Alcoholic Beverages: Volume 7: The Science of Beverages 9780128152690, 9780128157015, 1992012032, 0128152699

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ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

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ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Volume 7: The Science of Beverages Edited by

ALEXANDRU MIHAI GRUMEZESCU ALINA MARIA HOLBAN

An imprint of Elsevier

Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-815269-0 (print) ISBN: 978-0-12-815701-5 (online) For information on all Woodhead publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff Acquisition Editor: Patricia Osborn Editorial Project Manager: Jaclyn Truesdell Production Project Manager: Sojan P. Pazhayattil Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by SPi Global, India

CONTENTS Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Series Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Chapter 1 The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Alex O. Okaru, Jürgen Rehm, Katharina Sommerfeld, Thomas Kuballa, Stephan G. Walch, Dirk W. Lachenmeier 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 What Is Unrecorded Alcohol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 How Much and What Type of Unrecorded Alcohol Is Consumed Worldwide? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Why Are People Drinking Unrecorded Alcohol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.5 What Are the Risks of Drinking Unrecorded Alcohol? . . . . . . . . . 11 1.6 What Can Be Done About the Problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 2 Technology of Vermouth Wines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 A. Morata, C. Vaquero, F. Palomero, I. Loira, M.A. Bañuelos, J.A. Suárez-Lepe 2.1 Introduction and Global Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Yeasts Used for Base Wine Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Fortification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Botanicals Used in Vermouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Pigments and Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 38 41 43 44 49 50 v

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2.8 Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Sensory Profile and Vermouth Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54 55 56 59 59 59 63

Chapter 3 New Trends in Spirit Beverages Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Katarzyna Pielech-Przybylska, Maria Balcerek 3.1 Organic Spirit Production Technology. Spirits From Malted and Unmalted Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.2 Spirit Beverages With Plant-Derived Aromatic Components . . . 72 3.3 Accelerated Ageing of Spirit Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4 Undesirable Compounds in Spirit Beverages and Ways to Reduce Their Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.5 Methods of Improving the Quality of Spirit Beverages (Adsorbents, Freezing, and/or Filtration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Chapter 4 Mescal an Alcoholic Beverage From Agave spp. With Great Commercial Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 S. Martínez, M. Nuñez-Guerrero, J.N. Gurrola-Reyes, Rutiaga-Quiñones, A. Paredes-Ortíz, Oscar N. Soto, A.C. Flores-Gallegos, R. Rodriguez-Herrera 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Bioactive Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Health Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Changes in Microbial Population During Process . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Product Quality and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

113 115 119 125 125 128

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4.7 Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conflict of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131 133 133 133 133 139

Chapter 5 Sotol, an Alcoholic Beverage With Rising Importance in the Worldwide Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 A.C. Flores-Gallegos, M. Cruz-Requena, F. Castillo-Reyes, Rutiaga-Quiñones, Leonardo Sepulveda Torre, Adanely Paredes-Ortíz, Oscar N. Soto, R. Rodriguez-Herrera 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Bioactive Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Changes in Microbial Population During Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Product Quality and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Potential Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141 143 147 147 148 151 154 157 157 157 157 160

Chapter 6 Medicinal Fungus Ganoderma lucidum as Raw Material for Alcohol Beverage Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Sonja Veljović, Ninoslav Nikićević, Miomir Nikšić 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 6.2 Ganoderma lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

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6.3 6.4 6.5

Chemical Composition of G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Therapeutic Application of Fungus G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alcohol Beverages Produced With Medicinal Fungus G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Chemical Content of Alcohol Beverages With Addition of G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Biological Activities of Alcohol Beverages With Fungus G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Sensory Characteristics of Alcohol Beverages With G. lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

164 169 171 175 179 186 190 191 191

Chapter 7 Application of a Two-Stage System With Pressurized Carbon Dioxide Microbubbles for Inactivating Enzymes and Microorganisms in Unpasteurized Sake and Unfiltered Beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Fumiyuki Kobayashi, Sachiko Odake 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Two-Stage MBCO2 Equipment and the Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Inactivation of Yeast in UFB, and hiochi Bacteria and Enzymes in UPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Inactivation of S. pastorianus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Effect on Intracellular pH (pHin) and Cell Membrane of S. pastorianus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Effect of Ethanol on the Inactivation of S. pastorianus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Quality Evaluation of the Treated Beer and Sake . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

199 201 203 203 207 214 218 221 237 239

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Chapter 8 Electromagnetic Characterization of Beers: Methodology, Results, Limitations, and Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Tom De Paepe, Isabel Expósito, Alejandro Cuevas, Iñigo Cuiñas, Jo Verhaevert 8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Electromagnetic Characterization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Experimental Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

243 246 248 253 274 275 276

Chapter 9 Tapping Into Health: Wine as Functional Beverage. . . . . . . . 279 Giovanna Giovinazzo, Francesco Grieco 9.1 Polyphenols in Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Soluble Acids, Flavonols, and Stilbenes: Wine Polyphenols With Biological Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Wine Polyphenol Mechanisms of Action Against Chronic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Polyphenol Bioavailability and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Synergism of Action of Wine Polyphenol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Men at Work: Winemaking Technologies to Increase the Polyphenols Content in Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

279 280 284 285 287 290 294 295 295 301

Chapter 10 The Evolution and the Development Phases of Wine . . . . . . 303 Monica Butnariu, Alina Butu 10.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 10.2 Factors Determining the Quality and Quantity of Grapes and Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

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10.3 The Yeasts Involved in the Development Phases of the Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Microbiology of Grape Must . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Molds Produce Several Defects in Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Influence of Environmental Factors on the Metabolism of Wine Yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Multiplication and Development of Yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Yeast Strains Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9 Yeas Strains Used for Vinification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10 The Metabolic Processes of Yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11 Alcoholic Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12 Malolactic Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13 Evolution of Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14 Wine Maintenance, Conditioning, and Bottling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15 Technologies for Stabilization and Clarification of Wine . . . . . . 10.16 Wine Cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17 Evolution and Development Phases of Wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.18 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

311 311 314 315 320 323 324 326 331 335 336 338 340 341 342 343 344

Chapter 11 New Trends in Sparkling Wine Production: Yeast Rational Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Paola Di Gianvito, Giuseppe Arfelli, Giovanna Suzzi, Rosanna Tofalo 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Sparkling Wine Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Specialized Yeasts for Sparkling Wine Production . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 New Trends in Sparkling Wines Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

347 349 359 367 375 376

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Chapter 12 Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Lachancea thermotolerans: Joint Use as an Alternative to the Traditional Fermentations by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Oenococcus oeni in Oenology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Ángel Benito, Fernando Calderón, Santiago Benito 12.1 Introduction: Non-Saccharomyces in Modern Winemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Schizosaccharomyces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 L. thermotolerans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 O. oeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Traditional Malolactic Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 S. pombe and L. thermotolerans Combined Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

387 391 394 396 398 398 410 412 417

Chapter 13 Emerging Trends in Fortified Wines: A Scientific | Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Vanda Pereira, Ana C. Pereira, José C. Marques 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Sherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Madeira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Marsala and Other Fortified Wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

419 422 439 448 456 460 460

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Chapter 14 Emerging Functional Beverages: Fruit Wines and Transgenic Wines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Gargi Dey, Srijita Sireswar 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Total Phenolic in Wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Phenolic Profiles of Fruit Wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Total Anthocyanin Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Antioxidant Activity in Fruit Wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Clinical Evidences and in vitro Studies on Wine in the Treatment of Human Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Transgenic Wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 Market Potential of Functional Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

471 474 482 487 489 496 499 503 503 504

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

CONTRIBUTORS Giuseppe Arfelli  Faculty of BioScience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy Maria Balcerek  Department of Spirit and Yeast Technology, Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland M.A. Bañuelos  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Ángel Benito  Department of Chemistry and Food Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Santiago Benito  Department of Chemistry and Food Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Monica Butnariu  Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Michael I of Romania” from Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania Alina Butu  National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences, Bucharest, Romania Fernando Calderón  Department of Chemistry and Food Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain F. Castillo-Reyes  National Research Institute for Agriculture, Livestock and Forest (INIFAP), Saltillo, Mexico M. Cruz-Requena  School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Mexico Alejandro Cuevas  Department Teoría do Sinal e Comunicacións, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain Iñigo Cuiñas  Department Teoría do Sinal e Comunicacións, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain Tom De Paepe  Department Teoría do Sinal e Comunicacións, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain; Department of Information Technology, Ghent Universit—IMEC, Ghent, Belgium Gargi Dey  School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India Paola Di Gianvito  Faculty of BioScience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy Isabel Expósito  Department Teoría do Sinal e Comunicacións, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain

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A.C. Flores-Gallegos  School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Mexico Giovanna Giovinazzo  National Research Council—Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), Lecce, Italy Francesco Grieco  National Research Council—Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), Lecce, Italy J.N. Gurrola-Reyes  National Polytechnic Institute-CIIDIR, Durango, Mexico Fumiyuki Kobayashi  Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan Thomas Kuballa  Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany Dirk W. Lachenmeier  Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany I. Loira  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain José C. Marques  Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, Funchal; Institute of Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication (I3N), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal S. Martínez  National Polytechnic Institute-CIIDIR, Durango, Mexico A. Morata  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Ninoslav Nikićević  University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Miomir Nikšić  University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia M. Nuñez-Guerrero  Chemistry-Biochemistry Department, National Technological of Mexico-Durango Technological Institute, Durango, Mexico Sachiko Odake  Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, Tokyo, Japan Alex O. Okaru  Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany F. Palomero  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain A. Paredes-Ortíz  Chemistry-Biochemistry Department, National Technological of Mexico-Durango Technological Institute, Durango, Mexico Adanely Paredes-Ortíz  Chemistry-Biochemistry Department, National Technological of Mexico-Durango Technological Institute, Durango, Mexico Vanda Pereira  Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, Funchal; Institute of Nanostructures, Nanomodelling and Nanofabrication (I3N), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Contributors  xv

Ana C. Pereira  Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, Funchal; CIEPQPF, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Katarzyna Pielech-Przybylska  Department of Spirit and Yeast Technology, Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland Jürgen Rehm  Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany R. Rodriguez-Herrera  School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Mexico Rutiaga-Quiñones  Chemistry-Biochemistry Department, National Technological of Mexico-Durango Technological Institute, Durango, Mexico Srijita Sireswar  School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India Katharina Sommerfeld  Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany Oscar N. Soto  Chemistry-Biochemistry Department, National Technological of Mexico-Durango Technological Institute, Durango, Mexico J.A. Suárez-Lepe  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Giovanna Suzzi  Faculty of BioScience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy Rosanna Tofalo  Faculty of BioScience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy Leonardo Sepulveda Torre  School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Mexico C. Vaquero  EnotecUPM, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Sonja Veljović  Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade; University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Jo Verhaevert  Department of Information Technology, Ghent Universit— IMEC, Ghent, Belgium Stephan G. Walch  Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany

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SERIES PREFACE Food and beverage industry accounts among the most developed sectors, being constantly changing. Even though a basic beverage industry could be found in every area of the globe, particular aspects in beverage production, processing, and consumption are identified in some geographic zones. An impressive progress has recently been observed in both traditional and modern beverage industries and these advances are leading beverages to a new era. Along with the cutting-edge technologies, developed to bring innovation and improve beverage industry, some other human-related changes also have a great impact on the development of such products. Emerging diseases with a high prevalence in the present, as well as a completely different lifestyle of the population in recent years have led to particular needs and preferences in terms of food and beverages. Advances in the production and processing of beverages have allowed for the development of personalized products to serve for a better health of overall population or for a particular class of individuals. Also, recent advances in the management of beverages offer the possibility to decrease any side effects associated with such an important industry, such as decreased pollution rates and improved recycling of all materials involved in beverage design and processing, while providing better quality products. Beverages engineering has emerged in such way that we are now able to obtain specifically designed content beverages, such as nutritive products for children, decreased sugar content juices, energy drinks, and beverages with additionally added health-promoting factors. However, with the immense development of beverage processing technologies and because of their wide versatility, numerous products with questionable quality and unknown health impact have been also produced. Such products, despite their damaging health effect, gained a great success in particular population groups (i.e., children) because of some attractive properties, such as taste, smell, and color. Nonetheless, engineering offered the possibility to obtain not only the innovative beverages but also packaging materials and contamination sensors useful in food and beverages quality and security sectors. Smart materials able to detect contamination or temperature differences which could impact food quality and even pose a hazardous situation for the consumer were recently developed and some are already utilized in packaging and food preservation.

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This 20-volume series has emerged from the need to reveal the current situation in beverage industry and to highlight the progress of the last years, bringing together most recent technological innovations while discussing present and future trends. The series aims to increase awareness of the great variety of new tools developed for traditional and modern beverage products and also to discuss their potential health effects. All volumes are clearly illustrated and contain chapters contributed by highly reputed authors, working in the field of beverage science, engineering, or biotechnology. Manuscripts are designed to provide necessary basic information in order to understand specific processes and novel technologies presented within the thematic volumes. Volume 1, entitled Production and management of beverages, offers a recent perspective regarding the production of main types of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. Current management approaches in traditional and industrial beverages are also dissected within this volume. In Volume 2, Processing and sustainability of beverages, novel information regarding the processing technologies and perspectives for a sustainable beverage industry are given. Third volume, entitled Engineering tools in beverage industry dissects the newest advances made in beverage engineering, highlighting cutting-edge tools and recently developed processes to obtain modern and improved beverages. Volume 4 presents updated information regarding Bottled and packaged waters. In this volume are discussed some wide interest problems, such as drinking water processing and security, contaminants, pollution and quality control of bottled waters, and advances made to obtain innovative water packaging. Volume 5, Fermented beverages, deals with the description of traditional and recent technologies utilized in the industry of fermented beverages, highlighting the high impact of such products on consumer health. Because of their great beneficial effects, fermented products still represent an important industrial and research domain. Volume 6 discusses recent progress in the industry of Nonalcoholic beverages. Teas and functional nonalcoholic beverages, as well as their impact on current beverage industry and traditional medicine are discussed. In Volume 7, entitled Alcoholic beverages, recent tools and technologies in the manufacturing of alcoholic drinks are presented. Updated information is given about traditional and industrial spirits production and examples of current technologies in wine and beer industry are dissected. Volume 8 deals with recent progress made in the field of Caffeinated and cocoa-based beverages. This volume presents the great variety of

Series Preface   xix

such popular products and offers new information regarding recent technologies, safety, and quality aspects as well as their impact on health. Also, recent data regarding the molecular technologies and genetic aspects in coffee useful for the development of high-quality raw materials could be found here. In Volume 9, entitled Milk-based beverages, current status, developments, and consumers trends in milk-related products are discussed. Milk-based products represent an important industry and tools are constantly been developed to fit the versatile preferences of consumers and also nutritional and medical needs. Volume 10, Sports and energy drinks, deals with the recent advances and health impact of sports and energy beverages, which became a flourishing industry in the recent years. In Volume 11, main novelties in the field of Functional and medicinal beverages, as well as perspective of their use for future personalized medicine are given. Volume 12 gives an updated overview regarding Nutrients in beverages. Types, production, intake, and health impact of nutrients in various beverage formulations are dissected through this volume. In Volume 13, advances in the field of Natural beverages are provided, along with their great variety, impact on consumer health, and current and future beverage industry developments. Volume 14, Value-added Ingredients and enrichments of beverages, talks about a relatively recently developed field which is currently widely investigated, namely the food and beverage enrichments. Novel technologies of extraction and production of enrichments, their variety, as well as their impact on product quality and consumers effects are dissected here. Volume 15, Preservatives and preservation approaches in beverages, offers a wide perspective regarding conventional and innovative preservation methods in beverages, as well as main preservatives developed in recent years. In Volume 16, Trends in beverage packaging, the most recent advances in the design of beverage packaging and novel materials designed to promote the content quality and freshness are presented. Volume 17 is entitled Quality control in beverage industry. In this volume are discussed the newest tools and approaches in quality monitoring and product development in order to obtain advanced beverages. Volume 18, Safety issues in beverage production, presents general aspects in safety control of beverages. Here, the readers can find not only the updated information regarding contaminants and risk factors in beverage production, but also novel tools for accurate detection and control.

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Volume 19, Biotechnological progress and beverage consumption, reveals novel tools used for advanced biotechnology in beverage industry production. Finally, Volume 20 entitled Nanoengineering in beverage industry take the readers into the nanotechnology world, while highlighting important progress made in the field of nanosized materials science aiming to obtain tools for a future beverage industry. This 20-volume series is intended especially for researchers in the field of food and beverages, and also biotechnologists, industrial representatives interested in innovation, academic staff and students in food science, engineering, biology, and chemistry-related fields, pharmacology and medicine, and is a useful and updated resource for any reader interested to find the basics and recent innovations in the most investigated fields in beverage engineering.

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu Alina Maria Holban

PREFACE Alcoholic beverages represent a growing industry, with large number of consumers, production, and commercialization strategies. Spirits, wines, and beers are the most important sectors in alcoholic beverage industry. In this book, we aimed to present recent technologies developed for alcoholic beverages production and processing, emphasizing on spirits, wines, and beers, together with some traditional approaches, which were recently standardized or included in industrial production. The future trends and developments in this popular industry are also dissected here. This volume contains 14 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Kenya, Spain, Poland, México, Serbia, Japan, Italy, Romania, Portugal, and India. The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food and beverage scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies, students, and also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of beverage science. In Chapter  1, The threat to quality of alcoholic beverages by unrecorded consumption, Alex Okaru et  al., review the epidemiology, chemical composition, health consequences, and also suggest plausible policy interventions to address the challenges posed by unrecorded alcohol consumption, discussing a case study from Kenya. It is estimated that about 25% of the consumed alcohol is not recorded. Since the production, distribution, and consumption of unrecorded alcohol is not under official quality control and regulation, the risk of unrecorded alcohol containing potentially hazardous substances [e.g., methanol, acetaldehyde, aflatoxins, heavy metals, toxic denaturants (e.g., diethyl phthalate) may be higher than that of the recorded alcoholic beverages]. Chapter 2, Technology of vermouth wines, by Morata Antonio et al., presents the technology and processes used in vermouth highlighting the repercussion on the sensory quality. Vermouth is a wine derivative produced from a base wine, usually white, fortified with wine spirit, colored by caramel with residual sugar level frequently about or higher than 100 g/L and aromatized with several dried herbs and extracts to get a typical bitter taste. The effect of traditional herbs and spices on its sensory profile, the effect of base wine on the aromatic complexity and stability, together with the impact of caramel used as a dye in the process, is analyzed within this work.

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Chapter 3, New trends in spirit beverages production, by Katarzyna Pielech-Przybylska et  al., dissects new trends in the spirits industry, such as the production of organic spirit beverages (from malted and unmalted cereals) and nonstandard spirit beverages (e.g., with plant-derived aromatic components). Manufacture of these spirits should respect the use of high-quality plant raw materials, enzymes, and microorganisms, with limitation of undesirable compounds. Also the new solutions are introduced into ageing technology, for example, an accelerated ageing by using oak wood fragments (charred or toasted) and/or by using physical methods (ultrasonic waves, gamma irradiation, electric field, and nanogold photocatalysis). The high competitiveness and consumer awareness requires more attention from the producers of spirits that should be focused on the quality of spirit beverages, which are currently in the market as well as the newly introduced. Chapter 4, Mescal: An alcoholic beverage from Agave spp. with great commercial potential, by S. Martínez et al., reviews all the mescal production process and discusses its chemical and physical properties and the microorganisms involved in mescal fermentation. Mescal is a regional alcoholic beverage with denomination of origin; this category has been granted to the beverage produced in three states of the Mexican Republic. However, this beverage is gaining increased interest and has a great commercial potential. Chapter  5, Sotol, an alcoholic beverage with rising importance in the worldwide commerce, by A.C. Flores-Gallegos et al., addresses the chemical and physical properties of sotol, its elaboration process, and the microbial populations present in the sotol fermentation. Chapter 6, Medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum as raw material for alcohol beverage production, by Sonja Veljović et al., summarizes the data about production processes, physicochemical characteristics, bioactivity, and sensory characteristics of alcohol beverages produced with G. lucidum and also in combination with other plants. Scientific data show that this fungus improves the functional properties of alcoholic beverages, such as antioxidant and antiaging. Moreover, G. lucidum changes the color of alcoholic beverages and accelerates a long period of maturation in wooden casks. Chapter 7, Application of a two-stage system with pressurized carbon dioxide microbubbles for inactivating enzymes and microorganisms in unpasteurized sake and unfiltered beer, by Fumiyuki Kobayashi et al., describes a newly developed system for the inactivation of enzymes and microorganisms in unpasteurized and unfiltered alcoholic beverages. The authors have devised a two-stage system that was additionally pressurized and heated after carbon dioxide microbubbles (MBCO2) were mixed with liquid food at a low temperature and pressure (two-stage MBCO2), as a novel technique for inactivating

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enzymes and microorganism in liquid food. Therefore, enzymes and hiochi bacteria in unpasteurized sake (UPS) and yeast in unfiltered beer (UFB) were inactivated by the two-stage MBCO2, and the quality of the sake and beer were evaluated. Enzymes and Hiochi bacteria in UPS and yeast in UFB could be completely inactivated by the two-stage MBCO2. In sensory evaluation, sake and beer treated with two-stage MBCO2 were better than those treated with heat as usual and analyzed the components. These results suggested that two-stage MBCO2 promised as a practical technique for inactivating enzymes and microorganisms in UFB and UPS. In Chapter  8, Electromagnetic characterization of beers: Methodology, results, limitations and applications, by Tom De Paepe et al., the probe reflection method is described and applied to characterize different kinds of beers, in a variety of conditions of temperature and of times after opening. A precise electromagnetic characterization of liquids can be useful to beverage producers, as its variations can provide information about the quality of the beverages. Finally, a way to take advantage of those gathered data is also proposed: we could transmit a radio wave across tubes of liquids (i.e., beer) within factories (i.e., breweries) and then detect the received signals in the opposite side. This setup would allow detecting changes in quality or production parameters related to modifications in the electromagnetic behavior of the liquid itself. Chapter  9, Tapping into healthy: Wine as functional beverage, by Giovanna Giovinazzo et  al., presents the latest results regarding the effects of specific classes of polyphenol (soluble acids, flavonols, and stilbenes) on human health and propose novel perspectives for research to enhance the quantity of these healthy compounds in wine. The various polyphenol families present in wine are important for a number of technological properties of wine such as clarity, hue, and palatal taste. The dietary polyphenols are correlated with several health benefits, protecting against chronic diseases and promoting healthy aging. Chapter 10, The evolution and the development phases of wine, by Monica Butnariu et al., describes the organoleptic characteristics and chemical composition of the raw wine distillates that have received multiple uses over the time are described. The bioprocesses occurring throughout the evolution and the development phases of distillates of wine make it to be the least harmful for human health compared with the distillates of different origins. The technology for producing wines require rapid processing of the grapes, avoiding oxidation, and maceration, the total fermentation of sugars at relatively low temperatures, and the temporary preservation of the wines on yeast. Chapter 11, New trends in sparkling wine production, by Paola Di Gianvito et al., discusses the sparkling wines production steps, which

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starts from a still wine that undergoes to a secondary fermentation. This step, also known by the French term prise de mousse, occurs after the addition of the liqueur de tirage, a mix of yeasts, sucrose nutrient, and adjuvants. Depending on the used technology, this secondary fermentation can occur inside the same bottle that reaches the consumer (traditional method) or in a pressurized tank (Charmat method). During the sparkling wine production, yeasts are subjected to particular stress conditions and for this reason they have to possess some additional technological features with respect to starters for still wines, such as autolytic ability and flocculation capacity. The growing diffusion of this wine brought researchers to evaluate new biotechnological approaches to improve sparkling wine quality. Chapter  12, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Lachancea thermotolerans: Joint use as an alternative to the traditional fermentations by Saccharomyces cerevisae and Oenococus oeni in oenology, by Ángel Benito et al., explains a modern red winemaking method based on the use of S. pombe and L. thermotolerans nonSaccharomyces species to reduce traditional malolactic fermentation possible problems. In this methodology, L. thermotolerans produces lactic acid that increases the acidity of low acidity musts while malic acid is removed by S. pombe. The influence in parameters such as ethanol, amino acids, and volatile compounds is properly reported according to the last studies. Chapter  13, Emerging trends in fortified wines: A scientific perspective, by Vanda Pereira et al., comprehensively describes the most recent scientific knowledge reported in the last 10  years, essentially about the volatile compounds that characterize and define the aroma of each wine and the polyphenolic composition that defines and influences their chromatic characteristics, as well as how they contribute to the technological advances of each fortified wine. Also, the occurrence of compounds that can affect their quality is also addressed. Chapter 14, Emerging functional beverages: Fruit wines and transgenic wines, by Gargi Dey et al., describes in detail the phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and biological in  vitro and in  vivo activity of nontraditional fruit wines and compare them with those found for grape wines. The chapter also gives an overview of the state of the art research and innovations in this field. Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Alina Maria Holban Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

THE THREAT TO QUALITY OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES BY UNRECORDED CONSUMPTION

1

Alex O. Okaru⁎,†, Jürgen Rehm‡,§, Katharina Sommerfeld†, Thomas Kuballa†, Stephan G. Walch†, Dirk W. Lachenmeier† ⁎

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya †Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany ‡Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada § Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

1.1 Introduction Alcohol consumption can be broadly classified into recorded and unrecorded consumption, based on whether the alcohol consumed is officially registered or not. In the last decade unrecorded alcohol consumption has become the focus of increasing attention, as World Health Organization (WHO) estimations have shown that about onefourth of global consumption is unrecorded (WHO, 2014). As the major ingredient of unrecorded alcohol is most typically ethanol, similar to recorded alcohol, all of the health consequences of alcohol consumption in general also apply to unrecorded alcohol (Lachenmeier et  al., 2013). Nevertheless, unrecorded alcohol poses some specific problems apart from recorded alcohol, which are reviewed in this chapter.

1.2  What Is Unrecorded Alcohol? Unrecorded alcohol comprises homemade, illegally produced or smuggled alcohol products as well as surrogate alcohol that is not officially intended for human consumption (e.g., mouthwash, perfumes, and eau-de-colognes) (Fig. 1.1). Unrecorded alcohol consumption is highest in Eastern Europe and Africa (Rehm et  al., 2016; Rehm and Poznyak, 2015; WHO, 2014). Its major economic impacts are losses

Alcoholic Beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815269-0.00001-5 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1

2  Chapter 1  The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption

Alcohol products

Recorded alcohol

Legal but unrecorded alcohol products

Unrecorded alcohol (about 30% of consumption globally)

Alcohol products recorded, but not in the jurisdiction where they are consumed

Homemade fruit and other spirits; homebrewed beer; wine products for home consumption

Surrogate alcohol; nonbeverage alcohol not officially intended for human use

Cross-border shopping

Illegal homemade artisanal production

Mouth-wash, perfumes, denatured alcohol, automobile products, medicinal compounds

Illegal production and smuggling on a commercial (industrial) scale

Moonshine; homemade beer, wine and spirits production in countries where it is illegal

Mainly spirits; but also beer/wine not taxed

Fig. 1.1  Categories of unrecorded alcohol. Reproduced from Rehm, J., Kailasapillai, S., Larsen, E., Rehm, M.X., Samokhvalov, A.V., Shield, K.D., Roerecke, M., Lachenmeier, D.W., 2014. A systematic review of the epidemiology of unrecorded alcohol consumption and the chemical composition of unrecorded alcohol. Addiction 109, 880–893 with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

due to smuggling and tax fraud. The level of illegal trade and smuggling predominantly depends on the level of governmental enforcement. The implementation of Europe-wide tax stamps and mechanisms to track the movement of all alcohol products in the distribution chain were suggested to combat illegal trade. Especially in settings with higher levels of unrecorded production and consumption, increasing the proportion of consumption that is taxed may represent a more effective pricing policy than simple increase in excise tax. The health effects and toxicity of unrecorded alcohol were found to be very similar to commercial alcohol, predominantly caused by ethanol itself (Rehm et al., 2014, 2010b). The major problem is certainly that unrecorded spirits are often sold at higher alcoholic strength (>45% vol) but in some cases for half the price of legal beverages, possibly leading to more detrimental patterns of drinking and overproportional health hazards. Health effects beyond ethanol are seen in exceptional cases where methanol is intentionally added to the alcohol or when surrogate alcohol contains highly toxic ingredients (such as methanol in denatured alcohol, coumarin in cosmetic alcohol or polyhexamethylene guanidine in disinfectant alcohol). To improve the knowledge base about unrecorded alcohol, better estimates of the size of the market and the amount of consumption need to be provided. Insight into the distribution of consumption

Chapter 1  The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption   3

­ etween the categories of unrecorded alcohol would be also required b to provide a targeted country- or region-specific policy response. Unrecorded alcohol denotes alcoholic drinks produced and/or consumed that are not recorded in official statistics of sales, production, or trade. In some countries, unrecorded drinks account for the majority of alcohol consumption (Rehm et al., 2004). Unrecorded alcohol stems from a variety of sources (Giesbrecht et  al., 2000; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010): home production, illegal production and sales, illegal (smuggling) and legal imports (cross-border shopping), and other production of alcoholic drinks that are not taxed and/or are not included in official production and sales statistics. A portion of unrecorded alcoholic drinks derive from different local or traditional drinks that are produced and consumed in the community or homes (Lachenmeier et al., 2013). The production may be legal or illegal, depending on the jurisdiction and in some cases on the strength of the drink. Worldwide, information on these alcoholic drinks and their production or consumption volumes is scarce (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010). Due to the wide diversity of products that may fall under unrecorded alcohol, there has been no consistent definition or usage of this term in the literature. Some authors use the terms illegal, informal, artisanal, homeproduced, nonbeverage, or surrogate alcohol; however, these terms often only describe subgroups of unrecorded alcohol (Lachenmeier et al., 2013). The industry prefers the term “noncommercial alcohol” (Adelekan, 2008). The WHO provided the following nomenclature and classification (Fig. 1.1; see also the Global Information System on Alcohol and Health—GISAH—at: http://www.who.int). The term “unrecorded alcohol” comprises four major categories: (1) illegally produced or smuggled alcohol; (2) surrogate alcohol, that is, alcohol not officially intended for human consumption, such as perfume; (3) alcohol not registered in the country where it is consumed; and (4) legal unregistered alcohol (e.g., homemade alcohol in countries where it is legal) (Lachenmeier et  al., 2013). There are various subcategories within these broad categories. For instance, illegally produced alcohol can stem from the same factory as legal alcohol (i.e., beer factories, distilleries, wineries), but a proportion of the alcohol produced is not declared to the authorities in order to evade taxation. It should be noted that homemade alcohols are usually illegally produced but there are exceptions such as in countries where home production is not illegal but would still be part of unrecorded consumption (Lachenmeier et  al., 2013). Some common examples of surrogate alcohols include mouthwash, perfumes, and eau de cologne, which are alcohol products manufactured on a large scale (Lachenmeier et al., 2007, 2009b). Such alcohols may be produced with human consumption in mind

4  Chapter 1  The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption

but to evade taxation may be officially classified as “shaving water” or “mouthwash” (Lachenmeier et al., 2011b). In Russia (e.g., Savchuk et al., 2006), surrogate alcohols are differentiated based on the type of alcohol that the liquid contains: true surrogate alcohols (i.e., solutions and liquids manufactured from ethanol or containing large amounts of ethanol) and false surrogate alcohols (i.e., ethanol-free liquids, such as methanol, propanol, and ethylene glycol). In some instances, alcohols illegally produced for human consumption contain nonbeverage alcohols, that is, to increase alcohol concentration (Lachenmeier et  al., 2013). Thus, beverage alcohol that is offered for consumption on the illegal market could be adulterated by nondrinkable alcohol and consumers may not be aware of the potential risks. Quantitative estimations of the degree of contamination of unrecorded alcohol are currently not available (Lachenmeier et al., 2013). It is important to note that consumers cannot assumed to be self-responsible when consuming counterfeit alcohol because there is no general ability to organoleptically detect counterfeit alcohol (Kuballa et al., 2018).

1.3  How Much and What Type of Unrecorded Alcohol Is Consumed Worldwide? While per capita consumption of recorded alcohol is traceable via official statistics based on production, sales, and/or trade data (Rehm et al., 2007), no such data are available for unrecorded alcohol (Lachenmeier et al., 2013). Therefore, the currently available data are estimates, mainly based on expert opinion (Rehm et al., 2007), which carry substantial uncertainty (Rehm et al., 2007, 2003, 2004), and have many open questions. Only recently, monitoring systems such as the WHO noncommunicable disease monitoring system have included the empirical assessment of unrecorded alcohol as part of risk factor surveillance (http://www.who.int/chp/steps/en/) (Lachenmeier et al., 2013). Thus, the regional distribution of the four subcategories of unrecorded alcohol cannot be quantified. Overall, 25%–30% of global alcohol consumption was estimated to be unrecorded in the early twenty-first century (Rehm et  al., 2003; Room et  al., 2005) with a higher proportion in low- and middle-income countries (Rehm et  al., 2016) and in the former Soviet Union, but there are huge regional differences (Table  1.1 and Fig.  1.2). As much of the unrecorded alcohol consumption occurs in countries such as India, China, Brazil, Russia, or on the African continent. Category iii (alcohol not registered in the country where it is consumed), including cross-border shopping, is not relevant on a global level, but it may

Chapter 1  The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption   5

Table 1.1  Overview of Possible Policy Measures to Mitigate Unrecorded Alcohol Consumption Type of Unrecorded Alcohol All types

Illicit alcohol

All types

All types

Homeproduced

Homeproduced

Policy Measures Substitute unrecorded consumption with recorded consumption (e.g., by providing low-cost commercial drinks; special tax rates for products offered to low-income consumers) Introduction of tax stamps recording that duty has been paid; electronic movement and surveillance systems to track the trade of alcohol Education

Issuing of public warnings when contaminants or other health threats are found in unrecorded alcohol; information exchange between authorities on municipal, national and international level Financial incentives for registration of producers, intermediate trade organization or monopoly

Businesses need to register with the government and conduct quality control following FAO/WHO/Codex Alimentarius guidelines or corresponding national standards, e.g., regarding good manufacturing practices, hygiene, product composition, and labeling. Tax exemption for transitional time periods could be granted

Brief Information on Evidence of Their Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness Industry option. No evidence for effectiveness or cost effectiveness. Will likely increase total net consumption (Babor et al., 2010). Unrecorded producers could also lower their prices in adjustment (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b) Reduces marketability of unrecorded alcohol; allows consumers to detect illegal alcohol. High costs and bureaucracy. Penalization for small manufacturers (Gil et al., 2009) Reduced use and buying of illegal spirits, substitution with recorded alcohol. Probably low effectiveness similar to education and persuasion in standard alcohol policy (Babor et al., 2010) Systems need to be established or existing systems for other foods can be used for alcohol as well (e.g., the INFOSAN system of WHO or the RASFF system of EU are already be used in cases of unrecorded alcohol) Legalization and quality control of small-scale production. Prevention of possible chronic toxic effects from contaminated alcohol. The often marginalized alcohol producers keep their income, but the state regains control over the sales. No clear proof of effectiveness for countries other than Germany (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b) No clear proof of effectiveness (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Continued

6  Chapter 1  The Threat to Quality of Alcoholic Beverages by Unrecorded Consumption

Table 1.1  Overview of Possible Policy Measures to Mitigate Unrecorded Alcohol Consumption—cont’d Type of Unrecorded Alcohol Homeproduced

Illicit alcohol

Policy Measures Competitions and awards for quality as incentives for legal home producers to raise and maintain the standards of their beverages Support local authorities in random tests and identification of sources

Homeproduced

Maximum alcoholic strength for homeproduced, unlabeled spirits

Surrogate alcohol

Prohibit toxic substances for use to denature alcohol (e.g., methanol and diethyl phthalate). Prohibit toxic substances in consumer products that are likely to be ingested as surrogate alcohol (e.g., polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG) in disinfectants) Abolish tax exemption for denatured alcohol

Surrogate alcohol (denatured alcohol) Surrogate alcohol (medicinal alcohol) Surrogate alcohol (other alcohols besides ethanol)

Taxation similar to beverage alcohol, reduce container size, restrict number of bottles allowed to be sold per person or reduce availability of surrogate alcohol Increase prices of all products (especially methanol) that could be used instead of or mistaken for ethanol to a price similar to that of ethanol

Brief Information on Evidence of Their Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness Will probably only target a small part of home production (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Identify contaminated and counterfeit products. Cost effectiveness of random testing questionable. (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b) Regulations could be implemented to restrict the alcoholic strength of homeproduced spirits to 40%, if no labeling is done Large evidence for reduced morbidity and mortality in countries that abolished the use of methanol (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Loss of incentive for drinking surrogate alcohol (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Loss of financial incentive to use as surrogate alcohol (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Prevention of harm by accidental ingestion or intentional addition of these substances to alcohol (Lachenmeier et al., 2011a,b)

Modified from Lachenmeier, D.W., Taylor, B.J., Rehm, J., 2011b. Alcohol under the radar: do we have policy options regarding unrecorded alcohol? Int. J. Drug Policy 22, 153–160 with permission from Elsevier.

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Unrecorded consumption (in ltr) in world 2005 0.0–1 year), Superiore (>2 years), Superiore Riserva (>4 years), Vergine or Soleras (>5 years), and Vergine Stravecchio or Riserva (>10 years). More details about Marsala winemaking and styles can be found elsewhere (Zanfi and Mencarelli, 2013). The most recent scientific study about Marsala is dedicated to the global volatile profile (Dugo et al., 2014) that characterizes these fortified wines. Marsala wines (Fine, Superiore Secco, Superiore Riserva, and Vergine) revealed complex global volatile patterns with more than 500 components (by comprehensive 2D GC), although only 128 compounds could be identified, mainly esters, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes. Moreover, the ecology of the autochthonous S. cerevisiae strains from different Grillo vineyards within the Marsala wine area was studied from the grape harvest till complete fermentation (Settanni et al., 2012). In all, 51 strains were recognized, particularly 14 autochthonous S. cerevisiae strains that revealed a technological potential to drive the fermentation of must into wine. Hanseniaspora uvarum, Candida zemplinina, and Pichia kudriavzevii were detected in place of or at comparable levels of S. cerevisiae in the fermentative stages wherein ethanol contents were abundant. In turn, different Marsalas (Superiore Ambra Secco, Fine Ambra Secco, Fine Oro Dolce, Superiore Riserva, and Vergine Soleras) were also correctly classified according to their phenolic, carbohydrate, and heavy metal levels by La Torre et al. (2008). Tyrosol, caffeic acid, procyanidin B1, catechin, quercetin, kaempferol, lactose, rhamnose, zinc, copper, and lead were the compounds that contributed more to this discrimination. Marsala’s sugar composition had been previously studied by La Pera et al. (2007). They reported that Marsalas exhibit abundant levels of glucose and fructose and residual levels of xylose, rhamnose, and lactose. Maltose was also present in these Sicilian wines.

13.5.2 Moscatel de Setúbel Together with Port, Madeira, and Carcavelos wines, Moscatel de Setúbal composes the quartet of generoso wines of Portugal. These Moscatel fortified wines (17%–18% ABV) are produced in the Setúbal PDO region, located in a restricted area of the Setúbal Peninsula. Blend of several vintages can be prepared from white grape varieties, compulsorily including the Moscatel de Setúbal grape variety (at least 67%), and from red ones, where the Moscatel Roxo grape variety should be present with a minimum percentage of 67%. However, single vintages that claim the traditional designations “Moscatel de

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Setúbal” and “Moscatel Roxo” are prepared from at least 85% of the corresponding varieties. The others grape varieties used for blending are Arinto, Boais, Diagalves, and Vital (Feliciano et al., 2009). Their vinification is characterized by a short-fermentation period, halted by fortification with grape spirit (52%–86% ABV) or vinous alcohol (>96%), followed by an extended maceration period, where the grapes skins stay in contact with the alcoholized wine (Feliciano et al., 2009). The resulting wine is separated from solids, by pressing, before being undergone oxidative aging in tanks and eventually in oak barrels, for at least 2 years. Thus, sweet fortified wines are prepared, with a residual sugar ranging between 90 and 100 g/L. The Comissão Vitivinícola Regional da Península de Setúbal is the entity that regulates the production of Moscatel de Setúbal wines. As aforementioned, Moscatel de Setúbal can be categorized according to the grapes used for its production (white and red styles), but also according to the aging time: young (up to 5 years) and classic (with 5 or more years), which are those that are aged in wood barrels. The most recent studies about these wines are related to polyphenols. Trans-resveratrol content ranged between 0.13 and 0.38 mg/L in wines obtained from different producers (Bravo et al., 2008), slightly decreasing during the winemaking process. Polyphenols and antioxidant activity of Moscatel de Setúbal wines were assayed by Feliciano et al. (2009). They reported that total polyphenols ranged between 756 and 1863 gallic acid equivalents/L, with total flavonoids ranging between 101 and 467 mg catechin equivalents/L. These elevated levels were explained based on the peculiar maceration process, which usually does not take place in other wines. They found that total flavonoid content is a better estimation of antioxidant activity in these fortified wines than total phenolic content. Finally, more recently, FTIR coupled with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) was found to be a feasible tool for the rapid and roughly prediction of the phenolic contents and antioxidant capacity of Moscatel de Setúbal (Silva et al., 2014).

13.5.3 Vermouth Vermouth is also a fortified wine (15%–21% ABV) that has been flavored by adding a characteristic mixture of herbs and spices or their extract (extracting them into a wine and brandy mixture by infusion, maceration, or distillation) to a base wine (Panesar et al., 2011; Joshi et al., 2017). Wormwood, coriander, cloves, chamomile, dittany of Crete, orris, and quassia are the flavoring agents most commonly used. The base wine is traditionally made from white grapes, but, currently, the use of fruit-based wines has also been emerging. The base wine should be preferentially neutral. The fortification takes place

Chapter 13  Emerging Trends in Fortified Wines: A Scientific Perspective   459

after blending the extracts with the base wine and before aging. The maturation period is in average 4.5 years, but vermouths aged for longer periods can also found. The wines can be sweetened, up to the desired amount of reducing sugar, adding liquid invert sugar, sucrose, grape concentrate, mistelle (usually grape juice preserved with wine alcohol), or mute (grape juice preserved with sulfur dioxide). Caramel addition is allowed for coloring adjustments. The most famous Vermouths in the trade are the Italian and French styles, but others can also be found from Spain, Argentina, the United States, and Hungary. The Italian ones are sweet wines with alcoholic contents between 15% and 17% ABV, while the French are dry and hold 18% ABV. Sweet Vermouths usually have darker amber colors than dry ones and have more flavor as well. A pleasant intense flavor and aftertaste bitterness usually characterize these fortified wines due to the contribution of the flavoring mixture. A better understanding of the vermouth processing and styles can be obtained from the reading of specialized literature (Panesar et al., 2011; Joshi et al., 2017). The paper, published in the last decade, related with the Vermouth, studied the effect of ethanol on the interactions of the bitter and sweet tastes. In fact, Panovska et al. (2008) have found that the ethanol levels commonly present in vermouths do not have a great effect on these mouthfeel sensations.

13.5.4 Commandaria Commandaria is the best-known sweet wine from Cyprus (Mencarelli, 2013). It is produced in the Commandaria PDO region, which is composed of 14 wine-producing villages on the foothills of the Troödos Mountains, near to Limassol. This wine is made from sun-dried red (Négrette and Mavro) and white (Xynisteri) grape varieties. The fermentation of musts with 19–23° Baumé is naturally ceased due to the high levels of alcohol that are achieved (ca. 15%). Then, the resulting wine may be fortified up to 20% ABV using wine distillate (>70% ABV) or pure grape alcohol (95%), nonetheless, fortification is not mandatory. Commandaria wines are aged in oak barrels for at least 4 years (even though they usually age for longer periods) following a solera-like system, locally designated as mana. These wines are dark and are characterized by as exhibiting a honey/ raisin flavor. The authenticity of Commandaria wines was studied using FTIR spectral data and chemometric techniques by Ioannou-Papayianni et  al. (2011). Their approach revealed to be effective to differentiate nonfortified, fortified, and home produced Commandaria wines from other sweet wines, such as Port and Madeira.

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13.6 Conclusion Sherry, Port, and Madeira are classic examples of fortified wines. Although they are all fortified, important differences are found in their vinification and aging processes, which confer great differences in their organoleptic properties. The winemaking procedures and their different styles are discussed in this chapter. These differences are also reflected in the scientific studies conducted in the last decade. This chapter devotes special attention to the scientific studies developed in the 2007–2017 period and reflects the topics that have motivated scientists to study these wines, such as aroma volatiles, polyphenols, and yeasts. In general, the volatile signature of wines has been the most studied subject, while polyphenols have been more studied in Portuguese wines and yeasts in Sherry wines. Chemometric studies have been used to study the aging of Madeira wine. A deeper understanding of the chemical processes, notably the impact the accelerated aging in fortified wines, and modeling of the general process to ensure the consistency of high-quality wines have also been highlighted.

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Perestrelo, R., Silva, C.L., Câmara, J.S., 2015. Quantification of furanic derivatives in fortified wines by a highly sensitive and ultrafast analytical strategy based on digitally controlled microextraction by packed sorbent combined with ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 1381, 54–63. Perestrelo, R., Silva, C.L., Pereira, J., Câmara, J.S., 2016. Wines: Madeira, Port and Sherry fortified wines—the sui generis and notable peculiarities. Major differences and chemical patterns. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Academic Press, Oxford. Pérez Trujillo, J.P., Conde, J.E., Pérez Pont, M.L., Câmara, J., Marques, J.C., 2011. Content in metallic ions of wines from the Madeira and Azores archipelagos. Food Chem. 124, 533–537. Pinho, C., Couto, A.I., Valentão, P., Andrade, P., Ferreira, I.M.P.L.V.O., 2012. Assessing the anthocyanic composition of Port wines and musts and their free radical scavenging capacity. Food Chem. 131, 885–892. Pons, A., Lavigne, V., Darriet, P., Dubourdieu, D., 2013. Role of 3-methyl-2,4-nonanedione in the flavor of aged red wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61, 7373–7380. Pozo-Bayón, M.Á., Moreno-Arribas, M.V., 2011. Sherry wines. In: Jackson, R.S. (Ed.), Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. Academic Press, Waltham, MA. (Chapter 2). Pozo-Bayón, M.Á., Moreno-Arribas, M.V., 2016. Sherry wines: manufacture, composition and analysis. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Academic Press, Oxford. Prats-Montalbán, J.M., De Juan, A., Ferrer, A., 2011. Multivariate image analysis: a review with applications. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 107, 1–23. Quaglieri, C., Jourdes, M., Waffo-Teguo, P., Teissedre, P.-L., 2017. Updated knowledge about pyranoanthocyanins: impact of oxygen on their contents, and contribution in the winemaking process to overall wine color. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 67, 139–149. Reader, H.P., Dominguez, M., 2003. Fortified wines Sherry, Port and Madeira. In: Lea, A.G.H., Piggott, J.R. (Eds.), Fermented Beverage Production, second ed. Boston, MA, Springer Science & Business Media. Real, A.C., Borges, J., Cabral, J.S., Jones, G.V., 2017. A climatology of Vintage Port quality. Int. J. Climatol. 37, 3798–3809. Rebelo, M.J., Sousa, C., Valentão, P., Rego, R., Andrade, P.B., 2014. Phenolic profile of Douro wines and evaluation of their NO scavenging capacity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Food Chem. 163, 16–22. Recamales, A.F., Hernanz, D., Álvarez, C., González-Miret, M.L., Heredia, F.J., 2007. Colour of Amontillado wines aged in two oak barrel types. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 224, 321–327. Rendall, R., Pereira, A.C., Reis, M.S., 2017. Advanced predictive methods for wine age prediction: part I—a comparison study of single-block regression approaches based on variable selection, penalized regression, latent variables and tree-based ensemble methods. Talanta 171, 341–350. Restani, P., Uberti, F., Tarantino, C., Ballabio, C., Gombac, F., Bastiani, E., Bolognini, L., Pavanello, F., Danzi, R., 2014. Collaborative interlaboratory studies for the validation of ELISA methods for the detection of allergenic fining agents used in wine according to the criteria of OIV resolution 427–2010 modified by OIV–Comex 502–2012. Food Anal. Methods 7, 706–712. Reboredo-Rodríguez, P., González-Barreiro, C., Rial-Otero, R., Cancho-Grande, B., Simal-Gándara, J., 2015. Effects of sugar concentration processes in grapes and wine aging on aroma compounds of sweet wines—a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 55, 1053–1073. Rogerson, F.S.S., De Freitas, V.A.P., 2002. Fortification spirit, a contributor to the aroma complexity of Port. J. Food Sci. 67, 1564–1569. Roldán, A.M., Lasanta, C., Caro, I., Palacios, V., 2012. Effect of lysozyme on “flor” velum yeasts in the biological aging of sherry wines. Food Microbiol. 30, 245–252.

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Roldán, A.M., Lloret, I., Palacios, V., 2017. Use of a submerged yeast culture and lysozyme for the treatment of bacterial contamination during biological aging of sherry wines. Food Control 71, 42–49. Roldán, A.M., Palacios, V., Caro, I., Pérez, L., 2010. Evolution of resveratrol and piceid contents during the industrial winemaking process of Sherry wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58, 4268–4273. Rudnitskaya, A., Rocha, S.M., Legin, A., Pereira, V., Marques, J.C., 2010. Evaluation of the feasibility of the electronic tongue as a rapid analytical tool for wine age prediction and quantification of the organic acids and phenolic compounds. The case-study of Madeira wine. Anal. Chim. Acta 662, 82–89. Ruiz-Bejarano, M.J., Castro-Mejías, R., Rodríguez-Dodero, M.C., García-Barroso, C., 2013. Study of the content in volatile compounds during the aging of sweet Sherry wines obtained from grapes cv. Muscat and fermented under different conditions. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 237, 905–922. Ruiz-Bejarano, M.J., Castro-Mejías, R., Rodríguez-Dodero, M.C., García-Barroso, C., 2015. Effect of ageing of sweet Sherry wines obtained from cvs Muscat and Pedro Ximénez on ethyl carbamate concentration. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 21, 396–403. Ruiz-Bejarano, M.J., Castro-Mejías, R., Rodríguez-Dodero, M.C., García-Barroso, C., 2016. Volatile composition of Pedro Ximénez and Muscat sweet Sherry wines from sun and chamber dried grapes: a feasible alternative to the traditional sun-drying. J. Food Sci. Technol. 53, 2519–2531. Ruiz, M.J., Moyano, L., Zea, L., 2014. Changes in aroma profile of musts from grapes cv. Pedro Ximenez chamber-dried at controlled conditions destined to the production of sweet Sherry wine. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 59, 560–565. Ruiz, M.J., Zea, L., Moyano, L., Medina, M., 2010. Aroma active compounds during the drying of grapes cv. Pedro Ximenez destined to the production of sweet Sherry wine. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 230, 429. Salaha, M.I., Metafa, M., Lanaridis, P., 2007. Ochratoxin a occurrence in Greek dry and sweet wines. J. Int. Des Sci. De La Vigne Et Du Vin 41, 225–230. Santiago Hurtado, J.I., López De Lerma, N., Moreno, J., Peinado, R.A., 2010. Effect of thermal treatment and Oak chips on the volatile composition of Pedro Ximénez sweet wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61, 91–95. Schwarz, M., Rodríguez, M.C., Guillén, D.A., Barroso, C.G., 2012. Evolution of the colour, antioxidant activity and polyphenols in unusually aged Sherry wines. Food Chem. 133, 271–276. Scrimgeour, N., Nordestgaard, S., Lloyd, N.D.R., Wilkes, E.N., 2015. Exploring the effect of elevated storage temperature on wine composition. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 21, 713–722. Serratosa, M.P., Lopez-Toledano, A., Medina, M., Merida, J., 2011. Characterisation of the colour fraction of Pedro Ximenez andalusian sweet wines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 32, 155–163. Settanni, L., Sannino, C., Francesca, N., Guarcello, R., Moschetti, G., 2012. Yeast ecology of vineyards within Marsala wine area (western Sicily) in two consecutive vintages and selection of autochthonous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 114, 606–614. Silva Ferreira, A.C., Monteiro, J., Oliveira, C., Guedes De Pinho, P., 2008. Study of major aromatic compounds in port wines from carotenoid degradation. Food Chem. 110, 83–87. Silva Ferreira, A.C., Reis, S., Rodrigues, C., Oliveira, C., Guedes De Pinho, P., 2007. Simultaneous determination of ketoacids and dicarbonyl compounds, key maillard intermediates on the generation of aged wine aroma. J. Food Sci. 72, S314–S318. Silva, S.D., Feliciano, R.P., Vilas-Boas, L., Bronze, M.R., 2014. Application of FTIR-ATR to Moscatel dessert wines for prediction of total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant capacity. Food Chem. 150, 489–493.

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Stupak, M., Kocourek, V., Kolouchova, I., Hajslova, J., 2017. Rapid approach for the determination of alcoholic strength and overall quality check of various spirit drinks and wines using GC–MS. Food Control 80, 307–313. Suárez-Lepe, J.A., Morata, A., 2012. New trends in yeast selection for winemaking. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 23, 39–50. Tanabe, C.K., Hopfer, H., Ebeler, S.E., Nelson, J., Conklin, S.D., Kubachka, K.M., Wilson, R.A., 2017. Matrix extension and multilaboratory validation of arsenic speciation method EAM §4.10 to include wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 65, 4193–4199. Tao, Y., García, J.F., Sun, D.-W., 2014. Advances in wine aging technologies for enhancing wine quality and accelerating wine aging process. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 54, 817–835. Thangavelu, K., Raja, N., Chen, S.-M., Liao, W.-C., 2017. Nanomolar electrochemical detection of caffeic acid in fortified wine samples based on gold/palladium nanoparticles decorated graphene flakes. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 501, 77–85. Tredoux, A.G.J., Silva Ferreira, A.C., 2012. Fortified wines: styles, production and flavour chemistry. In: Piggott, J. (Ed.), Alcoholic Beverages. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK. (Chapter 7). Urcan, D.E., Giacosa, S., Torchio, F., Río Segade, S., Raimondi, S., Bertolino, M., Gerbi, V., Pop, N., Rolle, L., 2017. Fortified’ wines volatile composition: effect of different postharvest dehydration conditions of wine grapes cv. Malvasia moscata (Vitis vinifera L.). Food Chem. 219, 346–356. Valero, A., Marín, S., Ramos, A.J., Sanchis, V., 2008. Survey: ochratoxin A in European special wines. Food Chem. 108, 593–599. Vidigal, S.S.M.P., Ramos, A.T.C., Rangel, A.O.S.S., 2016. Flow-based system for the determination of titratable acidity in wines. Food Anal. Methods 9, 2241–2245. Vilela, A., Monteiro, B., Correia, E., 2015. Sensory profile of Port wines: categorical principal component analysis, an approach for sensory data treatment. Ciência Téc. Vitiv. 30, 1–8. Villamiel, M., Polo, M.C., Moreno-Arribas, M.V., 2008. Nitrogen compounds and polysaccharides changes during the biological ageing of sherry wines. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 41, 1842–1846. Wamhoff, H., Gribble, G.W., 2012. Wine and heterocycles. In: Katritzky, A.R. (Ed.), Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. (Chapter 3). Zanfi, A., Mencarelli, S., 2013. Marsala. In: Sweet, Reinforced and Fortified Wines. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Oxford, UK. Zea, L., Moyano, L., Medina, M., 2008. Odorant active compounds in Amontillado wines obtained by combination of two consecutive ageing processes. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 227, 1687–1692. Zea, L., Moyano, L., Medina, M., 2010. Changes in aroma profile of sherry wines during the oxidative ageing. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 45, 2425–2432. Zea, L., Moyano, L., Moreno, J., Cortes, B., Medina, M., 2001. Discrimination of the aroma fraction of Sherry wines obtained by oxidative and biological ageing. Food Chem. 75, 79–84. Zea, L., Moyano, L., Moreno, J.A., Medina, M., 2007. Aroma series as fingerprints for biological ageing in fino sherry-type wines. J. Sci. Food Agric. 87, 2319–2326. Zea, L., Moyano, L., Ruiz, M.J., Medina, M., 2013. Odor descriptors and aromatic series during the oxidative aging of oloroso sherry wines. Int. J. Food Prop. 16, 1534–1542. Zea, L., Serratosa, M.P., Mérida, J., Moyano, L., 2015. Acetaldehyde as key compound for the authenticity of sherry wines: a study covering 5 decades. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 14, 681–693.

EMERGING FUNCTIONAL BEVERAGES: FRUIT WINES AND TRANSGENIC WINES

14

Gargi Dey, Srijita Sireswar School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India

14.1 Introduction Food is considered as one of the most important component required for several life supporting functions like that of energy production, supply of nutrients, metabolic functions, and the overall growth and development of the body (Jacobs et  al., 2012; Colbin, 2013). However, the last two decades have seen an emerging interest in the knowledge on influence of diet on health and thus has led to the design of new and healthier foods aimed to reduce the risk of several chronic diseases (Bigliardi and Galati, 2013). Several scientific studies to decipher the significance of different food ingredients on specific functions in the body have been reported (Ozen et al., 2012). This gave rise to the concept of functional foods. Functional foods are defined as foods that may provide health benefits beyond the basic nutrition values (Goldberg, 2012). While Japan was the first to introduce the term functional foods to the world, it is the only country to have formulated a specific regulatory approval process for functional foods. Food specific for health use or FoSHU was conceived by Japan where a functional ingredient was added to impact on a specific healthful effect (Shimizu, 2012; Rajasekaran and Kalaivani, 2013). FoSHU is eligible to bear the seal of approval from the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare. Several reasons like urbanization, transitional health, changing demography, food security, loss of traditional food culture, and deterioration in personal health led by busy lifestyles with a poor choice of convenience foods and competitive food market have prompted the development of functional foods (Sharma and Garg, 2013). Over the decade, functional foods have been popularized by increased level of information from health authorities, media on nutrition, link between diet and health, and scientific developments in nutrition research (Corbo et al., 2014; Bornkessel et al., 2014). Alcoholic Beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815269-0.00014-3 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Functional foods have been classified on the basis of their origin or modification which are as follows: (a) food products fortified with valuable ingredients known to have a positive influence on a particular disease, (b) foods liberated to counteract antinutritional components produced during processing, and (c) genetic manipulation in the designing of novel foods targeting a specific disease (Kaur and Das, 2011). It is to be noted that natural traditional products containing components influencing health cannot be considered as functional foods, instead if the health contributing ingredient is added to another food component in isolated form, which further influences health positively can be termed as functional foods (Marsh et  al., 2014). It is important to understand the requirement of food characteristics in tackling specific health problem(s), along with the contribution of specific food ingredients toward such benefits that would help in the development of functional foods. The most prominent market sectors where functional food products are launched include dairy, bakery, confectionery, sports drink, fortified water, and baby foods (Lau et  al., 2012; Annunziata et  al., 2016). Till date, several functional products with added plant or animal derivatives have been designed to reduce general ailments like high blood pressure, cholesterol, blood sugar, and osteoporosis which have been introduced into the market (Mohamed, 2014). While designing is a mandate, a number of factors influence the success of functional foods, for instance, mass distribution and position in the market, in-depth communication of health benefit, extension of existing brand/food company, and a major focus on the sensory evaluations that includes taste, convenience, and appropriate pricing (Khan et  al., 2013; Foligné et  al., 2013). A successful functional food along with its health-claiming attributes should be competitive in all these fields. Among others, consumer awareness is a foremost criterion and it is important to keep consumers informed about the active ingredients in foods and its health benefits targeting one or more health and well-being issues (Wang and Bohn, 2012). In recent years, innovations introduced in the food industry mainly focus on the scientific and technical approaches in food processing and the introduction of novel ingredients into food components (O'Shea et al., 2012). Several reports have focused on probiotic-based functional products (Tripathi and Giri, 2014; Varankovich et  al., 2015; Sireswar et  al., 2017), fermented and fruit-based products (González-Molina et al., 2012; Shiby and Mishra, 2013; Gunathilake et al., 2013; Ferreira et al., 2015), and functional beverages designed for energy and sports drink (Singh and Singh, 2012; Tarazona-Díaz et al., 2013). Coming on to beverages, dairy-based beverages, like fermented milk and yogurt milk, rule the functional beverage market due to their excellent potential as carrier vehicles for probiotics and other

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­nutraceuticals (Kumar et al., 2015). The health benefits of probiotics are diverse. Briefly, they are excellent in the treatment of viral and ­antibiotic-associated diarrhea, prevention and alleviation of allergy or lactose intolerance, immunomodulatory properties along with their beneficial role in alleviating the symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease, and irritable bowel syndrome (Corbo et al., 2014). Apart from probiotics, several bioactive compounds have been fortified in commercial dairy beverages, like ω-3 fatty acids, α-linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexanoic acid (Sharma et  al., 2012; Astrup, 2014). Other functional dairy beverages include beverages fortified with bioactive peptides known to have a positive influence on the physiological health, plant sterols aimed to benefit patients with hypercholesterolemia, conjugated linoleic acid for antioxidative and anticancer effects (Vásquez-Trespalacios and Romero-Palacio, 2014). Apart from nutraceuticals, dairy beverages have been fortified with several vitamins and minerals which are lost during processing. However, lactose intolerance and cholesterol content in dairy products are considered to be a major drawback to functional dairy products (Misselwitz et al., 2013). Therefore, there prevails an emerging interest in the development of newer products, particularly in beverages, based on fruits, vegetables, cereals, and soyabeans (Soccol et al., 2012). Fruit juices are considered to be an excellent media for the development of functional beverages like probiotic products because of its richness in essential nutrients (Martins et  al., 2013). Consumption of such plant-based products are associated with a healthier lifestyle which further helps in lowering the risk of chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease (CVD) (Thilakarathna and Rupasinghe, 2012). Polyphenols are one of the most important and widely distributed plant secondary metabolites. Flavanoids in particular, are a subclass of polyphenols considered to have therapeutic properties (Kozlowska and Szostak-Wegierek, 2014). Some of the fruits that have been explored for the development of functional beverages include cranberry, blueberry, pomegranate, apple, black currant, acai, acerola, guarana, mango, bilberries, grapes, cherries, kiwifruits, strawberries, feijoa, peach, and plums (Sun-Waterhouse, 2011). Apart from probioticated products, functional tea has also risen in its popularity. Endowed with functional properties, tea is the most consumed drink across the globe, well ahead of coffee, beer, or any other carbonated beverages (Costa et al., 2002). A native to China, tea has gained the world’s taste since the past 2000 years. Strong evidences of green tea polyphenols suggest its role in the risk and pathogenesis of several chronic diseases, especially CVD, cancer, and related diseases (McKay and Blumberg, 2002). Tea, especially green tea variety has a high content of minerals and flavonoids, catechins, cholorogenic

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acid, caffeic acid, kaempferols, quercetin, and myrecetins. Tea is one of the most favored functional beverage, with antioxidative, antihypertensive as well as antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic properties. Coming to the next popular beverage, which is wine. Winemaking is one of the oldest techniques known to civilization and being one of the most prominent biotechnological processes involving alcoholic fermentation (Joshi et al., 2011). Grapes have for long been the principal fruit utilized in the preparation of a diversity of wines. A grape wine, especially red wines have been extensively researched and have been found to possess cardioprotective, antioxidant, and antidiabetic role (Granzotto and Zatta, 2014). Several clinical evidences have been already established potentials of red wines in reducing the risk or preventing coronary heart diseases (CHD), modulate glucose metabolism, and act as efficient antioxidants owing to their phytonutrient constituents (Bhatt et al., 2012; Chiva-Blanch et al., 2012; Magyar et al., 2012; Chiva-Blanch et al., 2013; Pasinetti et al., 2015). However, grapes are not the only fruits that can be made into wine. The history of nongrape wines may not be as well documented as red wine. However, fruit wines are also steadily gaining visibility. The increased interest in human health and disease prevention has emphasized on the consumer demands for functional beverages, based on sources like fruits and vegetables, thereby expanding the market for nongrape fruit wines. Also, the fermentation of fruits into fruit wines has revealed a new and promising alternative to exploit the health potential of fruits and improve its functionality. Owing to this, production of fruit wine has boosted considerably during the recent times. Functional beverages based on fruits and vegetables range from vitamins and minerals, fortified juices, probioticated juices, to functional tea and red and fruit wines. Among these, lesser number of literature is available on fruit wines. In this context, fruit wines may well be emerging as second-generation functional beverage. The chapter discusses in detail the phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and biological activity in vitro and in vivo for nontraditional fruit wines and compare them with those found for grape wines. The chapter analyzes the collective physiological evidences in case of fruit wines to analyze whether, these wines may be conferred to the “functional” status.

14.2  Total Phenolic in Wines Phenolic compounds are among the most widely distributed group of substances in the plant kingdom (Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015; Kala et al., 2016). They are the products of secondary metabolism by plants that are a result of either the shikimate pathway or the acetate

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pathway (Hussain et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012). Based on their carbon skeleton, polyphenols are classified as nonflavonoid compounds (stilbenes, hydroxycinnamic acids, and benzoic acids) and flavonoid compounds (flavonols, flavones, flavanols, and isoflavones) (Cheynier et al., 2013; Flamini et al., 2013). The food industry directly associates polyphenols to some or the other characteristic attributes of foods which includes taste, palatability, and mostly, nutritional value (Etxeberria et  al., 2013; Lima et  al., 2014; Zujko and Witkowska, 2014). Flavonoids and phenolic acids in fruit, vegetables, and some beverages, have been well acclaimed for their antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties (Kim et  al., 2014; Zhang and Tsao, 2016). Among beverages, the phenolic composition and biological effects of wine, especially red wine have received exceptional attention (Hosu et al., 2014; Van Leeuw et al., 2014). One of many well-established effect of red wine is attributed to its direct, endothelium-dependent vasodilatory activity (Mudnic et  al., 2012; Bastianetto et  al., 2015). The alarming increase in human and economic cost of CHD has triggered the in-depth investigation into the risk factors which also includes alcohol consumption (Kavousi et al., 2012). It has been reported that moderate consumption of wine, especially red wine, has been associated with the reduction in deaths from heart diseases despite having a high-fat diet and heavy smoking habit, an effect commonly known as the “French Paradox” (Chiva-Blanch et  al., 2013; Artero et  al., 2015). Scientific investigations have established that flavonoid content of red wine explains this concept. Wine polyphenols have demonstrated several protective effects on the host health against bacterial infections (Cueva et  al., 2012), CVD (ToméCarneiro et  al., 2013), certain cancers (Zamora-Ros et  al., 2013), thrombosis, and chronic inflammation (Di Renzo et al., 2014). Owing to their chemical structure, they act as potential antioxidants that help in scavenging and neutralizing the free radicals generated in the body (De Beer et al., 2017). Therefore, polyphenols possess a high antioxidant activity which plays a major role in diseases which involves, in part, oxidation such as CHD, inflammation, and mutations leading to carcinogenesis (Higgins and Llanos, 2015). Other beneficial effects include modulation of eicosanoid synthesis toward a more antiatherogenic pattern (Kutil et al., 2014), inhibition of platelet aggregation, and prevention of the oxidation of the human low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (Schmatz et al., 2013; de Camargo et al., 2014).

14.2.1  Phenolic Content in Fruit Wines Besides grape wines, a recent advancement has been made in the development and consumption of several other fruit wines. Gaining popularity at a slow pace, the health benefits of fruit wines have

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r­ eceived lesser scientific attention. Nevertheless, several compelling evidences reported the potential of fruit wines as a rich source of polyphenols, exhibiting noticeable antioxidant activity in vitro (Wu et al., 2013; Xiao et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2016) . Similar to the red wine from grapes, the pro-health properties of fruit wine are ascribed, among other things, to the presence of polyphenol compounds (Dey et al., 2009). Till date, several fruits have been exploited for the preparation of wine. This section summarizes the data on the total phenolics content evaluated in different fruit wines available globally. The Rosa species have been used for a longtime now in different food as well as for different medicinal purposes (Zhang et al., 2008). While the rose flower is used as a curative therapy for inflammation, gastrointestinal diseases, and upper respiratory infections, Rosaceae fruits are known to contain high content of phenolics, β-carotene, lycopene, ascorbic acid, tocopherol, bioflavonoid, tanins, and pectins (Uggla et al., 2003; Ercisli, 2007). Czyzowska et al. (2015) measured the polyphenol content in wines prepared from Rosa canina L. and Rosa rugosa Thunb using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (Fc Reagent). The total phenolic content (TPC) of the wines after fermentation was reported to be 3389 ± 245 mg/L GAE and 3990 ± 256 mg/L GAE for R. rugosa and R. canina, respectively. Although, a considerable decrease in the total phenolics was observed in the wines after aging, with a TPC of 2786 ± 156 and 3456 ± 134 mg/L GAE in R. rugosa and R. canina, respectively. In addition, total flavonoid content in the 364 final wines was recorded to be 2666 mg/L for R. rugosa Thunb. and 3008 mg/L for 365 R. canina L. The wines were also able to retain the initial ascorbic acid content by 50%–70% with their final concentration reported as 1200 and 600 mg/L for R. rugosa Thunb. and R. canina L., respectively. These results obtained for the total phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamin C content clearly depict the potential of these rose wines as a good source of antioxidants. Berries have been popularized as super foods or antioxidant-rich foods. Several types of berries like raspberry, strawberry, elderberry, blue, and blackberry have been explored for fruit wine production. Mudnic et al. (2012) analyzed the phenolic content of four blackberry wines (Rubus glaucus Benth) and analyzed their role as vasodialating agents. The TPC determined by Folin-Ciocalteau method. In blackberry wines, TPC was in the range of 1697 ± 20 to 2789 ± 27 mg GAE/L. White wines were recorded to possess the least TPC corresponding to only 379 ± 3 to 482 ± 3 mg GAE/L. South America is a native to a variety of berries with high commercialization potential (Schreckinger et al., 2010). Ortiz et al. (2013) conducted an elaborate study to assess the phenolics and antioxidant potential of 70 wines from Ecuador made from blackberry (R. ­glaucus

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Benth.), blueberry (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth.), and Golden Reinette apples. While a high TPC was depicted in case of blackberry (1265 ± 91 mg/L) and blueberry wines (1086 ± 194 mg/L), apple wine had the lowest TPC (608 ± 86 mg/L). Their work corroborated results from other authors confirming the superiority of blueberry (Yildirim, 2006; Johnson and González de Mejia, 2012; Mudnic et  al., 2012; Rupasinghe and Clegg, 2007) Owing to the surplus availability of berries, phenolic-rich berries, Illinois wineries boasts of several good quality blue and black wines. Johnson and González de Mejia (2012) evaluated the phenolic content in the commercially available blackberry and blueberry wines in the state of Illinois. Both berry wines depicted a high total polyphenolic content ranging from 966.7 ± 44.8 mg EAE/L to 3620.8 ± 165.8 mg EAE/L. With a strong positive correlation between the total phenolics and the antioxidant activity, these results suggest the potential health applications of fruit wines made from blueberries and blackberries. Rupasinghe and Clegg (2007) elaborately compared the total phenolics content with other health-related constituents in wines from 10 different fruits, namely, apple, black currant, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, elderberry, peach, pear, plum, and raspberry and compared it with four types of grape wines, namely, red, chardonnay, riesling, and icewine. While the wines from elderberry and blueberry were found to possess the highest TPC, 1753 and 1676 mg GAE/L, respectively, the least was recorded in case of pears, 310 mg GAE/L. Comparatively, all other grape wine varieties showed a significantly low TPC with the exception of cabernet wines. Mitic et al. (2013) performed a comparative evaluation of the commercial and domestic wines made from red fruits (sour cherry, blackberry, and raspberry). Four different wine samples from each fruit were analyzed and the TPC was reported to be the highest in case of blackberry wines, followed by sour cherry and raspberry wines. The TPC of these monovarietal red fruit wines ranged from 1051.90 ± 10.58 to 2752.03 ± 33.93 mg GAE/L. An interesting as well as an important point was reported by the authors, during their comparative evaluation of TPC in the commercially available and domestic wines. The genetic, agronomic, and environmental conditions as well as different wine making techniques play an important role in the phenolic composition of wines. They observed a 1.76-fold difference in the TPC between the highest and lowest ranked blackberry wine samples, followed by 1.73-fold and 1.42-fold difference in cherry and raspberry wine samples, respectively. Poland has a long-existing tradition of production of fruit. Cherries (Cerasus sp.) are one of the most readily available raw materials from Poland. They are a good source of sugar acids, tannins, and vitamins C, A, B2, and B1 along with a large amount of mineral compounds

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(Czyżowska and Pogorzelski, 2004). A comparative study was reported by Tarko et al. (2008) between Polish grape and fruit wines produced from native raw materials. A significantly high TPC of approximately 300 mg Trolox × 100 cm−3 was reported in case of cherry wines and fruit wines which can be comparable to the Leon Millot, a standard red wine. Johnson and González de Mejia (2012) studied the TPC of different varieties of blackberry and blueberry wines commercially available in Illinois. In compliance with the above evidences, the authors reported a high TPC in both, blackberry wines and blueberry wines. The average total polyphenolic content of blackberry wine was 2212.5 ± 1090.3 mg EAE/L which was considerably higher than the average TPC of blueberry wines (1623.3 ± 645.5 mg EAE/L). An extensive study was performed by Heinonen et  al. (1998) to evaluate the TPC of 44 berry and fruit wines. The TPC ranged between 91 and 1820 mg GAE/L. Black current wines showed an exceptionally high phenolic content of 1820 mg/L GAE, compared to the phenolics content of the three red grape wines (1390–1600 mg/L GAE) used as reference wines. A recent study by Celep et al. (2015) described the phenolic content in different Turkish berry wines from Turkey. The authors followed the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method and results were expressed as gallic acid equivalents. Wines made from black mulberry, blueberry, and cherry were evaluated where TPC varied from 19.64 ± 1.07 to 64.1 ± 1.93 mg GAE/g dry extract. The highest TPC was observed in case of black mulberry, followed by blueberry and cherry wines. Due to the high content of anthocyanins, chlorogenic acid, and neochlorogenic acid, elderberry is considered to be a powerhouse of antioxidants with physiological activities. The antioxidant and immune stimulatory properties have been well documented in several clinical studies (Youdim et al., 2000; Thole et al., 2006; Jing et al., 2008; Veberic et  al., 2009). The TPC of elderberry wine was evaluated by Schmitzer et al. (2010) where they reported a significantly high TPC of 2004.13 ± 49.44 mg GAE/L. Gumienna et  al. (2011) reported a high TPC in chokeberry wine (3198.9 ± 216.9 mg GAE/L) and claimed it to be higher than commercially available white and red wines considered in this study. Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) has been widely used in food and wine industry due to its high concentration of anthocyanins and proanthocyanins along with its therapeutic potential as antiproliferative and anticarcinogenic activity on human colon cancer cells (Chrubasik et al., 2010; Zapolska-Downar et al., 2012; Thani et al., 2014). Andean blackberry (R. glaucus Benth.) is a native to the Central and South America and is mainly found in Colombia and Ecuador. The predominant phenolics in the Andean blackberry are ellagitanins and

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anthocyanins. Arozarena et al. (2012) studied 28 blackberry (R. glaucus Benth.) wines elaborated under different processing conditions. Although a high value for the TPC of blackberry wines was reported in a range of 601–1624 mg GAE/L, several other reports on blackberry wine suggest a higher content of total phenolics in comparison to that suggested in this study. Sun et al. (2012) studied the phenolic content of six cherry wines prepared from different yeast strains. The measured values of the cherry wines revealed a TPC within a range from 584.3 ± 23.5 to 742.7 ± 20.1 mg GAE/L of the samples. Owing to the high phenolic and antioxidant content in Korean black raspberry, also known as Bokbunja, these are widely exploited in the production of oriental tonic medicine as well as traditional alcoholic beverages. Lim et al. (2012) performed a comparative analysis of the phenolic profile and antioxidant activities of three Korean blackberry wines made from berry juice, juice-pulp and juice-pulpseed. Wine made from juice-pulp-seed had the highest polyphenol content (4044.28 ± 19.01 mg GAE/L), followed by wine from juice-pulp (2962.28 ± 17.37 mg GAE/L), and the lowest value was obtained for wine made up of only juice (2755.47 ± 25.22 mg GAE/L). The TPC of juice-pulp and juice-pulp-seed was 7% and 46% higher than the juice wine only. Another berry deserving mentioned here is sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) belonging to the Eleganaceae which family has gained a widespread attention due to its immense medicinal and therapeutic properties. Known as wonder berries, all parts of the plant are rich in bioactive substances like vitamins A, C, E, and K, riboflavin, folic acid, caroteinoids, phytosterols (ergosterol, stigmasterol, lansterol, and amyrins), organic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and some essential amino acids (Suryakumar and Gupta, 2011). Several reports have been established till date on the pharmacological effect of sea buckthorn as antioxidants, immunomodulatory, antiatherogenic, antistress, hepatoprotective, radioprotective, and tissue repair (Saggu et al., 2007; Upadhyay et al., 2010). Negi and Dey (2009) reported the TPC of sea buckthorn wine to be 689 mg GAE/L which was comparable to grape wine (647 mg GAE/L). Later, Negi et al. (2013) evaluated its potential in the development of sea buckthorn wines and their potential effect on oxidative stress and hypercholesterolemia. The authors reported a very high TPC 2182 ± 1.01 mg GAE/L. in sea buckthorn wine in comparison to the other commercial wines, Cabernet Shiraz (1747 ± 1.78 mg GAE/L) and Beaujolais (1545 ± 2.50 mg GAE/L). In a broad spectrum, Čakar et  al. (2016) studied the phenolic and antioxidant profiles of wines prepared from different fruits claimed to possess several therapeutic potentials. The TPC of wines made of raspberry fruit (Rubus idaeus) was 1418.17 ± 2.90 mg GAE/L,

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­blackberry (Rubus sp.) was 2230.46 ± 1.55 mg GAE/L, blueberry was 2234.46 ± 1.51 mg GAE/L, black chokeberry (A. melanocarpa, Heynh.) was 2234.46  ±  1.51  mg GAE/L, apples (Malus domestica, Borkh.) was 584.28 ± 4.98 mg GAE/L, sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) was 2084.28 ± 1.76 mg GAE/L, and wild blueberry fruit (Vaccinium myrtilus) was 1899.90 ± 1.88 mg GAE/L. The results confirmed that highest TPC was in blueberry wines while the least was in case of apple wine. Apart from cherries and berries, a tropical fruit like jackfruit has also been explored for fruit wine production. The jackfruit tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Family—Moraceae) is wild plant distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical areas and is known be bear the largest known edible fruit. Jackfruits are a rich source of phenolics and flavonoids (Jagtap and Bapat, 2010; Soong and Barlow, 2004). On account of the development of functional beverages with health beneficial properties, Jagtap et al. (2011) evaluated the quality of wine from jackfruit juice owing to its bioactivity and neutraceuticals and phytochemicals values. However, a substantially lower content of total phenolics was recorded 0.053 ± 0.0 mg GAE/L compared to that of standard red wine with an average TPC of 2567 mg GAE L−1 (Piljac et al., 2005). But interestingly, the authors also reported the DNA damage protecting role of jackfruit wine, thereby confirming the health benefits of the wine which could further become a valuable source of antioxidant-rich nutraceutical. Another study by Satora et al. (2009) evaluated the role of fermentation process on the phenolic content of apple wines by the FolinCiocalteu colorimetric method. Wines produced from both apple varieties, namely, Champion and Idared reported a TPC ranging from 43.5 ± 1.3 to 189.2 ± 8.2 mg/L. However, prefermentation treatments and fermentation process significantly affected the phenolic profile of the wines (P  bilberry > black mulberry > sour cherry > strawberry > raspberry > quince > apple > melon > apricot while the TPC ranged from 199.468 to 1232.270 mg GAE/L. Phenolics from apple wines are reported to be effective in the prevention and lowering the risk of CHD and have anticarcinogenic properties. However, the concentration of phenolics in apple wines is much lower than other berry wines. Satora et al. (2008) reported the TPC of wines prepared from three different varieties of apple namely, Sampion, Idared, and Gloster. Sampion wines were reported to possess the highest TPC of 639.0 ± 28.8 mg GAE/L, followed by Idared and

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Gloster wines with a TPC of 234.1 ± 26.2 and 228.0 ± 14.8 mg GAE/L, respectively. Besides being one of the most grown fruits in Korea, apples are considered to be a good source of phytonutrients (Ferretti et al., 2014). A study by Lee et al. (2013) explored the possibility of the development of apple wine with fortified medicinal herbs so as to improve the functionality of apple wines. Pine, hwanggi, and mistletoe have been for long used as traditional Korean medicines owing to their polyphenolic content and high antioxidant activity (Cha et al., 2003; Jang et al., 2010; Kwon et al., 2010). The fortified apples wines namely apple-pine wine and apple-herb wine showed a significantly higher polyphenolic content compared to only apple wine. Another fruit which has drawn a lot of research attention is pomegranate (Punica granatum) which has high content of polyphenols along with diverse health promoting attributes (Kalaycıoğlu and Erim, 2017). Their biological action has been attributed to the phenolic compounds, especially anthocyanins and ellagitanins (Mena et al., 2011). Considering the health benefits of fermented pomegranate products, Mena et al. (2012) reported the first pomegranate wine and elaborated the promising prospects of pomegranate wines as a novel quality functional drink rich in phenolic antioxidants. The TPC from the two fruit varieties, namely Wonderful and Mollar de Elche ranged from 2880 to 3900 mg GAE/L of the pomegranate juice. However, after fermentation and wine making, the TPC dropped by 7% in case of Wonderful but drastically decreased by 30% in Mollar de Elche and 24% in Coupage, a 1:1 blend of Wonderful and Mollar de Elche freshly prepared juices. The authors also reported the high TPC in the new varietal pomegranate wine (3900 mg GAE/L) in comparison to the earlier established fruit wines where TPC ranged from 90 to 1820 mg GAE/100 mL only (Heinonen et al., 1998) Peach (Prunus persica), belonging from the Rosaceae family is a sweet and juice drupe fruit. A native to China, peaches are a good source of carbohydrates, organic acids, dietary fiber, B vitamins, vitamin C, folic acid, minerals, and dietary antioxidants, particularly phenolic compounds and carotenoids (Cevallos-Casals et al., 2006; Siddiq, 2006; Huang et al., 2008). Davidović et al. (2013) studied the TPC and total flavanoid content (TFC) of wine from these peach cultivars (Redhaveen) and compared the results with those found in selected grape wines. Peach wine showed a TPC and TFC of 402.53 ± 3.06 mg GAE/L and 332.67 ± 9.75 mg CAE/L, respectively, which was more than other wines under comparison. The collective data (Fig. 14.1) indicate that the fruit wines contain as high as and sometimes even higher total phenolics as compared to red wines.

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Fig. 14.1  Total phenolic content of fruit wines from different sources.

14.3  Phenolic Profiles of Fruit Wines Food phenolics, especially flavonoids show physiological activities in humans. Past study has established the antiallergic, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic roles of phenolics (Ross and Kasum, 2002). These phenolics have also been

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correlated prevention of diseases such as cancer, CVD, gastric and duodenal ulcers, vascular fragility, and several other viral and bacterial infections (Yao et al., 2004). Flavonoids are abundantly present in beverages like tea or red wine. The exact physiological role for the functional advantage that may be incurred from a fruit wine depends on the kind of phenolics predominantly present in that kind of fruit wine. This section summarizes the phenolic profiles of different fruit wines. Nuengchamnong and Ingkaninan (2010) used a powerful technique, online high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS)-DPPH assay for the analysis of phenolic antioxidant compounds in the fruit wine, made from Antidesma thwaitesianum. The most abundant phenolic compounds contributing to the antioxidant activity include gallic acid, cyanidin-3-sophoroside, monogalloyl glucoside, delphinidin-3-sambubioside, catechin, caffeic acid, and pelargonidin-3-malonyl glucoside. Satora et al. (2009) analyzed the phenolic profiles in wines made up of two apple varieties, Champion and Idared. Procyanidins along with catechin and epicatechin were the most abundantly occurring polyphenols among the samples. Phenolic profiling of sea buckthorn wine revealed abundant quantities of rutin (68.39 ± 5.40 mg/L), myrectin (40.30 ± 0.90 mg/L), quercetin (1.04  ±  0.04  mg/L), and trace amounts of kaempferol ( black mulberry > sour cherry > strawberry > raspberry > apricot > quinice > apple > melon. Correlating the TPC and antioxidant activity, the results reveal higher antioxidant activities and relatively higher phenolic content in black mulberry, bilberry, and sour cherry wines; high phenolic content and relatively low antioxidant activities of blackberry wine; low phenolic contents and high antioxidant activities of apple and strawberry wines; high phenolic content and low antioxidant activities of melon

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wine; and low phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of quince, apricot, and raspberry wines. While most of the studies have shown a direct correlation between the TPC and antioxidant activity, this study in particular contradicts the correlation between TPC and antioxidant activity of the fruit wines. These contradictory results can be explained by the fact that many fruits and berries contain considerable amounts of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins poorly respond to the FollinCiocalteau assay. Therefore, it becomes a hurdle to correlate the TPC to the antioxidant activity of the berry or fruit wine constituents. Celep et  al. (2015) studied the bioavailability of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of three Turkish fruit wines. Besides Turkey being the fourth largest county devoted to viticulture, it is also a home for several other exotic fruits leading to the development of unconventional fruit wines. DPPH radical scavenging activity and cupric ion reducing activity (CUPRAC) revealed a high antioxidant activity in all the fruit wines ranging from 211.01 ± 6.47 to 353.49 ± 4.61 BHTE and 54.54 ± 2.49 to 152.48 ± 2.37 AEE, respectively. The highest antioxidant activity was depicted by black mulberry wine. In addition, all three wine varieties demonstrated a higher antioxidant capacity in comparison to Papazkarası, a Turkish red wine made up of native grape varieties. Jagtap et al. (2011) evaluated the antioxidant activities in jackfruit wines. DPPH radical scavenging assay, FRAP, DMPD scavenging, and nitric oxide (NO) scavenging assays revealed that the antioxidant activities of the jackfruit wines were dose dependent. The jackfruit wine was effective in DPPH radical scavenging capacity by 69.44% ± 0.34%, FRAP [0.358 optical density (OD) value], DMPD by 78.45% ± 0.05%, and NO by 62.46% ± 0.45% capacity. A higher dose resulted in a relatively higher antioxidant activity compared to that of lower doses. This analysis clearly reveals the potential of jackfruit wine as a good source of antioxidants. This study not only depicted DPPH, DMPD, FRAP, and NO scavenging activities but was also seen to be significantly protective agent against H2O2 + UV and γ-irradiation-induced DNA damage. A study by Nuengchamnong and Ingkaninan (2009) used the DPPH assay to screen the antioxidant activity of wine prepared from two species in the Myrtaceae family, Syzygium cumini and Cleistocalyx nervosum var. paniala. S. cumini is known as Indian black plum or Java plum. It is reported to be abundant in resin, gallic acid, and tannins (Gowri and Vasantha, 2010) with potential as an antidiabetic t­ reatment (Veigas et al., 2007). On the other hand, C. nervosum var. paniala differs to that of S. cumini and has a smaller size, brighter color, sourer taste, and ripens in August (Jansom et al., 2008). Online LC-ESI-MS/ MS-DPPH confirmed a high antioxidant activity, owing to the presence of substantial amount of antioxidants. Pomegranates have been previously studied to confer several health benefits like reduction of lipid peroxidation, lowering blood

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pressure, and acting as an antiinflammatory agent (Neyrinck et  al., 2013; Asgary et al., 2014; Kerimi et al., 2017). Fermented pomegranate juice has been earlier seen to exhibit a strong antioxidant activity compared to that of red wine (Sabokbar and Khodaiyan, 2015). Mena et  al. (2012) studied the antioxidant profile of wines prepared from Wonderful, Mollar de Elche, and coupage. Wine and juice from the Wonderful variety, showed a higher antioxidant potential, followed by Coupage and Mollar de Elche (P