Arabic Genre Pedagogy: Teaching, Learning, and Assessing in Context 1032044535, 9781032044538

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Arabic Genre Pedagogy

Arabic Genre Pedagogy: Teaching, Learning, and Assessing in Context views Modern Standard Arabic and all spoken varieties of Arabic as one system and offers genre-based instructional resources grounded in systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and genre theory. Divided into three parts, this book explores the theoretical and instructional framework, spoken genres, and written genres with chapters focusing on everyday social genres, including exchanging information, chit-chat, and complaints. This book is aligned with the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) framework, and the instructional goals for each genre are articulated in terms of the ACTFL Can-Do Statements. Designed to support instructors of novice-intermediate Arabic learners, the chapters offer step-bystep lessons with practical classroom activities on how to make the language related to each genre explicit to students. Arabic Genre Pedagogy serves as a valuable guide and professional development resource for instructors of Arabic as a world language and for researchers of SFL-informed genre-based approach. Myriam Abdel-Malek, Ph.D., is an Arabic instructor II at the University of Pittsburgh Less-Commonly-Taught Languages Center in the Department of Linguistics. She has taught and designed syllabi and assessments for Arabic courses at several institutions of higher education. Her research focuses on discourse analysis of Arabic texts using systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and on investigating SFL genre-based pedagogy for teaching and assessing literacy in Arabic. Her work has appeared in peer-reviewed journals. She was a project coordinator under Title VI grant with the Center for Advanced Language Proficiency Education and Research (2018–2022). In her project, she designed genre-based instructional material to be used by Arabic instructors.

Topics in Arabic Applied Linguistics Series Editor: Khaled Al Masaeed Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Topics in Arabic Applied Linguistics publishes high quality research monographs and edited volumes on a broad range of topics in Arabic applied linguistics including (but not limited to) Arabic as a foreign/second language; Arabic sociolinguistics; Arabic pragmatics; language planning and language policies; diglossia; discourse studies; and language and social identity. This series will serve the interests of applied linguists, educators, and policy makers alike. Arabic L2 Interlanguage Syntactic sequences, agreement and variation Ghassan Husseinali Arabic Genre Pedagogy Teaching, Learning, and Assessing in Context Myriam Abdel-Malek

For more information about this series please visit: www.routledge.com/Topics-inArabic-Applied-Linguistics/book-series/TAAL

Arabic Genre Pedagogy Teaching, Learning, and Assessing in Context Myriam Abdel-Malek

First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 Myriam Abdel-Malek The right of Myriam Abdel-Malek to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Abdel-Malek, Myriam, author. Title: Arabic genre pedagogy : teaching, learning, and assessing in context / Myriam Abdel-Malek. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Series: Topics in Arabic applied linguistics | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2023018295 (print) | LCCN 2023018296 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032044538 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032044552 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003193265 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Arabic language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. | Arabic language—Spoken Arabic. | Arabic teachers— Training of | Functionalism (Linguistics) | Systemic grammar. Classification: LCC PJ6065 .A3217 2024 (print) | LCC PJ6065 (ebook) | DDC 492.780071—dc23/eng/20230601 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023018295 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023018296 ISBN: 978-1-032-04453-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-04455-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-19326-5 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003193265 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To Essam, Karim, and Nadeem

Contents

Acknowledgments Preface

viii ix

PART I

Theoretical and instructional framework 1

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and the link to standards

1

3

PART II

Spoken genres

29

2

Exchange of information: asking for/giving directions

31

3

Exchange of goods and services: encounter at a produce stand

47

Chit-chat

67

4

PART III

Written genres

83

5

Note of good wishes for an occasion

85

6

Complaint

100

Conclusion

117

Index

121

Acknowledgments

My thanks go to my family Essam, for your love and encouragement Karim, for your support and your generous time reading drafts Nadeem, for playing with clauses Baba and Mama, for being my first educators Eliane, for all the connections with Arabic speakers across the Atlantic Karim A., for your encouragement. My thanks also go to Mariana Achugar, for introducing me to systemic functional linguistics Francis Troyan, for your support and work in world languages education. A special thank you goes to all the SFL scholars who inspired me through their work, especially Mary Schlepegrell and Maria Brisk. I am grateful to the editorial team at Routledge and to all my friends and colleagues who provided me with invaluable comments and conversations, especially Rick Donato, Sally Albanna, Loretta Fernandez, and Ida Chavoshan.

Preface

Teaching and learning Arabic demands a pedagogy that addresses the sociocultural reality of Arabic rather than a pedagogy that emphasizes the dichotomy between Modern Standard Arabic and the spoken varieties. To fulfill this need, this book introduces a contextualized functional approach to Arabic teaching, learning, and assessment for a variety of spoken and written Arabic genres in varied contexts. The genre-based instructional resources in this volume draw on systemic functional linguistics (SFL) (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) and genre theory (Rose & Martin, 2012). The content of the book is informed by my work in (1) analyzing Arabic spoken and written texts from different genres and (2) designing and investigating Arabic genrebased pedagogy for spoken and written genres in my classrooms with Arabic as world language learners. This work revealed the potential of SFL in supporting students’ meaning-making, a reason that made me determined to introduce this theory and the associated genre pedagogy to Arabic as a world language teachers and teacher educators. This book serves as my contribution to achieving this goal. The pedagogy I describe reconceptualizes the teaching of Arabic. Informed by SFL, genre theory, and the features of the genre, the connections between grammatical forms and meaning in different social contexts for a variety of spoken and written genres are made explicit to students. Additionally, the variety deployed is related to the context. From this perspective, the teaching of grammar forms does not involve viewing grammar as a set of rules but rather views grammar as a resource for making-meaning in the context in which the genre occurs. Thus, it adds to the teaching of traditional grammar in a way that enhances and supports teaching, learning, and assessing Arabic as a world language. My goal is to introduce Arabic teachers and Arabic teacher educators to the genre-based approach in order to support them during planning, teaching, and assessment and to support novice–intermediate Arabic learners during learning and assessment. The spoken and written genres in this volume were selected for the following reasons: (1) they are commonly used genres in the

x Preface Table P.1 Sequence of written and spoken genres a unit of instruction on holiday celebrations Modality

Name of genre

Purpose of each genre

Written

• List

• Host: List all items/activities needed for the party • Host: Write an invitation to the party • Guest: Send a note of good wishes to the host • Guest/Host: Retell in writing a personal experience related to the party in an email to a friend • Host’s neighbor: Write a complaint about the loud music at the party • Guest: Ask for directions to the party • Guest/Host: Introduce self and others at the party • Guest/Host: Buy fruits and vegetables at the produce stand to cook a special dish for the party • Guest/Host: Chit-chat with friends at/ after the party*

• Invitation • Note of good wishes* • Recount** • Complaint* Spoken

• Exchange information* • Self-introduction • Exchange of goods and* services • Chit-chat*

Note. *Instructional material for this genre is described in this volume. **Instructional material for this genre is described in Abdel-Malek (2021).

Arab cultures; (2) they align with the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages frameworks for novice–intermediate students; (3) and one or more of these genres can be incorporated in themed units of study, such as a unit on holiday celebrations, as shown in Table P.1, making them important text types to learn.

Overview The book is organized in three parts: Part I includes Chapter 1¸which describes the theoretical and instructional background for the Arabic genre-based pedagogy that contextualizes teaching, learning, and assessment advanced in this book. Part II includes Chapters 2–4, which describe the genre-based instructional material for three spoken genres: exchange of information situated in asking for/giving directions, exchange of goods and services situated at an encounter at the produce stand, and chit chat.

Preface xi Part III includes Chapters 5 and 6, which describe genre-based instructional material for two written genres: note of good wishes for an occasion and complaint. The book ends with a conclusion and implications for future work.

Reference Abdel-Malek, M. (2021). A genre-based approach to teaching and assessing the recount of habitual events in Arabic. In F. J. Troyan (Ed.), Genre in world language education: Contextualized assessment and learning. New York: Routledge. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Rose, D., & Martin, J. R. (2012). Learning to write, reading to learn. Bristol, CT: Equinox.

Part I

Theoretical and instructional framework

1

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and the link to standards

Introduction Although context for instruction and assessment in world language education has received attention, there is a lack of instructional material in Arabic that contextualizes teaching, learning, and assessment (e.g., Abdel-Malek, 2019, 2020), meets students’ needs, reflects the current sociocultural reality of Arabic (Al-Batal, 2018; Al-Batal & Belnap, 2006; Wahba, 2018), and aligns with the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) frameworks (AbdelMalek, 2021; ACTFL, 2015; Troyan, 2021b). Therefore, a pedagogy for teaching, learning, and assessing Arabic in context to address this void is necessary. This chapter describes the theoretical and instructional background for the Arabic genre-based pedagogy that contextualizes the teaching, learning, and assessment advanced in this book. It first articulates the rationale for adopting the view for Arabic, a multiglossic language, as one language system. Second, it explains the underpinning theoretical frameworks for the genre pedagogy, namely genre theory and systemic functional linguistics (SFL) (Bardi, 2008; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). Third, the chapter gives a background on teaching of Arabic as a world language and situates the SFL genre pedagogy in this space. Fourth, it makes a connection between the genre-based pedagogy and the ACTFL framework (ACTFL, 2012, 2015, 2017), the major world language framework for world language policy in the United States and in several other countries, and argues for the need for an Arabic genrebased pedagogy to contextualize teaching, learning, and assessment. Fifth, the genre-based approach to backward design (Troyan, 2021; Wiggins & McTigh, 2005) used for planning instruction in each of the genre chapters will be explained. Last, the instructional model that informs the teaching of both the written and spoken genres, named the teaching/learning cycle (Callaghan & Rothery, 1988; Martin & Rose, 2008), will be described.

Arabic as one system Arabic is one of the most spoken languages in the world. It is spoken in 25 countries (World Population Review, 2021), with about 400 million speakers DOI: 10.4324/9781003193265-2

4 Theoretical and instructional framework (United Nations, 2020). In each of these countries, a standard variety of the language and at least one or more spoken variety (i.e., colloquial such as Jordanian, Lebanese, and Egyptian) exist side by side. The varieties have been described as distinct and with levels of value. More recently linguists have recognized the fallacy of the divisions and levels between the standard and spoken varieties in favor of more fluid, context-dependent choices (e.g., AlBatal, 2018; Khalil, 2022). In his seminal work, Ferguson (1959) described the situation of the Arabic language as diglossia, in which the language has two coexisting varieties: a high (H) variety, which refers to the standard variety, and a low (L) variety, which refers to the colloquial or spoken variety. To clarify his description, Ferguson provided examples of situations where each variety is used. For instance, the H variety is deployed in university lectures or in newspaper articles, and the L variety is deployed in conversations with family and in folk tales. Later, Ferguson (1996) himself as well as other scholars (e.g., Badawi, 1973, 2012; Brustad, 2017) criticized this dichotomy for the categorization of the two varieties (H for writing and for formal speeches and L for conversations) as overly simplistic. Badawi (1973, 2012), for example, argued that the sociocultural situation of Arabic reflects more than two levels. He, therefore, proposed three intermediate levels between H and L to reflect this reality, identifying five levels in all: (1) Fus-ha t-turath (Classical Arabic), (2) Fus-ha al-asr (Modern Standard Arabic), (3)‘Ammiyat al-muthaqqafin (“high” Educated Spoken Arabic), (4) Ammiyat al-mutanawwirin (“low” Educated Spoken Arabic), and Ammiyat al-?ummiyyin (Illiterate Spoken Arabic). For Badawi, the levels do not have definite boundaries; rather all levels are on a continuum. Users of the language transition between the levels depending on the situation and the language resources available to them. Building on Badawi’s definition, Mitchell (1986) elaborated on the concept of “educated spoken Arabic”. He maintained that educated speakers always mix the standard and spoken varieties in order to communicate with speakers from different Arab countries on topics beyond everyday conversation. Accordingly, the term educated spoken Arabic is not a linguistically described form of language, as is standard Arabic, but is how the language is used (Soliman, 2018; Taha, 2020). From these definitions of diglossia advanced by sociolinguists and by Arabic language scholars, one can tell that the definition for the situation of diglossia has been modified according to the demands and realities of Arabic as a living world language. This reality has become more fluid (Al-Batal, 2018) and language variations more noticeable (Taha, 2018), especially in the modern channels of written electronic communication, such as on social media (Khalil, 2022). Users of the language deploy the standard variety and one or more spoken varieties either individually or in combination to communicate in writing or in speaking (Brustad, 2017) to achieve a purpose (Khalil, 2022). This situation has been referred to as multiglossic (Al-Batal, 1992, 2018).

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 5 In response to this new reality, Al-Batal (2018) proposed the Arabic as one model, in which the standard variety, the principal spoken variety of the speaker, and all other spoken varieties are part of one system named Arabic. In this view, the full Arabic linguistic repertoire of the user of the language is recognized. This model makes Arabic an inclusive system that acknowledges all varieties of the language (Linguistic Society of America, 2016). Khalil (2022) depicted the differences between the spoken and standard varieties in pronunciation (i.e., phonology), words (i.e., lexicon), and grammar, as the examples in Box 1.1 show. Despite these differences, studies in cross-dialectal situations (e.g., Soliman, 2012) showed that interlocutors have been able to communicate with a notable degree of mutual intelligibility while using different spoken varities (e.g., Egyptian, Tunisian, and Jordanian), even with a decrease in the use of the standard variety compared to earlier studies (e.g., Abu-Melhim, 1992). This finding indicates that using different spoken varieties does not impede communication.

Box 1.1 Examples of differences among some varieties of Arabic Varieties

Pronunciation Words Grammar

Standard

Jordanian

Egyptian

‫ﻗَﺮﻳﺐ‬ ‫ﺃﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﻻ ﻳَْﻌ ِﺮﻑ‬

‫*ﻗَ ِﺮﻳﺐ‬ ‫ﻭﻳﻦ‬ ْ ‫ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﻌَﺮﻑ‬

‫*ﻗُﺮﻳّﺐ‬ ‫ﻓﻴﻦ‬ ْ ‫ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﻌَﺮﻓﺶ‬

Note.*The ‫ ﻕ‬is pronounced as ‫( ء‬hamza, glottal stop) in both Jordanian and Egyptian, especially in the capitals of these countries.

Since Arabic as one is the model that reflects the current reality in the use of Arabic, it is the model for the Arabic language adopted in this book. The perspective of Arabic as one language that this book takes is that the standard variety and the spoken varieties serve their own sociolinguistic functions (Al-Batal, 2018), and so does the mixing between the varieties (Khalil, 2022), which has become the norm among Arabic speakers (Bassiouney, 2009). For instance, “asking for directions” is a socio-cultural situation that lends itself to choices from the spoken varieties. Therefore, referring to Box 1.1, a user of the standard variety and the Jordanian and Egyptian spoken varieties has a choice between ‫ ﻭﻳﻦ‬and ‫ ﻓﻴﻦ‬to formulate a question. In other sociocultural situations, such as in a written note of good wishes for an occasion,

6 Theoretical and instructional framework the same user has a choice between the spoken varieties and/or the standard variety depending on the relationship between the sender and the receiver (i.e., formal or informal) as well as the channel of communication (e.g., email, letter, social media, or phone text message). To better understand these choices in different situations and the role sociolinguistics plays in societies, Badawi (2006), similar to Ryding (2006), put out an urgent call for the need for discourse analysis. To this end, systemic functional linguistics discourse analyses of the different communications achieved by the various genres in this book will reveal the language choices and their functions as related to the immediate sociocultural situation and the context of the culture in general. The next section explains SFL, which also informs the pedagogy in the chapters ahead.

The theoretical framework Systemic functional linguistics (Bardi, 2008; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014) and genre theory (Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012) are the underpinning theories for the pedagogy described in this book. Systemic functional linguistics SFL is a theory of language based on the work of M. A. K. Halliday and is grounded in three main tenets: language is meaning-making, language is a system, and language is functional. SFL views language as a system that includes a set of semantic systems, in which language functions as a tool for meaning-making (Halliday, 1978). Meaning is realized through the systemic choices the speakers or writers make from the system (in our case, Arabic) available to them in response to both the context of the situation (i.e., register) and the context of culture (i.e., genre) (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). The choices are from the lexico-grammar (i.e., words and grammar) and realize the different texts. A text is “language that is doing some job in some context” (Halliday & Hasan, 1989, p. 10). A written narrative is an example of a written text, and asking for information is an example of a spoken text. In this view of language, the lexicon and grammar are not separate entities because viewing them separately does not support the studying of actual language (Römer & Schulze, 2009). Therefore, for users of Arabic, the more proficient the speakers or writers, the more choices from the lexico-grammatical resources are available to them and the more strategically they can leverage language resources to communicate across situational and cultural contexts. For example, an informed Arabic user will know when to choose between ‫ ﺇﻣﺸﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬with an imperative as a typical function for a command and ‫ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻤﺸﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ؟‬with a question as an atypical function for a command. It is the SFL discourse analysis that will

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 7 reveal which language resources are used to achieve the intended function in a specific situation. The functional approach to language is attentive to how people use language in context and how language is structured for use (Eggins, 1994; Halliday, 1978; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). People use language related to social contexts, and the organization of language is closely linked to satisfying human beings’ needs in their respective societies. In other words, language is shaped and reshaped because of how we use it. Equally, the culture is shaped by the language. In this respect, SFL’s functional orientation implies an intimate relationship between language and society (Christie & Unsworth, 2005; Halliday & Hasan, 1989). This relationship is so intimate that it is described as dialectical (Hasan, 1996). Relating this social perspective on language to the view of Arabic as one, it is the change in how we use Arabic in response to the new realities of its usages that has been shaping the language. By the same token, the language has been influencing the culture. Social media platforms are one mode of communication that has influenced the way we deploy language. Traditionally, spoken varieties were used in oral communications only, whereas, with the spread of electronic communication, spoken varieties have been used in writing on social media platforms. Nevertheless, choices of the language variety are always made for a purpose, such as to reach a wider audience (Khalil, 2022). Context in SFL In any text, SFL recognizes the broad culture (i.e., context of culture) realized by the genre and the immediate culture (i.e., context of situation) realized by the register. Genre Genre is a sociocultural text that satisfies the purpose of the culture. Genre is defined as a staged, purposeful, socio-cultural text. It is purposeful because it has a goal, socio-cultural because it occurs in social contexts, and staged because it includes several stages that together achieve the cultural purpose of the genre (Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012). Some of the stages are either required, optional, in a fixed order, movable, or recurring (Rose & Martin, 2012; Ventola, 1987). Therefore, genres (also referred to as text types) are concerned with how written, spoken, or multimodal texts unfold in a culture to accomplish various social needs. Culture does not always mean national culture (e.g., Jordanian or Egyptian); rather, it could be a community culture (e.g., friends or a sporting event) or an institutional culture (e.g., a university or an organization). Additionally, genre is not restricted to literary genres but includes social genres. An example of a written genre in Arabic is

8 Theoretical and instructional framework the recounting of habitual events. The purpose of the account published in a newspaper is to inform the reader about the daily routine of public figures while portraying them in a certain way (Abdel-Malek, 2019, 2020; AbuTare, 2003). The account includes three stages: title, orientation, and sequence of events. The title frames the account, the orientation provides the background on the person(s) who is the subject of the account, and the sequence of events describes the daily actions of the person(s) in chronological order. To help Arabic language learners communicate in a variety of contexts, the stages of the different genres and the language features associated with that genre need to be explicitly taught (e.g., Brisk, 2015; de Oliveira & Lan, 2014; Palincsar & Schleppegrell, 2014) while paying attention to the relationship between the purpose of the genre, its features, and the context of the situation in which the genre occurs. This relationship is specifically important in Arabic because it will reveal which varieties (i.e., spoken and/ or standard) are used. Ignoring how the context of the situation (i.e., register) shapes the text could result in considering the genre a list of features (Humphrey, 2016). Register The context of the situation in which the genre unfolds is what dictates the possible language choices in the genre. The context of situations depends on three variables related to the register: (1) field (i.e., the topic of the genre), (2) tenor (i.e., the communicators’ relationship, such as formal or informal), and (3) mode (i.e., spoken or written channels of communication, such as phone call, a written message, or an email). These three variables are related to three meanings, conveyed in any genre, ideational, textual, and interpersonal. The ideational meaning explains the language choices that express the subject matter of the text; the textual meaning explains the language choices that realize the text as spoken or written in the different channels of communication; the interpersonal meaning explains the language choices that express attitudes and the social relationship between speaker and listener or writer and reader (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). When any, some, or all of the register variables differ, so do the patterns of meanings that are realized by the language choices in the text (Derewianka & Jones, 2016). For example, the language choices made in a film review (field) written in a newspaper (mode) for newspaper readers (tenor) are different than those in the review of the same movie (field) written in an email (mode) addressed to a friend (tenor). The relation between the genre, the register variables, the meanings, and the linguistic resources that realize them is illustrated in Table 1.1. The linguistic resources will be discussed in the next section. Relating the register and genre concepts to the view of Arabic as one system, the user of the language makes choices from the lexico-grammar (i.e., words and

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 9 Table 1.1 Relation between genre, register, meanings, and their linguistic realization GENRE Register variables Field: What is going on in the text?

Mode: How is the text organized? Tenor: What is the relationship between reader/writer or speaker/listener? How are attitudes expressed?

Linguistic resources that realize meaning Ideational meaning • Participants (who and what is done) + process (verb) + circumstances (how, where, when, with whom the process was done) • Elements of cohesion Textual meaning • Old and new information • Cohesive devices (e.g., conjunctions) Interpersonal meaning • Type of clauses: declarative, imperative, and interrogative • Evaluative language

Based on Halliday and Matthiessen (2014), Martin (1997), and White (2001).

grammar) in response to the sociocultural purpose of the communication (i.e., genre) and the situational context (i.e., register). The models for spoken genres in this book (asking direction, exchange of goods and services: encounter at the produce stand, and chit-chat) lend themselves to language choices from one or more of the spoken varieties of Arabic. The models for the written genres (a note of good wishes for an occasion and a complaint) lend themselves to language choices from either the standard variety, the spoken variety/varieties, and/or a mix of the spoken and standard varieties, depending on the context of the genre. In the chapters ahead, for each genre model, the varieties deployed and the language and organizational features will be described.

Systemic functional grammar resources This section gives an overview for some of the functional lexico-grammar resources that will enable novice–intermediate learners to produce the genres in this volume. The resources express and combine ideas and experiences in the genre, organize the genre, and enable interactions with the reader or listener, as well as expressing attitudes. A more thorough explanation for each of the language features that are essential for the realization of each genre will be given in its corresponding genre chapter. An extensive explanation of SFL theory may be found in Bardi (2008) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2014). The grammatical terms used in this book are functional terms, aligning with the SFL metalinguistic terms. For example, the term process is used to express the verbs of doing, speaking, thinking, feeling, existing, and relating something to another thing.

10 Theoretical and instructional framework Resources that express and combine ideas and experiences The language resources that express ideas and experiences The clause (example 1) is the basic unit that expresses ideas and experiences. It can be declarative (i.e., stating a fact), interrogative (i.e., asking a question), or imperative (i.e., giving a command). Depending on the first element in the clause, the clause can be either verbal or nominal. In the verbal clause, the process precedes the main participant (traditionally known as verb-subjectobject [VSO]). In the nominal clause, the process follows the main participant (traditionally known as subject-verb-object [SVO]). The following are the basic elements of the clause: 1. Participant(s) is the person, thing, or concept that does the process or the person, thing, or concept that the process was done for/to. It may be identified by “who/what is involved?” The participant can be expressed by a simple noun [‫( ]ﺍﺳﻢ‬e.g., ‫ )ﺍﻟﻮﻟﺪ‬or a nominal group. The nominal group can be realized by [‫( ]ﺻﻔﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ‬e.g., ‫ )ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺐ‬or [‫ﻣﻀﺎﻑ ﻭﻣﻀﺎﻑ‬ ‫( ]ﺍﻟﻴﻪ‬e.g., ‫)ﺑﻴﺖ ﻟﻴﻠﻰ‬. In some cases, the participant(s) may be bound to the process by a morphological marking(s) (e.g., ‫ ﻳﻜﺘﺒﻬﺎ‬،‫)ﻳﻜﺘﺐ‬. 2. Process is the happening in the clause. The process can be doing (e.g., ‫ ﻳﻤﺸﻲ‬،‫)ﻳﻠﻌﺐ‬, feeling, (e.g., ‫ ﻳﺸﻌﺮ‬، ‫)ﻳﺤﺐ‬, thinking (e.g., ‫ ﻳﺘﺬﻛﺮ‬،‫)ﻳﺘﻤﻨﻰ‬, saying (e.g., ‫ ﻳﻘﻮﻝ‬، ‫)ﻳﺘﻜﻠﻢ‬, relational (e.g., ‫ ُﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑـ‬or a grammatical verb such as ‫ ﺻﺎﺭ‬،‫)ﻛﺎﻥ‬, or an existential process (e.g., ‫)ﻳﻮﺟﺪ‬. The relational clause will be further explained later in this section. 3. Circumstance is an optional element in the clause. It gives more information on how, where, when, with whom, and about whom the experience is realized. There are several types of circumstance: manner, place, time, accompaniment, and matter (usually introduced with ‫)ﻋﻦ‬.

Box 1.2 Example 1: the clause Clause Circumstance Circumstance Participant 2 Process Participant 1 Process Clause

–

‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ‬

ً ‫ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ‬

–

‫ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﺐ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺐ‬ –

–

‫ﺍﻟﻮﻟﺪ‬

‫ﺻﺪﻳﻖ ﻟﻴﻠﻰ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ‬

‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬ –

Verbal

1

Nominal 2

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 11

Example 2: relational clause Relational Clause Attribute

Process

‫ﺷﺠﺎﻉ‬ – ‫ﺍﻟﺸﺠﺎﻉ‬ ‫ﻌﺮﻑ ﺑـ‬ َ ‫ُﻳ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻅﻒ‬ – ‫ﻁﻼﺏ ﻋﺮﺏ‬ – ‫ﻭﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﻮﻥ‬

Participant

Grammatical verb

‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ ‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺏ‬ –

‫ﻛﺎﻥ‬ – – –

Circumstance Clause

– – – ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ‬

3 4 5 6

The relational clause (Example 2), whose meaning is to assign a characteristic or an identity to the participant, may be expressed in a variety of ways. The relational clause may include a grammatical verb [‫( ]ﻓﻌﻞ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ‬clause 3) acting as the main process, such as ‫ ﻛﺎﻥ‬and ‫ﺃﺻﺒﺢ‬, it may include a process (simple verb or verbal group) that realizes a relation (e.g., ‫ﻌﺮﻑ‬ َ ‫ ُﻳ‬in clause 4), or the relational clause may be verbless (Bardi, 2008). In the relational verbless nominal clause, the clause may include an attribute (clause 5) describing the participant or a circumstance assigning a location to the participant (clause 6). In this book, the verbless type is referred to as a relational verbless nominal clause. Language resources that combine ideas and experiences Some of the resources that combine ideas are conjunctions, such as ‫ ﻷﻥ‬، ‫ ﻭ‬، ‫ ﻟــ‬،‫ﻑ‬. The function for some of these resources will be explained as related to the different genres in the chapters ahead. Such resources combine clauses to make a clause complex. Language resources that organize the genre The language resources that realize the organization of the genre are the “theme” and the “new”. The “theme” is the first part of the clause, which expresses the topic of the clause, and the “new” is the second part of the clause, which expresses the message of the clause or the new information. The “theme” is the first participant, process, or circumstance in the clause. The “new” is the rest of the clause. For example, in written genres, some parts of the text could be organized by having the same “theme” in every clause (linear thematic progression), such as Example 4; Ramy [‫ ]ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬is the theme

12 Theoretical and instructional framework either explicitly stated, referred to by the pronoun ‫ ﻫﻮ‬or by a morphological marking on the verb, as in “‫ ”ﻳـ‬in the verbs ‫ ﻳﺴﻜﻦ‬and ‫ﻳﺪﺭﺱ‬. Another organization is a zig-zag fashion, in which the “new” of the first clause becomes the “theme” of the second clause (Example 5). Organizing the text contributes to the cohesiveness of the genre.

Example 4: linear thematic progression

‫ ﻳﺴﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻣﺸﻖ ﻣﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻩ ﻭﻭﺍﻟﺪﺗﻪ ﻭﻳﺪﺭﺱ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺩﻣﺸﻖ‬.‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ ﻁﺎﻟﺐ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻲ‬ .‫ﻭﻫﻮ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ‬ Example 5: zig-zag organization

.‫راﻣﻲ ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪرﺳﺔ‬ .‫ﻋﻤﻠﮫ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺳﺎﻋﺎت طﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬ .‫ﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﮫ ﯾﺪرس وﯾﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻄﻼب‬ In spoken genres, cohesiveness is mainly established through lexical (i.e., words) referencing (explained in Chapter 3). In most cases, words may be omitted when implied from the context of the conversation. Language resources that enable interactions with the reader/interlocutor The language resources that realize interpersonal meaning are: (1) the expression of the clause as a statement realizing a fact, a command realizing authority or information from a more knowledgeable person, or a question realizing a request for information or inviting an interlocutor in a conversation and (2) the evaluative language that expresses feelings, judgements of behaviors, or negative/positive appraisals of a person, concept, or thing (Example 6). These attitudinal resources maybe be expressed using a variety of language resources, which will be further explained as related to each genre in the genre chapters.

Example 6 Expressing feelings: ‫ﺃﺣﺐ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬ Judgment of behavior: ‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺳﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻁﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬ Appraisal of concept, people, or things: ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺐ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ‬

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 13

Background on teaching Arabic as a world language Traditionally, teaching Arabic meant only teaching the standard variety of the language known as either Fusha or Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), with a focus on grammatical drills isolated from any context. After the spread of the communicative approach (Littlewood, 1985) to teaching world languages, the goal became to teach to communicate in real-life situations and to achieve a communicative competence (Richards, 2006). Communicative competence is defined as knowing what language to use to achieve the purpose of the communication depending on the communicators involved, the channel of communication (written or spoken), and the relationship (e.g., formal/informal or close/far) between the communicators. This shift, from a grammar-based approach to a communicative approach, when applied to Arabic (a multiglossic language), necessitated instructions that reflect the sociocultural use of the language. This gave rise to the integrative approach (Al-Batal, 2018; Younes, 2015), where both the standard variety and one spoken variety are taught. This trend was highlighted in popular language book series, such as the Arabiyyat Al-Naas series (Younes & Al-Masri, 2014; Younes & Chami, 2014; Younes, Weatherspoon, & Foster, 2014) and Alkitaab fii Ta’allum al-Arabiyya series (Brustad, Al-Batal, & Al-Tonsi, 2011a, 2011b). These books are widely embraced by high schools and universities in the United States, in Europe, and in institutions in Arabic-speaking countries where Arabic is taught as a world language. These textbooks paved the road for the integrative approach to teaching Arabic and have been supporting the field of teaching Arabic as a world language for years. Nevertheless, it is time to build on this approach and introduce one that reflects the new reality of Arabic and adopts the view of “Arabic as one”. The genre pedagogy informed by SFL (which contextualizes teaching, learning, and assessment) and advanced in this book aims to do so by explicitly describing the relationship between the genre, language choices in the genre, and the cultural and situational contexts in which the genre unfolds. The strengths of this pedagogy are that it is informed by the SFL discourse analyses of texts, which reveal the language variety/varieties and language choices deployed in the genres. Genre-based approaches have been criticized as approaches that inhibit students’ creativity (e.g., Kay & Dudley-Evans, 1998). In response to these critics, it is important to highlight that an SFL-informed genre-based approach is grounded in linguistic elements that realize the genre, and these elements are taught as social contextualized practices expressed in language choices and not as formulaic language (Schleppegrell, 2004). The sections ahead give background on contextualized instruction, followed by an explanation for the link between the genre pedagogy and the standards, and end with a description of the pedagogical model used.

14 Theoretical and instructional framework Background on contextualized instruction in world language education Context is at the heart of teaching, learning, and assessment for world language teacher educators, world language educators, and Arabic language educators, as well as for Arabic language learners. In world language teacher education, nine out of the ten high-leverage teaching practices (HLTPs) identified by Glisan and Donato (2017, 2021) highlight context at the forefront of instruction, planning, and assessment. HLTPs are the tasks and activities that are essential for beginner teachers to learn how to enact in their own practice and are recognized as essential for teachers to consider in order to meet the national standards (Troyan, 2021b; Troyan, Davin, & Donato, 2013; Troyan & Sembiante, 2021). In world language education, attention has been given to contextualizing instruction. One remarkable example is the contextualized German curricula reform that took place at the Georgetown University German Department (Byrnes, Maxim, & Norris, 2010). Byrnes and her colleagues identified the genres to be taught at every curricula level with the goal of developing students’ literacy skills in various modalities. Other examples are the studies documented in a special issue in System titled SFL Pedagogies in Language Education. Several scholars investigated genre-based pedagogical approaches to contextualize world language instruction in a varieties of languages. Their studies revealed the support that contextualize spoken (e.g., Fernández, 2021 in Italian; Herazo, 2021 in English) and written (e.g., Ryshina-Pankova, Barthold, & Barthold, 2021; Crane & Malloy, 2021 in German; Troyan, 2021a in French) genre-pedagogy provided to world language teachers and their learners. In Arabic instruction, Abdel-Malek (2019, 2020) showed how contextualized genre-based instruction (which makes the relationship between the purpose, context of the genre of recounting of habitual events, and language choices visible to students) supported beginner students’ production of culturally informed accounts. Additionally, Trentman (2018) showed that the implementation of a contextualized Arabic-inspired genre curriculum informed by ACTFL Can-Do Statements (ACTFL, 2017) for first year instruction raised students’ awareness of the sociolinguistic choices from both the modern standard and spoken varieties. As for Arabic language learners, their interest in contextualized language learning is articulated in their primary goal in studying Arabic. This goal is to communicate with speakers of the language (Al-Batal & Belnap, 2006; Husseinali, 2006) while making meaning in socially and culturally acceptable ways (Ryding, 2017). In other words, students are interested in learning Arabic in order to communicate in different sociocultural contexts. Thus, this goal entails explicitly teaching them how to deploy language resources as necessitated by the purpose and context.

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 15 Although context has received attention, there is a lack of instructional material in Arabic that contextualizes teaching, learning, and assessments (Abdel-Malek, 2019, 2020); meets students’ needs; reflects the current sociocultural reality of Arabic ( Al-Batal, 2018 ; Al-Batal & Belnap, 2006; Wahba, 2018); and meets the standards articulated in the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages World Readiness Standards for Learning Languages (as will be described in the next section) (Abdel-Malek, 2021 ; ACTFL, 2015 ; Troyan, 2021c ). Therefore, a pedagogy such as the genre pedagogy advanced in this book for teaching, learning, and assessing Arabic in context to address this void is necessary.

Arabic genre-based pedagogy motivated by the standards The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages WorldReadiness Standards for Learning Languages (W-RSLL) (ACTFL, 2015) is the major framework for world language education, including Arabic education in the United States and in several other countries. Thus, it is important to consider the framework to drive the need for Arabic genre-based pedagogy. First, the framework will be described; then the link between the framework and the contextualized Arabic genre pedagogy advanced in this book will be discussed. ACTFL World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages The ACTFL W-RSLL was developed with the goal to “create a roadmap to guide learners to develop competence to communicate effectively and interact with cultural competence to participate in multilingual communities at home and around the world” (ACTFL, 2015). Centered on the essential skills and knowledge needed for learners to be able to communicate in a language, ACTFL divides their standards into five goal areas known as the 5 Cs, and each includes two to three content areas (Table 1.2). To assess learners’ proficiency, ACTFL has developed the language proficiency guidelines (ACTFL, 2012) to describe what students can do with the language at all levels (novice, intermediate, advanced, superior, and distinguished) and in the four skills of the language (speaking, writing, listening, and reading). Aligning with the proficiency guidelines, ACTFL has described the Can-Do Statements, which are organized according to the three modes of communication (interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational) articulated in the communication goal area of the standards.

16 Theoretical and instructional framework Table 1.2 World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages Communication: Communicate effectively in more than one language in order to function in a variety of situations and for multiple purposes. Standard 1.1 Interpersonal Communication: Learners interact and negotiate meaning in spoken, signed, or written conversation to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. Standard 1.2 Interpretive Communication: Learners understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. Standard 1.3 Presentational Communication: Learners present information, concepts, and ideas to inform, explain, persuade, and narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media and adapting to various audiences of listeners, readers, or viewers. Cultures: Interact with cultural competence and understanding. Standard 2.1 Relating Cultural Practices to Perspectives: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the relationship between practices and perspectives of the cultures studied. Standard 2.2 Relating Cultural Products to Perspectives: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the relationship between the products and perspectives of the cultures studied. Connections—Connect with other disciplines and acquire information and diverse perspectives in order to use the language to function in academic and career-related situations. Standard 3.1 Making Connections: Learners build, reinforce, and expand their knowledge of other disciplines while using the language to develop critical thinking and to solve problems creatively. Standard 3.2 Acquiring Information: Learners access and evaluate information and diverse perspectives that are available through the language and its cultures. Comparisons—Develop insight into the nature of language and culture in order to interact with cultural competence. Standard 4.1 Language Comparisons: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the nature of language through comparisons of the language studied and their own. Standard 4.2 Cultural Comparisons: Learners use the language to investigate, explain, and reflect on the concept of the culture through comparisons of the cultures studied and their own. Communities—Communicate and interact with cultural competence in order to participate in multilingual communities at home and around the world. Standard 5.1 School and Global Community: Learners use the language both within and beyond the classroom to interact and collaborate in their community and the globalized world. Standard 5.2 Lifelong Learning: Learners set goals and reflect on their progress in using languages for enjoyment, enrichment, and advancement. Source: (ACTFL, 2015)

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 17 NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements The ACTFL Can-Do Statements were developed through a collaboration between the National Council of State Supervisors for Languages (NCSSFL) and the ACTFL to guide: • Language learners to identify and set learning goals and chart their progress towards language and intercultural proficiency; • Educators to write communication learning targets for curriculum, unit and lesson plans; • Stakeholders to clarify how well learners at different stages can communicate. (ACTFL, 2017, paragraph 1) The statements describe the tasks that students can accomplish at every proficiency level. The tasks reflect real-life situations and achieve a communicative purpose that enables students to use language to interpret a variety of topics; interact to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions; and present information, explain, persuade, and narrate to various audiences using different channels of communication. Accordingly, the proficiency guidelines require students to learn a variety of genres to progress in their proficiency levels. Additionally, to promote intercultural communication competence (Byram, 1997), the Can-Do Statements for intercultural competence (IC) describe learners’ cultural awareness in meeting the cultural goal articulated in the ACTFL W-RSLL. The learning goals in the Can-Do Statements for IC are to investigate products and practices (from the target culture) in order to understand perspectives and to interact with others in and from another culture. Therefore, the user of the language is required to know what to say or write, how to say or write the intended communication, and what mode of communication to use in different contexts. While the focus in world language education has been on teaching and assessing the communication goal area (Troyan, 2012), students need the knowledge of other areas (e.g., culture) to be able to successfully communicate in writing or speaking.

Linking the needs in Arabic and the ACTFL framework to the genre pedagogy The ACTFL framework articulates learning goals that reflect real-life situations, with the aim to develop leaners’ language proficiency and intercultural competence. In describing the standards, the ACTFL maintains that students

18 Theoretical and instructional framework need to learn how “relations are conducted in the cultures in which the target language is spoken, how individuals use language effectively to achieve different purposes, how discourse conventions work, how oral and written texts are structured, and how the language system operates” (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 2006, p. 40). Thus, the ACTFL underscores the importance of knowing how language makes meaning in various spoken and written types of text (i.e., genres) to achieve the intended purpose of the communication in the culture. The ACTFL also acknowledges the importance of knowing how language works in these texts. Connecting the NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements to the two concepts (genre and register) (Figure 1.1), the statements address the intercultural communicative competence. This competence is fundamental to these two concepts and to the view of Arabic, a multiglossic language, as one, which informs the pedagogy in this book. To explain this connection further and to work toward language proficiency and intercultural communicative competence, students

Contextualized genre pedagogy

ACTFL goals: Can-do statements Genre: Spoken/written texts in the culture

Register Real-life situations

Language resources from ‘Arabic as one’

Figure 1.1 Connection between ACTFL framework and genre pedagogy

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 19 should know which genre to use for various sociocultural purposes and what linguistic resources are available to them to deploy from the standard variety and at least one spoken variety in varied situations. Therefore, it is imperative to choose a pedagogy that contextualizes instruction. In contextualized pedagogy, the features of the spoken and written genres and the language choices from the language varieties, in response to sociocultural situations, must be made explicit to the students. The SFL-based genre pedagogy for written and spoken genres proposed in this book will fulfill these needs. The next section describes the planning, assessment, and instruction of this approach for teaching spoken and written genres.

Genre-based approach to backward design The genre-based approach to backward design advanced by Troyan (2021b) will inform the outline of the genre-based pedagogy in this volume. This approach to backward design uses the genre as the initial point for planning in the three-step framework of planning, assessment, and instruction originally developed by Wiggins and McTigh (2005), which includes: 1. Identifying desired results—this step is used to articulate the instructional goals for each genre (a) in the Can-Do Statements and (b) in the features of the genre. a. The Can-Do Statements (Table 1.3) describe the overall goal for what learners can do related to the genre and to the level of proficiency. The statements also describe the intercultural goals for investigating products and practices from the target culture to understand cultural perspectives and for interacting with others in and from another culture. b. The features of the genre are articulated in the stages, purpose of each stage, and language features for each stage. Table 1.3 Can-Do Statements Can-Do Statement type

What students can do . . . (the task students can do)

Proficiency level

What students can do at the targeted proficiency level Investigate products and practices to understand perspectives Interact with people in the culture

Intercultural Can-Do Statement

Investigate Interact

2. Determining assessment evidence—this step is used to articulate the genre criteria (Table 1.4), which are informed by features of the genre, that were revealed from the SFL discourse analysis of the text. The genre-based

20 Theoretical and instructional framework assessment (Brisk, 2015; Humphrey, 2016) criteria for evaluation range from 0–3: 0 = the stage is not available, 1 = major revisions are needed to include the features of the stage, 2 = some revisions are needed to include the features of the stage, and 3 = the features of the stage are met. The criteria are used by teachers to provide feedback for students and by students for self and peer assessment. Table 1.4 Checklist for assessment purposes Stages and language features

How did the author do? 0 1 2 3 Comments:

3. Planning learning activities—this step is used to describe the instructional activities based on the pedagogical model, called the teaching/learning cycle.

The pedagogical model for the written and spoken genres The teaching/learning cycle (TLC) (Callaghan & Rothery, 1988; Rothery, 1994; Martin & Rose, 2008; Rose & Martin, 2012) is the genre-based pedagogical model informing the instructional resources for the spoken and written genres in this volume. Using the text as the unit of instruction, this genre-based approach (GBA) explicitly makes connections between the purpose of the text (i.e., genre), the context of the situation (i.e., register, which includes the topic, the relationship between interlocutors, and the mode of communication), and the lexicogrammatical resources that realize the genre (Achugar, Schleppegrell, & Oteiza, 2007; Derewianka & Jones, 2016; Schleppegrell et al., 2014). Additionally, GBA promotes cultural awareness because it explicitly explains how language in texts make meaning in different situations to achieve the purpose in the culture where the genre unfolds. For instance, in the written note of good wishes, students become aware of how language may be used to convey good wishes depending on the celebrated occasion in Arab cultures and the relationship between the sender and the receiver. Another example is the spoken service encounter genre, in which students become aware of the language choices they may deploy to inquire about and purchase goods. The TLC (Figure 1.2) includes four main phases: building the content, de-construction, co-construction, and independent construction. Putting the genre in context and assessing students’ work occurs throughout the cycle. The phases of the TLC are represented in a circle to highlight the possibility of starting at any point in the cycle and going back or forth

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 21 • Students independently author a text that includes the features of the genre

• Teacher introduces students to the content and cultural aspects that support them in authoring a genre

Independent construction of the genre

Building the content

Assessing students’ progress and putting genre in context

Coconstruction of the genre • Students and their teacher co-author a text that includes all the features of the genre

Deconstruction of the genre • Teacher makes the features of the genre obvious to students • Students practice the features of the genre

Figure 1.2 Teaching/learning cycle based on Rose and Martin (2012) and Derewianka and Jones (2016)

depending on students’ level and the instructional goals. This cycle adapts the notion of guidance through interaction in the context of shared experience. This view resonates with Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and Wood, Bruner, and Ross’s (1976) concept of scaffolding. For Vygotsky, development happens when it is mediated by cultural semiotics (e.g., language) with the help of a more experienced person (e.g., the teacher or a peer). The role of the teacher is to help learners expand their meaning-making potential to enable them to produce new written or spoken genres (Derewianka, 2003). In other words, teachers help students see the possible language choices available to them when constructing a genre. Phase 1: building the content Building the content is the initial phase in the TLC. The main objective of this phase is to prepare students to work with the topic. Through class discussions, activities, videos, podcasts, and other media, students are introduced to the content they will need to be able to produce the intended spoken/written genre in varied situations. This phase can be revisited when needed at any time during the cycle.

22 Theoretical and instructional framework Phase 2: deconstruction of the genre In the deconstruction phase of the TLC, the stages, language, and organizational features of the written or spoken genre and the language variety/ varieties deployed as related to the context are made noticeable to students. Additionally, students are made aware of the choices from the spoken and/or standard varieties of the language needed for the genre and related to the context of situation. Students are also given the opportunity to practice the features of the genre. This phase is instrumental to students. Knowing about the essential, optional, and recursive stages of the genre and how language works to achieve the purpose of the genre (for a situation in a culture) will help students develop knowledge of the genre, cultural awareness, and prediction for the stages of different genres. This knowledge will assist students in their own written and spoken interactions beyond the genre being studied. It is in this phase that the teacher orients students to the assessment checklist. In the following chapters, instructional activities are described to practice the features of spoken and written genres. Depending on students’ needs, the teacher may also create other activities guided by the features of each genre. Phase 3: co-construction of the genre During this phase, the teacher and students collaboratively construct a text clause by clause from the same genre in response to a contextualized prompt. The teacher asks questions, recasts, rephrases, and elaborates on students’ answers, as well as suggesting language to be used before deciding on the final clause. The students ask questions, construct clauses or part of clauses, and elaborate on other clauses suggested by their peers. It is important in this phase, similar to the previous phase, to relate the language choices made to the context of the genre. Moreover, during co-construction of the genre, the teacher and students refer to the assessment checklist associated with the genre being studied. A class conversation such as the following may take place between the teacher (T) and her students (S) during the co-construction of a written note for good wishes, situated in an email from a nephew to his uncle on the occasion of the uncle’s birthday. T: S1: T: T: S2: T: S3: T:

What is the second stage of this genre The writer greets the receiver of the note Sure. So that is the purpose of the stage How do you (the sender) greet your uncle who will receive the note

‫ﺳﻼﻡ‬

Is that enough? You have to ask how he is doing? Yes (to student S3). Would you like to try?

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 23 S3: T:

‫ﻛﻴﻒ ﺣﺎﻟﻚ؟‬ ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺣﺎﻟﻚ؟‬.‫ ﺳﻼﻡ‬is this how you would address your uncle? What relationship do you have with him, formal or informal?

Phase 4: the independent construction of the genre In this phase, students independently author their own text for the same genre in response to a contextualized prompt. The texts may undergo several drafts after self and peer assessment.

Spoken and written genres in this volume The next five chapters describe the planning, assessment, and instructional activities for three spoken genres: asking for/giving directions, an exchange of goods and services, and chit-chat, and two written genres, a note of good wishes for an occasion and a complaint. Each of the chapters starts with contextualized transcribed models for the genre (teachers are encouraged to record the models for each of the spoken genres). Then, following the three steps of the genre-based backward design for planning instruction, (1) the instructional goals are articulated in the Can-Do Statements and in the essential features of the genre, (2) the assessment criteria that are informed by the organizational and language features of the genre are outlined, and (3) the instructional activities during the teaching/learning cycle are described. At the end of every chapter is the teaching implications section. In this section, some of the language functions that were taught in the chapter and are transferrable to other genres are listed.

Conclusion The contextualized pedagogical approach to teaching, learning, and assessment of the spoken and written Arabic genres in this book is informed by systemic functional linguistics and genre theory. This pedagogy adopts the view of “Arabic as one”. SFL, genre, and the associated instructional model (i.e., TLC) support teachers in making explicit to their students the language resources needed to achieve the purpose of the different genres in various situations. As students become more proficient in Arabic, they will have more linguistic resources from the spoken and standard varieties at their disposal to make meaning in order to speak and write for different purposes and in varied situations.

References Abdel-Malek, M. (2019). Writing recounts of habitual events: Investigating a genrebased approach. Foreign Language Annals, 52(2), 373–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/ flan.12383

24 Theoretical and instructional framework Abdel-Malek, M. (2020). Empowering Arabic learners to make meaning: A genre-based approach. System, 94, 102329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102329 Abdel-Malek, M. (2021). A genre-based approach to teaching and assessing the recount of habitual events in Arabic. In F. J. Troyan (Ed.), Genre in world language education: Contextualized assessment and learning. New York: Routledge. Abu-Melhim, A. (1992). Communication across Arabic dialects: Code-switching and linguistic accommodation in informal conversational interactions (Order No. 9300386). Retrieved from http://pitt.idm.oclc.org/login?url=www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/ communication-across-arabic-dialects-code/docview/304073891/se-2 AbuTare, M. (2003, June 9). ‫[ ﻳﻮﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ‬A day in the life of the king]. Retrieved June 9, 2020, from www.addustour.com/articles/741755- ‫ﺃﺍﻟﺼﺤﻒ ﻭﻳﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻓﻄﺎﺭﻩ ﻓﻲ‬

‫>ﻳﻮﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻳﺒﺪﺃ ﺑﻔﻨﺠﺎﻥ ﻗﻬﻮﺓ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﻬﻲ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻞ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻔﺎﺕ< ﻳﺴﺘﻴﻘﻆ ﺑﺎﻛﺮﺍ ﻳﻘﺮ‬ !‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻛﺔ‬

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Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 25 Brustad, K., Al-Batal, M., & Al-Tonsi, A. (2011a). Al-kitaab fii ta’allum al-arabiyya: Part One (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Brustad, K., Al-Batal, M., & Al-Tonsi, A. (2011b). Al-kitaab fii Ta’allum al-Arabiyya: Part two (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Byrnes, H., Maxim, H. H., & Norris, J. M. (2010). Realizing advanced foreign language writing development in collegiate education: Curricular design, pedagogy, assessment. The Modern Language Journal, 94, I–235. Callaghan, M., & Rothery, J. (1988). Teaching factual writing: A genre-based approach. Sydney, Australia: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Christie, F., & Unsworth, L. (2005). Developing socially responsible language research. In L. Unsworth (Ed.), Researching language in schools and communities: Functional linguistic perspectives (pp. 1–26). London: Continuum International Company. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crane, C., & Malloy, M. (2021). The development of temporal-spatial meaning in personal recounts of beginning L2 writers of German. System, 99, 102498. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.system.2021.102498 de Oliveira, L. C., & Lan, S. (2014). Writing science in an upper elementary classroom: A genre-based approach to teaching English language learners. Journal of Second Language Writing, 25, 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2014.05.001 Derewianka, B. (2003). Trends and issues in genre-based approaches. RELC, 34(2), 133–154. Derewianka, B., & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. Eggins, S. (1994). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Continuum. Ferguson, C. A. (1959). Diglossia. Word, 15(2), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/004 37956.1959.11659702 Ferguson, C. A. (1996). Epilogue: Diglossia revisited. In A. Elgibali (Ed.), Understanding Arabic: Essays in contemporary Arabic linguistics in honor of El-Said Badawi (pp. 49–68). Cairo: American University of Cairo Press. Fernández, L. (2021). Teaching the concept of typified situation to promote foreign language interaction in classroom instruction and study abroad. System, 98, 102473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102473 Glisan, E. W., & Donato, R. (2017). Enacting the work of language instruction: High leverage teaching practices. Alexandria, VA: ACTFL. Glisan, E., & Donato, R. (2021). Enacting the work of foreign language instruction: High leverage teaching practices, Volume II. Alexandria, VA: ACTFL. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, context, and text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

26 Theoretical and instructional framework Hasan, R. (1996). Literacy every day talk and society. In R. Hasan & G. Williams (Eds.), Literacy in society (pp. 377–424). New York, NY: Longman. Herazo, J. D. (2021). Mediating spoken meaning-making in genre-based lessons: The role of metalinguistic concepts. System, 96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102398 Humphrey, S. (2016). Academic literacies in the middle years. New York, NY: Routledge. Husseinali, G. (2006). Who is studying Arabic and why? A survey of Arabic students’ orientations at a major university. Foreign Language Annals, 39(3), 395–412. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2006.tb02896.x Kay, H., & Dudley-Evans, T. (1998). Genre: What teachers think. ELT Journal, 52(4), 308–313. Khalil, S. (2022). Writing in the digital age: Towards a theoretical framework. New York, NY: Routledge. Linguistic Society of America. (2016). Guidelines for inclusive language. Retrieved October 15, 2021, from www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/guidelines-inclusive-language Littlewood, W. (1985). Communicative language teaching: An introduction. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Martin, J. R. (1997). Analysing genre: Functional parameters. In F. Christie & J. R. Martin (Eds.), Genre and institutions: Special process in the workplace and school (pp. 3–39). London: Cassell. Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2008). Genre relations: Mapping culture. London: Equinox. Mitchell, T. F. (1986). What is educated spoken Arabic? International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 61, 7–32. National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (2006). Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ACTFL. Palincsar, A. S., & Schleppegrell, M. J. (2014). Focusing on language and meaning while learning with text. TESOL Quarterly, 48(3), 616–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.178 Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Römer, U., & Schulze, R. (2009). Exploring lexis-grammar interface. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamin Publishing Company. Rose, D., & Martin, J. R. (2012). Learning to write, reading to learn. Bristol, CT: Equinox. Rothery, J. (1994). Exploring literacy in school English (Write it right resources for literacy and learning). Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Ryding, K. C. (2006). Teaching Arabic in the United States. In K. M. Whaba, Z. A. Taha, & L. England (Eds.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (pp. 13–20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ryding, K. C. (2017). Teaching Arabic in the United States II. In K. M. Wahba, L. England, & Z. A. Taha (Eds.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (Vol. 2, pp. 11–20). New York, NY: Routledge. Ryshina-Pankova, M., Barthold, W., & Barthold, E. (2021). Enhancing the content- and language-integrated multiple literacies framework: Systemic functional linguistics for teaching regional diversity. System, 96, 102403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system. 2020.102403 Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Schleppegrell, M. J., Moore, J., Al-Adeimi, S., O’Hallron, C. L., Palincsar, A. S., & Symons, C. (2014). Tackling a genre: Situating SFL genre pedagogy in a new context. In L. C. de Oliveira & J. Iddings (Eds.), Genre pedagogy across curriculum (pp. 26–39). Bristol, CT: Equinox.

Genre pedagogy for Arabic instruction and link to standards 27 Soliman, R. (2012). Arabic cross-dialectal conversations: A missing element in the teaching of Arabic as a second language. In V. Aguilar (Ed.), Arabele2012: Teaching and Learning the Arabic Language (pp. 115–133). Madrid, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia. Soliman, R. (2018). The implementation of the common European framework of reference for the teaching and learning of Arabic as a second language in higher education. In K. M. Wahba, L. England, & Z. A. Taha (Eds.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (Vol. 2, pp. 118–137). New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315676111 Taha, Z. A. (2018). Syntactic variation in modern written Arabic. In K. M. Wahba, L. England, & Z. A. Taha (Eds.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (pp. 70–88). New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781315676111.ch6 Taha, Z. A. (2020). The continuum model in changing sociolinguistic reality. In Revisiting of contemporary Arabic in Egypt: Essays on Arabic varieties in memory of El-said Badawi (pp. 1–18). New York, NY: The American University in Cairo Press. Trentman, E. (2018). Developing a genre-based approach curriculum to teach Arabic diglossia. In M. Al-Batal (Ed.), Arabi\c as one language: Integrating dialect in the Arabic language curriculum (pp. 114–133). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Troyan, F. J. (2012). Research on the national standard: Defining the constructs and researching learner outcomes. Foreign Language Annals, 45(Summer), s118–s140. Troyan, F. J. (2021a). “Alors, on va faire une activité”: An SFL perspective on student engagement in contextualized world language instruction. System, 98, 102483. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102483 Troyan, F. J. (2021b). Genre in contextualized world language assessment and learning. In F. J. Troyan (Ed.), Genre in world language education: Contextualized assessment and learning (pp. 4–32). New York, NY: Routledge. Troyan, F. J. (Ed.). (2021c). Genre in world language education: Contextualized assessment and learning. New York, NY: Routledge. Troyan, F. J., Davin, K. J., & Donato, R. (2013). Exploring a Practice-Based Approach to Foreign Language Teacher Preparation: A Work in Progress. Canadian Modern Language Review, 69(2), 154–180. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.1523 Troyan, F. J., & Sembiante, S. F. (2021). Developing critical functional linguistic knowledge base for world language teachers. In F. J. Troyan (Ed.), Genre in world language education: Contextualized assessment and learning (pp. 32–61). New York, NY: Routledge. United Nation. (2020). ‫ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ‬/‫ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻻﻭﻝ‬۱۸ ‫ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬. Retrieved September 3, 2021, from www.un.org/ar/observances/arabiclanguageday/ Ventola, E. (1987). The structure of social interaction: A systemic approach to the semiotics of service encounters. London: Pinter. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wahba, M. K. (2018). Materials development in Arabic language learning and teaching. In K. M. Wahba, L. England, & Z. A. Taha (Eds.), Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals in the 21st century (Vol. 2, pp. 212–252). New York, NY: Routledge. White, P. R. R. (2001). The appraisal website. Retrieved April 20, 2015, from www. grammatics.cpm/appraisal/ Wiggins, G. P., & McTigh, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

28 Theoretical and instructional framework Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(September 1974), 89–100. World Population Review. (2021). Arabic speaking countries 2021. Retrieved September 3, 2021, from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/arabicspeaking-countries Younes, M. (2015). The integrated approach to Arabic instruction. London: Routledge. Younes, M., & Al-Masri, H. (2014). Arabiyyat al-naas, part 2. London: Routledge. Younes, M., & Chami, Y. (2014). Arabiyyat al-naas, part 3. London: Routledge. Younes, M., Weatherspoon, M., & Foster, M. (2014). Arabiyyat al-naas, part 1. London: Routledge.

Part II

Spoken genres

2

Exchange of information Asking for/giving directions

‫إﻋﻄﺎء اﻻﺗﺠﺎھﺎت‬/ ‫اﻻﺳﺘﻔﺴﺎر ﻋﻦ اﻻﺗﺠﺎھﺎت‬ This chapter describes the planning, assessment, and instructional activities for the exchange of information genre situated in asking for/giving directions.

Model for asking for/giving directions The spoken interaction between two people asking for/giving directions is frequent. In some Arabic-speaking countries, a considerable number of streets lack formal names, making it difficult to use common mapping tools. Therefore, it is common practice when lost or unsure of how to reach a destination to ask for directions. It follows that for Arabic learners, the exchange of information genre situated in asking for/giving directions is important to learn at the beginner level. The following transcribed models for asking for/giving directions represent contextualized situations in which the inquirer asks another person (referred to as a respondent) for directions. The interlocutors may be unfamiliar with each other in such interactions, but for the sake of clarity, the two people involved in the conversation have been given names. All the situations call for the use of one or more of the spoken variety/varieties. The Jordanian variety will be used here as an example. The teacher is encouraged to record the model texts before instruction. Model 1 Context: Rami was lost on his way to Al-Amal pharmacy. He asks Hussam, a passerby who is about his age, for directions.

‫ ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬،‫ ﻳﺎ ﺃﺥ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ (Hussam looks at Sam, acknowledging the call) ‫ ﻭﻳﻦ ﺻﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﻞ؟‬،‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ DOI: 10.4324/9781003193265-4

32 Spoken genres

‫ ﺍﻣﺸﻲ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ‬،‫ ﺍﻣﺸﻲ ﺩﻏﺮﻱ ﻭﺃﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ‬. . . ‫ ﺍﻣﻤﻤﻢ‬:‫ﺣﺴﺎﻡ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬،‫ﻣﺘﺮ‬۱۰۰ ‫ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ؟‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ ‫ ﺍﻳﻮﺓ‬:‫ﺣﺴﺎﻡ‬ ‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ ﺍﺧﻲ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ Model 2 Context: Jeanette wanted to drive to the phone store to buy a SIM card. She used her car navigation system, which took her to the wrong location. Jeanette stops her car on the side of the street and asks Samer, who is much older than she is, for directions. Samer cannot help.

‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺃﻭﺻﻞ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﺎﺕ؟‬،‫ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻀﻠﻚ ﻋﻤﻲ‬:‫ﺟﺎﻧﻴﺖ‬ . . . ‫ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬. . . . ‫ ﺍﻩ‬:‫ﺳﺎﻣﺮ‬ .‫ﺻﺪﻗﻲ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺮﻑ‬ Model 3 Context: On her way to the supermarket, Jamila thinks she took a wrong turn, so she stops Noor, who is younger than she is, to ask for directions.

‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺩﻳﺔ؟‬.‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺘﻲ‬:‫ﺟﻤﻴﻠﺔ‬ ‫ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻭﺧﺬﻱ ﺗﺎﻟﺖ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬۲۰۰ ‫ ﺇﻣﺸﻲ‬،‫ ﺧﺬﻱ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬:‫ﻧﻮﺭ‬. (waves her hand as a sign to thank Noor) :‫ﺟﻤﻴﻠﺔ‬ Genre-based approach to backward design This section is informed by the three steps of the genre-based approach to backward design explained in Chapter 1. In step one, the desired instructional goals are expressed in the Can-Do Statements and in the essential features of the genre; in step two, the assessment criteria are outlined; and in step three, the instructional activities during the teaching/learning cycle are described. Step one: identifying desired results The instructional goals for the exchange of information genre situated in asking for/giving directions are expressed in Can-Do Statements and in the language features of the genre that realize the purpose of each stage as well as the genre as a whole.

Exchange of information 33 Identifying Can-Do Statements The Can-Do Statements in Table 2.1 articulate the learning goals in terms of what students should be able to do at the end of instruction.

Table 2.1 Can-Do Statements for the genre of asking for/giving directions Can-Do Statement type Novice–intermediate Intercultural Can-Do Statement

What students can do Investigate

Interact

I can ask for/give directions I can compare whom to ask and how to ask for directions in my own culture to whom to ask and how to ask for directions in the Arab culture(s) I can ask for and give directions to people from different age groups, including individuals with authority, in a way that uses language that is culturally informed

(1) Identifying the features of the genre Asking for/giving directions is realized in several stages that are required, optional, or recurrent, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The essential stages are denoted by a square shape and the optional ones by an oval shape. The interaction may start with an optional greeting, followed by a request for information about directions to a certain location. The subsequent stage, request information, is an essential stage in which the respondent may either give directions or decline to give information. The request for information stage and the provide information stage could be repeated for several exchanges. Last, the interaction may end up with an expression of appreciation in the gratitude stage. (2) Identifying language features of the genre Table 2.2 depicts the stages of the genre, their purposes, and the language features for each stage. The table refers to the model texts to show some of the possible language choices from the Jordanian spoken variety as related to the context of the situation. These choices are not representative of all the possible choices but are examples of some of the choices that a beginner learner could deploy. Additionally, the choices apply to language from other spoken varieties. The language choices are discussed in more detail in the instructional activities section of this chapter.

34 Spoken genres Start

Greetings

Request for info

Decline to give info

Provide info

Gratitude required

Stop optional

Figure 2.1 Flowchart for the stages of asking for/giving directions genre

Step two: determine acceptable evidence—genre criteria The assessment criteria articulated in Table 2.3 for the exchange of information genre situated in asking for/giving directions are informed by the features of the genre. Step three: instructional activities The instructional activities follow the four phases of the teaching/learning cycle explained in Chapter 1. Phase 1: building the content This phase takes place at the start of the teaching/learning cycle; however, the teacher may return to it at any point during the cycle. The goal of this phase is for the teacher to familiarize students with cultural and content knowledge related to asking for/giving directions in the following ways: 1. Introducing the individuals to whom the inquirer would ask for directions, such as a passerby, a seller at the neighborhood store, or a policeman.

Table 2.2 Stages, purpose, and language features of each stage of the genre Model 1 Stage: Opening (optional but preferable) Purpose: The inquirer draws the attention of the respondent

Model 2

‫ ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬،‫ ﻳﺎ ﺃﺥ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬

(Hussam looks at Rami, :‫ﺣﺴﺎﻡ‬ acknowledging the call)

Model 3

‫ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻀﻠﻚ ﻋﻤﻲ‬:‫ﺟﺎﻧﻴﺖ‬

• ‫ ﻳﺎ‬to address respondent + noun expressing metaphorical relation • Formulaic greeting

• Formulaic expressions to draw the attention of the respondent • Noun expressing a title or a metaphorical relationship between the respondent and the inquirer

Stage: Request information Purpose: The inquirer asks for information about a location

‫ ﻭﻳﻦ ﺻﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﻞ؟‬،‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬

‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺃﻭﺻﻞ ﻟﻤﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﺎﺕ؟‬:‫ﺟﺎﻧﻴﺖ‬

Language features

• Question form indicating an inquiry about a location using the particles (‫)ﻭﻳﻦ‬+ name of location

Stage: Provide or decline to give information Purpose: The respondent gives directions on how to reach a location to the inquirer

‫ ﺧﺬ‬،‫ ﺍﻣﺸﻲ ﺩﻏﺮﻱ‬. . . ‫ ﺍﻣﻤﻤﻢ‬:‫ﺣﺴﺎﻡ‬ ‫ﻭﺃﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺎﻧﻲ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬ ‫ ﺍﻣﺸﻲ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬،‫ﻣﺘﺮ‬۱۰۰ ‫ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ؟‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬ ‫ ﺍﻳﻮﺓ‬:‫ﺣﺴﺎﻡ‬

• A question using the particle ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ‬+ verb that expresses movement (e.g., ‫ ﺃﺭﻭﺡ‬،‫ )ﺃﻭﺻﻞ‬+ prepositional phrase for location N/A

• Formulaic expressions to draw the attention of the respondent

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺩﻳﺔ؟‬ • Relational verbless nominal clause with questioning intonation including destination or location

،‫ ﺧﺬﻱ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬:‫ﻧﻮﺭ‬ ‫ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻭﺧﺬﻱ ﺗﺎﻟﺖ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬۲۰۰ ‫ﺇﻣﺸﻲ‬ .‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬

(Continued)

Exchange of information 35

Language features

‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺘﻲ‬:‫ﺟﻤﻴﻠﺔ‬

Table 2.2 (Continued) Model 1 • A command implying information from a more knowledgeable person: imperative doing process + direction • Imperative doing verb may be omitted (indicated with brackets) • Direction: nominal group (ordinal number + type of street) (e.g., ‫ )ﺍﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬+ circumstance of place expressed in prepositional phrase • The final location: relational verbless nominal clause (name of destination + circumstance of place)

Purpose: The respondent declines to give information

N/A

Language features

N/A

Stage: Gratitude (optional) Purpose: The inquirer thanks the respondent for the given information Language features

Model 3 N/A

. . . ‫ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬. . . . ‫ ﺍﻩ‬:‫ﺳﺎﻣﺮ‬  ‫ﺑﻌﺮﻑ‬ . ‫ﺻﺪﻗﻲ ﻣﺎ‬ • Thinking verb with the omitted inquirer as the thinker [‫]ﺇﻧﺖ‬ (optional) • Negated declarative sentence in the present tense that includes a knowing verb (e.g., ‫ ﻣﺎ ﺑﺘﺬﻛﺮ‬،‫)ﻣﺎ ﺑﺪﺭﻱ‬

• Same as model 1

N/A

N/A

‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ ﺍﺧﻲ‬:‫ﺭﺍﻣﻲ‬

N/A

(Jameela waves her hand as sign of thanks)

• Formulaic thanks + noun expressing a title or a metaphorical relation between the respondent and inquirer (optional)

N/A

N/A

36 Spoken genres

Language features

Model 2

Exchange of information 37 Table 2.3 Assessment criteria for asking for/giving directions Features of the genre

How did the conversation go?

Opening (optional): Did the inquirer draw the respondent’s attention using • formulaic greeting expressions? AND/OR • [‫]ﻳﺎ‬+ noun expressing a title or a metaphorical relation between the respondent and inquirer? AND/OR • formulaic opening to initiate an interaction?

0123 Comments:

Request information: Did the inquirer ask for directions using • a question form indicating an inquiry of a location (‫ )ﻭﻳﻦ‬+ the intended location (place, store, etc.)? OR • a question form ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ‬+ a verb showing movement + prepositional phrase for location?

0123 Comments:

Provide information: Did the respondent give information to the inquirer using • a command with imperative doing process ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺃﻣﺮ‬+ directions? AND/OR • a command with an omitted imperative + directions? AND/OR • a relational verbless nominal clause including name of place + location?

0123 Comments:

OR Decline to give information: Did the respondent deny giving information using • a negated declarative verbal clause which includes a knowing verb?

0123 Comments:

Gratitude (optional): Did the inquirer thank the respondent using • formulaic thank you expressions + noun expressing a title or a metaphorical relation between the respondent and inquirer (optional)?

0123 Comments:

2. Introducing nouns to address a stranger and explaining how the choice for the nouns depends on age difference and authority status (e.g., policeman). For example, in model 1, even though the interlocutors did not know each other, the inquirer addresses the respondent, who is close in age to him, with a metaphorical relationship “‫”ﺃﺥ‬. In model 2, because the inquirer is much younger than the respondent, the respondent was addressed by “‫”ﻋﻤﻲ‬. 3. Familiarizing students with the landmarks, shops, and places that are commonly visited (e.g., ‫ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺳﻴﺎﺣﻲ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻬﻮﺓ‬،‫ ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ‬،‫ ﺩﻛﺎﻥ‬،‫)ﺻﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ‬.

38 Spoken genres 4. Familiarizing students with common locations of stores or businesses (e.g., pharmacies could be in residential areas or in city centers). 5. Introducing students to the types of streets, which the teacher illustrates on a map of one of the Arab countries (e.g., ‫ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ‬،‫ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬،‫)ﺩﻭﺍﺭ‬. Google Maps in street view may be used to show the streets and locations of some businesses and historical places. 6. Introducing students to directions (e.g., ‫ ﺩﻏﺮﻱ‬، ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬، ‫)ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬. Phase 2: deconstructing the exchange information genre situated in asking for/giving directions Guided by Table 2.2, and referring to the model texts, the teacher makes the following aspects related to the genre and its context noticeable to students: (1) the overall purpose of the genre, (2) the stages and the purpose of each stage, and (3) the language variety/varieties and the language and organizational features of each stage. He/she/they also makes connections between the features and the context of the genre and gives students the opportunity to practice these features using the activities that follow. (1) Making the purpose of the genre in relation to the context noticeable to students After listening to the model texts recorded by the teacher, the following questions guide the class conversation about the purpose and context of the exchange of information genre situated in asking for/giving directions: a. b. c. d.

What is the overall purpose of this text? Who are the possible interlocutors in this text? What are other possible situations in this type of interaction? What is/are the language variety/varieties deployed in each situation? Why?

This step may be repeated for every model text to show students the different situations.

(2) Making the stages and their purposes noticeable to students Using the recorded model texts and the flowchart in Figure 2.1, the teacher draws students’ attentions to the optional, recurrent, and required stages of the genre. ACTIVITY 1

Goal: To notice and practice the possible order of the stages.

Exchange of information 39 Practice: Reorder the jumbled interaction in Box 2.1, paying attention to the probable order of the stages.

Box 2.1 Ordered conversation

Jumbled conversation asking for/giving directions

‫ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺮﻑ ﻳﺎ ﺃﺧﺘﻲ‬:‫ﺣﺴﻦ‬ ‫ ﺻﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ؟‬:‫ﺭﻳﻤﺎ‬ ‫ ﺳﻼﻡ ﻳﺎ ﻋﻢ‬:‫ﺭﻳﻤﺎ‬ ‫ ﺍﻫﻼ‬:‫ﺣﺴﻦ‬ ‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ‬:‫ﺭﻳﻤﺎ‬

(3) Making language variety/varieties and language features of the genre noticeable and having students practice them Guided by Table 2.2, the teacher plays the recording for each of the model texts and makes the connections between the essential features of the genre and the language choices employed. The teacher also explains the relations between the language choices and the context of the model text played. The explanation part of the following activities is used to guide the connections. The students are given the opportunity to practice the features of the genre using the practice section in each activity. ACTIVITY 2

Goal: Learn how to address strangers in order to draw their attentions in the optional opening stage. Explanation: The inquirer draws the respondent’s attention. This, as described in Table 2.4, may be achieved by either one, two, or all of the following resources: 1. Formulaic greeting and/or 2. Formulaic expression that draws attention and/or 3. ‫ ﻳﺎ‬particle (to draw somebody’s attention) that precedes a title or a noun. Nouns express a metaphorical relationship such as: a.

‫ ﺧﺎﻟﺔ‬،‫ ﻋﻤﺔ‬،‫ ﺍﺧﺖ‬،‫ ﺧﺎﻝ‬،‫ ﻋﻢ‬are used to address individuals who are older in age.

40 Spoken genres

‫ﺳﺘﻲ‬/‫ ﺳﻴﺪﻱ‬are used to address individuals who have authority (e.g., policeman). c. ‫ ﺃﺧﺘﻲ‬/‫ ﺃﺧﻲ‬are used to address individuals who are close in age to the inquirer.

b.

Practice: You are on your way to a newly opened bakery ‫ ﻣﺨﺒﺰ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻕ‬and you need to ask the people in Figure 2.2 and 2.3 for directions. What are the possible ways to address them? Give a reason for your option. Table 2.4 Language features to draw a person’s attention Draw the respondent’s attention Address respondent (optional)

Titles or names for metaphorical relationship

Formulaic expressions to draw attention (optional)

Greetings (optional)

‫ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺇﺫﻧﻚ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ ﻣﺆﺍﺧﺬﺓ‬

‫ﺻﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺎء ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﻋﻠﻴﻜﻢ‬

a tool to draw a person’s attention

‫ﺃﺧﺖ‬/‫ﺧﺎﻟﺔ‬/‫ﺧﺎﻝ‬/‫ﻋﻤﺔ‬/‫ﻋﻢ‬/‫ﺍﺥ‬ ‫ﺳﺘﻲ‬/‫ﺳﻴﺪﻱ‬

Figure 2.2 Police officer

(‫)ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺪﺍء‬ ‫ﻳﺎ‬

Figure 2.3 Driver

Source: Photo by ArtisticOperations via Pixabay, Source: Photo by cocoparisienne via Pixabay, https://pixabay.com/photos/police-officer-moto https://pixabay.com/photos/woman-personrcycle-patrol-3233103 convertible-cabriolet-289315/

1. ______________________

2. ___________________________

ACTIVITY 3

Goal: Learn to use different ways to ask for directions in the request information stage.

Exchange of information 41 Explanation: Different question forms may be deployed to inquire about a location: 1. Using the question particles ‫ ﻭﻳﻦ‬or ‫( ﻛﻴﻒ‬Table 2.5). 2. Using a declarative relational verbless nominal clause with a question intonation. Although this type of inquiry is usually used to elicit confirmation about directions (Table 2.6), it is also used to ask for directions. Table 2.5 Questions about directions Questions to ask for directions prepositional phrase: preposition +name of place/location

process indicating movement

question particle to ask about locations

‫ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﻤﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻕ؟‬

_

‫ﻭﻳﻦ‬

‫ﻟﻠﺼﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﺮ؟‬

‫ﺃﻭﺻﻞ‬ ‫ﺃﺭﻭﺡ‬

‫ﻛﻴﻒ‬

Table 2.6 Declarative relational verbless nominal clause with interrogative intonation Questions to inquire about directions Relational verbless nominal clause (with question intonation) name of destination

‫ﺻﻴﺪﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﻞ؟‬ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ؟‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺹ؟‬ ‫ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ؟‬ ‫ﺑﻨﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻕ؟‬

street or direction (definite) (pointing to + street)

‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ‬

preposition

‫ﻫﻮﻥ‬

‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬

Practice: in activity 4. ACTIVITY 4

Goal: Learn the language resources needed to respond to an inquirer about directions in the provide information stage. Explanation 4.1: To respond to an inquiry about directions, the following language resources may be used (Table 2.7): 1. A command that includes a process in the imperative ‫ﺍﻣﺮ‬

‫ﻓﻌﻞ‬.

42 Spoken genres Table 2.7 Giving directions Give directions using a verbal clause circumstance of place expressed in a prepositional phrase

nominal group

imperative process

‫ﻓﻌﻞ ﺃﻣﺮ‬

(can be omitted)

direction preposition type of street/name of street

counting number of streets away from initial location using ordinal numbers

‫ﺍﻻﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬ ‫ﺩﻏﺮﻱ‬

‫ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬ ‫ﺩﺧﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ‬ –

‫ﺛﺎﻟﺚ‬ ‫ﺍﻭﻝ‬ – –

‫ ﺧﺬﻱ‬/‫ﺧﺬ‬ ‫ﺧﺬﻱ‬/‫ﺧﺬ‬ ‫ﺧﺬﻱ‬/‫ﺧﺬ‬ ‫ﺍﻣﺸﻲ‬

2. A command in which the imperative process is omitted (i.e., ellipsis). Ellipsis is when part of the sentence such as the verb is omitted. While the imperative is usually used to express a command, in the context of providing directions, the command suggests offering information or instructions. In such exchanges, the inquirer about directions is not required to follow the commands. Thus, “the principle that what the speaker says makes sense in the context in which he is saying it” (Halliday, 1994, p. 95) is obvious in the instance of giving directions. Additionally, the imperative verb may be omitted from the clause while maintaining the meaning. Explanation 4.2: Ordinal numbers ‫( ﺍﻻﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬Box 2.2), as their name suggests, function to categorize or organize things, and in the context of this genre, they function to say the street number relative to where the direction is from. The ordinal number comes before the street it describes (e.g., ‫)ﺭﺍﺑﻊ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ‬.

Box 2.2 ۱۰ ۹ ۸ ۷ ‫ﺳﺎﺑﻊ ﺛﺎﻣﻦ ﺗﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺎﺷﺮ‬

٦ ‫ﺳﺎﺩﺱ‬

٥ ٤ ۳ ۲ ‫ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺭﺍﺑﻊ ﺧﺎﻣﺲ‬

۱ ‫ﺍﻭﻝ‬

Exchange of information 43 Practice 4.2: Organize the following side streets in Box 2.3 from 1–10.

Box 2.3 ‫ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺛﺎﻣﻦ ﺧﺎﻣﺲ ﺗﺎﺳﻊ ﺭﺍﺑﻊ ﺳﺎﺩﺱ ﻋﺎﺷﺮ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺳﺎﺑﻊ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ‬

unorganized organized

Practice 3, 4.1, and 4.2: Asking for and giving directions. The teacher records excerpts 1 and 2 before practice. The following are situations in which Samia asked for directions: (1) refer to excerpts 1 and 2 to identify the resources that Samia and her interlocutors used to ask for/give directions, (2) find another way to ask for directions, and (3) refer to Figure 2.4 and change Samia’s location to give direction. The following words are to help you construct asking for/giving directions: ‫ﺩﻏﺮﻱ‬-‫ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬-‫ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬-‫ﺧﺬ‬-‫ﺇﻣﺸﻲ‬‫ﺃﺭﻭﺡ‬-‫ﺃﻭﺻﻞ‬-‫ﻭﻳﻦ‬-‫ﻛﻴﻒ‬. 1. Samia is visiting Amman, the capital of Jordan, and resides at location [1] in Figure 2.4. She would like to go eat at the restaurant

Figure 2.4 City map Source: Photo by Maarten van den Heuvel via Unsplash, https://unsplash.com/photos/-WWFGrfm7qk

44 Spoken genres

‫ ﻣﻄﻌﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺄﻛﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ‬at location [2]. She asks her neighbor, Samar, for directions. Excerpt 1: .‫ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ‬

‫ ﻭﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻌﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺄﻛﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ؟‬:‫ﺳﺎﻣﻴﺔ‬ ‫ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ ﻭﺗﺎﻧﻲ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ ﺇﻣﺸﻲ ﺩﻏﺮﻱ‬:‫ﺳﻤﺮ‬

2. After eating lunch at location [2], Samia wants to go to the museum ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﻒ‬ at location [3]. Before leaving the restaurant, she asks the server, Ameer, for directions. Excerpt 2: (pointing to the main road) ‫ ﻣﻦ ﻫﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﻒ‬:‫ﺳﺎﻣﻴﺔ‬ .‫ ﺧﺬﻱ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ ﻭﺗﺎﻧﻲ ﺩﺧﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ‬.‫ ﻧﻌﻢ‬:‫ﺃﻣﻴﺮ‬ ACTIVITY 5

Goal: Learn how to express not knowing the information requested by the inquirer in the decline to give information stage. Explanation: For the respondent to express not knowing the directions, the language resources in Table 2.8 are deployed. Table 2.8 Declining to give info Decline to give info negated verbal clause

emphasize the truth in the respondent’s answer

thinking verb in present

negation particle

thinking verb in imperative (optional)

‫ﺑﺘﺬﻛﺮ‬/‫ﺑﺪﺭﻱ‬/‫ﺑﻌﺮﻑ‬ ‫ﺑﺘﺬﻛﺮ‬/‫ﺑﺪﺭﻱ‬/‫ﺑﻌﺮﻑ‬

‫ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﻣﺎ‬

(‫ﺻﺪﻕ )ﻓﻌﻞ ﺃﻣﺮ‬

Practice 6: Use Figure 2.4. After visiting the museum, Samia decides to go have coffee at ‫ﻗﻬﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺏ‬, at location [4]. She asks Omar, another visitor at the museum, for directions. Unfortunately, he is unable to help her. Complete the following part of the conversation by using various ways to express not knowing the directions.

‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺃﻭﺻﻞ ﻟﻘﻬﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺏ؟‬:‫ﺳﺎﻣﻴﺔ‬ _________________ :‫ﻋﻤﺮ‬ Phase 3: co-constructing During this phase, the teacher starts handing control for constructing the spoken genre for asking for/giving directions to her students. The teacher and

Exchange of information 45 her students collaborate in constructing the genre. The teacher is expected to provide feedback in a way that encourages students to include all features of an encounter. He/she/they asks questions, recasts students’ answers, expands on students’ answers, and suggests alternative answers. Students and their teacher consult Table 2.3 to check their language choices. Students are divided into groups with two students in each group. Each group works on constructing one sentence/phrase at a time and shares their sentences with the teacher. Then, the teacher negotiates with each group what the final sentence/ phrase could look like. This process is repeated until the genre is completed. The work of each group is then shared with the class. ACTIVITY 7

The teacher and her students collectively construct an interaction to ask for/ give directions in response to the following prompt. Prompt: You are on a trip to Cairo, Egypt. You wanted to go from ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ‬to ‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺑﺮﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ‬and back. You cannot figure out how to get there, so you stop a man (younger than you are) to ask for directions. On your way back, you also need help with directions, so you address a lady (older than you are). You and your teacher will take turns being the person who wants to go to ‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺑﺮﻣﺎﺭﻛﺖ‬and back to ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ‬and the one who is asked for directions. Use the map (Figure 2.5) for directions and the graphic organizer in Box 2.4 to organize your thoughts before recording your answers.

‫اﻟﺳوﺑر ﻣﺎرﻛت‬

‫اﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ‬

Figure 2.5 Map

46 Spoken genres Box 2.4 Graphic organizer The inquirer and respondent greet each other (optional) The inquirer asks for directions to a specific location The respondent either gives directions or expresses not knowing the directions The inquirer is thankful for the information he/she received from the respondent (optional)

Phase 4: independent construction During this phase, students in groups of two record a role play for asking for/ giving directions. It is recommended that students self-assess their recordings by referring to the checklist in Table 2.3 before submitting their work. The teacher also uses the features outlined in the checklist to give feedback. ACTIVITY 8

During your trip to Egypt, you decide to visit two popular places in downtown Cairo: (1) ‫ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻼﺗﻲ‬and (2) ‫ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬. You arrive downtown, but you are not sure how to reach either location. You stop a police officer to ask for directions to ‫ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻼﺗﻲ‬and then to ‫ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬. 1. Record your conversation with a classmate 2. To check the inquirer understood the directions, he/she/they draws the directions. Change the respondent from a police officer to a man (older than you are) and record the conversation again.

Teaching implications for other genres The features learned in this genre may be used for other functions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Address a stranger. Ask about something that is lost (e.g., ‫)ﻭﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ‬. Decline to answer or acknowledge not knowing the answer to a question. Organize things in sequential order.

Reference Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold.

3

Exchange of goods and services Encounter at a produce stand

‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺑﺎﺋﻊ اﻟﺨﻀﺎر واﻟﻔﺎﻛﮭﺔ‬:‫ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬ This chapter describes the planning, assessment, and instructional activities for the exchange of goods and services genre situated at an encounter at a produce stand.

Models for the exchange of goods and services genre situated at an encounter at a produce stand The genre of the exchange of goods and services is a genre used in everyday transactions, such as at a market, a pharmacy, or a boutique. As a commonly used genre, it is important for novice–intermediate language learners to learn. This chapter situates the exchange of goods and services at a produce stand. However, the instructional material can be adapted to other exchanges. The following models, which teachers are encouraged to record at the start of instruction, illustrate communications between a buyer [‫ ] )ﺏ( ﺑﺎﺋﻊ‬and a seller [‫])ﻡ( ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻱ‬. All the situations in which the interactions take place call for the use of one or more of the spoken varieties. The Jordanian spoken variety is used as an example. Model 1 Context: The buyer, a habitual customer, is at the neighborhood produce stand to purchase his daily fresh fruits and vegetables. .‫ ﺻﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ ﻳﺎ ﺃﺑﻮ ﻋﻤﺮ‬:(‫ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻱ )ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺣﺎﻟﻚ ﺟﺎﺭﺗﻨﺎ؟‬.‫ ﺍﻫﻼ ﺍﻫﻼ‬:(‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ )ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺷﻮ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺧﻀﺎﺭ ﻭﻓﺎﻛﻬﺔ ﻁﺎﺯﺓ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬۷۰ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ ﻭ‬٦۰ :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺑﻨﺪﻭﺭﺓ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ DOI: 10.4324/9781003193265-5

48 Spoken genres

‫[ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬points to tomatoes] :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬٥۰ :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ! ﺷﻮ ﻏﺎﻟﻲ‬٥۰ :‫ﻡ‬ ٤٥ ‫ ﻳﻼ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺍﻋﻄﻴﻨﻲ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻛﻮﺳﺎ ﻭﻧﺼﻒ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺑﻨﺪﻭﺭﺓ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫[ ﺗﻔﻀﻠﻲ‬after putting produce in bag] :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺷﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۸٥ :‫ﺏ‬ [gives money] ‫ ﺗﻔﻀﻞ‬:‫ﻡ‬ [counts the change] ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۱٥ ‫ ﻫﺎﻱ‬. . . ‫ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻳﻌﻮﺽ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ‬:‫ﻡ‬ Model 2 Context: A buyer approaches the produce stand without having decided what produce to purchase. ‫ ﻣﺴﺎء ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻣﺴﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ﺷﻔﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ ﺍﻻﺣﻤﺮ؟‬ ُ :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﺄﺧﺬ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۷٥ :‫ﺏ‬ [seller gives apples to buyer] ‫ ﺗﻔﻀﻞ‬:‫ﺏ‬ Model 3 Context: A buyer is at the produce stand to buy something specific. This time it is ‫ﺑﺮﻗﻮﻕ‬. ‫ ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ ﻁﺎﺯﺓ‬:‫ﺏ‬ [buyer ignores sale initiation] ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺑﺮﻗﻮﻕ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ [Seller points to prunes] :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻘﺪﻳﺶ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮﻕ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﻭﺵ‬۱۰‫ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ ﻭ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۹۰ ‫[ ﻛﻔﺎﻳﺔ‬expression to show surprise] ‫ ﺍﻭﻑ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮﻕ ﺑﺸﻬﻲ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﺸﺎﻥ ﻋﻴﻮﻧﻚ‬- ‫ ﻣﺎﺷﻲ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬۲ ‫ ﻫﺎﺕ‬:‫ﻡ‬ [the buyer gives the exact change] ‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻮ‬:‫ﻡ‬

Exchange of goods and services 49

Genre-based backward design for planning instruction This section is informed by the three steps of the genre-based approach to backward design explained in Chapter 1. In step one, the desired instructional goals for the genre of the exchange of goods and services situated at a produce stand are articulated in the Can-Do Statements and in the essential features of the genre. In step two, informed by the features of the genre, the assessment criteria are outlined. In step three, the instructional activities during the teaching/learning cycle are explained. Step one: identifying desired results The instructional goals for the service encounter that is situated at a produce stand are expressed in the Can-Do Statements and in the features of the genre. These goals inform the assessment criteria and guide the instructional activities. Identifying Can-Do Statements The Can Do-Statements in Table 3.1 articulate the learning goals in terms of what students should be able to do at the end of instruction. Identifying the features of the genre (1) IDENTIFYING STAGES OF THE GENRE

The genre of the service encounter situated at a produce stand includes several stages. Some of the stages are optional, some are required, and others are recurrent. The flowchart, Figure 3.1, shows the unfolding of the genre through its stages. The encounter may start with a greeting from either the seller or the buyer, followed by the optional sales initiation stage to initiate the sale by the Table 3.1 Can-Do Statements for the encounter at a produce stand Can-Do Statement type

What students can do

Novice–intermediate I can complete a transaction at a produce stand. Intercultural Can-Do Investigate I can compare the practice of selling/buying Statement produce in my culture to the practice of selling/ buying produce in the cultures of the Arabicspeaking countries. Interact I can interact with the seller to complete a transaction (by haggling, if needed) at the produce stand using language that is culturally informed.

50 Spoken genres

Start

Greetings

Sales Inquiry

Haggle

Sales Initiation Sales Request Sales Agreement Purchase / Sale

required

Wrap Up

optional

Stop

Figure 3.1 The stages of the encounter at the produce stand

seller. Then, the buyer may inquire about some produce in the optional sales inquiry stage and haggle over the price with the seller in the optional haggle stage, before asking to buy produce in the sales request (essential stage). As the flowchart shows, the sale initiation, sale inquiry, haggle, and sale request stages may be recurrent. The sale initiation stage or the haggle stage is followed by a sale request, which is followed by the optional sale agreement stage. Next is the required purchase/sale stage. The whole genre may end with an optional wrap up stage that includes expressing goodbyes and thanks.

Exchange of goods and services 51 (2) IDENTIFYING LANGUAGE FEATURES OF THE GENRE

Table 3.2 depicts the stages of the genre, their purposes, and the language features for each stage. The table refers to the model texts to demonstrate some of the possible language choices as related to the context of the situation. These choices are not representative of all the possible choices but are examples of some of the choices that a novice–intermediate learner could deploy. The language choices are discussed in more detail in the instructional activities section of this chapter. Step two: determine acceptable evidence—genre criteria The assessment criteria for the genre of exchange of goods and services situated at a produce stand is informed by the features of the genre. Table 3.3 articulates these criteria. Step three: instructional activities The instructional activities follow the four phases of the teaching/learning cycle described in Chapter 1. Phase 1: building the content During this phase, the instructor familiarizes students with cultural and content knowledge related to the current genre. This phase may take place as needed at any point during the teaching/learning cycle. For example, the teacher: 1. Introduces students to the fruits and vegetables that could be found in Arabic-speaking countries and the ones specific to different geographical areas (e.g., mangoes are more available in Egypt than they are in Syria, and pomelos are more available in Jordan than they are in Egypt). 2. Introduces the metric system for the unit of weight (i.e., kilogram). 3. Discusses how fruits and vegetables are sold and their relationship to Arabic cuisine (e.g., zucchinis are sold in kilos and not per piece). 4. Shows students pictures and/or videos of service encounters in Arabicspeaking countries and discusses the cultural aspects of haggling. Phase 2: deconstruction of the genre of the service encounter Guided by Table 3.2, the teacher makes the following aspects related to the genre and its context noticeable to students: (1) the overall purpose of the genre, (2) the stages and the purpose of each stage, and (3) the language variety/varieties used and the language and organization features of each stage. The teacher also makes the connections between the features and the context

Table 3.2 The stages, purpose of the stages, and language features of each stage Model 1

Language features

Stage: Sale initiation (optional) Purpose: Seller entices the buyer to purchase a product:

.‫ ﺻﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ ﻳﺎ ﺃﺑﻮ ﻋﻤﺮ‬:(‫ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻱ )ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺣﺎﻟﻚ ﺟﺎﺭﺗﻨﺎ؟‬.‫ ﺍﻫﻼ ﺍﻫﻼ‬:(‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ )ﺏ‬ Seller/buyer: greeting depends on relationship between buyer and seller: • Formulaic greeting + • ‫ ﻳﺎ‬particle to address interlocutor • Title + relationship, or metaphorical relationship between seller/buyer + • Customer/seller’s name (optional) N/A

Model 3

‫ ﻣﺴﺎء ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻣﺴﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭ‬:‫ﻡ‬ Seller/buyer: Formulaic greeting

‫ ﺷﻔﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ ﺍﻻﺣﻤﺮ؟‬:‫ﺏ‬

Seller: Verbal clause with interrogative intonation to inquire about the produce; includes a verb in past tense that involves senses

Language features

‫ ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬:‫ﻡ‬ Seller/buyer Formulaic greeting

‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ ﻁﺎﺯﺓ‬:‫ﺏ‬

Seller: Declarative relational verbless nominal clause with description of the produce involving senses

(e.g., ‫ ﺫﻗﺖ‬،‫ ﺷﻤﺖ‬،‫) ﺷﻔﺖ‬ Sale inquiry (optional) Purpose: Buyer asks about product availability and/or price

‫ ﺷﻮ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺧﻀﺎﺭ ﻭﻓﺎﻛﻬﺔ ﻁﺎﺯﺓ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬۷۰‫ ﻗﺮﺵ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ ﻭ‬٦۰ :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺑﻨﺪﻭﺭﺓ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ .‫[ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬points to tomatoes]:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬٥۰ :‫ﺏ‬

N/A

(buyer ignored sale initiation)

‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺑﺮﻗﻮﻕ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻘﺪﻳﺶ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮﻕ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﻭﺵ‬۱۰‫ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ ﻭ‬:‫ﺏ‬

[pointing to the prunes]

52 Spoken genres

Stage: Greetings (optional) Purpose: Greetings between buyer and seller

Model 2

Language features

Buyer: Question indicating inquiry on availability of produce expressed in: • Question form with ‫ ﺇﻳﺶ‬/‫ ﺷﻮ‬in relational verbless nominal clause And/or • Yes/no question expressed in a relational verbless nominal clause with interrogative intonation that includes a circumstance of place (e.g., ‫)ﻋﻨﺪ)ﻙ( ﺧﻴﺎﺭ‬

N/A

Buyer: Question form indicating inquiry on price using ‫ ﺑﻘﺪﻳﺶ‬+ selling unit (bunch, piece, or weight in kilos) + name of produce Seller: relational verbless nominal clause expressing price = amount + currency+ [omitted is, ‫ ﺳﻌﺮ‬+ selling unit + produce]

Buyer: Question form indicating inquiry on price using:

Seller: relational verbless nominal clauses to describe price of produce = amount + denomination of the currency + [omitted is ‫ ]ﺳﻌﺮ‬+ [omitted is selling unit, bunch, piece, or weight in kilos] + produce Haggle (optional) Purpose: Buyer and seller haggle about the price

‫ ﻗﺮﺵ! ﺷﻮ ﻏﺎﻟﻲ‬٥۰ :‫ﻡ‬ ٤٥ ‫ ﻳﻼ‬.:‫ﺏ‬

‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۹۰ ‫ ﻛﻔﺎﻳﺔ‬. . . ‫ ﺍﻭﻑ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮﻕ ﺑﺸﻬﻲ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﺸﺎﻥ ﻋﻴﻮﻧﻚ‬- ‫ ﻣﺎﺷﻲ‬:‫ﺏ‬ (Continued)

Exchange of goods and services 53

• the particles ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ‬/‫ ﻛﻢ‬+ unit of purchase + produce name Or • the particle‫ ﺑﻜﻢ‬/‫ ﻛﻢ‬+ unit of purchase + [omitted is produce; it is implied in the conversation]

Model 1 Language features

Sale request Purpose: Buyer asks for exact produce to purchase Language features

Sale agreement (optional) may also be implied during haggle stage sale/ purchase stage Purpose: Both seller and buyer agree on price Language features

Model 2

Model 3

Buyer: attribute to express high price

‫ ﺍﻋﻄﻴﻨﻲ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻛﻮﺳﺎ ﻭﻧﺼﻒ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺑﻨﺪﻭﺭﺓ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫[ ﺗﻔﻀﻠﻲ‬after putting produce in bag] :‫ﺏ‬ Buyer: Command expressed in imperative verb

‫ ﺷﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۸٥ :‫ﺏ‬

Buyer: question about the total amount due using one of the following: • Question form with ‫ ﺷﻮ‬or‫ ﻛﻢ‬or ‫ﻗﺪﻳﺶ‬

Buyer: cultural expression to show that price is high Seller: relational verbless nominal clause with attributes to express a low price or positive description of a fruit or vegetable

‫ ﺑﺄﺧﺬ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬:‫ﻡ‬

Buyer: Declarative statement with a verb in present tense showing a transaction

‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬۲ ‫ ﻫﺎﺕ‬:‫ﻡ‬

Same as in model 1

‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۷٥ :‫ﺏ‬

N/A

Seller: relational verbless nominal clause = [omitted, ‫ ]ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮ ﺑـ‬+ amount + currency to give price

N/A

54 Spoken genres

Table 3.2 (Coninued)

• question form with omitted question particle Seller: relational verbless nominal clause =[omitted, ‫]ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ‬+ amount + currency to give price Sale/purchase Purpose: Buyer pays amount asked by seller

[gives money] ‫ ﺗﻔﻀﻞ‬:‫ﻡ‬ [counts the change] ‫ﺏ‬: ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۱٥ ‫ ﻫﺎﻱ‬. . . ‫ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬

Language features

Seller: Formulaic expression when handing something to somebody, in this case money

Wrap up (optional) Purpose: Thank you and goodbye

Buyer: gives seller exact amount

‫ ﷲ ﻳﻌﻮﺽ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ‬:‫ﻡ‬ Seller: Cultural expression of good wishes to the buyer after payment Buyer: Formulaic thank you

N/A

N/A

N/A

‫ ﺷﻜﺮﺍ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻮ‬:‫ﻡ‬ Seller and buyer: Formulaic thank you to end purchase

Cohesion of the exchange: For an explanation on how to make the interaction cohesive, see Activity 7 later in this chapter.

Exchange of goods and services 55

Language features

‫ ﺗﻔﻀﻞ‬:‫ﺏ‬

[seller hands purchase to buyer]

Table 3.3 Assessment criteria for an encounter at the produce stand How is the interaction going?

Greeting (optional): Did the seller and/or buyer greet each other using • ‫ ﻳﺎ‬particle to address interlocutor? • formulaic greeting expressions? AND depending on the customer and seller relationship use? • a noun to express title/relationship/metaphorical relationship and/or customer/seller’s name?

0 1 2 3 Comments:

Sale initiation (optional): Did the seller entice the buyer to purchase a product using (a) Verbal clause with interrogative intonation (yes/no question) to ask about the product, which includes a verb in past tense that involves the senses (e.g., ‫ ﺷﻤﺖ‬،‫?)ﺷﻔﺖ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

AND/OR (b) Declarative relational verbless nominal (RNV) clause including an attribute that positively describes the produce and involves the senses (e.g., ‫ﻁﻴﺐ‬، ‫ﺃﺣﻤﺮ‬، ‫ﺣﻠﻮﺓ‬، ‫?)ﻁﺎﺯﺓ‬ Sale inquiry (optional): Did the buyer ask about the availability of produce and/or price using (a) question form with ‫ ﺇﻳﺶ‬،‫ ﺷﻮ‬+ RNV clause? OR (b) question form with omitted ‫ﺇﻳﺶ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

،‫ ﺷﻮ‬+ RNV clause?

AND/OR Did the buyer ask about the product price using (a) question form with ‫ﺑﻜﻢ‬/‫?ﻛﻢ‬ (b) or with the particle ‫ﺑﻜﻢ‬/‫ ﻛﻢ‬only? Did the seller give the price for the produce using • a RNV clause that includes amount+ currency per weight in kilos+ unit of selling (e.g., ‫ﺍﻟﺮﺯﻣﺔ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

/‫?)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

56 Spoken genres

Features of the genre

Haggle (optional) Did the buyer haggle with the seller on the price of produce using (a) seller giving attribute(s) to express price as low or to positively describe the produce, or (b) buyer giving attribute(s) to express price as high?

0 1 2 3 Comments:

Sale request Did the buyer ask for the exact produce he or she wants to purchase using • a command expressed as a doing verb in the imperative (e.g., ‫ ﺣﻂ)ﻟﻲ‬،(‫?))ﺍﻋﻄﻲ)ﻧﻲ‬ OR • a declarative statement including a doing verb in present tense indicating a transaction (e.g., ‫ﺑﺸﺘﺮﻱ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

،‫?)ﺑﺄﺧﺬ‬ 0 1 2 3 Comments:

Sale/purchase Did the buyer use a formulaic expression when he or she handed money to seller? and/or Did the seller say the price and count change using • amount in numbers+ currency per weight in kilos ‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬, bunch ‫ﺍﻟﻀﻤﺔ‬, or piece ‫? ﺍﻟﺤﺒﺔ‬

0 1 2 3 Comments:

wrap up (optional) Did the buyer and seller thank and/or say goodbye to one another using • formulaic expressions?

0 1 2 3 Comments:

Exchange of goods and services 57

Sale agreement (optional) Did the seller and buyer agree on the total price? • buyer using ○ question formed to ask the seller about the amount due using ‫ ﻛﻢ‬، ‫?ﺷﻮ‬ OR ○ a question formed through intonation by omitting the question particle? • seller gives the required price= amount + currency?

58 Spoken genres of the genre and gives students the opportunity to practice these features using the activities that follow. (1) MAKING THE PURPOSE OF THE GENRE IN RELATION TO THE CONTEXT NOTICEABLE TO STUDENTS

After listening to the recorded model texts, the teacher and students have a conversation on the purpose and context of situations as well as the language variety used for the genre of service encounter situated at a produce stand. The following are questions to guide the conversation: 1. What is the overall purpose of this text? 2. What other possible relationships exist between the buyer and the seller? 3. What are other possible scenarios in this type of interaction? (2) MAKING THE STAGES AND THEIR PURPOSES NOTICEABLE TO STUDENTS

The teacher explains the purpose of each stage of the genre. Using the recorded model texts and the flowchart in Figure 3.1, the teacher shows her students the optional, recurrent, and required stages of the genre. ACTIVITY 1

Goal: Recognize the stages and their possible order. Practice: Reorder the jumbled stages of the encounter at a produce stand in Box 3.1.

Box 3.1 Ordered conversation

Jumbled conversation buying/selling fruits and vegetables

‫ ﺍﻫﻼ ﺃﺑﻮ ﻋﻤﺮ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ‬۹۰—‫ ﻏﺎﻟﻲ‬..‫ ﺍﻭﻑ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﺵ ﺭﺧﻴﺺ‬۹۰ .‫ ﻻ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬:‫ﻡ‬ [shows agreement] :‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬۲ ‫ ﺍﻋﻄﻴﻨﻲ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻙ ﺑﺮﻗﻮﻕ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ]ﻳﺆﺷﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻗﻮﻕ[ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺑﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮ؟‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻗﺮﻭﺵ‬۱۰‫ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ ﻭ‬:‫ﺏ‬ (Continued)

Exchange of goods and services 59 (Continued) [the buyer takes the exact change and leaves]

‫ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺷﻲ ﺗﺎﻧﻲ؟‬:‫ﺏ‬ ‫ ﺳﻼﻣﺘﻚ‬:‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﻣﺎﺷﻲ‬:‫ﺏ‬

(3) MAKING THE LANGUAGE FEATURES OF THE GENRE NOTICEABLE AND HAVING STUDENTS PRACTICE THEM

The teacher plays the recording of the model texts, and, guided by Table 3.2, he/she/they makes connections between the language variety/varieties used, the essential features of the genre, and the language choices deployed to express the intended meaning. The teacher also explains the relations between the language choices and the context of the model text. The teacher may use the explanation part of the activities that follow to guide the connections. The students are given the opportunity to practice the features of the genre using the practice section of each activity. ACTIVITY 2

Goal: Learn how a seller and a buyer greet and address each other depending on their relationship and familiarity with each other in the greetings stage of the genre. Explanation: The way the seller and buyer address each other depends on their relationship (Table 3.4) and age difference. For example, if the buyer is a frequent customer, the seller would know her/his/their name and/or title. A frequent customer could be addressed by name, title, actual (e.g., ‫ ﺯﺑﻮﻥ‬،‫)ﺟﺎﺭ‬, or metaphorical relationship (e.g., ‫ ﺃﺧﻲ‬،‫ )ﻋﻤﻲ‬realized by a noun or nominal group. An unfamiliar customer could be addressed by a metaphorical relationship (e.g., ‫ )ﺃﺧﻲ‬or a title (e.g., ‫ )ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ‬realized by a noun. It is not necessary that the title match the actual title of the customer. For instance, the seller can address his customer, who is not a teacher, a professor, or a lawyer, by the title ‫ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ‬. In all of these situations, any spoken variety/varieties is/are used. Practice: In Activity 3. ACTIVITY 3

Goal: Learn how the seller makes the product appealing to a customer in the sale-initiation stage. Explanation: Enticing the buyer may be expressed in (a) a question or (b) a declarative relational verbless nominal clause: a. Yes/no question (Table 3.5) that includes a verb in the past tense involving the senses and a nominal group that expresses the produce that the seller

60 Spoken genres Table 3.4 Greeting Seller greeting a buyer Nominal group proper name of customer (optional)

noun to name seller by particle to title or relationship draw attention (optional) (optional)

‫ﺳﺎﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﺃﻡ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ‬

‫ﺩﻛﺘﻮﺭ‬ ‫ﻋﻤﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺟﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫﺓ‬ ‫ﺃﺧﺘﻲ‬

–

–

‫ﻳﺎ‬ – – – –

‫ﻳﺎ‬

formulaic greeting

‫ ﺻﺒﺎﺡ‬/‫ﺃﻫﻼ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ‬

Frequent customer

‫ﻣﺮﺣﺒﺎ‬

Unfamiliar customer

Table 3.5 Questions to entice the buyer Question to entice the buyer Nominal group attribute to describe the produce (optional)

produce

‫ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ؟‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻄﺮ؟‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ؟‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺔ؟‬

‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻴﺦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﺠﺎ‬

Verb in the past tense involving senses

‫ﺷﻔﺘﻲ‬/‫ﺷﻔﺖ‬ ‫ﺷﻤﺘﻲ‬/‫ﺷﻤﺖ‬ ‫ﺫﻗﺘﻲ‬/‫ﺫﻗﺖ‬ ‫ ﺣﺴﺘﻲ‬/‫ﺣﺴﺖ‬

Table 3.6 Examples of attributes to describe produce Attribute

Describe produce related to:

‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ‬/‫ﺍﻟﻠﺒﻨﺎﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻻﺧﻀﺮ‬/‫ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﺾ‬/‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻮ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻮ‬/‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻄﺮ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﺪ‬/‫ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻱ‬

Type Color Taste Smell Feel

wants to highlight. The nominal group includes the produce and a description of that produce (both in definite form with ‫ )ﺍﻝ‬related to type, color, smell, feel, and size (Table 3.6). b. A relational verbless nominal clause (Table 3.7) includes an attribute that describes the produce, which involves the senses and can be intensified with intensifiers. The produce may be part of a nominal group (i.e., noun and characteristic).

Exchange of goods and services 61 Table 3.7 Seller entices the buyer using a nominal clause Seller entices the buyer Relational verbless nominal clause Attribute to describe the produce Nominal group to express produce attribute involving the senses

intensifier: intensify the description (optional)

definite characteristic describing the produce (optional)

‫ ﻣﺸﻬﻲ‬/‫ﻣﺴﻜﺮ‬ ‫ ﻣﻌﺴﻞ‬/‫ﺣﻠﻮ‬ ‫ ﻣﺴﻜﺮ‬/‫ﺍﺣﻤﺮ‬

‫ﺷﻮ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻴﺮ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ‬

definite produce

‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺗﻘﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻴﺦ‬

Practice 2 and 3a: Work with a partner and write your answers. Listen to one of the recorded models and identify: (a) the language used by the seller and buyer to address each other and identify the relationship between the seller and buyer, (b) the language that the seller uses to entice the buyer, and (c) express what you identified in a + b in a different way. Practice 3b: First, the teacher says the words on each line in Box 3.2 aloud, then asks the students to use the words to form a relational verbless nominal clause to entice a buyer.

Box 3.2 unorganized clauses

‫ ﺷﻮ‬،‫ ﻣﺴﻜﺮ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺯ‬ ‫ ﻛﺜﻴﺮ‬،‫ ﺣﻠﻮ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺡ‬،‫ﺍﻷﺧﻀﺮ‬ ‫ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﻔﻞ‬،‫ ﺷﻮ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ‬،‫ﻣﺸﻬﻲ‬

ACTIVITY 4

Goal: Learn to ask about the price Explanation: Both the sale inquiry and sale agreement stages involve asking about the price of a produce or the total price of a purchase. Table 3.8 explains how this function is realized. When the produce, which the buyer is making a price inquiry for, is identified earlier during the interaction, the question about the price of the produce may only include a particle, such as ‫ ﻛﻢ‬،‫ ﺑﻜﻢ‬،‫ﻗﺪﻳﺶ‬. In such cases, the produce name is omitted in the question. Practice: In activity 5.

62 Spoken genres Table 3.8 Sales inquiry Question asking about price Nominal group Defined produce using the definite article ‫ﺍﻟـ‬

Unit of sale (i.e., weight, bunch, or piece) (optional)

‫ﺍﻟﺒﻄﺎﻁﺎ؟‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﻘﺪﻭﻧﺲ؟‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻴﺨﺔ؟‬ **‫ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻴﺨﺘﻴﻦ؟‬ * ‫ﺑﻄﻴﺨﺎﺕ؟‬

‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬ ‫ ﺿﻤﻢ‬۳ /‫ﺿﻤﺘﻴﻦ‬/‫ﺿّﻤﺔ‬ ُ

Question particle to ask about a price (i.e., number)

‫ﻛﻢ‬ ‫ﺑﻜﻢ‬ ‫ﺑﻘﺪﻳﺶ‬

– –

‫ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻊ‬

Note. * Produce is plural when the unit is larger than three but less than or equal to ten, and produce is singular when the unit is larger than ten. **For units of two, the dual form for produce is used. Table 3.9 Giving a price Relational verbless nominal clause Price of produce per unit of purchase nominal group

identification of price

produce (optional)

unit of price (optional)

noun indicating price (‫ ﺛﻤﻦ‬،‫)ﺳﻌﺮ‬ (optional)

‫ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ‬

‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬

‫ﺳﻌﺮ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻌﻨﻊ‬

‫ﺿﻤﺔ‬

optional

–

‫ﺍﻟﻀﻤﺔ‬/‫ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮ‬

–

(note unit is definite because produce is omitted)

denomination of currency (optional)

numeric number

‫ ﻟﻴﺮﺓ‬/‫ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬/‫ﻗﺮﺵ‬

٥۰

‫ ﻟﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬/‫ ﺩﻧﺎﻧﻴﺮ‬/‫ﻗﺮﻭﺵ‬

٤

‫ ﻟﻴﺮﺓ‬/‫ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ‬/‫ﻗﺮﺵ‬

٥۰

denomination of currency is singular for price equal to 1 or greater than 10 denomination of currency is plural for price between 3–10 denomination of currency is singular for price equal to 1 or greater than 10

ACTIVITY 5

Goal 5a: Expressing the price of produce. Explanation 5a: During the sales inquiry, haggling, and sale/purchase stages, either the buyer or the seller states a price for the chosen produce (Table 3.9). The price depends on the produce and the unit associated with the item.

Exchange of goods and services 63 Table 3.10 Description of price by seller in haggling stage Buyer states original price Nominal clause to evaluate price Evaluation of price using an attribute

Price (optional)

Intensifying evaluation of price (optional)

‫ﻏﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﻏﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺮ‬

‫ﺷﻮ‬

– –

–

‫ﻛﺘﻴﺮ‬ –

Goal 5b: Learn how to haggle over price in the haggling stage. Explanation 5b: The buyer haggles with the seller to lower the price. The buyer evaluates the produce as high in price (Table 3.10) in order to convince the seller to lower the price, whereas the seller evaluates the product to be of good quality or well priced. Similar to the initiation stage (see Activity 3, Tables 3.6 and 3.7), in the haggling stage, the seller may use the same attributes that involve the senses to describe the produce. Practice 4 and 5: The teacher plays one of the recorded model texts and asks students in groups to: (1) identify both the sale inquiry and the haggling stages, (2) identify the language used in a–d, and (3) express what was identified in another way before sharing it with the class or in groups. a. b. c. d.

The seller asked the price. The price was given by the seller or suggested by the buyer. The seller evaluated the price as high/expensive. The buyer evaluated the produce as sweet, good quality, and so on.

ACTIVITY 6

Goal: Learn how a buyer may request a produce he wishes to purchase in the sales request stage. Explanation: The buyer may request to purchase a produce by using (1) a command (includes ‫ )ﻓﻌﻞ ﺃ ﻣﺮ‬or (2) a declarative statement (includes ‫( )ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎﺭﻉ‬Table 3.11). It is recommended that, when a command is used, it be followed or preceded by “‫ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻀﻠﻚ‬/‫ ”ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ‬or a similar expression. Practice: The teacher plays one of the model texts. Then, the students in groups (1) identify the language used by the buyer to ask the seller for the produce, (2) say what has been identified in (1) in another way, and (3) share it with the class.

64 Spoken genres Table 3.11 Asking to purchase produce

produce

‫ﺑﺎﺫﻧﺠﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻧﻌﻨﻊ‬ – – ‫ﺑﻄﻴﺨﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﻄﻴﺨﺘﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﻄﻴﺨﺎﺕ‬

Buyer asks to purchase produce Verbal imperative clause nominal group action verb expressing handing/ taking (i.e., a transaction) unit in which amount of unit produce is sold

‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ‬ ‫ﺿﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﺿﻤﺘﻴﻦ‬ (‫ﺿﻤﻢ )ﺝ‬ – – –

٤ – – ۳