

2 53

T able

P lace

O S G rid

1 0.

G rooved w are

C omment

R eference

8m iles n orth

B ateman ( 1861);

o f P ickering

M anby ( 1974); S heffield C ity M useum

S paunton

S E 7 25910

S eamer M oor

T A 0 00864

S eamer

( Manham T A 0 38820

lhl)

W ykeham

S E 9 67838

2 s herds u nder H ayes ( 1964a) m edieval h all I n a g roove o utside a S impson ( 1963); r ound h arrow M anby ( 1974) M any v essels f rom o ccupation s ite

W ainwright a nd L ongworth

d estroyed b y c ultivation

( 1971); S carborough M useum

6 s herds o f a s mall f lat b ottomed v essel i n a p it b elow

M oore a nd M anby ( 1962); S carborough

A nglian s ite

M useum

2 54

T able

P lace M ount P leasant, E ston H ills K emplah T op, G ui sb orough M oor B arnby H owes N ewton M uigrave M oor N anny H owe, K i1 4a le

O S G rid

R eference

N Z 6 07141

H ornsby M SS 2 73

S H3(C)

N Z 8 30138 A OC & N 4 ?

S } {4(B), S i

S 4,

C lay B ank,

( 1971)

I

A shbee a nd

C

A psimon ( 1956) A nderson M SS L iverpool M useum 3 2-36 H ayes ( 1966a)

N Z 5 98103 N 2

E gton

2 b eakers

I , c ist b urial

A nderson M S L iverpool M useum 2 3

N Z 8 03041 E

I ?

N Z 5 73036 N 3

I

G reenwell ( 1866; 1 877) P acitto ( 1970a)

S E 8 10930 E

Y orkshire

S E 9 43926 2 W/NR,

M useum S tickland ( 1950);

S carborough

T A 0 45890 S 2/W

C astle H ill H esketh M oor

S E 5 07868 S i,

P ickering

( Clarke) C omment*

S ockett

N Z 9 45071

B roxa

T ype

B eaker P ottery

N Z 5 58165 S 3(E)

F ylir igdales

I ngleby G reenhow R aindale

1 1.

c .SE 8 00865 S 2,

N /NR

C

L amplough C ollection C larke ( 1970) S 2E

I

D enny ( 1865); L eeds C ity M useum E lgee ( 1930); Y orkshire

S i

M useum; K endall c ollection P ickering B lansby P ark

c .SE 8 00865 S H4(C), S E 8 14865 A OC

N /NR

I

B ateman ( 1861) R utter ( 1973)

?

S eamer M oor

T A 0 19861 L ong-neck

S awdon I

S E 9 35859 L ong-neck

N eolithic

B rewster ( 1967) B rewster

S awdon I I

S E 9 36858 ?

p ottery B ase o nly

( 1967) B rewster

B oitby

S E 5 11851

I

S mith ( 1978)

C ?

I ?

( 1967) S i

2 55

P lace

O S

M onklands, T hornton

G rid

T ype

I, S E 8 36846 S

omment* ( Clarke) C I

N 2

D ale

I C

-

-

I nhumation C remation

2 56

R eference K irk ( 1912)

B eakers f rom R yedale W indypits

P lace A ntofts

A shberry

O S G rid

T ype

omment ( Clarke) C

OC, 1 S E 5 82830 4 A p lain b ell c .SE 5 70848

b eaker 1A OC, 1 r usticated b eaker E ?,

c .SE 5 73838

1 750 150 b .c. A lso 2 r ims a nd 2 s herds

1 l arge A OC

o f A OC b eakers

b eaker 1h andled b eaker

C ould b e h andled f ood

-

S lip G ill

C 14 d ate

v essel ( Clark ( 1970))

2 57

R eference H ayes

( 1963)

T able

1 2.

F lat B ronze A xes

P lace

C omment

A pprox d ate s pan b .c.

R eference

L ockton

G roup I II

1 800-1500

E lgee ( 1930), B ritish

S carborough

G roup I II?

1 800-1500

M useum E lgee ( 1930), S heffield

B ox H ill, I rton

G roup I V . I ncipient

1 550-1400

M useum M anby ( 1965), S carborough

f langes

M useum

F or d efinition a nd c hronology o f g roups o f f iat a xes s ee B urgess ( 1974) 1 91-194. D ates o f b ronze a rtefacts a re u sually g iven i n c alendar y ears B .C. b ecause t here a re f ew C 14 d ates, a nd t he d ating m ethods a re t herefore m ainly r elative. I n o rder t o k eep t he d ates o f b ronze a rtefacts i n T ables 1 2-27 c onsistent w ith t hose u sed i n t he

r est

o f

t he

v olume,

t hey

( uncorrected r adiocarbon d ates),

2 58

a re

c onverted

t o

b .c.

d ates

a s i f t hey w ere r adiocarbon d ates.

T able

1 3.

B ronze D aggers

P lace

C omment

A pprox d ate

L oose H owe, N Z 7 02008

C amertonS nowshill t ype

1 900-1550

s pan b .c.

R eference E lgee

( 1949)

w ith u rn N Z 7 02008

c rema ti on M erthyr-Mawr

1 900-1550

t ype K irkdale C a wt horn

B lade o nly B utterwick t ype w ith

1 900-1550

1 m iles E ast

b arrow i nhumation M asterton t ype

o f P ickering ( Scamridge?) B rompton,

w ith b arrow i nhumation C ressingham

T hree T remblers S outh

t ype ( ArmoricoB ritish)

C ayton

G roup I D irk

E lgee ( 1930) B ateman ( 1861)

B ateman ( 1861) 1 700-1450

G reenwell ( 1866;

1 350-1250

F or c lassification o f b ronze d aggers

2 59

s ee G erloff

B urgess ( 1968)

( 1975).

1 877)

T able

P lace U pleatham*

B oulby B rotton, H owe H ill S treet H ouse E ston N ab H ill F ort E ston H ills

E ston M oor

1 4.

O S G rid

C up S tones a nd C up-and-Ring S tones

T ype C omment

N Z 6 24202 C

c .NZ 7 45190 C N Z 6 95189 C/R C N Z 7 36196 C N Z 5 67186 C N Z 5 74184 C

R eference

1 9 c ups, 3 g rooves G oddard, S pratt o n b arrow k erb s tone a nd Z ealand ( 1974) S everal c up s tones H ornsby a nd L averick ( 1918) H ornsby a nd

2 4 c up a nd o ne c up-and-ring s tone i n b arrow R ound b arrow S tone w ith 3 c ups d itch o f f ort

S tanton ( 1917) V yner e t a l. ( forthcoming) i n E lgee

( 1930)

S tone w ith s ingle

G oddard,

c up i n b arrow

a nd S pratt ( 1978) A berg a nd

B rown

N Z 5 68182 C/R C

1 c up-and-ring s tone, 4 c up s tones i n d rystone w all

E ston H ills*

N Z 5 64174 C

B oulder w ith c up m arks

H eslop

M ount P leasant

N Z 5 58165 C /R

W ith b eaker

S ockett

H ir iderwell

N Z 7 93178 C c .NZ 7 93178 C

1 50 c up s tones w ith f ood v essel a nd u rn W ith f ood v essel

H ornsby a nd

B eacon N E o f H inderwell

S pratt

( 1974)

( Cleveland C ounty) ( unpublished)

B eacon A irey H ill,

L averick ( 1920) H ornsby a nd L averick ( 1920)

N Z 6 44167 C

6 c up m arks o n b arrow k erbstone

N Z 8 33145 C

C up

N Z 6 07141 C

v essel W ith h andled b eaker

B arnby H owes

N Z 8 30138 C

B arrow k erbs

M oorshoim

N Z 6 91120 C

G reat A yton

N Z 5 98114 C /R

3 0 c up m arks o n b arrow k erbstone C up-and-ring s tone

/R N Z 8 58091 C

i n f loor o f I ron A ge S pratt h ut W hitby M useum E lgee

C uisb orough* W hinney H owe, L ythe G uisb orough,

( 1970)

S pratt, G oddard a nd B rown

( 1972) s tones w ith f ood G reenwell ( 1890) H ornsby M SS 2 73

K emplah T op

M oor A islaby,

A shbee a nd A pslmon ( 1956) H ayes a nd S mith ( 1976) T inkler a nd ( 1978)

( annotation,

G alley H ill S warth H owe

N Z 8 43089 C

I n b arrow c ist

A islaby

N Z 8 50088 C

T wo c up-marked

2 60

1 930) A nderson M SS r ocks F eather

( 1970)

P lace K ildale C rown E nd

O S G rid

N Z 6 12087 C c .NZ 6 60070 C

B aysdale*

/R N Z 6 32068 C

A llan

N Z 8 29030 C /R N Z 8 32028 N Z 8 29027 N Z 9 81012 R

T ofts, C oathland* R avenhill,

C lose i n H ayes ( 1964a) E lgee ( 1930)

C up s tone i n P ark D yke C up s tone i n d rystone w all

lose i n H ayes 2 c up-and-ring m arks C ( 1964a) o n b oulder H ayes T hree c up-and-ring ( unpublished) s tones W ith u rns

T issiman ( 1851)

a nd

a ccessory c up

S taintond ale H awsker w ith S tainsacre

R eference

omment T ype C

N Z 9 63018 C /R C t o N Z 9 52004

endall 1 7 r ocks m arked w ith K eather c ups, c ups-and-rings F 1 967) a nd o ther s ymbols

( 1936); ( 1966;

S E 4 74998 C /R

2 c up-and-ring

G oddard e t a l.

s tones i n s mall c airn i n f ield s ystem, a nd o ne

( 1980)

a nd F ylingd ales* N ear M oor, W horlton*

c up

s tone e arthfast S tanding S tone R igg, C loughton T himbleby M oor* H utton B uscel M oor W est A yton H utton-leH ole, L ing M oor

S E 9 80970 C /R

6 c up-and-ring s tones

S E 4 60960 C

C up m arks

S E 9 49890 C

T wo c ups

S E 9 66884 C S E 7 13883 C

B arrows C ross D yke

S E 8 38879 C

I rton M oor

T A 0 05876 S E 9 59872 C

H utton B uscel

T issiman ( 1852) rown a nd o n b oulder B S pratt ( 1977) o n s tone

mith ( 1972) o n S

b arrow s ite T issiman ( 1851) I n u rn b arrow H ayes ( 1978) 6 c up m arked s tones a ssociated w ith u rns a nd a xe h ammer O n s urface o f C ross D yke

B lansby

S E 8 14865 C

P ark S carborough

?

P ickering W ykeham

S carborough M useum ;

W ith f ood v essels a nd u rns

W ith b eaker a nd u rn

S pratt ( unpublished) S impson ( 1974) B rewster ( 1967); S carborough M useum R utter ( 1973)

s herds

? ?

H ayes ( 1978); S carborough M useum B ateman ( 1861) G reenwell

C C

( 1877)

M oor

2 61

P lace W ass M oor

O S G rid ?

T ype C omment C

M any c up s tones t hree e xcavated b arrows

R eference i n

G reenwell ( 1877)

T here a re a lso c up-and-ring s tones f rom S toupe a nd B row M oor i n W hitby M useum ( approx. N Z 9 60 0 20). T he Y orkshire M useum ( York) h as a r ecord o f a c up-and-ring s tone f rom P eak ( near R obin H oods B ay, a pprox. N Z 9 80020?) r ecorded I n t he Y orkshire P hilosophical S ociety J ournal ( 1895). *

-

c arving o n e xposed b oulder

C c up s tone dR c up-and-ring s tone -

-

2 62

T able

1 5.

F ood V essels

T ype P lace

O S G rid

( Abercromby)

B rotton

N Z 6 92213 2 T ype

B oulby

N Z 7 50195 S herds

C ourt G reen

3

C omment*

R eferences

C

H ornsby a nd S tanton ( 1917)

N Z 5 88184

? N Z 5 68183 d ecayed

C

E ston N ab H irderwell

ype N Z 7 93178 2 T

C w ithin h ilifort C

B eacon N E o f H inderwell B eacon W hinny H ill, L ythe

T ype c .NZ 7 93178 ?

2 ,

1

3 ?

E lgee ( 1930; 1 933) C rawford ( 1980) E lgee

( 1930)

H ornsby a nd L averick ( 1920) H ornsby a nd L averick ( 1920)

N Z 8 33145 3

? clst

G reenwell ( 1890)

N Z 6 28127 3 ?

C u ncertain F .V.

A tkinson

M oor H ob o n t he H ill

N Z 6 46124 3

C

A tkinson ( 1863)

G nipe H owe, H awsker D anby R igg

ripartite N Z 9 34085 T r idged N Z 7 09060 1

C

B rewster

C

W hitby M useum

L ease R igg

N Z 8 15041

W illiam

N Z 7 77035 3

w ithin R oman H artley f ort ( unpublished) I G reenwell

H owe, E gton R obin H ood N orth

N Z 9 60021

E van H owe B roxa N o.1

N Z 9 25016 3 S E 9 41928 2

B roxa N o.4

ndecorated S E 9 43926 u

S tickland ( 1950)

S calby M oor

T A 0 00920 I

Y orkshire M useum B ateman ( 1861)

1I

B ateman ( 1861)

P rettyhut H owe, G uisborough

( 1864)

( 1973)

( 1866; 1 877) S carborough M useum

?

T rollope ( 1856) C C . 3 o ther S tickland u nclassified ( 1950) F Vs

C awthorn

c .SE 7 85901

2

C awthorn

c .SE 7 85901

1T ype l a, T ype 2

S car-

T A 0 31896

E lgee

1

W ykeha r n F orest H augh R igg

( 1930;

1 933); S carborough M useum

b orough, P easholm S E 9 37891 c .SE 7 99891

C

3

Il ocation

l a

u ncertain

2 63

G reenwell ( 1866; 1 877) B ateman ( 1861)

P lace

O S G rid

O xciose, B arrow 2

S E 6 29891

F arwath, P ickering O xciose,

S E 8 30890

B arrow 1 D alby W arren W ykeham, T hree T remblers S outh I rton M oor

T ype omment* ( Abercromby) C

R eferences

2 u nknown

P acitto

c ist

( 1971)

t ype

S E 6 30881

Y orkshire M useum P acitto ( 1971)

1u nknown

t ype ndecorated c .SE 8 50880 u

Y orkshire M useum

S E 9 36879 3

c ist

G reenwell ( 1866; 1 877)

ndecorated T A 0 05876 u

C

S impson ( 1974)

C c ist

C oombs ( 1974)

V I rton M oor I v I rton M oor

T A 0 05876

i b,

T A 0 07875

?

?

C oombs ( 1974)

V I O sborne L odge, E ast

S E 9 92874 2 u nclassified

I

G watkin ( 1938)

A yton H utton B uscel

nknown S E 9 59872 2 u t ype

I

B rewster

W eaponess

T A 0 4

N on-typical g loubular, r idged. N ow

S carborough M useum

8 6

2

?

( 1967)

K ingthorpe

a c .SE 8 35860 l

l ost I c ist. L ocation

B ateman ( 1861)

H aggwood

c .SE 7 95860 2

u ncertain ? cist. L ocation

B ateman ( 1861)

u ncertain S eamer M oor

T A 0 25860 3

C onyngha r n

T hornton D ale H elmsley

S E 8 30840

Y orkshire M useum H ayes ( 1963)

( 1849)

S proxton K irby M isperton A mpleforth, B arrow 1

1T ype

? c .SE 5 90800 2 S E 7 80799 S E 5 94798

2 ,

1

T ype 3 ?

?U ncertain F V

?

A mpleforth, B arrow 3

ype l a, S E 5 95798 2 T T ype 2 , 1 T ype 2 a

A mpleforth, B arrow 4

S E 5 96798

1T ype 2 , T ype 3

2 64

2 I

P roctor

( 1855)

W ilimot

( 1937)

W ilimot

( 1937;

1 938) 2

C

W ilimot 1 938)

( 1937;

P lace

O S G rid

T ype ( Abercromby)

ocation• v ery u ncertain l 2 1m ile N orth o f P ickering 3 6 m iles E ast o f P ickering 7m iles E ast o f P ickering 1 ) m iles

B ì

2

P ickering

-

( 1861)

B ateman ( 1861)

N E o f

*

R eferences

B ateman

l a

l a,

C omment *

C = c remation I= i nhumation

2 65

m an

( 1861)

B ateman

( 1861)

T able

P lace

1 6.

C ollared U rns a nd A ccessory C ups

O S G rid

C omment *

R eference

C at N ab, B rotton U pl eatham

rn w ith a ccessory N Z 6 69215 U c up N Z 6 30202 U rn w ith a ccessory

S treet H ouse

c up N Z 7 36196 2 u rns

B oulby N o.1

N Z 7 50194 S everal u rn s herds

S treet H ouse

N Z 7 37193 2 u rns,

C rawford Y oung

( 1980)

( 1817)

V yner e t a l. ( forthcoming)

1a ccessory

c up

H ornsby & L averick ( 1918) C rawford ( 1980) ( excavated b y H ornsby) H ornsby &

B oulby N o.4

N Z 7 50191

B oulby N o.7

N Z 7 56189

L averick ( 1918) H ornsby & L averick ( 1918)

B oulby N o.8

N Z 7 58189

H ornsby &

C ourt G reen

everal u rns w ith N Z 5 88184 S

L averick ( 1918) E lgee ( 1930)

E ston H ills H inderwell

N Z 5 69180 N Z 7 93178

O rd ( 1846) H ornsby &

B eacon G laphowe B arnby H owes

everal u rns N Z 6 74168 S N Z 8 30138 S herd s

L averick ( 1920) O rd ( 1846) A shbee a nd

a ccessory c up

W est L ythe, T om Y ats F ield R oxby N W o f H ob o n t he H ill H ob o n t he H ill S tanghow H igh

A psimon ( 1951) ornsby M SS rns w ith a ccessory H N Z 8 32132 2 u c up A nderson M SS N Z 7 64129 A ccessory c up A tkinson ( 1863) rn w ith a ccessory N Z 6 46125 U c up N Z 6 46124 A ccessory c up rn a nd N Z 6 51127 U

s herds

M oor N orth B lack H owes

rns N Z 6 65125 2 u

S outh B lack H owes

rns, N Z 6 65125 4 u c ups

D immingdale

N Z 6 91120

B lack H owe H erd H owe

N Z 7 29118 0 u rns N Z 7 05118 1

G reat A yton

rns, 2 a ccessory N Z 5 94115 5 u c ups I n r ing c airns

M oor R obin H ood

A tkinson

( 1863)

A tkinson ( 1863) 2 a ccessory

A tkinson ( 1863; 1 864; 1 874; 1 891) A tkinson ( 1853); O rd ( 1846)

N Z 7 10114 2 u rns

B utts C entral

2 66

A tkinson ( 1863) A tkinson ( 1864; 1 874; H ayes

1 891) ( 1967a)

A tkinson ( 1863)

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

N Z 7 14114

A tkinson ( 1865)

N Z 7 00110

A tkinson ( 1863)

1 u rns i n 7 b arrows N Z 7 80110 1 w ith a ccessory c up

A nderson M SS

H aw R igg D anby

N Z 6 90107 U rn a nd

T hree H owes, E asington A ls l aby

N Z 7 39106 U rn w ith 2 a ccessory c ups N Z 8 46089 S herds

A tkinson ( 1863) A tkinson ( 1965; 1 891) K endall ( 1935)

S kelder A islaby M oor H utton

N Z 8 45089 2 u rns N Z 8 42089

A nderson M SS A nderson M SS

M uigrave N ewholm S warth H owe

rn w ith a ccessory N Z 8 43089 U c up

A nderson M SS

R obin H ood B utts E ast S iss C ross U gthorpe M oor

C .

B ateman ( 1861)

1 5 m iles N o f P ickering H awsker, G nipe

N Z 9 34085

H owe C astleton

B rewster

( 1973)

rn a nd s herds o f t wo M anby ( 1972) N Z 6 82075 U S herds

F olly H owe, H utton R udby D anby R igg

F ylingdales,

s herds

C .

A nderson N o.17 I ngleby G reenhow

N Z 4 78072

E lgee

( 1930)

rns i n r ing c airn N Z 7 08066 2 u rn w ith a ccessory N Z 7 09061 U c up 5 u rns N Z 9 36054 1

A tkinson ( 1863)

rn w ith a ccessory N Z 5 73036 U c ups

P acitto

H ayes i nformation A nderson M SS ( 1970)

B urton H owe S tony R idge

H ayes ( 1963) ollared u rn s herd N Z 6 07033 C H ayes ( 1966c) herds o f c omplete N Z 6 34032 S u rn o n g round s urface

S tone R ook

tkinson ( 1863) rns w ith a ccessory A N Z 6 83033 2 u c ups R adley ( 1969b) herds N Z 9 25031 S

F ylingdales, K irkmoor B eck W estern H owes

rns N Z 6 81022 2 u c ups

tkinson ( 1863) w ith a ccessory A

P eak R obin H ood V I

N Z 9 81015 rns N Z 9 60012 2 u c up

R obin H ood N orth R obin H ood

ccessory c up N Z 9 60012 A

S outh S taintondale, R avenhi 1 1 L oose H owe

a nd a ccessory

N Z 9 60012 C .

rns a nd a ccessory N Z 9 81012 5 u c up rn w ith a ccessory N Z 7 02008 U c up

G oathiand M oor N lotted ot p

A ccessory c up

K nox ( 1855) G reenwel I ( 1890) S carborough M useum S carborough M useum T issiman ( 1851) E lgee

Y orkshire M useum

2 67

( 1949)

P lace

O S G rid

t S E 9 77997 A

S taintondale,

R eference

C omment l east

1u rn,

S E 8 89987

L illa H owe

T i SB im an ( 1852); S carb orough M useum L ongworth

p ossibly 3

R udda H owe

i nformation ( unpublished)

H arwood D ale H ulleys 9m iles N o f P ickering 8m iles N o f P ickering 8m iles N o f P ickering 7m iles N o f P ickering 6m iles N o f P ickering 4m iles N o f P ickering 3m iles N o f P ickering 2m iles N o f P ickering 1m ile N o f P ickering 1m ile N o f P ickering 1 0 m iles N E o f P ickering

H ayes ( 1963); Y orkshire M useum S carborough

rns S E 6 32983 2 u

O usegill H ead

c .

S E 9 30970

M useum K nox ( 1855) B ateman ( 1861)

T A 0 05963 7

7

ateman ( 1861) U rn a nd a ccessory c up B i n 2 b arrows B ateman ( 1861) 2u rns i n 2 h arrows

7

G rooved W are

7

1u rn, 2 a ccessory c ups i n 2 b arrows

7

4 u rns

7

U rn w ith a ccessory

7

( Manby)

B ateman ( 1861) 1861) B ateman (

ateman ( 1861) i n t wo b arrows B B ateman ( 1861)

c up B ateman

9

9

2 u rns a nd

9

2 h arrows 2u rns

s herds i n

( 1861)

B ateman ( 1861) B ateman ( 1861)

9

A ccessory c up a nd b eaker

B ateman ( 1861)

9

3 u rns i n 3 b arrows

1861) B ateman (

2

2 u rns

B ateman

( 1861)

2

c up i n 3 b arrows A ccessory c up

B ateman

( 1861)

8m iles E o f P ickering

9

2u rns i n 2 b arrows

B ateman ( 1861)

7m iles E o f

2

S herds 1861) ateman ( 1a ccessory c up ( with B

P ickering 6m iles E o f P ickering

2

1861) B ateman (

S E 9 65943

D imbleby ( 1962)

rns a nd a ccessory S E 9 53939 2 u c up

D imbleby ( 1962)

S E 8 32936

P ierpoint &

4m iles N E o f P ickering 4m iles N W o f P ickering 1 1 m iles E o f P ickering

H ackness, R easty T op H ackness, S pr in gwood L evisham M oor

a nd

a ccessory

F V)

P hillips

2 68

( 1978)

P lace

O S G rid

H ackness, L ong H ill

S E 9 44934

B roxa N o.2

S E 9 42927

H elmsley M oor

B ickley

C omment

S tickland

A ccessory c up

( 1950) S tickland ( 1950) H ayes ( 1963);

A ccessory c up

Y orkshire M useum Y orkshire

rns S E 8 95920 2 u rn, S E 9 95920 1 u

C rosscliff C oo m bo otS

R eference

1a ccessory

c up D outhwaite D ale

M useum B ateman ( 1861) S carborough

S E 6 97907

M useum H ayes ( 1963); Y orkshire M useum G reenwell ( 1877)

K epwick

c .

S E 4 88904

S uffield M oor

c .

S E 9 75895 C ylindrical

L astingham

S carborough M useum E lgee ( 1930)

C awthorne S aintoft B romp t on /

7u rns S E 7 92893 A ccessory c up rn w ith a ccessory S E 9 37891 U

E lgee ( 1930) B ateman ( 1861) G reenwell

W ykeham N awton T ower

c up S E 6 45889 4 u rns

( 1866) H ayes ( 1963); Y orkshire

W est A yton, W ay H agg

rn w ith a ccessory S E 9 66884 U c up

L ockton

ccessory c up S E 8 40880 A

T hree

V u rn S E 9 35879 F

M useum T issiman ( 1868) Y orkshire M useum G reenwell ( 1877)

T remblers N orth W ykeham

S E 9 46879 9 u rns a nd a ccessory

G reenwell

W ykeham

c up rns i n 2 h arrows S E 9 46879 2 u

( 1866; 1 877) G reenwell ( 1866; 1 877)

rns S E 8 95875 2 u

E lgee

G ivendale H ead H utton B uscel H utton B uscel W ykeham

c .

B lansby P ark H utton B uscel, M oor C lose W est A yton M oor K ingthorpe

c .

( cylindrical)

( 1930)

S E 9 57876 8 u rns

B rewster

rns S E 9 59872 2 u S E 9 51866

B rewster ( 1966) G reenwell ( 1877)

S E 8 14866 ccessory c up S E 9 59872 A

R utter ( 1973) S carborough M useum

N Z 9 70860

S carborough M useum

ccessory c up ( with S E 8 35860 A

B ateman

F V)

2 69

( 1973)

( 1861)

O S G rid

P lace K ingthorpe

C omment

R eference

A ccessory c up

Y orkshire M useum

S awdon M oor I I

S E 9 36858

E ast A yton, O sborne L odge

S E 9 92874 4 u rns, a ccessory c up, a nd s herds o f 3 u rns

B rewster ( 1966) G watkin ( 1938); S carborough M useum f iles

B oitby H ambleton, G rooms S tool

S E 5 06857 S E 5 11853 2 u rns

W illmot ( 1938) V erity ( 1863)

A llerston W arren A llerston

S E 8 74845 3 u rns, 2 a ccessory c ups S E 8 74835 1 u rn ( ?)‚ 1

B ateman ( 1861)

C .

C ommon C old K irby

a ccessory c up rns S E 5 17827 2 u

H ambleton A mpleforth

S E 5 22818 S E 5 80800

A mpleforth

rns, S E 5 95798 2 u c ups

A mpleforth A mpleforth

*

-

B lank

=

2 a ccessory

S E 5 94798 2 u rns N ot p lotted 2 a ccessory c ups

1c ollared u rn,

G reenwell ( 1866) S anders ( 1910) W ainwright & L ongworth

rns i n 2 b arrows S E 5 90797 6 u

S proxton

B ateman ( 1861)

w ithout

2 70

a ccessory c ups

( 1969) W illmot

( 1937;

1 938) W illmot ( 1936) Y orkshire M useum p rior t o 1 893 P roctor

( 1855)

T able

1 7.

R ing C airns

P lace

O S G rid

C omment*

R eference

S leddale

N Z 6 12123

C ircle d iameter 1 1.5m . E xcavation

P earson ( 1974)

u nder s mall c entral c airn s howed c remation b ut n o p ottery . I n v icinity o f c airnfield. G reat Ayton M oor

N Z 5 94115

T wo c ircles,

H ayes

( 1967a)

d iameters l üm a nd 8 .5m, c ontaining o ne a nd t hree u rn c remations r espect ively . A djacent t o c hambered c airn, i n

R obin H ood

N Z 7 12114

B utts, D anby L ow M oor K ildale M oor

N Z 6 38084

C rown E nd,

N Z 6 63076

W esterdale

D anby R igg

v icinity o f c airnfield. D iameter 2 5mx23m .

E lgee ( 1930) T renched b y E lgee, n o f inds. D iameter 2 0m . D ug b y H ayes ( pers. C lose 1 960. C remated c omm .) b ones i n p it. S mall e mbanked o val H ayes ( 1963) 8 .6mx6m . A p ossible r ing c airn. I n v icinity o f

N Z 7 07057

c airnfield. O ne c ircle d iameter 1 8.5m e xcavated, s howing r obbed g rave. A nother c ircle 1 6.5m d iameter p roduced

A tkinson ( 1863); H ayes ( pers.comm .)

t wo

u rn c remations. R e-excavated b y B aker a nd L ampiough i n 1 957. I n v icinity o f c airnfield. T horn K ey M oor, F ylingdales C ock H eads S tony M arl M oor

H igh S napes, S paunton M oor

N Z 9 10035

N Z 7 28017

C ircle

1 2m d iameter

E lgee

( 1930)

H ayes

( pers.

N Z 9 57004 N Z 9 61007

T wo r ings, i n v icinity o f c airn-

c omm .) S mith ( pers. c omm .)

S E 7 06929

f ield, d iameters 1 9m, 1 8m . O val b ank 2 4mx20m .

H ayes

U nexcavated.

c omm .)

2 71

( pers.

R eference

P lace

O S G rid

C omment*

B umper M oor

S E 5 54926

leming D iameter 8 m, p ossibly F ( unpublished) r emains o f a c airn, i n v icinity o f c airnfield. E xcavated 1 967.

A skew R idge, S paunton M oor

S E 7 42922

D iameter 2 0m, o ne c airn i n t he b ank, a nother i n t he

H ayes ( pers. c omm .)

c entre. T rial t renched 1 968, s howed o val p it w ith o ak K epwick M oor

S E 4 88902

W ykeham M oor S E 9 50878

c ontainer ( ?). D iameter 1 9m . U nexcavated. S everal c ircles n ear b arrows. C ircle d iameter 2 0m

S E 9 45879

P ossible c ircle d iameter 1 8m

I rton M oor

S E 9 95872

C ircular b ank, 1 8m d iameter, 0 .6m h eight, 2 -3m w ide.

D uncombe P ark

S E 5 87822

D iameter 1 2m, e xcavated b y P acitto.

D unn & S pratt ( 1981) E lgee

S mith ( pers. c omm .) S mith ( pers. c omm .) R utter

H ayes

N o f inds. *

-

d iameters a re e xternal e xcept w here

2 72

( 1930)

s tated i nternal

( 1970b)

( 1963)

T able 1 8.

C airnfields

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

E ston M oor

N Z 5 76185

P robably a g roup o f

E lgee

( 1930)

b urial c airns. H utton M oor

N Z 5 90132

H ob o n t he

N Z 6 43125

H ill G reat A yton M oor

N Z 5 95125

S leddale S leddale W ayworth

N Z 6 37110 N Z 6 38108 N Z 6 44106

P ercy R igg

N Z 6 22106

B lack D yke M oor

N Z 7 62106

O S M ap E lgee ( 1930) E xtensive c airnfield w ith C eltic f ields.

H ayes

( 1967)

E lgee E lgee

( 1930) ( 1930)

E lgee ( 1930) M any c airns w ith E lgee ( 1930); e xtensive w alling a nd A shbee ( 1957) c ircular e nclosure. C airns e xcavated. O S M aps

E den H ouse, N Z 8 26099 B arnby M oor D anby L ow M oor N Z 6 87098

H ayes ( pers. c omm .) O S M aps

1 D anby L ow M oor N Z 6 94098 2

O S M aps

K empswithin

1

N Z 6 55095

K empswithin 2

N Z 6 47092

K ildale M oor

N Z 6 31084

K ildale M oor

N Z 6 32080

C rown E nd, W e ste rd ale

N Z 6 65073

D anby R igg

N Z 7 10065

C airns w ith f ields, l ynchets. S urveyed. C airns, b anks a nd l ynchets. E xtensive c airnfield w ith C eltic f ields a nd e nclosure. C ross

E lgee

( 1930)

E lgee

( 1930)

E lgee ( 1930); F eachem ( 1973) E lgee E lgee

( 1930) ( 1930)

r idge d ykes. L arge c airnfield w ith E lgee ( 1930); c ross r idge d ykes. W hitby M useum C ollared u rns i n b urial c ircle, f ood v essel u rn I n t umulus.

E skdaleside S leights M oor

N Z 8 53055 N Z 8 67042

R ams d ale W illiam H owe

N Z 9 20038 N Z 7 78034

A llan T ops

N Z 8 28028

A bout 2 0 c airns w ith f ield w alls b etween c ross r idge d ykes. V ery e xtensive c airnfield w ith w alling. f ields.

M urk M ine M oor N Z 7 97027

2 73

' Celtic'

E lgee

( 1930)

E lgee

( 1930)

E lgee

( 1930)

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

J ohn C ross

N Z 9 05027

V ery l arge

E lgee

R igg

( 1930)

c airnfield, n ow d estroyed. C ross r idge d yke t hrough

S truntry C arr

N Z 8 08026

H owe M oor, C hariton B ank

N Z 5 19025

C old M oor

N Z 5 52017

L ive M oor

N Z 5 12014

L ive M oor

N Z 5 02011

P eak M oors N ear M oor

N Z 9 60010 S E 4 74999

s outhern e nd. C airns a nd w alls w ithin l arge

U npublished

e nclosure. N ow d estroyed, a part f rom o ne r ound b arrow, o ne s quare

H ayes

( 1963)

b arrow . L ong w alls, f ields, l ynchets. S mall g roup, w ith w alling.

P amperdale

S E 4 81993

N ab E nd M oor, B ilsdale

S E 5 72989

H owl M oor

S E 8 13978

( 1930) ( 1963)

H ayes

( 1963)

E lgee E nclosure w ith f ields E lgee a nd c airns.

E 7 95994 W heeldale G ill S

E lgee H ayes

( 1930) ( 1930);

G oddard , e t a l. ( 1980) S mith ( 1979)

6 0 c airns w ithout w alls. S urveyed 1 978-79. 1 9 c airns, e nclosure n earby. 4 0-50 c airns, w ith f ields a nd w alls.

B rowarski & S pratt

( 1980)

H ayes ( 1976) O S M aps

S mall g roup.

S pratt ( unpublished)

S E 6 57963 H orn N ab, F arndale L oosehowe H ill S E 5 87959

3 0 c airns a nd w alling. 5 s mall c airns.

H ayes ( 1963)

E 4 62959 T himbleby M oor S

S mall c airnfield.

H ayes ( 1970) B rown & S pratt

1 E 4 72958 T himbleby M oor S

E xtensive

( 1977) B rown & S pratt

2 S nllesworth M oor

S E 5 20958

s ystem, f ew c airns. S mall g roup w ith w alling.

( 1977) S pratt ( unpublished)

L imestone

S E 5 62952

E xtensive c airnfield

H ayes

R idge S nilesworth M oor

S E 4 94954

a nd C eltic f ields. 2 s mall g roups o f

M aw R igg 1

S E 9 10950

c airns. E xtensive g roup, f orested.

I ron H owe

S E 5 27948

ayes L arge c airnfield w ith H

F lat H owe

S E 5 55967

f ield

F angdale B eck

S E 5 61945

S pratt ( unpublished) E lgee ( 1930)

n ow

f ields a nd w alling. h ut c ircles.

( 1963)

2

G roup o f c airns w ith o rthostats a nd w alls.

2 74

( 1963)

S pratt ( unpublished)

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

L ow C rosset

S E 5 83944

1 0 c airns w ith w alling.

S pratt ( unpublished)

H elm H ouse W ood

S E 5 63940

1 0 c airns w ith H ayes e xtensive w alling a nd o rthostats.

( 1963)

H awnby M oor

S E 5 37940

L arge c airnfield,

H ayes

( 1963)

S E 9 20940

s urveyed. E xtensive g roup n ow

M aw R igg 2 M aw R igg 3

S E 9 10935

E 6 71933 H arland M oor 1 S S paunton M oor S E 7 05933 S paunton M oor, S pindlethorn C ow W ath

S E 7 14932

B umper M oor

S E 5 55930

A rden G reat M oor S kiplam M oor,

S E 5 15928

C ow S ike S paunton M oor

S E 5 14932

S E 6 31926 S E 7 02925

E 6 73925 H arland M oor 2 S E 6 81925 H arland M oor 3 S T hompsons R ig

S E 8 83923

E 6 76920 H arland M oor 4 S E 6 77917 H arland M oor 5 S

E lgee

( 1930)

f orested. E xtensive g roup n ow f orested.

E lgee

( 1930)

S mall c airn g roup.

H ayes

( 1963)

8 0 c airns w ith w alling.

H ayes

( 1963)

H ayes

( 1975a)

1 2 s mall c airns, e xcavated. S mall g roup.

1

S pratt ( unpublished)

ayes ( 1963) L arge c airnfield w ith H r ing c airn. H ut c ircle. S mall g roup o f c airns, o rthostats. 1 0 c airns.

H ayes

( 1963)

3 0-40 c airns, n ow

H ayes

( 1963)

d estroyed. 1 2 c airns n ear m egalith w all.

H ayes

( 1963)

ayes S mall g roup o n v alley H

( 1963)

s lope. L arge c airnfield,

ayes & R utter h ut H ( 1975)

c ircle. 2 0 c airns w ith w alling a nd l ynchets. 2 0 w ith w alling a nd c ircles.

S pratt ( unpublished)

H ayes

( 1973)

H ayes H ayes

( 1963) ( 1963)

H ayes

( 1963)

P robably

m ore e xtensive C arr C ote B irk N ab

S E 5 78917 S E 6 23914

o riginally . 1 2 c airns. 2 0 s mall c airns, o riginally m ore.

D aletown

S E 5 27892

S axon b urials ( Denny).

2 75

T able

P lace

O S G rid

S leddale N orth I ngs, C ommondale L ong G reen, C ommondale B aysdale C rossley G ate, D anby P roddale B eck,

1 9.

V alley S ettlements

C omment

R eference

N Z 6 09122

C airnfield i n v alley.

O S m aps

N Z 6 52112

W alls a nd c airns o n v alley s ide. F ields, w alls,

E lgee

( 1930)

( 1930)

N Z 6 57096 N Z 6 22073

c airns, l ynchets. W alls, c airns, h uts? o n v alley s ide.

N Z 7 17065

S mall f ields.

E lgee

S E 5 18967

L arge v alley s ide

B rowarski e t

c airnfield, w ith c airns, w alls a nd f ields.

a l.

E ast

( 1979)

P roddale B eck, W est

S E 5 15965

C airns, w alls a nd B rowarski e t t erracing a bove s teep a l. ( 1979) v alley s lope.

S nilesworth L odge

S E 5 11960

O rthostats, c airns, t erracing o n g ently s loping d ale s ide.

W heat B eck

S E 5 03947

H azelshaw

S E 5 49934

P rywood

S E 5 33929

H azel H eads

S E 5 34918

B rowarski e t a l.

( 1979)

S addle q uern f ound. E xtensive s ettlement w ith h ut, e nclosures,

S pratt ( 1978)

f ields, c airns a nd t umuli. 1 0-12 c airns a nd

H ayes

( 1963)

H ayes

( 1963)

H ayes

( 1963)

w alls o n d ale s ide. 8 c airns a nd o rthostats i n f lat

&B rown

v alley b ottom . 1 0-12 c airns w ith w alling.

2 76

T able 2 0.

P lace

O S G rid

A xe H ammers.

C omment

R eference

B rotton

M iddlesbrough M useum

M altby S kinningrove

M iddlesbrough M useum Y orkshire

S caling L ealholm,

M useum W hitby M useum W hitby M useum

S tonegate C rathorne

M iddlesbrough M useum G roup X VIII

E gton

L eeds M useum ; R oe ( 1979) Y ork M useum

G ro s mont E gton B ridge R igg H all,

Y ork M useum W hitby M useum K een & R adley

W hitby

G roup X VIII

( 1971); Y ork M useum Y ork M useum

W hitby R osedale F arndale B ilsdale L ockton S altersgate H arwood D ale S calby

• S E 8 50950 S E 9 75946

4axe

W arren S carborough

P ickering

ha G roup X VIII G roup X VIII

( a) G reywacke; G abbro

( b)

nder m edieval S E 7 25910 U b uilding S E 7 30851

R oe ( 1979) Y ork M useum Y ork M useum

Y ork M useum K een & R adley ( 1971); S heffield M useum H ayes ( 1964a) H ayes

( 1969)

S carborough M useum H ayes ( 1963);

S E 8 00850

H elmsley, H arome R oad E ast A yton P ickering,

H ayes ( 1968a) A gar ( 1973) R oe ( 1979)

L eeds C ity M useum

G reywacke

K ingthorpe K irbymoorside

S innington M anor

4axe 4axe T ype

S calby B eck H ackness H igh D alby

S paunton

R oe ( 1979) H ayes ( 1963) S mith ( 1976)

a xe S E 5 67932 • S E 8 70970

T ype l a G roup X VIII Q uartzite

H ull M useum R oe ( 1979) K een & R adley ( 1971);

P arks

Y orkshire M useum

2 77

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

S eamer

S carborough M useum

H elmsley ,

H ayes

D uncombe P ark R uston W ass T horpe-leW illows

T ype

l b G roup X VIII

S E 5 78770 D olerite

( 1963)

R oe ( 1979) Y ork M useum H ayes ( 1965)

N otes: G roup X VIII a xe h ammers a re o f w hinstone, f rom i gneous d ykes i n W est D urham a nd N orthumberland. T ypology o f a xe h ammers a s g iven i n R oe ( 1979).

2 78

T able 2 1.

P lace

O S G rid

B attle A xes

C omment

R eference

R iver T ees

1m ile f rom r iver m outh. T ype V .

E ston M oor n ear

M iddlesbrough M useum; E lgee ( 1930)

T ype I I. T ype I .

W hitby M useum E lgee ( 1930)

G uisborough H erd H owe

N Z 7 04117 A ssociated w ith c remation u rn. T ypes I II g rey s yenite. B arrow T ype I I. 1 T ype I V G roup X VIII. 2 G roup X VIII.

( Illustration) A tkinson ( 1864; 1 874; 1 891); S mith ( 1924)

-

D anby N orth M oor, W hitby

-

-

R uswarp

1 R oe ( 1966); W hitby M useum . 2 R oe ( 1979); L eeds M useum -

-

S leights

E lgee ( 1930) ( annotation) E lgee ( 1930);

G laisdale

Y orkshire M useum A tkinson ( 1864)

W estern H owes

c .

N Z 7 46094 I n a r ound b arrow w ith c remation. B asalt. T ype I I. N Z 6 81022 I nside c ollared u rn w ith a ccessory c up. T ype I V . s yenite.

R obin H oods B ay F ylingdales

G rey

F rom b arrow .

A tkinson ( 1863); ( 1966)

R oe

T ype I II H owarth ( 1899);

G roup X VIII.

P eak

N Z 9 81015 I n b arrow c ist.

S taintondale

N Z 9 80980 C ist

L oose H owe

N Z 7 02008 W ith c ollared u rn, a ccessory c up a nd

R oe ( 1966) E lgee ( 1930) ( annotation); W hitby M useum K nox ( 1855); E lgee

i nhumation .

( 1930)

K nox ( 1855) p late 1 8; E lgee ( 1930) E lgee ( 1949)

b ronze d agger. L evisham M oor

B asalt. T ype V . S E 8 32936 T ype I I.

E lgee

( 1930);

K endall C ollection, Y orkshire M use u m L evisham M oor

S calby

T ype I I.

P ierpoint & P hillips ( 1978); M useum

T ype I II.

2 79

R oe

B ritish

( 1979)

P lace S camridge S carborough, C loughton M oors n ear S carborough

S paunton

2m iles N o f P ickering

H ambleton M oor

O S G rid

R eference

C omment

nfinished ( no T A 0 04940 U s hafthole). H ornblende g ranite. C asual f ind ( Illustration i n E lgee, 1 930). T ype I II. n r ound b arrow w ith S E 7 13883 I c remation. S yenite.

H owarth ( 1899) L eeds M useum K een & R adley ( 1971); S heffield M useum H ayes

( 1978)

T ype I II. T ype I V . Q uartz-

K een & R adley

d olerite, p ossibly g roup X VIII ( one o f

( 1971); S heffield

t wo p ossible b arrows i n B ateman, 1 961). T ype I V . I n b arrow .

M useum

P ickering

W hinstone.

C awthorn

T ype I I.

K nox ( 1855) ( illustrated) R oe ( 1966);

C awthorn S tackyard

T ype I II.

M useum E lgee ( 1930)

P loughed o ut f rom b arrow w ith c lay

B ateman ( 1861); K een & R adley

v essel.

( 1971); S heffield M useum R oe ( 1966);

1 1 m iles E o f P ickering

Y orkshire

B arrow

c ontained u rn c remation.

( illustration)

S eamer

T ype I .

C oxwold

T ype I .

Hu t ton B uscel

T ype I I.

S nainton

T ype V .

M useum R oe ( 1966); B ritish M useum

C ayton

T ype I I.

R oe

N otes: T ypology a s g iven i n R oe ( 1966). a pproximately c hronological o rder. G roup h ammers.

2 80

Y orkshire M useum E vans ( 1897); B ritish M useum R oe ( 1966); S carborough

( 1979)

S tages I t o v a re i n X VIII a xes a s f or a xe

T able 2 2.

P lace 1 .

F langed B ronze A xes a nd P aistaves

A pprox d ate s pan b .c.

C omment

R eference

F langed A xes

B oosbeck N Z 6 60170

T wo a xes,

o ne

E lgee

1 150-1050

( 1930);

M iddlesbrough M useum

w ing f langed, t he o ther m issing.

E lgee ( 1930); H ull M useum

R osebery T opping N Z 5 80126 W hitby B ilsdale

A rreton t ype. H aft/wingf langed a xe.

1 450-1350 1 150-1050

M anby ( 1965) H ayes ( 1963); H ull M useum

F arndale

H aft a xe. F lat

f langed

1 350-1150

( Migdale)

1 450-1350

H ayes ( 1963); H ull M useum M anby ( 1965);

1 450-1350

S carborough M useum M anby ( 1965);

S calby T A 0 07899 n ear

a xe w ith f langes. A rreton t ype.

S carborough D alby N Z 8 60880

H aft-flanged a xe,

P ickering

B riggington t ype. A rreton t ype.

1 450-1350

P ickering

F langed a xe.

1 350-1150

P roto

1 450-1350

C ayton

H ull M useum Y orkshire M useum f iles

1 350-1150

M anby ( 1965) H erts. C ounty M useum P rivate c ollection, G .W . A bbott, P eterborough

h aft-flanged.

2 .

P aistaves E lgee ( 1930); S heffield M useum

M oors n ear S carborough K irhymoorside N Z 7 00870

L ooped p aistave, I rish t ype.

S paunton, G range F arm

P alstave n ow l ost

—A w ide d ate _1350-600

s pan,

E lgee ( 1930); Y orkshire M useum H ayes c omm .)

-

2 81

( pers.

T able 2 3.

B ronze S pearheads

A pprox. d ate R eference s pan b .c.

C omment

P lace

O S G rid

Y arm

ide l ooped. N Z 4 30127 S

G reat

ragment N Z 5 80126 F

1 150-800

M iddlesbrough M useum O rd

( 1846)

A yton, R oseberry T opping W hitby

1 L eaf s haped, p lain, p egged. 2

1 2

-

-

-

hitby M useum 7 50-550, W 8 00-550

-

S mall, l eaf s haped, p lain, p egged.

3

-

B lade o nly, l eaf s haped w ith b lade. H owarth ( 1899)

S calby

450-1250 T hin, f lat w ith 1 t ang. 1 L eaf

S carborough

s haped, s ocketed. 2 1 B arbed. 2

M useum; 2 H ull M useum 1 Y orkshire

C awthorn

-

-

7 50-550

Y orkshire

h ead. A rreton D own

-

M useum; 2 S carborough M useum

B lade o f s mall l eaf s haped, p lain s pear H igh D alby

-

-

- .

-

1

-

1 450-1250

R ushton ( 1976)

t ype. R adley ( 1976)

K irkbym oorside

L unate.

S camridge

L eaf

P ickering

b ulbous b lade, p egged. P oint o f

S awdon

s tepped b lade, s pearhead. S ide-looped.

s haped,

7 50-550

E lgee

8 50-750

Y orkshire M useum

1 200-800

S carborough M useum Y orkshire M useum

H elmsley

S ide-looped.

1 200-800

A llerston

1 S mall s ide-looped. L ooped.

1 200-800

-

-

2

( 1930)

1 Y orkshire M useum; 2 C astle M useum, -

-

B rompton

Y ork Y orkshire M useum

S utton u nder W hitestone-

Y orkshire M useum 1 891 C atalogue

c liffe

2 82

P lace C ayton

O S G rid

A pprox. d ate s pan b .c. R eference

C omment S ocketed s pear h ead w ith l oops.

N otes: D escriptions o f n omenclature a s i n B urgess

s pearheads ( 1974)

2 83

1 200-800

E lgee

( 1930);

B ritish M useum

b y

I an

C oiquhoun,

w ith

T able 2 4.

P lace M arske

O S G rid

S ocketed B ronze A xes

A pprox. d ate s pan b .c. R eference

C omment F rom t he b each.

M iddlesbrough M useum

R osehery T opping

rom h oard. N Z 5 80127 3 f Y orkshire t ype.

7 50-550

P ostgate

N Z 7 60046 F acetted a xe.

7 50-550

H ill, G laisdale Q uarry H ill, G laisdale

E lgee ( 1930); S heffield M useum Y orkshire M useum

ultiple m outh N Z 7 76061 M m oulding.

E gton

7 50-550

H ayes

( 1968a)

7 50-550

E lgee

( 1930)

L ease R igg

orkshire N Z 8 25050 Y

t ype.

7 50-550

E lgee ( 1930); W hitby M useum

B oonhill, G illamoor H arwood

oard. 6 a xes N Z 6 67908 H Y orkshire t ype. O cto-facetted w ith o val

7 50-550

H ayes

7 50-550

P acitto.(1980) Y orkshire M useum

7 50-550

Y orkshire

D ale H artoft

m outh. Y orkshire t ype.

( 1968a);

M useum H ambleton H ills

S calby

N ot p lotted o n 7 50-550 m ap. D rawing b y S aunders. F acetted a xe. H oard. 1 7 a xes.

7 50-550

Y orkshire M useum

M anby ( 1980); H ull Museum; Y orkshire M useum

T routsdale

L arge r ibbed

Y orkshire

a xe.

M useum Y orkshire

7 50-550

F alsgrave

M useum S carborough C astle

3 a xes, Y orkshire

t ype.

K eidholme

H oard. 3 Y orkshire

t ype,

7 50-550

S mith ( 1927); S carborough M useum

7 50-550

H ayes ( 1963); B ritish M useum ; K irkstall M useum

1p lain.

S camridge C old K irby

B ag-shaped a xe. L ooped a nd

7 50-550

Y orkshire

7 50-550

M useum S ettle M useum

f acetted a xe. T hornton D ale

2 a xes, Y orkshire

7 50-550 t ype.

2 84

E lgee ( 1930); H ull M useum

P lace W elburn

H elmsley P ickering S eamer C arr

P ickering

O S G rid

A pprox. d ate s pan b .c. R eference

C omment H oard? 5 a xes, 3 Y orkshire t ype, 1 b ag s haped, 1 p lain, M ultiple m outh

7 50-550

G rantham c ollection 7 50-550

m ouldings. H oard? P robably 7 50-550 Y orkshire t ype. 1 S ompting t ype 6 50-550 p lain, 1 S ompting t ype r ibbed a nd p eletted. Y orkshire t ype.

C rowtherB eynon c ollection;

B urgess

( 1968)

H erts. C ounty M useum B urgess

( 1968)

7 50-550

Y orkshire

7 50-550

M useum B urgess

C arr

( 1968);

W ykehar n

7 50-550

D oncaster M useum D oncaster

C arr E bberston

Y orkshire

t ype.

C arr R uston

G reat B arugh

Y orkshire

C ayton C arr

S ompting f orm, r ibbed a nd

t ype.

p eletted.

*

-

a s a pplied t o Y orkshire.

2 85

7 50-550

M useum E lgee ( 1930); K irk

7 50-550

c ollection H ayes ( 1963); Y orkshire

6 50-550

M useum B urgess

( 1968)

T able 2 5.

P lace

O S G rid

B ronze S words

R eference

C omment

R iver T ees

E arly E wart P ark

W hitby

p hase. B lade f ragment. P ark p hase

B oonhill, G illamoor

N Z 6 67908

u nclassified. P art o f h ilt, P ark.

E lgee ( 1930); B ritish M useum hitby M useum E wart W

E wart E lgee ( 1930); H ull M useum

S calby

H ilt f ragment i n h oard. E wart P ark p hase u nclassified.

S awdon

orkshire 2 s words, E arly E wart Y M useum P ark p hase. E dinburgh E arly E wart P ark N ational M useum p hase. o f A ntiquities H owarth ( 1899); 1s word, 1 b lade a nd

B rompton

E bberston

H arome

owen ( 1967); s houlders o f s word, 1 C S heffield c hape, H allstatt, useum; G ündlingen V ariant B . M S carborough M useum E lgee ( 1930); S E 6 60832

S word B lade. E wart P ark u nclassified.

N otes: C lassification t o b e B ronzefunde, S urvey o f t he B ronze

p ublished A ge S words

H ull M useum

a s P rehistorische o f B ritain, a uthors

B urgess a nd C oiquhoun. S words c lassified o n a c ombination o f b lade a nd h ilt f eatures. I ncomplete s words a re t herefore u nclassified. E wart P ark s words d ate a pproximately 8 50-650 b .c., t he G ündlingen t ype sword a fter 6 50 b .c.

2 86

T able 2 6.

B ronze H oards

P lace

D escription a nd D ate

R eference

R oseberry T opping

F ound

s pearhead, g auges, h ammer, c hisel, k nife a nd a xe

O rd ( 1846); E lgee ( 1930); S heffield M useum

m oulds. F ound 1 927.

M anby ( 1980);

S calby

a xes,

1 826.

3 s ocketed a xes,

1 7 s ocketed

2 s pearheads,

h andle,

c hisel,

s word

G illamoor

i ngots,

s heet

s ocketed. 2 s ocketed a xes,

S carborough

o ne o f

t hem

Y orkshire, f ragments o f d ress, p ins, a rmlets, r ings, g auge, ? workshop d ebris.

P ickering

A p ossible h oard? 2 s ocketed a xes, 1 f langed, 1 w inged

A ll

h oards

a nalyses

a re

i n

( 1980)

H ayes ( 1963); B ritish M useum ;

C astle

W elburn

P acitto

o f b ronze.

F ound 1 824. 8 a xes, 3 s urviving l ooped a nd

K eidholme

H ull

Y orkshire

M useum

b ronze

c akes, 2 g ouges. F ound 1 979. 6 s ocketed a xes, s word h ilt, s pear t ip, 3

B oon H ill,

M useum;

K irkstall M useum S mith ( 1927)

S t A lbans M useum

a xe f ound o n s crapheap. A p ossible h oard? 5 s ocketed

C rowther/Beynon

a xes, 3 Y orkshire t ype, b ag-shaped, i plain.

a nd G rantham c ollections

t he

a pproximate

d ate

1

s pan

7 50-550 b .c.

o f t hese h oards a re g iven i n M anby ( 1980).

2 87

D etailed

T able 2 7. M iscellaneous B ronze A ge O bjects

P lace

D escription

W hitby

D ouble-blade

A pprox d ate s pan b .c.

R eference E lgee

( 1930)

b ronze a xe P eak C oon iboots, S calby

B ronze a wl G old t orc

M oors n ear S carborough H igh D alby

T anged r azor

1 150-850

E lgee ( 1930) K nox ( 1855) S heffield M useum

B ronze k nives

E lgee

( 1930);

Y orkshire M useum B oitby

S camridge

G old b asket e arrings b elow f ort r ampart B ronze ' lance

S awdon

h ead' B ronze s ickle

W ykeham M oor

B ronze a wl

M iddle o f t he

W ilimot

( 1938)

B eaker p eriod, 1 800-1600 E lgee H eathery B urn, 7 50-550

S carborough M useum E lgee

2 88

( 1930)

( 1930)

T able 2 8.

P lace

L ate B ronze A ge P ottery i n R ound B arrows

O S G rid

R eference

C omment

ucket u rns ( ?) now N Z 5 88185 B l ost. arrel—shaped b owl. N Z 6 65124 B

C ourt G reen, E ston H ills S tanghow

N ewton

?

2 b ucket u rns,

o ne

w ith f ingertip

M ulgrave

i mpressions o n r im . lobular b owl, N Z 7 04117 G c ollared u rns.

H erd H owe

L astingham S uffield M oor

c .

w ith

ucket u rn. S E 7 20907 B O n e b a r r e l u rn, S E 9 789 b ucket u rn.

H utton B uscel

c .

S E 8 96875

1 b ucket u rn,

S E 9 587

b arrel u rn . G lobular j ar.

A tkinson ( 1863); B ritish M useum E lgee ( 1930); A nderson M SS L iverpool M useum A tkinson

E lgee o ne

S tackyard G ivendale H ead

( 1930)

( 1863); M useum

ucket u rn. S E 7 78890 B

C awthorn

E lgee

I

( 1930)

L amplough ( unpublished) E lgee ( 1930); Y orkshire M useum Y orkshire M useum G reenwell ( 1877); M useum

2m iles N o f P ickering 4m iles N E o f

c .

c .

S E 7 888

S E 8 586

B ucket u rn.

B ucket u rn.

E bberston

D ata

B ritish

B ateman ( 1861); S heffield M useum B ateman ( 1861); S heffield

P ickering P ickering

B ritish

c .

S E 7 983

B owl w ith m oulded

f oot. ucket u rn. S E 8 95877 B

f rom M anby ( 1980)

2 89

M useum S heffield M useum S carborough M useum

T able 2 9.

E arly L inear E arthworks

( excludes D eer P arks e tc.)

P lace

omment ength(km) C O S G rid L

N orth I ngs

N Z 6 412 0 .5

G errick

N Z 7 011 0 .25

R eferences

F rom b oundary E lgee b arrow i nto v alley h ead. C ross-ridge d yke E lgee

K i 1d ale P ark

N Z 6 108 0 .6

C rown E nd,

N Z 6 607 0 .4

b etween v alley h eads B uilt i nto m edieval d eer p ark . w all E lgee C ross-ridge d yke

N Z 6 006 0 .2

C ross-ridge d yke

N Z 7 006 0 .3

C ross-ridge d yke

N Z 7 005 0 .4

C ross-ridge d yke

M oor

W esterdale B attershy M oor D anby R igg N D anby R igg

C lais d ale R igg E gton G range

l rra M oor

( 1930)

( 1930)

C ross-ridge d yke

E lgee

( 1930)

.1 N Z 6 804 0

C ross-ridge d yke

E lgee

( 1930)

.3 N Z 7 303 0

C ross-ridge d ouble E lgee

( 1930)

.25 N Z 7 703 0 .15 N Z 7 703 0

J ohn C ross R igg B enky H ill

( 1930)

E lgee

S .25 Z 9 204 0 L atter G ate N N Z 6 804 0 .5 L ow C rag D yke H igh S tone D yke

( 1930)

.65 N Z 9 002 0 ( 0.15) .1 N Z 5 399 0 N Z 5 701

4 .8

d yke C ross-ridge d yke, d ouble o rthostat C ross-ridge b ank e nclosing f ield s ystem S eparates 2 c airnfields C ross-ridge d yke

A P ( SF 1 704,

L arge

1 51-157); R CH .M H ayes ( 1963)

s carp-edge

e arthwork G reen D yke W ar D yke C asten

.3 N Z 9 700 1 .3 S E 9 999 0 .5 N Z 4 600 1

D yke, O smotherley

S carp-edge e arthwork, e ast e nd d oubtful H ayes

.8 Z 5 800 0 C able S tone N .5 ( 0.15) S E 9 996 0 H ul l ey s N orth C loughton,

.1 S E 0 095 0

S tone D ale P lantation G allows

.15 S E 8 494 0

D yke D ouble D yke S E 8 594 0 .4

C ross-ridge d yke w ith p its

2 90

( 1963)

P lace

O S G rid L ength(km) C omment

R eferences

L evisham

S E 8 393 0 .3

C ross-ridge d yke

M oor L evisham M oor

S E 8 393 0 .3

C ross-ridge d yke

L evisham

S E 8 392 0 .8

I ron A ge/Roman

S E 8 292 0 .1

e nclosure a ttached F rom e nclosure t o

M oor L evisham M oor

v alley r oad

H orness R igg

S E 8 392 0 .1

L evisham .

S E 8 292 0 .5

C ross-ridge d yke I ron/Age R oman(?)

M oor

e nclosures a ttached

F ar B lack R igg E ast T oft D yke

S E 8 492 0 .15

N ewgate M oor

S E 8 792 0 .1

S pringwood

S E 9 592 0 .15 S E 9 792

T hieves D yke

C ross-ridge d yke

S E 8 592 0 .15

( 0.5)

C ross-ridge d yke

( 0.2)

V ery l arge e nclosure w ith p its

i n d ykes

H igh B ride S tones

S E 8 791

1 .8

D argate D ykes R awc i i ff

S E 8 991

0 .4

L arge d ouble d yke

S E 7 991

( 1.5)

O nly f ragment s urvives

B lackpark B lackleys

S E 7 591 0 .05 S E 9 190 0 .25

C ropton, F all R igg K epwi c k

S E 7 690 0 .15

S teeplec ross

S E 4 990 2 .0

D aletown

S E 5 089 0 .8

N ot

S E 9 089

d yke M assive m ultiple

S nainton

S E 4 990 2 .0

1 .2

C ross-ridge d yke

2 d ykes a t a ngles

r ight

a n a ncient

D ykes

d yke

E bbersto r i S E 9 089 0 .4 C ommon E ast

D yke w ith p its, d amaged b y p loughing

E bbers t on C ommon W est

S E 9 089

1 .0

R ed D yke

S E 8 989

1 .0

C ropton, M oor D yke

S E 7 689

( 0.25)

S and D ale

S E 8 888

1 .3

A llerston

S E 8 988

D yke w ith p its, m uch d amagaed

L ow M oor

2 91

S pratt

( 1982)

S pratt

( 1982)

S pratt

( 1982)

Place

OS Grid Length(km) Comment

Stone Close Rigg Brampton Moor Blansby Park Rowbrow

SE 8688 (0.3)

Seamer Beacon Hesketh Givendale Head Givendale Head Oxmoor Dykes Moor Dyke North Craddlegrip Craddlegrip Wood South Craddlegrip Wood North Skell Dykes

SE 0087 0.6 (0.4)

Irton Dyke Wetmoor Dyke Cross Dyke Low Wood Moll Dawson's Slack Cleave Dyke Givend ale Lower Dyke Givendale Dyke Scamridge Dykes Moorsome Dyke Cockmoor Hall Plantation Cockmoor Dykes

References

SE 9388 0.8 (0.8) SE 8288 SE 0087 0.4 (1.6)

Ploughed out complex earthworks Fragmented dyke with branches Spratt (1982)

SE 5187 1.5 SE 8987 0.4 (0.6) SE 8887 0.65 SE 8987 0.7 SE 9587 0.7

Massive multiple dykes

SE 9687 0.9 SE 9687 0.1 SE 9687 0.15 SE 9987 0.65 (0.4) Massive double dyke SE 9987 0.1 (1.5) Double dyke, fragment only survives SE 8987 1.1 SE 8487 1.2 (0.15) Cross-ridge dyke SE 8587 (0.25) Medieval? SE 5787 0.65 SE 5807 9.0 SE 8986 0.5

Long earthworks in Spratt (1982) various states of preservation

SE 8986 2.25 SE 9086 2.8 SE 9086 (0.3)

Massive multiple dykes

SE 9186 0.8 (0.3) SE 9186 2.1 (0.5)

Multiple dykes

292

P lace

O s G rid L ength(km) C omment

G rain E nd R ise D ykes

S E 9 386 0 .15 ( 2.0) R eached C ockmoor S E 9 486 0 .6 ( 0.5) S E 9 486 0 .15

E ast M oor N orth E ast M oor

S E 9 486

R eferences

( 0.15)

S outh B owesmoor M oor D yke

S E 9 486 0 .3 ( 0.3) S E 9 586 0 .5 ( 0.4)

S outh S eamer M oor T A 0 186 0 .15 H ill ( 0.25) W eaponess T A 0 386 ( 0.15) A ppleton S E 7 286 ( 0.5) C ommon

D amaged D ouble d yke C ross-ridge d yke

K nox

( 1849)

M alton C ote S E 8 985 ( 1.0) D yke G ivendale S E 8 785 0 .15 ( 0.3) R igg O xdale U pper D yke

S E 8 885

( 0.1)

N etherby

S E 9 084

1 .9

D ale W ykeham

M assive d yke,

b ut

m uch d amaged S E 9 485 0 .3

G range T hornton M oor

S E 8 585 0 .8

E llerburn B anks E llerburn W ood

S E 8 585 1 .9

S tonygate o xdale

S E 8 684 0 .15 S E 8 884 ( 0.3)

S E 8 384

( 0.15)

1 .1

L ower D yke G risthorpe T A 0 982 0 .15 C asten D yke S E 5 182 0 .9 N orth C asten D yke S E 5 181 0 .5 S outh D ouble D ykes, S proxton

S E 5 760 2 .0 ( 0.8)

S pratt

( 1982)

S pratt

( 1982)

M assive d ouble d yke

M oor

N otes: M uch o f t he d ata i n t his

t able w as

i s k ept i n S carborough M useum . L engths g iven i n p arentheses a re t o t hose u nbracketed.

2 93

c ollected b y M r J .G. d estroyed

e arthworks,

R utter,

a nd

a dditional

T able 3 0.

P lace

O S G rid

Z 7 410 E asington H igh N M oor U gthorpe

N Z 7 809

P it A lignments

R eference

C omment D ouble

p it

oung a lignment. Y

( 1817)

mith ( pers. G roups o f d ouble p its S c omm .); 2 5" O S a t i ntervals 2 30m, M ap ( 1894) l OOm a nd 3 5m . G roups l ie p arallel t o b arrow a lignment. mith ( pers. D ouble p it a lignment, S c omm .); 2 5" O S 3 p its i n e ach l ine. M a p ( 18 9 4 ) N ear c ross-ridge

D anby R igg

N Z 7 006

D ouble D ykes

S E 8 694

d yke. P its i n l ine o f d yke.

R CHM ( York)

A rden L ittle

S E 5 091

P its a t e ast e nd o f

S pratt

M oor E bberston L ow

S E 9 089

M oor E 8 989 J ingleby H ouse S

l inear d yke. " 0 5 M ap T wo l inear d ykes w ith 6 ( 1854) p its. B adly d amaged. 6 " O S M ap D yke w ith p its w ell

C ropton

S E 7 688

p reserved. S hort p it a lignment

F admoor

S E 6 788

( N-S). P its i n f ield

E 8 987 H igh S camridge S S E 7 787

E ast A yton M oor

S E 9 987

L ockton

S E 8 388

D yke. S hort

S camridge

S E 9 085

( N-S). D yke w ith p its.

C ivendale

S E 8 885

D yke w ith p its.

C leave D yke

S E 5 184

A ir p hotographic a nd f ield e vidence o f p its i n t he C leave

p its a djoining S kell p it a lignment

D yke a t p oints. S E 9 381

N unnington

S E 6 875

( 1854) A P 1 29/6 ( Pacitto)

A P 5 4/8 ( Pacitto) b oundary ( N-S) " 0 5 M ap T wo l inear d ykes w ith 6 ( 1854) p its. A P 9 9/7,8 S hort p it a lignment ( Pacitto) ( E-W) 6 ' O S M ap E nclosure d yke w ith

A islaby

B rompton

( 1982)

( 1854) A P 1 30/8 ( Pacitto) 6 " O S M ap ( 1854) Y oung ( 1817) S pratt ( 1982)

s everal

P 5 35/35,36 L ong p it a lignment o n A ( 1974); 9 81/25 c arr l and, p loughed ( 1976) ( Riley) o ut. R iley ( 1975); A P 5 38/31

2 94

T able 3 1.

P re-Roman I ron A ge S ites

C omment

R eference

R ed c ar

P ottery s catter w ith R oman s herds

I nman ( unpublished)

L ackenby

I nman ( unpublished) A herg

A tkinson ( 1864) S pratt ( 1971)

O S G rid

P lace

E ston N ab

N Z 5 68183

P ottery s catter w ith R oman s herds H ill f ort

N or manby G uisborough P ark*

N Z 5 57172 N Z 5 97171

R efuse h eaps E nclosure c rop a nd

B arnaby* U ps ail *

N Z 5 73168 N Z 5 57164

( 1968)

s oil m arks

1

E nclosure c rop m ark H ut s oil m arks P ottery s catter w ith

S pratt ( 1975) S pratt ( 1971) u npublished

G uisborough 2

R oman s herds P ottery s catter w ith

u npublished

G uisborough

R oman s herds P ottery s catter w ith R oman s herds P ottery s catter w ith

G uisborough 3 G uisborough 4

u npublished u npublished

R oman s herds P ottery s catter w ith R oman s herds

u npublished

N Z 4 37151

E xcavated s ite w ith 1 A a nd R oman p ottery

V yner e t a l., f orthcoming

N Z 7 14150

E nclosure w ith

H ayes

Z 7 62144 R oxby L ow M oor N

b eehive q uern F our e xcavated

U psa 1 1 I ngieby B arwick L iverton*

Z 7 61139 R oxby L ow M oor N

( 1964a)

h uts

T eesside A rchaeological

E nclosure w ith h uts

S ociety ( forthcoming) T eesside

I A

A rchaeological S ociety ( forthcoming) R oxby H igh M oor*

N Z 7 58126

D itched

c ircular h ut

Z 7 31118 E asington H igh N M oor*

D itched c ircular h ut

N Z 6 10115

N unthorpe

F ive c ircular h uts e xcavated P ottery s catter w ith

G reat A yton

N Z 5 98114

R oman s herds E nclosure w ith h ut

T ant o n"

N Z 5 26112

E nclosure

P ale E nd,

N Z 6 10103

P ercy R igg

M oor

K !i da le

c rop m ark

T eesside A rchaeological S ociety ( forthcoming) S pratt ( unpublished) C lose

u npublished T inkler a nd S pratt ( 1978) C leveland C ounty A rchaeologist

ayes 1 A a nd R omano-British H s ettlement,

2 95

e xcavated

( 1972)

( 1966b)

R eference

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

W ayworth*

N Z 6 51101

C eltic f ields, p aved h uts,

C rag B ank

N Z 6 31098

B ox H ill, N Z 6 78095 C astleton T opstone F olly N Z 8 32075

C rown E nd, W es t erdale

N Z 6 68076

C rathorne

N Z 4 50075

H utton R udby

L evisham M oor

R ep wick* C oomb H ill

N Z 5 55030

E nclosure w ith 1 A

( 1975) E lgee ( 1930)

s herds P ossible h ut s ite w ith 1 A s herds, c ontinuing t o 4 th c entury E nclosure w ith i ron s lag C ropmark w ith p ottery a nd b eehive q uern

C ircular s tone h ut w ith s tone w alling f ields,

H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

H arbord a nd S pratt ( 1975) C leveland C ounty A rchaeologist u npublished u npublished u npublished B rowarski a nd S pratt ( 1980) E lgee ( 1930)

S E 9 97960

C eltic

S E 8 30922

b eehive q uerns E nclosures w ith 1 A a nd R oman p ottery

S carborough A rchaeological

S E 4 68905

Q uadrilateral

S ociety ( forthcoming) A berg e t a l.

S E 9 52892

e nclosure W ell-preserved e nclosure

S carborough

T A 0 50890

C astle B lanshy P ark*

S E 8 20880

B olt b y A shberry

S E 5 07857 S E 5 70848

C old K irby*

S E 5 35845

S nainton

( 1930)

C lose, H ayes a nd S pratt

R oman s herds P ottery s catter w ith R oman s herds

S exhow P ark

E lgee

u nexcavated H uts, f ields, l ynchets, e xcavated

R oman s ite w ith I A s herds P ottery s catter w ith

P arish C rayke

B ilsdale M idcable* H ulleys*

s tone

S E 9 28840

R oulston S car* S E 5 15815

( 1977) S mith ( pers.comm .)

mith ( 1927) L ate B ronze A ge/Early S I ron A ge s ettlement 0 .S . M aps E xtensive l inear f eatures H ill f ort 1 A s herds f rom w indypit e ntrance C eltic f ields, w ith p ottery s pindle

W illmot ( 1938) H ayes ( 1963) S anders

( 1910)

w heels e tc. iley A P 5 38/33 K ite-shaped e nclosure R ( 1974) P acitto ( 1969) P romontory f ort w ith t imber-laced r ampart. N o p ottery

T hornton D ale

S E 8 31832

1 A t ype e nclosure

2 96

N .Y. C ounty A rchaeologist

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

T hornton D ale

S E 8 34823

C lark ( 1931)

C osta B eck

S E 7 76809

I ron A ge a nd R oman s herds E xtensive r iverside s ettlement

C lark ( 1931); H ayes ( 1978)

C old C a i n S tudford

S E 5 34816 R ing*

S E 5 82798

S mith ( 1911);

C eltic f ields, 1 A a nd H ayes ( 1963) R —B p ottery E nclosure o f I ron A ge u npublished t ype

* I ndicates p robable I ron A ge s ite, f inds.

2 97

b ut n ot p roven b y d efinitive

T able 3 2.

S quare B arrows

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference

A islaby

c N Z 8 40085

S quare a nd o blong b arrows

Y oung

S pratt ( unpublished)

C an ton B ank

N Z 5 18025

S ingle

C awthorn

S E 7 88901

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 54894

C art b urial 3 s quare b arrows

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 51891

S quare b arrow

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 49889

4 s quare b arrows

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 56888

S quare b arrow

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 59885

S quare b arrow

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 50883

S quare b arrow

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 50880

S quare b arrow

W ykeham F orest

S E 9 44871

S quare b arrow

H utton B uscel

S E 9 59867

P ossible s quare e nclosure b urials

S eamer M oor

c T A 0 20860

S tead

P exton M oor

S E 8 48853

P ossible s quare e nclosure b urials C art b urial

S tead

( 1979)

T A 0 33839

P ossible c art b urial

S tead

( 1979)

S eamer

2 98

s quare b arrow

( 1817)

S tead ( 1979) P acitto ( pers.comm .) P acitto ( pers.comm .) S mith ( pers.comm .) S mith ( pers.comm .) P acitto ( pers.comm .) S mith ( pers.comm .) S mith ( pers.comm .) S mith ( pers.comm .) S tead ( 1979) ( 1979)

R OMAN S ITES AND F INDS 1 . M ilitary

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

H untcliff

N Z 6 87220

S ignal

R eference s tation C 4th

H averfield ( 1912); H ornsby a nd S tanton ( 1912)

G oldsborough

N Z 8 36152

S ignal s tation C 4th

L ease R igg

N Z 8 14042

A uxiliary f ort. P ottery 7 0-120 A D

H ornsby a nd L averick ( 1932) H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964); H artley ( 1977;

R avenscar

N Z 9 80018

S ignal

C awthorn

S E 7 86902

M ilitary c amps

1 978; 1 980) E lgee ( 1923); C lark ( 1935) R ichmond ( 1933)

S carborough, C astle H ill

T A 0 50890

C lst-2nd S ignal s tation C 4th

C lark ( 1935)

s tation C 4 .th

2 99

2 .

O ccupation ( see a lso T able 2 9

P lace

O S G rid

S quare e nclosures)

-

R eference

C omment

npublished P ottery f rom d itch I A u

R ed c ar N Z 7 00208

C 4th C rop inark a nd p ottery

N Z 7 24188

o f C 2nd-3rd u npublished I A t o a bout C 2nd/3rd lark ( 1935) C oins a nd b urial 1 875 C

-

B rotton L ackenby B oulby, H ummer s ea E ston N ab

( possible N Z 5 68183

N or i nanby M ount P leasant

N Z 5 59166

G uisborough 1

F aull

( 1976)

s ignal

s tation?) A s herd o f s amian w are C 2nd S amian w are B lue m elon b ead i n b eaker b arrow C oarse g ritted a nd g rey w are,

M iddlesbrough M useum A tkinson ( 1864) S ockett

( 1971)

u npublished

I A t o

G uisborough 2

C 2nd/3rd S mall s ite I A t o

u npublished

G uisborough 3

C 2nd/3rd R ange o f p ottery

u npublished

G uisborough 4

C lst-4th G reyware a nd

c olour

u npublished

U ps a ll

c oated G reyware, m ortarium

u npublished

I ngleby B arwick K emplah T op

N Z 4 37151

W hitby A bbey L ouns d ale

N Z 9 03114 N Z 6 13107

P ale E nd

N Z 6 08142

N Z 6 10103

yner e t a l. D itched s ite, p ottery V ( forthcoming) I A t o C 4th lark ( 1935) C up a nd C rambeck d ish C C lark ( 1935) C oins a nd s herds lose, H ayes E xtensive s ettlement. C P ottery C lst-4th

a nd S pratt

H uts,

( 1975) H ayes ( 1966b)

l ate I A t o

C 3rd / 4th I nman S amian w are, g rey unpublished) w are, c alcite g ritted (

N i i nt horpe

C 2nd-4th C rag B ank

N Z 6 31098

L ate I A-C2nd

C lose,

H ayes

a nd S pratt

S leights, B ri g gswath T opstone F olly

N Z 8 70082

C 4th p ottery

( 1975) H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

N Z 8 32075

L ate

H ayes

N ewbiggin H all

N Z 8 36073

C rambeck w are, c alcite g ritted t o C 4th H ypocaust,

B usby L ittle B roughton,

[ A-C4th

N Z 5 57068

p ottery

C lst?-4th S amian w are o n m edieval

C hapel G arth

3 00

s ite

a nd

R utter ( 1964) H ayes ( 1968c)

u npublished C lose ( unpublished)

P lace

O S G rid

E gton C hurch

R eference

N Z 7 99066

P ottery a nd c oins

u npublished

N Z 8 003

P rolific p ottery a nd q uern s ite t o C 4th Q uern f actory, b eehive a nd R oman t ypes U nd g lass b angle,

H emingway a nd S pratt ( 1980) u npublished E lgee ( 1923); I nman ( 1977;

H utton R udby S exhow C oathiand

C omment

P otto

H ayes a nd C 2nd-4th R utter ( 1964) P rolific p ottery s ite u npublished t o C 4th

H ayes,

W horl t on

N Z 4 84024

b eehive q uern L arge s ettlement, p ottery C lst-4th

L evisham M oor

S E 8 38925

1 978) A f ew C lst-2nd s herds S carborough a nd a nd f inds D istrict A rch .

S paunton M oor

t hckton

S E 7 393

c S E 8 40910

G illamoor

S E 6 88894

Q uern f actory,

S oc. ( forthcoming) H ayes,

b eehive a nd R oman t ypes

H emingway a nd S pratt ( 1980)

F lue

t ile a nd p ottery H ayes ( 1980c) C 3rd-4th R emains o f C 4th h ut, H ayes p ottery, l oom w eights ( pers.comm .)

H utton-le H ole, R iccall F ield

S E 7 17894

C 4th d welling, many s herds a nd q uerns

H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

S paunton, O ld P asture C lark C lose

S E 7 21893

L ate I A-C4th

H ayes ( 1964a)

S E 7 29892

B urial

H ayes

H utton-le-

S E 7 14889

S herds a nd q uern f ragments

S to nyg a te

S E 8 33879

M uch C 4th p ottery a nd G oodall a nd t ile ( dump f rom S mith ( 1977) v illa?)

B lansby P ark K irkbymoors ide, H agg

S E 8 12875 S E 6 82874

P ottery C 2nd-4th H ayes P ottery C rambeck t ype H ayes

-

H ole

c ist

( pers.comm .) S mith ( 1976)

( 1973) ( 1974)

5 a

L ane A pple g arth

S E 6 98867

E nclosure o n a ir H ayes pers.comm .) p hoto. P ottery s herds (

S napes W ood

S E 6 83863

S innington

S E 7 27861

G rey w are a nd b eehive H ayes ( 1980a) q uerns C 4th h ut s ite H ayes ( 1980b)

M anor A shberr y W indypit

S E 5 70848

V aried f inds o f

C old K irby

S E 5 34843

H ayes

( 1963)

C lst-2nd d ug f rom w ind y pi t Q uerns,

3 01

f ields,

C lark ( 1935)

P lace

O S G rid

C omment

R eference S tead ( 1971); P acitto

B eadlam

S E 6 34842

V illa t o C 4th

R iseborough H ill

S E 7 684

A mphora

W ykeham

S E 9 68837

L ate C 4th s herds m ixed w ith A nglian w are o n h ut s ites

M oore

S eamer, C rossgates C ayton

T A 0 30834

N ative f rom I A t o

R utter a nd D uke

T A 0 55830

C 5/6th P ottery t o C 4th

( 1958) R utter H ayes

S E 8 34823

F ield s ystem o n A Ps, f ibula, p ottery B rooch, s amian a nd

S E 4 99820

n ative w are S tone i nscribed

W ombleton, S onley H ill T hornton D ale H ood G range

S E 6 84824

c offin.

( forthcoming) C lark ( 1935)

F lue

( 1965)

( 1967a) ( 1963)

C lark ( 1931) W enham ( 1960)

t iles

a nd c ropmarks n earby S mith ( 1911) H ayes ( 1963)

C old C am

S E 7 70820 S E 5 34816

P ottery k ilns

O sgoodby H all

S E 4 93809

C 3rd-4th R oman(?) s tone

O ldstead

S E 5 34800

C 3rd-C4th p ottery

E ast N ess

S E 6 978

( 1969) ayes ( 1963); s arcophagus H C lark ( 1935) C 4th a nd c oin

C osta B eck

I nscribed

3 02

alton c offin M M essenger 6 /12/1863 H ayes ( 1973); M cDonnell

3 .

C oin H oards

P lace

D escription

W ilton

F ound 1 856. 4 23 AD

8 0 c oins

E ston

F ound a bout c oins 5 0 t o

1 817. S ome c opper Y oung 3 37 AD, p ossibly

( 1817),

a h oard F ound 1 792. AD

2 00?

( 1923)

U gthorpe

R eference 3 64 t o

c oins

E lgee

6 9-140 E lgee

( 1923)

W horiton

F ound 1 810. C oins 3 24-423 A D . S ilver s poon, b uckle, r ings, b asin

E lgee

G laisdale, B lue W ath

F ound 1 912. 2 68-273 AD

H ildyard

3 0 c oins d ated

3 03

9 44

( 1923)

( 1958)

4 .

O ther R oman f inds

P lace

D escription

R eference

B arnaby C haritons, n ear B oosbeck

B ronze p arade h elmet T erracotta l amp

A tkinson ( 1864) C lark ( 1935)

S tokesley

P ewter j ug

M iddlesbrough M useum B ritish M useum

F arndale

B ronze a rm-purse

H elmsley C hurch H elmsley C astle

R oman p ot f ound i n 1 868 T erracotta l amp

3 04

B ritish M useum O .S. C ard S E 6 8S CW2 4

T able 3 4.

P lace

O S G rid

I ngleby

N Z 4 61000

A rncliffe

S quare e nclosures

C omment S E e ntrance.

R eference N o

i nternal f eatures v isible

C hadwick A .P. A NY 6 2/5.6

S paunton M oor

S E 7 15946

H ayes

C loughton

S E 9 92944

( pers.comm .) S mith

H awnby, L adhill B eck

S E 5 49936

B og H ouse

S E 6 55934

H orness R igg

S E 8 38920

( pers.comm .) R ectangular ( sheep-clipping

H ayes

( 1975a)

f old?)

B lack P ark S taindale

S E 7 51906

H augh R igg 1

S E 7 98895

S E 8 61897

W ykeham F orest S E 9 55890 W ykeham F orest S E 9 50889

H ayes ( pers.comm .) I ron A ge a nd R oman

H ayes

( 70-100AD) s herds f rom t rial t rench

( pers.comm .)

E xcavated. N o E arthwork I n g rassland

H ayes

f inds

S urface f inds o f R omano-British p ottery

( 1969)

R ushton ( 1976) H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

7 .5m s quare e nclosure P acitto ( pers.comm .) P loughed o ut S mith ( pers.comm .) H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

H augh R igg 2

S E 8 01888

S urface f inds o f C 3rd-4th p ottery

H augh R igg 3

S E 8 02886

P loughed o ut 1 952. N o H ayes a nd f inds R utter ( 1964) A ll s ites p loughed H ayes a nd

N ova

S E 7 95881 S E 7 95880 S E 7 95878 S E 7 92877

o ut

D alby H agg F arm, K irkby

S E 8 57878 S E 6 80879 S E 6 66877

A ir p hotograph

M oorside B lansby P ark

S E 6 75873 S E 8 25877

R iggs H ead W hinney H ill, S paunton M oor

T A 0 19868 S E 7 27861

W ykeham

S E 9 51847

C aulkleys B ank S E 6 85784 C aulkleys B ank S E 6 72782

R utter

( 1964)

U ncertain s ite

P loughed o ut

R ushton ( 1976) R iley A .P.s 9 91/23 a nd 2 4 ( 1976) H ayes a nd R utter ( 1964)

S till f aintly v isible K nox ( 1849) H ayes a nd P loughed o ut R utter ( 1964) P art

o f a m ore

R iley A .P.

e xtensive f ield s ystem

5 39/15

C ropmark . 2 s quare e nclosures C ropmark

P acitto A .P.

( 1974)

9 6-6 R iley A .P. 7 4 3 /1 1 ( 1975)

3 05

T able 3 5.

O rthostatic w alls l isted W esf t o E ast

P lace

O S G rid

O smotherley A rden, H agg F arm

S E 4 75965 D ivides f ield f rom o pen m oorland S E 5 13936 T wo p arallel O S w alls, o ne a h ead

S nilesworth, L ow A rnsgill F arm H awnby M oor B ilsdale W est

C omment

d yke, t he o ther o n o pen m oorland, f orming a n a bandoned f ield S E 5 23954 S everal s ections o f O S w alling o n i nternal f arm w alls S E 5 35935 H ead d yke S E 5 48919 O rthostats i n a bandoned f ield w alls

S ide K ildale P ark D yke N Z 6 13083 M any o rthostats i n o ne s ection o f e ast w all o f d eer p ark . N one e lsewhere i n P ark D yke w hich d ates 1 3th c entury N Z 6 23113 H ead d yke a t S W c orner o f ' island' f arm

S leddale C o i nmondale

N Z 6 45120 O rthostats o n l inear d yke r unning a cross o pen m oorland f rom N orth I ngs

C o im nondale

N Z

C on imondale

N Z N Z N Z

C o imnondale W esterdale C astleton

v alley t o H ob o n t he H ill. E lgee ( 1930) ead d yke 6 51110 H ead d yke 6 58106 H 6 60098 H ead d yke 6 60068 H ead d yke

P hotograph

S truntry C arr F arm

N Z 6 77074 H ead d yke nternal f arm w all. N Z 8 11026 I d ykes

G oathland

ead d yke i n f arm a djoining c eltic N Z 8 31036 H

S leights

f ield s ystem Low B ridestones". N Z 8 40048 " f ield w alls

T his l ist s earched

i s

t o

i ncomplete a s

t he w hole

f or o rthostatic w alling.

3 06

a rea h as

N one o n h ead

R emains o f e arly

n ot

b een i ntensively