Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems: Selected Papers from ICOTTS20, Volume 2 [1st ed.] 9789813342590, 9789813342606

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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 209

António Abreu Dália Liberato Elisa Alén González Juan Carlos Garcia Ojeda Editors

Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems Selected Papers from ICOTTS20, Volume 2

123

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies Volume 209

Series Editors Robert J. Howlett, Bournemouth University and KES International, Shoreham-by-sea, UK Lakhmi C. Jain, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Centre for Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the topics of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the series is to make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of single and multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest results available in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research combining two or more of these areas is particularly sought. The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence, which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination of intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need for a synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities. The series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs, handbooks, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions. High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality principles. Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago, DBLP. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8767

António Abreu Dália Liberato Elisa Alén González Juan Carlos Garcia Ojeda •

•

•

Editors

Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems Selected Papers from ICOTTS20, Volume 2

123

Editors António Abreu Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto (ISCAP) Polytechnic of Porto São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal Elisa Alén González Facultade de Ciencias Empresariais e Turismo As Lagoas University of Vigo Ourense, Spain

Dália Liberato School of Hospitality and Tourism Polytechnic Institute of Porto Vila do Conde, Portugal Juan Carlos Garcia Ojeda Universidad de Cartagena Cartagena, Colombia

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic) Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies ISBN 978-981-33-4259-0 ISBN 978-981-33-4260-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Editorial

The International Conference on Tourism, Technologies and Systems is an international forum for researchers and professionals in the tourism sector, which enables the discussion of the latest innovations, trends and concerns in several areas, in the tourism sector, associated with information technologies and systems. It is an event for professionals in the sector, in search of technology solutions, where academics, IT experts and business managers meet to discuss new ideas that help them maximize the potential of tourism business through technology. The ICOTTS’20 Scientific Committee is composed of a multidisciplinary group of 137 experts who assessed some 190 papers from 28 countries, received for each of the main topics proposed for the conference: a) technology in tourism and tourism experience; b) smart destinations; c) digital marketing applied to tourism and travel; d) mobile technologies applied to sustainable tourism; e) research in the area of tourism to provide innovative solutions to social problems; f) tourism, well-being and hospitality; g) information technologies in tourism; h) digital transformation of tourism business; i) travel for health and well-being; j) information technologies in ecotourism and agrotourism; k) information technologies in food tourism; l) information technologies in education and educational tourism; m) e-tourism and tourism 2.0; n) big data and travel and tourism management; o) robotics in tourism; p) resilience and tourism; q) dark tourism; and r) military tourism. The papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the conference are published by Springer and will be submitted for indexing by ISI, SCOPUS, EI-Compendex, Google Scholar and SpringerLink. We thank all those who contributed to the ICOTTS’20 conference (authors, committees, workshop organizers and sponsors). We deeply appreciate your involvement and support, which were crucial to the success of the conference. October 2020

António Abreu Dália Liberato Elisa Alén González Juan Carlos Garcia Ojeda v

Contents

Smart Tourism: A Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Publications from the Scopus and Web of Science Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria I. B. Ribeiro, António J. G. Fernandes, and Isabel M. Lopes The Potential of Adventure Tourism in the Azores: Focusing on the Regional Strategic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gualter Couto, Rui Alexandre Castanho, Pedro Pimentel, Célia Barreto Carvalho, and Áurea Sousa The Importance of Cultural Events for the Promotion of the Territory: The Case Study of the Medieval Fair in Torre de Moncorvo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aida Carvalho, Joana Fernandes, and Victor Moreira Using Data Analytics to Understand Visitors Online Search Interests: The Case of Douro Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aida Carvalho, Arlindo Santos, and Carlos R. Cunha Cooperation and Competitiveness in Tourism Sustainability. Positioning of Tourist Actors in the Serra da Estrela Natural Park in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gonçalo Fernandes and Helder Almeida

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15

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TourExponomy: Development of a Conceptual Model of the Relationship Between the Tourist Experience at the Destination and Destination Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helena Maria Pascoal Melo, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Francisco José Ferreira Silva, and Carlos Alberto Silva Melo Santos

66

An Innovation in Tourism Services in Colombia – Case Study of Bahía Solano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gabriela Antošová, Mauricio Sabogal Salamanca, and Mauricio Peralta Mejía

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Contents

Managing Motivation (Outside) Business Contexts: Tourism and Teambuilding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jéssica Ferreira, Nuno Costa, and Bruno Sousa Perception of Safety Tourism in Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gabriela Antošová, Luís Lima Santos, and Sara Stradová

86 96

Folklore and Tourism: Folk Dance Groups as a Strategy to Promote the Development of Cultural Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Emanuel Bohórquez, Maritza Pérez, Arturo Benavides, and William Caiche Regional Competitiveness and the Productivity Performance of Gazelles in Cultural Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Eleonora Santos, Inês Lisboa, Jacinta Moreira, and Neuza Ribeiro The Basic Social Process of “Re-functionalising” and Its Implications for Housing Tourism: A Niche Tourism Perspective . . . . . 125 José Luís Braga and Bruno Sousa Room Semantics and Terms in Hotel Chains Communication . . . . . . . . 142 Ronald Ojino, Luisa Mich, and Nerey Mvungi Could Virtual Reality Substitute the ‘Real’ Experience? Evidence from a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Northern Portugal . . . . . . . . . 153 Nieves Losada, Filipa Jorge, Mário Sérgio Teixeira, Miguel Melo, and Maximino Bessa PANAS-TDL: A Psychrometric Deep Learning Model for Characterizing Sentiments of Tourists Against the COVID-19 Pandemic on Twitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Alejandro Peña, Jorge Mesias, Alejandro Patiño, Joao Vidal Carvalho, Gregorio Gomez, Kevin Ibarra, and Santiago Bedoya The Impact of COVID-19 on Cultural Tourism: Virtual Exhibitions, Technology and Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Sara Pascoal, Laura Tallone, and Marco Furtado Digital Transformation: Certified Accountants’ Perceptions of the Evolution in the Quality of Online Taxation Services . . . . . . . . . . 186 Pedro Coelho, Albertina Paula Monteiro, and Cláudia Pereira The Online Presence and Communication of a Destination by the Tourist Entities of the Terras de Trás-os-Montes . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Madalena Marinho, Elisabete Paulo Morais, and Ricardo Correia Are Smart City Applications Aiming to Improve Tourist Experience Ready for Translation and Dissemination? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Nelson Pacheco Rocha, Ana Dias, Gonçalo Santinha, Mário Rodrigues, Carlos Rodrigues, and Alexandra Queirós

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Local Accommodation in Portugal Past, Present and Future Trends . . . 222 Adalmiro Pereira and Angela Vaz The 4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix the Construction of the Matrix Through the Delphi Panel . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Diamantino Ribeiro, Luiz Pinto Machado, and Pedro Henriques Airbnb Customer Satisfaction Through Online Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Ana Pires and Célia Rafael The QR Code as a Communication Tool in Cultural Valorization: Intercultural Study Between the Cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Ives Gutierriz, Isabel Maria Lopes, Vanessa Rodriguez, and Alcina Nunes Wine Marketing Event – The Importance of Emotions in a Wine Tasting for Inexperienced Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Ana Pinto de Lima, Jorge Pacheco, and Pedro Silva The Importance of Fashion Events in the City of Oporto: The Fashion Industry Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Dália Liberato, Benedita Barros e Mendes, and Pedro Liberato Implementation of Lean Techniques in Destination Management Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Diana Foris, Adriana Florescu, Tiberiu Foris, and Sorin Barabas Emergency Remote Work in Portugal: Evaluation, Effects, and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Luciana Oliveira, Anabela Mesquita, Adriana Oliveira, and Arminda Sequeira Predicting Financial Distress in a Portuguese Tourism Business Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Fábio L. C. Teixeira and Luís M. P. Gomes When Economic Environment is Hostile: Entrepreneurial Intention in a Small Tourist Remote Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 António Almeida and Pedro Correia Digital Technologies and Tourism as Drivers of Economic Growth in Europe and Central Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Conceição Castro, Fernanda A. Ferreira, and Pedro Nunes The Dismissal of Information Technology Opportunities in the Management Accounting of Small Medium-Sized Tourism Enterprise - a Research Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Helena Costa Oliveira

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Touristic Application to Visualize the Galápagos Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Marcela Saavedra, Juan Carlos Molina, Gabriela Chiliquimga, and Gustavo Caiza Mixed Reality to Promote Cultural Tourism in La Merced Cloister in Cartagena Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Raynel Mendoza, Amaury Cabarcas, and Bertha Arnedo Experimenting Through Neuromarketing to Measure the Impact of Spanish Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Alexis-Raúl Garzón-Paredes and Marcelo Royo-Vela Exploring Wine Terroir Experiences: A Social Media Analysis . . . . . . . 401 Elisabeth Kastenholz, Diana Cunha, Ainhize Eletxigerra, Mariana Carvalho, and Isabel Silva Qualitative Photo-Based Analysis of Product Innovations in Culinary Tourism: Case of Traditional Food at Czech Culinary Events . . . . . . . . 421 Jiří Zelený, Petr Studnička, and Zbyněk Vinš Neural Deep Learning Model to Characterize the Brand Perception in Insurance Corporate Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Angelica Henao, Carolina Panesso, Alejandro Peña, Alejandro Patiño, and Joao Vidal Carvalho Augmented Reality Applied to the Tourism in Churches of the Historic Center of Quito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Morelva Saeteros, Marcela Saavedra, Cristian Molina, and Gustavo Caiza Too Many Policy Options, Not Enough Diversity? A Typology of Tourism Policy Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 Cláudia S. Costa Informational Heritage, Sustainable Development and Tourism: The Urban Route of the Fisherman’s Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Susana Martins, Milena Carvalho, Maria João Castro, and Beatriz Gonçalves Analysis of Maturity Level of the Management System in Hotel Sector Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Alexander Parody Muñoz, Malory Beatriz Guerra Lara, Wilfrido Montes Lopesierra, Bulmaro Fuentes Morales, and Miguel Santana Challenges and Opportunities for Island Tourist Destinations: The Case of the Island of Sal, Cape Verde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Gilberto A. Neves, Catarina S. Nunes, and Paula Odete Fernandes

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Challenges of Tourism in Northwestern Mexico Between Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua and San Luis Rio Colorado in the Face of COVID 19 Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Tomás Jesús Cuevas Contreras, Sonia Guadalupe Zermeño Flores, Isabel Zizadra Hernández, and Zyanya María Villa Zamorano Economic Recovery and Strategic Transformation Planning for Tourism in Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Olivia Molefe (Nee Nthoi) Sports as a Competitive Factor for Tourism Destinations: The Case of Porto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Marta Quintas, Rui Costa, Zélia Breda, and Filipa Brandão E-Business in Pandemic Context - A Systematic Literature Review . . . . 540 Miguel Barros and Anabela Mesquita Experiential Tourism and Experiential Marketing: An Innovative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Teresa Dieguez and Oscarina Conceição Pedagogical Tourism in National Parks: Relations Between Brazil and Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Flaviano Oliveira Fonsêca, Jorgenaldo Calazans dos Santos, Lício Valério Lima Vieira, and Fernanda A. Ferreira Sport’s Events: Rally de Portugal as a Promoter of Porto Tourism Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Elga Costa, Dália Liberato, and André Ferraz Food Media Experience and Its Impact on Tourism Destinations: The Chef’s Table Affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Pedro Liberato, Teresa Mendes, Hugo Barreira, and Dália Liberato Reinventing Basic Education After COVID: Technologies for Entrepreneurship in Education at the Ukids Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Maria Inês Ribeiro Basílio de Pinho Sports Tourism and Sports Events as a Niche Market in Oporto as a Tourism Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Pedro Liberato, Dália Liberato, Bruno Sousa, and Alexandra Malheiro #ITravelSolo: Women Solo Travellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Lucy Silva, Zélia Breda, Filipa Brandão, and Rui Costa Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

About the Editors

António Abreu is Adjunct Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto. He completed postdoctorate in Technologies and Information Systems, Department of Informatics Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Ph.D. in Software Engineering based on reusable components with Human–Machine Interface applications, University of Vigo, and Master in Management Informatics from the University of Minho and Licentiate in Informatics–Mathematics Applied by Universidade Lusíada. He currently works as Lecturer in the Information Systems sciences area of the Polytechnic Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto/Politécnico do Porto, ISCAP/PPorto. He is an effective member of the CEOS.PP Research Center – Center for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Oporto. Between 2015 and 2018, he was Coordinator of the Advanced Professional Technical Courses (CTeSP) of the Higher Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto (ISCAP) and Coordinator for Market Development of ISCAP’s Center for Training and Services Abroad. 2017/2018 – Coordinator of the ISCAP/ACINNET Business Council. He is Conference Chair of the ICOTTS 2019 – The 2019 International Conference on Tourism, Technology & Systems. He is a scientific committee member of several conferences in the area of Information Systems and Technologies. Dália Liberato is Professor of Tourism, specializing in tourism destinations management and tourism planning, at the School of Hospitality and Tourism, Polytechnic of Porto. Currently, she coordinates the Tourist Activities Management degree in the same school. Her main research interests are tourism management, tourism planning, cross-border tourism, creative tourism, and e-tourism. Elisa Alén González is Associate Professor of Marketing specializing in tourism marketing at the Faculty of Business Sciences and Tourism, University of Vigo. Elisa’s research work lies in tourist behaviour, from motivation to behavioural intentions, focusing on improving satisfaction. In recent years, she has focused on different types of tourism, mainly thermal and senior tourism. xiii

xiv

About the Editors

Juan Carlos Garcia Ojeda is Tenure-Track Professor at the Universidad de Cartagena (Colombia). He completed Ph.D. in Science Technology from the University of Pannonia (Hungary), M.Sc. in Computer Science from Kansas State University (USA), M.Sc. in Computer Science from Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (Mexico) in agreement with the Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga (Colombia), and B.Sc. from Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga (Colombia). He is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), State Alumni (US Department of State), Colombia-USA Exchange Alumni Association; also, Regional Promoter, for the Caribbean region, of the Colombian Society of Computation (SCo2). He has published several papers in both national and international journals, book chapters, and a book and participated and presented papers in national and international conferences.

Smart Tourism: A Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Publications from the Scopus and Web of Science Databases Maria I. B. Ribeiro1,3 , António J. G. Fernandes1,3 and Isabel M. Lopes2,3(&)

,

1

Escola Superior Agrária, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Centro de Investigação de Montanha, Bragança (CIMO), Campus Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal {xilote,toze}@ipb.pt 2 Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Unidade de Pesquisa Aplicada em Gestão – IPB, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Bragança, Portugal [email protected] 3 Centro ALGORITMI da Universidade do Minho, Guimarães, Portugal

Abstract. This research aimed to identify the most developed themes in the field of Smart Tourism (ST). To this end, a search was carried out in Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases on March 3, 2020. The search was based on the terms “Intelligent”, “Tourism” and “Smart”. In Scopus database, 128 publications were counted and in WoS database 73 publications were found, of which 32 were duplicated in the Scopus database. A bibliometric analysis based on 169 publications was developed using the VOSviewer software and the term co-occurrence technique. Three thematic areas (clusters) were identified that are related to each other. The first cluster links the concept of ST with the concept of Smart City and the use of the internet in the tourism sector. The second cluster focuses on studies that measure satisfaction and determine the preferences of the tourist and/or visitor. The third cluster, relates the concept of ST with the use of more advanced communication technologies available for tourists and/or visitors, which are easy to use and provide greater convenience to the user. Keywords: Tourism Science
Visitors


Intelligent
Smart
Scopus
Technologies
Web of

1 Introduction ST is a recent phenomenon that characterizes the current situation of tourism and that contemplates the fundamental role of the evolution of information technologies (IT) in the development of the tourism sector [1]. The smart concept came about as a result of the increase in IT and the need for sustainability. It relies primarily on IT that integrate hardware, software and network technologies to provide real-time real-world knowledge and advanced analytics to help people make smarter decisions about alternatives, as well as enabling actions that will optimize processes and business performance [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 1–14, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_1

2

M. I. B. Ribeiro et al.

These technologies trigger innovation and greater competitiveness, ensuring more sustainable development [3]. It is necessary to be smart to survive in the tourism industry. Intelligence facilitates the design of products, actions, processes and services in real time, involving different stakeholders simultaneously to optimize collective performance and competitiveness and to generate solutions and added value for all [4]. In this context, this research aimed to identify the most developed themes in the field of Smart Tourism (ST). To achieve this objective, a bibliometric analysis based on 169 publications from Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases was developed using the VOSviewer software and the term co-occurrence technique. This work is organized in five (5) sections. The introduction presents the importance of the ST for a sustainable development of the tourism sector. In the second section, the literature review on ST is organized. The third section describes the methodology used in this research. The fourth section presents the results. In the fifth section, the conclusions and limitations of this study are exposed and future researches are suggested.

2 Literature Review The concept of ST results from the adaptation of the concept of “smart city” to a tourist destination. This concept is related to the use of technologies and the internet in tourism, with the purpose of obtaining improvements in terms of economic growth, quality of life, resource management and development of more efficient management and social participation processes [5–7]. The World Tourism Organization attributes to ST characteristics such as clean, green, ethical, quality, among others [8]. Thus, the ST must be able to meet the requirements of short-term economic needs and long-term sustainable development [9]. The use of technologies and the internet in tourism, in addition to providing new and differentiated tourism products, also allows for a sector development with greater equity and sustainability as a result of greater collaborative participation [7]. The principle of intelligent tourist destination is to provide smarter platforms to collect and distribute information within the destination, facilitate and provide efficient tourism resources and integrate tourism providers at micro and macro levels, with the aim of guaranteeing on the one hand, positive economic results, on the other, its more equitable distribution across the country and local society [10]. An intelligent tourist destination is characterized by having high levels of innovation and user facilitation of platforms and technologies, using interfaces and technologies, namely, Internet of Things (IoT), mobile communication, cloud computing/ services and artificial intelligence [9]. ST destinations allows to obtain information about the real needs and preferences of customers. Effective involvement between tourists and service providers is important to provide products that successfully meet the needs of tourists [4, 11]. The ST should help tourists to easily make decisions before or during their travels, providing relevant and meaningful information, based on the analysis of big data, personal information, patterns of behavior, etc. [12]. Thus, ST destinations can be defined as destinations that use available technology to co-create value, pleasure and new and different experience for the tourist [13–15]. The future of the ST is based on technological development and its rapid and extensive implementation at all levels of the tourism sector [11].

Smart Tourism

3

3 Methods This research aimed to understand with more detail the topics covered in the scientific literature on ST. To achieve this objective, a quantitative study was developed involving a bibliometric analysis based on a search carried out on March 3, 2020, which focused on publications available in the Scopus and WoS databases. These databases were used due to their multidisciplinary character which allows the analysis of citations and bibliometric data. In the search carried out, only publications that contained, in the title, abstract or keywords, the terms “Intelligent”, “Tourism” and “Smart” were selected. Thus, one hundred and sixty-nine (169) publications were found that served as the basis for the bibliometric analysis. Of these, one hundred and twenty-eight (128) publications were counted in the Scopus database. Seventy-three (73) publications were found in the WoS database. Of these, thirty-two (32) were withdrawn because they were duplicated in the Scopus database. After identifying the documents, the bibliometric technique of co-occurrence terms was used in order to group them into thematic clusters. The terms were extracted using the VOSviewer software in order to build a map that shows the relations between the different terms and their association with clusters of thematic areas. With this methodology, the distance between the various selected terms is analyzed, and the shorter the distance between two terms, the stronger the relation between them [16]. On the map, the colors represent the clusters of thematic areas, and the terms with the same color are part of the same cluster and, therefore, are more strongly associated to each other compared to terms that have a different color. In the analysis, the binary counting method was selected, which consists of identifying whether the term is present or absent in each document analyzed.

4 Results Initially, the results of the descriptive analysis are presented, namely, the number of articles published per year in the period 2000–2020, the Top 5 of the most published works by publication, institution and country per database; ST domain subareas per database; type of publications per database; and, h-11 and h-7 indexes of contributions on ST from the Scopus and WoS databases, respectively. Subsequently, the results of the analysis of the thematic areas are presented. 4.1

Descriptive Analysis

As already mentioned, 128 publications were selected within the scope of the ST in the Scopus database. Figure 1 shows a growth trend in the number of publications in the period from 2001 to 2015, with an average annual growth rate of 22.5%. In 2016, the number of publications decreased compared to the previous year (−80%). In 2020, there were only 3 publications since the search was carried out on March 3, 2020 and, as such, only January and February were considered. The average annual growth rate from 2001 to 2019 was 19.8%. The first publications, in the WoS database, are from 2011. The average annual growth rate in the period from 2011 to 2019 was 26.4%. The years with the highest number of publications were 2016 and 2018, both with 14 (19.2%) publications.

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M. I. B. Ribeiro et al. 19.2%

19.2%

20.3%

18.8% 17.8%

16.4%

11.7%

12.3% 10.9%

9.6% 6.8% 6.3% 5.5%

0.8%

0.8%

0.8%

2.7% 1.6%

0.8%

4.1% 3.9%

3.1% 2.3%

1.6%

2.7%

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Scopus

WoS

Fig. 1. Number of publications per year (%).

In WoS database, the literature focuses on scientific journals in the areas of Electronics, Informatics, Management and Telecommunications, namely Engineering Electrical Electronic (23.3%), Computer Science Information Systems (19.2%), Computer Science Theory Methods (19.2%), Management (15.1%) and Telecommunications (13.7%). In Scopus database, the areas of IT, intelligent systems and artificial intelligence (AI), communication and information stand out, with Lecture Notes in Computer Science Including Subseries Lecture Notes in AI and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics (13.9%) as the source with more publications (Fig. 2). TelecommunicaƟons

13.7%

WoS

Managment

15.1%

Computer Science Theory Methods

19.2%

Computer Science InformaƟon Systems

19.2%

Engineering Electrical Electronic

Scopus

CommunicaƟons In Computer And InformaƟon Science

23.3% 3.8%

Applied Mechanics And Materials

6.3%

Advanced Materials Research

6.3%

Advances In Intelligent Systems And CompuƟng Lecture Notes In Computer Science Including Subseries…

11.4% 13.9%

Fig. 2. Top 5 journals with more publications per database.

At the institutional level, the publications are very dispersed (Fig. 3). In fact, Beijing Union University and St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SPIIRAS) were the institutions with most publications in the Scopus database both with 3 publications (1.8%). Beijing Union University is a municipal university administered by the government of China and located in Beijing. It is dedicated to the study and research in the fields of international business, economics and international trade, Chinese history, language and literature

Smart Tourism

5

WoS

and business and administration. The second institution is located in St. Petersburg, Russia. It is dedicated to the study and research in the areas of IT, intelligent automation systems and computer science. On the other hand, in WoS database, the largest number of publications (4.1% that correspond to 7 publications) is associated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences located in Beijing, China, which explores and takes advantage of high technology and natural sciences for the benefit of the Society. Constituted by an extensive research and development network, it brings together scientists and engineers from China and around the world to address theoretical and applied problems, using scientific and management approaches.

Kielce University of Technology

2.7%

Hubei University

2.7%

Fundacion Universitaria Tecnologico Comfenalco

2.7%

Beijing Union University

2.7%

Scopus

Chinese Academy of Sciences

4.1%

Universite de Pau et des Pays de L'Adour

1.2%

Universita del Salento

1.2%

Chinese Academy of Sciences

1.2%

St. Petersburg InsƟtute for InformaƟcs and AutomaƟon of the… Beijing Union University

1.8% 1.8%

Fig. 3. Top 5 institutions with more publications per database.

Scopus

WoS

China is the country with the most publications in both databases, with 57.6% (74 publications) in Scopus and 48.0% (35 publications) in WoS databases. Spain, Italy, Taiwan and France held the remaining positions in the Top-5 of the countries that publish the most (Fig. 4).

França Itália Taiwan Espanha China França Taiwan Itália Espanha China

4.1% 5.5% 6.8% 11.0% 48.0% 8.5% 13.6% 13.6% 20.3% 57.6%

Fig. 4. Top 5 countries with more publications per database.

The subarea with the greatest representativeness in terms of publications is Computer Science with 32.7% in Scopus and 35.6% in WoS databases, corresponding to 42 and 26 publications, respectively (Fig. 5).

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M. I. B. Ribeiro et al. TelecommunicaƟons

13.7%

WoS

Social Sciences Other Topics

16.4%

Business Economics

17.8%

Engineering

31.5%

Computer Science Business, Management and AccounƟng Scopus

Social Sciences

35.6% 4.0% 7.2%

MathemaƟcs

12.7%

Engineering

21.9%

Computer Science

32.7%

Fig. 5. Subareas with publications from the ST domain per database.

As shown in Fig. 6, of the total of 128 publications in Scopus and 73 in WoS databases, corresponding to 55.5% and 69.9%, respectively are conference documents.

WoS

Review

1.4%

ArƟcle

28.8%

Proceedings Paper

Scopus

Review Book Chapter

69.9% 1.6% 2.3%

Conference Review

20.3%

ArƟcle

20.3%

Conference Paper

55.5%

Fig. 6. Type of publications per database.

Tables 1 and 2 show the publications included in the h-index, that is, the number of articles by a given author with at least the same number of citations [17]. The h indexes totaled 11 publications in the Scopus database and 7 publications in the WoS database. In the h index, also known as the Hirsch index, publications are organized in ascending order according to the most cited publication and then calculated where the sequence number of publications meets the citations [18]. The most cited article [19], in both databases, developed by Borràs, Moreno and Valls and published in 2014, counted 199 and 132 citations at the time of the search (May, 2020), in Scopus and WoS databases, respectively. In this article, the authors review the systems recommended for Tourism, which use AI, including scientific articles and conference proceedings in their review. As shown in Table 1, taking into account the methodology used in the h index publications, 6 are experimental studies, 3 are empirical studies that use a quantitative methodology and the remaining 2 are conceptual studies. Empirical studies focus essentially on studying preferences and analyzing the satisfaction of visitors and/or tourists. The most recent empirical study [20], developed in 2017, recorded 16 citations. This article proposes an approach, based on big data from social networks with geographic tags, to generate popular tourist attractions, create new services and provide greater convenience to visitors and/or tourists.

Smart Tourism

7

The most cited article [19], with 199 citations, was a conceptual one. In these study, the authors expose the characteristics associated with ST and describe the technologies used to facilitate and improve the stay of tourists and visitors to a tourist destination. The most cited experimental study, with 29 citations [21], develops a system for mobile devices, which incorporates information such as the users’ speed and their route. This system is able to personalize the route for each visitor/tourist since it takes into account their current location and driving speed (Table 1). The most recent experimental studies were carried out in 2017. In a research [27], with 17 citations, authors use an approach based on the big data analysis of social networks, which contain the geographical location of visitors/tourists, with the objectives: to discover new popular tourist attractions, to create new services and to improve the user’s comfort of this system. In the other research [28], with 16 citations, authors prove, through the implementation of a specialized strategy, which includes the identification of areas and regional industries dedicated to the promotion of local business development, that tourism can be a valuable instrument to promote a smart, sustainable and inclusive regional growth (Table 1). Table 1. H-index of the literature on ST from the Scopus database (h-11). Reference 1. [19]

Method Conceptual review

2. [22]

Empirical quantitative

3. [23]

Conceptual

4. [24]

Empirical quantitative

5. [21]

Experimental

Contributions Cit. Literature review, since 2008, on tourism 199 recommendation systems, published in scientific journals and conferences, related to AI 72 Assesses tourist preferences in relation to intelligent tourist attraction, analyzing their strengths and weaknesses. This study extends previous research on ST and offers guidance on theoretical research and the practical development of smart tourist attraction 41 Demonstrates that smart cities are superior for offering technical values and smart services, using IoT, ubiquitous sensor networks, among others, as instruments. Smart city supervision, smart transport, smart environment monitoring and ST are examples of services offered by a Smart City 40 Develops an algorithm to analyze data on customer preferences, according to objective criteria for different segments. Determines customer satisfaction in different criteria. Provides constructive suggestions, aimed at professionals and researchers, for the development of personalized marketing campaigns that allow the improvement of the services of the websites of online travel agencies 29 Proposes a system for mobile devices which incorporates some implicit contextual information: the user’s speed and their route. This system was created specifically to help users traveling, providing smart and personalized points of interest along the route, taking into account the current location and driving speed (continued)

8

M. I. B. Ribeiro et al. Table 1. (continued)

Reference 6. [25]

Method Experimental

7. [26]

Experimental

8. [27]

Experimental

9. [20]

Empirical quantitative

10. [28]

Experimental

11. [29]

Experimental

Contributions Develops a prototype of a mobile tourist guide using the Smart Space infrastructure to facilitate the integration of services and internal processes in the system that allows comprehensive and up-to-date information search, together with personalized recommendations and services Develops a structure, called “WantE-at” that includes a mobile application that records information about a specific region (cultural heritage, gastronomy, restaurants, products, stores, etc.) allowing users to interact with objects in a natural and fun way, using smartphones without the need for another structure. This device aggregates information/feedbacks provided by users about their experiences and can be shared on social networks Presents a private Blockchain implementation approach for the smart home system (SHS) to deal with privacy and security issues. SHS is an integration of home appliances and sensors to obtain automatic operations of heating, lighting, air conditioning, residential security, health systems, etc. The SHS allows the owner to monitor and execute the functions of the devices remotely at any time via the Internet Proposes a new method to discover popular tourist attractions, create new services and provide greater convenience to people, extracting spatial-temporal data from social networks that contain the geographic location of users. This approach, based on big data from social networks with geographic tags, can support decision making related to tourism management and planning. This method allows the extraction of information related to travel preferences Demonstrates, through the implementation of a smart specialization strategy, based on the identification of regional areas and industries aimed at promoting local business development, how tourism can be used to promote smart, sustainable and regional growth Develops a model and software, which is based on the use of near field communication technology and smart posters, spread across smart environments. This method allows users/visitors, in an easy, intuitive and context-aware way, to navigate smart urban scenarios

Cit. 26

19

17

16

15

11

Smart Tourism

9

Table 2 contains the publications that constitute the Hirsch index of the WoS database. Of the 7 publications that are part of this index, 5 are duplicated in the Hirsch index of the Scopus database. The first two publications, articles [19, 22] held exactly the same top positions, in the two databases, first and second, respectively. However, the number of citations is higher in Scopus (199 and 72, respectively) compared to WoS (132 and 56, respectively). Of the studies that only appear in WoS database, one is experimental and the other is empirical. In the experimental one [30], authors present a platform that consists of a flexible infrastructure, with which users can easily control systems or equipment in different contexts (home, city, health, tourism, etc.). For example, with the same platform, the user can control, at home, lights, equipment, such as computers, machines, etc. Currently, it is necessary to use mobile devices that transmit data (IoT) used for many different services, such as supervising, controlling, monitoring, analyzing and displaying information to users. In this sense, authors propose a single platform that can be used for different services with the use of a single device. The empirical article [31] uses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to analyze the advantages and potential of a “tourist kit” based on the concept of a prepaid card issued by a major postal operator. The card can be recharged by tourists according to their needs and its validity is not restricted to short periods. With this “Tourist Kit”, cardholders can purchase a variety of products and services benefiting from substantial price discounts.

Table 2. H-index of the literature on ST from the WoS database (h-7). Reference Method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

[19] [22] [24] [28] [30]

– – – – Experimental

Contributions – – – – Presentation of an autonomous Kali-Smart platform, based on semantic Web technologies and a Middleware (computer software that provides services for application software in addition to those available through the operating system) that provides autonomy and reasoning facilities in a semantic context. This platform offers users a flexible infrastructure, where they can easily control various modes of interaction of the situations experienced in different contexts (home, city, health, tourism, etc.). In this context, the use of mobile devices that transmit data (IoT), becomes obsolete

Citations WoS Scopus 132 100 56 72 34 40 12 15 9 –

Pos (1) (2) (4) (10) –

(continued)

10

M. I. B. Ribeiro et al. Table 2. (continued)

Reference Method

Citations Pos WoS Scopus 6. [20] – – 8 16 (9) 7 – – 7. [31] Empirical Investigates the advantages and potential of qualitative a ‘tourist kit’ based on a prepaid card issued quantitative by a major postal operator. The card can be recharged by tourists/visitors according to their needs and its validity is not restricted to short periods. Thus, the tourist kit consists of an integrated, practical and flexible tool capable of making the cardholder’s stay more pleasant because it allows him to choose and buy products and services at lower prices Pos - Position of the h-index of the Scopus database (h-11)

4.2

Contributions

Analysis of Thematic Areas

Taking into account the analysis of the thematic areas and using the VOSwiewer software and the term co-occurrence technique, a total of 6519 terms were identified in the 169 selected publications (32 publications that were duplicated were removed). Subsequently, the number of occurrences of a term in the total of the documents analyzed was defined as 10, with a total of 67 terms. Of these, terms with more than 60% relevance were selected, corresponding to 40 terms and, finally, insignificant terms were excluded such as international conference, survey, conference, special focus, article, topic, paper, case study, China, characteristic, concept, etc. In the end, a total of 29 terms were obtained, distributed over three clusters of thematic areas. The first cluster consists of 11 terms, namely, cloud computing, IT, innovation, internet, IoT, order, rapid development, Smart City, ST, thing, tourism industry. This cluster links the ST concept with the Smart City concept and the internet. Both allowed for a rapid development of the tourism industry (red color in Fig. 7). The concept of Smart City does not stand on its own and is closely associated with ST. The progressive transition from digital cities to smart cities has become a reality in recent years [23]. In fact, smart cities serve as leverage for the establishment of smart tourist destinations that use IT and innovations to provide pleasure and positive experiences to tourists/visitors [23]. Smart tourist destinations are a combination of tourist products and, as a rule, originate in smart cities [5–7, 32]. The second cluster includes 9 terms, namely, effect, evaluation, impact, implementation, intelligent tourism, performance, research, strategy and sustainable development (green color in Fig. 7). The publications that are part of this cluster determine the impact of the ST for the tourists, continuously analyzing the preferences and satisfaction of the tourist to better respond to their needs. Tourism experiences are the main product of the tourism industry, with a direct impact on tourist satisfaction [10].

Smart Tourism

11

Fig. 7. Co-occurrence map of terms.

On the other hand, this cluster also includes publications that analyze and prove that ST is an important lever for the sustainable development of local and regional economies. The third cluster links the ST with the most advanced communication technologies and consists of 9 terms, namely, information, infrastructure, knowledge, location, mobile application, person, tourism, user and visitor (blue color in Fig. 7). This cluster is associated, in particular, with the innovation, growth and development of the tourism sector, which translates into the greater ease and convenience provided to tourists/visitors; and, it is reflected in the discovery of new intelligent services, new tourist attractions, greater competitiveness and sustainable development in the tourism sector.

5 Conclusion ST is a topic that has given rise to an increasing number of publications, especially in recent years. From 2001 to 2019, the evolution of the number of publications (the majority were proceedings of scientific events) was exponential. In WoS database, the literature focuses on scientific journals in the areas of Electronics, Informatics, Management and Telecommunications. In Scopus database, publications in the areas of IT, intelligent systems and AI, communication and information stand out. The Chinese universities of Beijing Union University and Chinese Academy of Sciences were the institutions, among the Top 5 by institution, with the largest number of publications in the Scopus and WoS databases, respectively. China was the country with the most Scopus and WoS publications in the Top 5 by country. The most representative subarea in the ST domain was Computer Science. VOSviewer software and the terms co-occurrence technique were used in order to group the existing literature in the ST domain into clusters. Three clusters were identified. The first cluster relates the ST concept with the Smart City concept and the

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use of the internet in tourism. The second cluster focuses on studies that measure the satisfaction and determine the preferences of the tourist/visitor. The third cluster relates the ST concept with the use of more advanced communication technologies available to the tourist/visitor, which are easy to use and provide greater convenience to the user. Taking into account the three thematic areas found in this research, all of them are current and promising since they provide positive experiences to the tourist/visitor, and at the same time, enable the innovation of services and products offered by the tourism sector, guaranteeing greater sustainability and competitiveness in the sector. This research involves an analysis limited to the period from 2000 to March 3, 2020 which is a limitation of the work. However, it was in recent years that the largest number of publications were published within the scope of ST. Also, this research is limited to Scopus and WoS databases, with other bibliometric databases such as Google Scholar Metrics (GSM) were omitted. Finally, the definition of the minimum number of occurrences of terms in the bibliometric analysis, limited to 10 terms, makes it impossible to identify all terms below this limit, not allowing to show how these terms are correlated. This research, carried out using bibliometrics as an instrument for measuring data and information from scientific publications, made it possible to identify themes, in the scientific area of ST, that generated greatest interest by the scientific community, in the period from 2000 to March 3, 2020. Thus, this work contributes to a better clarification of the lines of research developed. Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT. Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020). UNIAG. R&D unit funded by the FCT. Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology. Ministry of Science. Technology and Higher Education. Project n.o UIDB/04752/2020.

References 1. Gajdošík, T.: ST: concepts and insights from central Europe. Czech J. Tour. 7(1), 25–44 (2018) 2. Washburn, D., Sindhu, U., Balaouras, S., Dines, R., Hayes, N., Nelson, L.: Helping CIOs understand ‘smart city’ initiatives: defining the smart city, its drivers, and the role of the CIO. Forrester Research, Inc., Cambridge (2010) 3. Aina, Y.: Achieving smart sustainable cities with GeoICT support: the Saudi evolving smart cities. Cities 71, 49–58 (2017) 4. Jasrotia, A., Gangotia, A.: Smart cities to ST destinations: a review paper. J. Tour. Intell. Smartness 1(1), 47–56 (2018) 5. Komninos, N., Pallot, M., Schaffers, H.: Spetial issue on smart cities and the future internet in Europe. J. Knowl. Econ. 4, 119–134 (2013) 6. Baggio, R., Cooper, C.: Knowledge transfer in a tourism destination: the effects of a network structure. Serv. Ind. J. 4, 145–150 (2015)

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7. Ortega, J., Malcolm, C.: Touristic stakeholders’ perceptions about the smart tourism destination concept in Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. Sustainability (Switzerland) 12(5), Article number 1741 (2020) 8. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).: Report of the First Meeting of the NWTO Tourism Resilience Committee. UNWTO, Madrid (2009) 9. Muthuraman, S., Al Haziazi, M.: Smart tourism destination - new exploration towards sustainable development in sultanate of Oman. In: 5th International Conference on Information Management, ICIM 2019, Cambridge, pp. 332–335 (2019) 10. Buhalis, D., Amaranggana, A.: Smart tourism destinations. In: Xiang, Z., Tussyadiah, I. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2014, pp. 553–564. Springer, Cham (2013) 11. Schaffers, H., Komninos, N., Pallot, M., Trousse, B., Nilsson, M., Oliveira, A.: Smart cities and the future internet: towards cooperation frameworks for open innovation. In: Domingue, J., et al. (eds.) The Future Internet, vol. 6656, pp. 431–446. Springer, Heidelberg (2011) 12. Chung, N., Koo, C., Lee, K.: Assessing the impact of mobile technology on exhibition attendees’ unplanned booth visit behavior. Sustainability 9(6), 1–15 (2017) 13. Wang, D., Li, X., Li, Y.: China’s “ST destination” initiative: a taste of the service-dominant logic. J. Destinat. Mark. Manag. 2(2), 59–61 (2013) 14. Guo, Y., Liu, H., Chai, Y.: The embedding convergence of smart cities and tourism internet of things in China: an advance perspective. Adv. Hospit. Tour. Res. 2(1), 54–69 (2014) 15. Zhu, W., Zhang, L., Li, N.: Challenges, function changing of government and enterprises in Chinese ST. In: Xiang, Z., Tussyadiah, L. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2014. Springer, Dublin (2014) 16. Van Eck, N., Waltman, L.: Text mining and visualization using VOSwiever. ISSI Newsl. 7(3), 238–260 (2011) 17. Costas, R., Bordons, M.: The h-index: advantages, limitations and its relation with other bibliometric indicators at the micro level. J. Inf. 1(3), 193–203 (2007) 18. Hirsch, J.: An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102(46), 16569–16572 (2005) 19. Borràs, J., Moreno, A., Valls, A.: Intelligent tourism recommender systems: A survey. Expert Syst. Appl. 41(16), 7370–7389 (2014) 20. Peng, X., Huang, Z.: A novel popular tourist attraction discovering approach based on geotagged social media big data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 6(7), 216 (2017) 21. Barranco, M., Noguera, J., Castro, J., Martínez, L.: A context-aware mobile recommender system based on location and trajectory. In: Casillas, J., Martínez-López, F., Corchado Rodríguez, J. (eds.) Management Intelligent Systems. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 171, pp. 153–162. Springer, Berlin (2012) 22. Wang, X., Li, X.R., Zhen, F., Zhang, J.: How smart is your tourist attraction? Measuring tourist preferences of ST attractions via a FCEM-AHP and IPA approach. Tour. Manag. 54, 309–320 (2016) 23. Li, D., Shan, J., Shao, Z., Zhou, X., Yao, Y.: Geomatics for smart cities - concept, key techniques, and applications. Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci. 16(1), 13–24 (2013) 24. Hao, J.-X., Yu, Y., Law, R., Fong, D.: A genetic algorithm-based learning approach to understand customer satisfaction with OTA websites. Tour. Manag. 48, 231–241 (2015) 25. Smirnov, A., Kashevnik, A., Balandin, S.I., Laizane, S.: Intelligent mobile tourist guide. In: Balandin, S., Andreev, S., Koucheryavy, Y. (eds.) NEW2AN/ruSMART -2013. LNCS, vol. 8121, pp. 94–106. Springer, Heidelberg (2013) 26. Console, L., Antonelli, F., Biamino, G., Torta, F., Vernero, F.: Interacting with social networks of intelligent things and people in the world of gastronomy. ACM Trans. Interact. Intell. Syst. 3(1), 1–38 (2013)

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The Potential of Adventure Tourism in the Azores: Focusing on the Regional Strategic Planning Gualter Couto1 , Rui Alexandre Castanho1,2,3,4(&) , Pedro Pimentel1 , Célia Barreto Carvalho5,6 , and Áurea Sousa7 1

School of Business and Economics and CEEAplA, University of Azores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal 2 Faculty of Applied Sciences, WSB University, 41-300 Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland [email protected] 3 CITUR - Madeira - Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, 9000-082 Funchal-Madeira, Portugal 4 VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), 7300 Portalegre, Portugal 5 Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, University of Azores, and CINEICC - Cognitive and Behavioral Centre for Research and Intervention, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal 6 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-115 Coimbra, Portugal 7 Faculty of Sciences and Technology and CEEAplA, University of Azores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal

Abstract. The Portuguese autonomous region of Azores is one of the Outermost Regions of the European Union. Despite the many challenges this insular region present, the geographical location of the islands has also granted exciting opportunities for regional development. One of the examples is the Adventure Tourism, which has a high potential in the territory. Besides, this tourism activity is seen as an essential vehicle for regional sustainable development. Thereby, through an empirical case study research, the present study assessed some regional strategies and territorial planning tools enabling a more profound knowledge of the process and plans ongoing to achieve sustainable development in the Azores Archipelago by the regional authorities. The study shows that the Azores tourism strategy includes nature as the most crucial resource for its development. Keywords: Adventure Tourism
Regional development
Strategic planning
Sustainability

1 Introduction The concept of adventure tourism does not lend itself to a straightforward definition. It overlaps with many different tourism segments and has unique features that create a context for memorable experiences. The definition of adventure tourism presented by © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 15–25, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_2

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the Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) has been adopted by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). They regard it as a trip that includes at least two of the following three elements: physical activity, natural environment, and cultural immersion [1]. In turn, Buckley [2, 3], states that adventure tourism broadly means guided commercial tours where the principal attraction is an outdoor activity, which relies on features of the natural terrain and requires specialized sporting or similar equipment, and is exciting for the tour clients. However, slow adventure is different. According to Varley and Semple [4], the concept of slow adventure is: “(…) a celebration of the (ir)rationality of uncertainty, unpredictability, transience, experiment and the emotional content of human experience, particularly in the context of the great outdoors and engagement with the more-than-human world.” Moreover, the concept of slow adventure is based on an appreciation of the journey as an experiential dimension rather than the chore of getting to a destination [4, 5]. The authors add that the idea of “slow” adventure is rooted in a Nordic philosophy as the essential and casual activity of just being, or dwelling, in nature for extended periods of time, which allows for the generation of rich experiences, a deep appreciation of and spiritual immersion in the natural environment through engaging in everyday outdoor activities. Slow adventure is a new marketing concept that builds the experience around the strong commitment of the participants and their interaction with nature and transformative moments. It fits the broader picture of sustainable tourism and can contribute to the development of new products, reduction of seasonality, and increased tourists’ stay. Correctly exploring the concept of slow adventure can be of great importance to remote rural nature-based destinations [6–9]. Still, it is essential to develop the skills and train professionals for this purpose properly. Contextually, the present study, through the assessment of some regional strategies and territorial planning tools, aims to allow a more profound knowledge of the process and plans ongoing to achieve sustainable development in the Azores Archipelago by the regional authorities.

2 Materials, Methods, and Case Study Description Recognizing the symbiosis between tourism and territorial management and how they can add to sustainable development and vice-versa, the present study crossed existing thematic literature with empirical knowledge of the Azores Islands’ ultra-peripheral territories. In this regard, a thematic bibliography concerning slow tourism and adventure tourism was collected, assessed, and analyzed. Based on this review, it was possible to move forward for a case study analysis, apply those principles, and cross them with sustainable tourism and development in the Azores’ ultra-peripheral territories. Contextually, this chapter sub-divided into more specific sections as a brief overview of the Azores Archipelago, and the new paradigm in tourism faced by this peripheral region. After, an entire chapter is dedicated to the tourism strategy in the Azores. Finally, the study concludes with some guidelines recommended by the authors, along with the final thoughts.

The Potential of Adventure Tourism in the Azores

2.1

17

A Brief Overview of the Azores Archipelago

The Azores is a Portuguese autonomous region and one of the Outermost Regions (OR) of the European Union (EU). It comprises nine islands located in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, almost midway between Europe and the United States of America (Fig. 1). The archipelago is strategically positioned, and it has been considered a sustainable nature-based destination. Recently, due to its remoteness and stunning nature, it has been increasingly identified with adventure tourism by international references like Bloomberg, Departures, BBC, Forbes, GeekyExplorer, and Lonely Planet, among many others. Its natural and cultural heritage, as well as its generalized rural environment, makes it the perfect place for slow adventures. Some of the main challenges of the Azores arise from this distance to the main decision centers, beyond the fragmentation and geographic dispersion of its internal market. The archipelago has natural constraints that demand constant attention. The heterogeneous territory’s fragmentation resulted in very different islands in terms of area and natural resources, with significant land dispersion (some islands are very distant from the center of the archipelago, while others are very close to each other). For these reasons, five islands—Santa Maria, Graciosa, São Jorge, Flores, and Corvo— have been categorized as the “Cohesion Islands” (being the smallest islands or the ones with greater challenges to their development) and benefit from positive discrimination in the regional economic policies. The remaining four islands—São Miguel, Terceira, Pico, and Faial—are the most developed, although substantial differences exist among them as well. This context has apparent impacts on the regional economy, including effects on resource efficiency, population concentration, internal market dynamics, and the need to have multiple structural infrastructures, such as ports, airports, health units, or other public services. Despite the many challenges listed above, the geographical location of the islands has also granted exciting opportunities for regional development. Beyond a new potential for space research and exploration, historically, many transatlantic routes have passed through the Azores, making the islands critical in logistics support to sea and air navigation, both in military and commercial activities. Finally, it should also be highlighted that the big size (almost 1 million km2) of the EEZ grants the Azores unique opportunities regarding the Blue Economy, logistics, fisheries, nautical tourism, scientific research, and exploration of marine resources. 2.2

A New Paradigm in Tourism

Tourism is perceived as a sector of high strategic importance for the Azores, which can contribute decisively to the development and growth of the region [11]. The natural and cultural resources of the Azores are varied and unique. They are the base for incredible adventures and extraordinary experiences, many of which are fast-pace high adrenalin activities. In contrast, others are very relaxing and dig deep into the social and cultural roots of the local people.

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Fig. 1. Geographical location of the Azores Archipelago (Source: [10]).

In March 2015, there was a paradigmatic change in tourism in the Azores. The air transport model was partially liberalized, ending the long-time monopoly of the local public airline and allowing the start of the operation of low-cost airfare companies, like Ryanair and Easy Jet. As a result, the number of tourists has been increasing (especially first-time tourists) and favoring a significant change in the local market [12]. From 2014 to 2017, the number of guests in accommodation establishments increased by 93%, going from 396.449 to 764.786. Therefore, the local economy is changing, and more investment is being applied in tourism activities, ranging from accommodation to entertainment. Ryanair has been the airline with the most aggressive approach in this new paradigm and the one with the most tremendous responsibility in the increasing international awareness of the destination. It started to fly only to Ponta Delgada (island of São Miguel) and, in November 2016, expanded to Lajes (Island of Terceira). Nevertheless, Azores Airlines (the local airline) and TAP (Portuguese airline) have also been very active. Easy Jet, which also started its Azores operations in 2015, ended them in October 2017. Now, there are great expectations regarding Delta Airlines’ big operation, which will start in May 2018, and the interest that Transavia has demonstrated for 2019. Regarding accommodation, hotels and similar establishments have the vast majority of the bed supply and concentrate around 78% of the demand (guests). Hence, looking at the evolution of this specific accommodation types, it becomes easy to understand the overall growth of the Azores tourism sector. Nevertheless, it should also be high-lighted that other types of accommodation (such as rural tourism, self-catering houses, hostels, and guesthouses) are increasingly more critical to the genuine experience of the Azores (Graph 1).

The Potential of Adventure Tourism in the Azores Guests

Beds

700,000

10,800

19

10,400

600,000

10,000

500,000

9,600

400,000

9,200 8,800

300,000

8,400

200,000

8,000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Guests

Beds

Graph 1. Evolution in the number of guests and in the number of beds in hotels and similar establishments (Source: [13–20])

The liberalization of air transport has been an excellent opportunity for the Azores. That is something that can be seen in various tourism performance indicators, like occupancy rates or RevPar. Nevertheless, this evolution has to be carefully analyzed since the destination is still at an early stage of its life cycle. The actual growth rates will not be there forever, and there are many threats to be considered. It is essential to keep in mind that the growth that tourism in the Azores is currently facing is much different from past growths, and this is causing structural changes in all the tourism value chain of the region. Nevertheless, despite all the changes that have been going on, there are still structural challenges to overcome. For instance, seasonality is still very pronounced, as it can be seen through the number of guests in hotels and similar establishments. Tourists are seeking the Azores, especially in the summertime, when there are less rain and higher temperatures (Graph 2).

100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec 2015

2016

2017

Graph 2. Guests in hotels and similar establishments (Source: [18–20])

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Consequently, strategic planning has to be carefully considered, and sustainability issues are critical in this work. Due to the need to protect the Azores’ competitive advantages (like natural assets and sustainability levels), it is essential to establish an adequate model and keep developing new products that grant more value increasingly to the experiences in the Azores, as a way to position the destination accordingly. Nature and adventure tourism, incredibly slow adventure, can be frontline products of this paradigm.

3 Tourism Strategy Tourism was selected as one of the three critical sectors for the regional Research Smart Specialization Strategies (RIS3) [21]. This condition reinforced the importance of tourism in the investment policy and the 2014–2020 European Union Financial Framework for the Azores. For some time now, tourism has had particular attention from regional policy-makers, and some specific strategies have been implemented, although some of them had minimal results. Nevertheless, the Azores tourism strategy has always been closely related to nature, the sea, and sustainable tourism, which is something even more evident since 2016. Currently, the strategy for the development of tourism in the Azores is de-scribed in the Strategic and Marketing Plan of the Azores Tourism (PEMTA – Plano Estratégico e de Marketing Turístico dos Açores) [22], publicly revealed in 2016 by the Regional Government. This document lists the structural goals to be achieved, the destination’s market positioning principles, and the tourism products that should support this strategy. PEMTA [22] establishes four critical goals for Azores tourism. These goals are in line with the life cycle stage of the destination, its resources, tourism agents, and supply and demand dynamics: (i) leverage the Azores awareness to the final consumers; (ii) position the Azores as an exclusive destination of exuberant nature; (iii) promote the ongoing cooperation between public and private actors on the implementation of the plan; and (iv) improve the destination’s competitiveness and increase tourist flows. Five fundamental principles were identified to achieve these goals. These are the constructs of the strategy, guiding all the decisions and actions to be deployed: (i) nature tourism is the main tourism product of the Azores, capitalizing on its natural resources and biodiversity, although it needs a complementary products strategy; (ii) ensure the possibility of visiting all the islands, taking advantage of the improvements in the interisland transport network (the new PSO); (iii) establish as differentiating features the proximity to the market, the singularity and the authenticity of each island, the landscape, the safety and security and the tranquillity of the locals; (iv) encourage the continuous improvement of the performance of the tourism sector’s specific areas; (v) work on the Azores sustainability, preserving the places and the local communities, by strengthening the principles of sustainability. As a consequence of these structural elements, PEMTA [22] establishes that the market positioning of the Azores should be based on the concept of a natural destination and rare beauty without external influences. It should not have a vocation to mass tourism but should instead be focused on specific visitor niches that seek once in a

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lifetime experiences. In this regard, the particular market positioning of the destination in 2020 should be the following: • A destination (Portuguese/European) in the middle of the Atlantic; • Environmentally preserved volcanic islands (on their natural state) of exuberant nature; • Harmony of the 4 elements: water, earth, fire and air; • Exclusive; • Mystic beauty; • The visitor is welcome as a special guest; • Safety and security; • Diversity and quality of the sea and land activities [22]. Nature tourism, especially on the active segment, was selected as the priority product for the region’s tourism development. Hence, it is the one that should guide and mobilize the destination’s positioning and promotional efforts in the market. Diversifying and enriching the supply, nautical tourism, scenic, and cultural touring, gastronomy, and health and wellness were selected as complementary products (Fig. 2).

Priority Product Nature Tourism Complementary Products Nautical Tourism

Scenic and Cultural Touring

Health and Wellness

Secondary Products Sun & Beach

MICE

Golf

Fig. 2. Azores strategic tourism products (Source: [22]).

Finally, the best opportunities for Azores tourism development were detected in niche markets with high added value and on nautical tourism and rural tourism. However, it is necessary to be aware of the risk of massification, which can hinder the sustainable development and the quality of the tourism experience in the destination. For this reason, public policies concerning spatial planning and transports will be vital to guarantee the right balance to the tourism sector’s future evolution.

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Besides, back in 2008, the Regional Government announced the Spatial Plan of Tourism of the Autonomous Region of the Azores (POTRAA) (Decreto Legislativo Regional n.º 38/2008/A, de 11 de Agosto). It was defined as the fundamental mechanism to achieve the sustainable development of the tourism sector in the region. In effect, it was also an instrument to guide the various economic actors and discipline the administrative action, establishing the strategic tourism products and the evolution of the tourism supply until 2015. Nevertheless, it is still in motion, although it has been partially suspended and under deep revision. For some years, POTRAA was the central instrument of the Azores tourism strategy, despite being a territory management instrument. The way it was developed allowed the concentration of much more than spatial management mechanisms, stretching its reach to all the region’s tourism strategy. Knowing that the image of the Azores as a destination was strongly related to nature and sustainability, the plan established six Strategic Development Guidelines (SDG): SDG 1 – Reinforcement and deepening of technical, organizational and regulatory conditions to support tourism development; SDG 2 – Support to the improvement of infrastructure and complementary/support services of the tourism sector, to the internal and external accessibilities and the tourism signage; SDG 3 – Support to the development, qualification, and diversification of the regional tourism supply; SDG 4 – Incitement of the tourist demand and the external awareness of the regional tour-ism; SDG 5 – Support for specific actions regarding the spatial planning of tourism; SDG 6 – Support to the implementation, follow-up, and assessment of the plan. POTRAA established a Territorial Organization Model, with cartographic support, beyond suggesting a model for the distribution of the tourism supply in each island and a coordinated approach with municipal territorial management instruments. The plan recommended the creation of Places with Specific Tourism Vocation, according to their natural, scenic, and urban characteristics, in addition to particular attention to more fragile ecologic areas, limiting their use for tourism. The document also identified the main tourism products for each island and strategically established a specific core tourism product and some other complementary features for each of the nine islands. That was done to serve as a guideline to the islands’ tourism development, mobilize differentiating elements, and establish a coherent strategy for the preservation of the environment and cultural identity of each island. These products and resources should influence the regional tourism strategy and the local tourism development according to the islands’ peculiarities and specific social, economic, environmental, and cultural contexts. In fact, [23] claim that regions such as the Azores have great potential for the development of nature and adventure tourism products, but, due to their early stage of development as destinations and the limitations in their carrying capacity, it is necessary to guarantee a sustainable tourism development model. This model should be focused on the endogenous resources to achieve the diversification of tourism products, to satisfy visitors’ expectations, and to assure the minimization of the impact of tourism activities. Therefore, a careful destination planning and tourism development management seem of critical relevance to avoid some of the effects associated with the maturity and saturation stages of a destination lifecycle, like polluted environments and landscapes, decay of heritage, water pollution, erosion, and traffic congestion. Again,

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slow adventure fits perfectly in this scenario and can even be a way to achieve sustainable and well-balanced tourism development.

4 Final Thoughts Through the present study, it was possible to verify, once more, the vast contributions and opportunities of tourism activities for regional development. In fact, tourism is capable of contributing to the revitalization of local economies, diversification of events that are tributaries, construction of another economic sector (by the multiplier effect), creation and qualification of employment, profit production, modernization of transport infrastructure, among several other benefits. Nevertheless, to promote a successful strategic regional strategic planning, a policy focusing on sustainability should be designed premised on vital investments in infrastructure and services – accessibility and connectivity, movement between cities and regions, and power networks, among several other critical factors. It is also essential to create human assets – crucial to attracting investors and investment, which is integral to sustainable territorial development [24–30]. Besides, tourism should be listed as a separate element of a broader rural development program. Moreover, it is essential to tighten cooperation among the public sector, private sector, communities, and civil society, trying to guarantee that the objectives of its investment policies and strategies are achieved [31]. In this regard, the Azores tourism strategy embraces nature as the most critical resource for its development. Culture is also a valuable asset. The two combined provide varied opportunities for adventure tourism products and the framework for a long-term strategy. Additionally, sustainability has been faced as a critical factor for the Region’s development and has a vital role in the current policy. These are facts that, again, perfectly match the slow adventure concept and reveal the potential that exists for the consistent and enduring development of this new approach. Funding. This paper is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT–Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., project number UIDB/00685/2020 and also by the project GREATGenuine Rural Experiences in the Azores Tourism, with the code: ACORES-01-0145-FEDER000089.

References 1. UNWTO: AM Reports, Volume Nine – Global Report on Adventure Tourism. UNWTO, Madrid (2014). https://bit.ly/2HxnY3z 2. Buckley, R.: Adventure tourism research: a guide to the literature. Tour. Recreat. Res. 31(2), 75–83 (2006) 3. Buckley, R.: Adventure tourism products: price, duration, size, skill, Remoteness. Tour. Manag. 28(6), 1428–1433 (2007) 4. Varley, P., Semple, T.: Nordic slow adventure: explorations in time and nature. Scand. J. Hospit. Tour. 15(1–2), 73–90 (2015)

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5. Varley, P., Farkic, J., and Carnicelli, S.: Hospitality in wild places. Hospit. Soc. 8(2), 137– 157 (2018) 6. Jurado Almonte, J.M.; Fernández Tristancho, A.: Experiencias en turismo accesible en andalucía y Portugal. Especial Atención Al Ámbito Alentejo-Algarve-Provincia De Huelva (ed.). Universidad de Huelva, vol. 182 (2016) 7. Morais, J., Castanho, R.A., Pinto-Gomes, C., Santos, P.: Characteristics of Iona national park’s visitors: planning ecotourism and sustainable development in angola. Cong. Soc. Sci. Manusc. 4, 1490235 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2018.1490235 8. Morais, J., Castanho, R.A., Loures, L., Pinto-Gomes, C., Santos, P.: Villagers’ perceptions of tourism activities in iona national park: locality as a key factor in planning for sustainability. Sustainability 11, 4448 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11164448 9. Castanho, R.A., Couto, G., Pimentel, P.: Principles of sustainable tourism and cultural management in rural and ultra-peripheral territories: extracting guidelines for its application in the Azores Archipelago. Cult. Manag.: Sci. Educ. (CMSE) (2020). ISSN 2512–6962 https://doi.org/10.30819/cmse.4-1.01 10. Ferreira, H.M.: Diversity patterns of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) populations from the Archipelago of the Azores: insights from mtDNA and wing geometric morphometrics. Master Thesis, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal (2017) 11. Vieira, J., Couto, G., Pimentel, P., Menezes, A., Moniz, A., Sousa, F.: The satisfaction of the Nordic tourist with the Azores as a destination. Scand. J. Hospit. Tour. 13(1), 59–73 (2013) 12. Couto, G., Pimentel, P., Ponte, J.: Tourism Development potential in an insular territory: the case of Ribeira Grande in the Azores. J. Tour. Res. Hospit. 6(2), 1–8 (2017) 13. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2010. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2011). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 14. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2011. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2012). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 15. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2012. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2013). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 16. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2013. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores. https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 17. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2014. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2015). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 18. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2015. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2016). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 19. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2016. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2017). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 20. SREA: Estatísticas do Turismo janeiro a dezembro de 2017. Serviço Regional de Estatística dos Açores, Açores (2018). https://bit.ly/2HvmeYD 21. SPI – Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação: Estratégia de Investigação e Inovação para a Especialização Inteligente da Região Autónoma dos Açores – RIS3 Açores. Governo Regional dos Açores, disponível em (2014). https://bit.ly/2J86asM 22. IPDT – Instituto de Planeamento e Desenvolvimento do Turismo: Plano Estratégico e Marketing do Turismo dos Açores. Governo Regional dos Açores (2016). https://bit.ly/ 2vs1hZJ 23. Silva, F., Almeida, M.: Sustentabilidade do turismo na natureza nos Açores – o caso do canyoning [Sustainability of nature tourism in the Azores – the case of canyoning]. In: do Céu Almeida, M. (ed.) Turismo e desporto na natureza [Tourism and sport in nature], pp. 5– 19. Associação de Desportos de Aventura Desnível, Estoril (2013)

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24. Castanho, R.A., Behradfar, A., Vulevic, A., Naranjo Gómez, J.: Analyzing transportation sustainability in the Canary Islands Archipelago. Infrastructures 5, 58 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/infrastructures5070058 25. Naranjo Gómez, J.M., Lousada, S., Garrido Velarde, J., Castanho, R.A., Loures, L.: Land use changes in the canary archipelago using the CORINE data: a retrospective analysis. Land 9, 232 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/land9070232 26. Vulevic, A., Castanho, R.A., Naranjo Gómez, J.M., Loures, L., Cabezas, J., Fernández-Pozo, L., Martín Gallardo, J.: Accessibility dynamics and regional cross-border cooperation (CBC) perspectives in the Portuguese—Spanish borderland. Sustainability 2020(12), 1978 (2020) 27. Kilkenny, M., Partridge, M.: Export sectors and rural development. Am. J. Agr. Econ. 91, 910–929 (2009) 28. Naranjo, J.M.: Impacts on the social cohesion of mainland Spain’s future motorway and high-speed rail networks. Sustainability 8, 624 (2016) 29. Naranjo Gómez, J.M., Loures, L., Castanho, R.A., Cabezas, J., Fernández-Pozo, L., Lousada, S., Escórcio, P.: Assessing land use changes in european territories: a retrospective study from 1990 to 2012. IntechOpen (2018) 30. Vulevic, A.: Infrastructural corridors and their influence on spatial development-example of corridor VII in Serbia. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia (2013) 31. Mahony, K., Zyl, J.: The impacts of tourism investment on rural communities: three case studies in South Africa. Dev. Southern Afr. 19(1), 83–103 (2002)

The Importance of Cultural Events for the Promotion of the Territory: The Case Study of the Medieval Fair in Torre de Moncorvo Aida Carvalho(&), Joana Fernandes, and Victor Moreira CITUR, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Bragança 5300-253, Portugal {acarvalho,joana}@ipb.pt, [email protected]

Abstract. An event is an occasion, planned and organized with a specific goal, which occurs at a particular time and place, for a target audience. The multitude of factors inherent to its creation and organization lead to endless classifications, dividing them into categories, interest area, audience types, periodicity, program, objectives, and so on. Due to an event’s ability to generate new flows of people, they can economically boost a city, a neighbourhood or a street, making it an excellent opportunity for local development and promotion. Many events do create a large influx of people over their lifetime, but their effects can be much broader by the ability to stimulate information through the media by putting the promoter’s name and location in the public mind and giving a positive image about the promoter and/or the destination where the event takes place. This motivates the influx of new people to the destination in order to attend the event. However, many are also attracted by the destination itself, influenced by the increase of information in the media, thus intensifying future visits. The case presented here concerns the municipality of Torre de Moncorvo that has been focusing on the Medieval Fair, a large annual event. The objective of this study is to estimate the economic impact of the Medieval Fair, using secondary data, through the consultation of specialized bibliography and through information available from different entities involved, and using primary data, in a quantitative approach, with surveys to exhibitors and visitors during the Medieval Fair. With this study and the results achieved, the promoter will be able to devise strategies for the enhancement of the event, seeking to attract more visitors, increasing the average length of stay of tourists, their loyalty to the destination, and boosting local economy and job creation. Keywords: Medieval fair


Cultural tourism
Heritage
Torre de Moncorvo

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 26–41, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_3

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1 Introduction According to [1] the “events, by definition, have a beginning and an end. They are a temporal phenomenal, and with planned events the event programme or schedule is generally planned in detail and well publicized in advance”. The event tourism is one of the fastest growing economic activities in the world and, according to the WTO, it has been related to the development of tourism. This term used mostly in the tourism literature to describe a destination development and marketing strategy to realize all the potential economic benefits of events. In order to maximize the positive effects of hosting events, these destinations began to set up basic structures for services consistent with this new reality. Accordingly, it become necessary to respond to the increasing demand of higher quality services required and the importance of training human resources in the specific area of events was recognized. In an extended perspective, according to [2], sustain that events bring several benefits such as destination promotion, increased entries and accommodation as well as increased daily visitor’s expenses. This growth in the number of tourists often implies an increase in hotel and restaurant’s capacity, generating more employment. In this way, [3] states that, for all stakeholders to benefit from quality events, they must take into account some requirements, namely the characteristics of the destination and the profile of potential visitors. They are the big trend and many cultural events are competing with major events with regard to economic and socio-cultural impacts, creating benefits for host communities and destinations [4]. They are a business multiplier phenomenon altering the dynamics of the local economy, especially for rural municipalities, due to their ability to generate new and larger tourist flows, even when they are of short duration, they can still grant a media coverage of the territory [5]. They also serve to consolidate the destination’s distinctive mark by its multiplier effects, that is, they increase credibility, and they bring the community together with a common purpose and share the benefits with it. Currently, there are few empirical studies that address the issue of economic impact analysis that certain events have in low density regions1, such as the municipality of Torre de Moncorvo, and so this work intends to increase the knowledge on the subject and obtain results that could provide guidance to the organizer for future investments.

1

Portugal 2020 Inter ministerial Coordination Commission, on a proposal from the National Association of Portuguese Municipalities, approved the classification of 164 low-density municipalities (LDM) for the purpose of applying positive discrimination measures, within the scope of Portugal 2020 and with the objective of recognizing a treatment differentiated to low density territories. To be considered low density, a multi criteria approach was defined that considers population density, demography, settlement, physical characteristics of the territory, socioeconomic characteristics and accessibility as criteria for classifying as LDM.

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2 Literature Review Events are a very broad area, so it is essential to introduce a process of classification and division by typology, thus allowing the reader a clearer and more concrete interpretation of this concept. Although the notion of events does not have a global term, as there is also a need to adapt to changes in society and culture, leading to a variation of its term, there are authors who share the same opinion regarding their characteristics and components. An event is a unique happening that occurs in a given time and space and follows a plan, promoting a relationship with the public in order to achieve certain goals. It should make an impact and be broadcast. They are often used as communication tools for territories, especially in municipalities that have adopted events as a tourist strategy, in order to enhance the traditional history-heritage binomial. Events can be classified into five categories: micro event (less than 100 people); small event (between 100 and 500 people); medium event (between 500 and 3,000 people); large event (between 3,000 and 80,000 people); mega event (over 80,000 people). Within each of these categories one can further classify the events by their purpose, periodicity, coverage, scope, and target audience. Other authors [6–8], also recognize many advantages to hosting events, since they move people, create jobs and at the same time increase revenues for the country or city, while also reinforcing the expansion of the hotel, catering and transportation sectors. Events can also follow a calendar that stimulates tourist demand in the “low season”. [3] states that some tourist destinations located by the coast determined the unfulfilled needs felt by “sun and sea” tourists, offering a greater variety of activities, including cultural events. Thus, coastal destinations can compete with other destinations through this diversification of supply. Events have their own characteristics according to their particularities (fair, Sales conventions, congress, workshop, social event, cultural event, sport event, other). Whatever their characteristics and/or peculiarities are, the events are very important for low density territories in their strategic evaluation, as they can provide new experiences, namely thematic events, not only for those who visit them but also for the residents. [9] adds that visitors come to events for various reasons related to their profession, associative, religious, sports or scientific. Cultural events are generally planned as opportunities for cultural intervention to initiate or accelerate broader local action programs, which can be oriented towards multiple objectives: boosting sectors of the local economy, attracting visitors, celebrating or reinforcement of collective identities, and promotion. Of the cultural events held in Portugal, Medieval Fairs have increased in number since the 1990s [10]. The municipality in study, Torre de Moncorvo, has a high potential in the segment of cultural events. It reveals a very unique identity expression that combines the uniqueness of its historic centre with the monumentality of its built and immaterial heritage. The Medieval Fair is its greatest exponent.

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3 Methodology This work was elaborated through an investigation based on a post-positivist paradigm and according to a quantitative approach, particularly a descriptive study. Specifically, the investigation was initiated using secondary data by consulting specialized bibliography and information available from the various entities involved. Afterwards, primary data was required, and it was determined that a structured questionnaire was the appropriate tool to obtain the required data. Two structured questionnaires were prepared and applied to exhibitors and visitors during the Medieval Fair. The validity of the questionnaires was assessed through the realization of ten pre-testes for each. The target population considered were the 90 exhibitors that had a formal place in the 2019 fair and the visitors that attended the fair during the three days of the event (April 26–28, 2019). The questionnaire to the visitors had three sections, the first regarded the socio-demographic characteristics, the second questioned about their habits regarding visiting cultural events and the last section focused on their behaviour during the visit, namely products/services acquired, places visited and other aspects. The questionnaire for the exhibitors had two sections, the first regarded the characteristics of the company and their activity and the second regarded the economic results they obtained during the fair. The statistical analysis of the obtained answers allowed a better understanding of the exhibitors, the visitors, their behaviour and the estimation of the economic impact of the fair.

4 Results Torre de Moncorvo is located south of the Bragança district, in the northeast of Portugal. It is integrated in NUT III - Douro within NUT II - Norte. It borders with the municipalities of Alfândega da Fé, Mogadouro and Vila Flor (north), with Carrazeda de Ansiães (west) and with Freixo de Espada à Cinta (east), as can be seen in Fig. 1. The county spreads over a geographical area of 532 km2 and comprises 13 parishes. Torre de Moncorvo is in a protected region recognized by the UNESCO in 2001 has world heritage. This important recognition was due to the exquisite landscape and to the traditional wine production activities. The region is also peculiar due to the duality of microclimates and so, along the three rivers, Douro and Sabor and Vale da Vilariça, there are very high summer temperatures boosting the cultivation of almond, olive and wine, while in the higher areas the very low winter temperatures favours chestnut and oak trees. Torre de Moncorvo is the main national producer region of almond and has one of the major iron deposits of Europe (Torre de Moncorvo Town Hall, n.d.). The settlement of the county is characterized by a network of small concentrated places and dependent on the

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Fig. 1. Territorial organization of the region: Territorial Units (NUTS III) and Municipalities Source: Statistics Portugal (2018).

town hall in terms of equipment and services. In the last eight years the municipality has decreased its population from 8,555 inhabitants in 2011 to 7,716 inhabitants in 2018 and a population density of 14.5 inhab/km2 [8] 2019a, 2019b. This population decrease is due to various factors such as emigration, continuously decreasing birth rate, population aging, among others. In the region the accommodation capacity reaches about 200 beds, in 2018 [8]. The municipality has an immense tourist potential due to the richness of its cultural heritage and the diversity of its natural heritage, not restricted to the large built monuments of which the central one is the Mother Church. The vernacular, ethnographic, gastronomic, literary, immaterial, archaeological, industrial heritage as well as the geological and mining heritage is also noticeably important. Over the years, the municipality has developed a cultural policy that is very motivated to multiply the diverse artistic performances that have contributed to the existence of a consistent and lasting cultural agenda. This agenda encompasses not only the municipality’s own activities, but also incorporates partnerships with other cultural agents of the region, who are gradually playing an increasingly important role in the cultural path of the village. The investment made in the restoration of several cultural infrastructures is not unknown, namely the cinema, Iron Museum, “Misericórdia” Church and Sacred Art Museum, “Casa da Roda” Museum and Douro Superior Photography Centre.

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31

Torre de Moncorvo Medieval Fair

Since 2011 the Medieval Fair takes place annually in Torre de Moncorvo, apart from 2012, and in the last edition, 2019, 60,000 individuals visited the fair. The theme of the Medieval Fair is dedicated to D. Dinis and is related with iron because Torre de Moncorvo has the largest iron deposit in Europe, explored since Roman times. D. Dinis had a special connection with the municipality from the time he visited the Old Village of Santa Cruz da Vilariça in 1281. He then realized that Torre de Moncorvo had a prime location with potential to be an important barrier against Spanish raids. In 1285 the charter was granted, and a fence was built, as documented in 1295. Therefore, during the fair, recreations of these historical moments are frequent. The Medieval Fair also includes a medieval market and old-fashioned workshops, where the various handicrafts and regional products are sold. There is also a playground and a “training camp for little warriors” and other activities. There is also a space, called the taverns, where the visitors can have a meal and taste regional flavours (Official site of the Medieval Fair). In the following sections the results obtained from both surveys are presented. Section 4.2 presents the results regarding the exhibitors, Sect. 4.3 presents the results regarding the visitors and Sect. 4.4 describes the estimated economic impact obtained from the surveys. 4.2

Exhibitors Results

This section presents the results obtained from the exhibitors’ questionnaire. From the 90 exhibitors that attended the fair, there were 79 responses. This corresponds to an 88% response rate. 4.2.1 Exhibitors Sample Profile Table 1 and Table 2 show the exhibitors’ place of origin and economic and legal activity. More frequently, 30.4% of exhibitors are based in the city of Torre Moncorvo and 10.1% in others city of the Torre de Moncorvo’s Region, accumulating 40.5% exhibitors from the region. Most of the exhibitors come from the district of Bragança, reaching 51.9%. Of the exhibitors based outside Bragança district (48.1%), 15.2% are from Porto District and 8.9% from Aveiro district and 6.3% from Viseu district, covering these 3 districts 30.4%; The remaining 16.4% is distributed among the districts of Guarda, Braga, Faro, Leiria, Lisbon, Setubal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and 1.3% from Spain.

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A. Carvalho et al. Table 1. Exhibitors’ place of origin Variables Frequency Company headquarters (location) Torre Moncorvo’s city 24 Torre Moncorvo’s region 8 Bragança district (without Torre de Moncorvo) 9 Aveiro district 3 Braga district 3 Coimbra district 7 Faro district 1 Guarda district 1 Leiria district 1 Lisbon district 1 Oporto district 12 Setúbal district 1 Viana do castelo district 1 Vila real district 1 Viseu district 5 Spain 1 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

Valid% 30.4 10.1 11.4 3.8 3.8 8.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 15.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 6.3 1.3

In the top three of the economic activities stands out the “craft” (27.7%), “agriculture, livestock production, hunting, forestry and fishing” (21.5%) and the manufacturing industries (12.3%). Only 84.6% of companies are legally registered in the Tax Authority.

Table 2. Exhibitors’ economic and legal activity Economic activity classification Craft Agriculture, livestock production, hunting, forestry and fishing Manufacturing industries Artistic, entertainment, sporting and recreational activities Other activities or services Restoration Retail Trade Accommodation Legal activity Yes No Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

18 14 8 7 7 6 4 1

27.7 21.5 12.3 10,8 10,8 9.2 6.2 1.5

66 84.6 12 15.4

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4.2.2 Historic Participation in This and Others Medieval Fair’s Table 3 shows the history of participation in this and others Medieval Fair’s. Most exhibitors (75.6%) participated in previous editions of Torre Moncorvo’s Medieval Fair. Also, most exhibitors (54.4%) participated in other Medieval Fair’s. Table 3. Historic participation in this and others Medieval Fair’s Variables Frequency Valid% Previous participation in the Medieval Fair Yes 59 75.6 No 19 24.4 Usual participation in another Medieval Fair’s Yes 43 54.4 No 36 45,6 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.2.3 Revenues and Its Evolution Table 4 shows the amounts indicated by the exhibitors as total revenues of the event. Most exhibitors (85.1%) say that their revenues are up to 2,499 euros and 10.4% between 2,500 and 4,999 euros, with an average revenue of 1,809.70 euros per exhibitor and an average total for the event of 121,250 euros. Concerning the evolution of their revenues, 67.5% state they are the same, 20.9% consider a decrease, and 11.6% an increase. Table 4. Revenues and its evolution Variables Frequency Valid% Sales amount (euros) Up to 2499 57 85.1 Between 2500 and 4999 7 10.4 Between 5000 and 7499 1 1.5 Between 7500 and 9999 2 3.0 Mean Sales amount (euros) M ± SD 1809.70 ± 1558.27 Sum 121 250 euros Maximum Sales amount (euros) M ± SD 3059.70 ± 1558.27 Sum 205 000 euros Sales amount evolution respecting last participation Decreases 9 20.9 Same 29 67.5 Increases 5 11.6 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

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4.2.4 Sales Amount of National and Foreign Visitors Table 5 shows the estimated revenues per visitor and per nationality in the exhibitor opinion. Most of the exhibitors consider that national and international visitors buy products/services until 49 euros (84.6% and 85.5%, respectively). Table 5. Sales amount of national and foreign visitors Variables Frequency Valid% Sales number of national visitors (euros) Up to 49 55 84.6 Between 50 and 99 4 6.2 Between 100 and 149 1 1.5 Between 150 and 199 1 1.5 Between 200 and 249 4 6.2 Mean Sales number of national visitors (euros) M ± SD 44.23 ± 52.81 Sales number of foreign visitors (euros) Up to 49 47 85.5 Between 50 and 99 4 7.3 Between 100 and 149 1 1.8 Between 150 and 199 2 3.6 Between 200 and 249 1 1.8 Mean Sales number of national visitors (euros) M ± SD 34.43 ± 32.61 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.2.5 Most Purchased Product The Table 6 shows the product or products most purchased in the event from the exhibitor’s point of view. The product with the highest frequency is the “craft” with 25.3%, followed by wine (16.9%) and sausages (13,3%), representing an accumulated total of 55.5% of all products. But the conjoint of almond, covered almond and almond candy, reaches 14.4%, representing the almond cluster of this region.

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Table 6. Most purchased product Variables Frequency Valid% Craft 21 25.3 Wine 14 16.9 Sausages 11 13.3 Cheese 9 10.8 Other 7 8.4 Almond 5 6.0 Olive oil 5 6.0 Almond candy 4 4.8 Honey 4 4.8 Covered almond 3 3.6 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.2.6 Production Way and Raw Materials Purchased in the Region Table 7 shows the form of production of their products and the use of endogenous raw material in the Torre Moncorvo’s region. Most exhibitors use their own production (84.9%). The majority of the exhibitors (67.6%) uses between 50% and 100% of endogenous raw products, with a significant percentage (42.6%) using 100% of local raw material.

Table 7. Production way and raw materials purchased in the region Variables Frequency Valid% Production way Own manufacture 62 84.9 Dealer 11 15.1 % of raw materials purchased in the region 0% 16 23.5 10% 3 4.4 25% 3 4.4 50% 8 11.8 75% 9 13.2 100% 29 42.6 M ± SD 60,00 ± 41,97 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.2.7 Need to Recruit More Employees It was also asked to the exhibitors if they had to recruit more employees during the event. Most exhibitors (68.5%) state that they do not recruit more employees, but there

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are 31.5% that have this necessity. The recruitment is usually made in the city (22.3%) and 9.2% in another city or region. In average, the exhibitors that need to recruit, employ four individuals and in total for the event 97 individuals are temporarily employed (Table 8). Table 8. Need to recruit more employees Variables Frequency Valid% Need to recruit more employers Yes, in this city 17 22.3 Yes, in another city 7 9.2 No 52 68.5 Number employers recruit M ± SD 4,22 ± 4,28 Sum 97 employers Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.2.8 Future Participation in This Event Finally, regarding the intention to return to the Medieval Fair for future editions, almost all the exhibitors (94.9%) stated that they want to return. 4.3

Visitors Results

This section presents the results obtained from the visitors’ questionnaire. From the 60,000 visitors that attended the fair, there were 282 responses. The results presented here have a 95% confidence level and a sample error of 5.8%. 4.3.1 Visitors Sample Profile Table 9 shows the visitors sample profile. The main visitor (89.7%) are Portuguese residents, of which 45.4% are from the region of Torre Moncorvo. Only 10.3% is foreign. The average age of the visitor is 41.92 years and the female are slightly more present (52.5%). The main educational level of the visitors is university degree (56.0%). Table 9. Visitors sample profile Variables Residence Portuguese Foreign Age 18–25 years 26–35 years

Frequency Valid% 253 29 30 63

89.7 10.3 10.6 22.7 (continued)

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Table 9. (continued) Variables Frequency Valid% 36–45 years 92 32.6 46–55 years 54 19.1 56 or more years 42 14.9 M ± SD 41,92 ± 13,26 Sex Female 148 52.5 Male 134 47,5 Academic qualifications Basic level 15 5.3 Secondary level 109 38.7 University 158 56.0 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.3.2 Length of Stay Table 10 shows the length of stay in the event and in Torre Moncorvo’s region, globally and for typology of tourist. Most visitors (78.1%) stay at least for two days in the Medieval Fair and 50.5% remain for three days, corresponding to a mean length of stay of 2.26 days. The length of stay for national visitors is like the foreign visitors (2.27 versus 2.17). Along with the visit to the fair it was questioned the length of stay in the region and the majority (56.4%) stay three or more days in the Torre Moncorvo’s region, but 34.6% stay four or more days, corresponding to an average length of stay in the region of 3.27 days. The comparison between national and foreign visitors has no difference, although the national visitors remain for longer in the region (3.31 versus 2.94). Table 10. Length of stay in the Medieval Fair and in Torre Moncorvo’s Region Variables Frequency Valid% Length of stay exceeding one day Yes 222 79.3 No 58 20.7 Length of stay in the event ½ day 14 5.0 1 day 48 17.0 2 days 78 27.7 3 days 142 50.4 M ± SD 2,26 ± 0,85 Length of stay in the event (national) M ± SD 2,27 ± 0,86 (continued)

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A. Carvalho et al. Table 10. (continued) Variables Frequency Valid% Length of stay in the event (foreign) M ± SD 2,17 ± 0,76 Length of stay in the region 1 day 51 19.5 2 days 51 19.5 3 days 69 26.4 4 or more days 90 34.6 M ± SD 3,27 ± 1,75 Length of stay in the region (national) M ± SD 3,31 ± 1,76 Length of stay in the region (foreign) M – SD 2,94 ± 1,63 Accommodation typology Local accommodation 26 11.7 Hotel 4 1.8 Rural tourism 22 10.0 Camping 3 1.4 Family & Friends 65 29.3 Own accommodation 94 42.3 Other 8 3.6 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.3.3 Average Spend at Fair Excluding Meals/Restoration Table 11 presents the main attractions where the visitors spent their time and money, not considering meals/restoration. The “taverns” was select by 97.7% of the visitors, the “merchants” and “craft” for 87.1% and 82.5%, respectively. The average amount spent in these attractions reached 60.28 euros in the “taverns”, 38.53 in the “merchants” and 33.07 euros with “craft”. From the obtained values it was possible to estimate a variable “all products” that aggregates all the spending of the visitors, as such a total amount was estimated for each visitor during their stay. In all products, the visitors spend an average amount of 198.67 euros.

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Table 11. Average spend at fair excluding meals/restoration Variables Frequency Valid% %Row M ± SD # Taverns 257 22.1 97.7 60,28 ± 45,14 Merchants 229 19.7 87.1 38,56 ± 37,61 Craft 217 18.6 82.5 33,07 ± 35,41 Animation 166 14.2 63.1 25,35 ± 33,61 Stores products 194 16.7 73.8 25,00 ± 26,67 Others 102 8.8 38.8 16,49 ± 33,33 All Products – – – 198,76 ± 149,79 # - Euros / Visitor Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.3.4 Purchase of Products and “Souvenirs” Inside and Outside the Enclosures During the Event Table 12 shows the purchase and the average amount spend for different products and “souvenirs” indirectly related with the event. More than half (54.5%) bought “handcraft”, 48.8% bought “covered almond” and 34.9% “wine”. About one third of the visitors (29.9%) spent money in products manufactured with almond. The mean estimated value spend per visitor is 5.45 euros for “covered almond” and 4.86 and 4.79 euros for “handcraft” and “olive oil”. Table 12. Purchase of products inside and outside the enclosure Variables Frequency Valid% %Row M ± SD # Craft 137 18.9 54.5 4,86 ± 5,00 Covered Almond 123 16.9 48.8 5,45 ± 6,21 Wine 88 12.1 34.9 3,12 ± 4,64 Other 66 9.1 26.2 0,58 ± 1,06 Cheese 61 8.4 24.2 3,03 ± 5,77 Olive oil 54 7.4 21.4 4,79 ± 9,85 Sausages 51 7.0 20.2 2,44 ± 5,20 Honey 51 7.0 20.2 1,63 ± 3,47 Almond candy 49 6.7 19.4 0,70 ± 1,51 Almond 46 6.3 18,3 0,65 ± 1,48 # - Euros / Visitor Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS database

4.4

Estimated Economic Impact of the Visitors

From the presented values an average spent by each visitor during the three days of the fair reached 198.76 euros. Considering that there were 60,000 visitors, the estimated economic impact of the fair is 11,925,600 euros. Almost 12 million euros were spent in products and services provided by the exhibitors. Since the majority is from the district of Bragança (51.9%) more than half remains in the region and specifically in Torre de Moncorvo’s region remains 40,5% of the revenues, reaching almost 5 million euros.

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This amount is coherent with the revenues declared by the exhibitors that reached 9 million euros. The difference can be explained by the fact that exhibitors declared the revenues based on intervals and the visitors declared the nominal value spent. Also, it is not uncommon that the salesmen underestimate their revenues since they are taxed. To estimate this amount, it was assumed that every exhibitor obtained the same revenue, however, the main products/services that are purchased by the visitors are local, sustained by the fact that the main products sold are local and almost totally manufactured by the exhibitor and using almost 100% local raw materials. As such, not only the total amount is believed to be underestimated, but the real impact is much higher since the indirect and induce economic impacts are not taken in consideration. In fact, due to the proportion of local involvement (local exhibitors, local products, own manufacturing, and 100% local raw material) it is reasonable to state that the total economic impact in Torre de Moncorvo is much greater that the 5 million euros.

5 Conclusions The hosting of this event is an attempt to increase local economy, enabling local producers and small companies to sell during the Medieval fair endogenous products. Held annually and usually in April, the Medieval Fair seeks to attract more visitors to Torre de Moncorvo during the so-called high season. This study shows that the 120,000 euros invested by local entities generates a local economic activity of 5 million euros, this represents an economic multiplier of 41.7 euros. This means that for every euro invested by Torre de Moncorvo’s Town Hall, 41.7 euros are generated on local economic activity. Other than the fair it was possible to determine that many of the visitors bought products outside of the Fair location. The majority bought in Torre de Moncorvo’s local stores craft and almond products (almond, covered almond and candy almond). This is believed to be a consequence of the fact that covered almond won one of the “Seven Wonders of Portugal – sweets” award. Based on this study, the Torre de Moncorvo Town Hall who organizes the event, can use these results to devise different strategies to enhance the events, seeking to attract more visitors, increase their average length of stay, their loyalty to the destination, and enhance local economy and subsequently increasing the numbers of jobs available. Acknowlegments. This work is financed by national funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under project reference No. UID/B/04470/2020.

References 1. Getz, D.: Event Studies: Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events, 2a edn. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (2009) 2. Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R., McDonnell, I.: Festival and Special Event Management. Wiley, Sydney (2010)

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3. Miranda, M.I.P.: Os eventos como contributo para a diferenciação de um destino turístico: caso do Programa Allgarve – os eventos de Animação e Música Pop. Dissertação de Mestrado, Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Portugal (2012) 4. Oliveira, M.R.B., Salazar, A.M.: Os impactos do turismo: o caso da Viagem Medieval de Santa Maria da Feira. Tourism Manage. Stud. 1, 744–765 (2011) 5. Almeida, P., Araújo, S.: Introdução à Gestão de Animação Turística, 2ª edn. Lidel, Lisboa (2017) 6. Albuquerque, S.S.: Turismo de Eventos – A Importância dos Eventos para o Desenvolvimentodo Turismo (Dissertação de Mestrado, Centro de Excelência em Turismo da Universidade de Brasília, Brasil (2004) 7. Caetano, J., Portugal, M.N., Portugal, J.P.: Gestão de Eventos. Escolar Editora, Lisboa (2018) 8. Carneiro, J., Fontes, N.: Turismo e eventos: instrumento de promoção e estratégia de marketing. Revista Turismo Em Análise 8(1), 65–74 (1997). https://doi.org/10.11606/issn. 1984-4867.v8i1p65-74 9. Coutinho, H.P.M., Coutinho, H.R.M.: Turismo de eventos como alternativa para o problema da sazonalidade turística. Revista Eletrónica Aboré – Publicação da Escola Superior de Artes e Turismo. ISSN 1980-6930 (2007) 10. Marlene: Turismo de Evento: Relação entre Sociedades e Espaço de Eventos in: BAHL, Miguel (Organizador), Turismo: enfoques teóricos e práticos, Roca Editora, São Paulo (2003) 11. https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOES tipo=ea&PUBLICACOEScoleccao=107661&selTab=tab0&xlang=pt. Accessed 18 Mar 2019

Using Data Analytics to Understand Visitors Online Search Interests: The Case of Douro Museum Aida Carvalho1(&), Arlindo Santos1, and Carlos R. Cunha2 1 Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal {acarvalho,acsantos}@ipb.pt 2 UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Regional museums are relatively recent museum structures that emerged in the late 19th century after universal exhibitions. They are museums specifically dedicated to the representation of a given population in a specific territorial context, highlighting the fundamental traits that characterize the nature and essence of that community, differentiating it from others. In northern Portugal, law no. 125/97, created the Douro Museum, a territory museum that represents the natural and cultural heritage of the demarcated Douro region, the first demarcated and regulated region of the world, in 1756, by Marques de Pombal, extending over an area of of 250,000 ha, between Barqueiros and Barca d’Alva along the Douro River and its tributaries. The museum has a “polynuclear structure distributed throughout the Douro region, based in Peso da Régua” (art. 2), serving as an element for mobilizing tourists, mainly through its main temporary exhibitions, videos, etc. In an information society, characterized by the empowerment of citizens with regard to their ability to independently obtain information and, in the process, to leave their footprint, it is crucial to understand and anticipate their interests. In this way, the supply and responsiveness of tourism agents and regional actors will be increased, making them better able to decide for an offer better suited to the real interests of visitors and even enable to influence them. This article aims to know the profile of tourists/consumers through their online behavior, trying to understand what kind of information they are looking for, which keywords are most used and searched using the fundamentals of Data Analytics and using the Google Trends tool. Moreover, this study enables to better understand the connection between online search interests and the reality of the Douro Museum visitants. This approach is nowadays a major contribute to bridge the gap between visitors needs/interests and tourism player’s strategies definition, making Data Analytics a fundamental tool to enable decision support systems. Keywords: Data Analytics Tourism


Douro Museum
Google Trends
Tourists


© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 42–51, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_4

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1 Introduction The tourism accounted for 8.2% of Portugal’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2018, double that of 2009 (3.9%) [1], contributing strongly to the recovery of the Portuguese economy growth in all activity indicators. The main economic results of 2018 demonstrate the importance of the sector in the economy and the maintenance of its position as the main exporting sector. It is one of the most dynamic economic activities in the world and, in Portugal, follows this performance and, year after year, the economic relevance of the sector is becoming evident. In terms of demand, historic highs were reached: 66 million overnight stays (+1.7% over 2017) and 24.8 million guests (+3.8%), both indicators with the largest share of the foreign market, 70.3% and 60.4% respectively. According WTTC, in 2019 “the Portuguese Travel & Tourism sector will grow by 5.3%, more than double the European average of 2.5%” [2] and it is therefore essential to understand the demand of consumers for tourism-cultural products, among others, given the increased competitiveness of the sector. This information is critical to assisting cultural managers in decision making. According to a public survey, consisting of 13,853 valid questionnaires, of which 47% Portuguese and 53% foreign, applied to 14 museums supervised by the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage [3] the answers indicate that six out of ten visitors were informed beforehand, visit to the museum, a practice more prevalent among foreigners (71%) than among nationals (48%). The vast majority of audiences used a single source of information (67%), while 28% used 2 or 3. Of these, the most common combinatory highlight the internet (Internet/Museum Web Site; Internet/Tourist Route; Internet/Family) but also include other media such as Sightseeing/Family. Building the profile of using the Douro Museum through its interactions and research is fundamental to ground new strategies to attract audiences and engage new institutional partners given the specificity of the museum that is simultaneously a territory museum, a unique region with strong differentiating factors. Nationally and internationally, and a wine museum, as the vineyard, the wine and the landscape are part of the identity matrix with strong tourism potential and assets of high differentiating value. In December 2001, the Alto Douro Vinhateiro was awarded the title of World Heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in the category of living evolutionary cultural landscape. This wine region is located in the northeast of Portugal, bordered by the Douro River with an aerial of more than 28 thousand hectares. The granting of this status was only possible due to a set of peculiar characteristics and factors that make the place unique in the world. It is a traditional example of the human establishment of occupation of the representative territory of the vine culture. In this path, the Douro Museum was created, through law no. 125/97, of December 2, with the objective of promoting the entire wine region, and its limits of action are larger than the area classified as World Heritage. It is a Territory Museum, as an expression of the cultural identity of the Douro Demarcated Region, Community Museum, as it is an expression of the identity of the man who built, builds and maintains the landscape of this region and produces a wine of admittedly special characteristics. It is therefore also a Wine Museum. It is located in Casa da Companhia, one of the most emblematic buildings in the city of Peso da

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Régua. Later, on March 23, 2006, by decree-law no. 70/06, the Douro Museum Foundation was established. It is an institution governed by private law and public utility, with legal personality. The Douro Museum, as an actor of the region’s cultural, social and economic development, has been instrumental in its research, documentation, conservation and interpretation of the region’s cultural and natural heritage, particularly in the Douro Demarcated Region. Heritage through a broad range of regular activities. Bet on a program of itinerant exhibitions that cover cultural spaces of the 21 municipalities of the Douro region. At the same time, and whenever possible, to make a marking of this territory elsewhere, the roaming program takes place in cities or places, at national and/or international level. The Museum promotes the territory by writing, editing and designing newsletters for the educational services (SEI - digital, monthly newsletter) and the museology and research service (SMI - quarterly, digital newsletter). Boosting a region depends, in many ways, on its ability to promote the region globally, as well as understanding the expectations that potential visitors have. In this domain, the role of technology and, in particular, Data Analytics, plays a key role in understanding visitors’ expectations and consequently defining strategies that converge on an approach based on competitive advantages, differentiating approaches and value creation.

2 Literature Review According to Jacobsen et al. [4] the tourist who wants to make a trip goes through three distinct phases: in the first, he tries to look for information about the destination; in a second, do the respective planning and, finally, in the third, live the experience. Each phase has a different behavior regarding the use of technology. According to a study presented by Google [5] only 40% of tourists go through a destination search process, going from “dream” to “planning” and vice versa, until they get destination details and narrow down their travel options. In this information gathering process, the traditional desktop plays an important role, being used by about 60% of US users/tourists, using Google Search as their primary source as search engine to get a sense of the image of fate [6]. This tool provides users with relevant information about destinations, making connections to web content, location, device, and time, giving rise to a data set that is critical to understanding user’s interest in a place, destination, institution or other. By way of example, if user spell the term “Douro” on Google it generates a kind of big data that can be used in the study of human behavior to understand the connections with the place [7]. These data are fundamental for the prediction of different areas, such as tourism [8], because their online interaction, whether through a search engine, a web site, a social media platform is captured, stored and analyzed and is critical to assist in decision making. And, according to Yang et al. [9], capturing the online behavior of tourists when using search engines, and then making decisions, has shown positive results in different industry sectors. And if we add the fact that Google Search, according to StatCounter [10], dominates the horizontal search engine segment, this statistic adds relevance to the results obtained from Google Trends (GT).

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Regarding to our study, Douro Museum, require accurate and up-to-date information on the current state of the world, and traditional approaches to measuring human behavior isn’t sufficient. Data generated through searches for information online, using search engines such as Google [11] offer us possibility to get real time data and organizations can take more early decisions. In addition, Dinis et al. [12], argues that it is an advantage using of the amount of data generated by the user generated by GT tool to obtain information that helps to understand user behavior. Although GT data is sample-based rather than on the absolute volume of search data [9], and cannot be used to completely replace traditional analysis, it can nevertheless be used to formulate ideas and assist in decision making [13].

3 Methodology In this study we resorted to a Goal/Question/Metric (GQM) approach, with the definition of objectives, specification of questions and, finally, establishment of necessary metrics to answer the questions [14] of the object of study. To this end, we used the GT tool with objective to understand the interest of Google Search users for the Douro Museum as well as the Douro region and their relationship. Based on this information, a comparative study was performed with the number of visits, which corresponds to the user’s real interest to validate the correspondence between these two environments: virtual and physical. In this sense, we searched the countries of origin and the terms and topics entered in the Google Search for the region and the Douro Museum and how the user corresponded with the Museum and the region in the search process. In this research we considered only the data referring to the category “Travel” and alluding to the Google web search channel, after 2012 to 2019. And we used the Ubersuggest and SEMRush tools to obtain comparative data about search volume on Google Search because GT doesn’t give us this data and it´s important in the business scenario this data help to take decisions. The GQM model was used to obtain answers to the following questions: 1. What is the interest of Internet users in the topic “Douro” and its relation with the topic “Douro Museum”? 2. What is the interest of Internet users on the topic “Museums” compared to the topic “Douro Museum”? 3. Which audience shows more interest on the topic “Douro”? 4. What is the research volume of the most popular keywords associated to the topic “Douro”? 5. And what is the relation between the interest shown online, either by the topic “Douro”, or by the topic “Museums” or by the topic “Douro Museum” with the number of visitors at the Douro Museum?

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4 Results Discussion This section presents the answers to the research questions previously stated, following the research work process with the GT tool. The purpose is to understand the terms and topics used by users who have expressed their intention to obtain any information about the Douro Museum or the region, as well as where the user did the research. Given the universe of possibilities, it was necessary to make methodological decisions in order to obtain the intended metrics. To this end, it was assumed to first analyze the interest in the Douro region and then the interest in the museum and what is the influence of the region to the museum and vice versa. Thus, the data were obtained using the comparative analysis methods provided by the GT tool, considering the related terms and topics, location, time period. In this study we resorted to a GQM approach, with the definition of objectives, specification of questions and, finally, establishment of necessary metrics to answer the questions [14] of the object of study. We used the GT tool to understand the interest of Google Search users for the Douro Museum as well as the Douro region. Based on this information, a comparative study was performed with the number of visits, which corresponds to the user’s real interest to validate the correspondence between these two environments: virtual and physical. In this sense, we searched the countries of origin and the terms and topics entered in the Google Search for the region and the Douro Museum and how the user corresponded with the Museum and the region in the search process. In this research we considered only the data referring to the category “Travel” and alluding to the Google web search channel. 4.1

Interest by the Douro Region

The analysis of the data shows that the degree of interest in the Douro region worldwide by typing the word Douro (single word or in conjunction with other words such as “Douro Valley”) shows growth trend, according to INE’s tourism income data [15] as well as the interest in Portugal following an average growth level of approximately 40%, between the periods of 2012 to 2018. This growth was more pronounced from the year 2014, according to Fig. 1.

Portugal Douro

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 1. Degree of interest in the Douro region vs Portugal

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The 208-km Douro waterway recorded a record passenger in 2017, accounting for about 1.2 million tourists on vessels crossing the river, up 35% from 2016, according to with the Douro, Leixões and Viana do Castelo Ports Administration [15]. In 2016, 863 043 tourists crossed the Douro, spread over 85 vessels of 47 operators. In 2019, 61 operators with 149 vessels operate on the waterway, 20 of which hotel boats, with tourists mainly from the United Kingdom, Germany and France, who chose to travel in small boats, day cruises or hotel boats. So it is not surprising that the term “douro” and “douro azul” (Table 1), are the terms listed in the top 10 that generate the most interest worldwide by users in the Google Search. Douro Azul is the company oldest boat to sail in the Douro, emerging 25 years ago, with about 20 vessels on the river, between Rabelo boats, hotel ships and yachts. Its turnover in 2017 reached 31 million euros in the region alone, in 2018 41 million and in 2019 are estimated 51 million, according to CEO Mário Ferreira [16]. Soon after, there are terms related to the hotel supply (according to Table 1), which in the region has not stopped growing from 2009 to 2017 and increased from 35 to 154 units [17]. Table 1. Top of related terms (GT) Terms Douro Douro Douro Douro

Azul Royal Valley Hotel & Spa Valley Hotels

Considering that the GT only provides relative data, the Ubersuggest and SEMRush tool was used to have a comparative basis and to understand the estimated volume of search for the word “douro” from several European countries, according to Table 2. Table 2. Estimate the total volume each month Country France Portugal United Kingdom German Spain Netherlands

Ubersuggest 3,600 6,600 1,300 1,900 590 590

SEMRush 3600 5400 1600 1600 590 590

In the analysis it was found that the domestic market has search values far above other nationalities, around 6600 searches for the Ubersuggest tool and a slightly lower value for the SEMRush tool (5400) soon after come the French users who searched the term most. Douro, making a total of 3600 interactions, which shows the clear interest of the Douro region in the internal and French markets. These figures, then partially aligned with the data provided by INE [15] for 2018, it is estimated that the largest

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number of tourists in the Douro region are precisely the national ones. Interestingly, according to statistical data, the number of non-resident tourists arriving in Portugal stands at 22.8 million and Spain remained as the main issuing market for international tourists with a share of 25.4%, followed by tourists from the United Kingdom (15.5%), and in third place are tourists from France (13.3%) and those nationalities were also researching more about the Douro (Fig. 2).

800

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300

Spain 200

Germany 100

Netherlands 0

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Fig. 2. Comparative analysis among countries

In a comparative analysis between countries it can be seen that the popularity of the Douro has been more popular among the Spanish and the French and then the United Kingdom. Perhaps geographical proximity is the explanatory factor for the volume of research conducted by the Spanish. 4.2

Interest by the Terms “Museus” vs “Museu do Douro”

In 2018, there were 431 museums in Portugal, of which 117 were located in the NUT Norte (27.1%). Of the museums in the North, 41 were located in the Porto Metropolitan Area (35%) and 18 in the Douro region (15.5%), with the Peso da Régua municipality having a single Museum - the Douro Museum [17]. In 2018, tourist demand for museums reached a total of 19,494,106 visitors, of which 5,842,377 were at NUT Norte, 3,928,645 in the Porto Metropolitan Area; 335,423 in the NUT Douro, corresponding to visits from the NUT Douro to 5.7% of the total visits in the NUT Norte [15]. School visits were responsible for 12.1% of visits in 2018 [17] and foreigners were responsible for 47.6% [15]. This year, the activity of museums employed 4828 people, of which 4516 were paid [15]. With regard to turnover, the 38 companies registered under activity code 91020 - “museum activities” had a turnover of 19,113 thousand euros in that year, corresponding to an average of 503 thousand euros per company [18].

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Regarding the evolution of the supply of cultural museological equipment, these went from 345 museums in 2012 to 431 museums in 2018, corresponding to a growth of 24.9% or an average annual growth of 3.8%. As for the evolution of tourist demand in all Portuguese museums, it went from 10,067 thousand visits in 2012 to 19,494 thousand visits in 2018, equivalent to an average annual increase of 11.6%. With regard to the evolution of museum visits under the tutelage of the General Direção Geral do Património Cultural [3], these grew continuously between the years 2012 and 2018, from 975,076 to 1,556,594 visitors, growing at an annual average of 8.1%. Regarding the number of visitors per equipment, with the exception of 2014, it has grown steadily in the period under review, from 29190 visitors per museum in 2012 to 45230 visitors per museum in 2018; corresponding to an average annual growth of 7.6% (Table 3). Table 3. Annual evolution in the number of museums and visitors between 2012 and 2018 by DGPC and all Portuguese museums Year Museums Visitants ♦ Visitants ♣ Visitants/Equipment ♠ 2012 345 97.5076 10.067 29.180 2013 353 95.1574 11.063 31.340 2014 392 11.4380 11.750 29.974 2015 388 124.7610 13.661 35.209 2016 405 147.9227 15.661 38.669 2017 430 155.6420 17.175 39.942 2018 431 155.6594 19.494 45.230 Source: DGPC / MC; PORDATA; - Visitors to DGPC museums; Thousands of visitors from all Portuguese museums; - Due to all Portuguese museums (Fig. 3).

1200

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Interest over Ɵme Douro Museum

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Interest over Ɵme Museum Topic Portugal Interest over Ɵme Museum Topic Worldwide

Fig. 3. Degree interest in the topic “Museu do Douro” and Museum Topic vs number of visitors

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Considering the entity under analysis, we chose to study the topic “Museum” regarding its degree of interest, in the Portuguese context and in the world context, comparing it with the interest in the topic “Museu do Douro” and the number of visitors. From the analysis of the graph it can be seen that interest in the topic “Museum” in the world context increased by 10% between 2014 and 2017, and in the Portuguese context the interest in this topic follows the same trend, verifying 40% increase between 2014 and 2017. However, the degree of interest in the “Museu do Douro” does not follow the same growth trend of the topic “Museum”, either in the Portuguese context or in the world context. The growth curve in visitor numbers is also unrelated to the degree of interest shown by cybernauts, but the degree of interest is almost constant. The number of visitors is above, and there was an 8% increase in the number of visitors to the museum’s exhibition areas from 2012 to 2013. However, there was a very significant decrease in the years. Perhaps the result of the deterioration of the country’s macroeconomic conditions that inevitably affected the consumption of cultural goods, has improved in the last two years, 2016–2017, by around 14%, but well below interest in topic museums.

5 Conclusion The preliminary analysis of the results leads to the conclusion that there are provide statistical evidence that tourists use search engines to plan primary and secondary attraction visits near or during the trip. And the data that results from the digital footprint of users in the virtual world, when interacting in this world, when searching for information for decision making, leaves a record of their interaction; when this task takes place in the web context, in the Google Search search engine, it is possible to make use of the data captured from these interactions, through the GT tool to obtain information and knowledge about consumer/tourist/visitor behaviour. Taking advantage of this tool, and after the conclusion of the study phase, it can be concluded that, in general terms, the main users using the search engine and the web search channel are the users who do not build a visible association between the region and the museum. And although tourism in Portugal, and in the Douro in particular, until last year, did knows moments of growth, there is no such growth in the degree of interest shown through the search engine. And the number of visitors also did not reflect this current trend. There is also a low volume of research related to the Douro Museum, and these are essentially from users who know the Museum very well. The Museum needs to bet more on digital content and disseminate it in various formats. However, the constant technological evolution, the creation of new networks and their integration with other digital applications and services, require levels of professionalism that may not be within reach of the Museum’s budget. There is, therefore, an apparent paradox: if, on the one hand, social networks are designed to enhance intuition and the ease of use and interaction of information to and from everyone, on the other hand, being able to enhance their immense potential requires, increasingly, the action of professionals, especially when it comes to using more than one social network, content sharing networks, data integration systems and performance monitoring. However, the Douro Museum will necessarily have to follow the trend and engaging more and more with the public.

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References 1. Turismo de Portugal. Relatório de atividades 2018 (2018) 2. WTTC. €1 in every €5 in Portugal comes from tourism (2019). https://www.wttc.org/about/ media-centre/press-releases/press-releases/2019/1-in-every-5-euros-in-portugal-comes-fromtourism/ 3. DGPC. Estudo de Públicos de Museus Nacionais (2016) 4. Jacobsen, J.K.S., Munar, A.M.: Tourist information search and destination choice in a digital age. Tour Manag Perspect 1, 39–47 (2012) 5. Think with Google. How Micro-Moments Are Reshaping the Travel Customer Journey (2016). https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/consumer-insights/travel-research-process-makea-plan-moments/ 6. Marine-Roig, E.: Measuring Destination Image through Travel Reviews in Search Engines. Sustainability 9 1425 (2017) 7. Stephens-Davidowitz, S.I.: Essays Using Google Data. Harvard University (2013) 8. Volchek, K., et al.: Forecasting London Museum Visitors Using Google Trends Data (2018) 9. Yang, X., et al.: Forecasting Chinese tourist volume with search engine data. Tour Manag 46, 386–397 (2015) 10. StatCounter. Worldwide desktop market share of leading search engines from January 2010 to April 2019 (2019). https://www.statista.com/statistics/216573/worldwide-market-shareof-search-engines/ 11. Moat, H., et al.: Using Big Data to predict collective behavior in the real world. Behav. Brain Sci. 37, 92–93 (2014) 12. Dinis, G., Costa, C., Pacheco Nós Googlamos, O.: Utilização da ferramenta Google Trends para compreender o interesse do público pelo Turismo no Algarve. Dos Algarves: Multidisc. e-Journal 1, 20 (2015) 13. Pedraza, P., Hernández, F.: Can internet searches forecast tourism inflows? Int. J. Manpower 36 (2015) 14. Basili, V.R.: Goal question metric paradigm. In: Encyclopedia of Software Engineering, pp. 528–532 (1994) 15. INE. Estatísticas de Turismo 2018 (2018) 16. Notícias Magazine. O Douro não é apenas um rio. É uma autoestrada de negócios (2018) https://www.noticiasmagazine.pt/2018/douro-nao-apenas-um-rio-autoestrada-negocios/ historias/229113/. Accessed Oct 2019 17. Pordata. Alojamentos turísticos: total e por tipo de alojamento (2019). https://www.pordata. pt/Municipios/Alojamentos+tur%c3%adsticos+total+e+por+tipo+de+alojamento-746-4940. Accessed Oct 2019 18. Banco de Portugal. Quadros do Setor. https://www.bportugal.pt/QS/qsweb/Dashboards. Accessed Nov 2019

Cooperation and Competitiveness in Tourism Sustainability. Positioning of Tourist Actors in the Serra da Estrela Natural Park in Portugal Gonçalo Fernandes1,2(&) and Helder Almeida3 1

Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal [email protected] 2 CITUR - Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação no Turismo, Vila do Conde, Portugal 3 Camara Municipal de Gouveia, Gouveia, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The tourist destination of Serra da Estrela, as the main mountain destination in Portugal, has a strong brand in the domestic market, especially supported by natural resources, winter sports, gastronomy and health. However, destination organization and management processes are incipient and scattered with a sustained tourism offer based on brand awareness and a loyal winter demand. Structurally based on small businesses, Serra da Estrela’s tourism offer seeks to combat seasonality and competition from national destinations with higher growth rates, as well as to provide a more consistent offer of services and differentiation of tourism products/experiences. It seeks to generate greater competitiveness and tourism value for the territory, identifying weaknesses and enhancing greater cooperation relations between the various local actors, with the municipalities having a strategic interest in their strengthening and promotion. In this context, we seek to evaluate the processes of collaboration in the tourism sector of Serra da Estrela, supported geographically in the six municipalities that constitute the Natural Park (PNSE), inquiring about the strategies and ways of acting that are perceived and desired by tourism actors, foster strategies of greater competitiveness and promote territorial development and sustainability. The survey processes developed sought to understand the formats of collaboration, the main areas of action, the desired levels of satisfaction, the desirable model of cooperation, and the development of destiny, according to the heritage characteristics, lifestyles and touristic products. Keywords: Cooperation Estrela
Sustainability


Tourism
Competitiveness
Moutain
Serra da

1 Introduction Tourism activities have relevant meaning and expression as factors of transformation of territories and their (re) organization, in terms of occupation, generated economies, and promoted socio-cultural relations. These territorial and socio-economic implications © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 52–65, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_5

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have their own meanings for rural and mountain territories because of the resources to be allocated to the activity (natural and cultural), existing ways of living, the supply of hotels and services and the relationships to be established with the local communities. In this context, it is essential that the tourism sector successfully addresses several challenges, including population aging, growing external competition, sustainability concerns, and evolving demand patterns for specific forms of tourism. A tourist destination is considered a complex and open system that, as a whole, establishes an offer capable of attracting tourists in the long term. In this context, a tourism destination is composed of complex networks with a large number of resources and co-producing actors delivering a variety of products and services [14, 29, 39]. Traditionally, tourism destinations grew spontaneously without planning. The consequences were damage to nature and socio-cultural environments, transforming economic development into a loss of both competitiveness and the opportunity to achieve a sustainable performance over time [16, 20]. The tourism destination generally comprises different types of complementary and competing organizations, multiple sectors, infrastructures, and an array of public/private linkages that create a diverse and highly fragmented supply structure [6, 37]. Thus, the research seeks to establish, to the Serra da Estrela destination, a framework of the competitiveness and collaboration logics in the tourism activity, considering the changes in progress, in terms of destination positioning, demand behavior and socioeconomic dynamics of local communities. Seeking to know the forms of collaboration and their characteristics in the destination, it was developed the application of survey to the tourist actors of the region to inquire about their existing understandings and forms of collaboration, the weaknesses considered and the interests for future collaborative processes leading to greater competitiveness and sustainability of tourism in the municipalities of the Serra da Estrela Natural Park.

2 Collaboration, Cooperation and Sustainability in Tourist Operation Business survival lies in taking advantage of the opportunities surrounding it and in suppressing threats. The market dialectic, framed in a capitalist system, places the various agents on the same playing field. Companies are confronted with customer demand and competition from competitors. In the face of threats, companies seek to increase competitiveness to take advantage of competitors [40, 42]. Competition exists where there is contention for something that two or more competitors want, giving rise to various clashes that take place in everyday business practice [48]. Transposing this confrontation into the economic context, the dispute occurs when two companies compete for the customers of a particular product or service. In order to surpass competitors, companies seek strategies of effectiveness, efficiency and differentiation that guarantee an advantageous competitive position. Thus, economic competition is characterized by market disputes in which various forces and agents meet. Demand and competition are assumed to be dynamic and driving factors of the system and are at the center of the success or failure of companies. Ritchie and Crouch [42] recognizing competitiveness as the ability to compete in a given market by translating into the

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foreground through the survival of the business and into the background through sustained growth. Competitiveness as the ability of the organization to adapt and influence its surroundings through its interactions, relationships and functions [19, 44]. The development of a competitive strategy aims to create value. The idea of value is one of the basic concepts of the market economy. The value of a good or service is determined by its production costs. Proximity to markets and shorter response times lead companies to greater structural flexibility. This gives rise to less bureaucratic and hierarchical organizations looking for the use of formal or informal partnership networks, management tools such a outsourcing, process reengineering, downsizing, benchmarking, and strategies based on innovation, continuous improvement, learning, balanced scorecard [44]. The use of integrated strategies creates an effective response to the conditions of the current environment, characterized by constant changes and speed of action, where planning merges with the use of more creative and intuitive strategies [43, 50]. Albrecht [2] recognizes as fundamental the use of rational creative thinking and informal actions in the development of strategies that build the sustainable success of organizations. Business collaboration is a strategic option when seeking access to new technologies and new markets, even if this relationship is between competitors [11, 50]. Increasing outsourcing has boosted business-to-business partnerships by streamlining production, sharing risk and increasing the flexibility needed to compete in a growing competitive environment [41, 51]. A great number of private and public stakeholders at international, national, regional and local levels are involved in the development of tourism. Given the complexity of tourism, these stakeholders must develop partnerships if they want to be successful. In the tourist industry the products are distinguished due to the heterogeneity of the services that comprise them. New economies of scale based on collaboration between companies and business units allow us to share knowledge, innovation and develop new products and services [28, 34]. Thus, collaboration emerges as a new paradigm in obtaining competitive advantages. Hollensen [30] states that the main strategic problem for companies is knowing where and when to collaborate and where and when to act competitively. The competition requires companies to take measures, which were not requested by customers, to achieve a better position against competitors and stimulates the development of new products and markets [5, 11]. For its part, cooperation allows companies to gain time, skills, market knowledge, reputation. But the biggest benefit of cooperation is access to resources that, combined with the company’s existing capabilities and means, impact its positioning. According to Sfandala and Bjork [45], the touristic competitiveness is achieved on the local destination scope, through a renewed capacity for innovation and constant improvement, rising, growing and maintaining within the touristic set, considered as the basic units of competitiveness, which are directly involved in the scenario of national or international competition, competing with other touristic sets. The collaborative advantage thus forms the basis of a new range of strategies that respond to the characteristics of the environment. Companies have specialized and built new business models where operational efficiency, outsourcing and business networks mark the strategic framework [34, 51]. Networks are an informal affinity model of association that leaves each company responsible for its own development. Collaboration through a partnership network does not imply the need for financial

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relationships, even though the main objective is to strengthen the activity of each of its participants [8, 36]. According to Saito and Ruhanen [43], on tourism organization, even if it is pre-eminent in the sector, is capable of developing an effective tourist destination in its own right. The formation and development of cooperative relations among stakeholders thus appear as a prerequisite for the development of sustainable tourism [2]. Tourism collaboration networks are a set of cooperative relationships between companies and entities operating in the sector, stimulating inter-organizational learning, knowledge exchange, community sense, and setting collective goals that result in qualitative and quantitative benefits for business activity. or community-related to building sustainable and profitable tourist destinations [41]. Networking promotes a favorable environment for sharing information and knowledge, exchanging skills and resources essential for innovation processes. Networks intensify the interrelationships of their actors by overcoming time-space limitations [10]. The cost and risk reduction is one of the key drivers of network collaboration. Initially, networks are set up to reduce uncertainties and risks, and to organize activities based on coordination and collaboration between companies [53, 57]. But they rapidly evolve and enable knowledge to be aggregated and disseminated, which is a driver for creating lasting competitive advantage [32]. Collaboration emerges as an effective strategy to achieve excellence and agility in turbulent market conditions ensuring the survival and competitiveness of organizations [7, 39]. It is a response to the difficulties posed by the environment that reduces the setbacks that translate into transaction costs [17, 35]. Adopting new collaborationbased business models such as business networks is one of the innovative methods that SMEs use to address internal weaknesses and ensure competitiveness by seeking to comply with the World Tourism Organization. meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future [55].

3 Serra da Estrela Tourist Destination Serra da Estrela is characterized by being a mountainous massif integrating the central Iberian Cordillera, which reaches in the Portuguese mainland its highest altitude value with 1993 m. The region has specific geological, orographic and climatic characteristics of the Atlantic Region and the Atlantic Mediterranean, where the granitic orography, the glacial and fluvial glacial marks, together with their biodiversity and local ways of life incorporate specificity and rich heritage [25]. The existence of unique natural resources of international relevance, with Natural Park status and recognized by UNESCO giving rise to the classification of Geopark, makes this destination a privileged area with high tourism potential in Portugal. The Serra da Estrela area encompasses markedly natural spaces with others of great historical and cultural value, generating an ecocultural mosaic of great environmental relevance [25, 26]. The uniqueness of these spaces contributes to the strong symbolism regarding their morphological structure, the richness of fauna and flora, the built heritage and the cultural

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and ethnographic dimension. These elements, associated with the different settlement forms of the Serra da Estrela region and its production systems, accentuate the genuineness and authenticity of mountain spaces, promoting tourist attractiveness. [22, 23, 49]. In this context, Serra da Estrela has its own meaning and dynamics, which have been conferred over time by its mountainous dimension and differentiated resources related to tourism. Serra da Estrela, as a geographical and environmental space, has geological, geomorphological, fluvial, forestry, biological, ecological and landscape organization and climatic resources, which make it the largest mountain in the national territory. The differentiating features that characterize the tourism potential of the region can be structured into: – Natural resources (geological, geomorphological, climatic and fluvial) – Landscape and environmental resources (Mountain ecosystems, biodiversity and ecological thresholds) – Resources of historical, monumental heritage and traditional architecture – Cultural resources linked to traditions and festivities; – Gastronomy and wine resources; – Rural resources associated with livelihoods, customs and agro-pastoral activities. The resources, products and tourism activities that this space holds and promotes, are currently revalued and are linked to the perceptions and new motivations of tourism demand, associated with the characteristics of mountain regions, either associated with their natural conditions, either with its historical heritage and culture. According to Silva [47] tourist destinations have a meaning of their own for the tourists who visit them and, in the case of Serra da Estrela, these meanings are associated with affective images, nature and ecological, sport, leisure and adventure, culture and tradition. Life and Health, Mystic and Sacred, which is consistent with the image associated with mountain tourist destinations and gives them their special attractiveness. Serra da Estrela Natural Park (PNSE) is one of the thirteen Natural Parks of mainland Portugal. Decree-Law No. 557/76 of 16 July, classified the Estrela massif as a Natural Park, considering that the “Serra da Estrela is a region of mountain economy character, where a rural population lives that preserves habits and ways of living. local culture that is important to be cared for and promoted, where wildlife refuges and endemic plant formations of national importance remain, representing an extraordinary natural component of great landscape value”. In the process of territorial development, tourism gives rise to new relationships, creating new activities that result from the spatial structuring of services and attractions that guarantee tourism production [4, 14, 43]. The increase of interdependencies between the companies of a tourist destination requires an analysis of the relations between partners to understand the phenomenon [1, 7]. Collaborative networks provide companies with access to information, resources, markets, and technology [6]. Developing collaborative relationships is a critical resource for companies as well as a source of competitive advantage [17, 21].

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Fig. 1. Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela (PNSE) location (Source: Asociação Geoparque Estrela – AGE, improved by author)

The PNSE covers the main part of the Estrela massif, with a current surface area of 88,850 ha, extending through the territories of the municipalities of Celorico da Beira, Covilhã, Gouveia, Guarda, Manteigas and Seia (Fig. 1) and is the most emblematic area of Portugal in terms of natural values associated with altitude, many of them unique, leading to its 2019 classification as a UNESCO World Geopark. Its potentialities are specific to a mountainous area and are related to its geological, hydrographic, faunistic, floristic, landscape resources, which can be used as a basis for tourist use in its various aspects. Due to its extension and resources, it is the largest protected area in Portugal and has a natural heritage with unique resources that must be conserved and valued for the preservation of biodiversity and geodiversity.

4 Methodology Tourism involves a wide variety of stakeholders and policy measures at various levels. Therefore cooperation and dialogue among all those concerned represent an important key to success. It becomes relevant to know the forms of collaboration and the interests in the competitiveness and sustainability of the destination. To carry out the study, a stakeholder survey was conducted in the tourism destination of Serra da Estrela. The survey (conducted via Google docs) was applied to 188 companies (disaggregated by 155 housing units, 13 animation companies, 14 travel agencies and 6 local authorities) constituted the focus of this research, which was supported by the national registries of tourist activity in Portugal and complemented with listings held by the municipalities.

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Based on the different actors linked to the sector, we seek to know the existing collaborative relationships, identifying weaknesses, availabilities, and perceived contributions of interest for the development of processes of understanding, sharing resources and responsibilities. The objective of the study is to analyze the sustainability factors and their relationships with the long-term performance of a tourism destination. Thus, the questions were posed to measure how each variable is managed and contributes to the sustainability of the tourism destination from a long-term perspective. Besides, the performance variables were measured by focusing on the sustainability of the performance of the tourism destination and the customers in the long term based on this analysis, those who govern the destination will be able to implement a competitive strategy oriented toward balancing the objectives of maximum performance and the sustainability of the tourism destination. Finally, we discuss the results in order to highlight the main contributions of the study. Supported by the theoretical framework on the current logic of collaboration and its advantages, we seek to understand the interests and forms of collaboration in the Serra da Estrela destination, based on the inquiry of local tourist actors, providing clues, hierarchizing management guidelines destination and developing graphic elements that systematize the information collected.

5 Positioning and Perspectives of Collaboration for Competitiveness in the Serra Da Estrela Destination Strategic adaptation to changing markets is a dynamic process that determines companies’ positioning against competitors. Competition as a structural element of markets establishes competitiveness and largely determines the relationships between companies. Remember that today’s tourism is increasingly decentralized and emancipated, with fragmented behaviors, multiple realities, peculiarities and different forms of appropriation of tourist spaces or destinations [8, 13, 24]. Competitiveness tends to be understood as the ability of companies to use strategies that understand the external context (transactional and contextual environment) and the internal context (organization) to maintain or surpass market share and generate added value [7, 48]. Nowadays competitiveness is recognized as the ability to compete in a given market by translating into the foreground through the survival of the business and a background through sustained growth [5, 21]. Tourists are increasingly demanding the quality of services required to meet their needs, a situation that tends to increase with the development of society and consumption patterns [52]. Opportunities for sustainable tourism development and preservation of its competitiveness, is largely influenced by the quality of the environment, to preserve and attractive natural and cultural heritage and other values, goods and resources [5]. Competition exists where there is a dispute for something, where two or more competitors want, giving rise to various confrontations/negotiations that guide their performance in business development and market conquest [47, 50]. Transposing these interactions into the economic context, the dispute occurs when two companies compete for the customers of a particular product or service. In order to surpass competitors, companies are looking for strategies of efficiency and differentiation that guarantee an advantageous competitive

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position [30, 34]. Business-to-business collaboration is a strategic choice when accessing new technologies and new markets, even if this relationship is between competitors [8, 41, 50]. Increasing outsourcing has boosted business-to-business partnerships by streamlining production, sharing risk and increasing the flexibility needed to compete in a growing competitive environment [41]. The business development perspective based on intense rivalry has for years led companies to compete by exploiting economies of scale and economic objectives by capitalizing on imperfections in the goods, labor and capital markets [28]. The adaptation of organizations to the current dynamism of the environment has led to the development of more agile strategic approaches, where operating efficiency and competitive positioning circulate side by side [8, 24]. Operational efficiency has indeed gained a wide dynamic, namely through the processes of total quality management and continuous improvement. It should be noted that only a broader market-focused vision enables sustainable development and a positional framework for companies. Local agents have had positive experiences collaborating with internal partners, and 76% of respondents reported having good collaborative experiences, with only 5% indicating poor collaborative experiences. The cooperative approach was the preferred method of collaboration according to 47% of respondents. Information sharing received 17% and coordination involving resource sharing was supported by only 10% of survey respondents (Fig. 2).

None Collaboration (risk sharing, benefit and common identity partnerships) Coordination (resource sharing partnerships) Cooperation (goals and atitivity sharing partnership) Network Integration (Information Sharing Partnerships) -

5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00

Preferences (%) Fig. 2. Preferences of partnerships between Serra da Estrela tourist entrepreneurs (Source: Survey applied to the tourist actors of PNSE)

In these processes, the basis for the motivation to collaborate lies in the creation of competitive advantages that can be identified as valuable and generating benefits. The resistance of the formality disappears due to the confidence generated, the proximity promoted and the results. Social relations lead to the deepening of relations between partners and the development of a sense of belonging, contributing to the evolution of group relations, beyond the economic aspect, which limits individual opportunistic

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actions for others. In this context, the tourism sector, networks for cooperation are particularly crucial to: 1) improve the designing and promotion of tourist initiatives [15, 31]; 2) develop a tourism product or service that meets the expectations of consumers and increases the demand [38, 45]. The long-term success of the business relationship also depends on the ability of the participants to cooperate and coordinate.

Learning and innovation Economies of scale and market power Easier access to new solutions and Fabricators Development of social and institutional relations Cost and risk reduction Others 0.0%

5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0% 30.0%

Fig. 3. Assessing the benefits of business collaboration (Source: Survey applied to the tourist actors of PNSE)

The tourism agents of Serra da Estrela recognize the advantages of collaboration and that network management is an efficient strategy. The benefits of collaboration are effectively-recognized, including economies of scale and market power, access to new services and solutions, and learning and innovation [3, 21] (Fig. 3). In the set of evaluations on business collaboration to be promoted, concerning the parameters Association and synergies, Sharing Knowledge, Leadership structure and Functional articulation -, a strong collaborative availability is evidenced for the agents, in particular in the construction of the image, in the learning and sharing of experiences, in the development of new products and services and the sharing of physical resources. There is an availability and interest, more than 90%, for the development of a process of collective construction of the image of destiny, sharing experiences and collective learning, fostering exchanges of successful initiatives and new methods. At the level of leadership and the sharing of financial resources, the greatest weaknesses arise, in particular in the provision of capital with other agents of destination, for which only about 37% reveal availability, indicating deficits in financial recourses and high charges that condition an effective ability to contribute. The availability to develop new products and services on network and sharing of physical resources with other agents, collects more than 92% of interests.

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Shared processes for promotion and sales, marketing, communication, and product development are considered as stimuli for collaboration, responding simultaneously to the needs identified by the tourist agents and the perceived gaps in the destination. It is the dynamics of local businesses, the combination of the territory’s resources, and the insertion of these attributes into the global market that will dictate the territories’ competitive capacity. This availability and recognition of the importance of cooperation for the development of tourism and territory, is in line with the results of studies presented in the literature review, which show that cooperation can help the perception of “total tourist product” and meet the expectations of the tourists in a very effective way, enabling sustainable tourism through the greater involvement between stakeholders [2]. Zee and Vanneste [56] also mention as benefits of cooperation, “the improvement of tourism product quality, a better quality of services, a more efficient production process, growing sustainability of the tourist destination and a more competitive tourist destination. The role of governance is also essential in encouraging the coordination and supervision of the members of the network [46, 56].

Training and consulting Market Information and Prospecting Innovation and new product development Promotion and sales force Marketing and communication 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Fig. 4. Assessment of that shared services would take the tour agents to cooperate (Source: Survey applied to the tourist actors of PNSE)

Of those surveyed, 25% identify economies of scale and market power as the main benefit for participating in collaborative networks. However, 22% justify participation by facilitating access to new services and solutions and by learning and innovation. The development of social and institutional relations with 17% and the reduction of costs and risks with 14% complete the range of choices. Promotion and sales force is the service that most encourages collaboration. It should be noted that 35% of respondents put this service first. But innovation and product development collect 25% of the trends and marketing and communication 20% (Fig. 4). The three services together receive 80% of the responses so it is indicative of the area of intervention that the best results could be achieved in a collective efficiency strategy for the destination. Interestingly, when asked what mechanisms they consider most appropriate for establishing a collaborative partnership between Serra da Estrela tourism agents, opinions are divided

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between informal collaboration agreements based on personal relationships and convergence of interests with 49% of choices and contracts. formal collaboration based on strategic planning and integrated management (51%), whereas previously they had preferred cooperation agreements and informal partnerships based on collaborative networks. When asked about willingness to participate in a network project for destination management, 76% of respondents are very available or highly available. This availability assessment reveals a strong openness of tourism agents in a collaborative solution, inducing value and competitiveness for the Serra da Estrela destination. Business transactions build personal and social relationships that foster and preserve business cooperative relationships. The reinforcement of competitive advantages achieved through higher market shares, penetration into new segments/markets, technology acquisition, research and development of new products/services and vertical integration, allow the consolidation of collaborative relations and destination competitiveness, as well as greater negotiating capacity with the administrative and tourism promotion entities. To guarantee viability and profitability, tourism destination managers have to ensure the destinations’ success with performance and competitiveness based on productivity and marketing models [1].

6 Conclusions A destination’s competitiveness must be focused on the ability to create added value by managing assets and processes. This is achieved by integrating the relationships of stakeholders within a tourism planning model that takes into account natural, social, and economic resources at the destination and its sustainability. In Serra da Estrela’s destiny, the development of collaborative relationships is valued as a process for companies and territory to gain training in product offerings and market conquest, as well as a source of competitive advantages. The sharing of knowledge and experiences, the association of business images, and the willingness to absorb new methods are considered favorable considerations and there is interest and availability for their implementation. There is a preference for a broad collaboration model with different types and levels of action, under an informal collaborative regime. Partnership relations are very much concentrated on internal collaboration with accommodation units and entertainment companies or with restaurants and local commerce, and on external collaboration with tour operators and travel agencies. The tourist potential of the territories and the need to differentiate products throughout the year are recognized through a concerted orientation that fosters new products and demand, promoting the sustainability of existing services and the functionality of the destination. This positioning aims to reach different market segments throughout the year, due to the promotion of different products, increasing competitiveness about other rural and mountain destinations. Integrated management of tourism products by opening new distribution channels and developing products are at the top of the desired collaborative initiatives, followed by participation in joint promotional actions. Marketing dominates the list of desired tasks for collaboration. The tourism agents of Serra da Estrela should foster the development of an

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associative collaborative structure or a collaborative business initiative focused on incoming actions that could help solve the structural difficulties of tourism agents and increase the attractiveness. In this context, the collaborative networks could also contribute to promote the image of the destination, increase the quality of the tourist experience and develop integrated products of the destination market.

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TourExponomy: Development of a Conceptual Model of the Relationship Between the Tourist Experience at the Destination and Destination Image Helena Maria Pascoal Melo1(&), Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz2, Francisco José Ferreira Silva2, and Carlos Alberto Silva Melo Santos2 1

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School of Business and Economics, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal [email protected] School of Business and Economics, CEEAplA – Centre of Applied Economics Studies of the Atlantic, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal {ana.id.moniz,francisco.jf.silva, carlos.as.santos}@uac.pt

Abstract. Although there is a significant body of research on tourism experience, the literature review reveals gaps regarding the study of the tourist experience in the destination, as well as the influence relationship between the tourist experience and the tourist destination image. In order to fill the gap, a conceptual model of the influence of the experience in the tourist destination on the image of the tourist destination will be presented. Furthermore, a new concept, TourExponomy, will be introduced. Keywords: Tourexponomy Tourist destination


Tourist experience
Tourist destination image


1 Introduction There is a significant body of research on tourism experiences related to wine tourism (e.g. [10, 41, 62, 65, 73]), food and dining (e.g. [34, 53, 63, 70]), hotels and resorts (e.g. [3, 14, 24, 50]), the airline sector (e.g. [2, 12]), heritage and museums (e.g. [64]), backpacker tourists (e.g. [58]), sporting activities (e.g. [1]), cruises (e.g. [26]; [28]), boating (e.g. [27]), and golf (e.g. [29]). In addition to these, the study by Brown and Osman [9] deserves attention. This ground-breaking study focuses on the tourist experience of women and demonstrates how gender issues can interfere, influence and shape experiences in Islamic destinations where the cultural gap places the female and the male gender at opposite poles as regards rights and duties. As can be seen from the above, and according to Cetin, Kizilirmak, and Balik [11], the general study of the tourist experience in the tourist destination has been neglected. In this sense, Matos, Mendes, and Valle [46] recommended the study of the impact of tourist experiences on the image of the tourist destination. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 66–75, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_6

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Gaps exist in literature as regards the study of the tourist experience in the destination, as well as the influence relationship of the tourist experience on the destination image and vice versa. Research has shown that only Matos, Mendes, and Valle [47] and Zhang, Wu, and Buhalis [77] sought to understand this relationship through the development of two models. The first was centred on the premise that tourist experiences change the image of the tourist destination, and the second was based on the idea that the destination image influences the tourist experience. In order to fill the gap, a conceptual model of the influence of the tourist experience on the destination in the image of the tourist destination will be presented.

2 TourExponomy: The Concept According to Vargas-Sánchez [75], the term exponomy is used to briefly describe the economy of experiences. To this, the prefix “tour” from the English word “tourism” has been added. Notably, the word “tourism”, etymologically, comes from the Greek “tornos” which means a tool that described a circle [42]. Tourism, in a way, intrinsically involves a circular itinerary in which tourists return to their point of origin - their homes [42]. Thus, the TourExponomy concept is a symbiosis of the wide universe that brings together the economy of experiences and tourist experiences.

3 Conceptual Model Based on the literature review, as well as the primary objective of the research, a multiphase model was developed. The model allows the evaluation of the way the image of the tourist destination metamorphoses in each phase and how tourists alter this process by factors, as well as factors that can be considered and the consequences of their experience. The model comprises the three phases of travel (i.e., pre-trip; on-site; and post-trip) that tend to merge with some models of the image of the tourist destination (cf. [21, 30]), as well as the phases of the experience (cf. [15, 22, 58]). The first phase of the so-called pre-trip model integrates motivations, information sources, positive expectations, positive image, and the decision to travel. The choice of a tourist destination is complex as it is influenced by different internal factors such as motivations and external factors such as sources of information (Fig. 1). According to Iso-Ahola [31], motivation is the determining principle behind all actions. The author understands motivation as a dynamic process of factors that produce a state of tension, or imbalance, and naturally impel movement to an environment contrary to daily living. Cunha [18] explains that motivation leads to the search for experiences that satisfy the individual’s needs, that is, motivation and satisfaction, although distinct and occurring at different times, are related because the former precedes the latter. According to Pearce [60], tourism motivation is a global network that brings biological and cultural forces that, in turn, value and direct travel choices, behaviours and experiences together. In this sense, Cutler and Carmichael [19] argue that motivation contributes unequivocally to the choices made and the search for certain experiences, and is, therefore, an important element in the tourist experience.

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Motivation

Positive Expectations (Initial Perception of the Tourist Destination Image) Cognitive, Affective and Global

Decision to Travel On - Site

Positive Experience Positive Image

Tourist Destination

Image On – Site Cognitive, Affective and Global

Information Sources

Tourist Experience Educational, Entertainment, Aesthetics, Escape, Emotional

Negative Experience Negative Image

Evaluation Post - Trip Insatisfaction

Memories

Intention to return and intention to recommend

Do not return Do not recommend Negative Feedback

Information Sources

Satisfaction

Fig. 1. Model of the relationship of influence between the tourist experience and the tourist destination image

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Kim and Chen [37] state that motivation leads to an active search for information sources. Internet currently plays a leading role in the production and access to an infinite set of information with significant impact on the image formulated by tourists, and, consequently, on the process of destination selection [4, 32, 33, 43, 44]. Moreover, as Sigala [69] points out, new technologies have enabled tourists to be connected anywhere at any time. Thus, sharing and collecting information on social networks in real time is possible, throughout all phases of the journey, unequivocally exerting influence on the way the experience is lived. In this sense, the author states that the tourist experience is co-created or co-constructed socially. Chon [16] states that, based on the information gathered, the tourist will create a set of expectations that may be confirmed by the trip. The moment expectations are realized, the tourist has experiences in the destination that will result in satisfaction or dissatisfaction, thus modifying the image. According to Larsen [40], expectations can be defined as formed beliefs and predictions related to future events. Nickerson [51] argues that a tourist visits a destination with a set of ideas about the possible experiences in that space. These expectations are the result of the individual’s social construction of destiny and include a set of ideas, perceptions and expectations from con- tact with various sources of information, prior knowledge and other travel experiences [51]. According to Di Marino [21] and Iordanova [30], the image of the a priori tourist destination can be understood as a mental representation of a place without a physical connection to it, i.e. it is a “visit” before a physical visit. In this sense, Govers, Go, and Kumar [23] state that, ideally, the image projected by tourist destinations should accord with their reality and be as close as possible to the image perceived by the tourist consumer to avoid defrauding the customer through unreachable expectations. The image of the tourist destination, present in this first phase, as well as in the subsequent phase, is composed of three dimensions: cognitive, affective and global. The tripartition of this construct is based on the literature on the subject (cf. [5, 7]). The cognitive dimension of the image corresponds to the intellectual aspect, which comes from external stimuli, and which results from the sum of the beliefs and knowledge that the tourist has about the attributes of a given tourist destination (i.e., tangible characteristics), while the affective dimension, it is evaluative, and corresponds to the motivations, emotions and feelings that the tourist develops towards the destination [7]. The second phase, in loco, is the period when the direct experience in the destination takes place and the previously-generated expectations are confirmed or not. In this period, the initial image of the place visited by the tourist may change, according to the experiences lived in the place [35], which may or may not correspond to the range of expectations previously generated. According to Di Marino [21] and Iordanova [30], the in situ image is phenomenal in the tourist experience, since there is a contrast with what the tourist imagined. The tourist never arrives at a destination with zero perception. This second phase is considered to be crucial as it also influences the future behaviour of the tourist towards the destination [30]. The tourist experience is complex, multidimensional and dynamic [67]. Therefore, it can be understood as a subjective mental state felt by the participants [55], which consists of emotional and cognitive reactions [76], which occurs beyond the everyday [52], that is, it results from the interaction of the tourist with the destination [68] where a set of events and activities takes place [48].

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The dimensions of Pine and Gilmore’s [61] experience were tested and adapted to various studies in the field of tourism (e.g. [3, 26, 28, 54, 57, 62, 64, 71, 72]). In this sense, the four dimensions proposed by the authors (i.e., educational, entertainment, aesthetics, escape) are part of the experience component in this model. The educational dimension, applied to tourism, according to Oh et al. [54], translates into the acquisition of knowledge by the tourist in the destination he visits, while the aesthetic experiences are consumed passively, that is, the tourist enjoys the simple fact of being in the destination. According to Oh et al. [54], entertainment occurs when the tourist passively consumes activities or performances performed by other people in the tourist destination. The authors also explain that the escapist experience presupposes the participation of the tourist in activities that lead to a deep immersion, that is, there is a lag in relation to the routine. Beyond these dimensions, and since, according to Hosany and Gilbert [25], the relevance of the study of emotions is something re- cent, especially in the tourism sector, you are also an integral part of the experience construct. Emotions can be understood as affective states that are characterized by episodes of intense feelings associated with a specific referent and that instigate specific response behaviors [25]. The tourist experience influences satisfaction, future consumer behaviour as well as the image of the tourist destination [6, 7, 13, 20, 25, 35–39, 45, 54, 59, 72, 74]. These assumptions lead us to the third and final phase of the model. The post-travel moment integrates components of satisfaction, memory and the intention to return, and the intention to recommend the destination. According to San Martín and del Bosque [66], satisfaction can be understood as an individual, cognitive and affective state, derived from the tourist experience, which inspires loyalty to the destination[17, 49, 56]. Regarding satisfaction/dissatisfaction, Cutler and Carmichael [19] point out that satisfaction is generally seen as the result of experience. As for memory, Brewer [8] states that affective thoughts are a constituent part of memory, and events associated with emotions are more likely to be remembered by the individual. As already mentioned, Oh et al. [54] understand that this can be de- fined as a filtering mechanism that links experience to emotion and perception of the results of a tourist event. Memory influences the assessment of tourist experience [19] such that negative events tend to disappear while positive ones are more frequently recalled [19]. Memory is the most influential aspect of tourist experiences [19]. Ac- cording to Kim [36], a memorable tourist experience is the most powerful factor influencing tourist loyalty. Memorable tourist experiences and the image of the tourist destination are recognized as important antecedents of tourist behaviour [77]. According to Di Marino [21] and Iordanova [30], a posteriori image is the one that stays with the individual once the experience is over and influences the post-trip intentions (return and/or recommend). Iordanova [30] points out that the factors that contribute to the formation of a priori image can cross over to the second phase, in situ image, and significantly affect it. This is the case of sources of information that, in the model presented in this study, tend to be transversal to the three phases of the trip.

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4 Conclusion The review carried out, despite being rich in studies on the tourist experience (e.g. hotels, aviation, wine tourism, visits to museums, etc.), revealed a scarcity of studies of tourist experiences in the scope of the destination and in its relationship with the image of the tourist destination. In this sense, there was a need to develop a conceptual model, based on several fragments of literature, which would allow establishing a liaison between these two constructs. The development of a conceptual, multi-phase model, for evaluating the way the image of a tourist destination metamorphoses in each phase and how tourists influence this process, which includes factors that precede as well as factors that can be considered, and the consequences of experience. The relevant role played by motivation, information sources, satisfaction/dissatisfaction and future behavior were also examined with the model.

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An Innovation in Tourism Services in Colombia – Case Study of Bahía Solano Gabriela Antošová1(&) , Mauricio Sabogal Salamanca2 and Mauricio Peralta Mejía3 1

2

,

University College of Business in Prague, Spálená 14, Prague, Czech Republic [email protected] Universidad EAN, Calle 79 # 11-45, Bogotá D.C., Cundinamarca, Colombia 3 Social Innovation Park – Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios, Cl. 90, Bogota, Colombia

Abstract. Bahía Solano is a municipality located on the Pacific coast of Colombia. It has a clear vocation for nature tourism, including beaches, sightseeing, hiking and cultural tourism. Despite efforts to consolidate its tourist destination attraction in recent years, the municipality has organizational and infrastructure problems that threaten the sustainability of ecosystems. For this reason, the updating of a tourism plan that places the user as the center of tourist activity is urgent. The tools of user-centered design allow us to propose a tourism plan focused on the co-creation of services, thanks to the collaboration between different stakeholders in order to generate sustainable tourism for the municipality. Keywords: Tourism innovation
Service design Tourism plan design
Colombia


Territorial development


1 Introduction This chapter is the result of several sources of information: the first one represents field research results of the projects entitled: “Bahía Solano - update of tourism plan” and “Value Chains in Nature Tourism Services: Case study of Bahía Solano”. The first phase of the proposal for updating the tourism plan was aimed at physical geography tool analysis description [1] and the second phase was aimed at experienced tourism in Bahía Solano [2]. In this phase of the tourism planning process in Bahía Solano, we are focusing on tourism service planning as an exo-endogenous approach [26] of regional development in tourism destinations. The proposition of the tourism plan consequently requires completion of its construction of socialization and the social participation of indigenous people, key actors in the tourism sector, stakeholders and shareholders, including institutions involved in the tourism planning of the municipality of Bahía Solano. This chapter does not pretend to be definitive, complete and absolute, it is more a modest contribution to the development and planning of the tourist sector of the municipality. Our institutional approach focuses on three important dimensions: community participation, predominance of the social dimension as an engine for the integral development of people, the innovation and creativity processes that must accompany the initiatives. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 76–85, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_7

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Theoretical Framework Aimed on Tourism Services

Studies show that institutions play an important role in regional tourism development in rural areas, because they allow the correct allocation of economic resources, promoting leadership and interaction among stakeholders [3]. Taking this into account, tourism activities development depend on an important number of public and private actors, whose different logics and disconnected actions create informality and impacts on the territory. For that reason, interaction amongst these actors under the framework of the public rules is a key for the sustainability of the tourism destination and its planning, as has been shown for a beach rural destination in Colombia in the Guajira region [4]. In fact, managing tourism destinations necessitate committed participation from all stakeholders, demanding greater coordination between all of them. Experts indicate that an open governance and a participatory model should be used, with transparency, capability of attracting participation with common goals, the accompaniment of support professionals, mechanisms of evaluation of the effectiveness and adequate mechanisms of conflict resolution [5]. Under such an organization among stakeholders, it is necessary to have a defined cultural identity of the territory, the support of local entrepreneurs and the integration and alliances among actors and other territories [6]. Innovation is going to be a key for the future of tourism in the world, as studies have suggested [7]. However, tourism innovation as a field of research is in an embryonic state, but with increasing production in recent years, and it has been studied from multiple perspectives and as an interdisciplinary subject [8]. Under these frameworks, public authorities are not the only responsible parties for a long term tourism project´s development. Participation of the community, interaction and the consequent innovation is the basis of a rural development strategy, as has been found for a rural area of Medellin, the second largest Colombian city [9]. Developing rural destinations in developing regions and countries need the framework of tourism innovation, but with a focus on its social component. The objective of social innovation in tourism is to enhance value for the people within the society with a customer orientation and a focus on the solution (tourism product) establishing meaningful long-term relationships with customers and the community, creating shared value among the businesses, customers and society with the appropriate use of technology and using culture as a unifying value system for gaining support for their initiatives [10]. Social innovation, based on co-creation by stakeholders, is the key for social entrepreneurship and B-Corps that try to make changes in vulnerable local communities. There is an evidence of social entrepreneurship and social innovation in tourism services in Latin America, with the challenge of achieving financial sustainability and growing in scale in order to encourage sustainable impacts [11]. Social innovators in emerging countries also use scarce resources effectively and engage with the environment, involving the entire community in order to create shared value [10]. Lastly, the usefulness of innovation and the service design in tourism have been identified [12] and in particular for building environmental education and the promotion of a responsible ethno-tourism (culture tourism with indigenous cultures), with the participation and the co-creation of the different involved actors [13]. Competitiveness and sustainability are another aspects of tourism development. The availability of good infrastructures (including quality of roads, aircraft departures and

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operating airlines), the adoption of environmentally sustainable practices (including water waste treatment, stringency and enforcement of environmental regulations) and the usage of ICT technologies are of great importance for destinations as predictors of national level destination competitiveness and success [14]. In the case of Colombia, problems like the poor quality of the infrastructure for the touristic service development, the low number of companies and its high level of informality, the lack of definition of a defined service ability and marketing and promotion capabilities, which produces a low quality and value added to the touristic service, have been identified, as well as problems for nature tourism in some Colombian beach destinations for its competitiveness [15]. Other studies emphasize the necessity of being sustainable (in the economic, environmental, social and cultural dimensions), offering a service with high quality and adapted marketing strategies [16]. 1.2

Description of Tourist Destination

Natural resources of the municipality are particularly unique, with high attractiveness in tourism that is inherent to its ecosystem. The tourist destination is famous for a whole series of activities like diving, photography, whale watching, hiking, visiting natural parks, and many more. The oceanographic description of Bahía Solano observed by academics [17] is quite significant due to the limitation of studies focused on the biological and physical processes that occur in the area of the coastal strip of the sea. In the case of the municipality of Bahía Solano, it is considered to be of a great geostrategic relevance as a result of its location in the Pacific basin of Colombia, with a large number of geographical phenomena such as the cove of Utría, the hills of Jurubirá, Morro de Mico, Cabo Corrientes, Cabo Marzo, gulfs and mangroves of Tribugá and Cúpica. Similarly, one should note the importance of river effluents such as the Ríos Valle, Cúpica and the Jella creek. The first of these is actually the most important in the municipality and it has a large basin and contributes significantly to local agriculture; the second river has a smaller basin, but it is significant within the local natural capital; while the creek facilitates the movement of small vessels that contributes to the transport and exchanges of Ciudad Mutis with surrounding towns. In addition, it has a reservoir population of fish as an important food and protein source in the area. The surroundings of Bahía Solano are considered one of the areas with the greatest biological biodiversity on the planet. Its endemic potential with reserves of species and its location, makes it known as the “transition zone of the American mesoflora” by presenting great floristic variability [18] shared from the center and from the south of the continent [17, 19]. However, there is an important contrast. The regional biodiversity potential is obvious but the knowledge of the floristic composition is still poor, although it is necessary when adding tools for conservation. The preservation of natural habitats (marine, terrestrial or aerial) is a fundamental principle of the regions, so the monitoring of ecosystems must be reinforced, given their fragility. The problem of sea pollution and coastal ecosystems for the species that inhabit the environment is evident; particularly for sea turtles, on which a little research has been carried out in relation to ecotoxicology [20]. In Bahía Solano a nerve center was observed (especially in “La Cuevita”) on nesting beaches. For this species, this is the most important place in the country. Here, given the phenomena of aquatic pollution, they can be affected with genetic damage in their erythrocytes, which causes mutations.

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On the other hand, the potential benefits to the ecosystem are presented by the National Natural Park of Utría and the Botanical Garden of the Pacific. Both are clear examples of the importance of preserving biotic environments in this tourist destination. The National Park of Utría is a set of mountainous foothills which are covered by a lush rainforest. The landscape is rich in resources, migratory species such as sea turtles, birds and whales arrive there and it is also a special site for spawning a large number of fish. It must comply with a series of special recommendations from the internet portal of National Natural Parks of Colombia, which try to avoid the impact generated by man to the environment. One of the most important natural bastions located in the region is the Botanical Garden of the Pacific. This is an area of approximately 170 ha located in the Serranía del Baudó, between the humid, tropical rainforest and the Colombian Pacific Ocean, close to Mecana Beach, and whose purpose is the conservation, preservation, recovery and research of endemic plant species, raising awareness among visitors and inhabitants of the region; in this place an important series of flora and fauna, paths, rivers and waterfalls collude. 1.3

Methodology

This study is the result of an exploratory qualitative research developed in Bahía Solano municipality during 2018 [1, 2]. It comprised in 25 depth interviews to local community members, local government officials and business stakeholders such as hotel owners and tourism agency owners. There were conducted as well 2 focal groups with members of communities, public authorities and local businesses owners, which discussed the needs of the region and the elements of a Tourism Plan for Bahía Solano. The collected information was analyzed using Atlas.ti ® software version 8 with semantic networks, and was complemented as well with a questionnaire that was applied to tourists in 2018. The collected information was analyzed under the framework of sustainability [22] and used user centered design [23, 24] for the preliminary proposals found in the last part of the paper.

2 Research Findings 2.1

Tourist Offer and Services in Bahía Solano

The economic dynamics in Bahía Solano are very important. The municipality’s main productive activities are firstly, artisanal maritime fishing and ecological tourism and secondly, agricultural activities with crops such as banana, rice, cane, orange and guava. Livestock activities are developed on a small scale. At the municipal level, transport is defined by four components: Air transport is provided from the José Celestino Mutis Regional Airport, which is operated by Aerocivil and is administered by the municipality (Alcaldía del municipio); the runway supports the landing of lowweight aircraft (ATR or Fokker), the airline that provides the greatest proportion of service is Satena (as can be seen in Fig. 1). By sea, there is an important access road

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from Buenaventura. From there the consumer goods (food, beverages, victuals, ironmongery, among others) are supplied, and in Ciudad Mutis there are two piers (La Esso and the one located in the Fillo Castro neighborhood). By river, there are medium-draft boats and by land there are internal roads [21].

Fig. 1. Tourism services and infrastructure in Bahía Solano and its surroundings (own elaboration)

According to a standardized questionnaire with tourists in 2018, we identified several opportunities for improvement in tourism sector services. The first step requires major reconstruction in the transport infrastructure, especially the internal and external access roads of the municipality. The second important step in tourism sustainability is to pay more attention to the aspect of cleanliness of the beach, especially in the tourist sites such as Mecana Beach etc. (see Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Opportunities improving for tourism sector in Bahía Solano proposed in standardized tourism questionnaire in 2018 (own elaboration)

In terms of tourism infrastructure, four main geographic locations inside the municipality share all the 95 identified infrastructures: El Valle (50% of the total), Ciudad Mutis (29%), Cúpica (7%) and Huina (12%). Most of the infrastructures are accommodation with or without restaurants (52), restaurants (12) and natural sites and intangible heritage (12), with El Valle contributing 44% of the accommodations, 50% of the restaurants and 58% of the natural sites. The municipality also has 2 tourism agencies (in El Valle), 2 maritime and river transport companies (located in El Valle) and 4 handcrafts workshops and factories (2 in El Valle and 2 in Ciudad Mutis). The municipality contributes 7 events and festivities among the four districts (Ciudad Mutis, Cúpica and El Valle). Bahía Solano has 70 touristic properties with energy and water service. From these, only 33 have internet availability. It is important to note that most of the establishments in the tourism sector for the municipality are privately owned, in all the districts of Bahía Solano. From these, the percentage of establishments registered in the national authority of tourism services is very low (in most cases below 3%) meaning that the sector is mostly informal. This is also reflected by the number of establishments that are registered for paying taxes, ranging between 28% and 61% in most of the districts (Ciudad Mutis and Cúpica). 2.2

Network Collaboration for Tourism Innovation, Sustainability and Development

During 2018 we conducted interviews, which involved 22 respondents and 3 interviewers, and spoke to 7 focused groups, including public and private key actors and local communities. This enabled us to establish an understanding and comprehension for the relationships between the needs expressed by several actors. The municipality of Bahía Solano needs a new Tourism Regional Development Plan that, with the help of a Zoning Plan, correctly defines all the different geographic areas for development of the tourism activities. The plan requires the correct cohesion, agreement and empowerment of AfroColombian and Indigenous communities. At the same time, community participation is a predominant value for the sustainability in its three dimensions, and economic variables depend on a delicate interaction between businesses and ecosystems (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Relationships among variables related with development and sustainability (own elaboration)

Equally important is the collaboration in the service design. All stakeholders, public and private sector and involved tourists, should participate in the co-creation of the innovative service. This design also depends on the upgrading of the customer information systems and on the regulations of the complex service. Current conflicts and disagreements among communities are preventing this participation and a better design process. 2.3

Exogenous and Endogenous Strategic Tourism Planning

Sustainable development as a key factor of strategic tourism planning has got three dimensional aspects: economic, social and environmental, the so-called Triple Bottom Line or TBL [22]. For that reason, this plan centered the involvement of residents (local communities and key actors of destination) to the tourism planning process with its main focus on tourism needs - user center design, according to the user dominant logic [23, 24]. We proposed a strategic plan into four strategic axes associated with individual activities (action lines). The main vision of the exogenous and endogenous strategic plan is the recognition of Bahía Solano in 2025 through Colombia and Latin America as a tourism destination, fundamentally based on community tourism in order to achieve economic, environmental, social and cultural development of ethnic communities in the municipality. The main objective is to consolidate Bahía Solano with cultural and environmental tourism through sustainable and innovative products and

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services that increase creative usage of the cultural and natural resources of the destination. The strategy is based on the participation of all the value chain members, which are going to collaborate in a user centered design tourism value proposal, taking into account the triple bottom line sustainability and the tourism destination positioning in the national and global tourism market (Table 1). Table 1. Strategic Axis and Action Lines for Tourism Plan – Bahía Solano. Strategic axis Destination positioning Environmental sustainability Cultural and community ecotourism

Participatory governance

Action lines Strengthen of the Tourism Offering Diffusion of the Tourism Products Design of the Solid Waste Management Plan Environmental Protection Incorporation of sustainable or alternative energies Strengthen and recovery of cultural traditions Advice and technical training for development of community cultural ecotourism Tourism Products and Services Strengthen of Tourism Institutions Strengthen of community participation and social inclusion Strengthen of tourism infrastructure

The first axis aims to strengthen the tourism offering through formalization processes, quality improvement and regulation of prices and to design promotion strategies that create visibility of the tourist destination. The environmental axis aims to design and execute a waste management plan for the municipality, raising awareness of environmental care and protection and involving sustainable alternative energies in tourism activities. The community axis intends to strengthen and rescue the material, non-material and environmental cultural resources of the ethnic communities (Afrodescendants and indigenous) as well as to generate training and education (languages, technical education) for the design and development of social projects and tourism products. The last axis aims to strengthen community participation, improving tourism institutions’ coordination, optimizing infrastructure (including human and financial resources) and developing a land use plan.

3 Conclusions Bahía Solano is a municipality with several infrastructure problems and with an increase of the number of tourists (from 538 to 7342 in a decade) [1] there is a threat to the sustainability of the tourism destination and its ecosystem. Under these conditions, upgrading the Tourism Plan of 2016 [21] is urgent.

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The research process conducted with the two projects and the field work allowed us to understand complex realities, the difficulty of coordinating participation of the various social sectors and defining the development planning of the municipality. There is a communication gap between the municipal administration, the local community and private actors in terms of their vision of the tourism plan. With the usage of the elements of the innovation and service design it is possible to approach a new and more sustainable vision [25] of the destination, involving in a collaborative way all the actors of the municipality for the creation of an adjusted and always evolving plan. Acknowledgement. Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios. Bogotá. General Directorate of Investigations. Through the third internal call for the research projects, for the support of interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research 2017 and for the support of Major of Bahía Solano. Universidad EAN. Bogotá.

References 1. Arias Gómez, H.Y., Antošová, G.: A Spatial Approach for Framing the Development of Tourism: Bahía Solano Colombia. Eur. J. Tourism, Hospitality Recreation 9(2) (2020). https://doi.org/10.2478/ejthr-2019-0011 2. Antošová, G., Arias Gómez, J.E., Arias Gómez, H.Y. Design tourist planning in Colombian lagged destination: Case study Bahía Solano. J. Tour. Serv. 10(19), 128–152 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.29036/jots.v10i19.111 3. Restrepo, N., Clavé, S.A.: Institutional thickness and regional tourism development: Lessons from Antioquia, Colombia. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(9) (2019). https://doi.org/10. 3390/su11092568 4. Aranda Camacho, Y., Cortes Leal, J.A.: Dinámicas relacionales para la gestión activa de la actividad turística en el corregimiento de Palomino, Dibulla-Colombia. Cuadernos de Desarrollo Rural 14(79), 1 (2017). https://doi.org/10.11144/javeriana.cdr14-79.drga 5. de la Pulido-Fernández, M.C., Pulido-Fernández, J.I.: Is there a good model for implementing governance in tourist destinations? The opinion of experts. Sustainability (Switzerland) 11(12) (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11123342 6. Aranda, Y., Combariza, J., Parrado, A.: Rural tourism as a rural territorial development strategy: a survey for the Colombian case. Agronomía Colombiana 27(1), 129–136 (2009) 7. Jayawardena, C. (Chandi).: What are the key innovative strategies needed for future tourism in the world? Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes 11(2), 235–247 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.1108/whatt-01-2019-0001 8. Durán-Sánchez, A., Álvarez-García, J., de la del Río-Rama, M.C., Rosado-Cebrián, B.: Science mapping of the knowledge base on tourism innovation. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(12), 2015–2030 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11123352 9. Hernández, A., Moisá, L.: Participación e innovación, claves del desarrollo rural: el caso de la ruralidad de Medellín. Agronomía Colombiana 29(2), 485–492 (2011) 10. Reynoso, J., Kandampully, J., Fan, X., Paulose, H.: Learning from socially driven service innovation in emerging economies. J. Serv. Manag. 26(1), 156–176 (2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1108/JOSM-11-2013-0313 11. Zebryte, I., Jorquera, H.: Chilean tourism sector “B Corporations”: evidence of social entrepreneurship and innovation. Int. J. Entrepr. Behav. Res. 23(6), 866–879 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-07-2017-0218

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12. Stickdorn, M., Schwarzenberger, K.: Service design in tourism. In: Siller, H., Zehrer, A. (eds.) Entrepreneurship und Tourismus: Unternehmerisches Denken und Erfolgskonzepte aus der Praxis, Seite, Vienna (2016) 13. Sánchez-zárate, P.U.: Diseño de servicios: una estrategia para el etnoturismo. Gestión y Ambiente 19(2), 289–301 (2016) 14. Paunovic, I., Dressler, M., Mamula Nikolic, T., Popović Pantić, S.: Developing a competitive and sustainable destination of the future: clusters and predictors of successful national-level destination governance across destination life-cycle. Sustainability 12(4066), 1–15 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104066 15. Puello Pereira, N., Ovallos Gazabon, D., Hugueth Alba, A., Díaz Solano, B., Silva, J.: Análisis del nivel de competitividad en clústers. Caso iniciativa turismo de naturaleza en Atlántico, Colombia. RISTI - Revista Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologías de Informação, pp. 234–250 (2019) 16. Serrano-Amado, A.-M., Montoya-Restrepo, L.-A., Cazares, I.: Análisis de la sostenibilidad y competitividad turística en Colombia. Gestión y Ambiente 21(1), 99–109 (2018). https://doi. org/10.15446/ga.v21n1.69395 17. Pierini, J., Rodríguez-Leguizamon, A.: Caracterización oceanográfica de la Bahía Solano. Boletín Científico CIOH, pp. 223–256 (2014) 18. Mosquera, L., Robledo, D., Asprilla, P.: Diversidad florística de dos zonas del bosque tropical húmedo en el municipio de Alto Baudó, Chocó-Colombia. Acta Biológica Colombiana 12, 75–90 (2007) 19. Torre-Torres, J., Mena-Mosquera, V., Álvarez-Davila, E.: Composición y diversidad florística de tres bosques húmedos tropicales de edades diferentes, en el Jardín Botánico del Pacífico, municipio de Bahía Solano, Chocó, Colombia. Revista Biodiversidad Neotropical 6(1), 12–21 (2016) 20. Quiroz-Herrera, V., Palacio, J.: Niveles sanguineos de biomarcadores de daño genético en eritrocitos de Lepidochelys olivacea (Cheloniidae) en Colombia. Acta Biológica Colombiana 22(3), 322–330 (2017) 21. Solano, A.B.: Plan de desarrollo municipal - cambiando para mejorar. Ciudad Mutis - Bahía Solano: Alcaldía Bahía Solano (2016) 22. Elkington, J.: Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone Publishing Limited, Oxford (1997) 23. Vargo, S.L., Lusch, R.F.: Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. J. Mark. 68(1), 1–17 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.68.1.1.24036 24. Vargo, S., Lusch, R.: Service-Dominant Logic: Premises, Perspectives, Possibilities. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2014) 25. Bencsik, A., Tóbiás Kosár, S., Machová, R.: Corporate culture in service companies that support knowledge sharing. J. Tourism Serv. 9(16), 7–13 (2018). https://doi.org/10.29036/ jots.v9i16.41 26. Antosova, G., Sabogal-Salamanca, M., Krizova, E.: Human capital in tourism: a practical model of endogenous and exogenous territorial tourism planning in Bahía Solano, Colombia. In: Costa, V.G., Moura, A.A., Mira, M. (ed.) Handbook of Research on Human Capital and People Management in the Tourism Industry, pp. 282–302. IGI Global (2021). https://doi. org/10.4018/978-1-7998-4318-4.ch014

Managing Motivation (Outside) Business Contexts: Tourism and Teambuilding Jéssica Ferreira1(&), Nuno Costa1, and Bruno Sousa2,3 University of Lisbon – IGOT, Lisbon, Portugal {ferreirajessica,nunocosta}@campus.ul.pt Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal [email protected] 3 Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG) and CiTUR, Vila do Conde, Portugal 1

2

Abstract. Tourism is a multifaceted phenomenon and geographically complex, which moves millions of people worldwide and with a predominant contribution to the economy. The tourism is a psychological state of understanding and interest. Therefore, in a perspective of internal marketing, the focus is the study of the tourism and corporate motivation, through voyages in Team Building. The aims is to realize the link between tourism and Team Building for companies that seek the motivation of workers through touristic activities. So, considering the state of the art is analyzing internal marketing and Team Building activities, realizing its importance and the outcome these travels have on workers. The study requirements result in a qualitative study through exploratory interviews, in order to perceive with companies what their motivations are to resort to Team Building and what they think of these activities. This study presents preliminary conclusions, through the realization of interviews with human resources in 5 companies from different areas, corresponding to two large companies, two medium-sized enterprises and a small business. This study will focus on internal marketing, human resources management and tourism through Team Building activities. This advance will help to better understand the behavior and profile of companies that consume Team Building activities, to understand whether these tourist activities are motivating workers, and consequently, they help in business development and success. Keywords: Tourism


Internal marketing
Team Building activities

1 Introduction Tourism is a phenomenon that moves millions of people around the world, and the economy tends to evolve. In the last 20 years, great transformations have occurred in tourism and in areas that determine and condition their development, niche tourism [1] destination image [2]. We can define tourism as a set of activities developed by people, people and people, always involving a displacement. Usually associated with leisure activities, they can also be related to entertainment, fun and personal growth [3]. Many studies have found an association between tourism and quality of life, which, has a positive impact on working life [4]. For several authors, today in society, personal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 86–95, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_8

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growth is essential both for individuals and for the business world to respond to market needs and competitiveness existing. In the business world to establish what differentiates companies in the competitive market is the human potential that they possess. Thus, it’s essential that companies maintain the levels of satisfaction among their high collaborators, with the aim of obtaining the effective commitment to the organizational objectives. It’s believed that human motivation exerts great influence on the quality of services rendered. Many factors determine the performance of service employees, but how the service employees approach their job and how satisfied they are with their work are considered key determinants [5]. Work engagement influences service performance because it drives employees’ commitment and enthusiasm toward their work [6]. Human resource management should be alert to human behavior and should be analyzed according to the moment and context in which the individual is inserted. It’s essential for companies to know the motivators processes in order to ensure their survival and prominence. With the global crisis, including in Portugal, there are several companies that go through difficulties, from redundancies, admission of personnel with less qualification, restructuring of departments and the company itself, the non-wage increase, among other reasons that lead to the dissatisfaction of employees [3]. Thus, the interest in knowing the factors that lead to the satisfaction of the collaborators was created, and with this investigation it’s intended to evaluate the importance that the journeys of Team Building can present within the companies for the motivation of employees.

2 Literature Review 2.1

Marketing and Tourism Theoretical Background

Tourism is one of the main economic sectors for developed or developing countries. In Portugal, tourism is a sector that has grown enormously in recent years, playing an important role in the economy, contributing positively to the development of several national territories. It is considered one of the greatest seductions of modern times and therefore is part of our consumer Society [7]. The main characteristics of tourism when its emergence resembles what we find nowadays. Tourism grows, in terms of complexity of demand, trends, supply, industry, management and planning instruments. Its development around tourist products is replaced by a new perspective of valuing the experiences and sensations acquired by tourists in the places they visit. This is a new reality of tourism, which promotes a new industry, new tourism markets, new forms and new tools for management and planning in the tourism sector. The complexity and scope of tourism make it studied according to the view of different authors and, therefore, its object of study ends up being the target of a multiplicity of approaches ranging from, among others, to anthropology, sociology, Geography, economics, psychology and history as place attachment [8, 9]. Its definition is somewhat consensual and in constant development, perfecting itself to the current needs of society [1].

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Tourism and Personal Motivation

Tourism, as an area of study, has expanded its scope, reflecting an increasing recognition in the academic community paralleled by the application of interdisciplinary concepts and methods [10]. In a psychology approach, the key to understanding the tourist motivation of individuals is in the form of vacation travel being a way of satisfying their needs and desires. Motivation can be defined as a series of processes that stimulate, direct and maintain human behavior to achieve a specific goal, and may be present in the attributes of the destination or in the characteristics of each typology Tourism [11, 12]. Motivation is one of the great driving forces of human behavior. It is she who will determine the levels of personal and professional performance, obtained. In an organization, it is directly related to the productivity and valuation attributed both internally and externally [13] and Tourism is an industry that is inserted in a business environment can be approached as a quality tool for the other industries, contributing to the personal and professional motivation of the individual. We extract that a motivated and productive employee is the one who is in the right place, that is, who occupies a position capable of evading his potentialities as well as providing him with reliable recognition that will save his value. In addition, it is essential to cultivate a favorable organizational climate for the development of a sustainable relationship that promotes good communication among employees. Motivation is one of the few words that can make the difference between the success and failure of any company and innovation contexts [14]. The motivational behavior of the collaborators, as approached by Maslow, cited by [15], theoretically, is influenced by different needs. In this context, in a business environment, the lack of compliance with some stimuli prevents workers from being completely satisfied. Thus, in this article is associated with the business environment the stimulus of motivation through activities of Team Building. In addition to the salary stimulus, Professional recognition, Security, among others, the individual must be felt a good working environment for the success of the work Team. And the big question arises: How to motivate employees? A person’s motivational structure consists of the set of motivations or goals that streamline their behavior and the relationships that exist between these motivations. The motivational profile refers to the importance that each person has of the various motivations that guide his/her life. Thus, the motivational structure constitutes the basis or matrix for the elaboration of the motivational profile [16]. When you are motivated, enthusiasm is reflected in positivism, in the pleasure that you must realize certain actions and think about new ideas, in the involvement in the projects and in the various sectors of life. “Motivation is what makes the employee assume certain behaviors that can be satisfactory or not for the company, in this perspective is a factor that directly interferes in satisfaction and performance” [17, p. 146]. The use of Team Building as an instrument of motivation of employees is currently widely practiced in companies that use modern management styles and oriented to the Strategy [13] Job satisfaction is said to be a productivity enhancer and so it too has a positive influence on service performance [18].

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist, known by the proposed hierarchy of needs of Maslow. He carried out research on why people work and why some are more enthusiastic than others and discovered that in general there was, what he called, a hierarchy of human needs, which had to be satisfied in an ascending order. The following image shows some of the levels that the individual should climb, one point at a time (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (2005)

These five levels on Maslow’s needs are: physiological, security and safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. According Maslow, the first needs are the ones that enable the human to perform its basic functions, like breathing, eating, exercising muscles, among others. With these needs complete, the individual feels the need to feel safe, have security in employment and a safe environment. Subsequently, the individual has the need to be accepted by the society, such as at work, with friends, and, of course, with family. The next step is self-esteem, the individual has the need to be respected and admired. Many impressions like attention, recognition and a general sense make the individual feel self-confidence and well-being. Finally, the need to feel self-actualization. This is the need to maximize all of one’s potentials, utilize one’s abilities fully and be able to meet new challenges.

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The Team Building enters this last point, where the individual must feel realized, and for that it is necessary, at work, to feel motivated to have a greater success. Can also promote greater sharing of mental models between team members, greater mutual understanding, and an increased effort from team members [19]. 2.4

Team Building

The origin of the team idea arises in the middle of the 20th century, between the decades of 20 and 30, through Hawthorne studies, which involved a few activities to analyse several works in partnerships. After long studies and thousands of people analysed, the researchers concluded that the most important within a working group was the feeling of group, a sense of social came with the increase in productivity of Employees. Hence the investigation of how it would be possible to improve this group productivity, through sentiment, referring to this concept of Team Building [13]. Thus, Team Building is associated with the development of team groups. A group can be defined as a set of two or more individuals who interact with each other, being psychologically conscious of each other and having the perception of constituting a group [20]. The groups may vary from their nature of interdependence, creating different types of team: those who report to the same supervisor, manager or director; Teams that involve people with common organizational objectives; The temporary teams formed to carry out a single specific task; Teams consisting of persons with interdependent functions; And finally, the teams whose members Don’t have a connection in the organization but who have the purpose of fulfilling goals that they could not achieve in an individual way [21]. The concept of Team Building adjusts itself to the organizational intervention used in the development of teams and Groups [22]. Objectively the collective term Team Building intends to improve the performance of a team through different activities. We can define this concept as a planned intervention by an external consultant to the group, which develops the problem solving capacities and the most relevant issues of the team, allowing analyse information on the functioning of the groups, providing changes that allow to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the Working Group, and consequently, the productivity and quality of services provided to the business institution [23]. Some research uses the definition of team building as “…the formal and informal team- level interventions that focus on improving social relations and clarifying roles as well as solving task and interpersonal problems that affect team functioning” [24]. In fact, in the perspective of several authors, the central idea in this type of formation is the planning and implementation of internal change, coming from the team itself, which will produce more effective results. Cummings and Worley (1997), consider Team Building a wide range of activities planned with the aim of helping groups/teams in the form of carrying out their tasks, collaborating for team members to improve their skills Interpersonal skills and problem solving. At the motivational level, members of the group develop more interest in carrying out common decisions and tasks and solving specific problems such as lack of productivity, increased intrigues and complaints, hostility and conflicts Within the group, among others…, increasing the quality and effectiveness of its services and products.

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Since creativity is increasingly the way of differentiating organizations, highlighting their success in the face of competition, employees must be prepared to respond to the creative needs that society demands. This success depends largely on the capacity with which collaborators perform their tasks together, linking several lines of thought in order to reach the idea of excellence. Team Building provides these collaborators with a strong group spirit, become a more apt team, crowding ideas and generating successful products. The relationship between team-building activities and worker performance has also been studied previously. Although the empirical evidence is somewhat ambiguous [21, 23, 25], it is often claimed that by engaging in team building “any group can transform itself . . . into a high-performing team” [26, p. x]. Moreover, the literature on psychology in organizations recognizes identification with the firm as a powerful concept for explaining individual behavior, for instance, turnover intentions [27]. In the business world more and more there is the need for teamwork and that these teams work in groups. Creating an environment conducive to these practices is a fundamental task. Integrating all employees and showing that they are capable of fantastic achievements is precisely the main point of the Team Building [13]. For Moxon [28], the Team Building program must have frequent work sessions, that is, the Team Building is a continuous process that includes the existing team, as well as the new teams. These activities are dynamic, performed to simulate day-to-day situations, allowing both the practice of teamwork and the learning of new concepts. Currently the activities of Team Building are offered by a wide range of entities, the offerings of the activities are of the most varied from sports challenges, strategy games, games by goals, among others. These activities aim to combat the problems of employees and companies, the work sessions shouldn’t be a formation workshop, but rather as an activity aimed at solving work-related problems. The involvement of third parties can provide a neutral structure that can facilitate the debate, helping the group to clarify and solve their problems. By creating a trusted environment, members feel confident in sharing their feelings, which in turn increases the honesty of the feedback obtained despite the risk that members incur when they make their “secrets” known [13]. For Cabral-Cardoso [29], some of the most common Team Building approaches include formal redresses, continuous improvement and outdoor experiences. In formal redresses, a consultant, internal or external, helps the elements of the group to analyses the information and seek ways to resolve the problems that have been diagnosed. In the approach of continuous improvement, the leader and/or group members are responsible for making a regular analysis of the group’s progress. In outdoor experiments: the elements of a group or team are placed in situations in which they must work in groups to overcome overcoming obstacles that could not transposed individually. These experiences allow us to develop mutual trust and team spirit.

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3 Methodology This exploratory study is part of a research project focusing on the tourism and corporate motivation of Team Building activities. The present study uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings and not by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification. A qualitative research approach was adopted, one especially suitable when the research question addresses sensitive issues. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, the research tool that provided a depth of data was needed. Thus, the face-to-face in-depth interview format was chosen, with the aim of facilitating comparison between participants’ answers [30]. So, this study requirements result in a qualitative study through exploratory interviews, in order to perceive with companies what their motivations are to resort to Team Building and what they think of these activities. This study will focus on internal marketing, human resources management and tourism in Team Building. In the first phase will be done the study of the state of the art, knowing better these concepts in order to already repair the next steps. Then, we conduct interviews with human resources in 5 companies from different areas, corresponding to two large companies, two mediumsized enterprises and a small business. After that, we analysed the material obtained and drew some conclusions from the results of these five interviews. Finally, all the information taken from this qualitative methodology will be scrutinised, and consequently drawn preliminary conclusions that allow us to answer the questions initially made. The interview method is distinguished by the application of the fundamental procedures of communication and human interaction. These research processes are correctly valued, which allow the researcher to withdraw from the interview’s information and elements of reflection very rich and tinted.

4 Discussion Nowadays companies feel a stagnation, they consider that the market is increasingly competitive, both nationally and internationally, indicate growth with a slow development, almost Stopped. However, most companies in the technology area feel instead, that is, they consider that in recent years there has been significant growth, and in many cases doubling the volume of sales and workers. For a motivational increase, companies feel that they still have some challenges to win, in which as a contingency plan they intend to develop some initiatives to develop some teamwork union, and here the activities of Team Building Fits perfectly. It is essential to note that companies that have experienced greater growth in recent years are those who practice Team Building activities more often, in some cases, the company has activities or motivational formations every month. They hardly consider Team Building as activities that exclusively hold proactivity and success, since behavioural changes cannot be associated with a single activity. In human resources it is necessary to intervene in several areas and connect the workers to the organization, making them more motivated in what they do. Being Team Building a good contribution, but there are other things necessary for the motivation of the workers, as for example the part of the remuneration.

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They consider that it is not possible to directly link Team Building with individual success and the motivation of the worker, because there are several needs that are mandatory for the welfare of the individual. However, in the perspective of secondary needs (social, esteem and self-realization) The Team Building is indispensable. Many companies use some activities that are not well identified as Team Building, but whose goals are the same as those activities, the motivation of the worker. They practice formative activities, leisure and even thematic parties, in order to remove workers from that routine and create moments for fun, knowledge and companionship. They intend to find a time when workers can have some conviviality in the various departments, in order to promote and strengthen people’s relationships, and people know better than later is a facilitating factor in the relations of Work. They consider that the motivation of workers has a great influence on their professional performance, especially when they are young workers. When you work as a team you get better results, when there is individual work that negatively impacts the results of the company. Teamwork, especially in companies linked to technology and project creation, is the only way to work. Individual work besides being harmful to the company is impossible in many companies. When questioned the economic impact that Team Building activities can have on the company’s budget, all companies, without exception, have if Team Building doesn’t represent an increased spent to the organization, but rather an investment. This investment is indispensable for the proper functioning and success of the organization. Ending up annually including Team Building in the budget as an indispensable point. A company without motivational activities and celebrations has no recognition and ends up dying. That is, indifferent to the aspect of activities, formative, fun or even involvement with customers, the goal is always to invest in the success of the company. Finally, it was possible to analyse that internally companies do not make in-depth assessments on the results of Team Building activities, only make questionnaires of satisfaction and end up, incompletely, not evaluating Team Building of the best force. Eventually not realizing the direct link of Team Building with the motivation of the collaborator.

5 Final Considerations This investigation was carried out through a small number of samples, which, for a more correct and objective obtaining, would require the study of more companies at national level. This study was conducted through a qualitative methodology, interviews with human resources in companies of several branches, nationally, in a future project would be interesting to work quantitatively, questioning the workers about their opinion Regarding Team Building activities and their motivational degree. Concluding this investigation, bearing in mind its limitations, I consider that it was a very enriching investigation for the approach of travel in Team Building. It is possible to argue that companies, increasingly, seek activities that motivate their workers, giving more and more value to the welfare of the worker and on the other hand has a greater business success. One of the great conclusions of the article is that many companies practice Team Building activities because they are in use and competitors turn to these

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activities. It is possible to conclude that this type of travel and motivational activities not yet well evaluated internally by the companies, that is, they see the other companies to make and get better results and end up doing equal with the same goal of Greater Success rate. However, you should there is a greater analysis and evaluation Internal of these activities, eventually adapting each type of activity to the intended objective and each Company. Diversifying the business branch, s company’s has different goals with the activities of Team Building. Insisting that an internal and permanent evaluation of the motivation and consequently of this type of activities would be very enriching in the development and growth of companies. Dyer (1995) found that many company executives said they believe that the motivation and formation of teams were important, but few (only 22%) Actually did something to foster this motivation and formation needed for teamwork.

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14. de Sousa, B.M.B., Dominique-Ferreira, S.: La innovación de los procesos. Diferenciación en los servicios turísticos. Estud. Perspect. en Tur 21(4), 963–976 (2012) 15. Chiavenato, I.: Carreira e competência: gerenciando o seu maior capital. Saraiva (2002) 16. Tamayo, A., Paschoal, T.: A relação da motivação para o trabalho com as metas do trabalhador. Rev. Adm. Contemp. 7(4), 33–54 (2003) 17. Maggioni, L., Fox, E., Alexander, P.A.: Beliefs about reading, text, and learning from text. Int. Handb. Res. Teach. Beliefs 353–366 (2015) 18. Sirgy, M.J., Kruger, P.S., Lee, D.J., Yu, G.B.: How does a travel trip affect tourists’ life satisfaction? J. Travel Res. 50(3), 261–275 (2011) 19. Hsu, J.S., Chang, J.Y., Klein, G., Jiang, J.J.: Exploring the impact of team mental models on information utilization and project performance in system development. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 29(1), 1–12 (2011) 20. Cunha, L., Abrantes, A.: Introdução ao Turismo, 6o Edição. Lisboa: Lidel - Edições Técnicas, Lda (2019) 21. Salas, E., Prince, C., Baker, D.P., Shrestha, L.: Situation awareness in team performance: Implications for measurement and training. Hum. Factors 37(1), 123–136 (1995) 22. Porras, J.I., Berg, P.O.: Evaluation methodology in organization development: an analysis and critique. J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 14(2), 151–173 (1978) 23. Bell, C.H., Buller, P.F.: Effects of team building and goal setting on productivity: A field experiment. Acad. Manag. J. 29(2), 305–328 (1986) 24. Klein, C., et al.: Does team building work? Small Gr. Res. 40(2), 181–222 (2009) 25. Woodman, R.W., Sherwood, J.J.: Effects of team development intervention: a field experiment. J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 16(2), 211–227 (1980) 26. Shandler, M., Egan, M.: Vroom!: Turbo-charged team building. AMACOM (1996) 27. Van Dick, R., et al.: Should I stay or should I go? Explaining turnover intentions with organizational identification and job satisfaction. Br. J. Manag. 15(4), 351–360 (2004) 28. Moxon, P.: Building a Better Team: A Handbook for Managers and Facilitators. Gower Publishing, Ltd. (1993) 29. Cabral-Cardoso, C.: The evolving Portuguese model of HRM. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 15(6), 959–977 (2004) 30. Barriball, K.L., While, A.: Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: a discussion paper. J. Adv. Nurs. 19(2), 328–335 (1994)

Perception of Safety Tourism in Colombia Gabriela Antošová1(&) 1

, Luís Lima Santos2

, and Sara Stradová1

University College of Business in Prague, Spálená 14, Czech Republic [email protected] 2 Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Colombia is notorious for drug cartels and internal armed conflicts that have persisted in the country for more than 50 years. With the peace agreement signed in 2016 Colombia gradually became a country with strong tourism potential in Latin America. Supported by movie tourism and dark tourism, the influx of tourists to Colombia registered considerable increases. Colombia became a popular destination for recreation and beach stays, for adventure and experience tourism; and ecotourism has a dominant role related to the cultivation of coffee. However, Colombia presents natural risks and security risks that support the low level of peace and the low quality of life indicator as a tourism destination. The existence of a greater number of flights and low-cost booking systems, allows to increase interest in new non-traditional places, avoiding mass tourism, which can be an advantage for many travel agencies in the Czech and Portuguese markets that seek authentic and relatively unknown places. Despite the threat of the pandemic COVID-19, tourist packages to Colombia were analysed. Considering the main objective of the study, to assess the perception of security in Colombia, a questionnaire was carried out to identify the risks associated with this destination. To allow a comparison of the perception of safety with the Global Safety index, the responses of 206 potential tourists, 103 from Portugal and 103 from the Czech Republic, were selected. The results show that the destination Colombia is perceived as more dangerous by potential tourists than by actual tourists who have visited it and perceive it as much safer and more attractive. Keywords: Safety tourism


Tourist destination
Colombia

1 Colombia as a Tourist Destination 1.1

General Knowledge About Colombia

Tourism Aspects and History. Colombia is a South American destination, which is washed by two world oceans - the Atlantic from the north and the Pacific from the west; the country also borders Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Panama [28]. The capital is Bogota. Colombia is notorious for drug cartels and internal armed conflicts that have persisted in the country for more than 50 years [26]. However, with the signing of a peace agreement between the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Colombian government in 2016, the destination gradually became a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 96–105, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_9

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relatively strong democratic country in Latin America [32]. Although Colombia is sought after by tourists mainly for recreation and relaxation on the beaches, cultural tourism and the discovery of natural wealth, as well as business, adventure, sports and gastronomic tourism and so-called city breaks are of great importance [1]. In consequence of sustainable tourism, ecotourism, food tourism or agro-tourism [30] are increasingly emphasized, especially in the areas of coffee growing. Collection of coffee beans on plantations, coffee trails, or tastings of this globally popular drink is also a popular form of adventure tourism. Colombia is the third-largest producer of coffee in the world (after Brazil and Vietnam) [2]. Tourism Destination. Movie tourism and dark tourism are considered to be new trends in the field of tourism. While film tourism is associated with visiting attractions that relate to audio-visual works, dark tourism is associated with visiting places or objects that are connected with a certain negative event [3]. It is the combination of these two trends that has gradually developed in Colombia since 2015, when the American streaming platform Netflix launched the crime series Narcos, mapping the life of drug addict Pablo Escobar and the emergence of drug cartels in the country in general. The TV series met with great success and positive reception from foreign viewers. In Colombia, so-called narco-tours were gradually created – e.g. tours of places connected mainly with the life and death of Pablo Escobar. The most soughtafter places include Escobar’s tomb in Medellin, his private prison La Catedral and the country mansion La Manuela in Guatapé [4]. Following the broadcast of the hitherto final third series of Narcos in 2017, inbound tourism in Colombia recorded an increase of 38% in the same year compared to 2014 [5]. Colombia has tens of kilometers of coastline, making it a popular destination for recreation and beach stays; The country is also important in terms of cultural, adventure, or experience tourism. An ecotourism also plays a dominant role here, especially in connection with the cultivation of coffee, with Colombia ranking third in the world production of this popular commodity. Through popular culture, Colombia or the mention of it gradually got into the Czech environment over the years, especially through songs or television series, which, however, mostly emphasized negative topics (e.g. the series Narcos). Potential Threats and Global Evaluations Index of Security. Colombia’s natural hazards include occasional earthquakes, droughts, and volcanic activity. Two primary armed forces often referred to as terrorist organizations, are currently identified on the territory of the state, namely the National Liberation Army (Ejército de Liberación Nacional, ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, FARC); since 2017 known as the Alternative Revolutionary Power of the People (Fuerza Alternativa Revolucionaria del Común). According to the UL Safety Index, which evaluates measurable safety drivers (institutions and resources, safety frameworks, safety results), Colombia has been rated as the 47th safest country in the world. According to this index, it can be stated that the safety situation of the destination is currently at a good level [29]. On the other hand, the security situation in Colombia was assessed more negatively by the Global Terrorism Index (19th worst result out of 163 countries surveyed, which represents a medium level of terrorist intervention in the destination) [6]. The Global Peace Index, which assesses the level of social security and protection, the extent of ongoing

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domestic and international conflicts, and the degree of militarization, ranked the destination 143rd (it means the 143rd best score) out of 163 countries analyzed [7]. This result (2019) points to the low level of peace at the destination, although Colombia has seen an improvement in security compared to 2018. The OECD Better Life Index, which considers safety to be one of the key areas for people’s well-being, indicates a lower level of perception of the safety of Colombians when traveling around the destination alone and at night (44% of respondents feel safe, but the OECD average is 68%) [8]. Also, according to the latest figures, the homicide rate per 100,000 populations in Colombia is still higher (25 homicides/100,000 population) than the OECD average (e.g. 3.7 homicides per 100,000) [5]. Cultural Destination and Famous People. Probably the most important figure in the country is the already named Colombian writer and Nobel Prize winner for literature, Gabriel García Márquez [10]. Juan Manuel Santos, a politician and former president of the state, received the 2016 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end more than 50 years of internal armed conflict in the country [9]. The worldwide sculptor and painter, Fernando Botero, is famous for his specific artistic style called boterismo, characterized by the depiction of robust statues [11]. The international music scene has been dominated for many years by multiple music awards, singer Shakira. It is certainly worth mentioning the singer Carlos Vives, who in his songs popularized the traditional Colombian musical style - vallenato [12], which was inscribed on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2015 [13]. Colombia can also be proud of several quality athletes - former Formula 1 driver Juan Pablo Montoya [14] and ex-footballer Carlos Valderrama have had many successes and awards. Other well-known footballers include striker Radamel Falcao (which became famous in FC Porto team) and probably the most successful Colombian footballer today working in the Real Madrid team, James Rodríguez [15]. Other important athletes include the professional road cyclist and winner of the Giro d´Italia (2014) and Vuelta a España (2016), Nairo Quintana, and Egan Bernal, the 2019 Tour de France winner [16]. Despite a strong Spanish accent, the Colombian actress Sofía Vergara, who is one of the highest-paid television actresses in Hollywood, also achieved success [17]. Tourism Offer. The most visited places in Colombia include the metropolis of Bogotá, the port city of Cartagena, which is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, or the cities of Medellin, Cali, and Santa Marta. Nowadays, many travel agencies are encountering trends that have spread more and more rapidly in the tourism sector in recent years - customers are more independent, speak foreign languages, can organize trips completely individually, also due to the rise of low-cost airlines or reservation systems such as Booking.com or Airbnb. They are interested in new undiscovered places, non-traditional experiences, avoid mass tourism, and try to be respectful of the environment at the same time. However, not all customers dare to travel individually anywhere, especially to places that offer many attractions in terms of tourism, but unfortunately do not have a very good reputation. Colombia’s offer, as a relatively undiscovered destination, can be an advantage for many travel agencies in the Czech and Portuguese markets. The following Table 1 provides a list of tourist agencies aimed on Colombian tourist destination. Many tourists no longer crave traditional European tourist destinations; as a part of the holiday, they increasingly search for

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relatively unknown places and authenticity. The advantage of offering tours to Colombia on the market of travel agencies in the Czech Republic and Portugal is the fact that they do not currently encounter too much competition. Other South American destinations, such as Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Ecuador, are offered quite abundantly by several Czech and less by travel agencies. However, Colombia does not encounter such interest in this regard, although it is currently a stable destination in terms of security, offering many attractions. Besides, several travel agencies employ or hire qualified guides, specialists in Latin America, who often stay in the destination for a long time and can thus provide a complex experience for Czech or Portuguese tourists.

Table 1. A comparison of tourist packages offering by Czech and Portuguese agencies in 2020 Travel agency in the Czech Republic (CR) and Portugal (PT)

Tour package

Term

Price

Sum of days

Adventura (CR)

Colombia comfortably

November 20

3 341,00 €

14

Alvarez (CR)

Unknown Colombia; Unknown Colombia and Lost City; The real Amazon

July–November 2020

since 2688 – 5184€

17–27

Čedok (CR)

The Great Circuit of Colombia; Colombia Panama

October–November 2020

since 2971 – 41596€

13–15

ESO Travel (CR)

Focus on Colombia

October 20

3 200,00 €

12

Livingstone (CR)

Colombia - A mysterious land of mountains, jungles and the Caribbean

October–November 2020

3 276,00 €

18

Marco Polo (CR)

The best of Colombia with a Czech guide

March 20

3 196,00 €

10

Nomád (CR)

Colombia - behind the legend of El Dorado and the Crystal River

August–September 2020

2 556,00 €

11

Orbis Link (CR)

Cruises

November– December 2020

976 – 1982€ + 12–17 transport to the port of departure

Pangeo Tours (CR)

Mysterious Colombia

August–September 2020

2620€ + flights

26

Rainbow tours (CR)

Antilles and Southern Caribbean (cruise); Cocalumbia, The Way of Dreams

April–October 2020

since 1909 – 24815€

10–14

Sen (CR)

Colombia - Ecuador (Galapagos); Colombia and Panama all inclusive; Colombia 5 K

April–November 2020

since 2544 – 4408€

12–15

Soleada (CR)

The hidden gems of Colombia

March–October 2020

4 197 €

18

Travel agency in Portugal (PT)

Tour package

Term

Price

Sum of days

Logitravel (PT)

Bogotá e Cartagena das Índias

until December 2020

since 1 395€

9

Perú, Bogotá e Cartagena das Índias

until December 2020

since 2 195€

12

Agência Abreu (PT)

Colômbia: o País do El Dorado

since June 2020

since 1 723€

9

SolTrópico Pacotesdeferias.com (PT)

Férias em Cartagena das Índias, San Andrés e Bogotá

September–October 2020

since 1 902€

9

Lusanova Tours (PT)

Colômbia - o realismo mágico - Bogotá, Medellin, Cartagena de Las Índias

March–December 2020

since 1 820€

11

Colômbia - o El Dorado - Zona Cafeeira, Bogotá, Medellin, Guatapé, Peñol, Cartagena de Las Índias

March–December 2020

since 2 195€

11

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2 Research Findings 2.1

Tourism Agencies Offering Colombia in the Czech Republic and Portugal

A secondary data analysis provides an overview about tourism agencies offers in the Czech Republic and Portugal, which are organizing tours or cruises to Colombia. We observed several tourism packages with specific attention to price, terms and duration of the tours offer. If the tourism agency decides to expand its portfolio to Colombia, it is necessary to keep in mind that it is a remote destination, the price of the tour is higher and the tourist segment is relatively specific. In this regard it is necessary to target a certain group of customers, e.g. the wealthier, in the middle years, who are open to the knowledge of new places but are too conservative or who are afraid to visit the destination individually. Colombia’s promotion in terms of tourism is thus in the Czech or Portuguese environment only in the hands of the travel agencies themselves, which should try to bring it closer to the local clientele. The most serious threat from travel agencies offering trips to Colombia is related to the current global pandemic COVID-19 [18], which unfortunately has significantly affected the entire tourism sector and whose future development is hardly predictable for the time being. Following the emergence of a new type of coronavirus SARS-CoV2 in the world, many countries (including the Czech Republic and Portugal) have declared a state of emergency, which brings with it, for example, restrictions for free movers, closure of borders, interruptions of air connections, as well as the activities of accommodation and catering facilities, travel agencies and other providers of tourism services. In this consequence, we attach a lower degree of interaction from travel agencies. Another threat for them is, for example, political instability, the risk of armed conflicts in the destination or changes in visa conditions, which currently do not constitute an obstacle - citizens of the Czech Republic and Portugal are exempt from the visa requirement and entry and subsequent stay in the destination is allowed (for a period of 90 days) [19]. 2.2

Perception of Safety Tourism in Colombia

Methodology. Quantitative research is based on a questionnaire survey among potential tourists. Risks are divided into four basic groups: health, natural (extreme weather, tectonic activity), anthropogenic (socio-genic, techno-genic), and, last but not least, socioeconomic (security, social and economic). We modified a similar questionnaire used for observing the perception of destination security as a tool for tourism development in Colombia [20]. The questionnaire survey consists of a total of twenty statements. The five-point Likert scale (1 strongly agree - 2 rather agree - 3 rather disagree - 4 strongly disagree) is chosen as the technique of sociological research, on which potential tourists assessed the degree of agreement/disagreement with statements about potential threats of the destination. The questionnaire was distributed electronically in 2020 by Google Forms, firstly in the Czech Republic and then in Portugal.

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Simultaneously we conducted the same questionnaire for other potential tourists in several countries (Germany, Slovak, Hungary, Italy, Spain, Brazil, Slovenia, Belgium, United States etc.). The Global Safety Index was created from a total of 518 respondents. We selected 103 Portuguese responses and 103 Czech potential tourist responses for closer comparison of security perception with the Global Safety index. Results. The results of the questionnaire survey marked that Colombian security is generally perceived negatively by potential tourists. The resulting values oscillated around the mean value of 2 (the predominant answer therefore became the possibility Rather agree). According to major findings, the least relevant risks were natural (extreme weather and tectonic activity) and socio-economic risks (possibility of terrorist attack, fear of cultural differences in the destination, hostility of tourists, alleged poverty of Colombia as a factor not to visit, dishonesty of service providers towards tourists). On the contrary, respondents perceived health threats (poor hygiene at the destination, tropical diseases, distrust in visiting local health facilities), anthropogenic (insufficient tourist infrastructure and superstructure) and security as a subgroup of socio-economic threats (frequency of riots, assaults or thefts in the country, the danger of moving around the destination alone, the helplessness of solving problems in case of travel to Colombia without travel agency). Only just travel agencies, that should strive to improve the image of the destination in the Czech or Portuguese environment, whether by presenting the attractions of Colombia through trade fairs and exhibitions, organizing lectures or discussions, or through social networks to promote and subsequently popularize destinations currently considerable influence. The effort of tourism agencies should be to create the best and the most interesting offer, which would attract the attention of potential clients and thus differentiate them from the competition. It should be noted that many tourists are currently able to organize a trip without the help of an intermediary travel agency or advisor. In particular, however, tourists who, for example, do not speak the language or do not dare to travel to distant Colombia on their own, can welcome a pre-arranged package of services (or have it tailored). The question remains whether the segment that would use the services of a travel agent or tour guide on trips to Colombia was really attracted by its turbulent drug past, on which some tours are based Fig. 1. We are aware of the fact that Colombia is not considered as a destination affected by mass tourism, it offers travelers practically everything they can desire and it is associated with far more interesting stories than just those related to drugs. Colombia cannot be seen in the commercials of well-known Czech or Portuguese travel agencies. Within Latin America, the Caribbean (Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Cuba) is promoted quite often [31]. Although Colombia is a part of the Caribbean, it has not received any attention. Travel agencies with sufficient financial resources could thus draw attention to the destination also through advertisements in the mass media. Schools (especially universities) can also promote greater awareness of the destination, especially at a time when foreign students arrive in Europe as part of exchange programs or academic teachers for work, study, or research purposes. In the same way, they can talk to local students about the current situation in the country on the basis of their own experience, not just indirectly by mass media.

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20. Local entrepreneurs/service providers are dishonest with tourists. 19. Alleged poverty of Colombia is decreasing desire to travel there.

2.512 2.350

15. Non-Spanish speakers could have difficul es 14. If travel alone, insufficient capabality of resolving problems

1.971

2.019 2.068

2. Tropical disease 1. Hygienic situa on in Colombia

1.979 1.971 2.131 2.252 2.664

2.689

1.699

3. Distrust of the local hospital care.

2.476

2.117

11. Assaults and robberies (of tourists especially)

4. Extreme weather

2.732 2.728

2.291

1.738

5. Tectonic ac vity

2.835

2.825

12. Travelling individually

8. Elements of social infrastructure (shops, services, pharmacies, hospitals etc.) 7. Tourism infrastructure (informa on centers, exchange offices etc.) 6. Tourism suprastructure (accommoda on and restaurant facili es etc.)

2.786

2.796

13. A threat of terrorist a acks

10. Disturbances and riots

2.938

2.825

18. Local people are unkind to tourists. 17. Afraid of cultural differences (religious, moral etc.). 16. The drug past of the des na on is a reason for not travel there.

1.874 2.019 2.175

2.738 1.917

2.097

1.867 1.922 2.042 2.078 2.153 2.291 2.220 2.243 2.120 2.097 2.183 2.155 2.527 2.816

2.301

2.432

2.165 1.932 2.175 1.913

2.844

2.330

2.660 2.006 2.000 2.253

Global index survey PT survey

2.311 1.954 2.058

CZ Survey

Fig. 1. A perception of safety tourism from Portuguese and Czech potential tourists compared with global index survey. Own elaboration. 2020

However, each individual’s critical attitude towards sources of information is very important. Whether it is the news brought by the mass media (especially of the tabloid type), television series, films, or books, it is always necessary to pause and think about their credibility.

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3 Recommendations and Conclusions The destination itself under the Marca País Colombia brand, which was established in 2012, strives for enlightenment. The brand was created as a joint effort of the national government and the private sector to show the determination, hard work and passion of the locals. The idea of the brand is not only to increase the competitiveness of Colombia’s positive image of the world, but also to strengthen the pride of Colombians. It is the locals who are the voice of the country and can help change its image. The destination label is based on attributes such as natural, historical, and cultural richness, gastronomy, geography, and climate diversity [21]. It is one thing that is said about Colombia, another thing is what is going on in the country. For this reason, the brand Marca País Colombia strives through colombia.co platform to create and share positive content about issues that are happening in the destination. The brand is also presented through social networks (Facebook, Twitter, Google +). The target markets tfocused on the brand in 2012 were the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, South Korea, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, Turkey, the European Union, and Switzerland. The government of the country’s former president, Juan Manuel Santos, participated in the creation of the destination brand, whose motto became the statement La respuesta es Colombia (The answer is Colombia). This slogan thus replaced the original Colombia es pasión (Colombia is a passion), with which the destination was identified in the world until 2012 in successful campaigns such as El riesgo es que te quieras quedar (The risk is that you want to stay) [22]. In January 2019, the destination presented a new campaign called Colombia, Feel the Rythm (Colombia, siente el Ritmo) at the FITUR 2019 trade fair in Madrid. The campaign aims to use the musical and cultural heritage of Colombia and, through wellknown local artists, to promote the country as an international tourist destination, thus increasing the number of visitors to foreign tourists. After several months of quantitative and qualitative analysis of the perception of Colombia’s international tourism, music has been evaluated as what the world’s tourist seeks and is interested in the country [23]. This chapter is seen as an invitation to tourists not to be influenced by the often distorted or untrue news circulating about the country and not to condemn in advance a place that they did not personally check. Scientific studies already confirm that the tourist destination of Colombia is much more perceived as dangerous by potential clients than by tourists who have visited the destination and perceive this destination as much more safe and attractive [24]. These perceptions of potential danger, not real in non-traditional destinations, are also common in other unexplored countries. Changing the image of Colombia is a long-term process, we have seen many positive changes that were happening in Colombia, and the recognition of safety tourism have to be promoted in the future with good experiences of real visitors of this tourist destination [25]. Acknowledgment. Funded by national funds through FCT – Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation, within the project reference UIDB/04470/2020.

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18. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO). WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020. https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/ detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—11March-2020. Accessed 25 Mar 2020 19. PASSPORT INDEX. Compare Passports: Czech Republic, https://www.passportindex.org/ comparebyPassport.php?p1=cz&fl=&s=yes. Accessed 25 Mar 2020 20. Šilhánková, V., Arias, J., Antošová, G., Pondělíček, M.: Survey of Destination Security Perception As a Tool for Tourism Development (an Example from Colombia). In: Klímová, V., Žítek, V. (eds.) CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS XXI. mezinárodní kolokvium o regionálních vědách, pp. 603–610 Masarykova univerzita, Brno (2018) 21. COLOMBIA. ¿Qué es la Marca País Colombia?. https://www.colombia.co/marca-colombia/ quienes-somos/que-es-la-marca-pais-colombia/. Accessed 29 Apr 2020 22. EL ESPECTADOR. “La respuesta es Colombia”, nueva marca país para atraer a un mundo en crisis. https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/nacional/respuesta-colombia-nueva-marcapais-atraer-un-mundo-cri-articulo-373400. Accessed 29 Apr 2020 23. PROCOLOMBIA. La campaña evoluciona y mantiene el racional de basar la promoción internacional del país como destino turístico en su riqueza musical y cultural. https:// procolombia.co/noticias/colombia-presenta-en-fitur-campana-de-turismo-colombia-siente-elritmo. Accessed 29 Apr 2020 24. Šilháková, V., Pondělíček, M., Alfaro Valero, A., Arias Gomez, J.E.: Tourist destination safety perception – comparison between expectations and reality (an example from Colombia). Studia Turistica 10(3), 63–69 (2019) 25. Alfaro Valero, A., Arias Goméz, J. E. Security and Risk in Colombia. Regionální rozvoj mezi teorií a praxí, vol. 4, pp. 62–86. http://www.regionalnirozvoj.eu/sites/regionalnirozvoj. eu/files/casopis_2018_4_0.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2020 26. Bermúdez Urdaneta, M., Avci, D.: Environmental struggles cultivating democracy in the steep terrains of Colombian highlands. Development 58(1), 13–20 (2015) 27. Sacipa-Rodriguez, S., Montero, M. (eds.): Psychosocial Approaches to Peace-Building in Colombia, Peace Psychology Book Series 25. Springer, Switzerland (2014) 28. Huddart, T., Stott, T.: The Andes in Adventure Tourism, 1st edn. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2020) 29. UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES INC. Quantifying the Global State of Safety. 2018 Edition, The UL Safety Index. https://ulsafetyindex.org/library/cs11609-safety-indexdata-science-final-digital.pdf. Accessed 27 Apr 2020 30. Aguilera Díaz, M.: La economía de los Montes de María. Economía & Región, 8(1), 91– 141. (2019). https://revistas.utb.edu.co/index.php/economiayregion/article/view/64 31. Thomas, A., Moore, A., Edwards, M.: Feeding island dreams: exploring the relationship between food security and agritourism in the Caribbean. Island Studies Journal [Internet]. Institute of Island Studies. 13(2):145–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.24043/isj.66. Accessed 02 Aug 2020 32. Franco, I.B., de Puppim Oliveira, J.A., Ali, S.H.: Peace with Hunger: Colombia’s checkered experience with post-conflict sustainable community development in emerald-mining regions. Sustainability 10(2), 504 (2018). 10.3390/su10020504

Folklore and Tourism: Folk Dance Groups as a Strategy to Promote the Development of Cultural Tourism Emanuel Bohórquez(&), Maritza Pérez, Arturo Benavides, and William Caiche University Península of Santa Elena – UPSE, Av. Principal La Libertad, Santa Elena, Ecuador [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This research focuses on folk dance groups and cultural tourism, being a topic of great worldwide relevance in the field of tourism, which is why the main problem is to determine how folk-dance groups influence to promote tourism culture in the José Luis Tamayo parish (Muey) province of Santa Elena. For the study, a quantitative approach and descriptive research that involved both representatives and dancers of the folk dance groups of the José Luis Tamayo parish were used; whose results show that 100% of the respondents are “totally in agreement” that cultural tourism can be developed through folk dance groups, also with 57% and 34% indicate being “totally agree” and “agree” respectively that the promotion as a tourist destination of the José Luis Tamayo parish is important to achieve cultural tourism development. Being able to conclude that folk dance groups constitute a strategy to promote the development of cultural tourism, having to receive significant and real support from public and private institutions so that they can really achieve their goals. proposals. Keywords: Cultural tourism


Folk groups
Folk dances

1 Introduction Cultural tourism is conceived as a form of alternative tourism that embodies the consummation of the commercialization of culture. Cultural tourism appears in the last four decades as a social phenomenon that presents one of the best perspectives to occupy free time, linked to the historical heritage of the territories where it is developed, contributing to regional development, both in cities and towns that are depositaries of an important heritage legacy. Increasingly comprehensive and inclusive cultural tourism, where all its components intermingle and articulate with each other. However, the different ways of accessing heritage and culture admit different forms of tourism, heritage tourism, artistic tourism and creative tourism [1].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 106–113, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_10

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The dance before ascending a stage in magical spell and becoming an artistic genre, was a dance movement, emotional overflow, disorderly manifestation-no fear, affection, ritual, ceremonies, popular celebration or simple fun; when talking about folk dance it is important to take into account body development as an expressive instrument and we are also interested in training the interior or the entire personality to use this instrument in the task of searching for strategies to promote cultural tourism in this aspect as important as the folk dance groups [2]. Folk dance has acquired new connotations, treatment, forms and content, it has become a professional activity, a business activity, and a leisure and leisure activity, but most importantly, it has become vital as a training element in education, becoming a tool and a necessary way of educating and finally a constituent element of identities, their treatment is highly diverse and differentiated, which is why folk dance is one of the alternatives to promote the development of cultural tourism [3]. In our Ecuadorian territory, cultural tourism, folk dances and folklore, responds and forms an intimate part of social and cultural transformations, without state cultural policy, without school or university educational policy to support it. José Luis Tamayo, is a parish that has an extraordinary culture: music, traditions, dances, dress, customs, which in the past exalted each of the citizens, is the cradle of peninsular talent. In the town, it is possible to identify as the most relevant problems the lack of publicity, lack of support from public and private entities, lack of interest from the community, lack of economic resources for the proper acquisition of the changing rooms and the transfer to the different places to participate, and above all the loss of values of the inhabitants of the parish, especially the younger ones. In this way, the main objective of the research is based on determining how folk-dance groups influence to promote cultural tourism in the José Luis Tamayo (Muey) province of Santa Elena. This research is structured as follows: the second section presents the principles and theories regarding folk dance and cultural tourism; The third section describes the methodology used and the results obtained from the study. Finally, in the fourth section, the conclusions and recommendations are presented.

2 Groups of Folk Dances and Cultural Tourism 2.1

Folk Groups

Folklore. Valuing the study of [4], folklore is the set of traditional cultural expressions of a certain people, it is the expression of culture in all its manifestations, it is part of the collective heritage of a community that has been developing spontaneously throughout the centuries and has been transmitted orally from generation to generation, hence folklore is considered a fundamental part of the cultural identity of a people or nation. Folklore is understood as the set of oral, anonymous and authentic expressions, related to the telluric and constitutive source of human solidarity, it was considered the soul of the people and of the nation for which there is social integration and a form of mutual communication. Given this relevance, it is not surprising that folklore has

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become an object of study for different social sciences, which in this way try to have contact with different already extinct or highly mitigated civilizations [5]. Folk Group. According to the study of [6], an autochthonous group is the folkloric group that exclusively interprets the dances or rituals originating from the place where both are natural. He preserves the tradition inherited from his elders and transmits it to his followers according to the classic mechanism of cultural transmission. In the show several dance cycles are usually exhibited, presented with greater or lesser fidelity to the original according to aesthetic criteria. These criteria identify the talent of the groups and, at the same time, the evolution of the conception of the folkloric fact in society [7]. Folk Dance. Dance is not just an artistic performance or a form of exercise; it is an educational tool, a therapy that combines creativity and well-being. In ancient times dance was present in all social events, both in ceremonies of a religious nature and in recreational gatherings, celebrations and celebrations of a secular nature [8]. Dance, like all human activity, and like man itself, is the product of an evolution that is vitally influenced. Dance is a cultural activity, either within a complex and technical framework, or within popular anonymous traditions. That is, dance is a cultural manifestation that will always be in constant dynamism and will coexist with man [9]. 2.2

Cultural Tourism

Tourism. It is important to highlight the contribution of [10], where he mentions that tourism is defined as the activities of people who move to a place other than their usual environment, for less than a certain time and for a different main reason than carrying out an activity that is remunerated in the place visited. Its importance is such that it has an impact in various areas, of continuous efforts, in operations carried out, in future projections and in the implementation of plans, programs and resources, both public and private [11]. According to the contribution of [12], tourism promotion must provide consumers with the knowledge of the attractions and the existing infrastructure, differentiating the destination from the competition, inspiring trust and credibility, as well as influencing the choice of destination and the purchasing process. The strategies aimed at promoting a tourist destination should work to generate a satisfactory experience for the traveler that favors the recommendation. It must stop being simple and open the fan to thus attend to multiple possibilities that the user has to reach a tourist destination [13]. One of the most popular forms of tourist advertising is to refer to the product or service in combination with a slogan, it has to be nice, easy to remember and catchy. To do this, you must first carry out certain psychological analyzes and studies on tourists in order to differentiate what would be attractive to the eye [14]. Culture. According to the study of [15], the concept of culture is undoubtedly complex from the point of view of its formulation and its implications, according to the discipline, context and time from whatever is analyzed.

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Culture is understood as the sum total of what the individual acquires from their society, that is, those beliefs, customs, artistic norms, eating habits and art, which are not the result of their own creative activity, but rather receive as a legacy of the past, through regular or irregular education [16]. Cultural Tourism. Considering the research of [17], cultural tourism refers to the cultural and historical manifestations that are part of the heritage of a town, city or country. These can be religious, customs, music, dances, among others. Each one has characteristics that attract people from all over the world, mobilizing them to get to know them. Cultural tourism is based on the use or conversion of heritage assets (natural or cultural) and cultural productions into tourist attraction resources, not only refers to sites or monuments, but is closely related to the concept of culture [18]. Cultural tourism is conceived as a form of alternative tourism that embodies the commercialization of culture, understanding it as the form of tourism that is consistent with the natural, social and community values that allow tourists and residents to enjoy positively, making it deserve the worth sharing and being part of these experiences. Finally, it can be concluded that folk dance is constituted as a strategy to promote the development of cultural tourism in a community.

3 Methodology The main objective of this work is to identify how folk dances influence to promote cultural tourism in the José Luis Tamayo (Muey) parish, Santa Elena province, research carried out during the year 2019. Thus, for the present investigation, a predominantly quantitative approach was used with a descriptive research scope and a non-experimental cross-sectional type of research. As for the research population, it is made up of the presidents and dancers of legal age of the eight folk groups belonging to the José Luis Tamayo (Muey) parish, for having a formed criterion and corresponding to 320 people, information provided by each one of the presidents of each of the folk dance groups, which are detailed in the following Table 1: Table 1. Folk dance groups No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Folk dance groups Cultural center “Oasis” Cultural partner “Arts” Folk ballet “San Rafael” Cultural projection “Spondylus” Folk “Renacer” Cultural “Traditions of my people” Latin American dance group “Sumpa” Artistic ballet “San Rafael” Total

Amount of people 30 30 70 40 40 30 40 40 320

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For the study sample, the respective statistical formula was applied, obtaining 175 people, considering a margin of error of 5% and a confidence level of 95%. The main instrument of the investigation was a survey, which was applied to the presidents and dancers of the different folk groups; It is made up of 22 direct closed and polytomous questions, which is structured in three different parts: the first with sociodemographic data, a second section with questions related to folk dance groups, and a third section with questions geared towards cultural tourism.

4 Results and Discussion

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Fig. 1. Social processes.

In Fig. 1, the rating of the social processes that occur through folklore in the José Luis Tamayo parish is described. Thus, 57% and 43% of the dancers surveyed rate it as “very good” and “excellent” Respectively. With this they indicate that social processes such as dances transmitted by folk dance groups highlight the cultural identity of its inhabitants and tourists; These presentations are of importance because it causes the people to be motivated to learn more about their culture and the ancestral features that the parish of JLT (Muey) possesses. In the case of Fig. 2, referring to the folk dance groups and their help to strengthen the collective identity of the JLT parish, where it is stated that 100% of the dancers surveyed are “totally in agreement” that the dance groups folkloric dance strengthen the collective identity; being relevant because they help a unique culture to prevail among the residents and especially the youth of the parish. With regard to Fig. 3, about folk dance groups to promote cultural tourism, where 100% of the dancers surveyed are “totally in agreement” that the folk dance groups through their performances interpret and they highlight the customs and historical heritage helping to promote cultural tourism in the José Luis Tamayo parish. Concluding that these artistic presentations are of great importance and become alternatives for the development of the community.

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Fig. 2. Collective identity

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Fig. 3. Folk dance groups.

Finally, in Fig. 4, which refers to the tourist promotion that the folk dance groups of the JLT parish must have for the development of cultural tourism, where it is evident that 57% and 34% of the dancers surveyed are “totally agree “and” agree “that the José Luis Tamayo parish be promoted as a tourist destination through the offer of its folk dance groups as a strategy for the development of cultural tourism; on the other hand, only 9% obtained for maintaining that they did not “agree or disagree” with this issue. Being able to mention that there is little support from government and private entities to be able to advertise and promote the cultural art embodied by the folk dance groups. The present investigation was limited by the limited availability of time by the dancers.

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60%

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Fig. 4. Destination promotion.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations Finally, by way of conclusion, it is important to highlight that cultural tourism has emerged in the last four decades as a social phenomenon, becoming an alternative tourism that tries to consume the culture of a people; By this is meant, the best prospects to occupy free time, linked to the historical heritage of the territories where it is developed and contributing to the development of cities but especially of the towns that are depositories of an important heritage legacy.. In this research, folk dance groups and how they influence the development of cultural tourism in the José Luis Tamayo parish have been reviewed. In this way, it is concluded on the one hand that folk dance groups are very significant social processes that transmit collective identity, customs and values through artistic dances or dances to the entire community with the intention of sharing and maintaining generation in generation that historical legacy that the José Luis Tamayo parish has. On the other hand, the folk dance groups through their artistic interpretations help develop the cultural tourism of the José Luis Tamayo parish and that for that it is essential to promote these folk dance groups to attract and retain tourists of different parts of the world. Finally, it can be concluded that folk dance groups constitute a strategy to enhance the development of cultural tourism. It is recommended that the folk dance groups continue with the dissemination of knowledge and traditions for the entire community and tourists, as well as making arrangements for public and private institutions to provide significant support so that these folk dance groups do not disappear; all this in order that the parish of José Luis Tamayo can become a tourist destination that helps the socioeconomic development of all its inhabitants. In practice, the present study helps other future research to compare its results in terms of folk dance groups and cultural tourism. In addition, the recommendations are expected to improve tourism activity in this type of context.

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References 1. Pardo, C.H.: Panorama mundial del Turismo Cultural, Chile: Patrimonio cultural y Turismo, cuadernos (2013) 2. Navarro, A., Rosalen, T., Calomarde, Y.E.: «Diversidad cultural: La danza folklórica como medio de identidad e integración sociocultural,» Dan, Morella y Maestrazgo, p. 6 (2004) 3. Connor, O.: Festival de danza folklórica para unir a los países, México: El nuevo Herald (2016) 4. Kaliman, R.: «Dos actitudes ilustradas hacia la música popular. Para una historia social de la industria del folklore musical argentino,» Revista Argentina de Musicología, 13–20 (2016) 5. Crespo, C., Ondelj, Y.M.: «Patrimonio y Folklore en la Política Cultural en Argentina,» AVÁ, Revista de Antropología, 3–24 (2014) 6. Chávez, C.: «Los procesos de comunicación y gestión cultural en la promoción y difusión de la danza folklórica en Argentina,» Universidad Argentina de la Empresa, Argentina (2015) 7. Campos, D.: «Conflicto de rol de género en varones del grupo juvenil de danzas “Inkari Perú de Villa el Salvador”, » Universidad Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Perú (2017) 8. Kokkonen, M.: Danza: Artes y emociones que potencian la creatividad, Finlandia: Fundacion Botin (2014) 9. Guardamino, V.: Concepciones de los Docentes del Nivel Primaria acerca de la Enseñanza de la Danza Folklórica en la I.E. No. 2088 República Federal de Alemania, 2017, Programa Académico de Educación Artística: Alemania (2017) 10. López, J.: «Definiciones Turismo - Turista,» Instituto de Estudios Tutísticos, 11–16 (2015) 11. Guerrero, P., Ramos, Y.J.: Introducción al Turismo, México: Primera edición ebook (2014) 12. Palacio, M.: La promoción turística a través de técnicas tradicionales y nuevas, Buenos Aires: Estudios y perspectivas en turismo (2014) 13. Cardona, R., Azpelicueta, Y.J.: «El mito del paraíso perdido en la definición del destino turístico,» Estudios y perspectivas en turismo, 24, 34–44 (2015) 14. Chiquito, E.: «Déficit Turístico Publicitario de la Isla Puná ubicada en el Golfo de Guayaquil,» Universidad De Guayaquil, Guayaquil (2017) 15. Sotelo, F.: «El concepto de cultura y los cambios culturales,» Revista del departamento de Sociología, pp. 5–16 (2015) 16. Bueno, G.: El mito de la Cultura, España: Pentalfa Ediciones (2016) 17. Sánchez, S.: «Análisis de la demanda de visitantes a la red de museos nacionales para el diseño de una ruta turística artística y cultural en Guayaquil,» Universidad de Guayaquil, Guayaquil (2016) 18. Rodríguez, L., Fraiz, J., González, Y.E.: «El turismo cinematográfico como tipología emergente del turismo cultural,» Pasos. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultura, 12(1), 159–171 (2014)

Regional Competitiveness and the Productivity Performance of Gazelles in Cultural Tourism Eleonora Santos1(&) , Inês Lisboa2 , Jacinta Moreira2 and Neuza Ribeiro2

,

1

Polytechnic of Leiria, Centre of Applied Research in Management and Economics, Leiria, Portugal [email protected] 2 Polytechnic of Leiria, Centre of Applied Research in Management and Economics, School of Technology and Management, Leiria, Portugal Abstract. The extant literature reports evidence that the economic performance of regions is driven not by the stagnant majority but by a minority of high-growth firms (HGFs), the so-called gazelles. Regional competitiveness depends on firms’ long-term competitiveness, which depends on labor productivity. Cultural tourism plays a crucial role in national and regional policies because it allows to engage local communities in its activities and provides them a source of income. This paper identifies HGFs operating in cultural tourism in 2014–2018 and analyses their labor productivity across Portuguese regions, relating them with the regional competitiveness. The regional distribution of gazelles in Portugal is uneven, with the Lisbon region concentrating 48%; the Northern region is the location of 26%; while the Centre and Alentejo regions capture 13% of gazelles. Results on Pearson correlations between labor productivity and changes on the Regional Competitiveness Index uncover significant negative links between HGFs average labor productivity and changes in regional competitiveness. However, the results suggest that gazelles have significantly contributed to regional competitiveness through productivity, in 2014–2015. Finally, some suggestions on strategies for promoting cultural tourism are presented. Keywords: Competitiveness
Cultural tourism productivity
Regional policy


High-Growth firms
Labor

1 Introduction Since the 1990s there was a shift of focus away from the competitive advantage of nations to the competitive advantage of regions, due to the recognition that competitive advantage is a local process [1]. Because raising the standards of living is only possible by increasing productivity, regional competitiveness can be defined by the level of regional productivity [2]. In this paper it is assumed that competitiveness is the sum of the performances of all firms in a region and that regional productivity, measured from aggregate regional firm-based micro-data, is an indicator of regional competitiveness [3]. Still, the literature on industrial organization shows that few firms experience very rapid growth or very rapid decline, while most firms do not grow. Thus, it has been suggested that the dynamics of industries is driven not by the stagnant majority, but by © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 114–124, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_11

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a minority of discrepants [4 p.720]. HGFs provide evidence of a region’s competitiveness and dynamism, potentially contributing to economic growth and job creation [5–7]. At same time, Portugal is currently facing a slowdown in productivity growth and, as productivity growth is the main source of differences between countries regarding per capita income, there has been a slower improvement in living standards. In fact, after 1993, labor productivity growth began to decelerate gradually, recording an annual growth rate of 1.2% by 2014 [8]. Tourism is a key instrument for regional development, due to its potential as a source of value creation and through its multiple effects [9]. In addition, tourism activities can affect economic growth and the regional inequalities through its impact on technological change and productivity [10] and its impact on income distribution via tourist expenditures, especially if tourists exhibit preferences for higher quality goods [11, 12]. Moreover, tourism has a drag effect on sectors related to travel and other services and it encourages the use of local resources in touristic areas [13]. In Portugal, tourism has a significant positive impact on regional growth, and in some regions, such as Algarve, Madeira and Azores, it is a key source of employment [14]. Despite its important role worldwide, tourism is not measured as an independent sector in the national accounts, since it involves different sectors, such as transport, accommodation, tour operators, travel agencies, visitor attractions and retailing [15]. Moreover, because there is no available information on prices and quantities, needed to estimate the value added, it is difficult to measure the Total Factor Productivity (TFP) and the contribution of tourism to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). To mitigate this, tourism satellite accounts were developed based on financial data to make comparisons at local, national and international levels. From the economic point of view, cultural tourism is regarded as an important mechanism of poverty alleviation [16–18]. Thus, this paper assumes that firms operating in cultural tourism can play an important role on income generation and on the competitiveness of regions, defined as the ability to offer an attractive and sustainable environment for firms and residents to live and work [19]. If competitiveness is regarded as very closely related to productivity, then higher competitiveness may raise the living standards [20]. In this context, the performance of HGFs operating in cultural tourism is crucial to evaluate their economic impact and to suggest policy measures. The main objective of this paper is to identify HGFs operating in cultural tourism in 2014–2018 and to analyze their labor productivity across Portuguese regions, relating it to the regional competitiveness. Productivity measurement has been acknowledged as being a key indicator for understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the tourism sector. Yet, until recently, the role of productivity in achieving competitiveness has been ignored in the regional competitiveness literature regarding the tourism sector. Using data from the National Tourism Registry, SABI, PORDATA and the European Commission (EC), this paper identifies 23 gazelles out of 4,802 firms operating in cultural tourism. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the rationale for the link between HGFs and regional competitiveness; Sect. 3 describes the data. The territorial distribution of labor productivity in tourism is analyzed and discussed in Sect. 4; and Sect. 5 provides the concluding remarks.

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2 HGFs, Productivity and Regional Competitiveness There are several definitions of HGFs, also known as gazelles [21–23], although the OECD definition is becoming more widely adopted even if it is often challenged. Therefore, HGF is “a firm with annualized average growth (in number of employees or turnover) of over 20% per year over a three-year period with a minimum of 10 employees at the beginning of the growth period” [24 p.61]. In the academic and policy grounds, there has been a significant interest in the characteristics of HGFs, since the seminal work of Birch [25]. Accordingly, policymakers all over the world aim to contribute for an environment prone to effectively sustain and foster the development of HGFs that generate a large amount of jobs [26]. Despite cross-country differences, there are some stylized facts regarding HGFs [27]: 1) a small share of firms become HGFs; 2) HGFs cover all sectors, regardless of overall industry performance [28]; 3) HGFs are mostly young firms; 4) there is a low persistence of HGFs [7]; 5) small HGFs tend to grow organically, while large HGFs grow through mergers and acquisitions; 6) HGFs are more intensive in R&D [29]; 7) HGFs usually export more than other firms [30]; 8) HGFs show greater internationalization and integration into global value chains [30, 31]; 9) HGFs are better endowed regarding human capital than their rivals [32]. There is limited discussion of the link between HGFs and productivity. One of few exceptions is a study [5] with US data for 1998–2002. It compares statistical means between high- and low-impact firms, and finds that, in general, HGFs have higher labor productivity than low-impact firms. Other study [33] uses data for 12 OECD countries, for 2002–2005, to test the relationship between TFP growth and the dynamics of the growth distribution. Results show that the share of growing and shrinking firms is associated with faster productivity growth. In particular, the greater the share of firms that remain static, the lower the productivity growth observed. Thus, the author suggests that a reason for Europe’s lower productivity is having a larger share of static firms. Other study [34] examine UK firms. Using static and dynamic decomposition estimates of labor productivity growth changes, over the period 1998–2007, they show that HGFs experience large productivity growth, but their contribution to the aggregate productivity is limited. One more study [22] investigates whether HGFs, defined in different ways, are equally important to the growth in different economic output variables, namely productivity. Using correlations according to another study [35] and data for Sweden, in 1997–2010, it finds that HGFs contribute largely to TFP growth. Another study [32] investigates the empirical link between TFP growth and HGFs. It focuses on the UK for the 2001–2010 period. Quantile regression analysis shows that HGFs tend to enjoy faster TFP growth. Other study [36] evaluates if HGFs contribute to output and productivity growth. The authors perform decompositions of industry level productivity growth for US firms, in 1976–2013. Results indicate that HGFs contribute greatly to output and productivity growth. Another study [37] analyzes the productivity contribution of Finnish firms in the business sector and assess the role of the dependency status. The authors decompose the productivity growth using the methodology of another study [38], for 2002–2014. They find that dependent firms provide a larger contribution to aggregate productivity growth, compared to the independent ones, regardless of the industry, size and age. An additional study [39]

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investigates the interactions between high growth episodes in terms of size and productivity in Spain, for 2002–2012. The results, using fixed effects, indicate that firm size increases the likelihood of high growth in productivity. Yet, the effect from size to productivity is smaller than the effect from productivity to size. One more study [40] compare the performance of Scottish HGFs with other UK regions, regarding highgrowth performance, for 2013–2016. The statistics show that HGFs in Scotland contribute less to productivity growth than those in other parts of the UK. A last study [41] analyses the HGFs in Ethiopia, in 1996–2009. Using the methodology of [42] to estimate plant-level TFP, the author concludes that past high-growth experience is significant and positively associated with subsequent growth in firms’ productivity. Different tourism activities have different spatial impacts and their magnitude is different across regions and over time [43]. Thus, the need to establish the regional context in which HGFs emerge is crucial to explain differences in growth across regions and to design measures of regional competitiveness. Accordingly, regions are emerging as key loci regarding economic policy deliberation and action [44]. In turn, regional competitiveness can be defined as a region’s ability to attract and retain firms and, simultaneously, promote a higher standard of living for the population [45]. Figure 1 shows the notion of competitiveness founded on the pyramidal model [3, 46], which organizes the factors affecting labor productivity, employment and welfare. The model identifies the interconnected factors that drive regional competitiveness [47].

Fig. 1. The renewed pyramidal model of regional competitiveness (Source: Adapted from [48])

According to Fig. 1, regional competitiveness is based on four pillars, where the quality of life of the population is the final objective, resulting from the improvement of the following components: (i) basic competitiveness, which results from the labor productivity, employment ratio, regional performance and gross regional product; (ii) competitiveness factors, namely research and technological development, human capital, productive capital and FDI, traded sectors and clusters and social capital and

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institutions; and (iii) determinants of success, including resources with long-term effects such as economic or social structure, infrastructure or skills of work force among others.

3 Data Data sources come from the National Tourism Registry, SABI, PORDATA and the EC. The initial research of cultural tourism firms in National Tourism Registry (RNAAT) delivered 6,485 touristic agents. There was a need to collect financial data from the SABI database financial reports. However, since SABI does not provide financial reports of entrepreneurs, 1,683 tourism agents were withdrawn. As a result, 4,802 firm reports were obtained. Applying the OECD definition of gazelles, 23 firms were identified as HGFs. Table 1 shows the spatial distribution of sample firms. Nearly 50% of gazelles are located in Lisbon area, followed by the Northern region that concentrates 26% of gazelles. Table 1. Sample of firms by NUTS II region Region # firms North 6 Centre 3 Lisbon 11 Alentejo 3 Total 23

Based on the methodology developed by the World Economic Forum, the European Union measures the competitiveness of regions using the Regional Competitiveness Index (RCI) [49]. RCI clusters a large set of variables into 11 pillars of growth drivers that describe both inputs and outputs of territorial competitiveness [50]. The pillars are grouped into three sub-indices, which are basic (five pillars), efficiency (three pillars), and innovative (three pillars) factors of competitiveness [51]. The basic pillars in RCI include Quality of Institutions, Macroeconomic Stability, Infrastructure, Health and the Quality of Primary and Secondary Education. The efficiency pillars include Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, Labor Market Efficiency and Market Size. The innovation pillars include Technological Readiness, Business Sophistication, and Innovation. RCI values are published at three-year intervals (2010, 2013, 2016). Linked to Fig. 1, the RCI considers the level of development of the region by emphasizing the innovative capacity in more developed regions and basic issues in less developed ones. One the other hand, because productivity depends on the innovative capacity, a region scoring high in high technology and innovation is expected to be more competitive. Given that the real GDP does not exceed the average of 2,4%, EU needs a different competitive pattern via the adaptation to the technological innovation and cost reduction of the main competitors, which are growing and developing according to a regional scope. Thus, an efficient EU policy towards growth is regional and local.

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4 Results and Discussion To understand the dimension of tourism in Portugal, and the differences among regions, the following graphs show the evolution of changes in turnover, labor, labor productivity and regional competitiveness, over 2014 till 2018. To this aim, labor productivity is the ratio between turnover and the number of employees at firm level.

Changes in Turnover

250 North

200 150

Centre

100 Lisbon 50 Alentejo

0 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 2. Changes in Turnover across NUTs II regions

Analyzing Fig. 2 the following facts emerge: 1) turnover increased in the Northern region and Alentejo until 2017–2018, respectively, showing the relevance of gazelles in cultural tourism in these regions; while in the Centre and Lisbon regions it decreased from 2014–2015 onwards, respectively; 2) in 2018, Alentejo register an annual growth of 149% with only three firms.

Changes in Labor

450 North

350 250

Centre

150

Lisbon

50 Alentejo -50 2014

2015

2016

2017

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Fig. 3. Changes in Labor across NUTs II regions

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Changes on average Labor Productivity

Figure 3 shows that, after an increase in 2014–2015, labor decreased in Lisbon and decreased in the Centre in 2014–2015, increasing after that period. Labor increased in Alentejo in 2014 and 2018; and in the Northern region in 2016–2017.

400 300 200 100 0 2014 North

2016 Centre

Lisbon

2018 Alentejo

Fig. 4. Changes on average Labor Productivity across NUTs II regions

Changes in Regional competitiveness

Regarding changes on average labor productivity (Fig. 4), Alentejo has the highest labor productivity, with only three firms, comparing with the other regions. Lisbon, which has almost 50% of the total of the Portuguese gazelles exhibit a similar change on average labor productivity over the periods. This fact suggests that the concentration of more firms does not contribute to an increase in productivity, maybe because firms are more static, in line with other study [33]. The Centre region is the region with the lowest increases on labor productivity. However, it has only 3 gazelles.

0.15 0.05 -0.05 -0.15 2014 North

2016 Centre

Lisbon

2018 Alentejo

Fig. 5. Changes in in Regional competitiveness across NUTs II regions

Finally, Fig. 5 shows the changes in the regional competitiveness over the years, where large regional asymmetries are evident. Alentejo appears to be countercyclical when compared to other regions, since the highest change in regional competitiveness was achieved in 2014, while in the remaining regions it was in 2018. In 2016, all regions exhibit negative changes in regional competitiveness. Because innovation impacts on regional performance [48], a possible explanation is the decrease in investment in R&D activities in 2009–2017, according to data from PORDATA. In

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addition, expenditure on health infrastructure (another indicator of competitiveness) presented in 2016 the lowest value since 1995, according to PORDATA. This fact also explains the decrease of regional competitiveness of all regions in 2016. It should also be noted that in 2018, the Northern and Lisbon regions were those that showed the highest rates of regional competitiveness, which is in line with the remarks of the EC, that the capitals and metropolitan areas are the main drivers of competitiveness of the countries. Moreover, these two regions also have more infrastructures, economic structure and workforce with more skills which can explain these findings. Comparing the regional competitiveness with labor productivity a negative relationship is suggested, especially in the year of 2018 and for Alentejo (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). This is an evidence that regional competitiveness is not always achieved with increases in labor productivity. Regional competitiveness and labor productivity depend on economic structure and regional accessibility and infrastructure [48]. In Portugal, Alentejo is the region that possess less infrastructures, compared with remaining regions. The results of Pearson correlation between labor productivity and changes on the RCI uncover a negative (−0.2056; p < 0.05) link between the average labor productivity and changes in regional competitiveness. Yet, the analysis disaggregated by year shows that gazelles’ labor productivity is significantly and positively (0.1680 and 0.3180, p < 0.05) related to changes in regional competitiveness, in 2014– 2015. This suggests that productivity in tourism firms that exhibit higher growth rates of turnover impacts positively on regional competitiveness in some years.

5 Conclusions and Policy Implications Promoting regional competitiveness and reducing regional asymmetries is a key feature of policy debate. The competitiveness of tourism sector encompasses quantitative factors such as productivity levels; and qualitative factors affecting the attractiveness of a destination. Thus, productivity measurement has been acknowledged as critically important to analyze the performance of the tourism sector. Yet, the link between productivity and regional competitiveness has been missing in the previous literature on tourism. This can be explained in part with different challenges that the sector faces regarding productivity. This paper attempts to fill this gap by linking the productivity of the HGFs operating in cultural tourism, in 2014–2018, with the regional competitiveness. Results show that annual increases in labor productivity and regional competitiveness are not related with the number of firms, since Alentejo shows high increases in productivity and regional competitiveness in 2018, with only 3 gazelles. Moreover, labor productivity is negatively related with regional competitiveness in the last years, suggesting that other variables (e.g., macroeconomic) can have impact on regional competitiveness. Yet, that relationship was the inverse in 2014–2015, which can be explained with the recovery of the Portuguese economy from the international financial crisis of 2007/2008. Thus, in line with the pyramidal model (Fig. 1), the results for the period 2014–2015 suggest that gazelles’ productivity can contribute to regional competitiveness. This outcome is also according to the new European enterprise policy that aims to promote firms’ competitiveness in order to promote investment, innovation, human capital, internationalization and productivity growth. At same time, the

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awareness by national and local authorities of the potential of cultural tourism as a strategic factor of regional development and job generator has increased. Hence, the EC supports actions towards raising the potential of cultural tourism as a means of increasing its positive effects on regional development [52]. Still, cultural tourism is characterized by often-unpredictable trends due to its symbolic values and beliefs that are passed on by generations. The interest in the experimental and the exceptional on the part of tourists shapes the extreme selectivity’ used in choosing tourist destinations. Thus, the traditional cultural attractions that possess several possible itineraries have a substantial advantage over any new proposals and strategies for promoting cultural tourism assuming that tourists will embrace any new cultural itinerary must be discarded. Therefore, tourist sites away from principal routes or those stripped of the classic tourist attractions (e.g., beaches and monuments) can achieve economic development by promoting a tourism niche focused on the restoration and preservation of their patrimony and heritage. Hence, these places should invest on marketing campaigns and adapt or redesign specific products to appeal tourists with cultural interests towards new destinations. Future avenues of research include the analysis of total factor productivity of the HGFs and its impact on regional development in order to gain further insights on other factors that contribute to regional competitiveness, namely the role of innovation and new technologies.

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The Basic Social Process of “Re-functionalising” and Its Implications for Housing Tourism: A Niche Tourism Perspective José Luís Braga1

and Bruno Sousa2(&)

IPT – Polytechnic Institute of Tomar, Tomar, Portugal [email protected] IPCA – Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, CiTUR and UNIAG, Barcelos, Portugal [email protected] 1

2

Abstract. Tourism has been regarded by Portuguese governmental authorities as a device of economic diversification of rural areas, thus contributing to the revitalization of the most depressed regions of the country. For the authorities, this industry can have a virtuous effect since it generates synergies between the several local agents and sectors, it streamlines the local resources and it has multiplying effects in the economy and the employment generated. The empirical material of the present chapter derives from the application of Grounded Theory (GT), based on the collection and analysis of data resulting from 53 interviews conducted to hosts of Housing Tourism (HT). The theory generated by GT, contemplates a core category denominated as ‘refunctionalising’, which constitutes a variable that aims to solve the main concern of property owners, which is the conservation of manor houses – associated to HT – belonging to their families. For that, unless they possess their own substantial funds, the economic sustainability of the house demands a social function grant. The variable ‘re-functionalising’ is also a basic social process. The basic social processes are conceptually developed to explain the organization of social behaviour, as it progresses over time. The basic social process of ‘re-functionalising’ considered here is composed of two stages, called ‘improvising’ and ‘professionalizing’. Keywords: Housing tourism


Niche tourism
Re-functionalising
Hosts

1 Introduction Today’s society is undergoing a period of great and rapid changes taking place around the world, which means that the economy develops based on strategic pillars such as innovation and creativity, particularly in terms of employment, with new methods and relations of employment job [1]. Tourism in Portugal is one of the economic activities that generates more jobs and income. In fact, according to the annual report of the World Travel & Tourism Council [2], the contribution of the tourism sector for the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 125–141, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_12

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Portuguese GDP in 2018 was 19.1%, which resulted in a growth of over 8.1% compared to the previous year. Regarding the employment, tourism industry accounted for 21.8% of total employment and 23.1% of total Portuguese exports in the same year. In the context of the rural crisis, tourism has been regarded by the public authorities and rural community councils as a privileged way of revitalising that area and as a notinsignificant source of revenue [3]. Actually, the rural world has undergone numerous changes in recent years that have led to the decline of agriculture as an anchor for these areas [4]. On the other hand, rural areas have witnessed marked desertification to which is associated fast population ageing and rural drift of young people to urban centres [5]. This demographic scarcity has brought about the need to revitalise the countryside. In this sense, rural areas have been converted into “multifunctional” (and sometimes “commodity”) areas in an attempt to meet the leisure needs of urban population [6, 7]. Nevertheless, the contempt for the production potential of rural areas, the commodification of rural spaces by the State and visitors, the emergence of numerous antagonisms among locals and visitors “may place rural populations in a situation of relative inferiority face to outside interests perpetrated by the State and by visitors.” [8] (p. 65). However, when developed in a sustainable way, tourism has long-term benefits [9]. In fact, this business involves a system of economic activities related to the provision of accommodation, food and beverages, transportation, entertainment and other tourist services that have a multiplier effect on economy [10]. In order to provide refined, humanised hospitality and diversified tourist offer in the Portuguese countryside, the “Manor Tourism” program has been launched in 1977 [11, 12]. Although the present impact of tourism in rural areas is not consensual, this business activity has since its inception benefited from various supports in the different hospitality categories: Housing Tourism, Rural Tourism, Rural Hotels, Village Tourism, Country Houses and rural camp sites [13]. In Portugal, Housing Tourism (HT) as a hospitality category was implemented in 1978 as a pilot project in four locations: Ponte de Lima, Vouzela, Castelo de Vide and Vila Viçosa. Its creation was intended to combat regional inequalities within the country and offer differentiated hotel facilities in areas deprived of them. The Housing Tourism program was launched in 1982 through Ministerial Decision No.102/82 [14] (p. 50). According to the Portuguese legislation in force HT “includes family-run establishments installed in old private buildings which, due to their architectural, historic or artistic value, are representative of a specific era, namely palaces and manors, and that can be located in rural or urban areas.” In fact, the HT has contributed to the restoration of many heritage buildings, gaining the recognition and respect of local populations, contributing to the “return to roots” of many families formerly settled in rural areas and to the emergence of new types of tourism in rural areas. Moreover, along with the Rural Tourism (RT), the HT definitely contributed to the diversification of the tourist offer, the reduction of seasonality, the cooperation between local actors, the activation of tourist animation projects and the offer of tourism related services as well as to raise awareness of organizations and institutions to their impacts at social, economic, landscape and environmental levels [15, 16].

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The HT was from its beginnings a quality [7], differentiated and not massified product which is not governed by price. Currently, the factors that consumers rate as most important are the location and the features of the accommodation [17]. Accordingly, as it became clear in the Fifth National Meeting on Housing Tourism held in 2013, the buildings used for HT must be certified. Similarly, there is an increasing need to work as a network as it is highly valued by tourism authorities. This paper aims to determine the main effects of HT in the houses’ surroundings used for that purpose since the eighties. Data were collected through (face-to-face) interviews and participant observation and analysed through the Grounded Theory (GT) methods to generate a theory [17] with a central variable that we called “refunctionalising” and that is embodied in a basic social process [18, 19] composed by two stages that we called “improvising” and “professionalising”. These stages will be examined in detail herein in an attempt to describe their distinguishing features and the consequences of this process for the practice of HT.

2 Housing Tourism: Niche Perspective and Impacts The study of consumer behavior has gained particular interest in recent years in multiple contexts, notably with the development of the digital age [20]. Tourism is a good example from this. According to [21] niche tourism has emerged in recent decades and is strongly associated with niche marketing theory. Focused marketing and micromarketing are other terms used as synonyms for niche marketing. Although they have similar characteristics, they differ to some extent [22]. Therefore, one should not look at the market in a simplistic and homogeneous way, since it represents a group of individuals with specific characteristics and needs [23, 24] as rural tourism, in specific the case of housing tourism. Considering RT and HT from a statistical point of view, in 2017 these two types of accommodation accounted for 795,000 visitors, 1.7 million overnight stays and 94.7 million euros in total revenue. With regard to overnight stays and revenues, there was an increase of 17% and 27.8%, respectively. A substantial part of the RT and HT units (82.3%) in operation belonged to the NUTS II level regions (North, Centre and Alentejo). In total, HT and RT have provided a supply of 23,200 beds. Tourist destinations that have attracted more overnight stays were the North (30.2%), Alentejo (24.8%) and the Centre (22%), thus representing 77% of overnight stays. Although Portuguese residents have been the majority (60%), foreign visitors that sought more for this type of accommodation were the Germans, French, Spanish, Dutch and British [25]. Trends over time indicate that RT and HT have witnessed an exponential increase since 1984 with 31.900 overnight stays up to the record number of 1.780.000 in 2018. Likewise, the number of overnight stays in HT and RT units have increased by 890 in 1990 (year of implementation) until they reached 10.746 in 2018. In the specific case of HT, the number of HT units has witnessed a variable increase from 107 in 1989 to 226 in 2018 (HT and RT taken together totalled 1469 hospitality units this year). In this type of unit, the increment has been less spectacular, only reaching 250 units in 2009 (see Fig. 1).

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The number of beds available in HT units have also evolved since 1990 (920 beds) until reaching 3,579 in 2018. Here too, the peak occurred in 2016 with 3,747 beds. With regard to personnel employed in RT and HT units, its amount was 1,892 in 2013 (the total number of individuals in Portuguese hospitality units in the same year amounted to 48,054), and five years later, in 2018, that number climbed to 3,879 (with the whole of the Portuguese hospitality units totalling 73,069 individuals). Since the source to which we had access [26], HT and RT data are aggregated into various categories, total revenues from the two hospitality sectors together were 37,062 euros in 2013. This figure almost triples in 2018 to reach the amount of 103,897 euros. Regarding the average yield per HT and RT room, in 2013 this value amounted to 14,5 euros having reached on average 24,8 euros in 2018.

Fig. 1. Housing Tourism units. Source: [26]

These data emphasize the role that RT and HT have as drivers of rural development, despite the poorly paid seasonal jobs that they generate and initial cost of implementation. In fact, as claimed by [27], tourism can be economically viable when tourism projects are launched locally and when tourists are considered not only as strangers to the community, but also as people who use (or do not use) local resources. However, according to [28], the historical average occupancy of RT tends to be reduced, not exceeding 15% a year. On the other hand, the sector suffers from invisibility among tourist markets due to the neglect from competent authorities.

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While a small-scale niche tourism, HT must be programmed and developed to counteract negative effects on the ecosystem, local economy and goods transactions, seeking to prevent the effects it has on land and property speculation. [29] on the alleged negative impacts of HT: Heritage is thus integrated into a system of exchange of goods, services and experiences, not only for tourists but also for host communities. This process of giving, exchanging and receiving is very complex and may involve risks and losses, for example, the creation of traditional handicrafts for sale as souvenirs or festivals as well as nature that can be captured or transformed taking into account local interests in terms of tourist production and consumption. In terms of tourist programming and conceptualization in local contexts, we think that a critical and friendly look at the environment and heritage is needed if we are to value space contexts, memories and forms. Avoiding wanton destruction and vandalism justified by the technicity of hyper-rationalist knowledge at the service of ephemeral fashions and wild markets. Avoiding remote buildings built from scratch with sizes that alter the character of the place and create huge aesthetic, formal and environmental conflicts [29] (p. 1203).

In turn, [4] refers to some of the potential of this alternative type of tourism and rural contexts and niche marketing or tourism perspective [30]. HT can help to create a new tourism and leisure activities either occasional, part-time and complementary considering the occupation and income of families who are dedicated to HT. According to [4], this business activity - although little profuse, barely profitable and dispersed seems to contribute to protecting local elites and their heritage buildings of high architectural and historical significance. It also helps preserve traditional handicrafts, the incorporation of rural areas into spaces that are richer physically, economically, socially and culturally (literate, cultured, demanding, attentive and inclusive customers) and local development. Moreover, HT is seen as a diversification factor of national tourism and promotion of local economy, which leads to the attraction of entrepreneurs to these areas. However, rural tourism has proved disappointing relatively to the expectations of farmers and the little impact on rural areas, except perhaps for viticulture. According to [31], rural employment has hardly benefited from tourism. In addition, the business has been accused of being elitist and of spending public funds inappropriately - particularly, financial non-repayable support they received to preserve their properties and start HT businesses. [14], in turn, confirms the scarce relevance of the number of jobs directly generated in the country by the sector. Much of the RT units employ only one or two permanent workers, and some do not hire any permanent workers. This is also the case with seasonal and part-time workers. As regards the latter, it is observed that most establishments hire only one worker. Furthermore, a significant portion of HT staff tend to be multi-tasking, being primarily assigned to the family household and secondarily to tourist business. The vast majority of staff are female, undertaking to perform gardening chores, cleaning and maintaining rooms, serving breakfasts and responding to customer queries by telephone, among other duties. In addition, several units are operated by the owner and some of his/her relatives free of charge.

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HT also contributes to the preservation of traditional gastronomy as hospitality units offering catering services are required by law to include national and local dishes in their menu. Therefore, the advantages of this sector are rather symbolic than economic. In fact, “HT helps maintaining the habitability of the countryside that fascinates national and foreign urban middle classes and at the same time constitutes a foundation for national identity” [32] (p. 42). The economic impact of the business is very weak. Rural tourism authorities think the sector helps promoting the region/country, fosters trade and services and generates employment. The aspect of social relations materialized in connections between guests and hosts - is also valued by them [33]. For HT promoters, the sector is the driver for the preservation and establishment of certain traditions (e.g. pig slaughter). Other less positive points of HT are the creation of a protected area and the resulting ban on the construction and refurbishment of buildings, increased noise, debris, high prices (especially housing) and jealousy towards foreigners. By contrast, as argued by [14], the presence of tourists can raise the self-esteem of local population. However, the impact of the activity is not greater because there is little integration of HT with other tourist products, resources and services. As seen above, HT also allows “a pluri-activity regime” (p. 166) which generates additional revenues, e.g. for agriculture or the state reform. However, HT and man-made countryside landscape where it belongs, are symbols of national identity and elements of the bucolic imagery that permeates a large proportion of urban middle class. In fact, the beneficial effects of HT are more noticeable in places where HT is better integrated with the surroundings [17].

3 Methodology The basic social process of re-functionalising described herein results from the application of Grounded Theory (GT) methods. This research tool guides the researcher in the procedures for the collection of data and sets strict principles for its analysis. GT enables us to investigate and conceptualise latent social patterns and structures of the substantive area under study (HT) through a constant process of comparison [18]. At first, we used an inductive process that allowed the generation of codes from our data, later our evolving theory suggested where we would go to collect the data and what (more focused) questions we would ask. This is the deductive phase of the GT process [34, 35]. The GT approach has proved fundamental to deepen our knowledge of the substantive area of HT and understand the core motivations of the owners of these manor houses. In fact, this methodology has a non-negligible advantage: it is not limited to a unit of analysis although the resulting categories are generalisable [18]. Thus, this research strategy allows to examine HT from the point of view of its stakeholders. Understanding of what happens in that substantive area means understanding the main concern of owners - which is constantly processed by them. The GT is not based on findings, but rather on an integrated set of conceptual assumptions. It consists on probabilistic assertions about the relationship between concepts. In a Grounded Theory of HT [17], the integrated set of assumptions explained a significant part of the behaviour observed in manor houses. The assumptions seem plausible.

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This approach to research can supplant and outweigh the situation and prejudice to get to the underlying processes occurring in HT - so that both professionals and laymen can intervene with confidence in order to address the main concerns of the stakeholders. The main methodological steps of the GT are as follows [34, 35]: a) Identification of the substantive area. Our choice fell on HT buildings. The research focused on the perspective of a group of people who are HT hosts or owners. In this case, our substantive population included more than half a hundred individuals. Respondents were associated with HT buildings scattered across 13 districts of the Portuguese territory. b) Data collection concerning the substantive area. Grounded Theory can use qualitative or quantitative data or both. This research included five participant observation sessions and 53 interviews in the form of informal (face-to-face) talks and, in smaller numbers, inquiries sent by email and phone to HT hosts and owners. c) Open coding starts at the time of the first data collection. Open coding and data collection activities are integrated, so the data collection phase and the open coding phase occur simultaneously and continue until the core category/variable is recognised and selected. By open coding is meant line-by-line coding. At last, the core category and the main concern of the participants starts to take shape. The core category explains the behaviour in the substantive area. That is, it explains how the main concern is addressed and processed. d) Memo-writing throughout the process. Theory development is captured by memos. It is the writing of ideas, presumptive associations and theoretical reflections related to each of the emerging categories. e) Selective coding and theoretical sampling, when determining the main concern and the core category, open coding stops and selective coding is initiated (coding only aimed to the core category and categories relating thereto). Additional sampling is now guided by the evolving theory (whom shall I enquire to learn more about these issues and saturate related categories?) When saturation is achieved, it means that the new data that are collected do not add new information to the theory. f) Memo classification and theoretical coding: consists in the best organisation of substantive codes we get when we feel the theory was well established. g) Literature review: we have integrated the literature with our theory through selective coding. h) Theory writing, the writing phase included the organisation and writing of stacks of memoranda [17].

4 Discussion 4.1

The Basic Social Process of “Re-functionalising”

This theory has as its core category the concept of “re-functionalising”. This variable seeks to address the main concern of the stakeholders: keep the property within the family. To that end, unless the owners are provided with large capital, the economic

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sustainability of the building requires that it be assigned a social role. The core category is shaped by a basic social process composed of two phases that we called “improvising” and “professionalising”. This paper will include interview excerpts (i.e. incidents) that will serve to illustrate the meaning of categories, its properties and interactions. [36] (p. 113) argues that “as illustrations for grounded theory, field notes in the researchers own words are enough for illustrating generated hypotheses and the concepts within them”. HT houses have been used for many different purposes across time, and therefore re-functionalising to implement the Hospitality Exploration Modality (HEM) results in areas of the house that were intended for agricultural purposes to be renovated to fit lodging purposes. In this regard, re-functionalising may be partial or total. An example of complete re-functionalising is the one that is carried out in outbuildings to increase the functionality of the house as the interior of these spaces can be fully renovated. All past generations had to create an Economic Model of the House (EMH). The EMH is what confers sense and temporal continuity to the house. You can renovate the house to create several explorations modalities within EMH: hospitality, events, tourism training, etc. Nevertheless, re-functionalising may be less radical with only the conversion of family homes into hosting units and tourist enjoyment. In parallel, re-functionalising to implement the HEM also allows to speed up the renovation of the building and increase its functionality. Conversion may also interfere more or less with the identity of the house and the challenge is to confer functionality while preserving its original genuineness. Contemporary outsourced economy dictated the restructuring of the agricultural use of the house, which today proves to be little sustainable. The HEM scheme was the solution adopted. Re-functionalising aims not necessarily the highest possible profit, but more certainty in the temporal continuity of the house, through a more efficient and faster renovation. When the owner has its own capital, the situation is far less urgent. In these cases, re-functionalising may not be required. Conversion to implement the HEM scheme will create specific infrastructures for the new use of the house’s lodging which would not make sense in a house reserved only for residential use. This re-functionalising may introduce a greater space segregation or a closer proximity between guest and host (e.g. floor division). On the other hand, the identity of the house is an obstacle to the refunctionalising. Its original use also represents an obstacle to the total formalisation of HEM and hinders its competition with mass hospitality units. In this sense, the main house places more constraints on restructuring than outbuildings. In fact, in the main house, increased functionality means decreased authenticity. In fact, these limits on re-functionalising derive from the initial use of the house having been other than hospitality, but also its obsolescence that entails an increased burden with economic sustainability and a consequent increase in prices. The shortcomings in re-functionalising make unfeasible certain infrastructures typical of massive hospitality units built from scratch, as these conflict with the house’s authenticity. Moreover, reduced lodging capacity of these houses, make it impossible to offer some amenities typical of the mass hospitality sector (e.g. gyms). Obstacles to re-functionalising may also restrict the selection of the most sustainable HEM that derives from the conjugation of the HEM with other economic

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sustainability factors. Moreover, these shortcomings make hosting more informal (e.g. no 24-h reception) and also that in low-peak times HEM becomes unfeasible and therefore will lead the owner to close the unit from time to time, in order to ensure the economic sustainability of the business. In addition, re-functionalising to formalise is gradual and continuous as it is never complete - attempting to make the house as functional as possible to implement the HEM. These are houses renovations with the aim of improving the aesthetics, comfort and safety, thus improving the HEM. In the case where the HEM’s economic sustainability is high, this will lead to faster the renovation’s pace, and consequently will intensify the re-functionalising cycle to formalise, what will have positive implication in the host’s assessment. This, in turn, will again increase the economic sustainability [17]. Thus, re-functionalising will meet the needs for the hosting formalisation demanded by the hosts, by the partners within whom the house networks or by the political stakeholders. The big issue about tourism is that it is a cycle: revenues fell, people receive less money, refurbish less often and resent themselves with the customer satisfaction rates. [Interview no. 46]

This restructuring may also be directed to spatial division, so as to provide greater privacy and autonomy to guests (and host family). The contracted work will lead to the creation of spaces for family life, for the HEM and rooms specifically for events. The higher the hosting capacity of the house and its functionality, the greater the possibility of division of these spaces, giving privacy to the various HEM players. Re-functionalising may start in the main body of the building and then extend to outbuildings or vice versa. Increasing the hosting capacity, HEM will change to a hybrid model, where two re-functionalization styles can subsist in only one house: one is developed in the outbuildings, which force a large autonomy, reduced personalization and a smaller proximity, and the other is exercised in the main house, where the autonomy of guests is lower, the personalization is greater as well as the physical proximity to the host family. Likewise, re-functionalization to increase hosting capacity can be facilitated by the financing of the political structure. This can be undertaken through the deep remodelling of the outbuildings, but also through the construction of new structures specifically dedicated to HEM. In order to proceed with HEM, the host will also have to re-functionalize to comply with the legal framework [33]. To obtain funding from the political structure, the host may have to elaborate a sustainability project. For illustrative purposes, the legal framework may oblige the host to provide the HEM with an additional bathroom. On the other hand, re-functionalization is subject to the legal framework, so that sometimes the accordingly solutions adopted, can be detrimental to economic sustainability and be less well adapted to the functionality of the HEM. On the other hand, when the house passes from a period, in which continuity is uncertain, to another in which, for example, there is a collateralization of its transmission, the host may re-functionalize to give authenticity to the house, since the uncertainty of transmission may have led to a slow down recovery pace or that the shares have ruined the identity of the house. For this, the purchase of household items will seek to increase the authenticity of the house [17].

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The First Stage: “Improvising”

In the first re-functionalization phase, the legal framework, with which the political structure conditions the HEM, is less demanding. In fact, the HEM is still in the experimental stage. On the other hand, the financing of the political structure for the recovery of the house seems to be easier, since there are fewer similar houses. Consequently, the public utility of the house is greater. The demands were not […] as important as they are today. The internet did not exist, nor did we have television down here. The activity developed itself with what we had at home. We did not resort to anything that was not in the house. At the time, TURIHAB was also in its beginnings. Things were working well in the early years. For the guest, the experience went well - proportionally, it was more expensive than it is now. Considering that [double rooms] are currently € 110, [price kept] for four years, it was cheaper 15 years ago than it is now. Currently, we offer more conditions at a lower cost. [Interview no. 1]

In this first phase, the owners have less autonomy. On the contrary, in the professionalization phase, the recovery of the outbuildings will allow the host family to increase its autonomy. However, while improvising, the owner will start the HEM in a part of the house, be it an outbuilding or main building, which may increase the hosting capacity. This is the stage in which the initiating host implements HEM. During improvisation, the host will offer basic accommodation, personalizing a lot and informalizing to a large extent. In fact, the scarcity of competition means that there are fewer requirements for formalization from the guest. Competition with similar units will be less intense, so the economic sustainability of HEM will tend to be greater. However, as with any economic activity, at the beginning the HEM will not be immediately sustainable. In the improvisation phase, the initiating host may be someone who is dedicated to implement the HEM, revealing linguistic competence and interpersonal skills, as well as hosting enhancement. However, when the inflection point occurs - and with it the need for the HEM to move to the professionalization phase - it may happen that the same host is no longer dedicated. On the other hand, the management capacity that allowed the host to implement the HEM and obtain financing from the political structure for the recovery of the house, may no longer be sufficient to professionalize it. At this stage, the political structure favours the exclusivity and authenticity of the house and less the formalization of the HEM. At both times, the houses can choose to work in a network, which will allow them to know the legal framework better. During this period, the approach between guests and host will be greater, requiring that close contact, a substantial dedication from the host. In the transition to professionalization phase, there will be a greater tendency towards segregation, with implicit (or explicit) internal physical barriers to guests’ free pass. Improvising, the enhancement of the hosting provided by the host seems to be a key factor. The exclusivity and authenticity of the house seem to be more privileged factors for the guests than its own functionality. However, the articulation with the surroundings is inferior to what happens in the professionalization stage. Less dynamism will be required from the initiating host, since the low competition with similar units and massive hosting units makes the proposal for a differentiated lodging unnecessary.

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At this stage, dynamism and creativity, although necessary, are less fundamental than in the professionalization phase. In addition, it is less crucial to create a reputation, since competition between hosting units is less, so the technological competence of the host is less necessary, and also less precise, as the legal framework of the political structure is not so rigid yet. Nevertheless, the host will try to obtain free visibility so that he/she can get positive reviews from the guest. However, other forms of visibility are still unnecessary. The host can remain permanently in an improvisation phase, because he/she does not want or cannot dedicate himself/herself more to HEM. Staying at this stage allows him/her to make prices more flexible in the sense of a decrease, because the economic sustainability of the HEM, in these cases, is not threatened by the costs of refunctionalizing to formalize. 4.3

Second Stage: “Professionalizing”

At this point it is possible that there is a tension between the functionality of the house and its authenticity. In this way, the host can choose a modern style of refunctionalization, reducing the authenticity of the house and increasing its functionality. Professionalization can occur by increasing competitiveness, changing from an initiating to a continuing host, negative evaluations by the guests, requirements of the legal framework or partners who network with the house. Indeed, the host can start the HEM right at a professionalization stage, knowing, for that, the similar HEMs and trying to propose a differentiated accommodation from these. At this time, the host will want to know about the profitability of the HEM, before implementing it, since the competition is high and the political structure will tend to condition the financing of the HEM’s economic sustainability. To professionalize the house, the host will be able to network, in order to focus on visibility, to welcome guests who are sensitive to the HEM. However, in this period, the host will want to implement a HEM that appeals not only to guests sensitive to the HEM, but also to those who are not, so that the functionality of the house is privileged, sometimes at the expense of its authenticity. I defend a boutique hotel concept, a restored historical heritage from the 18th century with a 21st century quality. That was what we needed to do. Officially, at the HT, you need a reception. The original idea is exhausted. The idea now is to restore the house and build a boutique hotel. My mother used to make a traditional HT and put everyone in uniform. The customer has changed a lot. He/She has changed a lot because traveling is no longer the same thing. The tourist population has changed a lot and will continue to change. You need to explain well what this is. It is not the night club life or taking a tan on the beach. In the products we can facilitate more than in the hotel. There are those who want more animation … The bad thing is that if there is any confusion with the hotel. Legislation seeks to use all of this. The health department wanted to have a lifeguard. [Interview no. 50]

In the professionalization phase, increasing formalization, autonomy and segregation can increasingly resemble HEM to massive hosting, the latter always having a competitive advantage, since its functionality is necessarily higher, as they were built from scratch for the hosting function. At this stage, there will be a tendency for the hosting proposal to be increasingly diversified, in order to distinguish HEM from

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similar houses. Alternatively, the alienation of the hosting operation can be a means of reducing the re-functionalization charges for the implementation or formalization of the HEM, thus increasing the economic sustainability. However, the society benefiting from the delegation can restrict itself to presenting a more differentiated hosting proposal than the previous one, expanding the visibility, as well as doing a better network to raise sustainability, without necessarily having to make a complete refunctionalization. This phase requires a high management capacity and technological competence from the host, as well as high dedication. The inflection point can be embodied in a transition from an initiating host to a continuing one or by a complete delegation to a professional host. In fact, the dedication he/she offers to HEM has implications for the host, because the host will have less time to dedicate to his/her family and professional life. In this period, the re-functionalization to formalize will be more constrained by the political structure than it happens in the improvisation phase. The fact that there is more competition from counterparts and massive hosting units will reduce the economic sustainability of the HEM, by forcing the host to lower prices. Conversely, the same competition will force him/her to differentiate his/her hosting unit and to remodel to formalize, which will contribute to the rise of the economic sustainability charges, thereby exerting an upward pressure on prices. Continuing hosts will be in a better position to bet on the professionalization of the HEM. This phase requires so much more dedication, the more negative the financial structure is. A positive financial structure will allow a greater delegation and less dedication from the host. If the house networks, this may lead it to be re-functionalized to further formalization, aiming to meet certain standards required to the HEM. This phase will witness a continuous attention to build a reputation. Only a high reputation among guests will allow the host to increase prices. At this moment, the reputation must be high, not only among the sensitive guests, but also among the insensitive ones because only then the HEM’s economic sustainability will increase at the expense of competition from similar houses and massive hosting units. Professionalization is frowned upon by some initiating hosts because it has negative effects on the authenticity of the house and may sacrifice its identity to the economic sustainability of the HEM. In this phase of professionalization, there will be a tendency for the house to adopt a modern style, this being, eventually, the only way to attract guests insensitive to HEM (Braga, 2016). In this way, as we saw above, the host may decide not to professionalize, as this implies a higher dedication and higher re-functionalization charges, which will lead in a short term to a reduction of the economic sustainability. To avoid the burden of refunctionalising to formalize, the host can propose a more basic accommodation, typical from the improvisation phase. The professionalization phase will witness the conversion to increase the hosting capacity, if the functionality of the house allows it. This will allow a greater autonomy of the guests (and separation from the host family) and will lead to a greater formalization of the HEM, which pleases non-sensitive guests.

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In this way, in a moment of strong competition, and having the need to increase the pace of recovery, if they do not have enough equity, the lineage hosts will be able to envision professionalization as the best way to continue the transmission of the house. HEM promotes the continuity of the house also because it does not suppress attachment. Excessive professionalization - which leads to the increasing autonomy of the guests - will lead to a reduction in the attachment by the host family, since the enjoyment of the house that the latter have, will be increasingly reduced and the separation increasingly high, until reaching a hybrid style of lease or something close to it. In turn, the reduction in attachment will result in a lower propensity for continuing hosts to dedicate themselves, which may lead to the discontinuity of transmission. In the improvisation phase, the price of the product can be high, once there is a reduced offer of similar hosting in the surroundings. When the similar hosting units increase, an inflection point occurs. In the professionalization phase, the price becomes more flexible in order to reduce it and increases the formalization of the HEM and the differentiation of the hosting. This is due to the pressure of massive hosting, which practices lower prices because their functionality is superior, and of similar houses, which illegally exempt themselves from the legal framework, thus practicing lower prices, even though they offer basic hosting. In other words, the latter remain in the improvisation phase, but illegally evade themselves from the impositions of the political structure. Furthermore, the erosion of the proximity of the HEM can lead to the creation of an undifferentiated hosting from the massive one. By formalizing, removing authenticity to increase functionality, HEM may be resembling itself to massive hosting. Always losing in terms of functionality for this type of accommodation, the economic sustainability of the house may be questioned. At this point, the host should increase the visibility of the house to increase the economic sustainability of HEM and to compete effectively with massive and similar hosting, attracting insensitive guests to HEM. The lack of dynamism of the host, his/her inability to dedicate himself/herself more or even his/her willingness to maintain the authenticity of the house can prevent him/her from leaving the improvisation phase and moving on to the professionalization phase. This can help to keep HEM in a classic style, even at a stage when competition with similar houses requires a more modern style.

5 Final Considerations During the 1960s and early 70s of the 20th century, Portugal witnessed an intense rural exodus towards urban centres (and emigration to Europe) that depleted its labour farming [37]. In 1970, the urban population already comprised 77% of the Portuguese population. This process resulted in a concentration of about 2/3 of the Portuguese population in the coastline between Braga and Aveiro and between Leiria and Setúbal [38]. Thus, this phenomenon of accelerated urbanization led to the desertification of rural areas in the interior of Portugal, due to the exodus of young people to the cities,

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leaving the countryside to the elderly [39]. Consequently, the Portuguese rural world has been going through a crisis that has been manifesting itself in the steady decrease of the weight of agriculture in the economy; the decrease of agricultural yield indices; the scarce capacity to attract investments to other sectors; unattractive living and working conditions and environmental problems related to pollution, rural exodus, erosion and forest claims [4]. As a result of these changes, some farms have become deficient. One of the solutions found to face the low productivity of deep rural areas was the sale of a useful area to satisfy the recreational needs of urban demand (Pinto, 1985). Thus, it was a matter of adopting a conversion strategy for rural areas turning them into multifunctional spaces with differentiating heritage value [40]. So, the fields were incorporating new functions that went beyond traditional agricultural activities, providing non-material goods and services that included sports, leisure and made available natural, cultural and human resources, aiming to strengthen the relationship with nature and fostering the meeting with ancient flavours and wisdom [41]. Since the 1980s, the diversification of economic revenues in Portuguese rural areas has favoured tourism, which has thus been seen as an alternative to increase the income of rural communities, adding value to the land and as a means of attaching rural workers to properties. However, for Silva [14], tourism should not be seen as a panacea to fight the depletion of the rural world, due to three issues: 1. The effects of tourism are not universal and are subject to the contexts in which the activity is inserted; 2. Not all rural areas are able to establish and develop the activity. Tourism, taken exclusively, does not have the capacity to produce the desired local development. It is necessary to stimulate other sectors such as industry, agriculture and trade. This text highlighted the positive effects that RT and especially HT have generated in the surroundings in which they are inserted. These improvements are exposed here from a quantitative and qualitative perspective, not concealing the opportunity costs that underlie the bet on HT or RT as a catalyst for regional development. From an interdisciplinary perspective, future studies are expected to present contributions to housing tourism, niche tourism and segmentation.The analysis of the basic process of the re-functionalization of the houses of HT that is developed here constitutes an original empirical contribution to the knowledge of the problematic of the implementation, maintenance and change of the tourist activity generated in the enterprises of HT. By contrasting the two stages of this process - improvisation and professionalization - we intend that the clarification of what is happening in HT can be a practical reference for the present and future promoters of this niche tourism modality. Acknowledgments. This work is financed by national funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project nº UIDB/04470/2020.

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16. Liberato, D., Ferreira, F., Azevedo, A.: Landscape as a tourism resource: a case study in the Northern region of Portugal. In: Rocha, Á., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J., Liberato, D., González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 171, pp. 627–639. Springer, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_54 17. Braga, J.L.: Refuncionalizando a Casa Solarenga: uma Grounded Theory (Ph.D thesis). Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (2016). https://minerva. usc.es/xmlui/handle/10347/14805 18. Glaser, B., Holton, J.: Basic social processes. Ground. Theor. Rev. 4(3), 1–27 (2005). http:// groundedtheoryreview.com/2005/06/22/1533/ 19. Planes, V., Miras, R., Requena, A.: Teoría Fundamentada Grounded Theory: El desarrollo de teoría desde la generalización conceptual. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, Madrid (2006) 20. Sousa, B., Silva, A., Malheiro, A.: Differentiation and market loyalty: an approach to cultural tourism in Northern Portugal. In: Rocha, Á., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J., Liberato, D., González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 171, pp. 681–690. Springer, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_58 21. Robinson, M., Novelli, M.: Niche tourism: contemporary issues, trends and cases. In: Sheldon, P.J., Wöber, K.W., Fesenmaier, D.R. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, 2001, pp. 294–302. Elservier publishers (2005) 22. Dalgic, T., Leeuw, M.: Niche marketing revisited: concept, applications and some European cases. Eur. J. Mark. 28(4), 39–55 (1994) 23. Ferreira, J., Sousa, B., Gonçalves, F.: Encouraging the subsistence artisan entrepreneurship in handicraft and creative contexts. J. Enterpr. Communities People Places Glob. Econ. 13 (1/2), 64–83 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEC-09-2018-0068 24. Ferreira, A., Alén, E., Liberato, P., Liberato, D.: Literary tourism: a cultural trip? In: Rocha, Á., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J., Liberato, D., González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 171, pp. 505–515 (2020). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_ 44 25. Travel BI/Turismo de Portugal. Turismo no Espaço Rural e Turismo e Habitação (2020). https://travelbi.turismodeportugal.pt/pt-pt/Documents/Alojamento/Turismo%20no%20Espa %C3%A7o%20Rural/ter-th-em-portugal-2017.pdf 26. PORDATA. Base de Dados Portugal Contemporâneo (2019). https://www.pordata.pt 27. Menezes, F.: Tourism as an Agent of rural development: Construction of programmes and institutional forms of implementation: a case study of LEADER I in Vale do Lima (in NW Portugal) (Master’s dissertation) (2000). http://www.center.pt/imprensactr/estudo_788.pdf 28. Godinho, M.: O Turismo em Espaço Rural (TER) em Portugal. Problemas e desafios para o futuro. Revista de Turismo e Desenvolvimento 1(1), 91–93 (2004). https://dialnet.unirioja. es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3548517 29. Rodrigues, F.: O Turismo de Habitação no Douro – para uma antropologia da hospitalidade nas casas de turismo. In: Proceedings – Congresso Internacional da Casa Nobre – Um Património para o Futuro, Arcos de Valdevez, 2–4 December 2011. Arcos de Valdevez, Município de Arcos de Valdevez, vol. 3, pp. 1195–1209 (2013) 30. Sousa, B., Rocha, A.T.: The role of attachment in public management and place marketing contexts: a case study applied to Vila de Montalegre (Portugal). Int. J. Pub. Sector Perform. Manage. 5(2), 189–205 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPSPM.2019.099094

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Room Semantics and Terms in Hotel Chains Communication Ronald Ojino1(&), Luisa Mich2, and Nerey Mvungi1 1

University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected] 2 University of Trento, Trento, Italy

Abstract. Hotel rooms offer a range of amenities as part of a hotel’s product offering and these can impact a guests’ booking decisions. The paper provides a better understanding of hotel room facilities and attributes through exploration of room offerings by hotel chains. We examined some of the rooms of 155 top global hotel chains websites in order to determine the facilities and services offered; and the terms used in describing the room features. The goal was to investigate successful hotels’ communication of room characteristics for the promotion of efficacy and efficiency of planning, promotional and commercialization activities. To categorize important hotel room attributes, a literature review of recent trends and likely future scenarios was realized. Our findings show that among the room attributes and amenities emphasized in terms of descriptions in hotel websites include beds, bathroom amenities, room size, views, Internet services and entertainment services. The paper contributes to hotel websites communication by providing a comprehensive set of recommendations to hotel chains highlighting opportunities related to improving descriptions of hotel room attributes. Keywords: Hotel room


Attributes
Hotel chains
Semantics

1 Introduction Hotel rooms and services are the most important aspects when choosing a hotel [26] and [45]. This makes room related attributes the most important determinants of guest satisfaction or dissatisfaction [42]. Hotels should strive to satisfactorily meet the customers’ needs, which are usually dynamic, personalized and customizable. Consequently, hotels that offer one-size fits all chain approach may lose out on repeat business and customer loyalty. The modern traveler is more knowledgeable and has a greater level of expectation of service and product offerings [46], this implies that greater detail must be put in every kind of service provided during booking, stay and checkout to meet the guests expectations. Personalized hotel experience is based on continuous innovation [3] in order to adequately meet guests’ needs and preferences that are dynamic. Some studies investigated entire hotel features [13, 29, 45, 57] and did not focus on specific room attributes. However, the few studies that cover room attributes focus on perception attributes such as lighting, pricing levels, noise levels etc. [6, 20] which are important in building customer loyalty and increasing the overall profile of the hotel. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 142–152, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_13

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We therefore present one of the first studies that delve into examining the specific attributes of a hotel room provided by hotel websites while focusing on the terms used and their semantics. We investigated successful hotels and their communication looking for best practices. i.e. which are the rooms’ characteristics to be used to promote the efficacy and efficiency of planning, promotional and commercialization activities [38] and building customer loyalty. The efficacy of a message (capacity of communication to accomplish a desired goal) depends on its syntax and semantics [31]

2 Hotel Room Studies The type of accommodation, its extent and nature determine the volume and value of tourism in a destination [21]. The hotel room space should be a relaxing environment for the guests. Well-designed room environments that consider universally desirable elements such as lighting, heating, texturing, furnishing etc. make people happy and energized [36] and [49]. Many studies focused on determining the key attributes that affect guests’ hotel selection, but very few delved into guests’ hotel room selection factors, such as [33]. Nowadays, what clients have in their homes is often far superior to anything in the hotel rooms [24]; it is important to keep up with customer expectations for differentiation purposes. The hotel guest continues to be discerning and demands technology and advanced opportunities [47]. In order to achieve the desired impact of translating booking intentions into action, emphasis must be laid on the way information communication is done through both offline and online marketing channels. Websites have to give the “right” information that is content adequate in respect of their strategies, in order to allow users to make a decision about products and services offered by the company [31]. Most online customers are dissatisfied with the inadequate and poor quality of information on hotel websites [40]. Information quality is critical in selling services online because customers rely on detailed and clear information that inspire trust in order to make purchase decisions [55]. Tourists could be motivated to book a hotel if its amenities and sustainability attributes were communicated in a trust inspiring way in the marketing material [43]. High-level information design on hotel websites positively impact on visitors’ emotions and booking intentions of hotel rooms [17]. These studies imply that there must be professionalism in communicating hotel room amenities in order to achieve trust from the visitors and in turn transform their booking intentions into the desired action. This trust can be achieved through the use of appropriate terms and semantics. Using keywords on the theme ‘hotel room’ and ‘in-room amenities’, we carried out a literature search of studies that consider different hotel room attributes from various sources such as online repositories and research websites. Table 1 gives a summary of findings in studies done on hotel room amenities and features.

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Hotel room feature Accessibility features

Acoustic comfort

Aesthetic design Alarm clock Bathroom & Bathroom amenities Bed and Beddings

Cleanliness

Desk and chair Electrical outlets

Entertainment

Heating, Ventilation and air conditioning Internet access

Lighting

Mini bar

Summary of the hotel room attributes study findings • Accessibility is very important; it improves a hotel’s image and People with Disabilities (PwDs) would opt for other hotels if these features are absent • There is a huge market potential for accessibility enabled hotels • Acoustic comfort is crucial for guests’ satisfaction •Embracing noise reduction strategies reduces noise from the external environment and ensures the customers comfort • Is a hedonic experience factor that creates a memorable hotel experience and leads to positive online reviews • Is a highly rated in-room technology • Guests would prefer to have it unobtrusively • Bathroom descriptions are popular in hotel websites • After the bed, the bathroom is the next important thing and guests prefer it to be clean and well appointed • Beddings improve sleep quality • The bed is a core product of hotel accommodation and an important consideration when choosing a hotel • A utilitarian factor that increases hotel room occupancy • It is a positive driver to room ratings • It represents the hotel’s image and boosts its reputation • Guests would rather give up Internet for a clean room • It is a must have in all hotel rooms • They are expected to be in good condition • Electrical outlets are essential to guests and should be placed in convenient locations within the rooms • Guests desire and expect electrical outlets that accept foreign plugs and wireless charging facilities •Many guests expect hotel entertainment systems to have the same standards as those in their homes • A color TV in the hotel room is considered important • Hotels are gradually introducing up-to-date entertainment technologies into rooms • Room temperature and humidity have a tremendous effect on sleep cycles and hence the guest’s comfort • It is a mission critical in-room technology • Free WiFi is important, and it has the strongest effect on initial hotel choice • Free WiFi can increase online Hotel ratings • WiFi is a utilitarian factor whose unavailability is the biggest source of disappointment for hotel guests • Ambient lighting has significant influence on customer behavior and perceptions • Guests have different lighting preferences depending on the activity they are carrying out • Hotel guests are willing to pay more for complimentary minibars that contain wine and beer • It is regarded as least important by guests

Studies [1, 18]

[34, 36],

[7, 32] [11] [35, 37]

[22, 34, 50]

[7, 12, 30, 33, 44, 52]

[23, 41] [2, 8]

[10, 50]

[28, 34, 39]

[9, 11, 12, 16, 22, 26, 50]

[19, 49, 51],

[22, 36]

(continued)

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Table 1. (continued) Pet boarding

Security

Size of the room

Telephone View of the room

• Hotels are less friendly than AirBnB for both guests and hosts • There is a difficulty for pets with guests to find proper accommodation • Security is paramount in a hotel room • Security influences perception of quality in hotels • Use of electronic key cards is a highly rated satisfier while safe boxes are considered an important security item • The size of the room is not provided as a filtering option in many hotel sites although it is used by customers to rate hotels • A large room is considered a universally desirable attribute by guests and can forgive design mistakes • It is an important factor in selecting a hotel room • Guests are willing to pay more for free guest phones • It is an important criterion in selecting hotels • Hotel guests are willing to pay more for hotels with better views and will give positive reviews

[57]

[25, 39, 50, 53]

[26, 36, 37]

[11, 36, 50] [7, 36, 50]

Carefully curating hotel amenities into a compelling value proposition to attract guests is a key responsibility for brand managers [15]. Brand managers and marketers can continuously learn from best practices to improve their online presence. Despite having many studies in literature that focus on hotel amenities, none of these provide an extensive analysis of the terms used in presenting hotel room attributes within hotel websites. This study therefore sought answers to the following research questions: 1. How are hotel rooms described in relation to communication? 2. What terms are used in presenting hotel room amenities in hotel websites?

3 Methodology We sought to find out the room information presented on numerous hotel websites. Hotel websites are popular channels for booking hotels [22]. For this reason, the perceived quality including the terms used to describe the rooms on offer should be well thought out. In September and October 2019, we collected data from hotel websites’ rooms’ section of top hotel chains. These hotels were randomly sampled from the 2019 list of 325 Hotels special report accessed from marketingandtechnology.com1. The ranking list of top hotel chains was used due to the fact that they are successful and have some of the best practices as relates to communication efficacy. We created a dataset of hotel chains that includes hotel names, locations, URLs, types of rooms and room features. Based on a population of 275 hotel chains in the report, we used Slovin’s formula, to calculate a sample of 155 hotels, which we applied in the study. In the sample of 155 1

https://www.marketingandtechnology.com/repository/webFeatures/HOTELS/H1807_ SpecialReport_Intro.pdf.

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hotels, there were a total of 971 room types. We randomly selected the hotel chains and focused on collection of hotel room features and attributes that was carried out via Scrappy2, a Python based open source web crawler and later transferred to Microsoft Excel for Storage. The extraction of the terms used to describe hotel room attributes was based on the classification done from literature (see Table 1). Manifest content analysis was then utilized to count the frequency of hotel room features and attributes terms in the sampled hotel websites rooms’ section. Using R statistical package, frequency tables of the various hotel room attributes terms were generated.

4 Results and Discussion It was found that type of beds (king size, queen, double, twin, etc.) was the most mentioned attribute term in the room offering with over 96% of the rooms listing this attribute. Bed size matters to customers and specifying the bed type implies giving the customer an option to choose the kind of bed that he would sleep in thus informing their booking decision; for instance, siblings travelling together may choose a room with double beds. Pillows and linens were the main terms used to describe the beddings on offer with 5.4% and 4.4% of the hotels listing them as part of the room offering. The use of few accessibility terms in hotel websites concurs with [18] who states that many in the tourism sector are unaware of how to meet the needs of tourists with disabilities. As a confirmation of this postulation, only 10.9% of the hotel rooms studied had descriptions of accessibility facilities implying that most hotels are not well prepared to handle guests living with disabilities. Of the terms used to describe accessibility features, the most popular was ‘mobility accessible rooms’ at 27.2%, followed by ‘grab bars in bathrooms’ at 21.7% and ‘hearing accessible rooms with visual alarms and notification devices for door and phone’ at 20.8% respectively. Although cleanliness is a salient attribute that affects customers’ ratings of hotels, it is considered inherent and consequently it is rarely listed as part of the terms used in room offerings. The term daily housekeeping is most frequently used to assure customers that the rooms are cleaned everyday while weekly house keeping service is the least used probably because it is related to different kinds of accommodations. It is vital to present an acceptable time limit on the cleaning service for instance: ‘daily housekeeping’ or ‘twice daily housekeeping’ to assure gets that they will stay in a clean environment. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning amenity descriptions were given in approximately 35.79% of the hotel rooms. 71.5% of this amenity was described in terms of air conditioning which confirms the finding by [15] that it has become a necessity and is common in most rooms. Notable is the fact that the term ‘fan’ was rarely used with only 2.4% of the hotels mentioning it as part of in-room amenities. The ‘self control’ superlative was used to describe HVAC systems in 4.5% of the hotel rooms, implying guests have the option to personalize environmental settings. The term ‘fans’ is being phased out probably because many hotel chains are adopting energy saving practices.

2

scrapy.org.

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Internet is widely offered in hotel rooms as part of the package with over 43% of the rooms listing this service. Internet access was mostly offered with the term WiFi at 92.5% signifying the technology savvy nature of hotel guests utilising mobile devices. 76% of WiFi offering used the superlative complimentary. This finding supports [54] where the term WiFi was found to be frequently used in reviews to rate Internet services and it was regarded as the most useful in-room amenity [22]. Approximately 7% of the hotel rooms use the term “wired Internet access” to show that they cater for travellers who prefer that kind of Internet connection. Superlatives such as “highspeed’, ‘un-limited’ and ‘broadband’ are used in conjunction with the Internet offering to invoke positive attitudinal interpretations by the users. Lighting is described in few hotel rooms (22.9%) and the term popularly used is windows. Windows normally bring in natural light giving hotels a natural tone and thus hotel websites have attempted to give attention to this feature by describing the type of windows provided in the hotel rooms. Most windows are described in terms of size. The term blackout drapes is fairly adopted across hotel rooms probably due to the fact that the guest can use it to save energy and create a desired lighting environment. The description of the hotel room size either in square feet or square meters was used in 73.2% percent of the instances. The use of size measurement is highly recommended as it gives an accurate measurement of the space offering. The term ‘spacious’ would be impactful when used as a superlative to show the superiority in space offering but appears ambiguous and subjective when used independently. The term “views” is often associated with positive hotel ratings [26] and from our findings only 34.7% of the rooms had used this term in the product offering. This is an indication that many hotel websites need to consider using this term as it could positively impact a guest’s booking decision. The terms mainly used in describing the views feature are; water views (36.1%) and city views (34.9%). Balconies and terraces offer outdoor relaxation by giving a guest the chance to view the surrounding environment. Balconies and terraces were mentioned as part of the attributes presented in 17.4% of the hotel rooms. These terms were used by approximately 83% of the hotel rooms. Entertainment is a popular part of the room offering with 69% of the rooms in the hotel chains giving descriptions of the various types of entertainment options available. The term ‘television’ is the most popular term used for entertainment offered at 71.1%. This confirms the finding by [5] and [14] which rank the television as one of the most important in-room technologies desired by travellers and it is among the most used amenities. However, it would be more appropriate if the kind of television and service offered were described using words highlighting its features for instance: International Satellite Television, 49 inch LCD rather than just using the term television which leaves the reader begging for more clarifications. Interestingly [27] found docking stations for mobile devices to be among the most popular in-room technologies improving the guest experience, but our findings show that the term is seldom used in description of in-room amenities. Electrical outlets were not frequently mentioned across the hotel websites since only 3.33% of the hotels listed them as part of the room offering. The term power outlet was the most popular with nearly half (45.5%) of the hotels using it. USB ports and international power ports were also common terms while electrical adaptors were rarely

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mentioned. This highlights the need to consider international travellers who would benefit from such information and influence their booking decisions. The bathroom amenity is quite important as it contributes more to the final hotel rating [20]. Of the rooms analyzed, 63.9% mention “ bath and bathroom” terms as part of the room offering which concurs with the finding in [48] that most hotel websites have bathrooms in their room offering. The bathub is the term with the highest frequency at 25.6% followed by the bathroom (24.15%) and shower (23%) respectively. Very few hotels (4.18%) mention the type of shower and shower heads offered which would further enrich the information on the bathroom amenities. Of the hotel rooms analyzed 56.7% outline bath and bathroom accessories. Of the bathroom accessories, the most popular is hair dryers (38.75%) followed by toiletries (23.6%), then bathrobes (12.8%) and slippers (10.36%) respectively. The popularity of the term “hair dryers” could be attributed to the fact that it is a key product requirement for female guests as pointed out by [4]. The mini-bar amenity was used in only 21% of the rooms in the hotel chains’ websites confirming the finding by [15] of the fading popularity of this in-room amenity that is rarely used by guests. Notable is the fact that most hotels rarely mention whether the mini-bar service is complimentary or chargeable, a factor that could impact decision-making on usage. Bottled water was rarely mentioned as part of the terms used in in-room amenities contrary to the finding by [16] that it has a strong effect on return visits and revenue and for this reason it should be used often. Guests rank telephone services among the top 10 important in-room features [47]. Of the rooms analyzed only 21% described telephone services. 36.8% of these used the term “Phone” rather than specifying the type of phone service offered e.g. Direct line telephone, telephone with voicemail etc. which would be of great importance in determining the capabilities of the service. This is an important in-room service that needs to be properly highlighted in the website description. Terms describing alarms and wakeup services are found in approximately 11% of the hotel rooms, which confirms the finding by [16] that hotel guests do not use this amenity often. Over 60% of the hotels offering alarm and wake up services do provide the clock radio and clocks. Security and safety amenities descriptions are provided in 34.1% of the rooms analyzed. The term “safe” was the most common in over 85.3% of the rooms followed by electronic keys and smoke detectors at 5.3% each. Superlatives such as ‘digital’, ‘inroom’ and ‘ large safe that can fit a laptop’ are used in the terms to further describe this attribute that is considered important by the hotel guests. Some guests consider pets as family members and would like to travel with them and even host them in their rooms. Provision for pet accommodation seemed quite unpopular as a paltry 0.2% of the hotel rooms analyzed gave descriptions for pets’ accommodation/non-accommodation. 65% of these used the terms ‘pets welcome’ and ‘pet friendly’ while the remaining 35% explicitly used the term ‘pets not allowed’. This finding concurs with that of [57] who found hotels as less pet friendly than AirBnB, a fact that makes the latter offer a better home feeling in some guests overall experiences.

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5 Conclusion and Future Work This paper examined the terms and semantics used to describe hotel room amenities in globally ranked hotel chain websites. The study found that most hotel chains offered term and semantic descriptions for beds, room size, entertainment attributes, bathroom amenities and Internet services probably because of their importance to the customers. Amenities such as telephone services, security and safety, pet provision, accessibility features and HVAC services were not satisfactorily described and frequently mentioned in the hotel chain websites. Appropriate and specific terms can enhance the communication efficacy of in-room hotel amenities for instance; Internet would be described as follows: complimentary WiFi and Broadband Internet access, while the bed would be described as king size bed 180 cm. It was realized that improvements could be made in the term and semantics used to describe some of the hotel room amenities. Since the modern traveller is more knowledgeable and has a great level of expectations, superlatives can be used to enhance the description of amenities and services which would in turn inform the guest when making online hotel booking decisions. The study recommends that hoteliers learn from successful hotel chains the terms they should adopt in presenting hotel room amenities on their websites. Hotels should use appropriate and consistent amenity terms to improve content integrity of a hotel chain website and boost its SEO rank. Continuous research of customer needs is of great importance in order to present the desired attributes using appropriate terms. Further research will utilize the findings of this study in analyzing the terms used for room descriptions for consistency so as to eliminate disorientation among guests, and in the formalization of a domain level ontology for personalized hotel rooms.

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Could Virtual Reality Substitute the ‘Real’ Experience? Evidence from a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Northern Portugal Nieves Losada1,2(&) , Filipa Jorge3 , Mário Sérgio Teixeira1,2 Miguel Melo3 , and Maximino Bessa1,3

,

1

2

University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal [email protected] CETRAD Research Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal 3 INESC TEC, Campus da FEUP, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal

Abstract. Virtual Reality could be useful for heritage management and preservation by complementing or, even, by replacing the ‘real’ visitation to more threatened destinations. The objective of this study was to empirically test the level of similarity perceived by a group of students between VR experience and the ‘real’ visit in a UNESCO World Heritage Cultural attraction in order to assess the capacity of VR to act as a substitute of the ‘real’ visit. Ridit analysis was conducted in order to rank the level of agreement perceived by respondents concerning to similarity between the VR experience and the ‘real’ visit. Results revealed that VR experience could act as a complement, rather than a substitute of the ‘real’ visitation. This is, the feelings and emotions derived from the ‘real’ visit could not be replaced by the VR experience. VR could be an effective marketing tool to encourage sustainable tourism behaviors, rather than to substitute the ‘real’ visit. Keywords: Virtual reality behaviors


Heritage preservation
Sustainable tourism

1 Introduction Virtual Reality (VR) is one of the most attractive and potentially most effective technologies for the development of the experience economy. In the tourism context, it represents a real opportunity to capitalize on the uniqueness of travel by involving customers from the initial contact and making it possible to build their own experiences [1]. Due to the advancement of information technology, VR systems provides more real-life experiences and enable tourists to be active virtual participants, actually choosing what they want to “experience” [2]. It is expected that VR greatly impacts the tourism industry in the coming years [3].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 153–161, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_14

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Benefits of VR in tourism contexts comprise the areas of planning and management, marketing and promotion, sales and distribution, entertainment, education, accessibility and heritage preservation, among others [4, 5]. Moreover, as VR technology continues to improve, it is conceivable that virtual tourism could either complement or supplant physical journeys or ‘real’ holidays for some travelers, i.e. for lowincome level or reduced mobility [4, 6]. As a complement of physical journeys, VR can enhance visitor experiences, not only in the tourism destination, but also, before visiting it [7]. Additionally, it could be used as a substitute for ‘real’ holidays to travel to remote, dangerous, inaccessible or threatened locations [4]. Sites listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site may be particularly threatened simply because their World Heritage status can attract increased numbers of visitors to the point of damage. VR could be an effective instrument for heritage management and preservation replacing the real’ experiences, thereby diminishing disturbance on the heritage site [4]. The objective of this study is to deepen in the potential of VR to be used as a substitute for the ‘real’ visit to a world heritage tourism attraction. Specifically, the viewpoint of São Leonardo de Galafura in the Alto Douro Vinhateiro (Alto Douro Wine Region).

2 Virtual Tour Experience Virtual tour is a type of virtual experience, defined as an experience in a virtual environment using a computer-mediated environment and based upon the concept of “telepresence” [2]. Telepresence is the feeling of being there, and the extent to which users engage with a virtual reality tour may be dependent of their sense of presence or the feeling of being there [8, 9]. Therefore, presence is the key concept that explains the effectiveness of VR in various use contexts [5]. Previous studies drawn upon a presence perspective, most of them based on the seminal work of Kim and Biocca [10], aimed to explore how VR can impact tourism experience, the perceived image of a destination and future behaviors. One of them, in the context of Virtual Destination Image Formation (VDIF), found that telepresence influences positively virtual cognitive image and virtual conation [8]. Another study suggested that “positive attitude change” in VR environments, where presence has a significant positive effect, leads to a higher level of visitation intention [5]. One more revealed that the sense of presence perceived by individuals in 360º virtual experience was similar than that perceived by individuals physically at the location [9]. Further study showed that the sense of presence positively affects intention to revisit and recommend cultural heritage sites [11]. An additional study revealed that VR hotel preview induces a stronger sense of presence compared to both 360º and images preview, thereby transforming into enhanced brand experience [12]. Different authors found positive impacts of sense of VR presence on visitors´ theme park intentions to revisit and recommend [3]. Another one found that higher level of telepresence of HMD VR users compared with video users increases the impulsive desire for a destination [13]. Finally, the results of one more study showed that the sense of presence

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provided by HMD VR leads to a more positive image of the destination, affective, cognitive and overall [14]. However, no empirical studies were found considering VR as a substitute of the ‘real’ visit, this is, assessing the level of similarity perceived by individuals between the VR experience and the ‘real’ visit. The utility of VR for heritage management and preservation derives from its potential to create virtual experiences that tourists may accept as substitutes of the ‘real’ visitation to threatened sites [4, 7]. So, an empirical study is needed in order to assess the capacity of VR experience to substitute the ‘real’ visit to threatened sites.

3 Methodology The study setting considered was São Leonardo de Galafura viewpoint in the Alto Douro Vinhateiro (Alto Douro Wine Region) world heritage site, Fig. 1. Douro region (NUT III) occupies an area of 4100 km2, around 19% of the total landmass of the Northern Portugal [15], and it is composed by 19 municipalities. It is a rural area, and one of the oldest demarcated wine regions in the world (since 1756), where the worldrenowned port wine is produced. The number of visitors in the Douro region has increased during the last years due to Portugal’s tourism boom [16].

Fig. 1. Screenshot of the VR experience developed by the research team illustrating the teleport feature.

The VR experience was designed to be as close to reality as possible. Thus, instead of creating a 3D replica manually, the research team adopted photogrammetry techniques to recreate an hyper-realist virtual replica of the tourism destination. In the VR environment, participants were allowed to explore the touristic site by using real walking within the tracked area (aprox. 3.5 m  3.5 m) or by teleporting using the VIVE remote. The touristic site allowed to be explored in the VR environment was delimited to be coincident with the area that participants could explore in the visit to the real location.

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For delivering the VR experience, a computer equipped with an Intel i7-6700 K and a NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080 graphics card were used. The visual stimulus was delivered using the HTC Vive setup and the audio was delivered via Bose QuietComfort 25 headphones with active noise cancellation. The items utilized in this study “On site visit I saw things I had not seen before in the VR experience (reverse)”, “On site visit I didn´t perceive any differences from the landscape I saw previously in the VR experience”, “It would have been enough for me to experience VR to know the place visited”, “The feeling of visiting the place is better than I had in the VR experience (reverse)”, “I feel I got a better perception of the place I visited through the VR experience” and “I feel it is more enjoyable to be physically at the place visited than just experiencing it virtually (reverse)” rated on a seven-point anchor scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), are based in an original study about the use of 360º in tourism experience [17]. This study procedure is composed of two steps. First, participants arrived at the laboratory at a pre-fixed hour, and they come into a room to experiment São Leonardo de Galafura in a VR scene for five minutes. After that, they were moved to another separated room. This experiment was intentionally designed to participants do not cross during the procedures in Laboratory, in order to not influence other participants’ perceptions. Second, after joining a small group, participants were conducted to the ‘real’ site, São Leonardo de Galafura viewpoint, by car or minibus and were encouraged to explore the site for five minutes. Then, participants were asked to respond to the questionnaire. Finally, participants traveled from the touristic point to laboratory. For this survey, the sample was selected with a purposive sampling approach between students at university level. The only criteria were that participants belong to Generation Z. From a total of 200 questionnaires distributed, 192 valid questionnaires were returned. The complexity of the study design has favored this high response rate, 96%, since all the phases of the experiment and data collecting were concentrated on the same day. Within the final sample, 64.1% were national students. The median age was 20.67 years old, being 24 years old for international students and 19 years old for national students. Most of the participants were females (60.4%). The majority of respondents were attending to a bachelor degree (67.7%), Master (29.7%) or PhD (2.1%); namely in the fields of Management, Economics and Tourism (42.2%), Technology (21.9%) and Others (35.9%). The Ridit (Relative to an Identified Distribution) analysis, proposed by Bross [18] for the first time in the domain of social science research, was adopted in order to rank the level of agreement of the 6 items concerning to similarity between the VR experience and the ‘real’ visit. It is an alternative method that can be applied to Likert scale data analysis in which conventional methods cannot be used or are ineffective. The Ridit analysis applies a probability transformation according to an empirical distribution taken as a reference class. It is safer for “borderland” data, replacing the usual means and variances in the t-test family of statistical methods. Moreover, Ridit analysis is “distribution free”, and there is no need of assumption about the distribution of the population under study. Microsoft excel has been used to test the Ridit model.

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4 Results The results from the analysis can be used to order Likert scale items and explore the relationships among them, for example, in terms of degrees of agreement. Factors influencing the level of similarity between VR experience and the ‘real’ visit are considered in this study. The respondents were asked to rate each factor based on their level of agreement in a Likert type scale (1–7). The factors are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Parameters and notations from similarity between VR experience and the ‘real’ visit Factor F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6

Items On site visit I saw things I had not seen before in the VR experience (reverse) On site visit I didn´t perceived any differences from the landscape I saw previously in the VR experience It would have been enough for me to experience VR to know the place visited The feeling of visiting the place is better than I had in the VR experience (reverse) I feel I got a better perception of the place I visited through the VR experience I feel it is more enjoyable to be physically at the place visited than just experiencing it virtually (reverse)

Algorithm for Ridit analysis supposes that there are m items and n ordered categories listed from the most favored to the least favored in the scale [19]. Then, the Ridit analysis goes as follows: 1) Compute Ridits for the reference data set, Table 2: – Select a population to serve as a reference data set. For a Likert scale survey, the data set can be the total responses of the survey, if the population cannot be easily identified. – Compute frequency fj for each category of responses, where j = 1, …n. – Compute midpoint-accumulated frequency Fj for each category of responses. F1 ¼ 12 f1 P Fj ¼ 12 fj þ J1 k¼1 fk where j = 2 …n – Compute Ridit value Rj for each category of responses in the reference data set. F Rj ¼ Nj where j = 1 …n – N is the total number of responses from the Likert scale survey of interest. By definition the expected value of R for the reference data set is always 0.5 (Bross, 1958).

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NA/ND (4) 19 16 11 10 27 9 92 46 287 0.24 (7) Strongly

−3 35 41 31 26 25 18 176 88 421 0.36 agree

−2 41 35 35 45 34 30 220 110 619 0.53

SD (1) 52 40 70 101 30 130 423 211.5 941 0.81

pi 192 192 192 192 192 192 1,152

2) Compute Ridits and mean Ridits for comparison data sets, Table 3. A comparison data set is composed of the frequencies of responses for each category of a Likert scale item. As there are m Likert scale items, there will be m comparison data sets. – Compute Ridit value rij for each category of scale items. Rjp R
pij ¼ pi ij where i = 1 …m, pij is the frequency of category j for the ith scale item, and pi is a short form for the summation P of frequencies for scale item i across all categories, that is: pi ¼ nk¼1 pik – Compute the mean Ridit for each Likert scale item. P qi ¼ nk¼1 rik

Table 3. Ridits for the comparison data sets Factor F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6

SA (7) −6 0 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0

−5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0.02 0

NA/ND (4) −3 −2 SD (1) 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.22 0.02 0.07 0.09 0.17 0.01 0.05 0.09 0.29 0.01 0.04 0.12 0.42 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.12 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.55

qi 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.62 0.34 0.68

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In Ridit analysis, if upper value of any scale variable or component is more than 0.5, that component or the variable will be having greater probability to be ignored by the existing distribution channel partners. A relative less value of qi is favored over a greater value of qI because a less value of qi specifies a high probability of being considered as a very agreement item in the reference set relating to respondents´ preferences. A direct categorization of mean Ridit’s in terms of the probability of being in agreeing propensity gives the following sequence: F5 > F2 > F1 > F3 and F4 > F6. Compared to the reference data set, respondents have less probability of disagreeing with scale items F5, F2, F1, F3, and higher probability of disagreeing with the scale items F4, F6, as showed in Table 3. Therefore, the Ridit analysis indicates that respondents are more likely to perceive the VR experience in a cognitive way, in other words, from a rational point of view: “I feel I got a better perception of the place I visited through the VR experience”, “On site visit I didn’t perceive any differences from the landscape I saw previously in the VR experience”, “On site visit I saw things I had not seen before in the VR experience (reverse)” and “It would have been enough for me to experience VR to know the place visited”. On the other hand, respondents are less likely to perceive VR experience in an affective way, or from an emotional point of view: “The feeling of visiting the place is better than I had in the VR experience (reverse)” and “I feel it is more enjoyable to be physically at the place visited than just experiencing it virtually (reverse)”.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Threatened destinations, as heritage sites or crowded places, can benefit from the use of VR technologies for their management and preservation. The utility of VR for heritage management and preservation is given from its potential to create virtual experiences that tourists may accept as substitutes of the ‘real’ visit to this threatened sites [4, 7]. The objective of this study was to empirically test the level of similarity perceived by a group of students between the VR experience and the ‘real’ visit in a UNESCO World Heritage Cultural attraction in order to assess the capacity of VR to act as a substitute of the ‘real’ visit. Results showed that VR experience could act as a complement, rather than a substitute for the ‘real’ travel. This is, the feelings and emotions derived from the ‘real’ visit could not be replaced by the VR experience. On the other hand, VR could be enough to understand the destination from a rational or cognitive point of view. It is the first study, from an empirical point of view, focused in the potential of VR as a substitute of the ‘real’ travel by comparing the perceptions of respondents after VR experience and after the ‘real’ visit. However, this study has some limitations derived from the sampling method. It’s suggested that sociodemographic characteristics of the sample, as age, gender, nationality, level of study, and type of tourism could influence the VR experience in a different way [4]. So, further studies taking into account a sociodemographic perspective are needed.

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Practical implications of this study are related with the utility of VR experience in order to complement the ‘real’ experience by providing more knowledge about a destination, namely related with the physical characteristics of the place, but not as a substitute of it. It has been suggested that an attempted VR substitute could have the exact opposite effects of its desired preservationist impact, in fact, it could increase users´ desire to visit the real place [4]. The tourism industry and academics disclosed, even before the actual pandemic, that the overdependency of tourism experiences on digital technology had to be managed carefully, by limiting its use or by creating more meaningful instances of use [20]. Media representations influences the decision making-process, but also influences tourist experiences and practices by creating a rhetoric of the tourist experience, eventually imitated by tourists once the destination has been chosen [21]. In fact, it has been observed that VR directly influences viewer´s attitudes and could be used to trigger potential visitors’ intention to practice sustainable tourism in a heritage destination [22]. Therefore, VR could be used to encourage sustainable tourism behaviors, better than substitute the ‘real’ travel. Acknowledgements. This work is financed by the ERDF – European Regional Development Fund through the Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalisation COMPETE 2020 Programme and by National Funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia within project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031309 entitled “PromoTourVR - Promoting Tourism Destinations with Multisensory Immersive Media”.

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PANAS-TDL: A Psychrometric Deep Learning Model for Characterizing Sentiments of Tourists Against the COVID-19 Pandemic on Twitter Alejandro Peña1(&), Jorge Mesias1, Alejandro Patiño1, Joao Vidal Carvalho2, Gregorio Gomez1, Kevin Ibarra1, and Santiago Bedoya1 1

EIA University, Envigado 055413, Colombia {juan.pena,jorge.mesias,hector.patino,kevin.ibarra, santiago.bedoya}@eia.edu.co 2 Polytechnic of Porto/CEOS.PP, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. One of the main sector that moves the economy of the countries worldwide is tourism and its associated services. Dynamics like globalization has led these countries to create tourism services with global standards, however, in the context of COVID-19 pandemic, these services have been affected as shown the social networks. This fact led to a change in the perception of tourists against a destination. In order to unify this change in an objective manner, we propose a Deep Learning model that integrates a PANAS scale (Positive and Negative Affect Scale) (PANAS-tDL), to characterize a tourist destination based on a series of potential factors (weather conditions, healthy, holidays, seasonality and economic factors) identified in comments obtained from a social network like Twitter. The results obtained by the PANAS-tDL model show its good performance evaluating the change of perception of tourists against four destinations affected by COVID-19, taking as reference the 11-sentiment scale defined by PANAS-t scale. Thanks to adaptation capacity, the model can be extended to evaluate the change in perception of tourists using different social networks and to evaluate different marketing strategies to promote a destination. Keywords: PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule)
Stacked deep learning model
Twitter
Sentiment analysis
Natural language processing

1 Introduction One of the main sector that moves the economy of the countries is tourism and its associated services. Global dynamics have caused governments worldwide to establish favourable environments for the creation of new tourist services with high added value, however, in the context of COVID-19 pandemic, these services have been affected. In this way, social networks as Twitter, Facebook and Instagram have played a major role, since these social networks grouped comments related with these services and the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 162–176, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_15

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impact of COVID-19 without a unified vision, which influences wrongly the people’s decision to visit a tourist destination [1–3]. For the solution of his problem, in the scientific literature, it can be seen three development trends. A first development trend focuses on the analysis of aspects related to access to tourism destinations using different data sources. In this development trend, [4] carried out data analysis to identify behavioural patterns in tourist according to the distance, [5] who create a model to forecast the potential factors as weather conditions, holidays, seasonality and economic factors in tourism decision making [5], and [6] who propose a MULTITOUR recommendation engine to recommended multiple itineraries based on the tourist’s interest. Two additional papers show how a tourist experience can be influenced by the interaction tourist to tourist [7], and a final paper that shows how the cultural differences can help a customer have a better experience [8]. In this development trend clearly shows the importance of the data in the decision making, specifically to improve the experiences of the tourists in a destination taking into account different potential factors. However, this development trend does not show a unified criteria from social networks against the potential factors that characterize a tourist destination. A second development trend focuses on sentimental analysis for the evaluation of destinations. In this development trend [9] apply the sentimental analysis for the characterization of destinations in Australia, [10] presents a novel hotel selection model driven by online textual reviews based on TripAdvisor web-page, while [11] shows the variation of sentiments against the same tourist service. In this development trend, an additional paper presents a model to rank tourist sites of a city based on sentiments contained in opinions in social networks [12], while a final paper proposes a methodology to identify the Polarity User, since many sentences may not be representative of sentiment in opinion against a tourist attraction [13]. This development trend clearly shows the importance of social networks for sentimental analysis, approaching in an important way to eliminate the subjectivity in the comments against a service or tourist destination. The third and last development trend groups a series of papers where Deep Learning for sentiment analysis stand out. In this development trend, [14] presents a series of Deep Learning models to analyze hotel reviews to identify response strategies [14], while [15] uses different tools from the big data technology based on deep learning models to discover the tourist’s behaviours and perceptions in a tourism destination. In this way, [16] explores distinct relationships between importance, performance and the (a) symmetric impact of service attributes on customer satisfaction (CS) using deep learning models equally, while [17] use deep learning models in forecasting monthly Macau tourist arrival volumes. A final paper presents a machine learning approach for the identification of the deceptive reviews in the hospitality sector using unique attributes and sentiment orientation [18]. It is important to note the relevance that the deep learning models have gained in the analysis of sentiments in social networks, specifically to identify behaviours and perceptions to improve services in tourist destinations. In the scientific literature, it can be seen the absence of models that allow evaluating the change of perception of tourists in social networks against different potential factors or natural events that may affect a tourist destination. In order to create an objective perception against this change of perception based on comments of tourists in a social

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network as Twitter, and according to Second and Third development trend, a Stacked Deep Learning model [19] based on PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) methodology [20] was proposed. The structure of the model has a Fully Connected Layer (FCL) defined by a Loglogistic cumulative distribution function (Softmax function), which will allow the classification of these comments in Positive Affects (PA) and Negative Affects (NA) categories, as well as in the following 11-sentiments or categories that define a PANAS-t scale: Guilt, Fear, Sadness, Hostility, Shyness, Fatigue, Surprise, Joviality, Self-assurance, Attentiveness and Serenity. According to the structure of the activation function, this scale goes from −1 − Guilt to 1 − Serenity [1]. For the analysis and validation of the proposed model, a total of 93.693 comments (5words) were obtained from the Twitter social network. In a first stage (Learning Stage), the comments were grouped in PA and NA categories (PANAS scale), as well as in the 11-sentiment categories that define the PANAS-t scale (Baseline Scenario). In a second stage (Autonomy Validation), the comments were additionally grouped taking into account four tourist destinations as Colombia, Italy, Spain and USA, and for before and during COVID-19 worldwide pandemic to analyze the change of perception of tourists against this destinations. The results show that the model reached compression rates above 80% on average for the configuration of stacked neuron layers, taking as a reference the first layer of neurons, and an auto-encoder strategy [21]. Regarding a learning stage, the model reached sensitivity and specificity indices above 85% on average against the classification of comments as PA or NA, while for the characterization of the categories defined by the PANAS-t scale (11-sentiments), the model reached IOAs above 95% on average taking as reference the Log-logistic function that defines the FCL. According to the second stage (Autonomy Validation), it is important to note that the model managed to identify the negative effects that the COVID-19 pandemic generates on four tourist destinations defined by this study in absence of a learning process, which shows, in general, the good behaviour achieved by the model in the characterization of comments on Twitter for a specific tourist destination in an objective manner. The paper has four sections that clearly describe the structure of the proposed model against the change of perception of tourists in Twitter against a tourist destination that may be affected by a potential factor such as worldwide COVID19 pandemic. A first section describes the methodology for the construction of the proposed model taking into account the PANAS-t methodology. A second section shows the analysis and evaluation of the model’s behaviour against the change of perception, and finally, a series of conclusions and recommendations are presented as future work.

2 Methodology Social networks have become reference tools for the analysis of people’s perception of products and services in the economy. Regarding tourism, the Twitter social network is being used more and more by the tourists to explore potential tourist destinations to visit. From this information, the tourists create their own opinions about costumes, political stability and in general, about the security of a country. However, social networks do not allow creating a unified change of perception about a tourist destination. To solve this problem, we propose the following methodology.

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2.1

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PANAS-x Scale

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) consists of two 10-item scales to provide measures of Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) against a particular emotion. In this methodology, a respondent is asked to rate a particular experience (usually during last week), taking as a reference a 5-point scale per item. Each item is defined by a series of words related a lexicon. Meanwhile, the PANAS-x scale, not only rates a particular emotion in NA or PA, but also rates an emotion in 11 specific sentiments such as Guilt, Fear, Sadness, Hostility, Shyness, Fatigue, Surprise, Joviality, Self-Assurance, Attentiveness, and Serenity [1]. Goncalves et al. [1] summarize the common words used to describe each sentiment according to PANAS scale, the NA category groups words like nervous and scared, while the PA category groups words such as enthusiastic and excited. These words describe clearly the state of mind of a person against a feeling. Unlike the POMS scale (Profiles of Mood States), which establishes six different dimensions of mood swings (12-sentiments), the PANAS-x methodology had exhibited minor values of correlation among the 11-sentiments scale, what was brought about a better characterization of sentiments. 2.2

Adjusting PANAS-x for Tourism (PANAS-t - Case of Study)

According to the PANAS-x methodology, we proceed to create a database consisting of a total of 93.634 comments related with four tourist destinations (Colombia, Italy, Spain, USA), obtaining from Twitter social network throughout 2020 using a webscraping methodology. Each comment or Tweet is defined by a total of 5-words and was classified as Negative (NA) and Positive (PA) categories according to expert criteria. The words that make up each comment was lemmatized, tokenized and standardized to achieve stability in models by adaption and learning [2]. Later, each comment was classified in 11-sentiment categories (PANAS-t scale), as well as, for before (Baseline scenario) and during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic (Autonomy scenario). The Baseline scenario of comments is defined as follows (Table 1): as ¼

jTs j jT j

ð1Þ

Where: s: Represents the sentiments or categories (PANAS - t). Ts : Tweets for each s category. T: Total tweets that make up the database for before the COVID-19 pandemic (Baseline case).

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A. Peña et al. Table 1. Baseline Scenario - Fraction of tweets for each sentiment

For the analysis and validation of the proposed model, the comments were grouped in data for a learning phase (50% - 46.817 - First Stage), and data for validation or autonomy evaluation (50% - 46.817 - Second Stage), and were grouped taking into account four tourist destinations: Colombia, Italy, Spain and USA. 2.3

PANAS-t Deep Learning Model (PANAS-tDL)

For the analysis of change of perception based on PANAS-t methodology, a PANAStDL model inspired by a Stacked Deep Learning model is proposed [19, 22]: 0

1

B ysk ¼ Softmax@

1 C
c A

1þ

ð2Þ

S jn m

Where: ysk: Represents the Softmax function against a PANAS-t sentiment scale. The Softmax function can be expressed as follows [23]:   ysk ¼ max Sj1 ; Sj2 ; . . .; Sjn

ð3Þ

Where: k: Represents the number of tweets or comments. Sjn : Represents the fully connected layer - FCL, which can be expressed as follows: Sjn ¼

Xnn jn¼1

wjn ;jn1 . . .:


Xn 2 j2 ¼1



wj2 ;j1 :xj1 ;i



ð4Þ

Where: jn : Represents the jn sentiment. wjn ;jn1 : Represents the relationships among the jn and jn1 layers. xj1 ;k : Represents the input vector or tweet. i: Represents the i word for the k tweet or comment. nn : Number of neurons for the n layer. When the nn ¼ 1, the Softmax activation function represents the Canonical Cumulative Distribution Function for the classification of sentiments taking as reference the PANAS-t scale (Table 2):

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Table 2. Cumulative distribution softmax function Lower Limit (sjn) −∞ −1 −0.78 −0.56 −0.34 0.12 0.1 0.32 0.54 0.76 0.98

Upper Limit (sjn) −1 −0.78 −0.56 −0.34 0.12 0.1 0.32 0.54 0.76 0.98 ∞

Sentiment Guilt Fear Sadness Hostility Shyness Fatigue Surprise Joviality Self-Assurance Attentiveness Serenity

ysk 0.00669 0.01984 0.05732 0.154446 0.35434 0.62245 0.83201 0.93702 0.97811 0.99260 0.99912

According to the structure that defines the PANAS-tDL model, the configuration of layers is based on an auto-encoder strategy [21]. In turn, The FCL configuration is based on Generalized Delta Rule [15]. 2.4

Metrics

Index of Compression. The Index of Compression (IC) indicates the compression rates that a layer of neurons is capable of generating on the input data, as a result of an auto-encoder strategy. The IC can be defined by the Index of Agreement as follows (IOA):

qxy ¼

rxy rx :ry

ð5Þ

Where: qxy : Index of Compression or Index of Agreement (IOA). rx : Standard deviation for the input vector xj1 ;i . ry: Standard deviation for the output vector xj1 ;i . rxy: Covariance between the input (xj1 ;i;i ) and output vectors (xj1 ;i;o ). Confusion Matrix. The confusion matrix is known as the matrix error, and is used to evaluate a model against the classification of data in two categories (PA, NA) (Table 3):

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A. Peña et al. Table 3. Confusion matrix Predicted values

Actual values PA NA PA TP FP NA FN TN

Where: PA: Number of positive records. NA: Number of negative records. TP: Number of true positive records. FP: Number of false positive records. FN: Number of false negative records. TN: Number of true positive records. TPR ¼

TP TP þ FN

ð6Þ

Where: TPR: True positive rate or sensitivity. TNR ¼

TN TN þ FP

ð7Þ

Where: TNR: True negative rate or specificity. Radar Chart. The radar matrix is known the chart of multidimensional classification and allows to evaluate the model against the number of sentiments correctly classified according to PANAS-t scale. This chart has a PA zone (left side) and a NA zone (right side), while the axis is defined by 11- sentiment defined by the FCL (−1 − Guilt to 1 − Serenity). Relative evaluation: Let S the set of tweets for a particular event of risk (e.g. COVID19, natural disasters, political events, etc.) and Ss the subset of these tweets related to s sentiment. bs : represents the relative occurrence of sentiment s for event S. The bs can be expressed as follows [1]: bs ¼

jSs j S

ð8Þ

Dimensional Sentiment: Let s categories that define the PANAS-t scale, the Score Function P (s) can be expressed as follows:

PðSÞ ¼

ð a s  bs Þ if bs  as as

PðSÞ ¼ 

ðbs  as Þ if bs  as bs

ð9Þ ð10Þ

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The values for P(s) is defined by the interval [− 1,1] for each s sentiment. PðSÞ ¼ 0 means that the event has no increase or decrease for the s sentiment in comparison with the Ts database. A PðSÞ  0 represents an increase for a s sentiment, while a PðSÞ  0 represent a decrease for a s sentiment. Skewness Index. The Skewness Index (SI) is a measure of the asymmetry of a probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its mean. The SI index can be expressed:

  Xl SI ¼ E r

ð11Þ

Where: For Cumulative Distribution Function, the SI can be zero (CDFs -Centred), Negative (CDFs - Heavy tails) and Positive (CDFs - Long tails) [24]. 2.5

Experimental Validation

For the analysis and validation of the PANAS-tDL model, two stages were considered. In a first stage, each tweet (comments), record or input vector (xj1,i) was defined for a total of five (5) words and their multiples. Each tweet was classified as a Negative (NA) and Positive (PA) comment, as well as, classified according to the words that define a sentimental category in the PANAS-t scale (11-sentiment). In general, the database of comments (DC) was segmented in comments for learning process (Learning stage - 50%), and validation comments (Autonomy validation - 50%). Regarding the first stage is expected that the model reaches values above 75% on average against the PA and NA classification taking as reference the Confusion Matrix (Eqs. 9 & 10), as well as, values above 90% on average for cumulative distribution function (CDF) integrated into FCL (e.g. Learning Stage, Autonomy Validation). In the first stage, the structure of the model was evaluated according to the structure of layers, taking as reference the first layer of neurons (nj1 ). Here, the model is expected to reach compression rates (IC) close to 90% as a result of an auto-encoder learning strategy. In a second stage (Autonomy Stage), the model was evaluated in the absence of a learning process based on the Relative evaluation metric (Eq. 8). Here, the comments were grouped in four worldwide tourist destinations: Colombia, Spain, Italy and the USA. The comments also were grouped for before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Here, the proposed model is expected to evolve into the negative zone (NA) of the Radar Chart due mainly to the impact of the COVID19 pandemic ðPðsÞ  0Þ. Regarding the structure and shape of the activation function that defines the FCL, the proposed model is expected to evolve toward CDFs more slender with log tail structures ðSI ðsÞ  0Þ, with Skewness Indexes higher that the SIs that defines the Baseline scenario for each tourist destination. This evolution will allow evaluating the impact of COVID-19 has had in terms of comments or perceptions from tourists against a destination.

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3 Analysis and Discussion of Results In the Fig. 1 it can be seen the normalized values for the configuration of the structure for the PANAS-tDL model (Number of Layers, Number of Neurons per Layer, Compression Index (IC Index), Limit of Compression). In Table 4 it can be seen the last value achieved by the IC index, which was above 85%. Despite the number of layers and the number of neurons for the first layer was increased, the IC index did not change approximately from 8-layers and for 800-neurons as show the IC curve (Green line).

Fig. 1. PANAS-tDL model structure

Table 4. PANAS-tDL structure n 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0

N Layers 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0

NO Fist Layer CI 0.010 0.2591 0.037 0.3373 0.037 0.3546 0.185 0.3888 0.480 0.5906 0.495 0.7416 0.925 0.8738 1 0.8793

Table 5 shows the results reached by the model against the classification of comments as PA and NA sentiments in the Frist Stage, taking the Confusion Matrix as reference. The results show that the PANAS-tDL model reached classification percentages above 85% on average for the sensitivity (Eq. 6) and for specificity (Eq. 7), which shows a priori the good behavior of the model according to the Softmax activation function for a nn ¼ 1 (Eq. 2).

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Figure 2 shows the good behaviour achieved by the proposed PANAS-tDL model during the learning stage about the CDF (Orange Line - SI = 0.290816). In general, the model reached an Index of Agreement (IOA) close to 98% on average taking as reference the Baseline scenario represented by the Log-logistic CDF structure that defines the FCL (Blue line SI = 0.589903). Meanwhile, Fig. 3 shows the characterization of the sentiments in each category that define the PANAS-t scale. The radar chart shows the slight trend of the PANAS-tDL model to classify PA comments in a better way, due to a lower value reached against the SI index. This behaviour was mainly due to the complexity involved in the classification of sentiments in the limit between PA and NA, as shown in the confusion matrix. Table 5. Confusion matrix - learning stage Learning Stage PA NA Indices PA 19113 2792 TPR 0.872540 NA 2230 18550 TNR 0.892685

Fig. 2. Cumulative Distribution Function PANAS-tDL model structure (Learning Stage)

Figure 4 shows the CDF given by the PANAS-tDL (Orange line – SI = 0.750858), taking as reference the CDF that represent the Baseline scenario for the validation of the proposed model (Blue Line SI = 0.617066462). It can be seen that the model reach an IOA above to 95% in the characterization of sentiments in absence of a learning process, despite the IOA value was located slightly below the IOA achieved by the model in the learning stage. However, this fact guarantees the good behaviour of the model in the characterization of sentiments in the absence of a learning process. According to CDF (Orange line), the proposed model has a slight trend to classify in a better way NA comments as shown a higher SI value reached. This behaviour was extended from the learning stage.

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Fig. 3. Radar Plot - Configuration Sentiment Structure (Learning Stage)

Fig. 4. Cumulative Distribution Function PANAS-tDL model structure (Autonomy Behavior)

Figure 5 show the CDF for the comments grouped under the label of Colombia for before and the current impact of COVID-19. Here, it can be seen that the CDF (currently - COVID-19) showed characteristics similar to slender CDFs (Orange line SI = 0.92693). Regarding the Baseline scenario for Colombia (Blue line - SI = 0.4707791), the CDFs given by the model showed long-tail structures with a SI value much higher, which indicates the presence of a large number of NA comments regarding this tourism destination. This behaviour can be observed in the radar chart (Fig. 6), where the currently comments for Italy were located toward the negative zone (Right side Orange line), standing out in the comments sentiments like Fear, Sadness and Hostility, which clearly shows the impact of COVID-19 on this tourism destination [22, 25].

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Fig. 5. CDF PANAS-tDL model - Impact COVID-19 (Colombia)

Fig. 6. Radar Chart - Impact COVID-19 (Italy)

Table 6 shows the values reached by the proposed model for P(s). Here, you can see how the perception of tourists evolved into NA comments for Italy destination (change perception), taking as reference the Eqs. 9 & 10. This fact corroborates once again the good performance of the PANAS-tDL in absence of a learning process, constituting as a tool for the objective evaluation of sentiments based on comments in Twitter social network.

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as 0.000225 0.002303 0.012444 0.044689 0.112809 0.193512 0.218584 0.171889 0.107176 0.060040 0.032670

bs 0.005799 0.102220 0.428756 0.338684 0.093760 0.022033 0.005847 0.001790 0.000620 0.000237 0.000005

P (s) 0.706618 0.718984 0.746576 0.490491 −0.302408 −0.645733 −0.611050 −0.718733 −0.639669 −0.614957 −0.726156

4 Conclusions and Future Work The proposed model allowed to evaluate the change of perception against different worldwide tourist destinations, taking as reference a set of comments placed by users in Twitter. This change of perception was characterized on 11sentiment categories defined by the PANAS-t scale, where the proposed model clearly showed the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on different tourist destinations from the point of view of a social network. The Radar Chart shows, in general, the gap among the Baseline Scenario (Blue line) and the characterization carried out by the model against two stages defined by this study (Orange line) (Fig. 3). This fact was mainly due to the complexity that involves the classification process against neutral sentiments as Fatigue and Surprise. However, the model can be able to identify in a better way the change of perception of comments (PA to NA) in the absence of a learning process. For its capacity of adaptation, the proposed model can be extended for the characterization of worldwide tourist destinations using different social networks, and to characterize these destinations based on NA or PA events, or against potential factors as weather conditions, holidays, seasonality and economic factors. Here, the change of perception can be used to evaluate different marketing strategies to promote services, facilities and amenities in this same tourist destinations. As future work, the authors propose the creation of a specific methodology for the analysis and characterization of tourist destinations integrating different comments from social networks specialized in tourism. In this sense, to achieve a better characterization, the authors also propose the use of neuron layers using radial basis structures, to achieve an affinity between comments and characteristics of a tourist destination. Acknowledgements. This work is financed by portuguese national funds through FCT Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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The Impact of COVID-19 on Cultural Tourism: Virtual Exhibitions, Technology and Innovation Sara Pascoal(&)

, Laura Tallone

, and Marco Furtado

CEI – P.Porto, Porto, Portugal {spascoal,lauratal,mfurtado}@iscap.ipp.pt

Abstract. This chapter approaches the COVID-19 crisis by arguing how cultural institutions can mobilize, transition and adapt to the decrease in cultural tourism, as well as mitigate the negative impact felt during the pandemic. An assessment will be carried out to analyse data related to a virtual exhibition of the Museum of International Sculpture of Santo Tirso (MIEC), curated by students and teachers at the Master’s Programme in Intercultural Studies for Business (MISB), on display at the Google Arts & Culture platform. In addition, the chapter intends to show the importance of both managing a strategic online presence and of incorporating technology and the Internet into creative businesses, which also encourage the development of niche cities. Keywords: Cultural tourism Technology
COVID-19


Creative tourism
Google Arts & Culture


1 Introduction COVID-19 has brought museums and culture to the digital realm. In times of pandemic, with museums closed all around the world, culture and art had to resort to nontraditional strategies, in order to respond to and mitigate the negative economic and cultural impacts of prolonged inactivity. As some recent surveys have shown [1], more than 60% of museums worldwide have increased their online presence, using social media, online tours or virtual exhibitions. These institutions are looking out for “likes”, views and statistics, in order to assess the public’s response and level of engagement. Using high-resolution images and videos of artworks and cultural artifacts, together with the Google Street View, Google has partnered with over 2,000 cultural institutions from over 80 countries to make art worldwide available. One of those institutions is the Porto Accounting and Business School (ISCAP), which belongs to one of Portugal’s largest and most prestigious state-run Polytechnic Institutes, the Polytechnic Institute of Porto (IPP). This partnership between ISCAP and Google has provided an opportunity for our students to carry out a research project involving the creation of a virtual exhibition. In the years 2017–18 and 2018–2019, the Master’s Programme in Intercultural Studies for Business worked in collaboration with the Santo Tirso International Museum of Contemporary Sculpture (http://miec.cm-stirso.pt/en/). In times of quarantine, the virtual tour around this unusual museum in a small city in northern Portugal, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 177–185, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_16

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provides data allowing for an assessment of the increase in the number of visitors, as well as of MIEC’s growing visibility and potential to become a main cultural feature, by bringing cultural tourism to the digital domain. This capacity to adapt to new conditions becomes especially relevant when considering the public nature of MIEC, which relies on its being widely available to the public and the community to fulfil its cultural and social mission. In addition, virtual exhibitions and museums digital presence are also of great value in order to lessen the negative impact of COVID-19 on tourism and cultural activities. Culture, together with entertainment, has turned out to be a booming phenomenon during the confinement period and people have been demanding for travel experiences from their homes, visiting online heritage sites, museums and performance venues.

2 Virtual Exhibitions and Online Presence Technological development and the widespread use of smartphones and tablets have contributed to the growth of virtual exhibitions, making it possible to overcome the limitations imposed by physical ones and to increase user interactivity, as they are very efficient solutions offering a number of economic advantages. As defined by Foo [2], a virtual exhibition (VE): […] is a Web-based hypermedia collection of captured or rendered multidimensional information objects, possibly stored in distributed networks, designed around a specific theme, topic concept or idea, and harnessed with state-of-art technology and architecture to deliver the usercentered and engaging experience of discovery, learning, contributing and being entertained through its nature of its dynamic product and service offerings.

If virtual exhibitions have in the past been criticized for their lack of “real experience”, today’s technological developments allow for immersion and interactivity solutions that should not be neglected. The potential for the virtualization of national and international heritage and treasures has already been highlighted [3], as museums and archive collections are thus no longer limited by temporal, spatial, or geographical constraints. Anyone, at any time, may access the contents on display, making the most of the artefacts shown to an increasingly large audience. Virtual exhibitions have the advantage of providing free access to collections that would otherwise remain unknown or hidden from view. Several museums and institutions have therefore created digital collections and virtual visits, combining them with educational strategies for the advancement of these institutions. These strategies often work as encouragement for the actual visit or as reminders of previous physical visits, which may thus be completed through digitised information. In fact, the mission of museums has changed dramatically over the past few years – whereas formerly focused on the preservation and safekeeping of precious works of art, heritage or cultural heritage, museums have nowadays taken on an additional educational role [4].

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To this end, institutions must focus on strengthening their image and branding through promotional and marketing campaigns, not only through the necessary use of more traditional means, such as publications, lectures and symposia, but also through the strategic organization of properly planned and executed virtual exhibitions. Such an approach may also contribute to highlight the institutional relevance and the social value of the organization, therefore creating a strong public profile. In turn, increasing the visibility and brand of institutions may improve their chances to ensure adequate funding and other resources, vital for their sustainability and future growth. In fact, although the importance of virtual exhibitions was dismissed or neglected for several years, their current role has been increasingly pointed out, due to its multimodal character. As Foo explains: While VEs have been critiqued in the past for their inability to provide the experience of the “real thing”, VEs can allow users to understand, discover, learn and do far more than physical exhibitions. By adopting a carefully researched user-centered design, VEs through hyperlinking supports both linear and non-linear discovery and learning pathways, creating learning opportunities that are difficult to replicate in physical exhibitions. The ability to engage in multiple forms of media (text, image, audio, sound, video, augmented reality and virtual reality components) on one page, having the ability to reverse, revisit, translate and read text tailored for different user groups, proficiencies and requirements, immersion in well-crafted theme games, etc., collective helps to establish a deeper sense of understanding, awareness, and learning of contents than physical exhibits. VEs are therefore no longer viewed as passing fads but an important logical companion and extension to physical exhibitions [2 sic].

The COVID-19 crisis has shown more than ever before that online presence is an important tool to empower audiences. Through the creation of virtual tours and the use of social media and hashtags to share and classify contents, audiences are given the opportunity to truly engage with the collections contained in museums and other cultural institutions. Of course, all these strategies must be coherently designed, assessed and monitored in order to be truly effective.

3 MIEC’s Online Virtual Exhibition: Results of an Ongoing Project Today, it is undeniable that cultural heritage has the potential to encourage socioeconomic development, as proved by the direct relationship found between the presence and promotion of that heritage and an increase in tourism. On the other hand, the advancement of cultural heritage has been incorporating more digital tools – virtual visits to museums and cities’ architectural treasures, digitalisation and online publication of images, documents and records, as well as the use of audio-guides, screens and apps for visit and narrative designs that may appeal to visitors, are just some examples of the role played by technology in the dissemination, democratisation and monetisation of culture. The purpose of this ongoing project was to encourage our students’ critical analysis of these phenomena, by means of the construction of a virtual exhibition on the Google Arts & Culture platform. Using the artworks contained in the collection of the Santo Tirso International Museum of Contemporary Sculpture (MIEC), the exhibit was also

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an opportunity to make the city of Santo Tirso and its artistic and architectural heritage better known, as well as to promote contemporary public art as part of the Portuguese cultural legacy. MIEC is an open-air museum comprising 57 pieces by sculptors from different nationalities. Most of those pieces were built during ten sculpture symposia held between 1990 and 2015. Unlike what is usually the case for this type of initiative, the artworks are not found in a single sculpture park, but scattered all around the town and its surroundings, over a 15-square-mile radius. Opened in 2016, the museum’s head office is located in the former São Bento Monastery, a 17th-century building restored and renovated by architects Souto de Moura and Siza Vieira. In the school years of 2017 and 2018, the students of French/German/Spanish Culture for Business III, and Technology for Intercultural Communication of ISCAP’s Master’s Programme in Intercultural Studies for Business (MISB) participated in a PBL strategy, and were invited to carry out the collection and treatment of graphic and documental material, along with the creation of texts and individual presentations leading to the construction of a virtual exhibition in the Google Arts & Culture platform. For that purpose, a partnership was established between the three institutions involved – ISCAP, Google Arts & Culture and MIEC, which provided access to their archives. The first stage of the project consisted in two field trips to Santo Tirso’s MIEC (one for each school year), made by both students and teachers, during which it was possible to observe the pieces up close, take in their relationship with the surrounding landscape and take photographs and video images of the piece to be dealt with by each student. The second stage involved the treatment of all the collected material, complemented by three workshops for the correct use of the necessary digital tools, such as the workshops on creative writing, Photoshop and Adobe Premiere. As a result of the first group’s work, the virtual exhibition [5] featuring ten MIEC pieces was launched in October 2019. Another ten will soon be added. Other results include several academic papers and three master’s theses – one concluded and two in progress1 –, as well as a YouTube channel still under construction, comprising the students’ videos and presentations.

4 Statistical Data In this section, visits to the virtual exhibition are analysed, considering the data retrieved from the Google Arts & Culture platform for the period between mid-October 2019 and April 2020. Particular attention is paid to the data concerning three different aspects, i.e. page views, number of page viewers, viewers’ geographical point of access. In addition, the analysis focuses on the number of page viewers before and during the confinement periods due to the current COVID-19 pandemic.

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One of the theses reports the construction of a second phase of the exhibition, incorporating storytelling and transcreation techniques for text writing.

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As shown in Fig. 1, over 300 page views were recorded in the first two weeks after the exhibit was launched on the Google Arts & Culture platform (approximately in mid-October 2019), with a tenfold increase in that number the following month.

Fig. 1. Total number of page views (Oct. 2019 – Apr. 2020)

The comparatively high number of page views recorded in October and November may be related to the novelty of the exhibition, which might have aroused the curiosity and interest of regular visitors to the Google Arts & Culture platform. It might as well have been the result of direct and indirect dissemination carried out by partner institutions and stakeholders taking part in the project. In any case, the graph also shows that those numbers plummeted in December, possibly due to factors related to the Christmas season, school holidays, etc. The number of page views starts to slightly rise in January 2020, only to drop again to less than half in February, when the world’s attention was beginning to focus on the COVID-19 outbreak and progress. March and April each register a number of page views that almost doubled the total of the three previous months combined. This significant increase coincided with the mandatory confinement of the population worldwide, in order to contain the spread of the COVID19 outbreak, as well as with the compulsory closure of public and private institutions, including museums and art galleries, which turned online exhibitions as practically the only way of accessing artworks on public display. As for the number of viewers during the period under analysis (see Fig. 2), November 2019 also shows a remarkable increase to almost ten times the number of the previous month:

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Fig. 2. Total number of viewers (Oct. 2019 – Apr. 2020)

At first glance, a similar evolution may be observed in the number of page views and the number of visitors, a fact probably tied to the same reasons as those used to interpret Fig. 1. More viewers visited the exhibition in November, followed by three months when the number of viewers fell considerably. Numbers began to go up again in March and April, with almost a tenfold increase in April, if compared to February, when the lowest number was recorded. It is also worth pointing out that the virtual exhibition has been accessed from a wide variety of countries. According to the data retrieved from the Google Arts & Culture platform, the highest number of countries was reached in November, as shown in Fig. 3: As seen in the chart above, viewers from more than 60 different countries have so far visited the MIEC online exhibition. In contrast with the previous two charts, however, April registered a slight decrease in the number of countries, which means that there was a higher number of visitors concentrated in a lower number of countries. These data confirm the international and intercultural nature of MIEC, as its collection in Santo Tirso is made up of pieces created by artists from all over the world and has been physically visited by a great number of international tourists. Figure 4 highlights the countries providing the highest number of online visitors to the MIEC virtual exhibition: As expected, the highest number of visitors, almost 600, come from Portugal, followed by those from North and South America (particularly Brazil, Canada and the USA) with almost 300 visitors, other European countries (France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain) with almost 250 visitors, and the Asian continent (including India, Japan, Korea and The Russian Federation) with over 100 visitors.

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Fig. 3. Number of viewers’ countries (Oct. 2019 – Apr. 2020)

Fig. 4. Number of viewers from main countries (Oct. 2019 – Apr. 2020)

In order to observe the possible influence of the two-month confinement period on the growth in the number of visitors to the MIEC online exhibition, Fig. 5 shows the variation in these numbers according to the main countries already mentioned, for the periods of December 2019 – February 2020 (before mandatory confinement) and March – April 2020 (during mandatory confinement):

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Fig. 5. Number of viewers (before and during Confinement Periods)

An overall increase in the number of visitors may be observed during the confinement period, except those from Korea and India, where the numbers remained stable, and Italy and Japan, for which a slight decrease was recorded. When compared to the three-month period before mandatory confinement, the total number of visitors from most countries grew at an average rate of 3.9 in the two-month confinement period. The most striking differences, however, may be observed in the two Portuguese-speaking countries shown in Fig. 5 – in Brazil, the number of visitors rose approximately ten times, reaching almost 60 viewers, whereas in Portugal, the confinement period led more than 260 viewers to visit the MIEC online virtual exhibition.

5 Conclusions The implementation of an interdisciplinary PBL approach, involving students, teachers and external institutions, such as MIEC, in the design of a virtual exhibition on the Google Arts & Culture platform, meets training requirements that respond to the demands of the market, by engaging students in the creation and management of a project combining cultural entrepreneurship and creative industries. Taking as a starting point MIEC’s exceptional collection, students were challenged to investigate the concept of public art in more depth, as well as its connection with the surrounding space and the target audience. They also had to create a narrative that would support the presentation and curation of a virtual exhibition, with the purpose of promoting and providing access to the collection of this Museum to a wider audience. Most especially, they experienced the sense of accomplishment provided by participating in a genuine project and carrying out a real task with measurable effects in publicizing the Museum [6]. In addition, the Google Arts & Culture platform has the advantage of providing gigapixel images, allowing for the creation of virtual exhibitions that are not limited to recreating the physical museum but work as an extension of the cultural and tourist experience [7].

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In times of COVID-19, with every museum closed, it is even more interesting to assess the importance of virtual exhibitions and digital presence. We know that the novel coronavirus will be with us for a long time, but we do not know if and when another pandemic will strike. Museums and cultural institutions play a crucial role in preserving culture and heritage, educating audiences and promoting their enjoyment. It is therefore interesting to analyse their response to the crisis. Directly and heavily affected by the decrease in tourism [1], museums had to rely on their virtual presence. Two out of five museums worldwide have reported an increase in online visits, ranging from 10% to 150% [1]. The data obtained from the Google Arts & Culture platform are consistent with this tendency. Once the second phase of the exhibition currently under construction is online, additional data will provide a more comprehensive view of the long-term impacts of this type of initiative, which will certainly call for further research. Furthermore, due to the prominence given by MIEC to the city, Santo Tirso is gradually building up a reputation as a niche city [8], which not only encourages local and regional development, but helps alleviate the pressure of mass tourism to the main urban centres, by diverting them to other, smaller destinations, without reaching the “point of excess”.

References 1. NEMO Report on museums during COVID-19 (2020). https://www.nemo.org/fileadmin/ Dateien/public/NEMO_documents/NEMO_COVID19_Report_12.05.2020.pdf 2. Foo, S.: Online virtual exhibitions: concepts and design considerations. Bull. Inform. Technol. 28(4), 23 (2008) 3. Lester, P.: Is the virtual exhibition the natural successor to the physical? J. Soc. Arch. 27(1), 85–101 (2007) 4. Gombault, A.: La nouvelle identité organisationnelle des musées. Le cas du Louvre, Revue française de gestion, nº142, pp. 189–203 (2003). https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-degestion-2003-1.html 5. https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/iscap-porto-accounting-and-business-school 6. Pascoal, S., Tallone, L., Furtado, M., Ribeiro, S.: Promover o património cultural através do empreendedorismo e da criatividade: o projeto Google Arts & Culture, in Sensos-E, Revista Multimédia de Investigação em Educação, InED - Centro de Investigação e Inovação em Educação, da Escola Superior de Educação do Instituto Politécnico do Porto (2019). https:// parc.ipp.pt/index.php/sensos/article/view/3038/1497 7. Deuschel, T., Heuss, T., Humm, B.: The digital online museum: a new approach to experience virtual heritage In: Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives (SDA 2014) co-located with the International Digital Libraries Conference (DL 2014), London, UK, 12 Sept 2014 8. Fistola, R., La Rocca, R.A.: Driving functions for urban sustainability: the double-edged nature of urban tourism. In Brebbia, C.A., Galiano-Garrios, A. (eds.) Urban Regeneration and Sustainability, Wittpress, Southampton - Boston, pp. 69–78 (2017). https://doi.org/10.2495/ sdp-v12-n3-425-434/008

Digital Transformation: Certified Accountants’ Perceptions of the Evolution in the Quality of Online Taxation Services Pedro Coelho1, Albertina Paula Monteiro2 and Cláudia Pereira3(&)

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ISCAP|P.PORTO, Porto, Portugal [email protected] 2 CEOS.PP|ISCAP|P.PORTO, Porto, Portugal [email protected] CEOS.PP|ISCAP|P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim s/n, S. Mamede de Infesta, 4465-004 Porto, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. In this study, we analyse the quality of Portuguese public online service provided in the Finance Portal by Tax Administration and its evolution across the last decade. For that purpose, we focus on the five SERVQUAL online dimensions and convenience dimension. In addition, we examine if they are determinants of the users’ satisfaction based on the Structured Experience Theory. To collect data, we performed a survey for a sample of certified accountants, that are primary users of the Finance Portal. The evidence collected suggests that the security, empathy and convenience dimensions are the most critical features of the Finance Portal. Conversely, our results show that new services provided online tend to have better quality than older services. Besides, we find a negative evolution on the perceptions of the quality regarding the on line taxation services over the last 10 years. This study is important to Governments, fiscal authorities and specifically to the Finance Portal coordinators by giving some insights that may assist to improve the online services by providing specific perceptions of users regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the online services. Keywords: Service quality
Online taxation services
Finance Portal Administration
E-Government
SERVPERF
Certified accountants


Tax

1 Introduction New technology has been changing businesses’ models making most of them obsolete (Day-Yang et al. 2011). One of the main objectives of the European Union (EU) is creating and promoting digital solutions (Moroz 2018). This author states that the economy has been adjusted to the online era following the digital transformation. Digital transformation is the integration of digital technologies in business processes (Bharadwaj, 2000). Digital transformation is inevitable to every sector of the activity including the public administration. According to European Commission (EC), © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 186–201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_17

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Portugal is one of the 5 countries with the best performance in terms of online service completion (EU 2020). Rotchanakitumnuai (2008), refers that digital pubic service (e-Government) has great impact in the government’s operations due to the improvement of the service’s quality and the reduction of operations’ costs of the companies. Web Sites are useful tools because it enhances the public services provided, thus the objective of the web sites should be oriented to the improvement of the users’ satisfaction (Pinho et al. 2007; Monteiro 2007). To assess service quality, it is widely used the SERVQUAL model. This model includes 5 dimensions (reliability, security, tangibility, empathy and responsiveness) and the service provider must take the appropriate actions to avoid customer dissatisfaction (Ellis et al. 2017). With this concern, the present study intends to evaluate the evolution of the public service quality (SERVQUAL online service) provided in the Finance Portal in the last 10 years The Finance Portal is a web site that consists of a powerful tool through which the Tax Administration (TA) offers a variety of online services to taxpayers, providing, on the one hand, greater convenience to users, on the other hand, a significant reduction in processing costs, as well as in the indexes of tax evasion. Besides, this study also matters because Finance Portal is getting compulsory to comply with tax obligations. Therefore, to enhance the fulfillment of its tax obligations via online, TA shall be committed to provide its users with a portal that meets certain quality requirements. With this article we contribute to the existing literature regarding e-Government by providing some insights based on the users’ perceptions regarding the quality of the online taxation services. In addition, this study shows that certified accountants are able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of these online services and thus providing useful information for TA to improve them. In the next section we present the conceptual background of the study. In the third and fourth sections we have the methodology and the analysis and discussion of the result. Finally, in the last section we highlight the main conclusions and make the final considerations.

2 Theoretical Background and Conceptual Research Model 2.1

TA in the e-Government Context

Over the last decades, the services provided by TA has been increasing according to European Commission (EC). The first programme introduced by EC was in December 1999, “eEurope” followed by “eEurpoe Action Plan 2002”, “eEurope 2005” and “i2010”. These projects had an objective of instructing the public administration to implement the proposed actions. Recently, the government presented the 10th edition of simplex – ISIMPLEX 2019 – on which predicts the impact on the simplification of the modernization in the citizens’ life as well in the certified accountants. ICT have a key role in the transformation of the services. The e-Government is the result of the combination between ICT and classic techniques of administration. According to OCDE E-Government Task Force (2003), e-Government is the use of ICT in order to

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improve the services of public administration. It can be concluded that e-Government it is not only a program developed to improve online transactions, but it is also used to include changes in the operations and administrative structure. Grant and Chau (2005) refer that there are several definitions of e-Government and while some focus on the strict use of ICT (particularly the internet as a more efficient tool for the distribution of public services), others present the concept as an effort largely done to transform government (governance). With the advancement of technology and the digitization of processes, there is an increasing monitoring of this evolution by the TA. Processes, that previously required a face-to-face to visit to the TA installations and the consequent waiting time, began to be dealt on an online platform. TA, over the years, has achieved a positive evolution in terms of the number of user registrations, the number of submissions of electronic declarations and the introduction of new services. However, any service, whether in the private or public sector, must be provided with quality, and this must be evaluated essentially from the user’s perspective, with different models in the literature that allow assessing the quality of the service both in the physical and digital environment. 2.2

Service Quality

The service quality assessment has been taking on a priority role in private and public institutions and is an indispensable requirement for consumer/user satisfaction. There are two basic ways of conceiving quality, one from the service provider’s point of view and the other from the user’s perspective. The later evaluates quality according to the expectations on an offer, that is, if the product or service exhibit characteristic that allow to meet his needs (Kotler et al. 2001). Service quality is an important academic and scientific interest area, with special emphasis after the contribution of several authors (Parasuraman et al. 1985). According to Parasuraman et al. (1988), service quality results from the difference between the customer’s expectation and perception regarding the performance of a given service. For Parasuraman et al. (1985), the perceptions originate in the user’s beliefs while their expectations are related to their needs (Parasuraman et al. 1988). On the other hand, Cronin and Taylor (1992) and Grönroos (1994) argue that the service quality comes only from the customer’s perception. Martin (2016) states that, over time, the requirements and standards of customers have been increasing, which raises the development of studies within the scope of service quality assessment. Although the services are intangible, heterogeneous, inseparable and perishable, there are countless authors who develop models that seek to evaluate the quality of the service. In the literature, it suggests several models to assess service quality. However, the best known are the SERVQUAL and SERVPERF models.

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Parasuraman et al. (1985) identify more than 200 attributes that determine the service quality, which are subdivided into 10 dimensions (tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, competence, courtesy, credibility, security, access, communication and understanding). These authors, based on these dimensions, develop the SERVQUAL model that assesses the serve quality through the difference between the customer’s expectation and perception of a given service. Later, Parasuraman et al. (1988) reduced these dimensions in half, with the competence, credibility, security and courtesy were grouped in the security dimension and of communication, understanding and access were combined in the empathy dimension. Thus and according to authors, the five final dimensions of SERVQUAL to evaluate the service quality include the reliability (ability to perform the promised service dependably and effectively), security (knowledge and capacity company to transmit trust and security in the service), tangibility (appearance of the facilities, website, products, personnel, logo, equipment, among others), empathy (care and attention in the relationship established between the company/employees and their customers), and finally, the responsiveness (willingness to help customers and ability to provide a quick service). However, “service quality has been conceptualized with different numbers of dimensions” (Yarimoglu 2015, p. 172). In the SERVQUAL model, according to Parasuraman et al. (1988), service quality evolution is developed in three steps. In the first, the customer creates expectations regarding the service, in the second and after using the service, the customer evaluates the service’s performance received (perception) and, in the last, the customer compares the points mentioned above, determining the difference. In view of a positive result, it can be concluded that the customer’s perception of the service’s performance has exceeded their expectations, which demonstrates quality of the service, otherwise, the service is not presented with quality. However, SERVQUAL model receives several criticisms associated with the gap score, the questionnaire extension, the predictive power of the model and the validity of the five dimensions (Babakus and e Boller 1992; Cronin and Taylor 1992; Teas 1993; Dabholkar et al. 2000; Brady et al. 2002). Butle (1996) argues that service quality, when measured by the difference between expectation and perception, can give rise to a negative externality in relation to the service, as it is easier to create a negative criticism than a positive one, making the quality of the service considered low. On the other hand, Babakus and Boller (1992) and Butle (1996) state that the results may not reflect reality since, using the SERVQUAL model, the survey takes longer and may cause some fatigue in the respondent. According to Cronin and Taylor (1992), the SERVQUAL model, which follows a disconfirmation paradigm, is inadequate to measure satisfaction. On the other hand, Buttle (1996) argues that the use of this paradigm can lead to low expectations, once based on past experiences, praising the harmful effect of negative confirmation, which can be greater than that of positive confirmation. Regarding to expectations, if they are low, it can lead to the nonexistence of a gap between them and perception. Lee and Moghavvemi (2015) state that service quality assessment, based on the SERVQUAL model, is a multidimensional construct, with no consensus on generic dimensions.

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Cronin and Taylor (1992), however, based on the SERVQUAL model, develop the SERVPERF model, which directly evaluates customers’ perception, disregarding their previous expectations in relation to a given service. Numerous authors support the view that SERVPERF is a better alternative than SERVQUAL in measuring service quality. In fact, Oliver and DeSarbo (1988) and Babakus and Boller (1992) state that perception is the result of the difference between the expectation and the perception of the service, and SERVPERF, by excluding the expectation factor, avoids repetition. On the other hand, Teas (1993) indicates that expectations should not be treated as a type of attitude, but as an ideal point, making the model based on the gap inadequate to assess the quality of the service. Loureiro (2006), in turn, supports the use of SERVPERF because it considers that perceptions and expectations assessments is a lengthy process and may cause some discomfort in the respondent. SERVQUAL model, despite all the criticisms, is a reference model and has been used in several studies, both in the services provided physically (Mukherjee and Nath 2003; Casadesús et al. 2002; Donnelly et al. 2000), as digitally (Mukherjee and Nath 2003, Wang and Tang 2003; Kuo 2003). SERVPERF model has been widely used to assess service performance of recent research Yazdani 2020; Ellis et al. 2019, Almurshidee 2018; Akdere et al. 2018). The literature links service performance to Structured Experience Theory, whose propositions incorporate the five dimensions, considering the service quality as perceived actions performed by a provider to avoid the dissatisfaction of its customers (Ellis et al., 2017). This theory was created to identify the strategies that allow to optimize the interactions between participant and provider during participation in a structured experience (Ellis et al. 2019; Ellis et al. 2017; Pine and Gilmore 2011). Ellis et al. (2019, p. 14) indicate that “a priority for future research will be conducting laboratory and field experiments to test propositions” of Structured Experience Theory. TA leaders must focus their attention on internal structural needs, as well as assess the service quality provided to the taxpayer. Considering that most operations are mandatorily carried out on the Finance Portal, TA must offer a service that complies with certain quality requirements and contributes to the satisfaction of its users. 2.3

Service Quality and Satisfaction

The relationship between the service quality and the satisfaction has not been consensual among authors. Some suggest the concepts are similar, on the other hand other consider them the opposite (Dabholkar 1995; Dabholkar et al. 2000; Oliver 1993). According to Dabholkar (1995), while the evaluation of the service quality has a cognitive character, satisfaction integrates simultaneously cognitive and affective elements. This author maintains that these two concepts are different for recent consumers of a product, however, in the long term, the affective dimension tends to fade, and, to this extent, the concepts tend to overlap. If these two concepts are distinct, an issue that immediately arises, is related to their order of occurrence in the consumer’s mind and, as such, in the causal relationship between both. In this regard Dabholkar et al. (2000) argues that, traditionally, most researchers argue that consumer satisfaction, resulting from a certain consumer experience, leads to an overall assessment/attitude overall about the service quality over a given period of time (Parasuraman et al. 1988).

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However, the reverse situation has become more relevant. This position was particularly evidenced by Oliver (1993), who suggested that the service quality should be an antecedent of consumer satisfaction regardless of the experiential character or the time factor. Likewise, Cronin and Taylor (1992) analyze the effect of these concepts in both directions and concluded that the perceived service quality has a greater impact on customer satisfaction than the opposite. Several authors consider service quality as an important antecedent of satisfaction (Chiou et al. 2002; Zhang and Pruybutok 2005; Yarimoglu 2015). In this sense, and based on SERVQUAL online dimension, the first research hypothesis and respective sub-hypotheses are formulated. H1: Service quality perceived by the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction H1.1 - Tangibility of the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. H1.2 - Reliability of the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. H1.3 - Responsiveness of the Finance Portal, has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. H1.4 - Security of the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. H1.5 - Empathy of the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. 2.4

Convenience and Satisfaction

Convenience arises when something adds convenience to the consumer, reducing their effort in time and work (Zhang and Parybutok 2005). According to Berry et al. (2002), convenience is understood as the consumers’ perceptions regarding the time and effort required to buy or consume a product or service. Zhang and Prybutok (2005) concluded that convenience has a direct and positive effect on consumer’s satisfaction. Transposing the concept of convenience to the online service of AT, it can be said that the service is convenient for the taxpayer when it simplifies the fulfillment of tax obligations and allows a high saving of time and effort, when compared to the traditional process. According to Monteiro (2007), the perceived convenience of the service has an impact on the satisfaction of Certified Accountants. Thus, in this study, we also propose to test the second hypothesis of this study. H2: Convenience of the Finance Portal has a positive influence on the Certified Accountants’ satisfaction. Thus, from this study, it is proposed to evaluate the conceptual model presented in Fig. 1.

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SERVICE QUALITY (SERVPERF): Tangibility Reliability Security Empathy

H1

Responsiveness Certified Accountants’ satisfaction

H2

Convenience

Fig. 1. Conceptual model

3 Methodology 3.1

Development of Measure Instruments

The purpose of this article is to evaluate the online service quality of the Finance Portal based on the certified accountants’ perception, taking into account the impact of the different SERVPERF online dimensions, convenience and satisfaction. Besides we also analyse the evolution of these services’ quality. In order to ensure the use of valid and reliable measure instruments for the quality of online services provided by TA. Given the specific features of tax services, the measurement scale used in the study by Monteiro (2007), which is adapted from Yang and Jun (2002), Cai and Jun (2003), Iwaarden et al. (2003), Oliveira et al. (2003) and Brand and Roberts (2003). The scale used allows the assessment of the Certified Accountant’s perception in the different items relate to the five SERVPERF online dimensions, the convenience dimension and the satisfaction dimension The survey was subjected to a pre-test until it was considered that there were no difficulties in completing and interpreting it. The survey consists of the variables to characterize respondents and their perceptions of the main services, in terms of perceived quality of service, that is, 44 items (12 for reliability; 14 for tangibility; 5 for empathy, 5 for security and 8 for responsiveness), convenience of use (3 items) and satisfaction (5 items) (see appendix). Perceptions were measured on a 5-point Likert scale.

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Data Collection Procedures and Sample Description

This study uses inquiry by questionnaire in order to collect data. From May 27th to July 10th of 2019 the questionnaire was shared in the social media by the certified accountants board and was able the collect 248 answers. Out of those, 8 were excluded due to not being certified accountants. As the number of certified accountants was 70,000, the sample is not probabilistic but convenience. The sample is not uniform in terms of gender because 20,7% was male answers while 78,8% were female answers). In addition, most of them have more than 40 years (85,1%), present some type of graduation (80,8%) and have been working in accountant over than 10 years (60,8%). The software used to compute the results was SPSS – Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 24).

4 Empirical Results and Discussion In Table 1 we report the perceptions among the certified accountants and analyse their evolution through the last 10 years by comparing with the study of Monteiro (2007). Opposite to the expected all the electronic services offered by tax authorities get worse. Services related to the consult of tax debts, fiscal infractions and property show the higher decrease in the quality. However, in Monteiro (2007) these services had the greatest results with values within 3.95 and 4.02. Furthermore, the results allow to conclude that the most recent services available such as issuing green invoices and receipts, e-invoice and e-leases exhibit the highest ratings.

Table 1. Evolution of certified accounts’ perceptions regarding online taxation services Services

2007 Mean Exceptional delivery (except heritage) 3.89 Change of address 3.75 Obtaining evidence 3.90 Obtaining prints and forms 3.72 Obtaining/using tax simulators 3.68 Consultation of IRS refunds/payments 3.57 Consultation of tax debts 4.02 Consultation of tax infractions 4.00 Consultation of IRC and/or VAT data 3.75 Consultation of heritage data 3.95 Consultation of information/tax legislation 3.59 Consultation of the tax calendar 3.49

No. 345 213 338 330 318 315 301 282 326 282 288 252

2019 Mean 2.73 2.73 2.57 2.55 2.30 2.66 2.57 2.51 2.47 2.55 2.66 2.37

Evolution No. 240 179 240 234 234 238 237 236 240 218 235 220

−1.16 −1.02 −1.33 −1.17 −1.38 −0.91 −1.45 −1.49 −1.28 −1.40 −0.93 −1.12 (continued)

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2007 Mean No. Identification of customers/suppliers 3.78 247 IMI exemption requests 3.85 67 Buildings inscription 3.77 73 Delivery of IMT declarations 3.76 42 CC Management 3.86 274 Other services 3.68 146 Issuing green invoices and receipts – – e-invoice – – e-lease – – Likert scale of 5 points: 1 = significantly worsened; 5 = Source: Authors’ calculations

2019 Mean No. 2.50 230 2.62 125 2.52 94 2.62 91 2.50 232 2.41 175 3.40 222 3.03 239 3.23 193 significantly

Evolution −1.28 −1.23 −1.25 −1.14 −1.36 −1.27 – – – improved

To further develop this study, we used measurement scales for each SERVPERF online dimension and tested them using a correlation analysis by total scores. This test has been used by many authors in order to maintain the levels of consistency and homogeneity of the scales (Balabanis et al. 1997). As the global score of the item was acceptable (r > 0.25), all the items were considered (Nunnally 1978). Then, the different items were aggregated in a composite variable that is used for subsequent analyzes. To identify the psychometric validity of the scale, the Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated for each SERVPERF online dimension [reliability (a = 0.91); tangibility (a = 0.92); empathy (a = 0.81); security (a = 0.73) and responsiveness (a = 0.81)]. Table 2 documents the Certified Accountants’ perceptions of the quality of eGovernment, but also presents their evolution based on the study of Monteiro (2007). As we can see, the perceptions in the different SERVPERF online dimensions present a negative evolution, with empathy and tangibility being the dimensions that had the worst performance.

Table 2. Evolution of certified accountants’ perceptions regarding the SERVPERF online dimensions Dimensions

Perception Perception mean (St.d.) Monteiro (2007) mean (St.d.) (2019) Reliability 4.36 (.679) 2.68 (.416) Tangibility 4.24 (.677) 2.26 (.257) Empathy 4.17 (.815) 2.04 (.263) Security 4.39 (.683) 2.55 (.660) Responsiveness 4.28 (.727) 2.39 (.352) Source: Authors’ calculations

Evolution

−1.68 −1.98 −2.13 −1.84 −1.89

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We report the correlation matrix between the variables representing the dimensions included in the model in Table 3. The results illustrate that most variables have a positive and significant correlation with the dependent variable. However, the correlation coefficient does not exceed the critical value proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) of 0.70, which means the absence of multicollinearity between the variables.

Table 3. Correlations matrix (no. = 240) 1 2 3 4 5 1. Reliability 1 2. Tangibility .472* 1 3. Empathy .231* .474* 1 4. Security .293* .439* .574* 1 5. Responsiveness .385* .473* .445* .541* 1 6. Convenience .404* .345* .372* .277* .351* 1 7. Satisfaction .406* .430* .498* .424* .413* .769** Note: *Correlation significance at 0.01; **Correlation significance at 0.05 (two-tailed). Source: Authors’ calculations

Furthermore, we test the hypotheses by running the following regression of Satisfaction on SERVPERF online dimensions and convenience dimension: Satisfaction = b0 + b1 REL + b2 TANG + b3 EMP + b4 SECU + b5 RESP + b6 CONV + b1 Where, Satisfaction represents the certified accounts’ fulfilment with Finance Portal based on 5 items collected from the survey; REL is the reliability assessed by 12 items in the survey; TANG consists of tangibility given by 14 items collected in the survey; ENP is empathy assessed by 5 items from the survey; SECU is security obtained form 5 items of the survey; RESP represents responsiveness resulting from 8 items in the survey; CONV is convenience resulting from 3 items of the survey. We analyze ANOVA and the F-statistic to estimate the explanatory ability of the regression. As we can see in table, we obtain a F-value of 76.445 with 6 and 233 g.l. As the q-value = 0.000 (Sig.) we reject H0, therefore this model is significant. Regarding the adjusted value of R2 an important part of the variance of the dependent variable (satisfaction) is explained by the independent variables present in the regression model (Adj. R2 = 0.654).

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Table 4. Regression of SERVPERF online dimensions and convenience dimension on satisfaction dimension Independent variables Coefficient t-value p-value Intercept 0.000 1 REL 0.047 1.021 0.308 TANG 0.060 1.225 0.222 EMP 0.151 2.991 0.003 SECU 0.114 2.234 0.026 RESP 0.014 0.288 0.773 CONV 0.636 14.413 0.000 F-value 76.445 0.000 Adjusted R2 0.654 Notes: Satisfaction represents the certified accounts’ fulfilment with Finance Portal based on 5 items collected from the survey; REL is the reliability assessed by 12 items in the survey; TANG consists of tangibility given by 14 items collected in the survey; EMP is empathy assessed by 5 items from the survey; SECU is security obtained form 5 items of the survey; RESP represents responsiveness resulting from 8 items in the survey; CONV is convenience resulting from 3 items of the survey. Source: Authors’ calculations

According to the results obtained, the independent variables empathy, security and convenience are significant considering a significance level of p < 0.05, while reliability, tangibility and responsiveness are not statistically significant. In addition, the evidence shows that variable with the highest coefficient in this model is convenience (b6 = 0.636; p = 0.00), followed by Empathy (b3 = 0.151; p = 0.003) and Security (b3 = 0.114; p = 0.026). Based on the results, it is possible to partially support H1, since only empathy and security reveal a significant impact on satisfaction, supporting the sub-hypotheses H1.5 and H1.4, respectively. On the other hand, H2 is supported because there is a significant and positive relationship between convenience and satisfaction. The results of this study are consistent with Monteiro (2007) except with regard to the relationship between security and satisfaction. Monteiro (2007), instead of security, finds a positive and significant relationship between tangibility and satisfaction, which is not observed in this study. It should be noted that all items that assess tangibility have an average perception that varies between 1.81 and 2.72. The items with the lowest rating refer to the following items; “I easily find what I’m looking for” (1.84), “I find the information I want with the minimum of clicks” (1.81) and “the design is aesthetically attractive” (2.09). However, certified accountants indicate that the main weaknesses of Finance Portal are related to the fact that it is not very intuitive (confused in the search for information), slow and with frequent site crashes. Resulting that tangibility has no longer impact on the satisfaction of those who are the main users of Finance Portal. A large part of the respondents indicate that they would prefer to go back to the previous Web Site and, others, warn of the need for TA to rethink the way services are being provided in the Finance Portal in order to contribute to better compliance with tax obligations.

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5 Conclusions Given that we live in a digitalization Era, TA must improve their online public services. The increasing demand of information shared via online, the Finance Portal must fulfil standards of quality. This study analyses the perception of services quality on the Finance Portal by the certified accountants and evaluates the evolution of the services over the last 10 years. Within a 240 sample, the perception is that Finance Portal suffer a degradation. The services regarding enquiry of tax debts, tax infractions and the property had the lowest performance. These results contrast with Monteiro (2007) on which these services had the greatest performances. In addition, we find that the most recent services offered by Finance Portal have the greatest ratings. Furthermore, we find that empathy, security and convenience have a positive impact in the satisfaction, being “convenience” the dimension that presents the greatest impact. Moreover, 65,4% of the model is explained by independent variables. Dimensions such as reliability, tangibility and responsiveness do not exhibit influence on the model. The results differ from Monteiro (2007), on which reliability dimension was relevant on the model instead of security dimension. According to Iwaardeen et al. (2003), reliability dimension is related to the design, accessibility e updated contents. Notwithstanding, the certified accountants described the service as slow, not intuitive and the frequent crash of the system. The common opinion of the certified accountants was that the updates were a “disaster”. The ongoing advance of technology and data protection could explain why security dimension as become important feature of the service in order to provide, with greater level of safeness, the data to TA (Table 4). The data sample is the greatest limitation of this study. Due to the considerable number of certified accountants, this study is upon a convenience sample, not probabilistic. Therefore, as future research, it seems important to include a larger number of users. It is also important to focus on the evolution of the various online services provided on the Finance Portal during the period of COVID 19. Overall, this article provides helpful insights to understand better the role of eGovernment on the public sector and to identify services and features of services that shall be improved in order to boost the satisfaction and certified accountants’ work because easier. Acknowledgment. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of “Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia” (FCT – Portugal).

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Appendix SERVPERF online, convenience and satisfaction dimensions’ measurement scales Reliability 1. Access in the WWW universe is fast 2. Information on taxes and/or other tax obligations is clearly detailed 3. Information on all operations/functionalities is available 4. The available information is correct 5. The available information is update 6. The registration process is simple 7. A validation is displayed before sending all information/declarations 8. All pertinent details of the confirmation of the sending of the information/declarations are presented immediately after its sending 9. Consultation of all information/declarations sent is available 10. Information on the status of the information/declarations sent is available 11. You have access to proof of delivery of information/declarations sent within 24 h 12. The different forms of payment are clearly presented Tangibility 13. I easily find what I’m looking for 14. I find the information I want with the minimum of clicks 15. The “design” is aesthetically attractive 16. I find the information necessary for the proper fulfillment of tax obligations 17. Navigation is consistent and standardized 18. All terms and conditions (e.g., sending declarations and payments) are accessible and easy to read/understand 19. The size/time of the files available for download are accessible 20. All download forms are available 21. Guides to assist in the correct filling out of forms are available for consultation and download 22. A list of all TA publications and related documents is available 23. Each available document or information has a publication date 24. All documents and miscellaneous information published are transferred, after the expiration date, to the file and are available for consultation 25. All archived documents are accompanied by the date of publication and expiration 26. All scheduled or ongoing events are available Empathy 27. It is easy to contact the service representative on the telephone lines to clarify technical questions or file problems (e.g., help desk) 28. Contacts are easily identified (postal, telephone, fax and functional and/or institutional email) 29. It has a clear language and is accessible to any taxpayer 30. Has a Newsletter service 31. An online chat is accessible in order to enable the exchange of information and opinions with other contributors (continued)

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(continued) Reliability Security 32. I feel secure in providing confidential information when submitting information/declarations 33. Whenever confidential information is available, the message that I entered a secure page appears 34. The privacy policy is available 35. Security policy is available 36. When sending electronic information/declarations the Certified Accountant and/or Company password is always requested Responsiveness 37. Links are available to other relevant pages 38. The Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) system allows me to get answers to my questions 39. Navigation is fast 40. Navigation is slow/congested only in the last days of document delivery* 41. You can easily open documents 42. When the documents cannot be opened, the necessary download option is available 43. There is an “e-mail” address for questions and complaints 44. All requests for clarification or complaints were answered within 5 working days Convenience 1. The sending of electronic information declarations through the “Web Site” simplifies the treatment of taxes 2. The treatment of taxes “online” allows me to save a lot of time when compared to the traditional process 3. With access to the “Web Site” I can handle taxes at any time, 24 h a day Satisfaction 1. I am satisfied with my past experience in handling taxes online 2. Tax treatment online is a satisfying experience 3. AT’s decision to deal with taxes online was correct 4. If it was not mandatory to send some declarations electronically, I would prefer to deliver them in the traditional way* 5. In general I am satisfied with the online tax service Affirmations marked with an asterisk (*) were reverse coded.

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The Online Presence and Communication of a Destination by the Tourist Entities of the Terras de Trás-os-Montes Madalena Marinho1(&), Elisabete Paulo Morais2, and Ricardo Correia2 1

Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal [email protected] 2 UNIAG (Applied Management Research Unit), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal {beta,ricardocorreia}@ipb.pt

Abstract. Local communities are taking an increasingly major role in communicating a destination in terms of contact with tourists. Based on the assumption that tourist entities and agents are part of this community, we can assume that it is necessary for the territorial marketing regulator to promote the involvement of this local community. This is even more justified by the ability of these communities to influence tourists, especially in terms of building the image of a destination. This communication is increasingly generated through information and communication technologies (ICT), namely social networks. To analyze the communication contribution of the tourist entities of the Trás-osMontes lands, an analysis was carried out on the online presence and its way of communicating the region. Keywords: Local community
Tourist entities
Communication Destination
Information and communication technologies (ICT)




1 Introduction If we consider the consumer society we live in and the information to which we are exposed, we can conclude that communication has become fundamental in promoting tourist destinations. Through communication, destinations can promote their tourist attractions, their identity, and their products. The communication that is made, arouses the consumer’s curiosity and desire to know and explore the destination [19]. Communication in the tourism sector is made by the most diverse actors, from the local community, to tourists, and the public and private sectors [19]. The local community has taken on an increasingly active role in the communication of a destination, as it is in direct contact with the tourist, thus assuming the role of promoters of the territory [6]. The local community may also include the tourist agents and entities, which will be the target of the study.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 202–211, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_18

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Despite the undeniable relevance and potential of this tourist actor in promoting a destination, Aitken and Campelo [2] state that “often, residents and the local community are left out of the process of creating the brand (…)” and therefore, these do not participate in the implementation of the territorial marketing strategy as they should [11], nor, in turn, in the communication of the brand/destination. New technologies and the internet are also considered essential tools for communication and information exchange between the different types of tourism agents [20]. Their use also allows a competitiveness increase in tourism entities [5]. The main objective of this article is to understand the online presence of tourist entities and how they communicate the destination where they are inserted. The destination chosen for this analysis comprises the municipalities attached to the Lands of Trás-os-Montes. In a first stage, it is important to understand the presence of various local tourist entities, on social networks and how they make use of their website. Then, analyze whether they communicate the destination and whether they do so effectively. To achieve the proposed objective, the article is divided as follows: the subject is initially approached in a brief introduction, followed by a review of the literature, where it is important to know the role of the local community in the communication of a destination and the importance of online communication. After this point, the methodology used and its results are explained, and, at last, the final considerations, with the limitations of the study and the future lines of investigation.

2 Literature Review 2.1

The Role of the Local Community (as a Tourist and/or Cultural Entity) in Communicating a Destination

When a tourist wants to visit a destination, he looks for information about it and it is through the different forms of communication that he will find it. The local community is one of the forms of communication of the destination, as it is part of the territory itself, its culture, and its image. But this is not where its importance ends. The process of building a destination brand becomes more effective with the involvement of this community [6, 7, 10, 11], and can be part of the demand (purchase of experiences, goods, etc.) and supply (e.g. owners of local businesses) and certainly has a great influence on the evolution of the tourism paradigm [6, 7]. One of the most effective ways to communicate a destination is through a wide range of local agents willing to be involved in the projects regarding local development [10]. However, the local community is not the only agent needed to reach this tourism development and if the objective is to make the most of the reality surrounding the territory, the entity responsible for territorial marketing must involve all possible actors responsible for local supply [6]. The local community “(…) may be very large, dispersed and made up of agents with multiple interests and different development perspectives” [7], these agents and entities communicate the territory on a daily basis and participate in the creation of its image. These entities can be identified as restaurants, hotels, shops, etc.

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The Importance of Online Communication

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) allows tourists to access accurate and reliable information about the place they want to visit. They also allow reservations to be made more quickly, with easy comparison of costs and in a much more convenient physical and temporal way. In general, ICTs contribute to a higher quality of service and to a higher overall satisfaction of guests [4]. ICTs enables local people to become more involved in the dissemination of the destination brand, and they do so, in a more accessible way [12]. They facilitate the creation of contacts that help in the development of companies, in the acquisition of more capable and cheaper suppliers and even in the dissemination and delivery of products [5], [16]. Social networks have been an increasingly regular practice for the dissemination of the image that entities want to create around a destination brand. In addition, these networks are one of the most pivotal points in the online aspect of marketing management, helping to reach and interact with the target audience [13, 20]. The use of various digital platforms by stakeholders is extremely used and efficient, making “(…) network communication one of the main communication strategies” [17]. All of this highlights the importance of the ICTs in the ability to arouse the interest and desire of tourists in the face of a destination brand. In the same order, this offers a greater notoriety to the territory. Finally, ICTs are a breaking point in the financial and notoriety gap between tourism agents, facilitating contact with the market and providing higher quality of service to smaller companies. Through this greater competitiveness, the region ends up gaining more financial and social capacity [5]. Adapting this information to the Portuguese territory, the northern region of Portugal has the lowest internet penetration (69%), and the most purchased services online are accommodation (57%), transport tickets (44%) and entertainment tickets (37%) [1]. Taking these tourist services into account, it is important that the different tourist entities are present online and communicate the destination in order to attract tourists.

3 Methodology To analyze the online presence of tourist entities and their communication of the destination, quantitative and qualitative approaches were used. In a first stage, the presence of tourism agents on social networks was verified and they had a website. Regarding the quantitative analysis, it was ascertained how many followers and publications they had in each network. The social networks analyzed were Facebook, Instagram and Youtube, as they are the most used by internet users [15]. In a second phase, which corresponds to the qualitative approach, the objective was to understand if the entities communicated their destiny. In the case of communicating, an analysis was made that consisted in finding out on which platform they communicate, how they communicate, and which are the target themes of communication. The analysis comprises the periodic interval from January 1, 2020 to May 31, 2020.

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Sample Selection Criteria

For the selection of the sample was considered the territorial unit NUT III, which corresponds to the Lands of Trás-os-Montes. This region in the north of Portugal is composed of nine municipalities: Alfândega da Fé, Bragança, Macedo de Cavaleiros, Miranda do Douro, Mirandela, Mogadouro, Vila Flor, Vimioso and Vinhais. The tourist entities of these counties were selected based on three categories: accommodation, catering, and activities. The accommodation and restaurants were taken from the book Boa Cama, Boa Mesa 2020 [8] of the express network. This book contemplates several criteria for the selection of the spaces awarded with the reference, such as: considered ambassadors of the region’s gastronomy; users and promoters of local products; recognized in the region for their active role. This book is also known to contain the best accommodation and restaurants in each region of Portugal. As far as tourist activities are concerned, these were chosen based on the website of each City Hall under analysis and the Tripadvisor platform. 3.2

Sample

In total, 29 entities from the 9 municipalities were analyzed: 10 accommodations; 9 restaurants and 10 entities with tourist activities. Table 1 shows the nine municipalities that correspond to the Lands of Trás-osMontes, the data on the arrival of guests in 2018 [9], the tourist entities analyzed and the due designation of abbreviations in legend for better interpretation of the data. It is possible to observe that the municipality of Bragança presents a larger number of entities for analysis. This is justified because it is the capital of the district and the target of the demand for more tourists. Table 1. Sample of tourist entities analyzed. Counties

Guest arrivals (2018) Tourist entities

Denomination

Alfândega da Fé Bragança

7822 65243

A1 A2 A3 A4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 ATV1 ATV2 ATV3 A5 R6 A6 A7 ATV4

Macedo de Cavaleiros Miranda do Douro

6411 25587

Bela Vista Silo Housing Pousada de Bragança Bétula Studios Quinta da Rica Fé Restaurante G D. Roberto O Abel O Geadas Tasca Zé Tuga Anda D’I Nordeste Park Montesinho Aventura Solar do Morgado Oliveira Brasa Casa dos Edras Casa Belharino Douro Pula Canhada

(continued)

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Guest arrivals (2018) Tourist entities

Denomination

Mirandela

22936

Mogadouro

1975

Vila Flor Vimioso

3136 1366

Vinhais

6712

A8 R7 R8 ATV5 ATV6 A9 R9 A10 ATV8 ATV9 ATV10

Dona Fina Guest House Flor de Sal Maria Rita Naturthoughts Anitudes Casa das Quintas A Lareira Quinta Barracão da Vilariça P.I.N.T.A Coordenadas de aventura Parque Biológico de Vinhais

4 Results and Discussion In a first phase, the analysis consisted in knowing the online presence of the selected tourist entities, and out of 29, only 2 do not have any online presence (2 restaurants). Regarding the most used platform, Facebook stands out (26 entities), 17 entities are present in Instagram and have a website (Graph 1).

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Facebook

Instagram

Youtube

Website

Graph 1. Online presence of tourist entities.

Although most of the entities are present on the platforms presented, many of them, during the analysis period, did not interact with their followers. We can also withdraw that 8 entities placed between 0 and 5 posts (in five months) on the Facebook social network, this being an extremely low number compared to other entities.

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The followers of the two most used social networks (Facebook and Instagram) were also studied to know their impact on these same networks (Graph 2). The entities with more followers on Facebook correspond to restaurants (6 have more than 3000 followers) and activities (2 have more than 3000 followers).

Facebook

Instagram

20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Graph 2. Followers of social networks of tourism entities.

The analysis proceeded with the objective to find which of the 29 entities communicate the destination. In a first stage, the existence or not of some type of content on the platforms that portrayed the destination was verified. Of the 29 entities analyzed only 18 communicate the destination. The results obtained show that the most used platform to communicate is Facebook, and of the 18 that communicate, 15 use this social network (Graph 3). It can also be seen that 10 entities have information about the destination on the website, information that corresponds to static pages.

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Facebook

Instagram

Youtube

Website

Graph 3. Platforms where tourist entities communicate the destination.

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Should also be mentioned what form of sharing was chosen by the entities to communicate the destination. Four categories were considered: photos, sharing, text and videos. As for sharing, it is important to inform for consideration that these consist of shared content from other people, blogs, or news. Graph 4 shows that the most used way to communicate the destination are the photos. These represent the identity of a destination and can trigger emotions and desires to visit a destination [18]. Many of the photographs used are accompanied by explanatory text about the content that is the target of the communication.

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Photographs

Shares

Text

Video

Graph 4. Ways used by tourist entities to communicate the destination.

Regarding the themes addressed by the entities, these were categorized based on the nine dimensions/attributes of image perception of destiny, proposed by Beerli and Martín [3]. The categories are the following: natural resources; general infrastructure; tourist infrastructure; leisure and recreational tourism; culture, history, and heritage; natural environment; social environment; atmosphere of the place; political and economic factors. Despite the existence of 9 dimensions, for the following analysis only 4 categories were considered, since they are those related to the data under study. • • • •

Natural resources: time, beaches, flora and fauna, parks, and natural reserves. Tourist infrastructures: hotels, restaurants, bars, discotheques, tourist office, etc. Leisure and recreational tourism: entertainment and sports activities. Culture, history, and art: museums, monuments, gastronomy, religion, customs, etc.

Therefore, of the communicated themes, the majority comprises the category natural resources, namely the theme Natural Park of Douro International. Soon after, the category corresponding to culture, history and art stands out, being the events of the region and local gastronomy the most communicated.

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The Facebook platform was chosen for a more detailed analysis, as it is the most used by entities. The purpose of this analysis is to know the activity of the entities in this social network and the frequency of their communication of destination. The quantification of this frequency was made based on the total of publications in the period stipulated for analysis. From this we conclude that only 15 tourist entities communicate through this social network (Graph 5). Although many entities communicate the destination, it is important to understand the number of posts registered during a period of five months and how many of these correspond to the communication of the destination.

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Facebook Posts

DesƟnaƟon Posts

Graph 5. Comparison between the total of facebook posts and the posts that communicate the destination

This importance is related to the idea that an entity that makes several posts but only communicates the destination once, is in a situation substantially different from another that communicates the territory weekly, which is here the intended objective to improve the capacity and notoriety of the destination brand. For Graph 5, only tourist entities that communicate the destination were considered. You can see that the most active entities on the Facebook platform are respectively a restaurant and a tourist entertainment company in the municipality of Mirandela. It is also these two entities that most communicate the destination, followed by ATV1 and A6. The analysis made shows that about 62% (18) of the tourist entities analyzed communicate the destination, but although this number represents more than half of the total sample we must take into account that 16.6% (3) of these entities communicate through a website, where the information is on a static page, not contributing so effectively. The remaining entities communicate through the Facebook and Instagram

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platform, but during the five months analyzed only 4 entities communicated more than five times the destination.

5 Final Considerations We must stress that, based on some studies [7, 12], we can conclude that uncontrolled sources, where tourist entities are included, are more significant and effective in communicating a destination. This is because the less controlled the information, the more credibility and influence it will have on the creation of the image of the destination, with consumers (tourists). As Correia and Brito [7] states “(…) the territorial offer is co-produced by a multiplicity of entities, each one of them will be able to function through their behaviors and activities as a communication element of the territory”. The use of technologies has allowed the various entities a lower dependence on intermediary companies for the distribution and communication of their products [5], allowing a better interaction between the various tourism agents and an integral marketing communication. The study made it possible to verify the complexity that involves the communication of a destination by local entities. We concluded then that it is not enough to sporadically communicate a destination to attract tourists’ attention, the message communicated must be constant, clear, and attractive. However, most tourist entities in Trás-os-Montes do not communicate the destination regularly. Most tourist entities are small and micro enterprises, a number that is even more intensified in the region under study. This type of entity suffers from a greater difficulty in accessing social capital and technological investments. However, according to Lee and Hallak [14] small and micro enterprises have the capacity to become competitive through the appropriate use of online platforms and the support of destination governments and tourism associations in connecting all these enterprises.

6 Study Limitations This article presents some limitations, particularly regarding the selected sample. Not all the entities chosen matched the top demand in terms of tourism. Another limitation in this study relates to the method of analysis - observation. This method when applied by different researchers may eventually generate different collected data, since different points of view may lead to the consideration of different types of posts as a form of communication. However, it should be made clear that there has been an effort for the analysis to be totally impartial and built from the position of the tourist. For example, some posts were not considered “communication” because the photographs were not visually perceptible.

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7 Future Lines of Research For a future line of research, it would be interesting to consider a larger sample of tourist entities in order to draw more assertive conclusions. It would also be interesting to cover other types of tourist entities such as: museums, regional product shops, bars, tourist services etc.

References 1. ACEPI - Associação da Economia Digital. Estudo anual da economia e da sociedade digital (2019) 2. Aitken, R., Campelo, A.: The four Rs of place branding. J. Mark. Manage. 27(9–10), 913– 933 (2011) 3. Beerli, A., Martín, J.D.: Factors influencing destination image. Ann. Tour. Res. 31(3), 657– 681 (2004) 4. Buhalis, D.: Strategic use of information technologies in the tourism industry. Tour. Manage. 19(5), 409–421 (1998) 5. Buhalis, D.: Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tour. Manage. 21(1), 97– 116 (2000) 6. Correia, R.: Marketing Territorial. In: Brito, C., Lencastre, P. (ed.). Novos Horizontes do Marketing, pp. 210–224. Publicações D. Quixote, Lisboa (2014) 7. Correia, R., Brito, C.: Envolvimento da comunidade – a condição necessária para o sucesso da marca regional. Revista Turismo Desenvolvimento 27/28, 815–824 (2017) 8. Expresso, R.: Boa Cama Boa Mesa. Impresa Publishing, Lisboa (2020) 9. INE: Anuário Estatístico da Região Norte. Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Lisboa (2018) 10. Kalandides, A., Kavaratzis, M., Boisen, M.: From “necessary evil” to necessity: stakeholders’ involvement in place branding. J. Place Manage. Dev. 5(1), 7–19 (2012) 11. Kavaratzis, M., Ashworth, G.: Place marketing: how did we get here and where are we going? J. Place Manage. Dev. 1(2), 150–165 (2008) 12. Kavaratzis, M., Braun, E., Zenker, S.: My city–my brand: the role of residents in place branding. J. Place Manage. Dev. 6(1), 18–28 (2013) 13. Kotler, P., Bowen, J.T., Makens, J.C., García, J., Flores, J.: Marketing Turístico, 5th edn. Prentice Hall, Madrid (2011) 14. Lee, C., Hallak, R.: Investigating the effects of offline and online social capital on tourism SME performance: a mixed-methods study of New Zealand entrepreneurs. Tour. Manage. 80, 104128 (2020) 15. Marktest. Os Portugueses e as Redes Sociais 2019. Lisboa: Grupo Marktest. Disponivel em: (2019). https://www.marktest.com/wap/a/grp/p*96.aspx 16. Manente, M., Minghetti, V.: Destination management organizations and actors. In: Buhalis, D., Costa, C. (eds.) Tourism Business Frontiers, pp. 228–266. Routledge (2006) 17. Navío-Marco, J., Ruiz-Gómez, L.M., Sevilla-Sevilla, C.: Progress in information technology and tourism management: 30 years on and 20 years after the internet-revisiting buhalis & law’s landmark study about eTourism. Tour. Manage. 69, 460–470 (2018) 18. Pérez-García, A.: La fotografía turística de interacción icónica: identidad de representación simbólica de imagen personal en el destino. Investigaciones Turísticas 19, 186–212 (2020) 19. Sebastião, S.P., Ribeiro, R.B.:Portugal: Destino a Comunicar. A Comunicação no Turismo Português. Lisboa: ISCSP-CAPP (2012) 20. Xiang, Z., Gretzel, U.: Role of social media in online travel information search. Tour. Manage. 31(2), 179–188 (2010)

Are Smart City Applications Aiming to Improve Tourist Experience Ready for Translation and Dissemination? Nelson Pacheco Rocha1(&) , Ana Dias2 , Gonçalo Santinha3 Mário Rodrigues4 , Carlos Rodrigues3 , and Alexandra Queirós5

,

1

Medical Sciences Department and Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 2 Department of Economics Industrial Engineering, Management and Tourism and GOVCOPP - Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 3 Department of Social, Political and Territorial Sciences and GOVCOPP - Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal {g.santinha,cjose}@ua.pt 4 Águeda School of Technology and Management and Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 5 Health Sciences School and Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Smart cities may improve the way people experience their surroundings including how tourism is experienced. The systematic review reported by the present article aimed to analyze how the development and assessment of smart city applications related to the improvement of tourism experience is being addressed in order to promote their translation and dissemination. The analysis of the 28 articles included in the systematic review show that there is a lack of maturity of the applications being developed, which difficult their translation and dissemination. Keywords: Smart cities


Tourism experience
Systematic review

1 Introduction During the last years, smart cities have attracted the interest of the research community [1]. The tourism services constitute one of the multiple aspects that are being considered for the development of smart cities towards, for example, more competitive tourism destinations by improving tourism experience [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 212–221, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_19

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Systematic reviews allow not only to answer clearly formulated questions, using systematic methods, but also to critically evaluate and synthesize results from multiple primary studies, thus consolidating knowledge and identifying gaps in a given research field. Although there is a significant number of reviews related to smart cities (e.g., [1, 3–5]), to the best of the authors’ knowledge there are no systematic reviews aimed to increase the understanding of how the improvement of tourism experience is being addressed by smart city applications.

2 Methods The objective of the study reported by this article was to analyze how is being addressed the development and assessment of smart city applications related to the improvement of tourism experience in order to promote their translation and dissemination. Considering this objective, the authors performed a systematic literature review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [6]. The following research questions were considered: i) what are the aims and outcomes of the studies? ii) which methods to approach the users are used in the studies? iii) which methods to assess the applications involving the users are used? and iv) what are the maturity levels of the applications being reported? Boolean queries were prepared to include all the articles published before 31.12.2019 that have in their titles, abstract or keywords at least one of the following expressions: ‘Smart City’, ‘Smart Cities’ ‘Smartcity’, ‘Smartcities’, ‘Smart-city” and ‘Smart-cities’. The resources considered to be searched were two general databases, Web of Science and Scopus, and one specific technological database, IEEE Xplore. The literature search was performed on March 2020. As inclusion criteria, the authors aimed to include all the articles that report the development of information services to optimize the tourism experience with explicit use of smart cities infrastructures. Considering the exclusion criteria, the authors aimed to exclude all the articles not published in English, without abstracts or without access to full text. Furthermore, the authors also aimed to exclude all the articles that were not scientific reports, report overviews or reviews or that were not relevant for the objective of this study. The analysis of the retrieved articles was performed according the following steps: i) first, the authors remove the duplicates and the articles without abstract; ii) then, the authors assessed the abstracts of the retrieved articles using semi-automatic techniques to verify if the abstracts were related to smart cities and tourism; those that are not scientific reports, are overviews or reviews or clearly outside the scope of the present systematic review, were removed; iii) afterwards, the abstracts of the remaining articles were assessed and only those related to improving tourist experience, were selected; and iv) finally, authors assessed the full text of the retrieved articles and classified them. Considering the objective of the study (i.e., how is the development and assessment of smart city applications related the improvement of tourism experience being addressed to optimize their translation and dissemination), it is important to define how to distinguish the different development phases, each one with a different maturity

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level. For that, the authors start by considering the systems development lifecycle, which includes various phases (e.g., requirements, analysis, design and implementation, testing, and evolution or maintenance). However, when developing applications for end users, a user-centered design process is considered more effective [7]. This means, that the type of involvement of end users should be considered when defining the methods to be used in the different phases. Therefore, in the scope of the present study, the authors considered the following stages to classify the maturity level of the studies: i) initial - the article describes the requirements elicitation which could include, in some cases, forms of co-designed involving potential end users; ii) design - the article describes the general overview of the system architecture or some of the respective components; iii) technical testing - the article presents results of the performance evaluation of a system or some of its components (e.g., the performance of a specific algorithm); iv) prototype testing - the article describes a laboratory evaluation involving end-users (e.g., a usability test) of a minimally working version of the system being developed; v) pilot testing - the article describes a real-world evaluation by end-users in their daily context during a certain period; and vi) mature - the article describes a system that has been tested by end users, amended in some way and that is ready for deployment. For the classification, as well as for all the other steps, the articles were analyzed by at least two authors. Any disagreement was discussed and resolved by consensus.

3 Results A total of 21326 articles were retrieved from the initial search on Web of Science, Scopus and IEEE Xplore. In the first step of the articles screening, 202 articles were removed because they were duplicated and other three articles were removed because they do not have abstracts. Then, 21030 articles were removed because they are not scientific reports (51 articles), are overviews or reviews (175 articles), or are clearly outside the scope of the present systematic review (20804 articles), Afterwards, the abstracts of the remaining 91 articles were analyzed, and it was concluded that 40 articles were related to the improvement of tourist experience. Considering the 40 remaining articles, it was not possible to access the full texts of nine articles and three were still considered out of scope, hence 12 references were excluded from this analysis. To determine the maturity level of the applications, the 28 included articles were classified according the six maturity stages previously defined. The results of this classification are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Classification of the articles according the development stage of the reported applications. Development stage Initial Design Technical testing Prototype testing Pilot testing Mature

3.1

Articles [8–11] [12–16] [17–19] [20–30] [31–34] [35]

Initial

Four of the 28 articles were classified as “initial”, which generally describe the requirements elicitation. These articles [8–11] are on the conceptual phase, under development and were not tested nor assessed. Article [8] discusses the user-specific requirements of a platform to offer paths (i.e., cultural information, local folklore and natural trails), grounded on user-generated data. The focus of [9] is how to improve the communication of accessibility information to users to help persons with reduced mobility plan their outings. Two articles [10, 11] are related to the same research and development project, the ACCES4ALL, and present a collaborative design process of an accessible bus stop to be located at Faro International Airport. 3.2

Design

Regarding the “design” articles, five [12–16] of the 28 references portray the general overview of the system architecture or some of the respective components. In article [13], it is presented a digital solution to help impaired people to plan their travel destinations. The purpose is to design and implement a travel system by using linked data for impaired people. This article [13] concerns an ongoing project and the next step would be to implement their solution with real data from different organizations, enterprises, and government aspects, as well as data from the web, in order to evaluate its performance. Article [15] focuses the automation of services selection based on the user profile in the field of material and immaterial patrimony tourism, presenting an architecture of a system with personalized services, which is illustrated by an example scenario. In [12], it is proposed a smart system seeking to integrate recent innovations in the technological field to improve the cultural experience of tourists. It aims to provide an interactive and personalized cultural experience, where internet of things is used to connect wearable and mobile devices. The fundamental concept of the system should be the location-awareness, that is, all the provided services have to act according to the tourists’ position and their movements. Article [16] proposes the architecture overview of a system that operates as a virtual tourist guide and additional features such as recommended places to go.

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Finally, article [14] presents the concept and the architecture of an electronic ticketing system to integrate the information of events that could interest tourist. With this system, tourists can use their smart phone to buy electronic tickets of the destinations or to events and travel agencies and co-operators can set the information of products and services via electronic ticket package management server. 3.3

Technical Testing

In this category, three articles have been considered [17–19]. The solution reported in [19] aims to identify tourist implicit preferences based on photos, obtained from personal social media. Deep learning techniques are used to classify locations usually visited by specific tourists and to determine what are their better tourism classes. The classifiers were tested for accuracy; a set of photos were analyzed and the results reached over 82% on accuracy metric for all classifiers; each tourist class was feed with 7000 images to training and 3000 to test the results of the training step. Additionally, article [18] reports the use of semantically-related social data to help tourists and citizens in general to discover cultural heritage, points of interest and available services in a smart city, by extracting knowledge that can be used to personalize recommendations. To validate the recommendation model, an engine was implemented using data from the City of Puebla, Mexico. Article [17] refers to a recommendation system that considers personal preference profiles. Based on each profile, the suggestion engine finds interesting objects and for each found object a score of “interestingness” is determined. An overview of the system architecture is presented, which is only a small part of the whole project. The performance of the algorithm was evaluated with a database of 261 real tourism objects and several additions to improve the system have already been planned. 3.4

Prototype Testing

Eleven of the 28 articles were included in this category [20–30]. In article [22], an offline mobile application for places identification with augmented reality is proposed, with the main goal of working without internet connection. A qualitative survey allowed evaluating whether the mobile application is easy to use, the level of user satisfaction and intuitiveness. A questionnaire post-experiment was applied to the participants. According to the survey results, more than 80% of the participants considered the mobile application useful, easy to use, intuitive and that works according to its objective. It was not yet replicated in any other place. The aim of article [23] is to propose a mobile application that provides timely relevant and spatially rich information about the immediate neighborhood of a wayfinding pillar. It refers to a prototype (iterative prototyping), evaluated in two participatory workshops with experts, residents, and nearby-visitors as well as passers-by. In article [26], it is described an application to determine the current location and destination point and to provide tourism information. Photos of the tourists’ locations are used as reference objects. The scanning process is carried out by the users, then they can see information from the tourist objects they visit; moreover, augmented

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reality is used to bring up 3D objects along with information relating to the tourism object. Black box testing was carried out, focusing on functional specifications of the software. Article [27] describes an application which implements a virtual tour. The application was presented in an exhibition where attendants could try and review; the appraisals verified that the directives of their development were efficient. In [20], a prototype containing eight applications is presented: an art game, an interactive glass case of a museum, the lighting control of the glass case, the exploration of a festivals’ program and that of an event, an interactive restaurant window, the exploration of a 3D reconstruction of an ancient fountain and a sign book. The purpose is to support active learning experiences during touristic explorations of a territory. This prototype has been tested in an experiment involved 14 participants and the results show that the quality of the interaction and of the overall user experience is already mature to allow for implementations in real-world settings. Article [28] describes the application of context-aware technology to develop a chatbot able to recommend contents and services according to contexts and tourists’ profile. The aim is to develop a modern tourist guide that allows the provision of services or narrative content, integrated, and adjusted to the tourists’ needs. A first prototype was developed to test the architecture with tourists in an archaeological park with first experimental results; after the interaction with the system, 560 responded to a questionnaire to evaluate the service. Article [21] presents a profiling mechanism and a recommendation system, for single users and groups of tourists. It filters the available choices to display and simplify the users’ decision-making process by obtaining their preferences from the social network Facebook [21]. In this article, it is mentioned that such a complex set of systems requires a deep test process and that partial results about each of them has already been collected, but a general analysis is proposed to perform in the near future. Article [29] suggests a travel recommender system to provide personalized travelplanning services for tourists. A prototype was built to evaluate the effectiveness, usability, and novelty of the proposed travel recommender system. To evaluate the proposed prototype system, 100 undergraduate students at a university in Korea participated in the experiments. Data over a period of one and a half months was collected. In [24], a service able to exploit and integrate weather sensor data provided by free contributions of citizen scientists personal weather stations (citizen enthusiasts in hydro meteorology) communities grouped in weather networks is presented. Moreover, a prototype was developed and tested. The aim of [25] is to describe an integrated traffic situation assessment and alert communication system, a geographical information-based decision-making related to traffic destinations and routes. The proposed system is in its developmental stage, with real time traffic geospatial data sets as inputs. A prototype model with geo-referenced route data required information was assessed. A solution to integrate route attractiveness attributes into a tourist trip recommendation system for walking tourists is presented in [30]. A web application for demonstration purposes was developed and applied in a small preliminary user study with 16 participants and recommended routes were evaluated in a user study.

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Pilot Testing

In the category of “pilot testing”, four articles were included [31–34], as they describe a real-world evaluation by end-users in their daily context during a certain period. Article [31] refers to a platform (to develop mobile applications) to support tourists arriving in a new city, in planning their visits, exploring their surroundings and moving around efficiently; it is an integrated solution (a semantically integrated knowledge base and a set of services), complementing other services (e.g., Google Maps). A show case application was developed to highlight the potential of this platform and tested in real world-use by visitors to Expo 2015 and other Milan visitors. Article [32] describes an application to provide information about local attractions to visitors but also to collect the movement of tourists to facilitate efficient allocation of tourist resources. It has been running since the beginning of 2014 FIFA World Cup and the data was obtained from June to December 2014, totalizing 69.008 trajectory records sent by 594 tourists. In [33], a collaborative system that allows players to carry out games and challenges that improve their tourism experience is presented. It is based on a cloud platform and combines augmented reality features, gamification, and geolocation in a smart city environment. A survey was distributed to an international sample of 165 potential users to investigate potential user behavior with respect to the major functionality offered by the application designed in this research. Article [34] presents an application to recommend tourist spots in urban areas, which integrates social networking and recommendation features. The application was operated and evaluated in a popular urban tourist area of Japan. The evaluation was conducted for two months with 98 members of the public who are more than 18 years old. 3.6

Mature

Only one article presented the case of a mature solution [35]. In such article, a smart tourist application for Dubai visitors is shown, enabling tourists to create their itineraries based on their interests, budgets, and duration of visit [35]. Although the application was developed, there is no explicit nor detailed information on its implementation and assessment.

4 Discussion and Conclusion Concerning the first research question (i.e., what are the objectives and outcomes of the studies?), the results show that, in the context of smart cities, there is a concern related to the optimization of services directed at improving tourists’ experience. The included articles describe solutions to support tourists in planning their visits, exploring places, and moving around efficiently. There is a focus on the urban context with various areas of application, namely: heritage and cultural tourism; e-tourism applied to marketing, entertaining, education and promotion. Four articles advise specifically the accessible tourism as their field of action.

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In terms of the approach to the users and techniques used to support their involvement (i.e., the second research question), it is important to highlight that, even in the initial and the design stages, collaborative design processes are reported, with the cooperation of potential users, as well as a concern to include the users’ perspectives in order to offer customized solutions. In terms of the assessment of the applications involving end users (i.e., the third research question), in the prototype testing group, the involvement of users in the evaluation of solutions is significant, within which stands out: a qualitative survey to evaluate whether the mobile application is easy to use, the level of user satisfaction and intuitiveness, as well as a questionnaire post-experiment; participatory workshops; a black box testing, focusing on functional specifications of the software; an exhibition where attendants could try and review the solution and other prototype testing. In the category of “pilot testing”, five articles were included as they describe a real-world evaluation by end-users in their daily context during a certain period. Bringing up now the fourth research question (i.e., what are the maturity levels of the applications being reported?), only four articles were classified in the “pilot testing” category, as they describe a real-life evaluation by end-users in their quotidian setting during a certain period. Moreover, as a mature solution, only one article was considered, in which an application is presented as developed and stable. But even in this case, there is no explicit nor detailed information on its implementation, assessment, and dissemination. The results show that the number of studies to take advantage of the smart cities paradigm to improve tourism experience is not very representative within the total of studies related to smart cities. Moreover, these studies do not represent any added value in terms of translation from research to concrete solutions with impact in daily life of the citizens since their proposals are in an early development stage and were not assessed. The reported studies are still technology-oriented and the smart city applications to improve the tourism experience that were identified are not ready for translation and dissemination. Acknowledgments. This work was financially supported by National Funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under the project UI IEETA: UID/CEC/00127/2019.

References 1. Azevedo Guedes, A.L., Carvalho Alvarenga, J., Dos Santos Sgarbi Goulart, M., y Rodriguez, R., Vicente, M., Pereira Soares, C.A.: Smart cities: the main drivers for increasing the intelligence of cities. Sustainability, 10(9), 3121 (2018) 2. Encalada, L., Boavida-Portugal, I., Ferreira, C.C., Rocha, J.: Identifying tourist places of interest based on digital imprints: towards a sustainable smart city. Sustainability 9(12), 2317 (2017) 3. Purnomo, F., Prabowo, H.: Smart city indicators: a systematic literature review. J. Telecommun. Electr. Comput. Eng. (JTEC), 8(3), 161–164 (2016) 4. Rocha, N.P.: Smart cities and public health: a systematic review. Procedia Comput. Sci. 164, 516–523 (2019)

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5. Rocha, N.P., et al.: Smart mobility: a systematic literature review of mobility assistants to support multi-modal transportation situations in smart cities. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Integrated Science, pp. 50–57. Springer, Cham (2020) 6. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G.: Prisma group: preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS med 6(7), e1000097 (2009) 7. Gulliksen, J., Göransson, B., Boivie, I., Blomkvist, S., Persson, J., Cajander, Å.: Key principles for user-centred systems design. Behav. Inf. Technol. 22(6), 397–409 (2003) 8. Garau, C.: Smart paths for advanced management of cultural heritage. Reg. Stud. Reg. Sci. 1(1), 286–293 (2014) 9. Nowak Da Costa, J., Bielski, C.: Towards tourism for all - improving maps for persons with reduced mobility. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 42(4) 547–550 (2018) 10. Rodrigues, J.M., Martins, M., Sousa, N., Rosa, M.: IoE accessible bus stop: an initial concept. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Software Development and Technologies for Enhancing Accessibility and Fighting Info-exclusion, pp. 137–143 (2018) 11. Rosa, M.P., Lopes, J.D.C.: Senior tourists’ perceptions of bus stop environments used in collaborative design. WIT Trans. Built Environ. 186, 121–132 (2019) 12. Mighali, V., Del Fiore, G., Patrono, L., Mainetti, L., Alletto, S., Serra, G., Cucchiara, R.: Innovative IoT-aware services for a smart museum. In: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web, pp. 547–550. (2015) 13. Liu, Z., Sokhn, M., Le Calvé, A., Schegg, R.: City eye: Accessibility for all. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, pp. 350–351 (2016) 14. Dalli, A., Bri, S.: Design of electronic ticket system for smart tourism. In: Proceedings - 12th International Conference on Signal Image Technology and Internet-Based Systems, SITIS, pp. 490–492 (2017) 15. Benfares, C., El Bouzekri El Idrissi, Y., Amine, A.: Smart city: Recommendation of personalized services in patrimony tourism. In: Proceedings of Colloquium in Information Science and Technology, CIST, pp. 835–840 (2016) 16. Abdul Rahman, A.A., Zaaba, Z.F., Hussain, A.: Usable tourism application: MyTouristPlanner (MTP). In: 2018 International Conference on Promising Electronic Technologies, ICPET 2018, pp. 31–36 (2018) 17. Luberg, A., Tammet, T., Järv, P.: Smart city: a rule-based tourist recommendation system. In: Law, R., Fuchs, M., Ricci, F. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2011, pp. 51–62. Springer, Vienna. (2011) 18. Cervantes, O., Gutiérrez, E., Gutiérrez, F., Sánchez, J.A.: Social Metrics Applied to Smart Tourism. In: Proceedings of ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 4(4W1), pp. 117–124 (2016) 19. Figueredo, M., Cacho, N., Thome, A., Cacho, A., Lopes, F., Araujo, M.: Using social media photos to identify tourism preferences in smart tourism destination. In: Proceedings of 2017 IEEE International Conference on Big Data, Big Data 2017, pp. 4068–4073 (2017) 20. Giovannella, C., Iosue, A., Moggio, F., Rinaldi, E., Schiattarella, M.: User experience of kinect based applications for smart city scenarios integrating tourism and learning. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, ICALT 2013, pp. 459–460. IEEE (2013) 21. Barile, F., Calandra, D.M., Caso, A., Dauria, D., Di Mauro, D., Cutugno, F., Rossi, S.: ICT solutions for the OR.C.HE.S.T.R.A. project: From personalized selection to enhanced fruition of cultural heritage data. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Signal-Image Technology and Internet-Based Systems, SITIS 2014, pp. 501–507 (2014)

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Local Accommodation in Portugal Past, Present and Future Trends Adalmiro Pereira1,2(&) 1

and Angela Vaz1,3

Av. Da República, nº 74 Piso 2, 4580-193 Paredes, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 2 Management, ISCAP-PPorto, Porto, Portugal 3 ISCAP-PPorto, Andrade & Brandão, Porto, Portugal

Abstract. The figure for local accommodation was created by Decree-Law no. 39/2008, of 7 March, to frame the provision of temporary accommodation services in establishments that do not meet the legal requirements required to qualify as tourism enterprises. Ordinance No. 517/2008, of 25 June, meanwhile amended by Ordinance No. 138/2012, of 14 May, defined the minimum requirements to be observed by local accommodation establishments, as well as the procedure for registering these establishments with city councils. Local accommodation has gained immense popularity in Portugal in recent years, registering an increase of 3 thousand% between 2010 and 2020. It has become an attractive activity as it allows you to monetize homes or rooms for short periods of time. However, opening an establishment requires understanding the bureaucratic process of applying for a license as well as the entire tax framework. Keywords: Local accommodation
Tourism
Lodging establishment
Hotel
Tourist centers

1 Introduction Local accommodation establishments are those that provide temporary accommodation services to tourists for a fee, and that meet the requirements set out in the Decree-Law Article 2, paragraph 1 of Decree Law 128/2014, of 29 August. In this document “The legislator came to recognize the existence of local accommodation as an autonomous (and not just residual) category of tourist developments with a view to “allowing the provision of temporary accommodation services in establishments that do not meet the legally required requirements for tourist developments” - “Local Accommodation and Use of the Autonomous Fraction”, Fernanda Paula Oliveira, Sandra Passinhas and Dulce Lopes, Almedina 2018, p. 31. “(…) What this is about is, undoubtedly, a service provision activity: temporary accommodation services for tourists, through remuneration (…) - ob. A. Pereira—CEOS member. A. Vaz—Lda member. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 222–228, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_20

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cit, p. 33, which precludes the application of the Urban Lease Regime. The regime of Decree Law 128/2014, of 29 August, applies. There are the following types of local accommodation establishments: i. Housing: the accommodation unit consists of an autonomous building, of a family character; ii. Apartment: the accommodation unit consists of an autonomous fraction of a building or part of an urban building capable of independent use; iii. Accommodation establishment: accommodation units consist of rooms; iv. Hostel: accommodation establishments whose predominant accommodation unit is the dormitory, being considered predominant whenever the number of users in the dormitory is greater than that of users in a room - cf. article 14 of the DL cit. The objective of this work consists of a diagnosis of the tourism sector in Portugal and a detailed analysis of the modality of local accommodation promoted to accommodate tourists. The work adopts a qualitative methodology, seeking to describe the consequences and impact of local accommodation in Portugal. As a final point of this work, we will present a practical case of implementing a local accommodation establishment.

2 Tourism Sector in Portugal The growth of the tourism sector over the past decade has been one of the major economic and social drivers worldwide. There was an increase in demand, stimulated by the increase in disposable income; motivations for traveling; the exponential growth of emerging markets accompanied by the continued growth of traditional markets; demographic, social and technological changes; the diversification of destinations and the growing liberalization of the sector (ENEI - National Strategy for Smart Specialization 2014). In 2018, tourism growth in Portugal, at approximately 8.1%, had an impact on the economy of 14.3 million euros, with projections that will reach 15 million euros this year (Observer 2019). Tourism represents an economic, cultural and social activity that was intensified with the Industrial Revolution (Wheat 2019). This revolution generated great changes in people’s daily lives, mainly due to changes in work (salary improvements and the right to vacation) and the creation of railway lines that allowed for more comfortable and quick trips (Holloway and Taylor 2006). The definition of tourism is very broad, and, (Mathieson and Wall 1987) define it as the movement of people out of their area of residence, in order to satisfy their need to travel. The Portuguese government over the years has created several incentives to attract investment in tourism. This year, Portugal reached the 12th place in the tourism competitiveness ranking of the world economic forum. According to the Secretary of State for Tourism, Ana Godinho, Portugal was considered the country with the best tourist infrastructure in the world. The country is an international reference and this classification will be crucial for attracting more investment («Portugal rises to 12th place in the tourism of the world economic forum» 2019). Due to the prospecting and economic contribution that tourism brings to the country, Turismo de Portugal established a strategy until 2027, which aims to position

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Portugal as one of the most competitive, innovative and sustainable destinations. (AICEP Portugal Global 2017). In this sense, its performance is based on five strategic axes: • Valuing the Territory; Boost the Economy; Enhancing Knowledge; Generate Networks and Connectivity; Design Portugal.

3 Typology of Tourist Enterprises Tourist establishments are characterized by establishments that are intended to provide accommodation services and other ancillary or support services, with or without the provision of meals, upon remuneration, under the Legal Regime for Tourist Enterprises (RJET) which in its current version (5th amendment), is republished in Decree-Law no. 80/2017, of 30 June (Abranja and Almeida 2019). However, RJET establishes that establishments intended to provide accommodation are not tourism enterprises, but that are operated for non-profit purposes or for the sole purpose of social solidarity. Also, establishments that do not aim to provide temporary accommodation for profit, do not meet the requirements to be considered tourist enterprises and that as such fall under Local Accommodation (Abranja and Almeida 2019) do not compete for tourism enterprises. There are seven types of tourism enterprises (Abranja and Almeida 2019): • Hotel establishments; Tourist villages; Tourist Apartments; Tourist complexes (resorts); Housing Tourism Enterprises; Tourism Enterprises in the Rural Area: Camping and Caravanning Parks. These establishments must be properly identified with a sign with the initials “AL” inscribed. These identification plates, based on (Decree-Law 128/2014 of 29 August, 2014), must have the following characteristics: be made of transparent crystal acrylic material, 10 mm thick; dimension of 200 mm  200 mm; font Arial 200, dark blue (pantone 280); application with a distance of 50 mm from the wall (using stainless steel screws in each corner: 8 mm in diameter and 90 mm in length). According to Nuntsu et al. (2004), cited by (Dantas 2019), local accommodations are managed by private owners, and these have always been a reality of American vacations. JLL (2015), quoted by (Dantas 2019) states that the fact that these accommodations have a more welcoming and familiar nature, are their main success factor.

4 Case Study The implementation of a local accommodation annuity from a business perspective requires an understanding of the business plan and the cost and income variables. The first aspect to take into account concerns the seasonal nature of the activity. In this sense, it is advisable to divide the projection of the year’s data into quarters. Another important variable concerns the occupancy rate, which varies according to the location

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of the establishment. At the moment, there are limitations in Portugal to new licenses on the central streets of some cities (Poto and Lisbon).

Table 1. Viability analysis

Souce: authors elaboration

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Table 1 shows how the initial investment is made in the different items that comprise it. It includes three main aspects: the cost of the projects and the licensing of the work; the cost of legal advice; the cost of the work itself. This table presents the overall costs and also the costs per unit of operation. We emphasize that costs also include tax charges that must be recovered when selling. Table 1 ends with the consideration of the sunk costs in the project (understand the production costs of the units) and in its final part this table shows the feasibility if the units are sold. The unit sales solution incorporates a risk associated with the value per square method that can be obtained from customers. In this sense, this analysis can be complemented by a sensitivity analysis to the level of sales price per square meter. The case presented in Table 2 is a real case advised by the authors of this article. It is a local unit in the center of Porto, corresponding to an investment of 1,259,859.00 €. The operation of two commercial establishments and space rental and seven apartments for local accommodation are at stake. The financing structure is 30% equity and 70% equity. The management of the local accommodation unit will be carried out by a company specializing in the area, which collects the appropriate commission. The accounting depreciation is 15%, which does not coincide with the fiscal criterion, but must be the one in force depending on the useful life of the project. The analysis of the viability of a tourist unit can be important in order to convince potential investors to purchase units in the property. Taking into account the project’s useful life, expenses and underlying income, the promoter estimates an ROI (Return on Investment) of 12% per year.

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In finance, return on investment, usually abbreviated as ROI, is a common and widespread metric used to assess expected profit for different investments. Before any investment opportunity is considered, ROI is a solid basis for valuation. The metric can be applied to anything from stocks and real estate.

5 Conclusions With the tourism sector growing annually, it is becoming increasingly tempting to invest in this market. According to data from Banco de Portugal, cited by (Jornal Negócios 2018), the growth of tourism is not due to low prices, but to the quality and safety of the country. Allied to the climate factor, there are areas of the country that are more attractive to tourists, such as Lisbon, Porto and Algarve (Instituto Nacional de Estatística, IP 2018), however, the government has encouraged investment in lowlying areas. density, offering some more attractive benefits. (Turismo de Portugal 2019), has continuously developed actions to promote the strengths of Portugal in several countries inside and outside the EU. These disclosures are also aimed at promoting less developed areas with less population, in order to boost them and allow them to open doors for their growth. According to data from (Instituto Nacional de Estatística, IP 2018), the regions with the greatest supply of hotel establishments are the Algarve, followed by the North, Center and Lisbon regions. The practical case presented here highlights the importance of an analytical analysis when large investments are made in a local accommodation unit. This case demonstrates that the investment recovery takes a long time, being in the case under analysis approximately 8 years. For future work we advise the possibility of a diagnostic analysis of local accommodation in Portugal. As a limitation of this study was the lack of analytical data from the local accommodation units as well as the rigorous diagnosis of the impact quantified by Covid 19 on tourism.

References Abranja, N., Almeida, M., Almeida, A.E.: Accommodation, Reception and Housekeeping Management, 1st Edn. Lidel - Edições Técnica, Lda, Lisbon (2019) AICEP Portugal Global. Tourism Strategic Sector for the Economy. Publication No. 133, 9–27, November 2017 Dantas, D.M.: Characterization of local accommodation and its impact on tourism in the city of Porto (2019). https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/ Accessed May 2020 ENEI - National Smart Specialization Strategy. Investigation and Innovation Strategy for Smart Ei&I Specialization, November 2014. https://www.compete2020.gov.pt/documentacao/ detalhe/RIS3-Nacional-ENEIEspecializacao-Inteligente. Accessed Jan 2020 Holloway, J.C., Taylor, N.: The Business of Tourism. Pearson Education (2006) Instituto Nacional de Estatística, IP Tourism Statistics—2017. de Portal INE website: 58 (2018). https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_ boui=320462327&PUBLICACOESmodo=2. Accessed May 2020

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Mathieson, A., Wall, G.: Tourism: Economic, Physical, and Social Impacts. Longman Scientific & Technical (1987) Observer. Portugal is the country with the highest growth in tourism in the EU. Observer, 1 April 2019. https://observador.pt/2019/04/01/portugal-eo-paiscom-o-maior-crescimento-no-turismo-daue/ Accessed Mar 2020 Oliveira, F., Passinhas, S., Lopes, D.: Local Accommodation and Use of the Autonomous Fraction, Almedina, p. 31 (2018) Wheat, L.G.G.: Basic tourism. Publisher Senac São Paulo (2019) Portugal Tourism. Activities Report 2018, 26 April 2018. http://www.turismodeportugal.pt/ SiteCollectionDocuments/gestao/Informacaode-Gestao/2018-relatorio-atividades.pdf Accessed May 2020

The 4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix the Construction of the Matrix Through the Delphi Panel Diamantino Ribeiro1(&) , Luiz Pinto Machado2 and Pedro Henriques3

,

CEFAGE-UE, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal [email protected] CEFAGE-UE, Universidade da Madeira, Madeira, Portugal [email protected] 3 CEFAGE, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal [email protected] 1

2

Abstract. The creation of the “4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix” aimed to consolidate and organise questions about the area or areas in which tourist destinations should focus their attention, from the point of view of competitiveness analysis. To consolidate this new model, or matrix, 4 phases were completed: preliminary, preparation, test and evaluation. In the preliminary phase, a literature review was carried out on the main theoretical models for TDC analysis. In the preparation phase, the Delphi method was used, inviting experts in the field of economics and tourism to contribute with their experiences in the construction of the survey instrument; in the test phase, the questionnaire was validated through the Content Validity Coefficient or CVC; in the evaluation phase, a non-probabilistic approach was used, i.e., a convenience sample to obtain answers from tourists, residents and destination managers. This article presents the development of the referred matrix preparation phase using the Delphi method. Based on properly structured surveys, the new matrix allows for the information collected to be divided into 4 sets or dimensions: capacity, competence, communication and creativity. It is considered that the use of the Delphi panel was one of the fundamental steps for the successful creation of the “4 Cs Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix”. This new instrument is intended as an agile and less complex approach in the analysis of tourism destination competitiveness. Keywords: Tourism


Oporto
4 Cs Matrix
Competitiveness

1 Introduction Theoretical conceptualisation performed by the authors [1] on models of competitiveness of tourist destinations, showed that the key factors for the success of a destination, defended by several authors such as [2] and [3], are the socio-economic prosperity of destination and its contribution to increasing the well-being of the local population. On this basis, competitiveness analysis models should cover the views of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 229–240, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_21

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tourists, residents and managers/policy makers, basically to ensure that the pyramid, tourist/resident/manager, remains sustainable for both the tourist and the destination and naturally for the resident; at the same time, the competitiveness of the tourist destination should not be seen as an abstract element, and measurement parameters need to be defined to allow for an evolutionary and comparative assessment between destinations [4]. The complexity of existing theoretical models led to the creation of the 4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix. The 4 Cs Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix (4 Cs Matrix) was built in order to answer several questions about the competitiveness and attractiveness of the tourism destination, among which: a) What is the tourists’ opinion about the destination? b) Are the tourists’ opinions in line with the intended profile of the destination on the part of the city’s active agents and those responsible for the management and reception of tourists (hotel managers, managers of catering and other infrastructure and equipment)? c) Are the tourists’ opinions in line with the residents’ opinions? The creation of the “4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix” was also aimed at understanding the area or areas on which those responsible for tourist destinations should focus their attention. Another objective of the work carried out is that, in the future, it will be possible to use the “4 C’s Tourist Destination Competitiveness Matrix” in an investigative context in other tourist destinations, and it can also serve as a basis for comparison between similar realities. To consolidate the matrix, 4 phases [preliminary, preparation, testing and evaluation] were completed: • in the preliminary phase a theoretical review was carried out on tourism destination competitiveness matrices [1]. • in the preparation phase, the Delphi method was used, inviting experts in the field of economics and tourism to contribute with their experiences in the construction of the survey instrument. • in the test phase the questionnaire was validated through Content Validity Coefficient (CVC). • in the evaluation phase, a non-probabilistic approach was used, through a convenience sample, to obtain responses from tourists, residents, and destination managers. In this paper we present only the development of the designated phase of preparation of the matrix through the Delphi methodology. Before presenting the new tool, we summarize the conceptualization of tourism destination competitiveness and identify the Tourism Destination Competitiveness (TDC) models that usually stand out in the scientific literature.

2 Tourism Destination Competitiveness Models The Tourism Destination Competitiveness (TDC) conceptual approach is proving to be problematic among scholars.

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The presence of factors of attraction (physical, resources, natural landscape, or social factors such as the language spoken and the friendliness of the local population) are considered necessary conditions, but not sufficient to transform a territory into a tourist destination. Tourism competitiveness is based on the level of productivity determined by the set of tourist destinations, policies, environmental factors and competitive advantages [5, 6]. For some authors, one key factor for the rise and continued development of a tourism destination lies in the quality and effectiveness of relations between service providers and, between them and the environment of the destination. Effective relations can offer the tourist destination the basis for agility in dynamic and turbulent market conditions. Offering an ever more demanding tourist an integral, flexible and personal experience, as a result of interactions between specialised service providers, can be a winning strategy for the tourism destination to develop in a sustainable way and emerge in global competition [7–9]. According to several authors, the level of competitiveness is the main determinant of a destination’s performance in the global tourism sector [10]. To maintain the competitiveness of a destination, stakeholders need to continuously improve tourism offers by developing new services and products. This is a key challenge for tourism destinations to strengthen and even maintain their competitive positions in an increasingly competitive global market [11]. The assessment of the competitiveness of a destination also depends directly on the policies adopted, especially with regard to resource management. For this reason, the issue of tourism destination competitiveness has become essential for strategic planning and for researchers of tourism destination issues [12]. The competitiveness applied to tourism and in particular to tourist destinations refers to the ability of a given destination to provide goods and services considered by tourists as superior to other competing destinations [13]. Competitiveness has been associated in tourism literature as a critical element for the success of tourist destinations; thus, several concurrent approaches are admitted, and several models of analysis of the competitiveness of tourism destinations have been developed over the years. The TDC models that in our opinion have stood out in scientific literature in recent years are: the Calgary model from Ritchie and Crouch [2]; the Dwyer & Kim model [3]; the Enright & Newton model [4]; the Gooroochurn & Sugiyarto model [14]; the World Economic Forum 2007 model [11]; the Mazanec, Wöber and Zins model [15]; the Hong model [16]; the Kim model [17]; the Cvelbar & al. model [18]. Ultimately, a destination must remain competitive to optimise its full potential and sustain and control a large part of the rapidly growing tourism market [10], with the use of modern analysis in line with the ecosystem reality being essential.

3 The 4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix 3.1

Preparation Phase

In the preparation phase, the Delphi methodology was used, inviting 10 experts in the field of economics and tourism (hotel managers, restaurant managers, university

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lecturers in the fields of economics and tourism) who contributed in the selection and organisation of the issues. 3.2

The Delphi Technique

The Delphi technique was first used in the 1950s by the RAND Corporation to help the US Air Force identify Soviet capability to destroy US strategic targets. This technique became popular a decade later for its use in technology forecasting and organisational planning studies. The Delphi technique is a way to structure the communication process of a group, allowing a set of people as a whole to deal with a complex problem. It is a method that allows for the discovery of the opinions of a group of experts – called the Delphi panel – through the realisation of a series of questionnaires, each one of them called a “round”. In each round the participants are presented with a series of specific propositions so that each one of them, individually, can order them according to a given established criterion. The results are then aggregated and handed over to the experts, so that they can reformulate their opinion on the proposals presented. The number of rounds conducted varies according to the degree of consensus reached by the experts [19]. This method is essentially distinguished by three characteristics: anonymity, interaction with controlled feedback and statistical responses of the group. In other words, the Delphi method employs a panel of experts to gain knowledge. Participants do not confront their opinions face to face, there is a guarantee of anonymity of the responses given by participants, and it uses simple statistical tools to identify patterns accordingly. Indeed, one of the great advantages of this method is to allow people who do not know each other to develop a common project, without having to reveal their personal opinions to each other and reach a general agreement on a given area of interest [20–22]. Delphi method rounds Three rounds were held: the first round consisted of a face-to-face interview with each of the 10 experts in order to obtain suggestions on questions to be put on the questionnaire; the suggestions received were integrated into the webQDA qualitative research software in order to organise, structure, compare and homogenise the proposals [23–29]. Table 1 summarises the 52 items suggested, with the respective indication of the items cited by each expert. This organisation allowed us to understand how often each of the items was mentioned by each of the participants in the panel and thus understand the weight of each of these items.

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Table 1. Delphi Panel – (Round 1)

In the second round, each of the specialists was sent a list of the issues proposed in the 1st round (in alphabetical order), requesting the distribution of the items among the categories created in the meantime in the webQDA, based on the contributions of round 1 (Table 2): category a - structures and equipment; category b - human resources; category c - promotion and marketing; category d - identity of the destination.

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In the third and last round the instrument containing 10 questions in each of the quadrants (40 in total) was sent to the panel of experts; they were asked to select the 7 most relevant in each of the quadrants. Table 3 shows the results obtained:

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Table 3. Delphi Panel (Round 3)

Thus, based on the contributions received in the third round, the new analysis tool [or matrix] was created. The name of each quadrant was adjusted to the dimension, and the following terminology was used to designate each of these dimensions: Capacity, Competence, Communication, and Creativity. Finally, the tool was given the name: “4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix” (Fig. 1):

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Fig. 1. 4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix

The Capacity dimension, summarises the items representative of the conditions of the destination in relation to infrastructure, equipment and places to visit, including historical sites such as museums, classified buildings and other points of interest; attractions such as infrastructure for relevant events such as stadiums, arenas, etc.; tourist sites such as beaches, countryside, mountain, river, etc.; places of entertainment and tourist entertainment such as concert halls and cultural events; nightlife spots such as bars, discos, etc.; restaurants and other places of gastronomic importance where wine experiences are included; land and air connections with other cities and countries. The Competence dimension integrates the items related to the training of human resources to attend, welcome and accompany tourists, in receptions of public buildings [museums, etc.], transport [ticket sales and passenger assistance], and in receptions in various infrastructures such as restaurants, discos, etc. The Communication dimension incorporates the items related to communication initiatives, marketing and internal and external promotion of the destination such as signposting in the destination, such as on the metro and public transport, at the exit of the airport or at train stations to the city centre or event locations; promotion and dissemination of events in the location, through leaflets, physical and virtual city maps, the relationship between public and private institutions in promoting the destination, communication on social networks, ease of access and acquisition of tickets, at the events, through online ticket offices, specialised sites, and via internet platforms; accessibility of information, contacts, reservations and bookings through the main platforms available on the internet or via apps, such as Tripadvisor, Booking, Momondo, eDreams, Airbnb, Trivago, GetYourGuide, TheFork, among others. The Creativity dimension includes the items that represent the novelties and attractiveness that the destination provides and distinguishes it from other destinations and makes it unique; namely, the dynamics and innovation in the destination, the differentiation from other destinations, awards received (tourism, gastronomy, etc.); preparation of the destination for events, conferences, etc., differentiation by segmentation (mountain, beach, etc.), attraction for major events, such as sports finals, world exhibitions, international galas, world meetings, etc.; relationship and development of projects.

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The final survey contains 30 questions in total: 9 in the Capacity dimension; 10 in the Competence dimension; 6 in the Communication dimension and 5 in the Creativity dimension (Table 4):

Table 4. Dimensions of the questionnaire

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4 Final Considerations The Delphi Method is possibly one of the most used in recent times by researchers for different situations and problems, emphasising the importance of the methodology for the foundation of research, enabling the selection of several variables [30]. In the case under examination, the option of a panel made up of 10 specialists in common areas, but with diverse professional experiences, allowed for the instrument to be improved throughout the three phases, as suggested and highlighted in the literature, with emphasis on the individual experience of each participant in the final result of the instrument recognised by the participants; these represent exclusively the synthesis of the opinions of a group, justifying why the Delphi method is the technique that best suits the exploration of elements that involve the joining of scientific evidence and social values [31]. The answers to the questions defined by the selected panel will allow us to understand the respondents’ opinion regarding the various dimensions of the matrix, compare it with other destinations visited by the respondents and finally answer questions specific to each location or according to investigative interest. In parallel, it is possible to cross-reference the opinions of tourists with residents and those responsible for tourism management in the destinations. The 4 C’s TDC Matrix was later evaluated and validated through the Content Validity Coefficient - CVC method (work that will be published soon). One of the objectives of the creation of this new instrument is that, in the future, it will be possible to use the “4 C’s Tourism Destination Competitiveness Matrix” in an investigative context in other tourist destinations, and it can also serve as a basis for comparison between similar realities. In macroeconomic terms, the systematisation and homogenisation of the structure of the instrument will allow research teams spread over several cities in the world to use the same matrix in the cities under examination, in a collaborative way, analysing the results of the city itself or being able to compare them with results obtained in other cities and by other researchers (Fig. 2). The final version of “4 C’s of CDT Matrix” was registered at the INPI - Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial, the Portuguese public entity that manages intellectual property.

Fig. 2. 4 C’s TDC Matrix

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Airbnb Customer Satisfaction Through Online Reviews Ana Pires(&)

and Célia Rafael

Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, School of Tourism and Maritime Technology, CiTUR Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Rua do Conhecimento nº4, 2520-614 Peniche, Portugal {ana.pires,celia.rafael}@ipleiria.pt

Abstract. This paper aims at achieving a clearer perception of the attributes that Airbnb users that have used the platform to rent accommodation in Peniche, Portugal, consider to be more relevant, resorting to a qualitative-based approach that explores guests reviews. Viewed as one of the best-known examples of the so-called sharing economy and the collaborative consumption models in the field of accommodation, Airbnb relies heavily on interpersonal communication, and guest reviews published in the platform are a relevant source of information for prospective customers. In order to have a clearer insight into what aspects contribute to guests’ satisfaction, in this paper the authors look at guests reviews in the platform that resulted from a search for accommodation offers located in the area of Peniche. These reviews were grouped according to categories and analysed resorting to ATLAs.ti, a qualitative data analysis and research software. Keywords: Sharing digital economy Satisfaction
Content analysis


Collaborative consumption


1 Introduction The proliferation of new information and communication technologies (ICT) and the widespread use of the Internet are changing the dynamics of housing markets. Tourists now have several options in online communities with regard to accommodation information for the preferred holiday destination [1]. Among those online communities, platforms like TripAdvisor, Booking, and Airbnb, which are based on user interaction, with statistics and narratives of their experiences, have become more prevalent, bringing with them relevant changes for the accommodation sector [2]. In the specific case of the Airbnb platform the intermediation process occurs between hosts and guests, that is, between the persons who advertise and promote the property and the persons who are looking for a temporary place to stay in. Studies and statistical data released by the platform reveal the growth and relevance it has for the tourism industry [3]. Considering the widespread popularity of the platform on the one hand, and the lack of studies at regional level on the other, it is essential for tourism researchers to carry out studies that examine this phenomenon and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 241–250, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_22

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that contribute to a better understanding of how tourists evaluate their experience. Given this context, the objective of this study is to investigate the attributes that Airbnb guests that have used the platform to rent accommodation in a small Portuguese town consider more relevant by analysing their online reviews. This study focuses on the Airbnb listings for the area of Peniche given its relevance to the tourism sector in Portugal, and particularly to the central region of the country, where the destination is located. In 2015 the city was named one of the top five destinations on Airbnb by foreign travelers (the other four were Lisbon, Porto, Algarve and Madeira)1. Peniche was also considered one of the most popular surfing destinations in this accommodation platform in 20172. The article is organised as follows: Sect. 2 introduces literature review on accommodation and sharing economy; offers an overview of the online platform, reviews and data about Airbnb in Peniche. Section 3 describes the methodology used in the research; Sect. 4 addresses and discusses the results; and Sect. 5 presents the conclusions. Limitations and future research lines are outlined in Sect. 6.

2 Accommodation and Sharing Economy In the context of the so-called “collaborative economy” or “sharing economy” trend, a wide variety of business models have been developed in different sectors and activities. The rapid development of technology and the spread of platforms and social media applications have encouraged the creation of online communities that allow people to share information, experiences, goods and services [4]. Thanks to important economic, social and cultural changes, an unconventional business model that was first regarded as inferior has transformed in the last decade into a global phenomenon [5]. Despite initial suspicion regarding online business models, the vast majority of consumers now say that they trust online reviews and value the transparency they provide about a product or service [6]. As in other sectors, systems of rating and reviewing, and peer-to-peer mass communication between non-specialists– that is, UGC (user-generated content) – have come to play a significant role in the travel industry [7, 8]. Within the accommodation sector, and from an industry perspective, Airbnb’s nearly instant success and accelerated growth represents a ‘disruption,’ as an innovative business model which is currently drawing at least some segment of the travel market away from hotels [9]. From a consumer’s perspective, shared hosting or shared accommodation constitute an alternative to conventional, mass-produced and impersonal accommodation, offering instead the possibility to experience what it means to “live like a local” [10]. Additionally, many people choose to rent a property to simulate the feeling of being home when traveling to a destination. On the other hand, the owners transform their 1

2

https://www.noticiasaominuto.com/tech/653177/airbnb-portugal-esta-na-moda-a-nivel-mundial. Consulted on September 19th, 2019. https://expresso.pt/economia/2018-06-09-Procura-de-surf-em-Peniche-quase-ao-nivel-do-Havai. Consulted on September 19th, 2019.

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unoccupied houses into business by making the space available for accommodation on online platforms, thus allowing the return on investment. Tourists turn to these platforms to look for spaces to stay in the destination or city they visit. The authors refer to the existence of a dual favor model for tourists who select a more economically priced accommodation and for the host who earns extra income [11]. 2.1

Airbnb Platform

Airbnb, which was founded in 2008, is an online marketplace for arranging or offering accommodation, primarily homestays, or tourism experiences. Besides being available on a website, the platform can also be used as an app for mobile and smartphone devices. It offers different types of accommodation ranging from an apartment to a castle or condominium, which can be temporarily rented for shorter or longer periods of time and at very variable prices. Currently, for some destinations, in addition to stays, the platform allows users to search for adventures, experiences, and restaurant categories. This platform allows people to connect with travel experiences in 100,000 cities across 191 countries and has a growing user community. Every night, around 2 million people stay in Airbnb accommodations located in 100,000 cities worldwide. There are over 6 million accommodations in 191 countries to choose from - that’s more than the top five hotel chains combined [3]. 2.2

How Do Reviews Work?

The Airbnb review system is based on an optional star rating evaluation and a written review. According to a study which looked at 600,000 properties listed on the Airbnb service, about 95% have an average rating between 4.5 and 5 stars, while almost none has less than 3.5 stars [12]. Guests can assign star ratings, up to 5 stars, for overall experience, or a set of star ratings by categories: cleanliness, accuracy, value, communication, arrival and location. The number of stars displayed at the top of the ad page is the average of the overall ratings given by guests and at the bottom of the ad page is an average for each review category. A host must receive star ratings from at least 3 guests before their average appears on the page. All comments on Airbnb are written by hosts and travelers 14 days after checkout about a trip with details about their experience limited to 1,000 words. 2.3

Airbnb in Peniche

According to AirDNA MarketMinder data collected in November 2019, a total of 1,168 listings could be found in the area of Peniche. Of those, 893 corresponded to entire homes, 240 to private rooms and 35 to shared rooms. From 2016 to 2019, the number of listings increased by 12% in the city. In terms of ratings, the overall rating corresponds to 4.63, while 81% of the listings were rated at least 4.5.

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Figure 1 shows the dissemination of Airbnb listings in the municipality of Peniche. The two locations with the largest number of accommodation offers correspond to the geographical areas where the most popular surf spots can be found.

Fig. 1. Map of Peniche accommodation offers on the Airbnb platform. (Source: AirDNA MarketMinder)

As stated in the report “Bringing Healthy Travel To Surf Communities Around The World”, published in 2018, Peniche is in the first places of the ranking on Airbnb’s top surf destinations worldwide for booking accommodation. In 2017, the service registered 16 000 guest arrivals on this online service, with a total of 660 listings [13].

3 Methodology With the increase in demand for tourist destinations in the surf segment, the local accommodation business in Peniche has developed quickly with a large amount of available short-term rentals in AirBnB.com. For this study we chose a qualitative approach that explores guest reviews on the Airbnb digital platform, resorting to computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS). These computer programs have tools that assist in qualitative analysis of text, audio, video, images, and other types of unstructured data. Each software has its own features and sophistication of features, but some features are common to all of them [14]. Research has already

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confirmed the importance and usefulness of online review comments to examine users’ experience, allowing unique insights both for academics and tourism stakeholders. Review comments usually reflect the way consumers live and share their experience, which makes them a reliable source of information [7]. From the listings available on Airbnb for the region of Peniche in October 2019, it was possible to access a total of 306. For the purpose of the current research, however, only positive reviews rated over 4.5 and hosts who have been named “superhosts” and that have more than 10 comments in English were selected, resulting in a total of 157 listings. Given the exploratory nature of the study, it was decided that the analysis would focus on a reduced, yet representative sample as a way of testing the adopted methodology. The review comments were extracted manually and content analysed resorting to ATLAS.ti, a content analysis software recognised in the scientific community as a reference tool within the qualitative content analysis. Proprietary systems currently have the largest market share with respect to software for qualitative data analysis. Among those in need of installation, stand out ATLAs.ti, Coding Analysis Toolkit (CAT), ConnectedText, Dedoose, HyperRESEARCH, MAXQDA, NVivo, QDA Miner, Qiqqa, Quirkos, Saturate, XSight [15]. The exploratory nature of the study and the moderate dimension of the available data for analysis made an initial analysis adequate for our research purpose. Word frequency and content categories and sub-categories were extracted resorting to ATLAS.ti.

4 Results From the research conducted on Airbnb regarding the location of Peniche in October 2019, a total of 305 listings were obtained, the vast majority of which concerning the typology of accommodation “Entire Place” (house, apartment, chalet condominium, etc.) with about 65% followed by “Private Room” with 26%. The “Hotel Room” type (room in a boutique hotel, hostel room) is less representative with only 7% of the total, as well as the “Shared Room” with only 1%, as shown in Fig. 2.

26%

Entire Place Private Room

65%

7% 1%

Hotel Room Others Shared Room

Fig. 2. Typology of Airbnb listings in Peniche

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Considering the reviews for Airbnb accommodation in Peniche, we can see that they are mostly above 4.5, with a percentage of 10% with a maximum rating of 5, according Table 1. Table 1. Listing collected and ratings Listings Listing with no review New listings Listings with reviews Total of listings collected

No. listings collected 17 11 277 305

Ratings 4,5 ¼5

235 30

77% 10%

305

Tools that allow the visualization of qualitative data are useful in interpreting apparently abstract relationships between categories of variables, constituting an important visual aid in the process of analysing large volumes of textual information. Among those tools, word clouds (WC) are images that represent the frequency of terms in textual content. Several studies use the WC approach to examine hotel customer satisfaction based on reviews and comments drawn from online platforms to understand customer perception of service, where tourists not only access but also actively contribute with evaluation comments regarding the service provided [16, 17]. As a result, WC will allow to synthesize and highlight the most relevant aspects underlined by guests, helping to identify the most valued dimensions of quality of service for guests who use accommodation available on Airbnb and located in Peniche, with relative effectiveness. The comments from the Airbnb virtual guest communities clustered in word clouds represent an interesting object of study as they include the narratives resulting from the evaluation of the accommodation, the experience lived on site and the social and affective connections with the host, which together, present themselves as a very credible and interesting source of information. WCs can provide opportunities to identify, describe and analyse the impact of certain factors or dimensions associated with the quality of accommodation and the relationship with the host in assessing the tourist experience. As a source of information, WCs resulting from the analysis of guests reviews can be useful to the local accommodation community in particular and tourism managers in general. From the texts resulting from the sample of comments, grammar elements of limited symbolic value were filtered out and excluded from content analysis (names, numbers, prepositions, articles, pronouns, among others). From this new content the WC shown in Fig. 3 was generated to analyse word frequency and identify relevant themes by looking at the most prominent words contained in the respective contexts of the guest reviews.

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Fig. 3. Word cloud resulting from Airbnb Peniche reviews

After observation of the WC results, a semantic analysis of occurrences according to context was carried out, resulting in the categories and sub-categories presented in Table 2. While criteria connected to physical and spatial dimensions such as location and facilities were highlighted by guests as being extremely relevant to experience a good stay, the aspect that congregated more positive responses, some of which highly emotional, was that connected to the social dimension of the host. A more detailed analysis into the references to the hosts in the reviews reveals words such as “friendly” (11), “helpful” (9), “nice” (7) and “available” (5) as the most frequent. These words go beyond the social dimension, into the hospitality and affective dimensions, as identified by Zhu et al. [18]. Also, the frequency recorded in the comments regarding the tips about places to visit (19), seem to evidence the relevance that the role of the host plays in the overall experience of the tourist at the destination. These results indicate that the personal and social experiences of the guests at the accommodation (dependent on the host) are as relevant as the features of the accommodation itself for the overall sense of satisfaction.

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Frequency Words Apartment Stay (cleanliness) 33 Clean (comfort) 23 Comfortable (facilities & decoration) 35 Kitchen House Space 37 Location Destination & features of the destination Place Peniche Beach Restaurants Hospitality 75 Host Helpful Friendly Qualifiers Great Nice Everything Good Perfect Tips & recommendations 36 Recommend Hospitality 19 Tips Highly 75 Host

No. of comments 57 43 34 14 12 11 11 21 42 29 14 11 28 13 12 58 40 25 23 16 25 11 11 28

5 Conclusions In the context of the study, user-generated content (UGC), such as guests reviews registered on local hosting booking platforms such as Airbnb, require innovation in the choice of methodologies for qualitative analysis. Comments and evaluations appear to be an interesting and important information resource and object of study, as they record aspects that are relevant to the local housing sector. Content analysis makes it possible to recognise, through guest comments, their perception of the most relevant features related to the quality of the tourist experience, particularly to the local accommodation service. In the tourism sector, this type of analysis is presented as a strategic tool that should be used in smart and knowledgebased decision making. The study confirms the relevance of factors related to the physical and spatial dimensions of the accommodation (facilities, location, cleanliness.), with the tourist destination, and with the hospitality of the hosts, in consonance with previous studies [4, 7, 19, 20].

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Accommodation, with its different attributes, is an essential part of the experience during the trip, and analysis of reviews and comments makes it possible to improve the relationship between the host and the guest, by allowing the identification of the aspects that generate the most value for visitors, enabling hosts and tourist communities to improve their efforts to satisfy the tourist in terms of accommodation and destination Therefore, it is essential to carry out scientific research that addresses the use of usergenerated content applied to the tourism industry on digital platforms for local accommodation.

6 Limitations and Future Research The analysis carried out in this study focused on a random sample, however it is intended to extend the sample to the universe of study, using data collection and mining techniques, thus contributing to a more solid validation of observations and conclusions. The methodology applied in this study can also be replicated to other fields of study, namely, to different tourist destinations where it is relevant to obtain results on the comments of foreign tourists that resort to local accommodation through digital platforms as an alternative to conventional hotel accommodation. It might also be relevant to examine further into the aspects that contribute to the positive recommendations of the hosts.

References 1. Belk, R.: You are what you can access: sharing and collaborative consumption online. J. Bus. Res. 67, 1595–1600 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.10.001 2. Guttentag, D., Smith, S., Potwarka, L., Havitz, M.: Why tourists choose Airbnb: a motivation-based segmentation study. J. Travel Res. 57, 004728751769698 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1177/0047287517696980 3. Airbnb: Airbnb overview, https://www.airbnb.pt/trust. Accessed 09 Oct 2019 4. Minazzi, R., García, M., Mauri, A.: Humanize your business. The role of personal reputation in the sharing economy. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 73 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018. 01.017 5. Bauman, Z.: Liquid Love: On the Frailty of Human Bonds. Wiley, New York (2003) 6. Banerjee, S., Bhattacharyya, S., Bose, I.: Whose online reviews to trust? Understanding reviewer trustworthiness and its impact on business. Decis. Support Syst. 96, 17–26 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2017.01.006 7. Cheng, M., Jin, X.: What do Airbnb users care about? An analysis of online review comments. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 76, 58–70 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.04. 004 8. Bridges, J., Vásquez, C.: If nearly all Airbnb reviews are positive, does that make them meaningless? Curr. Issues Tour. 21, 2057–2075 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500. 2016.1267113 9. Guttentag, D.: Airbnb: disruptive innovation and the rise of an informal tourism accommodation sector. Curr. Issues Tour. 18, 1192–1217 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13683500.2013.827159

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10. Roelofsen, M., Minca, C.: The Superhost. Biopolitics, home and community in the Airbnb dream-world of global hospitality. Geoforum 91, 170–181 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. geoforum.2018.02.021 11. Fang, B., Ye, Q., Law, R.: Effect of sharing economy on tourism industry employment. Ann. Tour. Res. 57, 264–267 (2016) 12. Zervas, G., Proserpio, D., Byers, J.: A first look at online reputation on Airbnb, where every stay is above average (2015). https://ssrn.com/abstract=2554500, https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.2554500 13. Airbnb: Bringing Healthy Travel to Surf Communities Around The World (2018) 14. Silver, C., Lewins, A.: Using Software in Qualitative Research: A Step-by-Step Guide (2014). https://methods.sagepub.com/book/using-software-in-qualitative-research-2e, https:// doi.org/10.4135/9781473906907 15. Costa, A.P., Faria, B.M., Reis, L.P.: Investigação Qualitativa Através da Utilização de Software: Workflows Metodológicos. RISTI - Rev. Ibérica Sist. e Tecnol. Informação (2016) 16. Miguéis, V.L., Nóvoa, H.: Using user-generated content to explore hotel service quality dimensions BT - exploring services science (2016) 17. Cherapanukorn, V., Charoenkwan, P.: Word cloud of online hotel reviews in Thailand for customers’ satisfaction analysis. JP J. Heat Mass Transf. 15, 213–220 (2018). https://doi.org/ 10.17654/HMSI218213 18. Zhu, Y., Cheng, M., Wang, J., Ma, L., Jiang, R.: The construction of home feeling by Airbnb guests in the sharing economy: a semantics perspective. Ann. Tour. Res. 75, 308–321 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2018.12.013 19. Cheng, X., Fu, S., Sun, J., Bilgihan, A., Okumus, F.: An investigation on online reviews in sharing economy driven hospitality platforms: a viewpoint of trust. Tour. Manag. 71, 366– 377 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.10.020 20. So, K.K.F., Oh, H., Min, S.: Motivations and constraints of Airbnb consumers: findings from a mixed-methods approach. Tour. Manag. 67, 224–236 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2018.01.009

The QR Code as a Communication Tool in Cultural Valorization: Intercultural Study Between the Cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil) Ives Gutierriz1, Isabel Maria Lopes2,3(&) , Vanessa Rodriguez4, and Alcina Nunes2 1

Unifacs – Laureate, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal [email protected] 2 UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal {isalopes,alcina}@ipb.pt 3 Centro ALGORITMI da Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal 4 Unifacs – Laureate, Salvador, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. This study aims to investigate, through the visitor’s perception, the degree of adoption of the QR Code technology and how much it can contribute to keeping the local memory and culture alive. A quantitative research methodology has been adopted using an exploratory descriptive and inferential analysis of the data. Data has been collected using a non-probabilistic sample to which has been applied a questionnaire survey, in October and November 2019, under an intercultural study between the cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil). Out of the 503 respondents, 84.5% know the QR Code and 85.3% have already used this technology. Visitors demonstrate receptivity to the adoption of the QR Code applied to culture by positively agreeing to use it for this purpose, even though the sample less frequently used it in tourist visits. It was found that the use of this technology can collaborate with the promotion of local tourism and social inclusion. Keywords: QR code


Tourism
Culture
Interculturality
Technology

1 Introduction Tourism is of great importance to the world economy, as the presence of visitors increases consumption, generating the need to create new jobs. This activity has made the sector one of the fastest-growing in the world with a substantial contribution to economic well-being [1]. It involves the pre- and post-trip phases [2]. It must be perceived that this process is not an isolated occurrence and does not end with the definition of the destination. Given this scenario, it is important to add the use of technologies applied to tourism, as a productive source capable of generating knowledge, processing information and promoting the communication of symbols [3]. There is the need to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 251–265, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_23

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converge offline and online world, reinforcing here the co-creation between communication, tourism, and technology that, according to Wichels [4], to be effective, should make use, increasingly, of images, texts and sounds that represent experiences. Among the numerous possibilities that open when the theme involves technology, QR Code emerges as a tool capable of materialising and potentiating these representations as a tool of free use and public domain patent [5]. When the subject involves tourism, it should be understood that there are cultural particularities that can be praised from the perspective of the values and beliefs of the place [6]. Thus, analyses involving more than one nationality provide the symbolic and material exchange of contemporary societies, both in the approximation of cultures and in the generation of new learning around the good practices of each of the investigated sites. In this sense, the realisation of a study of this nature becomes essential, as it advances towards researching the QR Code applied to cultural tourism. Thus, the main objective of the study is to explore the importance of QR Code technology as a tool for valuing monuments and cultural goods in the cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil). In addition, it is intended that this work has a significant contribution to overcome gaps in the relationship of QR Code technology applied to tourism to: (i) know the perception of the visitor about the importance of the QR Code tool; (ii) know the influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness; (iii) identify the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador. The paper is divided as follows. In Sect. 2 is presented the theoretical framework followed by a section that describes the methodology of analysis applied. Section 4 presents the results and the respective discussion. In Sect. 5 are presented the main conclusions.

2 Theoretical Framework 2.1

QR Code as a Guided Experience

The QR Code is a code with two dimensions that, in Cunha’s view [7] allows that much higher information is compiled and managed than the usual 1D code, in the proportion of 354 times more. There are two types of QR Code. These differ in the application of the technology, whether in the data storage, whether in the possibility (or not) of editing the data without modification in the structure. According to the classification of the technology’s creator company [5], these are called dynamic QR code or live QR code and static QR code. The first is used to save links that “[…] redirect the user directly to the target site when the code is read by a mobile phone camera”. This does not require login for access, since authentication is immediate. This type of dynamic QR presents the positive aspect of editing without interfering with the structure of the code. The static QR code is used to store texts and links, such as dynamic QR, but that differ from these, because they do not have technological requirements, and can not have their content changed. Thus, in case of errors, it is necessary to create a new code. “Distinct and equally useful applications” [5]. The two-dimensional code can be considered as a tool well used in the global market, whose technology is innovative and can be used in several scenarios. According to Ravanello [8], the only condition in access to the content inserted in the QR Code is the

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installation of the application able to read the code, directing to the content. Considering, therefore, that the device has a program that performs tasks on the computer and/or portable electronic devices, making it fit for the reading function capable of converting digital data, enabling it in the easy interpretation of the data. This is systematised through what is called the interface, that is, through the connection between systems. The use of the QR Code with tourism interface, with a focus on the praise of the culture of a place, follows the premise of Ravanello [8] who states that the interface by the user happens from different environments, in this case, the human (visitor)-computer-culture. Also in this context of praise and valorisation of goods and monuments of a place, the QR Code of the dynamic type or live QR code [5] allows the insertion and updating of tourist information, contents and approximation with the visitor. 2.2

Interculturality and Tourism Competitiveness: Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil)

The promotion and dissemination of values, behaviours and attitudes that promote dialogue, bringing cultures closer together are extremely important. “In our increasingly diverse societies, it is essential to ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with plural, varied and dynamic cultural identities” [9]. Following this critical proposition, these principles of cultural diversity make it clear that intercultural studies are based on the exchange between cultures in a reciprocal way, in a relationship of respect for differences, promoting conviviality and mutual enrichment. Therefore, to unite interculturality and tourism is to try to understand the tourist attractions, that is, the set of resources and elements of the destinations that can motivate the displacement of people to these places, boosting tourism. The city of Bragança, located in the North of Portugal, is inserted in a region that was highlighted in 2017 as the second most sought-after destination region, with a total of 4.7 million trips. Following Portugal’s global strategy, its focus is to develop the economy through tourism and culture, including promoting job growth and generating wealth. According to INE [10], the main reasons that corroborate the local tourism is the visit to family and/or friends, followed by the purpose of leisure, recreation or vacation. In this context, the city already registers initiatives that strengthen this development. It already plays the leading role in the debates of smart destinations, being the host of the event “Smart Travel”, an event that proposes to discuss the theme that involves tourism, entrepreneurship and attracting investments in medium-sized territories. It is also focused on the development of actions that position it as sustainable, intelligent and inclusive, that is, as a Smart City, as elucidated in the Strategic Planning 2019-2020 of the Municipality of Bragança [11]. The city of Salvador, capital of Bahia, is located in northeastern Brazil, is one of the most visited cities in the country [12]. According to the Ministry of Tourism [13], Salvador is the third most sought after destination by Brazilian travellers and the fourth most desired in the country. In the analysis of the level of development of a tourist destination, it is important in public management, to evaluate it from the perspective of competitiveness. That is, it is relevant to plan and develop the competitive advantages that should guide the development of public policies to phase out the obstacles to the development of the activities that involve it [14]. Also, according to the same source,

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through the competitiveness index, one can evaluate the level of development of a place, country or region. That is, its ability to generate business, in a growing way, in sustainable economic activities, linked to the tourism sector, capable of providing positive experiences. Salvador has a level 4 competitiveness index (scale from 1 to 5), with a result higher than the average in Brazil.

3 Methodology The main objective of this research work was to investigate, through the visitor’s perception, the adoption degree of the QR Code technology and how much the tool can contribute to keeping the local memory and culture alive in the cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil). Thus, to respond to the main objective of the study, the following specific purposes were established: (i) to know the visitor’s perception of the importance of the QR Code tool; (i) to understand the influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness; (iii) identify the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador. For completing the present research study, the following research hypotheses (HI) were formulated: HI1: There is an association between the variables knowledge of the QR Code concept and the place where it is used; HI2: The variable of QR Code technology use and the place of the intervention of the studies are associated; HI3: There are differences between Portugal and Brazil regarding the frequency of QR Code used in the places visited; HI4: There are differences in QR Code means as an element of interculturality compared to the means on the sites used; HI5: There are differences in the importance means attributed to the QR Code in the access to the information for people with disabilities regarding the means observed for the places used; HI6: There are differences in the QR Code means in the tourism sector, as an element of competitiveness and increase in the number of visitors, regarding the means observed for the places used. 3.1

The Instrument of Data Collection

Data was collected by a survey, through a structured questionnaire, with a quantitative approach to the data that supported the descriptive exploratory study. The application of this to the target public (visitors) was simultaneous, in October and November 2019, available in three languages, namely Portuguese, English and Spanish. The sampling process used to constitute the sample was non-probabilistic, i.e., volunteers who agreed to answer the questionnaire, either on the spot (laptops were available) or through the use of social networks, such as WhatsApp and e-mail, participated in the study. A total of 503 questionnaires were collected (250 questionnaires from the Portuguese sample and 253 from the Brazilian sample). In Portugal, the collection was carried out directly by the researchers and in Brazil, the researcher had the help of two volunteers for this data collection, in addition to the online collection of data. The Google Forms was the

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tool used to apply data collection and application of the structured questionnaire. It includes questions regarding the visitor’s knowledge of the QR Code in addition to their knowledge of the influence of the instrument for the valorisation of monuments and cultural assets in Portugal and Brazil (the cities of Bragança and Salvador, respectively). As inclusion criteria: national and international visitors in transit. The place that made possible access to the questionnaire in the city of Bragança was in the castle of Bragança. In the city of Salvador, it was the Lighthouse of Barra, one of the most visited sights. The questionnaire consisted of 5 sections. The first one has three questions about the respondent’s profile. The other sections were constituted by questions that cover the general and specific objectives of the research, divided into: (1) six questions to investigate how much the adoption of the QR Code technology contributes to the memory and culture of a place; (2) four questions to know the visitor’s perception on the importance of the QR Code; (3) two questions about the influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness; and (4) a question to support the identification of the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador. After the application of 20 questionnaires, has been identified the need to insert an illustrative image of the QR Code, since the respondents had difficulty associating the name “QR Code” with the image resisting to complete the questionnaire. For this specific sample, the illustrative image of the QR Code was displayed and, only after that, people agreed to continue filling out the questionnaire. Therefore, it was decided to insert the illustrative image in the question “What is QR Code”. After this change, the questionnaire was applied again. Regarding the ethical aspects, because it is an opinion poll conducted by electronic means and without the identification of participants, approval was waived in the Research Ethics Committee (CEP), Brazil. As regards Portugal, have been complied the ethical aspects established by the General Data Protection Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Regulation (EU) of 27 April 2016, Official Journal of the European Union. 3.2

Description and Data Treatment

For the data treatment, the information contained in the Google Forms tool was unified into two databases (Portugal database and Brazil database). These two databases gathered all the information from the questionnaires applied in their respective countries, in the languages Portuguese, English and Spanish. Then the two bases were unified on a single database. For these two phases of treatment, the Microsoft Excel 2016 program was used. Finally, the IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 25.0) was used for data import and treatment. An exploratory descriptive statistical analysis was performed for the calculation of the frequency distribution of absolute and relative values, for the nominal and ordinal variables, and of measures of central tendency (mean) and dispersion (standard deviation) for the ordinal variables measured in a Likert scale of 5 points. In terms of statistical tests, parametric tests were applied. It is the case of the t-Student to analyse whether there are differences between two independent samples in cases that met the assumptions of verifying whether the sample mean follows normality or the sample is greater than or equal to 30 elements [15]. In addition, the Levene test was used to verify whether the variances are homogeneous for

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independent samples. In cases that did not meet these assumptions for the application of parametric tests, the nonparametric tests were used to identify the association. It was used, namely, the v2 (Chi-square) independence test [16] on the use of the QR Code and the intervention site. For cases that do not meet the assumptions of use of the independence test v2 , that is, those that presented a percentage higher than 20% of cells with an expected value lower than five, the variables were transformed into dichotomous (matrix 2  2) and the Fisher’s test was used [17]. For latent variable measurement, namely QR Code Interculturality, a set of component variables was defined, composed of four variables. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was also calculated in this analysis to study the internal consistency of the scale. The level of significance assumed for decisions on the research hypotheses was 5%. A summary of the statistical techniques applied is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of statistical techniques used in research Objectives: Investigate how much the adoption of QR Code technology can help keep the local memory and culture alive To know the visitor’s perception of the importance of the QR Code tool Know the influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness Identify the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador Research Hypothesis (HI): HI1: There is an association between the variables knowledge of the QR Code concept and the place where it is used HI2: The variable of QR Code technology use and the place of the intervention of the studies are associated HI3: There are differences between Portugal and Brazil regarding the frequency of QR Code used in the places visited HI4: There are differences in QR Code means as an element of interculturality compared to the means on the sites used HI5: There are differences in the importance means attributed to the QR Code in the access to the information for people with disabilities regarding the means observed for the places used HI6: There are differences in the QR Code means in the tourism sector, as an element of competitiveness and increase in the number of visitors, regarding the means observed for the places used

Statistical technique Table of frequencies Measures of central tendency (mean) and dispersion (standard deviation)

Statistical technique Fischer

v2 (Qui-square)

t-Student

t-Student

t-Student

t-Student

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It is mentioned that to facilitate the understanding of the study, henceforth when referring to the city of Bragança will be used the term Portugal and that, when referring to the city of Salvador will be used the term Brazil.

4 Presentation and Analysis of Results Based on the results of the applied field investigation, the sociodemographic characterisation of the sample is presented for the variables gender, age and nationality. Out of the 503 questionnaires, 250 were applied in Portugal, in the city of Bragança, and 253 were applied in Brazil, in the city of Salvador. In Portugal, of the 250 questionnaires applied, 132 respondents were female (52.8%) and 118 respondents are male (47.2%) and in Brazil, of the 253 respondents, 148 are female (58.5%) and 105 are male (41.5%). Concerning the age, in Portugal, there is a predominance of respondents

Table 2. Sociodemographic characterisation Variable Sex Portugal Female Male Total Brazil Female Male Total Age Portugal 18 - 29 years 30-35 years 36 - 40 years 41-50 years 51 years or more Total Brazil 18 - 29 years 30-35 years 36 - 40 years 41-50 years 51 years or more Total Nationality Portugal Portuguese Foreign in Portugal Total Brazil Brazilian Foreign in Brazil Total

n

%

132 118 250 148 105 253

52,8 47,2 100 58,5 41,5 100

186 9 13 24 18 250 80 50 51 57 15 253

74,4 3,6 5,2 9,6 7,2 100 31,6 19,8 20,2 22,5 5,9 100

80 170 250 211 42 253

32,0 68,0 100 83,4 16,6 100

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I. Gutierriz et al. Table 3. Questions which support the study objective (nominal variables) Variable n % Knowledge of the QR Code concept Portugal Know 202 80,8 Does not know 48 19,2 Total 250 100 Brazil Know 223 88,1 Does not know 30 11,9 Total 253 100 Have you ever used the QR Code technology? Portugal Yes 206 82,4 No 44 17,6 Total 250 100 Brazil Yes 223 88,1 No 30 11,9 Total 253 100 During your stay in the city, did you visit any place (squares, churches, monuments and/or historical streets) that provided the QR Code to access more information? Portugal Yes, even I’ve already accessed 15 6 There was, but I was not curious to access 51 20,4 I didn’t visit any place that made it available 184 73,6 Total 250 100 Brazil Yes, even I’ve already accessed 44 17,4 There was, but I was not curious to access 48 19,0 I didn’t visit any place that made it available 161 63,6 Total 253 100 Have you ever visited a city in this country that provided the QR Code for access to cultural information Portugal Yes 88 35,2 No 162 64,8 Total 250 100 Brazil Yes 108 42,7 No 145 57,3 Total 253 100 Have you visited any city in this country that made available the QR Code for curiosities of the place Portugal Yes 83 33,2 No 167 66,8 Total 250 100 Brazil Yes 102 40,3 No 151 59,7 Total 253 100 (continued)

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Table 3. (continued) Have you ever visited a city in this country that made the QR Code available for monument you were visiting Portugal Sim 86 34,4 Não 164 65,6 Total 250 100 Brazil Sim 97 38,3 Não 156 61,7 Total 253 100

aged between 18 and 29 years (74.4%) and in Brazil, this same age group corresponds to 31.6%. Regarding nationality, it was reported that, in Portugal, 68% of the sample are foreigners, while in the sample from Brazil, 83.4% have Brazilian nationality. This sociodemographic characterisation is presented in Table 2. Table 3 presents the distribution of answers concerning the study objective. Regarding the visitor’s perception of the importance of the QR Code tool, namely the adoption of the QR Code technology and its contribution to keeping the local memory and culture alive, it was found that in Portugal 80.8% of respondents know the correct concept while in Brazil 88.1% have this knowledge - the QR Code is a twodimensional barcode which can be scanned by cell phones equipped with a camera. Around 82% have used the QR Code in Portugal, and only 17.6% have never used it. In Brazil, 88.1% have used the QR Code, and 11.9% have never had experience with the technology. However, the use of the QR Code in cultural tourism in the cities surveyed is low. In Bragança, 73.6% of respondents did not visit any place that made the technology available for this purpose. In Salvador, this rate corresponds to 63.6%. Furthermore, according to the analysis of the previous table, it was found that the availability of the QR Code to contribute to memory and culture, both in the city of Bragança and in the city of Salvador is low, since, with regard to the access to cultural information, 64.8% and 57.3%, respectively, did not visit places that provide the technology. Considering the use of the QR Code to know about curiosities of a place, 66.8% in Bragança and 59.7% in Salvador did not visit places that provide this technology. About the availability of QR Code in the monuments they were visiting, most respondents said they did not have visited places that made it available - in Bragança this corresponds to 65.6% and already in Salvador it is equivalent to 61.7%. In the analysis of the results of the variables encoded by the 5-point Likert scale, (Table 4) it was possible to identify how much the adoption of QR Code technology can contribute to keeping alive the memory and culture of a place.

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I. Gutierriz et al. Table 4. Questions which support the study objective (ordinal variables) Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Standard Deviation How often have you used the QR Code in the travel experiences in the places you visited? Portugal 35 73 67 26 5 2,48 .996 17% 35,4% 32,5% 12,6% 2,4% Brazil 42 91 63 19 8 2,37 1.000 18,8% 40,8% 28,3% 8,5% 3,6% Note: 1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Often; 5 = Always. In your experience, have you found an advantage in using the QR Code? Portugal 10 20 84 68 22 3,35 .969 4,9% 9,8% 41,2% 33,3% 10,8% Brazil 15 33 106 47 22 3,13 1.006 6,7% 14,8% 47,5% 21,1% 9,9% Note: 1 = No advantage; 2 = Little advantage; 3 = Some advantages; 4 = Too much advantage; 5 = Extreme advantage. In his opinion, the QR Code is a communication tool in the valorisation of monuments and cultural assets Portugal 3 9 54 145 39 3,83 .773 1,2% 3,6% 21,6% 58% 15,6% Brazil 6 11 60 114 62 3,85 .922 2,4% 4,3% 23,7% 45,1% 24,5% Note: 1 = I totally disagree; 2 = Disagreement; 3 = I do not agree or disagree; 4 = I agree; 5 = I totally agree.

The use of QR Code in travel experiences is low since the majority (52.4% in Portugal and 59.6% in Brazil) did not use the QR Code in places they visited. Only 12.6% in Portugal and 8.5% in Brazil use it frequently. It can be observed that the frequency level of the use of the QR Code in the places visited is rare in the cities surveyed since in Bragança, it has a mean of 2.48 points and standard deviation of 0.996. In comparison, in Salvador, the mean is 2.37 points and the standard deviation of 1,000. It should be noted that in this analysis, it is assumed that mean values above 3 points there is a positive agreement and that values below 3 points there is a less positive agreement. Despite the low use, the visitor surveyed states that he finds an advantage in the use of QR Code, being can see that in Portugal 33.3% find a lot of advantage and 10.8% say they find extreme advantage and only 4.9% find no advantage. In Brazil, 21.1% have a lot of advantage, 9.9% say they have an extreme advantage, and only 6.7% find no advantage. It can be observed that the level of advantage in the use of the QR Code is moderate since, in Portugal, it has an average of 3.35 points and standard deviation of 0.969, and in Brazil, it is an average of 3.13 points and standard deviation of 1,006. Still, to know the visitor’s perception of the importance of the QR Code tool, it was reported in Portugal that 58% of respondents agree and 15.6% totally agree. In Brazil, 45.1% of respondents agree and 24.5% totally

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agree that the QR Code is a tool for valuing monuments and cultural goods. It can be observed that the QR Code as a communication tool in the valorisation of monuments and cultural goods is very important in the sites surveyed because it presents in Portugal the mean of 3.83 points and standard deviation of 0.77 and in Brazil the mean of 3.85 points and standard deviation of 0.922. The identification of the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador implied that a latent variable was measured, namely the QR Code Interculturality, from a set of four component variables, presented in Table 5. The internal consistency of this group of variables was also verified by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient, which presents a value of 0.919. According to Nunnally and Bernstein [18), a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient values higher than 0.9 indicate that the measurement tool used has very good internal consistency.

Table 5. Cronbach’s alpha results Component Variables In your experience, please indicate the importance attached to the use of the QR Code for individual cultural enrichment In your experience, please indicate the importance attached to the use of the QR Code to preserve the culture of a place In your experience, please indicate the importance attached to the use of the QR Code to increase the knowledge of a place In your experience, indicate the importance attached to the use of the QR Code to make the place more interesting for visits

Cronbach’s Alpha 0,919

In this analysis, it was found that in Portugal the respondents consider the QR Code as an element of interculturality as very important (44.4%) or extremely important (13.6%) and in Brazil respondents consider it as very important (39.9%) or extremely important (22.9%). For understanding the influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness, it has been questioned the importance attributed to the use of the QR Code in access information by people with disabilities. The respondents would have to answer on a scale of 1-nothing important to 5-extremely important. The results show that there is evidence that it is important. In Portugal, 67.2% and in Brazil, 64% of respondents attribute much or extreme importance to the tool for this purpose, according to Table 6. Regarding the mean, Portugal has an average of 3.86 points and a standard deviation of 0.917, and in Brazil, the mean is 3.89 points and a standard deviation of 1,012. Also regarding the above-mentioned objective, has been questioned about the implementation of the QR Code in the tourism sector as a contribution to the increase in the number of visits in a city, in which the respondents would have to answer on a scale of 1-totally disagree to 5-totally agree. Has been verified that in Portugal 61% of respondents agree or totally agree that the QR Code can contribute to the increase in the number of visits and only 1.2% totally disagree with this statement. On the other hand,

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in Brazil, this agreement corresponds to 61.6%. Regarding the average, Portugal has an mean of 3.67 points and a standard deviation of 0.843 and in Brazil, the average is 3.7 points and a standard deviation of 0.982. Given these results, it is possible to consider that respondents issue an opinion expressing their perception of the use of the QR Code as an important technology to improve tourism competitiveness, both in supporting people with disabilities and in increasing the number of visits to cities. In this sense, even in the case of countries with different cultures, Portugal and Brazil present results, in general, which coincide in several situations. Furthermore, there are indications that these points of convergence are related in some way to the age of the respondents, since, in both countries, they have a strong influence of technologies in their daily lives, including travel activities.

Table 6. Influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Standard Deviation Indicate the importance you attach to the use of the QR Code in accessing information for people with disabilities Portugal 4 11 67 101 67 3,86 .917 1,6% 4,4% 26,8% 40,4% 26,8% Brazil 5 14 72 74 88 3,89 1.012 2% 5,5% 28,5% 29,2% 34,8% Note: 1 = Nothing important; 2 = Not important; 3 = Relatively important; 4 = Very important; 5 = Extremely important. In your opinion, the implementation of the QR Code in the tourist sector can increase the number of visits to a city Portugal 3 15 80 115 37 3,67 .843 1,2% 6,0% 32% 46,0% 14,8% Brazil 6 22 69 101 55 3,70 .982 2,4% 8,7% 27,3% 39,9% 21,7% Note: 1 = I totally disagree; 2 = Disagreement; 3 = I do not agree or disagree; 4 = I agree; 5 = I totally agree.

To answer HI1, this is, there is an association between the variables knowledge of the concept of QR Code and the place where Fischer’s independence test is used, and the investigation hypothesis was confirmed. That is, there is statistical evidence to affirm that there is an association between knowing the concept of the QR Code tool and the place of the study because the p-value was 0.023 which allowed rejecting the null hypothesis of independence. To verify the HI2, this is, to check if the variable use of QR Code technology and the places under study are associated, was produced the nonparametric v2 test for which a p-value of 0.069 (higher than 0.05) was measured. Therefore, there is insufficient statistical evidence to state, at a significance level of 0.05, that there is an association between the use of the QR Code and the place of study. In response to HI3, that intends to check if there are differences between

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Portugal and Brazil regarding the frequency of use of QR Code in the cities visited, the t-Student test was produced for two independent samples. A p-value of 0.262 was measured. Therefore, there is insufficient statistical evidence to state, at a significance level of 0.05, that there is a difference between Portugal and Brazil regarding the frequency of use of the QR Code. Concerning HI4. There are differences in the mean values found for the QR Code as an element of interculturality concerning the mean values obtained on the sites visited. The t-Student test was performed for two independent samples and a p-value of 0.042 was found. Therefore, there is sufficient statistical evidence to state, at a significance level of 0.05, that there are differences between the values found for the QR Code as an element of interculturality concerning the places analysed. For the validation of HI5, there are differences in the mean of the importance attributed to the QR Code in the access to information of people with disabilities concerning each site studied. The t-Student test was performed for two independent samples and found a p-value of 0.734. Therefore, there is insufficient statistical evidence to state, at a significance level of 0.05 that there are differences between the mean obtained for the importance attributed to the QR Code in access to information of people with disabilities in relation to the means computed for the of the sites considered. To answer HI6: There are differences in the mean obtained for the QR Code in the tourism sector, as an element of competitiveness and increase in the number of visitors, in relation to the means computed for the sites considered. The tStudent test was performed for two independent samples, in which a p-value of 0.736 higher than 0.05 was measured. Therefore, there is insufficient statistical evidence to state, at a significance level of 0.05 that there are differences the mean obtained for the QR Code in the tourism sector, as an element of competitiveness and increase in the number of visitors, in relation to the means computed for the sites considered.

5 Conclusions This work aimed to investigate the adoption of QR Code technology and how much the tool can contribute to keeping the local memory and culture alive, through the perception of visitors to the cities of Bragança (Portugal) and Salvador (Brazil). The sample consisted of 503 visitors, of which 49.7% were visitors from Portugal and 50.3% from Brazil. Of the total respondents, 55.7% were female and 44.3% male. Most respondents in Portugal are foreign visitors (68%) and respondents in Brazil are Brazilian visitors (83.4%). Regarding the age of the visitors surveyed, it can be said that the majority are in the age group of 18 to 29 years (52.9%). As for the visitor’s perception of the importance of the QR Code tool, it is positive. Most respondents have had some kind of experience using this technology and there is a degree of positive agreement with the QR Code as a communication tool in the valorisation of monuments and cultural assets (values of the means for Portugal and Brazil are higher than 3 points). However, the sample investigated demonstrates a less positive degree of agreement of the frequency of use in activities and tourist visits. The study corroborates that this technology is still something to be better instituted in these cities since the QR Code is little used to promote more access to the information of the place and enhance cultural monuments. The exploratory descriptive analysis also allowed to know the

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influence of technologies on tourism competitiveness, noting that research strengthens that the adoption of technologies in tourism can collaborate with the promotion of local tourism, social inclusion and accessibility of information. Regarding the identification of the main elements of interculturality in the cities of Bragança and Salvador, it is concluded that visitors attributed a degree of positive importance of QR Code technology as an element of interculturality because the values of the means are close to the theoretical reference value 4 points (very important). As for the research hypotheses fixed, the following stand out: the first research hypothesis, in which there is an association between knowing the concept of the QR Code tool and the place of intervention. And also the fourth hypothesis that there are differences in the averages of the QR Code as an element of interculturality in relation to the averages of the places used. From the research developed, Portugal and Brazil present results, in general, that coincide in several situations. Furthermore, there are indications that the age of the respondents is strongly related to this, since most of them are young people and, in turn, they are not so different with regard to technological influences. Despite countries with different cultures, both places are influenced by a generation where practicality and speed are relevant in everyday life, including travel activities. It is noticed that technology is still poorly developed in these cities with a focus on cultural tourism, and may become an alternative to the administrative bodies responsible for this activity in the expansion and praise of local culture in connection with the feeling of belonging. Thus, in view of all the analysis that was performed, some lines of research are suggested for future work, such as the conduct of a longitudinal study to monitor whether there were positive changes in relation to the availability of the QR Code to promote more access to cultural information and curiosities of the place. Studies that can combine the technology in question with augmented reality (AR) and the contributions of this relationship in tourism and the generation of interactive experiences are also proposed. In general, the study presented was limited to the cities of Bragança and Salvador, so a similar study involving other cities and comparative analyses is also suggested. Acknowledgments. UNIAG. R&D unit funded by the FCT. Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology. Ministry of Science. Technology and Higher Education. Project n.o UIDB/04752/2020. This work has been supported by FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia within the R&D Units Project Scope: UIDB/00319/2020.

References 1. World Tourism Organization [UNWTO]: Urban Tourism. http://marketintelligence.unwto. org/content/urban-tourism. Accessed 06 June 2019 2. Mill, R.C., Morrison, A.M.: The Tourism System, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall International, London (2012) 3. Castells, M.: A Sociedade em Rede, vol. I. Paz e Terra, São Paulo (2007)

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4. Wichels, S.: Comunicação Turística: desafios e tendências na contemporaneidade. Estudo de Caso: Tenerife (Master’s thesis). Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal (2014) 5. Qrcodecom: What is a QR Code?, https://www.qrcode.com/en/about/. Accessed 30 May 2019 6. Ferreira, M., Pinto, C., Santos, J., Serra, F.: Ambiguidade e consequências futuras dos comportamentos éticos: estudo intercultural. RAE-Revista de Administração de Empresas 53(2), 169–182 (2013) 7. Cunha, M.M.D.: QR code: uma nova forma de consumo e estratégia de marketing? (Doctoral dissertation). ISCTE IUL-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, Lisboa (2013) 8. Ravanello, T.F.R.: Virtualização do patrimônio material para dispositivos móveis: uma proposta de roteiro autoguiado (Master’s thesis). Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria (2014) 9. Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura [UNESCO]: Diálogo intercultural, http://www.unesco.org/new/pt/brasilia/social-and-human-sciences/culture-ofpeace/intercultural-dialogue/. Accessed 12 June 2019 10. Instituto Nacional de Estatística [INE]: Estatísticas do Turismo 2017. (Ed. 2018). INE, Lisboa (2017) 11. de Bragança, M.: Grandes Opções do Plano, Orçamento e Mapa de Pessoal 2019: Plano Estratégico 2019-2020. Bragança a caminho de uma human smart region, Bragança (2018) 12. SECOM - Secretaria de Comunicação de Salvador: Salvador passa a contar oficialmente com 163 bairros: http://www.comunicacao.salvador.ba.gov.br/index.php/todas-as-noticias-4/ 50635-salvador-passa-a-contar-oficialmente-com-163-bairros. Accessed 10 June 2018 13. Ministério do Turismo: Pesquisa revela perfil do turista de Salvador, http://www.turismo. gov.br/ultimas-noticias/4110-pesquisa-revela-perfil-do-turista-de-salvador.html. Accessed 10 May 2019 14. Ministério do Turismo: Índice de Competitividade do Turismo Nacional: Relatório Brasil. Brasília, DF: SEBRAE e FGV - Fundação Getulio Vargas: http://www.turismo.gov.br/sites/ default/turismo/o_ministerio/publicacoes/downloads_publicacoes/Relatorio_Brasil_2015_ WEB.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2019 15. Pestana, M., Gageiro, J.N.: Análise de dados para ciências sociais – a complementaridade do SPSS. Edições Sílabo, Lisboa (2008) 16. Marôco, J.: Análise Estatística com SPSS Statistics. 6th edn. Edições Sílabo (2014) 17. Pallant, J.: SPSS Survival Manual - A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS, 4th edn. Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest (2011) 18. Nunnally, J., Bernstein, I.: Psychometric theory, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (1994)

Wine Marketing Event – The Importance of Emotions in a Wine Tasting for Inexperienced Participants Ana Pinto de Lima(&)

, Jorge Pacheco

, and Pedro Silva

CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.PORTO, Porto, Portugal {analima,jpacheco,p_silva}@iscap.ipp.pt Abstract. The purpose of this article is to analyse the importance of emotions in a wine tasting experience for inexperienced participants. It is necessary to reduce elitism because customers who are not knowledgeable and inexperienced in wines can also do a wine tasting. They are also important consumers. The empirical study includes a questionnaire (n = 146) applied to inexperienced wine tasting participants. A conceptual model was built, and the results show that the composite of emotions: Comfort and Enthusiasm of participants can have a positive effect on their Satisfaction and consequent Word of Mouth. This study provides a relevant information on how wine companies can effectively promote wine tasting to inexperienced participants, and offer important implications for wine companies, especially for those offering wine tasting experiences to their visitors/customers. These types of participants are potential consumers and have significant importance for the market share. Keywords: Wines


Wine tasting experience
Emotions
Event marketing

1 Introduction The activities most appreciated by visitors to the wine tourism units are paired wine and dinner tasting [47]. However, wine is a complex product with several attributes or characteristics [65] and tasting wines takes concentration and practice [54], when most wine consumers are poorly understood about wines. Curiously, many studies look at wine experts [55, 58]. Though countering elitism is important, because not only are the experts who can appreciate the best wines, the inexperienced can also taste wines [54]. Thus, given the importance of this activity - wine tasting, this study aims to analyse the influencing factors in a wine tasting experience for people who are not experts or are inexperienced. In order to deepen the knowledge about the offer of wine tasting regardless of the participant’s experience. This study can be very useful for wine companies, as the results can offer suggestions or directions for a more effective wine tasting in inexperienced consumers. When learning to taste, the inexperienced can come to appreciate better and more interesting wines [54], also, awareness and habituation are important for the consumer to capture relevant wine information [58]. Therefore, an effective tasting in inexperienced consumers can result in more consumption and more sales of the wines companies. But first, they must face the difficulties of proving [54]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 266–279, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_24

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In order to achieve the objective of identifying influencing factors in wine tasting for non-experts, the article consists of six sections. After the introduction, the second section presents the literature review, and next, the formulation of constructs and hypothesis is presented. The third explains the methodology and the fourth section reports the results. Finally, the fifth section discusses the results/conclusions and the sixth section presents limitations and future studies.

2 Literature Review and Hypotheses 2.1

Event Marketing – The Importance of Emotions

An Event marketing is a relatively new concept that emerged in the 1980s, [13] and events are projects [42] unique occasions [4, 5] and are generally of limited duration [21]. Events are an extraordinary channel for creating unique experiences [63]. Consequently, Jackson, et al. [16] affirms that generally, the experiences lived in the events have a highly creative and pragmatic character [16]. Experiential marketing allows event visitors to participate fully in the activities offered [10], including B2B events, where individuals/professionals also seek more sensory experiences [23]. Because, generally people tend to depend on their feelings when making decisions [52]. “Experiential marketing is the process of identifying and satisfying customer needs and aspirations profitably, engaging them through authentic two-way communications that bring brand personalities to life and add value to target audience” [54, p. 12]. In practice, experiential marketing sees consumers as rational and emotional human beings who enjoy having unique experiences [51], as it happens in events [4, 5]. In particular, the experiences are memorable, pleasant, and engaging encounters for the event participants [36]. So, Dressler and Paunovic [15] highlight the importance of integrating and combining experiences with the products/services offered by the companies. For example, for the wine sector, Pivac [43] and Santos et al. [49] highlight, among various elements, wine tastings in stores, restaurants or events as excellent “experiences” for consumers. Positive involvement with wine attributes, as in the case of wine tasting, can promote “a favourable winery experience” [60, p. 19]. 2.2

Emotions at a Wine Tasting

Currently, companies strive to provide a positive connection between consumers’ emotions and their products/wines. In particular, the experiences that emerge from activities in the wine sector are mainly wine tastings, visits to wineries and wine museums [49]. Cohen and Ben-Nun [12] observed that the most important attribute of wine experience is wine tasting and winemaking.

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A wine tasting is an event in which people taste, evaluate, and compare various wines [48]. Wine tasting participants can be experts in the art of tasting “wine waiters, wine brokers, fraternity members, experts and examiners for taste competitions, authors of wine guides” [57, p. 126]. Usually, in these wine tastings, several techniques are used to assessing wine properties and quality, including physiological, psychological, and physicochemical sensory evaluation [48]. On the other hand, we can also find wine tasters non-experts - real wine tasters, who are often influenced by expert comments [56]. Non-expert or novice tasters do generally little wine tasting and informally [2]. Regardless of the taster’s experience, there is no doubt that wine is the main tasting factor, involving sensations in all aspects: taste, smell, touch, vision, and hearing. Therefore, it is understood that several factors influence the satisfaction of the wine tasting participants. For example, Saayman and Merwe [50] identified four factors that contribute to a memorable wine tasting experience: wine attributes, themes, and activities, education/knowledge and novelty. However, most wine tasting, especially expert tasting, takes place “in formal winetasting conditions, removed from real-world experience” [32, p. 578]. Generally, the wine tasting experience by non-experts is more social, while a wine tasting with experts involves an extensive investigation of all the sensory attributes of wine [16]. In wine tasting, with experts, the emotions are generally explained by the sensory characteristics of wine, such as taste, aromas, texture, etc. [33]. But, in wine tasting by nonexperts, it is interesting to explore other emotions, because “emotions are mental states of readiness that arise from appraisals of events or one’s own thoughts” [1, p. 184]. In fact, in a recent study, Leri and Theodoridis [29] reveal that the emotions of a visitor to a farm and wine cellars positively affect their satisfaction with the experiences. Hsu and Chen [26] also claim that exploring the secrets of someone’s emotions is of great value to wine marketing. Prayag et al. [47] demonstrate that psychological aspects (emotions) influence fans’ attachment to an event. Tsaur et al. [62] point out that the emotion of an event visitor has a positive effect on behavioural intent through the satisfaction mechanism. Concerning a wine tasting, is important to highlight the feeling of comfort, because the appropriate equipment for tasting is very important, such as glasses, water, spittoons, tasting sheets for recording notes and, at a formal sit-down event, etc. [24], in fact, external factors affect emotions at a wine tasting [36]. According to the Oxford English Dictionary1 “Comfort” can be “the state of being physically relaxed and free from pain; the state of having a pleasant life, with everything that you need”. Comfort, plays a strong role in the decision-making process related to willingness to pay and desire to repeat great experiences [27]. Consequently, overall comfort positively affects the overall quality and customer satisfaction [31], in this case, the wine taster. So, the first research hypothesis is: H1. The comfort feeling is an emotion that is positively significant in a wine tasting for inexperienced participants.

1

Oxford English Dictionary (2020), in https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/ comfort_1, accessed February 2020.

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Another feeling very relevant for wine tasting is Enthusiasm. Sternsdorff-Cisterna [58] highlights that enthusiasm was important for his wine activities. Gilby [22] demonstrates that being enthusiastic about wine tasting can be an influencing factor. According to the Oxford English Dictionary2 “enthusiasm” is “a strong feeling of excitement and interest in something and a desire to become involved in it”. Enthusiasm is the starting point for exploring the sharing of affect generated by encounters with others [65]. In fact, Enthusiasm is a predictor of emotion and satisfaction concerning an event [8, 46]. In this context, hypothesis 2 is put forward: H2. The enthusiasm feeling is an emotion that is positively significant in a wine tasting for inexperienced participants. Therefore, the purpose is to test these two factors (comfort feeling and enthusiasm feeling) can be part of a composite of important emotions faced by inexperienced participants in a wine tasting. For this, a Second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (SoCFA) is significant, because SoCFA is a composite of common factor configuration (Van Riel et al. 2017), see Fig. 1. As Bagozzi [1] points out, emotions are predictors of the evaluation of events. The emotions (comfort and enthusiasm) of an experience (like those experienced in a wine tasting) can create lawyers (satisfaction) for the brand/product (event), fostering also the “word of mouth” [27, 29, 37, 53]. Satisfaction, from the perspective of the event visitor, is a personal feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that arises as a result of the comparison between the perceived performance of the product (event) and the visitor`s expectations [45]. Satisfaction is the result of comparing customers’ expectations with their actual experiences [42]. The Word of Mouth is a form of a promotional campaign that operates through personal recommendations [11]. Some authors have underlined the relevance of creating an amazing customer experience as a strategy to create positive word-of-mouth [7, 34, 63] Nur et al. [35] defined Word of Mouth as the consumer to consumer communication about goods and services. In particular, personal or expert recommendations are an important factor that encourages the sale and consumption of wines [9, 14, 55]. So, is mandatory to include “Satisfaction” and “Word of Mouth” in the model in the form of hypothesis 3 and 4: H3. The emotions during a wine tasting have positive effects on the taster’s satisfaction. H4. The taster’s satisfaction during a wine tasting has positive effects on word of mouth. Based on the literature review, on the ideas and arguments of the main authors, the following conceptual model was constructed as shown in Fig. 1:

2

Oxford English Dictionary (2020), in https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/ enthusiasm?q=enthusiasm; accessed February 2020.

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Fig. 1. Conceptual model (Source: Authors)

3 Methodology The methodology used was a quantitative study through a questionnaire to test the hypotheses and validate the conceptual model. The questionnaire was intended for participants in some annual wine tasting events. 3.1

Sample and Data Collection

The present study carried out a questionnaire to collect data. The questionnaire was based on the scientific literature and a pre-test was conducted to confirm there was no misrepresent of the questionnaire. Comments and opinions were requested from some experts in the sector (wine producers), to help us to refine the questionnaire. The questionnaire was applied during 7 wine tastings (20 participants in each tasting, except for the last tasting with 26 participants), between the days 20th and 23rd July 2017. These wine tastings events were carried out by specialized winemakers, although in a relaxed and informal environment. In contrast, most participants were not experts in wines and these wine tastings were parallel activities of a B2C wine trade fair in Porto/Portugal. The researchers obtained 146 complete responses to the questionnaire. The questionnaire was written in two languages: Portuguese (the native language of the authors) and English. English translation was done by translation experts. The questionnaire was written in a clear and direct way and comprised with two parts. However, if any respondent expressed doubts, one of the researchers was present to clarify. The first part of the questionnaire addressed the issues related to the empirical study. The data obtained in this first part was used to test the research hypotheses. Table 1 describes the scales used to measure the various constructs: Comfort; Enthusiasm, Satisfaction, and Word of Mouth. All variables were measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from one (1) - I totally disagree to five (5) - I totally agree.

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Table 1. Items survey (Source: Authors) Constructs Emotions

Comfort

COD.

Items

Reference

P31

I have felt a “joyful” emotion in this wine tasting I have felt a “cheerful” emotion in this wine tasting I have felt a “relaxed” emotion in this wine tasting I have felt an “elated” emotion in this wine tasting I have felt an “attractive” emotion in this wine tasting I felt captivated at this wine tasting I felt an enthusiast at this wine tasting Consider this wine tasting as your first choice to engage in a recreational activity In relation to my perception of satisfaction regarding the physical conditions / equipment of this wine tasting… In relation to the evaluation of the satisfaction about the service of this wine tasting… Say positive things about this wine tasting to other people Recommend this wine tasting to someone who seeks your advice Encourage friends and relatives to visit this wine tasting

[60]

P32 P33 Enthusiasm

P34 P35

Satisfaction

P36 P37 P44

P45

P46

Word of Mouth

P41 P42 P43

[60]

[29, 60]

[29, 60]

The second part of the questionnaire concerned to the characterization of wine tasting participants, with demographic criteria such as Age, Gender, Qualifications, and Employment. 3.2

Characterization of the Respondents/Participants of the Wine Tasting

Table 2 shows the profile of the wine tasting participants, who answered the questionnaire. From the 146 responses, 51.4% were female and 48.6% were male. Mainly respondents were aged Between 25–44 years old, and 61.6% were dependent workers and more than 70% had higher education. The 146 people were participating for the first time in a wine tasting experience.

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A. P. de Lima et al. Table 2. Characterization of the respondents/participants (Source: Authors) Elements Gender

F M Total AGE 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 >55 Total Employment Dependent employee Independent employee Student Retired Unemployed Other Total Qualifications Basic education Hight school Graduation Master PhD Other Total

n

%

75 71 146 18 30 52 28 18 146 90 23 16 7 4 6 146 4 26 69 35 6 6 146

51,4 48,6 100,0 12,3 20,5 35,6 19,2 12,3 100,0 61,6 15,8 11,0 4,8 2,7 4,1 100,0 2,7 17,8 47,3 24,0 4,1 4,1 100,0

4 Analysis and Results The validity of the constructs was assessed by confirmatory factor analysis (SPSS 24; AMOS 20). The constructs: Comfort, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction, and Worth of Mouth were analysed as previously predicted. In an initial phase, the Cronbach coefficient and the KMO test were applied to test the reliability of the constructs, as shown in Table 3. Construct reliability was high (see Table 3), with Cronbach’s Alpha values > 0.705 and KMO values > 0.705 indicating excellent internal consistency [25]. The KMO test value of the subconstruct “Enthusiasm” was low (KMO = 0,500), however, the KMO test of the main construct “Emotions” was satisfactory (KMO = 0,796). The confirmatory factor analysis was applied, however, some question items were excluding to improve the model’s adjustment indexes. For that, these items with error/cross-load correlations were analysed by the Modification Index [60]. Thus, some items (P34; P36) were eliminated with a high correlation of errors [60]. Several indicators were used to analyse the model’s fit. The equation: X2/DF (X2 - chi-square; DF degrees of freedom) suggested by Wheaton et al. [64]. Kline [28] recommends values X2/DF = 1.00–5.00.

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Table 3. Factorial analyses COD. Factor loadings* Construct reliability (Cronbach’s alfa) Emotions Comfort P31 ,858 0,907 0,821 P32 ,833 P33 ,719 Enthusiasm P34 ,602 0,705 P37 ,625 Satisfaction P44 ,700 0,816 P45 ,745 P46 ,770 Worth of Mouth P41 ,656 0,894 P42 ,734 P43 ,812 * Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. CONSTRUCTS

KMO test

0,708 0,796

0,500 0,705

0,745

Another indicator was the CFI - comparative fit index, Joreskog and Sorbom [17] recommend values > 0.90. NFI - normative fit index, Garver and Mentzer [20] suggest the minimum recommended value NFI > 0.90. TLI - Tucker Lewis index, Tucker and Lewis (1973) suggest TLI > 0.90, indicating a very good fit. IFI - incremental fit index, [6] states that IFI values close to 1 indicate a very good adjustment. The GFI goodness of fit index, that Jöreskog and Sörbom [18] suggest GFI > 0.90. RMSEA – root means square error of approximation, which according to Hair et al. [25] the low values of RMSEA must be less than 0.08. Finally, the PNFI - Parsimonious Normed Fit Index and PGFI - Parsimony Goodness-of-Fit Index were analysed. Mulaik et al. [33] suggest PNFI > 0.5 and PGFI > 0.5. The model is considered a good fit, as shown in Table 4. Therefore, the conclusion arises, based on the authors’ indications, that the values obtained indicated an excellent level of unidimensionality and convergent validity (see Fig. 2 and Table 4). Table 5 shows Mean, Standard Deviations (SD), CR, AVE, MSV, ASV, and Correlation Matrix of Constructs. Mean provides an indication of the average value of responses for each item. The standard deviation (SD) shows the variation of the average of each item. A low SD ( 0,7; AVE > 0,5; MSV < AVE [25]. As show in Table 5, all AVE`s is greater than 0.50, providing good additional support for convergent validity [25]. The composite reliability of all scales was >0.80 providing an excellent level of reliability [19, 25]. Therefore, all values support convergent validity [19, 25], validating the conceptual model.

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2

DF X /DF CFI NFI GFI TLI IFI RMSEA PNFI PGFI X 67,259 40 1,681 0,974 0,939 0,912 0,964 0,974 0,069 0,683 0,553

Fig. 2. Structural equation model

Table 5. Mean, standard deviations (SD), CR, AVE, MSV, ASV and correlation matrix of constructs CONSTRUCTS MEAN 1 3,91 2 4,41 3 4,32 1 - Satisfaction 2 - Word of Mouth 3 – Emotions

4.1

SD 0,820 0,683 0,649

CR 0,843 0,895 0,863

AVE 0,643 0,740 0,760

MSV 0,587 0,587 0,477

ASV 0,512 0,532 0,457

1 2 3 0,802 0,766 0,860 0,661 0,691 0,872

Hypotheses Test

Marôco (2014) states that the structural equation model allows testing all hypotheses simultaneously, including direct effects. Direct effects indicate the direct effect of a variable on another variable [28]. To perform the structural equation model, the AMOS 20 software was used. The results of the direct effects show that “Emotions during a wine tasting” have positive and significant effects on “taster’s comfort” (b = 0.366; P < 0.000) and taster’s enthusiasm (b = 0.496; P < 0.000), therefore, the H1 and H2 are supported.

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Also, it appears that “emotions during a wine tasting” have significant positive effects on “taster’s satisfaction” (b = 0.429; P < 0.000), so H3 is supported. Finally, “taster’s Satisfaction” has significant positive effects on “Word of Mouth” (b = 0.811; P < 0.000), consequently H4 is also supported statistically. Table 6 provides a summary of the hypotheses tested.

Table 6. Hypotheses and summary of results Hypotheses Path H1 1!2 H2 1!3 H3 1!4 H3 4!5 1 – Emotions 2 – Comfort 3 – Enthusiasm 4 – Satisfaction 5 – Word of Mouth

Standardized effect P Result 0,366 p < 0.001 Supported 0,496 p < 0.001 Supported 0,429 p < 0.001 Supported 0,811 p < 0.001 Supported

5 Discussion and Conclusion This research sought to confirm the conceptual model on a wine tasting experience for inexperienced participants. The results of the present effort found that the composite of emotions: Comfort and Enthusiasm of participants can have a positive effect on their Satisfaction and consequent to the Word of Mouth. Comfort, which is the state of being physically relaxed, is created by external factors, such as chairs, support materials, etc. [24, 35]. This general comfort will positively affect the taster/customer satisfaction [30]. On the other hand, enthusiasm, which is a strong feeling of excitement and interest, works as a driver for the satisfaction of the participants in this wine event - wine tasting [8, 22, 45, 57]. Therefore, this Comfort and Enthusiasm cocktail is a combination of two emotional factors that wine companies can promote in their activities (wine tasting) for less experienced wine participants. In this way, wine companies can provide satisfying moments, exceeding the expectations of the participants [44]. The satisfaction of the participants can create lawyers for the event and the wines, promoting the “word of mouth” [27, 29, 37, 53]. Therefore, this consumer-to-consumer communication (word of mouth), which in practice is the participants’ recommendations to other people - friends, family, etc. who are potential consumers is very relevant. This can leverage the sales and consumption of wines [9, 14, 54]. From a theoretical point of view, these results support the idea that, although distinctions can be made between wine experts and non-experts participants of a wine tasting experience, as the tasters seem to know how to evaluate the moment experienced in the wine tasting. These moments can act as drivers to increase and attract new consumers. A diagram is presented in Fig. 3 to explain this dynamic approach.

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Fig. 3. Dynamics of a wine tasting for inexperienced participants (Source: Authors)

In short, this study presents solutions for an effective wine tasting for inexperienced participants. These solutions consist of an environment based on the comfort and enthusiasm of the participants in the wine tasting experience event.

6 Limitations and Future Studies This study comprises a small sample (n = 146), which restricts its generalization. However, the results are rich in insights and may in the future be tested in other studies with more general and representative samples. In addition, the study does not explore factors upstream from comfort and enthusiasm. Another suggestion is to provide data on how companies can prepare the tasting in advance for inexperienced participants. Is also pertinent to study the typology of word-of-mouth, that is, whether participants use online methodologies such as social networks (and which ones), blog articles and contacts as influencers, or whether they use offline approaches, like dinners with friends and groups of meetings between individuals, or using a hybrid methodology. Given the current evolution of society, these studies will be relevant for the industry to understand how it can act to monitor these audiences, understand their purchase intentions and thus develop their marketing strategies.

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The Importance of Fashion Events in the City of Oporto: The Fashion Industry Perspective Dália Liberato1(&) , Benedita Barros e Mendes2, and Pedro Liberato1 1

2

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), and CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal {dalialib,pedrolib}@esht.ipp.pt School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship between fashion events and the tourism sector, focusing on how this relationship can also affect the development of the fashion industry. On the empirical side, using a qualitative methodology, the research presents a case study, investigating the relationship between the fashion events in the city of Oporto and the development of the Portuguese fashion industry. The main findings show how fashion events contribute to the evolution of exportation of Portuguese fashion products, as well as the positive development of the valorisation of Portuguese fashion by foreign buyers, highlighting the strong synergy and the mutual influence between fashion events and the positive development of Portuguese fashion industry. In terms of managerial implications, the authors suggest the existence of a mutual effect between the fashion events in the city of Oporto and the success of Portuguese fashion industry, in terms of influence on consumer’s behaviour concerning the Portuguese fashion products. Keywords: Fashion events
Tourism of fashion events
Fashion cities
City of oporto

1 Introduction One subsector of tourism that has gained emphasis in recent years is the tourism of fashion events, which consist on promotional events (fashion shows, fashion weeks, showcases, fairs and exhibitions) [1] in which designers and fashion companies present their new collections [2]. Fashion events are mostly held in cities recognized worldwide as fashion cities. These cities are characterized by a wide range of business, financial, entertainment, cultural and leisure activities and have strong and unique identities [3] that distinguish them from competitors. Tourists of fashion events are attracted by the image of fashion cities, very characterized by high status, elegance and dynamism. Thus, fashion events

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 280–292, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_25

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emerge as differentiating elements, capable of adding value to a destination, in an increasingly competitive tourist market [4, 5]. For the success of an event, it is essential to have a congruence relationship between three distinct components: the image of the event, the image of the organizers and sponsors and the self-image of the participants [6]. In fact, the way each participant sees himself affects not only his/her evaluation of the event, but also the way he/she relates to the collaborating brands in the organization of the event [7, 8]. Nowadays, local governments of many cities have already realized the importance of fashion events, since the higher the place a destination occupies in the global hierarchy of fashion city, the higher the number of benefits and outcomes resulting for it [1]. With the motivation of knowing the impacts of the fashion events in the city of Oporto, regarding the Portuguese fashion industry perspective, the purpose of this article is to present and discuss the results of an empirical study with Portuguese fashion business associations, presented by representatives’ perceptions of the evolution of the fashion events and how Portuguese and foreign audiences value Portuguese fashion, fashion events and the city of Oporto as a tourism destination.

2 Literature Review 2.1

Fashion

Fashion corresponds to the most popular styles (trends) in a society at a given time [9, 10]. It is important to highlight that fashion refers not only to tangible goods such as clothing, footwear and furniture, but also to intangible goods, such as music [11], being closely related to the behaviours and practices experienced in a society at a given time, that is, with sociocultural trends [12, 13]. For the clothing and footwear sectors, fashion is defined as the institutionally accepted way of dress for the individuals of a certain society in a certain period [13, 14]. However, inversely to the concept of clothing, which corresponds to the need to be used, as well as usefulness, fashion is associated with value and social status, being found only in places where it is culturally constructed and disseminated [13]. Thus, fashion is influenced by context, that is, it has the ability to vary from society to society [10]. Nowadays it is described as an element of social behaviour with a very important role in the daily life of the human being [15, 16], since instead of the past in which people bought clothes out of necessity, consumers buy clothes for several reasons: to be fashionable, to impress others, to be accepted in society and in their various groups, for emotional reasons (related to increased self-esteem), among others [17]. The choice of certain pieces of clothing at the time of purchase is also motivated by the messages, values and symbolisms they support [16] so it is, therefore, a procedure associated with several social, psychological, economic and even emotional elements [18], being decisive to recognize the impact that they have in the consumer decision process [19]. Considering the growing demand of luxury fashion, it is worth noting the fact that it is closely associated with an experience characterized by authenticity, ownership, and exclusivity [20]. In fact, the luxury fashion products consist in slow-fashion products. Slow fashion is based on equity, authenticity, regionalism, exclusivity, functionality

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[21] and sustainability. Slow fashion products are made using local/national products by employees who benefit from fair working conditions [22]. They are high quality products, with simple and timeless designs, and their high costs are associated with their value and unique traits that reflect the identity of each piece [23]. 2.2

Fashion Industry

The fashion design industry is broad, diverse and encompasses the subsectors of footwear, textiles, jewellery, and leather goods [24, 25]. Its main objective is to add to the different pieces of clothing, footwear and accessories, aesthetic, but also symbolic value [13]. Another of the main purposes of the fashion industry of a determined nation is to allow the consumers to identify the country as an indicator of product quality, because, therefore, they will have a preference for the fashion products of that country. In this perspective, the fashion industry is highly relevant to the national economy and, therefore, national marketing strategies should develop and promote a positive image of the country and its products, in order to increase the volume of exports [26]. Effectively, the international notoriety of a national brand is the result of a collective marketing action, which must be applied by the several stakeholders in the sector. Collaborations in the fashion industry have as main objectives to promote the image of brands, add value to them [27, 28] and improve the promotion of products in the market, with reduced costs [29, 30]. Another factor that facilitates this success is the location of most companies of the sector in the same city/region and the establishment of a single organization representing the interests of the entire national fashion industry. In the fashion sector, differentiation between competing products is crucial [31, 32] and, therefore, it is important that brands position themselves in the market to be recognized and to have a competitive advantage [1]. The fashion industry of a country has the role of strengthening and increasing production and maintaining active relations with all national and foreign fashion centres to enhance the technical, artistic, and professional development of national production. The development of the fashion industries is influenced by a country’s current socio-cultural and economic context [26]. The success of the fashion cluster must therefore be analysed as a connection between internal and external cycles of knowledge sharing [33]. 2.3

Fashion Events

Fashion events have as main objective to celebrate fashion and design and can be of a promotional nature, especially parades, fairs and exhibitions, fashion weeks and showcases where new trends are presented to the first time and designers and stylists present their new collections [2], or informative, such as conferences where several topics associated with the sector are addressed, related to new trends in production and distribution, technological advancement, sustainability, management, reaching new markets, among others [34]. A fashion event can also be considered a package of events [35], an example of which are the fashion weeks that incorporate various events of a diverse nature

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(Fashion shows, exhibitions, showrooms and social events as cocktails, dinners and parties, among others). The combination of several events in a week allows to attract different audiences, reduce costs, and add value to the participants’ experience [36]. In fact, fashion events can generate value, for both their organizers and participants, as well as for other stakeholders who may not be directly related to the fashion industry, such as the tourism sector [13]. Thus, fashion events allow the different brands of the sector to be able to enter foreign markets, presenting collections that answer the needs of their consumers. These events mostly consist in business events and, therefore, allow networking moments between different professionals of the sector, the dissemination of knowledge, ideas and thoughts and the creation of new collaborations, enhancing innovation, creativity and multiple positive outcomes [37]. 2.4

Fashion Cities

The destinations where fashion events take place are known as fashion cities, and have privileges over competitor places, since their image are associated with high symbolic values, which allow them to attract a high number of resources, visitors and capital [38]. There is a global network of global fashion cities, which are known worldwide, being strongly related to the fashion industry, occupying several places in the hierarchy of fashion cities, in which Paris, London, Milan and New York are the top four. Fashion cities are the places where new trends are developed and presented to society and, therefore, the most emblematic companies of the sector consider these to be the ideal places for holding fashion events, as well as for the location of its physical stores, since they are authentic business centres, recognized for their unique identity [2]. Fashion cities are the places where new trends are developed and presented to society and, therefore, the most emblematic companies of the sector consider these to be the ideal places for holding fashion events, as well as for the location of its physical stores, since they are authentic business centres, recognized for their unique identity [2]. Nowadays, cities attract the best creative talents, since the structure of their social networks is wide and culturally available to accommodate different cultures in the same place. These are places with a high quality of life, where diversity is an advantage [5]. In fact, on Fashion cities, there is a concentration of different creative industries [39]. The creative industries comprise activities that, as the name implies, originate from creativity, as well as talent, and have the capacity to generate jobs and wealth. 2.5

Case Study

The city of Oporto is the second largest city of the country and the most representative of the northern region of Portugal. Its historic centre was considered cultural historical heritage by UNESCO in 1996. This elevation gave it the status of “World Heritage City” due to its historical wealth. In 2001, the city of Oporto was distinguished as European City of Culture, having gathered throughout the year, in various events, several renowned national and international artists. This distinction allowed the city of Oporto to be recognized simultaneously as a city of traditions and a modern city [40].

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Over the last few years there has been a positive development of the city of Oporto as a tourist destination, increasing its recognition internationally. The city of Oporto has been working in a remarkable way regarding its positioning on the European map. In fact, in addiction to winning international distinction, it has achieved the position of European destination. Oporto was considered the Best European Destination in 2012, 2014 and 2017 – a distinction awarded annually by European Consumers Choice. This distinction offers attractiveness and notoriety to the city of Oporto as a tourist destination, also revealing itself as a potential for economic growth of the region. Indeed, the tourism sector has shown significant growth not only in the city of Oporto, but throughout the northern region, supported by its historical, cultural, natural, architectural and gastronomic heritage, attracting, increasingly, a greater number of visitors [41]. The northern region is also the core of the Portuguese fashion industry because most of the companies of the textile sector are located there (Table 1). Table 1. Guests (No.) and Overnight stays (No.) in tourist accommodation establishments in the city of Oporto. 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020*

Guests 1 144 376 1 287 725 1 426 863 1 536 798 1 958 645 2 223 458 278 150 Overnight stays 2 246 244 2 515 659 2 833 406 3 040 424 4 001 160 4 535 329 410 071 Source: INE, 2020; ATP, 2020

The city of Oporto is the stage of several fashion events, including Porto Fashion Week and Portugal Fashion, which are effectively two of the main Portuguese fashion events, as well as in the Iberian Peninsula. The city of Oporto can offer fashion events favourable conditions, including climate, infrastructure and equipment, the diversity of complementary leisure activities and a good communications network.

3 Methodology The objectives of the present research are to understand the evolution of fashion events in the city of Oporto and the respective demand; to understand the development of the Portuguese fashion industry vis-a-vis the national public and the foreign public; to know the objectives of business associations of the fashion sector; to identify the partnerships established between business associations; to understand the synergies resulting from the partnerships created with the public sector in the promotion of fashion events and tourist destination. To fulfil the objectives of this research, was adopted the qualitative methodology, and the semi-structured interview was used as a data collection instrument. The interview is an advantageous data collection technique due its efficiency and the fact it promotes the collection of diversified data [42]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by the existence of a previously prepared script but offer the interviewer the freedom to include during the interview, several aspects considered as convenient.

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Interviews were conducted individually with three representatives of the main business associations representing the Portuguese fashion industry, that organize the main fashion events of the city of Oporto and Portugal, in general (Table 2). Table 2. Interviews No. interview Interview date 1 27/04/2020 2 28/05/2020 3 28/05/2020 Source: Authors

Interview duration 32:59 44:32 Written response

All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. The interview schedule includes several open-ended questions: • What are the main objectives that your entity intends to achieve with the realization of fashion events in the city of Oporto? • What are the main results from the realization of fashion events for the Portuguese fashion industry? • How has the growth and development of brands and companies of the national textile sector been verified? • How do you assess the importance of partnerships established between business associations for the success of fashion events? • What is the role of these partnerships in the development of the national fashion industry? • In your perspective, what is the potential of fashion events that must be explored for their success to be increased? • What do you recognize that is more valued by participants concerning fashion events? • Over the past few years, how has the foreign public recognized the companies and brands of the Portuguese fashion industry? • How does holding fashion events allow for greater interaction between the Portuguese fashion industry and foreign buyers? • What is the impact of fashion events in the city of Oporto on the increase in exports of fashion products? • Has the holding of fashion events with international impact, attracted an increasing number of international tourists, specifically for these events? • Is there use of the presence of international participants to offer complementary activities to extend their stay? • Are fashion events promoted abroad by the public sector, notably by local and regional tourism authorities? • What aspects would you want to see improved in terms of promotion? Interview data were analysed using thematic analysis method – the comprehension of the phenomena must emerge from the data rather than from preconceived notions formulated by the researcher.

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4 Results To understand the relationship between the fashion events realized in the city of Oporto and the development of the Portuguese fashion industry, semi-structured interviews were conducted. The analysis of these interviews revealed the following integrative categories, presented in Table 3: Fashion Events; Portuguese Fashion Industry; Oporto as a Tourism Destination; and Consequences of Covid-19. A deeper description of the results is presented in the rest of this section with participants’ transcriptions to illustrate and facilitate understanding.

Table 3. Core categories and subcategories. Core categories Fashion events

Subcategories Objectives Results Appreciation by participants Beneficial for the fashion industry Potential to be improved Portuguese fashion industry Evolution Relationship with foreign public Partnerships Oporto as a tourism destination Valuing the city Support from DMO’s Consequences of Covid-19 Negative Impacts Source: Authors

About Fashion Events, the objectives that are intended to be achieved with their realization, are, to promote Portuguese textile and clothing industry, both nationally and internationally, bring international customers closer to the Portuguese industrial fabric, put the city of Oporto on the roadmap of international fashion cities, boost the relationship between production and creation, promoting the design and quality of the product with competitive advantage and promote the aesthetic revitalization of national fashion. Effectively, fashion events have “the purpose of boosting the relationship between production and creation, promoting design as a critical factor of the competitiveness of the textile and clothing industry and encouraging creators to assume a business strategy for their activities (…), fostering generational renewal of national fashion through the launch of new creators (…) and strengthen the internationalization of the textile sector in foreign markets” (3). The most important result from the realization of fashion events are “the evolution of the fashion industry with regard to several critical factors of competitiveness such as design, marketing, innovation, quality and distribution” (3). The participants of the fashion events organized in the city of Oporto value “innovation and presentation, logistics organization” (1) and interpersonal contact experience.

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The holding of fashion events in the city of Oporto facilitates the interaction between the national textile sector and the foreign public, and directly influences the increase in exports of fashion products. In fact, “the dynamics of the event are always thought of in order to enhance the interaction between Portuguese companies and foreign buyers” (6). For fashion events to be more successful there must be a bet on “the promotion, communication and attraction capacity of international audiences” (2), notoriety, as well as appreciation for Portuguese authenticity and also the attraction of private sponsorships, since public funds are not always enough to achieve all the desired objectives. Concerning to the Portuguese fashion industry, companies have shown an increase in exports, promoting themselves in international markets, looking for new costumer dynamically. The brands are very few in Portugal and most cannot get out of the online register and often consist only of exports brands, however they have shown a positive development concerning production quality and responsiveness, having been gaining notoriety in international markets. Portuguese brands “currently have not only production quality, responsiveness and distribution channels, but also a more careful design and in line with fashion trends. (…) Increasingly the label “made in Portugal” adds value and is a differentiating fact and notoriety” (3). The foreign public recognizes the textile and clothing industry Portuguese due to the dynamism of Portuguese companies seeking to participate in international fairs to reach new audiences, revealing concerns regarding the strategy, gaining competitive advantage over other competing markets. “We have a very complete fashion ecosystem from the point of view of the elements that are part of it, but that still does not work 100%. There is a lot of potential, but it is necessary that designers, industry and investors work truly in synergy, because only in this way, we will be able to truly climb the name of Portugal” (3). In fact, the creation of partnerships between business associations, both national and international, is crucial to the success of fashion events. However, there is still an important work to be done, in creating partnerships between the several layers in the fashion industry, so that its potential is maximized and the brand “Portugal” could be truly recognized as a brand of excellence. “The textile industry in Portugal is a family that was already more disunited that it is today, particularly in associative terms” (1) so “partnerships, synergies and collaborations that add scope and opportunities are always important and should be highly valued” (3). Concerning to the relationship between the participants of the fashion events and the city of Oporto as a tourism destination, they greatly value the destination Portugal and take the opportunity to visit the city of Oporto. Participants of fashion events “return to participate in next editions, extend their overnights and travel accompanied by friends and/or family” (1). Thus, it is important to offer complementary programmes, more directed to the tourism offer in the city, and also social events, able to add value to tourist’s global experience. The support of local and regional DMO’s should not only be limited to promotion but should also include the provision of spaces and allowances for holding social events, complementary to major fashion events, as well as in the travel facilities of foreign guests. “The textile industry benefits from the fact that there is a tourism boom

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in Europe and especially in Portugal, but tourism also benefits from these fashion events that bring to the city of Oporto many participants from abroad, who enjoy restaurants, hotels, hostels, among other tourism resources and attractions” (1). About the consequences of Covid-19, the pandemic had a negative impact on the textile sector, but it was reinvented through the production of masks and other hospital textile products. “Masks can really be the product of the year and, after all, their production can mitigate the impact of this pandemic for textile companies” (1). Although the pandemic did not affect the calendar of international fashion events in the fall/winter season, the dates of the spring/summer season, scheduled in September and October 2020, may be affected. “Audience events will need a lot of time to recover, people need to regain confidence in going out, joining with other people, and after that, it will be possible to organize public events again” (1). Table 4 summarizes the results obtained in the interviews with representatives of the Business Associations.

Table 4. Summary of the results of the Interviews held with representatives of business associations Theme Fashion events

Conclusions The objectives that are intended to be achieved with the fashion events are to promote the Portuguese textile and clothing industry, on a national and international scale, bring international customers closer to the industrial fabric Portuguese, put the city of Porto on the roadmap of the international fashion cities, boost the relationship between production and creation, promoting the design and quality of product as a competitive advantage and promoting the aesthetic revitalization of national fashion The results from the realization of fashion events are the evolution of the fashion industry regarding several critical factors of competitiveness, such as design, marketing, innovation, quality, distribution Participants value innovation and presentation, logistics organization and interpersonal contact experience The holding of fashion events in the city of Porto facilitates the interaction between the national textile sector and the international public, and directly influences the increase in exports of fashion products For fashion events to be more successful there must be a commitment to the promotion, communication and attraction capacity of international audiences, the notoriety, the appreciation of Portuguese authenticity and, also, the attraction of private sponsorships, since public funds are not always necessary to achieve all the desired objectives

Interviewed E4/E5/E6

E4/E5/E6

E4/E5/E6 E4/E6

E4/E5/E6

(continued)

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Table 4. (continued) Theme Portuguese Fashion Industry

Oporto as a Tourism Destination

Covid-19 consequences

Source: Authors

Conclusions Companies have shown an increase in exports, promoting themselves in international markets, looking for new customers in a dynamic way. Trademarks are in small numbers in Portugal and most cannot leave online registration and often consist only of export marks; however, they have shown a positive development in production quality and responsiveness and have gained notoriety in international markets The international public recognizes the textile and clothing industry Portuguese due to the dynamism of Portuguese companies seeking to participate in international fairs in order to reach new audiences, revealing concerns regarding the strategy, gaining competitive advantage over other competing markets The creation of partnerships between business associations, both national and international, is central to the success of fashion events. However, there is still a lot of work to be done in establishing partnerships between the various players in the fashion industry, so that its potential is maximized and the “Portugal” brand is truly recognized as a brand of excellence abroad The participants of the events greatly value the destination Portugal and take the opportunity to know the city of Porto. The participants of the fashion events held in the city of Porto return to participate, extend the stay, and come accompanied by family and/or friends. Thus, it is important to offer complementary programs The support of local and regional DMO’s should not only be limited to promotion but should also include the provision of spaces and other support for the holding of social events, complementary to major fashion events, as well as travel facilities Covid-19 had a negative impact on the textile sector, but it was reinvented through the production of masks and other hospital textile products. Although the pandemic did not affect the calendar of international fashion events in the fall/winter season, the dates of the spring/summer season, scheduled in October and September 2020, may be affected

Interviewed E5/E6

E4/E5/E6

E4/E5/E6

E4/E5/E6

E4/E5

E4

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5 Conclusions Over the years, the number of fashion events held in the city of Oporto has evolved, as well as the number of participants, both domestic and foreign, has increased. The interviews recognize that the participants of the fashion events, in addition to the innovation, presentation, organization and experience of the events, value Portugal, in general, and the city of Oporto, in particular, as tourist destinations and, thus, take advantage of the participation in the event to know the city. Most participants return to participate in subsequent editions of the events, extend their stay and travel with family and/or friends. The main result of fashion events in the city of Oporto is the evolution of the fashion industry regarding several critical factors of competitiveness, such as design, innovation, quality, and marketing. Over the past few years, both companies and brands of the national textile sector have seen a significant increase in the volume of exports as well as international notoriety. However, the evolution of companies is more significant that the evolution of brands, which have more difficulty asserting themselves in the market. However, the foreign public recognizes the Portuguese textile producing quality, due to the constant innovation of the players in the sector, both in terms of production and promotion. The main objectives that business associations intend to achieve with the organization of fashion events are to promote the Portuguese textile and clothing industry, both nationally and internationally, to position the city of Oporto on the roadmap of international fashion cities, promote the design and quality of Portuguese fashion products as a competitive advantage and promote the aesthetic revitalization of national fashion. Respondents believe that the creation of partnership between players in the fashion sector, both domestic and international, is essential to the success of the fashion industry in general and fashion events. They recognize, however, that there is still a work to be done, concerning the creation of partnerships, so the potential of events could be maximized and the brand “Portugal” could be truly recognized as a brand of excellence worldwide, as also stated in previous studies [43–45]. Business associations demonstrate the desire to have a greater support from local and regional DMO’s, not only in terms of promotion, but also in the availability of spaces and cost aids for the improvement of fashion events and complementary social events. Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge the financial support of CiTUR, R&D unit funded by the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, under the scope of the project UID/BP/04470/2020.

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Implementation of Lean Techniques in Destination Management Organizations Diana Foris1,2(&) 1

, Adriana Florescu1, Tiberiu Foris1,2, and Sorin Barabas1

Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov, Romania {diana.foris,fota.a,tiberiu.foris, sorin.barabas}@unitbv.ro 2 CiTUR - Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Peniche, Portugal

Abstract. The competitive environment increasingly forces tourism organizations to review, restructure and redirect activities in order to gain competitive advantage in the conditions of a sustainable tourism development. The concept of Lean Management, as a new philosophy, successfully applied in the field of increasing production’s efficiency, can be developed and implemented in services, tourism and hospitality as well as in tourism destination management organizations. On this project, a new methodology for tourism destination management is developed, based on Lean Management principles. Throughout a new approach, the research carried out in this study offers opportunities to increase the competitiveness of the tourism and hospitality industry by improving the management system and, implicitly, an efficient use of the tourism resources, increasing productivity and satisfying customer requirements by offering services and products with higher added value. By efficiently applying Lean tools and techniques, we rethink the system, we control and improve processes in the value chain in order to increase the performance. Therefore, we will create a user-oriented and interactive support framework that can be used by management to streamline the activity and the operations of the management organizations for the tourist destinations. Keywords: Tourism destination
Lean Management Management Organization (DMO)


Destination

1 Introduction In a continuously changing world, in the context of the substantial increase of the diversity of services in the tourism industry and customer requirements, mutations and continuous transformations are required in the management of tourist destinations and the increase of their competitive advantage. Rapid changes in the production and consumption of tourism services, the increased competitiveness and the emergence of new tourist destinations, the development of information technology, all of these call for a new approach to the implementation of modern management strategies and tools and a new approach towards quality in the conditions of sustainable development. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 293–303, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_26

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The tourism and hospitality field was in past few years and is still undergoing a profound process of transformation with an ascending dynamic, representing a factor of social-economic and cultural advancement. It is estimated that the total world GDP of the tourism and travel sector will increase in average by 3.8% per year between 20152025 and the number of new jobs created will reach a total of 72.9 million, from which 23.2 million will be delivered directly within this field. Also, the total GDP contribution of the tourism and travel field in the global economy is estimated to grow from 9.8% in 2014 to 10.5% in 2025, with an increase in the employment sector from 9.4% to 10.7% over the same period [1]. According to the long-term forecast of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) [2], the international travel arrivals are expected to reach 1.83 billion in 2030 [3]. These trends and developments, as well as the future changes in the demographic, social, psychological characteristics of the population/tourists, will have an impact on tourism destination management. A keyissue in the globalized tourism market is the demand for a new approach, offering the tourist businesses a sustained market presence [4]. The development of a tourist destination also involves a few problems, given the need to manage and coordinate a significant number of elements within the tourist system of the destination [5]. In this context, in this paper, the authors will study and analyze the activity of the tourist destination management organization in order to develop a new methodology for management of the tourist destination, based on the principles of Lean Management. By applying these principles are rethinking the system, control and improve processes on the value chain, without using sophisticated tools and technologies in solving problems [6]. This approach will provide opportunities for the development of the tourism industry and, implicitly, will enhance the competitive advantage at an international level. The paper aims to analyze and evaluate the use of Lean Management tools and techniques as a new and successful approach in the field of organizing tourist destinations. We will present some of the tools of continuous improvement and those that bring high value, by eliminating waste, relevant to DMO specificity.

2 Literature Review 2.1

Destination Management Organizations (DMO)

The tourist destination is a complex system consisting in a variety of organizations that offer tourist products and services (accommodation, transport, attractions, etc.), natural and anthropic resources, as well as other units providing tourists support services [7]. According to the theory of systems, the destination can be seen as a system where the various component subsystems are interconnected through material flows/exchanges, information flows and energy flows. The destination being a system, a network of connections, and its leading role is particularly important. The destination management has an essential role in its development, given that in a constantly changing competitive environment, destinations must provide value for customers/tourists. In the current concept [3, 7, 8], the novelty element, which meets the requirements of the development of a tourist destination, is the Destination Management Organization (DMO).

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Primary Functions of DOMs are: “economic driver” which is capable of generating new income, employment and taxes–more diversified local economy; “public-private sector coordinator” which binds the two sectors to share the economic benefits; “effective marketer and promotor” to communicate the destination’s image to markets; “quasi-public representative” which provides legitimacy to the local industry; “flag bearer” to enhance the quality of life of residents [9]. The study [3] show that tourism’s micro-enterprises have limited knowledge of their role in the global value chain and the significance of multiple connections that occur within it. Thus appears the need for a well-defined destination management organization to transmit market-related information, gaining more markets through a joint marketing and promotion effort, understanding consumer requirements, access to the latest technologies, innovative practices and training, increasing the expertise and quality of customer advice, etc. 2.2

Lean Management Concept

The Lean Management concept includes all the principles, methods and procedures for organizing and moderating an organization by reducing or eliminating waste from the value chain processes. Lean is not only an improvement tool, but also a management philosophy that should be directed by the top management towards the level of production, provided that it will generate the necessary levels of understanding and trust. Through Lean management, manufacturers are committed to deliver more value to customers, thus increasing process speeds and minimizing waste. Lean must be perfectly aligned with the organizational structure, culture, and performance appraisal system in order to create long-term results. The culture of improvement must be related to the awareness of all the employees by their daily behavior and sustainable improvement decisions. In the recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on organizational culture in companies regarding the desire to successfully implement the Lean concept [10–12]. The Lean concept was developed by Taiichi Ohno in the 1950s and later developed by Shigeo Shingo and was first applied in the automotive industry, within the Toyota production system (TPS) [13]. Lean philosophy was developed in the West by Womack and Jones, who considered this type of management as “an antidote against waste - any human activity that does not bring value” [14]. Currently there are two organizations that implement this management philosophy: Kaizen Institute Ltd. [15] and the Lean Enterprise Institute [14]. Jackson T. and Jones, K. say that Lean Management “is about operating the most efficient and effective organization possible, with the least cost and zero waste [16]. Starting from the study of specialized literature, this research will identify the possibilities of applying the Lean techniques and tools, the specific approaches in the tourism and hospitality services. This philosophy is successfully implemented in the industrial sector, the application of Lean tools and methods being still difficult at service level. Since Lean’s implementation of services is still at the beginning, it is important to find some paths, solutions for success, depending on the specificity of each domain. However, Lean methodology cannot be implemented in the same way in every situation: it needs to be tailored to the particular characteristics of each sector [17].

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The results of the research presented in the paper [18] highlight some interesting aspects regarding the way in which the Lean implementation works in several logistics, financial, health and tourism companies. Out of the 600 companies contacted, less than 2% claimed they were adopting any Lean technique. Healthcare organizations are starting to learn something about Lean, but implementations are rare; in tourism, rental, hotels and restaurants none of the companies contacted were implementing Lean [18]. In the author’s paper [19, 20] the Lean concept is considered a business strategy which aims to increase customer’s satisfaction through abettor use of resources. In the paper [21] the authors state that Lean Production is the most popular investment choice among companies that invest to remain competitive, flexible and profitable. The traditional application of Lean management in the hospitality area and makes an analysis regarding its adequacy and optimization potential through a study case in a hotel company [22–24].In the service sector (health, administration, construction, financial), several Lean methods have been adapted [25–28]. Taking into account the latest trends and evolutions in the tourism development, the recent growth of Destination Management Organizations (DMO) having an integrating role in the coordination of interconnected subsystems, we consider it appropriate to analyze and develop a methodology for the implementation of modern Lean Management concepts in order to increase the competitiveness of the tourism industry and in making management decisions.

3 Techniques and Methods Lean Lean is a management system, a philosophy or a set of tools, depending on the scale, strategy and level of development of the organization and culture in which it is applied. Lean involves a team-based approach to identify and eliminate waste (activities that do not bring value) through continuous improvement, by ensuring a continuous flow of product/service, responding to the customer’s demand, having perfection as goal. Several Lean instruments has been mentioned by Rother M. and Shook J. in [29]: Process Mapping. The main goal behind business process mapping (mapping) is to help organizations become more efficient. Value Stream Mapping (VSM), the value flow map means the graphical representation of the material, human and information flows that lead to the realization of a product/service. VSM is associated with the supply chain, the logistics, with the services, the product development and the administrative processes. 5SMethod. These is a tool used in the working places and it comes from 5 Japanese words starting with the letter S: SEITON - SEIRI - SEISO - SEIKETSU - SHITSUKE; a method for achieving a clean and orderly work environment. The implementation of this concept brings benefits to organizations by eliminating waste, improving production flows, reducing inventories and standardizing processes. Six Sigma. The concept Six Sigma is a methodology for improving quality by diminishing variability, using various statistical and qualitative tools. The primary purpose of Six-Sigma is to satisfy the customer and to create loyalty to a product or organization.

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Kanban. The “pull” system is the “pull” system of planning and organizing production; nothing is done in the upstream process without a downstream necessity signal. Lean assures the stability of the processes and their deployment in a continuous flow, based on three principles: the principle of flow, the principle of tact, and the principle of pulling. Kaizen. The concept is a work-based philosophy designed to permanently improve work in an enterprise, in this case by: eliminating waste; avoiding unproductive times; reduction of waste and scrap; organization; efficient use of premises, equipment and workplaces; standardization, procedures and implementation; reducing production costs and maximizing working time. Kaizen represents “a win-win strategy by which people are focused on problem-solving” [15]. The Visual Management. This concept consists of the ability to understand the state of a production area within 5 min or less, through one observation, without using the computer and without talking to someone, thus observing anomalies. The modern management methods can be summarized in three concepts: reducing waste/losses, maintaining product/service quality and accelerating production. Lean concepts and Kaizen philosophy, implemented and verified in production, are equally important for the efficient organization of the processes and activities in the tourism industry. For example, any loss occurred is spread across the whole tourism industry chain, with unfavorable insights on customer service. Thus, the organization is required to take measures to eliminate/minimize losses and thus to bring value to the customer, to provide better and more competitive services. Identifying solutions for competitiveness is one of the main concerns of the companies and organizations around the world, and implicitly for the DMO.

3.1

DMO Study and Analysis

The implementation of the DMO concept will allow the development of tourism, with direct implications in the increase of tourist traffic and in a higher turnover both at a local, regional and national level. A representation in the authors’ view of how DMO coordinates the sectors involved in the activities of a tourist destination is presented in a synthetic way in Fig. 1. The modern management of a destination requires the creation of a partnership between many sectors, organizations and interest groups, public, private and non-profit, the governing body of such a system being DMO. A recent model for organizing and integrating a tourist destination is clustering.

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Fig. 1. DMO functions and coordination of activities in sectors of a destination at national level

In order to increase global competitiveness and ability to respond to market requirements, it is necessary to apply the concepts of integrated management of tourism destinations. Some of these requirements cannot be fulfilled without the implementation of the modern Lean management concepts proposed in this study to be adapted in the field of organizing tourist destinations. 3.2

Methodology of Research

The basic idea, in setting up a tourist management entity, was the need for a particular organization or enterprise to assume the role of a unique coordinator of information flows of the destination: data collection, process/activity identification, leadership and monitoring, as well as their inside and out transmission (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Process Improvement Strategy in DMO

The identification and the continuous improvement of the processes is an essential business strategy on the competitive market, similar to Lean Management’s core principles of ensuring a continuous flow of information and material in the processes. A first step in the methodology of Lean concept implementation in DMO is knowing the Lean thinking and setting of the objectives. The Lean objectives identified within an DMO are: a. Eliminating waste from business processes and increasing value delivered to the clients; b. Optimizing the entire value flow for a product or a service; c. Delivery as fast as possible to the customer; d. Focus on employees that bring value and not on functional expertise; e. Lean Thinking’s cross-optimization; f. Minimizing the weight of type equipment’s; g. Decide as late as possible; decide as slowly as possible; h. Developing a vast testing system; learn through experimentation; i. Quick Implementation; measurement of the impact on the business; j. Satisfy all shareholders/ stakeholders. A second step in the implementation of Lean consists in the identification the 7 types of wastes, similar as in the production systems. Thus, for DMO, wastes can also be identified in the services sector/support activities [30]: works/services not required; high waiting times between activities; transport of the documents; activities, useless documents/dense flow; unfinished works/stocks; unnecessary movements/activities/ tasks; errors in documents. In Lean Management, one of the tools for generating creative solutions for processor improvement is VSM, which together with Process Simulation are useful to drive creative thinking towards process’s redefinition. Any Lean initiative should start with an analysis of the value flow from the organization. In order to improve a process, firstly it has to be understood (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Process of analyzing the flow of value

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As a result, some notions have to be known: value flow, as being the totality of the steps within a process, in a predetermined sequential order, necessary for the realization of a product/service requested by the client; the Lean principle of value flow; the Value Flow Map (VSM) is the graphical representation of the product/service performance process, resulted from observations and measurements. A typical value chain for a DMO organization is the combination of services that contribute to the supply of tourism products/experiences. The approach involves establishing income streams (national, regional, local) and an integrated product and business policy that considers the entire value chain of tourism, which is difficult to achieve in the context of the current DMO organization [3].

4 Results and Discussion By analyzing the value chain, we can highlight ways in which the organization can achieve more “valuable” products and services for its customers than its competitors. Various obstacles have also been identified in DMO value flow analysis. Which streams and what articles are we analyzing? Material flow, information flow or financial flow? If for the production, the articles are the materials, and for research & development the articles are the projects, by analogy, for the services and the activities carried out in a DMO, the articles could be the requirements of external clients, and for domestic administration, the requirements of internal clients. Another difficulty arises from the fact that the entire process, not just certain sequences, needs to be improved. The improvement process may involve radical, rapid, discontinuous changes to the processes of the organization and the necessary (technical and organizational) infrastructure on which it is based [30]. First of all, transformations into human thinking and the change of organizational culture are needed. The difficulty also arises from the fact that employees’ support for change is often critical. The new organization of DMO, through Lean Management, will bring benefits to increasing the organization’s value and developing employees and partners through their involvement, responsibility and training. The structure of the organization, the lack of clearly associated strategies and objectives, sometimes poor communication in the organization, both horizontally and hierarchically, financial, technical, informational constraints can hinder the effective implementation of the Lean management concept in tourism. Structured problem solving involves training, visibility for every one of the current and desired/future situation, goals, action plan and deadlines. A proposal to analyze the improvement of DMO activity was made taking into account several performance indicators, where improvements (Fig. 4) are found on a scale of 0 to 50. Thus, improvements can be made to the quality of processes/services and their execution times, to the response times to clients and partners involved in the organization, but also to financial and human benefits, with low implementation costs.

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Fig. 4. Analysis of the improvement of the DMO activity

5 Conclusions Given the role of the Destination Management Organization (DMO) in the efficient and quality management of a tourist destination, it is necessary to develop an integrated management framework by creating partnerships between public institutions, private sectors and the local population. In the current international context of the developing of the tourism with a rising dynamics and knowing the implications of tourism in the socio-economic and cultural environment, changes are required in the way of thinking and applying modern strategies. A novelty in the development of tourism destination management organizations is the implementation of Lean Management methods in all sectors involved in a Destination Management Organization. Thus, the Lean concept can be considered a business strategy, with the primary objective of increasing customer satisfaction through better use of resources, within a DMO, to increase the degree of competitiveness and flexibility of the processes. Through the methodology developed in the present paper, of implementation the Lean concept, we aimed at achieving an integrated stakeholder management in the development of the Destination Management Organization in the future and creating value in the whole value chain of tourism. It is thus possible to develop an interactive decision support framework, used to streamline the activity and operations in the tourist destination management organizations. With the DMO development framework at national level, future author studies will be directed towards analyzing, researching and evaluating the implementation of Lean specific DMO management tools at regional and local level with positive impact on the growth and competitiveness of the tourism industry and hospitality, by focusing on continuously improving the value delivered to the customer. It is possible to create diversified and competitive tourism offers, viable by supporting the quality of tourism services, in which the business environment is directly involved with the local public authorities. Acknowledgment. This work is financed by national funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project nº UIDB/04470/2020.

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References 1. WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council: Economic impact of travel & tourism (2015). http://www.wttc.org/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/economic% 20impact%202015%20summary_web.pdf 2. UNWTO World tourism organization, tourism highlights (2015). http://www.e-uwto.org/ doi/pdfhttps://doi.org/10.18111/9789284416899 3. Jucan M.S.: The tourist destination of the future: scenarios and trends, Ph.D. Thesis, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania Faculty of Economics, Sibiu, Romania (2015) 4. Madgerova, R.H., Kyurova, V.: et al.: Application of the lean concept as a prerequisite for a tourist business development. Econ. Process. Manage. Int. Sci. J. 4 (2016) 5. Iunius, R.F., Cismaru, L., Foris, D.: Raising competitiveness for tourist destinations through information technologies within the newest tourism action framework proposed by the European Commission. Sustainability 7 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3390/su7091289 6. Florescu, A., Barabas, B.: Integrating the lean concept in sustainable manufacturing development. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 399, 012018 (2018). Article No: UNSP 7. Bratucu et al.: Brasov - The tourist destination profile. Monograph, Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania (2014) 8. Bieger, T., Beritelli, P.: Management von Destinationen, 8 Auflage, OldenbourgWissenschaftsverlag (2013) 9. Harsh, W.: Destination management organizations. UNWTO. www.unwto (2017) 10. Atkinson, P.: Lean is a cultural issue. Manage. Serv. 54, 35–44 (2010) 11. Liker, J.K., Rother, M.: Why lean programs fail. Lean enterprise institute (2011) 12. Bortolotti, T., Boscari, S., Danese, P.: Successful Lean implementation: organizational culture and soft lean practices. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 160, 182–201 (2015) 13. Taiichi O.: Toyota System Production. Ikar Publishing Management Consult, Bratislava (2009) 14. Womack, J., Jones, D.: Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your Corporation. Simon & Schuster, NewYork (1996) 15. Masaaki, I., Kaizen, G.: A Commonsense Approach to a Continuous Improvement Strategy. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, New York City (2010) 16. Jackson, T., Jones, K.: Implementing a Lean Management System. Productivity Press, New York (1996) 17. Ahlstrom, P.: Lean service Operation: translating lean production principles to service operations. Int. J. Serv. Technol. Manage. 5(5/6), 545–564 (2004) 18. Portioli-Staudacher, A.: Lean implementation in service companies. In: Vallespir, B., Alix, T. (eds.) APMS 2009. IAICT, vol. 338, pp. 652–659. Springer, Heidelberg (2010) 19. Simões L.M.C.: Lean Management System applied to the F & B of the Pousadas de Portugal. MS Thesis, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria (2013) 20. Pinto, P.: Lean Thinking, Lean Thinking, The Philosophy of Winning Organizations. LIDEL, Lisabona (2009) 21. Demeter, K., Matyusz, Z.: The impact of Lean practices on inventory turnover. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 133, 154–163 (2011) 22. Rauch, E., Damiana, A., Holzner, P., Matt D.T.: Lean hospitality - application of lean management methods in the hotel sector. Proc. CIRP 41, 614–619 (2015). 48th CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems 23. Senthilkumar, V.B.E.: Lean in hospitality services across a state university, Texas Tech University, pp. 1–67 (2011)

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Emergency Remote Work in Portugal: Evaluation, Effects, and Recommendations Luciana Oliveira1(&) 1

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, Anabela Mesquita2 , Adriana Oliveira1 and Arminda Sequeira1

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CEOS.PP, ISCAP Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim s/n, Matosinhos, Portugal [email protected] Polytechnic of Porto and Algoritmi RC, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim s/n, Matosinhos, Portugal

Abstract. The recent pandemic caused by COVID-19 has forced unprecedented professional and social changes that affect the way people work, learn and live. Even in an era in which the digitalization of the workplace had been already widely announced, employers and employees had not expected such an urgent digital immersion of jobs with broad impacts on the professional, personal, financial and social dimensions of the workforce. In this paper, the main consequences, challenges, and effects of remote work in Portugal are reported, together with a set of recommendations for employers and workers, which were captured in survey-based research. Results show that professionals are not unanimous towards the benefits of remote work, and while some would like to resume in-person work, a substantial amount of professional, personal and financial benefits are associated to the possibility of working from home. Additionally, and according to pressing changes, professionals put forward several recommendations for employers and peers regarding workload and time management, employee assistance and self-regulated work. Keywords: Emergency remote work transformation


Remote work
COVID-19
Digital

1 Introduction Globalization and digital transformation shaped the work and provided a set of tools that allowed remote work to expand as never seen before. Remote work (RW) was already a reality for some particular industry clusters and job profiles, but hardly a widely accepted or an adopted form of work. However, given the social distancing imposed by the COVID-19 (SRA-CoV-2) pandemic, RW emerged as the only viable solution to maintain labor at a large scale, even in the situations where it was unforeseeable and, in many cases, happened under inappropriate conditions. In the press, a growing body of voices states that this will be our reality for the upcoming years, as it will be difficult for everyone to go back to the old forms of living and working. In fact, the pandemic situation taught us that remote work is possible for almost all kinds of jobs. Therefore, citizens’ global literacy is at higher stake and risk, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 304–313, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_27

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considering the multiplicity of social and digital skills required to function in a democratically pluralistic, shared community, across geographical and international contexts, in work and life [1]. Nevertheless, this transition and the adoption of remote work, for some workers were not done without pain as it represented, in some cases, sharing the house all day with the other members of the family, sometimes sharing equipment and even managing/bounding their working hours, without a clear distinction between work, leisure and family time. This scenario may differ from country to country, as such, in this paper, the authors present the results of a study conducted in Portugal, regarding the core challenges of the transition to RW. The aim is to identify and evaluate the main impacts, effects, and recommendations in the transition from face-to-face work to the remote work in Portugal. This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 contextualizes RW. Results presented in Sect. 4 are divided in two parts: quantitative evaluation of the professional and personal-financial aspects of RW, followed by its positive and negative aspects, finalizing with a set of recommendations for co-workers and employers.

2 Background Globalization and the recent changes brought by the Industrial Revolution are gaining momentum; industries worldwide were adjusting processes and human resources to the new technology-immersed workplace [2–4]. And this is happening because technology and digitalization are a reality, a global phenomenon, determinant in companies and individual growth. As such, the level of use and quality conditions of technological adoption is as, or even more important, than possessing access or technological knowledge [5]. The changes occurring in work and people may be more visible in the following areas: organization of work; the relationship between private and working life; the format of work, communication and collaboration; performance and talent management; organizational hierarchies [6–9], just to name a few. Technology is in the midst of most changes that occur daily [10], and if till recently we could look at technology and digitalization as an opportunity for companies and organizations [11, 12], today they constitute a social requirement as everyone is using it to work, to shop, to study and even to get entertainment. Looking at the job market, it is possible to observe that in many countries, the digital transformation has increased the opportunity for employees to perform their work from home [2], which is designated as remote work or telework. Remote work can be defined as performing professional tasks outside the facilities of the company/organization, [13]. Furthermore, [14] have defined four types of remote work: Home-Based Telecommuting; Satellite Office; Neighborhood/Work Centre; and Mobile Work. In Home-Based Telecommuting, employees work from their homes. In Satellite Office, employers work in a convenient location for both the employee and the employer. In a Neighborhood/Work Centre configuration, the employees work in a place convenient for both the worker and the employer, but there may be workers from other companies in the same location. In the Mobile Work mode, the employee performs the activities in any space outside the company [14].

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According to the literature, it is possible to identify some characteristics associated to RW, namely [15]: (1) Minimum physical requirements; (2) Individual control over work pace; (3) Defined deliverables; (4) Need for concentration; (5) Defined milestones; (6) Relatively low need for communications. Chen, et al. [16] state that technology allows companies to better communicate with different audiences: customers, partners or employees. For that reason, the authors point out that going virtual becomes beneficial for companies because it allows conducting virtual meetings with customers or employees, online courses/training of virtual teams that could guide sales or product development [16]. The study developed by [17] showed that the adherence or not to RW is associated with motivations and constraints. In general, the research shows that, for example, working women performing administrative tasks have primarily identified family, personal benefits, and reduced stress as motivations to opt for RW when compared to men, managers and qualified professionals. As constraints, women indicated the unwillingness of supervisors to adopt RW and the probability of not having recognition and visibility before management. Administrative workers identified as main constraints to RW the lack of willingness of supervisors or lack of job suitability. Also, social seclusion is a constraint referred by administrative workers, skilled professionals and managers [17]. Researchers also believe that RW can provide a better interconnection between professional, domestic and leisure activities, enhancing flexibility in the organization of personal time [18]. The research conducted by Kazekami [19] in Japan, aimed to study factors influencing productivity, such as work-life balance, happiness, satisfaction with life, the displacement of workers to the company, work interruptions or the number of working hours on telework. The main conclusions point out, among others, the fact that productivity is influenced by working hours: working an excessive amount of hours leads to decreased productivity, which in turn increases when working hours are adequate. Generally, if workers spend more than 1 h travelling to the company, RW tends to allow them to improve their productivity. Additionally, RW increases life satisfaction, happiness, job satisfaction, and reduces the stress of balancing work and household tasks. Although stress does not directly reduce productivity, stress decreases life satisfaction, so it is important to have a balance between work and household tasks. On the other hand, the study also shows that it can be difficult to maintain concentration in the presence of children, family, or neighbours [19]. There have been many reasons, and factors contributing to the disbelieve in remote work as a large-scale, efficient work format. Despite some advantages, which are mainly identified by employees, there are other issues, especially pointed out by organizations, such as required technology infrastructure, HR training, keeping attendance, monitoring progress, etc. In any case, the option for RW can present some gains and losses such as a better balance between professional and personal life. Still, in contrast, RW can lead to social secluding due to the lack of contact with colleagues, and for that reason worsen the work-life balance This is an evidence of «polysemy: it liberates and enslaves, it is a trap and an opportunity», it fulfils and sacrifices [20]. In March 2020, more than 16 million U.S. knowledge workers were in RW [21]. In Portugal, there were more than 68 thousand public service workers in RW [22]. In this scenario, technology became central to society and organizations, because the technology allowed communication between workers and companies and between

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companies and their customers; and tools needed as the cloud-based management tool, instant messaging service, professional videoconferencing services or mobile internet, artificial intelligence, big data analytics and cloud computing [23–25]. At present, many workers are still adapting to this new reality. Businesses are also reinventing themselves and managers are trying to balance the need to supervise employees with trust, allowing them to manage their time and space. At the moment, all this is necessary and even more now that companies and people are suffering collateral effects caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, because around the world 1.6 billion people may lose their income; 436 million companies are at high risk of disruption, with about half (232 million) being in wholesale and retail trade; 45% of the world’s GDP is accounted for by self-employment; and the level of poverty is already increasing [26]. The pandemic situation led to the confinement of millions of people, and RW was the solution found all over the world [27, 28]. In Portugal, there’s the emerging notion that RW may be here to stay [29]. A study conducted during April 2020 shows that companies (45%) and workers (55%) want to keep pursuing RW. Among the reasons given are more productivity and increased quality of life [30]. In 2015, only one-fifth of European workers were able to work remotely: in Portugal, only 8% were in remote working mode, showing Italy the lowest level (5%) and Denmark the highest level (38%) [31]. Despite its low expression, in 2010 Portugal had as much as 2464 employees in RW, but in 2014 it decreased to 805. In this period, precariousness has also increased, with a higher number of workers on fixed-term contracts [32]. Among the reasons for Portugal not fully embracing RW are the organizational culture with rigid, traditional hierarchies; low levels of digital literacy; unions with low visibility; low levels of education and salary; or the fact that Portugal has recently experienced an economic crisis that destroyed jobs and businesses [33, 34] even though the economy had been showing signs of positive evolution until the recent pandemic was registered.

3 Methodology The main objective of this work was to identify the impacts, effects, and workers’ recommendations during the transition from face-to-face to RW in Portugal. To achieve the goal, an exploratory survey-based random sampling research was carried out. Exploratory study is characterized by employing a single data collection method to obtain a first view of the issues being analyzed. The goal is to provide a current view of how workers are adhering to RW and its impacts, effects, and recommendations. Respondents were provided with a list of positive and negative statements. Each item on the questionnaire was presented in a labelled 4-point Likert scale, anchored at 1 = “Totally disagree”, 2 = “Partially disagree”, 3 = “Partially agree”, and 4 = “Totally agree”. Higher scores represent a higher level of agreement with the item/issue. The answers to open questions were coded into categories and computed in frequencies. The survey was disseminated through social media (personal, institutional), public groups, and by email, in May 2020, for a month. Survey data were analyzed in IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0.

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4 Results Overall, 156 questionnaires were excluded because they were not fully answered. A dataset with 323 responses was pre-processed. The entries of respondents who did not reside in Portugal and/or who are not currently employed were then removed, resulting in a final dataset of 305 valid responses (N = 305) which was used for analysis. 4.1

Demographics

Most of the respondents are female (73%), aged between 40 to 49 years old (n = 121), living in Northern Portugal (74%), and have completed some level of higher education (38%). Regarding the employment status, most (69%) have a permanent employment contract for more than 10 or 20 years with that organization, and most of the employers are private (63%). Regarding the work mode, 80% of respondents are working remotely (n = 244). Among the remaining 20%, which are not, 58% would like to be in remote work, while the remaining 42% prefer to continue in the traditional working model. The confinement restrictions imposed by COVID-19 are the reason why 98% of the workers have moved to RW (n = 244), and for 87%, this is the first time in RW for the current job. Only 9% have experienced RW in previous jobs, and only 14%, overall, have received training to work remotely. Among the participants that are not currently in remote work, 57% would like to have had the opportunity to be. The participants were able to provide additional information regarding the training in an open-ended question. From the responses obtained (n = 53), 35% of the participants believe that they did not need any type of training to enter RW, 13% report having received formal training provided by the employer, and 9% received only guidelines or instructions. Participants also received support from their peers to manage RW (9%), and some (13%) attended online training on their own initiative. 4.2

Professional and Personal-Financial Assessment of Remote Work

Respondents were provided with a list of 32 positive and negative statements concerning professional and personal-financial aspects of remote work. Cronbach’s alpha, a measure of intercorrelation among measurement items used as an indicator of internal consistency [35] was calculated for the non-demographic. Items worded negatively were reverse coded, and results show Cronbach’s a = 0.86, indicating acceptably high internal consistency ( 0.70 is considered the minimum acceptable for use in research [36, 37]). For all items, the minimum value is 1 (“Totally disagree”), and the maximum value is 4 (“Totally agree”). The vast majority of the respondents indicate (A10) RW is useful but only in certain circumstances. In fact, most (A11) feel that they work more in RW (x = 3.08), though opinions are split concerning (A12) an increase in the tasks they usually perform, with the tendency on for a slight rise. However, it is evident that most workers have easily adjusted to RW (x = 3.36), despite only about half of them (A6) believe that all their regular tasks are feasible in RW (x = 2.51). Among some of the possible benefits of RW, the highest level of agreement is verified for (A2) feeling that there are fewer conflicts between colleagues (x = 2.82), (A3) a better balance between

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work and household tasks (x = 2.80), (A4) better control of the schedule (x = 98.8) and (A4) increased focus on their tasks (x = 2.59). Concerning motivation and productivity, the level of agreement is split evenly for (A7) feeling more motivated in performing tasks (x = 2.50) and for (A8) feeling more productive (x = 2.46), though the majority feels that (A9) the stress levels have not reduced (x = 2.38; Mo = 1), despite (A21) not having difficulties in creating work methodologies and rhythm (x = 2.09) Regarding workflow management and cooperation, respondents tend to believe that (A14) that RW does not make teamwork more difficult (x = 2.75), that (A17) it does allow to manage teams (x = 2.19), and they do not (A19) find it difficult to contact their co-workers (x = 2.12). However, respondents do not believe that (A10) they can better share their tasks with co-workers (x = 2.27); thus, we believe that is unrelated to RW circumstances. Most of the respondents also (A20) disagree that they have been subject to increased monitoring of their work (x = 2.11). With regards to career management, opinions are split towards (A16) foreseeing difficulties in career advancement (x = 2.40), and towards (A15) RW not being adequate for supervisor/manager’s job positions. However, the most frequent answer is that it is not (Mo = 3). Respondents also tend to disagree with RW prejudicing professional prestige (x = 2.18) and, notably, most do not believe (A22) it will be challenging to go back to a face-to-face job (x = 1.82). In fact, when asked what they would like to happen when normality is restored, 65% answered that they would like to go back to their regular workplace, 18% would like to remain in RW, and 17% have not formed an opinion yet. In general, respondents tend to agree that RW allows to (B1) protect the environment (x = 3.79), (B2) save time in traffic (x = 3.49), and (B3) have more family time (x = 2.98). However, for most, this does not mean (B5) more free time (x = 2.12), as RW (B7) invades their family environment (x = 2.82). It is almost unanimous that workers (A6) feel socially isolated (x = 3.45), but the level of agreement regarding (B4) being advantageous not to leave home is comparatively markedly lower (x = 2.67). Finally, there is a very high level of agreement towards RW allowing to (B8) save money on fuel (x = 3.80), and simultaneously imposing (B9) higher electricity and water expenses (x = 3.43), as well in (B22) food (x = 2.78). 4.3

Positive and Negative Effects of Remote Work

Participants were asked to report on the positive and negative effects of RW openly, according to their recent experience. The open responses were coded into categories and computed in frequencies. Concerning the adverse effects of RW, the participants (n = 70) raised sixteen major issues related to professional, personal, and health-related issues. The top five most referred categories consist of (NE1) lack of in-person interaction with colleagues/ students/clients (19 mentions), (NE2) an increase on the workload and frequent overlook of the daily limit of working hours (16 mentions), the (NE3) worsening of the health condition (11 mentions), the (NE4) absence of oral and written feedback (10 mentions), and the (NE5) struggle in balancing work and family duties (10 mentions). In fact, participants mention that hierarchical superiors “believe that being home means not having schedules and ask for things they would not ask in face-to-face work” and that

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“the employer does not respect working hours and requires a response at all hours and days of the week”. In some cases, this is reportedly worsened by a “(…) decreased dialogue between colleagues to share ideas [and] detachment from reality”, which causes (NE8) difficulties in teamwork and cooperation, although not for the majority of the participants, as seen in the previous section. In the professional sphere, participants also report feeling (NE6) higher pressure from the employer/clients (NE11) lack of enough resources at home to perform the job, (NE10) technical difficulties, and (NE12) lack of support from the employer. The worsening of the health condition has been, in some cases, caused by “Reduced socialization communication to bright up the day”, “Depersonalization” and “Isolation” and the most common reported issues that consist of “Depression”, “Anxiety crisis”, “Monotony”, “Bad posture”, “Back pain”, “Sleep disorders”, “Eye and ear soreness” and “Exhaustion”. Increased (NE9) stress and tiredness, together with (NE13) changes in eating habits, are two of the problems, also referred by the participants. The struggle to balance work and family duties is aggravated by the (NE16) lack of focus, the fact that (NE14) activities take longer time to be completed, and the need to (NE15) share the resources and devices available at home among family members and by. Concerning the positive effects of RW, the top 5 mentions in the open-ended questions reveal that participants (n = 74) feel that they can (PE01) better manage their time (21 mentions), believe that there is benefit in (PE02) not having to commute to work (10 mentions), feel they have (PE03) more time for their family (9 mentions), feel (PE04) less stressed (9 mentions), mentioning “more calm, more patience, more willingness to do chores” and that RW allows them to (PE05) save money (8 mentions). Some of these aspects are in contradiction to the adverse effects of RW previously mentioned since some participants struggle with time management, balance work, and life duties and feel more stressed. These are indicators that the effects of RW are far from consensual among workers and are also intrinsically linked to their job description, given autonomy and organizational culture, and personality, to name a few. For instance, as seen in the previous section, participants report spending more money in electricity, water, and food overall, but in some cases (n = 8) the notion is that there are money savings in RW, namely in “gas” and “makeup and clothes”. It is also curious to notice that the (PE06) reduction of social interactions, although generally understood as a downside of RW, has produced positive effects for some of the participants (n = 7) who believe that they benefit from not having “unnecessary interruptions from colleagues”, not having to “deal with other people bad temper”, being able to get separation from “colleagues and superiors with whom [they] have a bad relationship” and reporting “fewer arguments in the team”. These also tend to report a (PE07) better management of their workload and (PE09) increased productivity. A tiny portion of participants also refers to (PE11) improvement of the health condition, with reference to “not being forced to eat badly in a canteen or cheap restaurant” and (PE12) more time for hobbies and sports. The two most uncontroversial effects mentioned by participants consist of the (PE08) improvement of professional skills, namely those related to “digital skills”, and the (PE10) increased comfort.

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Recommendations for Employers and Co-workers

Participants were also asked to provide recommendations for employers regarding RW, according to their recent experience. Participants (n = 61) have provided a total of 12 recommendations, which are mainly aimed at employers. The top five recommendations consist of (RE01) having greater flexibility in working hours (14 mentions), (RE02) not overloading workers so that they can better manage family demands (13 mentions), which is an apparent reference to emergency remote work in statements such as “be a little more flexible in the management of work, i.e., not want everything to be exactly the same as face-to-face work situation. For an atypical situation, exceptional measures.” Recommendations follow with a (RE03) better organization of the work and tasks to be conducted (13 mentions), a (RE04) better balance between in-person work and RW, remitting to a future in which RW would be a regular component the work contract (9 mentions), invest in the (RE05) improvement of the relationship between employers and workers (7 mentions), and (RE06) provision of the digital tools and equipment required for RW (7 mentions). Additional recommendations for employers include (RE07) conduct frequent meetings, (RE10) co-fund workers expenses with electricity and necessary work equipment, (RE11) provide adequate training, and (RE12) assist workers in time management. The main recommendations for pears include (RE08) maintaining a daily working routine and (RE09) keeping healthy habits, mentioning “Discipline”, “Commitment”, and “Physical exercise”.

5 Conclusion In this paper, the main impacts, challenges, and effects of remote work in Portugal were reported, which were captured in survey-based research. Results show that professionals are not unanimous towards the benefits of remote work, and while some would like to resume in-person work, a substantial amount of professional, personal, and financial benefits are associated with the possibility of working from home. The greatest benefits are felt in productivity, financial gain, and a better balance between professional and family demands, while the higher risks refer to health issues of prolonged use of technologies and devices. Most of the participants put forward recommendations for employers, which require them to better plan the workload and schedules of remote work, in an overall attempt to help employees to better answer professional and personal demands at the same time. In this context, working by goals, rather than by daily or weekly hours, appears to be a possible positive strategy. As for peers, most professionals recommend keeping discipline, commitment, and a healthy daily routine. This work is, however, limited by the sample size, which may not be as comprehensive as desired. Nonetheless, the results capture an overall evaluation of the COVID-19 imposed remote at early stages, still during the mandatory confinement period in Portugal.

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Acknowledgments. This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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21. Hanson, R.S.: Report: Remote work in the age of Covid-19 (2020). https://slackhq.com/ report-remote-work-during-coronavirus 22. Lopes, M.: Governo quer manter em teletrabalho um quarto dos actuais 68 mil funcionários públicos neste regime (2020) 23. Wong, K.: 25 Key Remote Work Statistics for 2020 (2020). https://www. business2community.com/human-resources/25-key-remote-work-statistics-for-202002299342 24. Guerra, A.R. Serviços de colaboração remota, robôs autónomos, gadgets domésticos e videojogos registam uma grande subida de interesse e utilização. 2020; Available from: https://www.dinheirovivo.pt/buzz/isolamento-e-teletrabalho-as-tecnologias-em-alta-com-acrise-covid-19/ 25. WEF. The future of jobs report 2018. World Economic Forum Geneva (2018) 26. ILO: COVID-19 and the world of work. Updated estimates and analysis (2020). https:// www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public … 27. Belzunegui-Eraso, A., Erro-Garcés, A.: Teleworking in the context of the Covid-19 Crisis. Sustainability 12(9), 1–20 (2020) 28. Elavarasan, R.M., Pugazhendhi, R.: Restructured society and environment: a review on potential technological strategies to control the COVID-19 pandemic. Sci. Total Environ. (2020). p. 138858 29. Lima, C.: Portugueses querem ficar em casa no pós-pandemia. Imagens de Marca 2020. https://www.imagensdemarca.pt/artigo/portugueses-querem-ficar-em-casa-no-pos-pandemia/ 30. Idealista. Teletrabalho, uma moda em tempos de Covid-19 e visto como tendência a seguir no futuro (2020). https://www.idealista.pt/news/especiais/covid-19/2020/04/08/43001teletrabalho-uma-moda-em-tempos-de-covid-19-e-visto-como-tendencia-a-seguir-no-futuro 31. Eurofound. COVID-19 could permanently change teleworking in Europe (2020). https:// www.eurofound.europa.eu/news/news-articles/covid-19-could-permanently-changeteleworking-in-europe 32. Dray, G., et al.: Livro Verde sobre as Relações Laborais (2016). http://cite.gov.pt/pt/ destaques/complementosDestqs2/LIVRO_VERDE_2016.pdf 33. Boavida, N., Moniz, A.B.: Project Deep View: Concluding report for Portugal (2020) 34. Martins, P.S.: O potencial do teletrabalho em Portugal. Observador (2020). https:// observador.pt/especiais/o-potencial-do-teletrabalho-em-portugal/ 35. Cronbach, L.J.: Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16(3), 297–334 (1951) 36. George, D., Mallery, M.: Using SPSS for Windows step by step: a simple guide and reference (2003) 37. Nunnally, J.C.: Psychometric Theory, 3rd edn. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, New York (1994)

Predicting Financial Distress in a Portuguese Tourism Business Group Fábio L. C. Teixeira1 and Luís M. P. Gomes2(&) 1

ISCAP/P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, 4465-004 S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal [email protected] 2 CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, 4465-004 S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal [email protected] Abstract. The omission of financial information by the management and the global financial crisis, reinforced the interest in the corporate bankruptcy prediction models. Several authors suggested multiple corporate bankruptcy prediction models. Despite the interest of this specific financial area, there is no accordance regarding the effectiveness of the models in different activities and periods. In Portugal this is more relevant in the tourism sector since this is one of the sectors with greater weight on the public revenue and with a high rate of economic growth. This is the motivation for the paper. The aim of the study is to analyse the prediction of financial distress of tourism companies from the Portuguese business group Mystic Invest, for the period between 2013 and 2017. This is the contribution of this paper since most of the works analyse the bankruptcy prediction. Applying a generalized linear model Logit and with the ratios proposed by Altman and Ohlson, the empirical results show a medium to high prediction effectiveness in the sample that includes all the companies from the business group, as well in the sample just with the tourism companies, that tends to decrease as the bankruptcy moment moves away, and reduced type I errors. Keywords: Bankruptcy JEL Code: C23


Distress
Prediction
Logit
Tourism


C53
G30
G33

1 Introduction The international financial crisis reinforced the interest of stakeholders to understand whether a company may be in difficulties or even insolvency or bankruptcy. Besides that, multiple times the company management omit information about the company’s financial performance. Multiple authors suggested corporate bankruptcy prediction models. The early models consisted on simple ratios analysis calculated based on financial statements. However, the models have evolved to advanced mathematical models, using specific statistic software. Beaver [6] tested single ratio analysis (univariate analysis model), obtaining a company failure predictive ability of 78%. Altman [1] developed the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 314–327, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_28

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multivariate discriminant analysis model Z-score which reached 95% of predicting ability, one year before failure. After that, other models using different techniques emerged, such as Logit, Probit or Gombit as well as simulations based on the Neural Networks. Despite the interest of this topic for the financial scientific community, a consensus still not to be reached about the effectiveness of the models in different economic sectors and periods. In Portugal this is more relevant in the tourism sector since this sector contributed with 19,5% of Portuguese revenue and still growing more than the other European countries. This is the motivation for the paper. The aim of the study is to analyse the prediction of financial distress of tourism companies from the Portuguese business group Mystic Invest, for the period between 2013 and 2017. This is the contribution of this paper since most of the works analyse the bankruptcy prediction. Besides that, this study focuses on the reality of a business group. Applying a generalized linear model Logit and with the ratios proposed by [1] and [12], the empirical results show a medium to high prediction effectiveness in all the samples, that tends to decrease as the bankruptcy moment moves away, and reduced type I errors. This work is organized as follows. In the next section is presented a literature review with special emphasis for the multivariate discriminant analysis model and for the Logit model. On Sect. 3 the empirical study is developed, identifying the variables and results. Finally, the last section highlights the main conclusions.

2 Literature Review There is divergencies about when a company goes bankrupt. Altman [1] and Ohlson [12] argue that the bankruptcy happen when legally the company is considered bankrupt. Baztczak and Casey [5] argue that a company is bankrupt before being considered as it legally. The reason for that divergency is justified by the existence of two concepts – bankruptcy and insolvency – most of the times considered as synonyms but does not mean the same thing. On the Portuguese law, the Directorate-General for Justice Policy [9] clarify that the bankruptcy is the state of a company that can not meet obligations, after being considered economically unviable or the financial recovery is considered impossible. The article 3 (1) of the Code of Insolvency and Companies Recovery, approved by the Decree Law no. 53/2004, of 18 March, clarifies that is considered in a state of insolvency the debtor that is unable to meet the current obligations. Despite the stakeholders being frequently surprised by some companies’ failure, this phenomenon does not happen suddenly. Thomsen [16] identifies twenty-three reasons why businesses fail, since bad assistance to the client to tax issues or excessive costs, but few of them are financial reasons. That leads to question, if just looking at the financial statements, could be possible to identify the troubles of the companies. Platt [14] presents three sources of information to detect symptoms of bankruptcy: (i) common sense, (ii) financial ratios analysis and (iii) statistical tools. Sousa and

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Oliveira [15] find endogenous causes and exogenous causes for the business failure, as shown on Table 1: Table 1. Causes of business failure Endogenous causes • Inappropriate policies/strategies • Inefficient management • Inefficient production • Bad investments • Excessive indebtedness, accentuated by interest • Failure of a company from the same business group • Internal unsolved problems • Lack of communication between departments • Lack of liquidity Sousa and Oliveira [15]

Exogenous causes • Strong competition • Fall in demand • Economic recession • Economic government policies • Significant social changes • Appearance of new products/technologies • Financial/Social crisis • Appearance of same sector companies • Younger companies

When concerns with financial information, it is important to consider the main stakeholders: employees, creditors, investors and the surrounding community. Despite this interest, the financial information is not always available or with the desired detail. On the one hand, some companies hide or manipulate information because of the image they want to show to investors or employees; on the other hand, some small businesses have no benefits that compensate the cost of producing this information. Bellovary et al. [7] highlighted the follow Bankruptcy Prediction Studies referred on the financial literature: a) the discriminant analyses classify companies into two groups, according to their characteristics (ratios or accounts). Therefore, can be subdivided into univariate discriminant analyses – for a single ratio analyses – and multiple discriminant analyses (MDA) – in the sample, coefficients are calculated for each ratio and the adding product of those, to the ratio results in a score that separates companies into groups a1) univariate models were popularized by [6], being easier to understand and apply because of the use of single variable evaluation criterion a2) on the multivariate models Atlman’s [1] Z-score is the one that stands out, using combined and weighted financial ratios to obtain a classification that will define the probability of a company being with difficulties b) Logit model is obtained from a logistic regression where the dependent variable is a dummy, that can be 0 or 1 which indicates if a company will fail or not, respectively [13]. In this context, Ohlson’s [12] model stands out, developed to mitigate Altman’s [1] Z-score model limitations. c) neural networks model is a mathematical model created by [11] that simulates the human neurological system. This model is capable to learn using the inputs and outputs from the sample to reach the desired result.

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317

Multivariate Model

To develop Z-score model, [1] uses a sample with 66 companies divided into two groups: bankrupt and non-bankrupt. Group 1 composed with companies that went bankrupt between 1946 and 1965 under Chap. 10 of the National Bankruptcy Act and with the follow characteristics: (i) listed industrial manufacturers, (ii) mean asset size of 6.4 million dollars and (iii) asset range between 0.7 and 25.9 million dollars. The selection of group 2 consisted on the paired sample logic (for each bankrupt company a non-bankrupt pair is founded, in terms of industry and size). The group 2 was composed by non-bankrupt companies that in 1966 had the follow characteristics: (i) mean asset size of 9.6 million dollars and (ii) asset range between 1 and 25 million dollars. To choose the ratios to apply to the financial statements two questions comes up: (i) the most important ratios to find the potential bankrupt companies and (ii) the weight of each ratio. To identify the final five ratios [1] considered the following: (i) contribution of each ratio, (ii) inter-correlations between them, (iii) the predictive accuracy of the various profiles and (iv) Altman’s [1] judgment. Ohlson [12] identifies limitations to MDA, the model used by [1], such as the variance-covariance matrices that should be the same for both groups, the output is a score that need to be decoded by the investigator, based on a ranking and some arbitrariness with the matching procedures for the size or industry between failed and non-failed companies. To overcome the limitations related with the market value of non-listed companies and with the industry, [1] adapted his initial study, replacing the factor Market Value with the Book Value of Equity [2] and eliminating the ratio that relates Sales with Assets [4]: X1 ¼

Working Capital Total Assets

ð1Þ

X2 ¼

Retained Capital Total Assets

ð2Þ

EBIT Total Assets

ð3Þ

Book Value of Equity Book Value of Total Debt

ð4Þ

Sales Total Assets

ð5Þ

X3 ¼ X4 ¼

X5 ¼

the extracted coefficients from the MDA application are presented by Z ¼ 0; 012X1 þ 0; 014X2 þ 0; 033X3 þ 0; 006X4 þ 0; 999X5 , where Z represents the score for a company and Xn represents the referred ratios. To analyse the discriminant ability, the author used an F test, with the null hypothesis “the observations come from the same population” in order to check if both groups (bankrupt and non-bankrupt companies) does not have the same characteristics.

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Altman’s [4] tests revealed that the variables from X1 to X4 are all significant to predict bankruptcy, since there is a big difference between the mean values of the bankrupt and non-bankrupt companies. To help understanding the empirical results, [1] used an “accuracy-matrix”, comparing the predicted group and the actual group. If it is predictable that a given company will fail and it actually fail, it is a H (Hit); if the model does not predict this fail, it is a MII - type II error (Miss). If it is predictable that a given company will not fail and actually it not, it is a H (Hit); if the model said the contrary, it is a MI - type I error (Miss). The sum of the diagonal elements indicates the total “hits” and dividing this value for the number of tested companies, is obtained the success percentage. To reduce errors, [2] created cut-off points, grouping the classifications obtained by the model’s application and defining a called “grey zone” where the future of the companies is uncertain: a) first group, with high probability of failure, with a Z-score less than 1.81 b) second group, the “grey zone”, with a Z-score between 1.81 and 2.99 c) third group, with low probability of failure, with a Z-score greater than 2.99 2.2

Logit Model

Logit model is obtained from a logistic regression where the dependent variable is a dummy, that can be 0 or 1 which indicates if a company will fail or not, respectively [13]. In this context, Ohlson’s [12] model stands out, pointing as a huge limitation to the previous studies, the sample dimension. The author used as sample 105 bankrupt and 2,058 non-bankrupt industrial companies, for the period between 1970 and 1976. Other huge criticism that the author makes, is the exaggerated emphasis that the previous studies gave to the predicting ability on the year prior the bankruptcy since they are already analysing the financial statements of a bankrupt company. Ohlson [12] study finds two important conclusions: (i) identification of four major factors for the bankruptcy probability (size, financial structure, performance and current liquidity) and (ii) the exact moment of the bankruptcy. The logistic function that represents the bankruptcy probability P for the studied sample is: P¼

X 1 ; where yi  bj XIJ ¼ b0 Xi y i 1þe i

ð6Þ

where b represents the correlation coefficients between ratios, X the independent variables (financial ratios) and i the number of observed years. The dummy independent variables are OENEG, that is 1 if total liabilities exceeds total assets and 0 otherwise, and INTWO, that is 1 if net income was negative for the last two years and 0 otherwise.

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To choose each ratio to use, [12] followed the literature: 

 Total Assets GNP price  level index   Total Liabilities TLTA ¼ Total Assets   Working Capital WCTA ¼ Total Assets   Current Liabilities CLCA ¼ Current Assets   Net Income NITA ¼ Total Assets   Funds provided by operations FUTL ¼ Total Liabilities SIZE ¼ log

CHIN ¼

ðNet Incomet  Net Incomet1 Þ ðjNet Incomet j  jNet Incomet1 jÞ

ð7Þ ð8Þ ð9Þ ð10Þ ð11Þ ð12Þ ð13Þ

Based on previous studies, [12] pointed the follow expected signs for each ratio (Table 2): Table 2. Ratios expected signs Positive TLTA CLCA INTWO

Negative Indeterminate SIZE OENEG WCTA NITA FUTL CHIN Ohlson [12]

An interesting procedure to follow, before the model application, is the profile analyses for each ratio, before the bankruptcy and here, a clear deterioration is observed as the bankruptcy moment approaches. All the ratios that [12] observed were statistically significant, except WCTA, CLCA and INTWO, with the variable SIZE being the most important variable in every tested model. The author used “cut-off points” to classify errors. Type I errors occur when the bankruptcy probability is higher than the “cut-off point” and the company does not go bankrupt; Type II errors occur when the company goes bankrupt but the probability is

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lower than the “cut-off point”. The study concluded that the “cut-off point” that minimizes the errors is 0.038, whereas the “cut-off point” of 0.0095 there is no type I errors and the type II errors are 0.47%.

3 Empirical Study 3.1

Data and Sample

Mystic Invest business group is mostly composed by tourism investments (93% of the business) aligned with the concepts of “cash cow” or “star”, at a consolidated level, however there are some companies on the “pet” quadrant of the BCG matrix of Henderson [10], known for the high probabilities of failure. The group also have some real estate, recruitment and holding companies and consolidated sales of 100 million euros in 2017. This study used Mystic Invest financial data for the period between 2013 and 2017. Since this group does not have bankrupt companies, to choose the “pet” companies, the study selected the ones with the follow characteristics: (i) companies with consecutively negative EBIT and with no improvement expectation and (ii) sold companies in 2018. Two different models have been developed, one with all the companies and other with companies from the tourism sector, including the adjusted consolidated accounts as an extra company (Table 3): Table 3. Sample for the year 2017 Sample Business Group Tourism Companies Without difficulties With difficulties

3.2

Number of companies 20 16 11 5

Model Variables and Profile Analyses

To overcome MDA limitations, this study applies Logit regression using the statistic software RStudio. In order to evaluate companies’ classification, the dependent variable is a dummy, named “Difficulties” that assumes the value of 0 if “the company is having difficulties” and 1 otherwise. Independent variables are represented by Altman’s [1] five ratios, as previous referred in (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5), and four rations from Ohlson’s [12] study, previous referred in (8), (10), (11) and (12), being part of the top-15 most used ratios in similar studies ([7], p. 42).

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Table 4 shows the comparison of the ratios means between failed (F) and nonfailed (NF) companies from the most notable studies1:

Table 4. Comparison of the ratios means, by study Ratio

(8) Total Liabilities /Total Assets (11) Net Income/Total Assets (12) Cash flow Operations/Total Liabilities (1) Working Capital/Total Assets (2) Retained Earnings/Total Assets (3) EBIT/Total Assets (4) Market Value Equity/Book Value Debt (5) Sales/Total Assets (10) Current Liabilities/Current Assets

Authors Beaver [6] F > NF NF > F NF > F NF > F

Altman [1]

Ohlson [12] F > NF NF > F NF > F

Coats and Fant [8]

NF NF NF NF

NF > F

NF NF NF NF

> > > >

F F F F

NF > F

> > > >

F F F F

F > NF F > NF

Year 1 is the most recent in the analysis, corresponding to 2017, and the years 2, 3, 4 and 5, corresponds to 2016, 2015, 2014 and 2013, respectively. The Balance Sheet and the Profit and Loss Statement shows high mean values and standard deviations even superior to the referred means, indicating the big discrepancy between the companies that composes the business group. Besides that, it is clear the difference between the unhealthy and healthy companies, mainly in the retained earnings, sales and net income accounts. 3.3

Results and Discussion

The binary dependent variable, in the Logit regression, where the probability Px of a company going bankrupt (in this particular study, of being in difficulties) is calculated by the logistic function (6) rewritten: Px ¼

1 ; where yi ¼ b0 þ bn Xn 1 þ eðyi Þ

ð14Þ

being b0 intercept of the regression line, bn the model’s parameters and Xn the independent variables.

1

The divergency on the Sales/Total Assets ratio could be due the sample or the period. However, a failed company could have a high ratio due to sale or impairment of assets and a non-failed company could have a high ratio due to sales growth.

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For this study, the initial discriminant function is as follow: yi ¼ b0 þ b1 X1 þ b2 X2 þ b3 X3 þ b4 X4 þ b5 X5 þ b6 TLTA þ b7 CLCA þ b8 NITA þ b9 FUTL

ð15Þ considering the sub models DifficultiesTourism and DifficultiesGlobal . The initial sets obtained a reduced number of statistically significant variables and a high Akaike information criterion (AIC) in both sub models. To improve the predictive power was used the function “drop1” in the software RStudio that eliminated the uninteresting variables and provided the following final sub models: Table 5. Final models for Mystic Invest group Independent variables Tourism companies (Intercept) X2 X4 X5 TLTA AIC = 45,72 Hosmer and Lemeshow test = 0,2581 Pearson test = 0,9906 All companies (Intercept) X2 X5 TLTA AIC = 53,99 Hosmer and Lemeshow test = 2,22e−15 Pearson test = 0,9927 1 ‘**’ 0.01; ‘*’ 0.05; ‘.’ 0.1

Coefficients (Betas)

Standard error

zvalue

p-value1

3,18232 −1,06173 −0,10235 −17,37914 −5,56099

2,26022 0,64769 0,07481 9,44625 3,00708

1,408 −1,639 −1,368 −1,840 −1,849

0,1591 0,1012 0,1713 0,0658 . 0,0644 .

0,5501 −1,8015 −26,0916 −2,7442

0,8804 0,6419 10,2719 1,2962

0,625 −2,807 −2,540 −2,117

0,53207 0,00501 ** 0,01108 * 0,03425 *

In Table 5, the results from the final sub model for the tourism companies showed a negative and significant effect for the ratios X5 and TLTA, with the AIC decreasing from 51.43 to 45.72. The results for all the companies showed a negative and significant effect for all the ratios, with the AIC decreasing from 63.49 to 53.99.

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To validate the sub models, some tests were carried out on RStudio, Hosmer and Lemeshow test with the null hypothesis “the model fits properly to the data”, not rejected in the sub model DifficultiesTourism . In addition, Pearson test showed an excellent fit to the data in both sub models. The variance inflation factor (VIF) showed no problems of multicollinearity in both sub models. Finally, the lack of pattern evidence on the residual chart suggests no problems of heteroscedasticity. In order to analyse the predictive ability of the sub models, the functions “predict”, “table” and “print” were computed on RStudio and the extracted “confusion matrix” (as shown on Table 6) that identifies the number of hits and errors in each one of the five studied years, as well for a sample with the five-years observations: Table 6. Classification with hits and errors, by type Actual Group Membership Predicted Group Membership by the sub model No difficulties Difficulties No difficulties H MI Difficulties MII H H = Hit, M = Miss type I and type II

Table 7 shows the year 2017 – the year2 before the “Difficulties” – the total sample includes 20 companies, being 16 from the tourism sector. In this group any healthy company was classified as being in “Difficulties” (no type I errors), however, some companies with “Difficulties” were classified as healthy (type II error). Table 7. Confusion Matrix (2017, a year before the “Difficulties”) and error type Actual

No difficulties Difficulties Error type

Total

2

Group

Predicted Group Membership by the sub model Global Tourism No difficulties Difficulties No difficulties Difficulties 12 2 11 0 2 4 2 3 Sample Global Tourism Global Tourism Global Tourism

12 11 4 3 16 14

% 85,7 100,0 66,7 60,0 80,0 87,5

% 14,3 0 33,3 40,0 20,0 12,5

Companies 14 11 6 5 20 16

Due to lack of space reasons, only 2017 results are shown. If requested, the authors could provide the remaining years.

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Two years before the “Difficulties” the sample includes 17 companies, being 14 from the tourism sector. It is noteworthy the absence of type I errors in both groups and the sharp decline in type II errors (only 1 company in the global group). Three years before the “Difficulties” the sample includes 16 companies being 14 from the tourism sector. It is noteworthy the absence of type I errors in both groups and the increase of type II errors (1 company in the global group and 1 tourism company). Four years before the “Difficulties” the sample includes 12 companies being 10 from the tourism sector. It is noteworthy the absence of type II errors in both groups and the appearance of type I errors for the first time (1 company in the global group and 1 tourism company). Five years before the “Difficulties” the sample includes 11 companies being 9 from the tourism sector. In 2013, the smallest sample and the greatest effectiveness was registered, with no errors in both groups. Complementarily to the study, a sample with the observations of the five years prior to the “Difficulties” was created, including 76 companies, being 63 of which from the tourism sector. Table 8. Confusion Matrix (five-year observations before the “Difficulties”) and error type Actual Group Membership

No difficulties Difficulties Error type

Total

Predicted Group Membership by the sub model Global Tourism No difficulties Difficulties No difficulties Difficulties 52 3 43 1 4 17 3 16 Sample Global Tourism Global Tourism Global Tourism

52 43 17 16 69 59

% 94,6 97,7 81,0 84,2 90,8 93,7

% 5,4 2,3 19,0 15,8 9,2 6,3

Companies 55 44 21 19 76 63

Table 8 shows that the sub model of the tourism group was more effective, registering fewer predicting errors. Type II errors occurrence, that predominate in this study, is the major concern for the investors [8]. However, since the studied companies are not bankrupt, but only with financial difficulties, it was expected that some of them could be misclassified as healthy companies.

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Table 9. Sub models effectiveness overview Years Global % H Companies 2017 80,0 20 2016 94,1 17 2015 93,8 16 2014 91,7 12 2013 100,0 11 Total 90,8 76

Tourism % H Companies 87,5 16 100,0 14 92,9 14 90,0 10 100,0 9 93,7 63

Table 9 identifies a decrease of effectiveness of the sub models as the moment of the “Difficulties” approaches, except in the first and in the last year before: Table 10. Comparison with other reference works Studies

%H 1 year prior 2 years prior 3 years prior 4 years prior 5 years prior Altman [1] 95,0 72,0 48,0 29,0 36,0 Altman et al. [3] 96,2 84,9 74,5 68,1 69,8 Beaver [6] 87,0 79,0 77,0 76,0 78,0 Coats and Fant [8] 95,0 92,9 86,2 81,9 – Ohlson [12] 96,1 95,6 – – – Paper - Global 80,0 94,1 93,8 91,7 100,0 Paper - Tourism 87,5 100,0 92,9 90,0 100,0

The results in the year before (2017) may result from the large number of new companies, in the early investment stage and/or without sales. The trend reversal in the last year before (2013) could come from the smaller sample and because of that, may be easier to identify the companies with difficulties.

4 Conclusion The business competitiveness and the complexity of the business models demands an improvement concerning the interpretation of the financial statements and the forecasting process. In this sense, the bankruptcy prediction models assume great importance in decision-making to avoid financial difficulties or to boost companies’ growth. The empirical study was focused on the Portuguese business group Mystic Invest, forming two sub models, one for all the companies and other for the touristic ones. Since this group does not have bankrupt companies, the study analysed the characteristic “Financial Difficulties”.

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The generalized linear sub models with the Logit function reached an effectiveness of more than 80% in predicting companies’ difficulties. In general, the global sample and the tourism sample had a mean effectiveness of 90,8% and 93,7%, respectively. The occurrence of type I errors, in both samples, was less than 6%. Regarding type II errors, the scenario was less encouraging, since the global sample and the tourism sample registered 19,1% and 15,8%, respectively. Generically, the results in this study are in line with other reference works (Table 10): Seems to exist a trend when it comes to effectiveness loss as the bankruptcy moment moves away. The partial divergence of this study results from the reasons explained above. One limitation of the study is the sample dimension. Besides that, the sample includes in the early investment stage, without sales and high indebtedness, that tends to be classified as in “Difficulties”. For future research it is suggested to identify the relation between financial difficulties in tourism companies, and the activity seasonality. On the other hand, it would be interesting to understand if these difficulties have been minimized by the huge growth of this activity in Portugal.

References 1. Altman, E.I.: Financial ratios, discriminant analysis and the prediction of corporate bankruptcy. J. Finance, 589–609 (1968) 2. Altman, E.I.: Corporate Financial Distress: A Complete Guide to Predicting, Avoiding and Dealing with Bankruptcy. Wiley, New York (1983) 3. Altman, E.I.; Haldeman, R.G.; Narayanan, P.: ZETA analysis: a new model to identify bankruptcy risk of corporations. J. Bank. Finance, 29–54 (1977) 4. Altman, E.I., Hartzell, J., Peck, M.: Emerging Market Corporate Bonds: A Scoring System. Salomon Brothers, New York (1995) 5. Baztczak, N., Casey, C.: Using operating cash-flow data to predict financial distress. J. Acc. Res. 23(1), 384–401 (1985) 6. Beaver, W.H.: Financial ratios as predictors of failure. Empir. Res. Acc. Sel. Stud. 71–111 (1966) 7. Bellovary, J.L., Giacomino, D.E., Akers, M.D.: A review of bankruptcy prediction studies: 1930 to present. J. Financ. Educ. 1–42 (2007) 8. Coats, P.K., Fant, L.F.: Recognizing financial distress patterns using a neural network tool. Financ. Manag. 22, 142–155 (Autumn de 1993) 9. Direção-Geral da Política de Justiça: DGPJ: Conceitos para fins estatísticos da área da justiça, 12 June 2012. http://www.dgpj.mj.pt/sections/siej_pt/metainformacao2925/anexos/ conceitos-estatisticos/conceitos-para-fins/conceitos-para-fins/?letter=f. Accessed 15 Sept 2020 10. Henderson, B.: The Product Portfolio, January 1970. https://www.bcg.com/publications/ 1970/strategy-the-product-portfolio.aspx. Accessed 25 Aug 2018 11. McCulloch, W., Pitts, W.: A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. Bull. Math. Biophys. 5, 115–133 (1943) 12. Ohlson, J.: Financial ratios and the probabilistic prediction of bankruptcy. J. Acc. Res. 18, 109–131 (1980)

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13. Pereira, J.M., Domínguez, M.Á., Ocejo, J.L.: Modelos de Previsão do Fracasso Empresarial: Aspectos a considerar. Revista de Estudos Politécnicos, 111–148 (2007) 14. Platt, H.D.: Why Companies Fail: Strategies for Detecting, Avoiding, and Profiting. Beard Books, Washington, D.C. (1999) 15. Sousa, J., Oliveira, I.: As variáveis de previsão da falência nas empresas portuguesas de vestuário, couro e produtos de couro. Revista Portuguesa e Brasileira de Gestão, 62–73 (2014) 16. Thomsen, B.: 23 Reasons why Businesses Fail and What You Can Do About It. Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai (2010)

When Economic Environment is Hostile: Entrepreneurial Intention in a Small Tourist Remote Economy António Almeida

and Pedro Correia(&)

Universidade Da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Tourism promotes job creation and businesses in the economies of many small tourist regions. Consequently, it is worth studying the relationship between this regions and entrepreneurship, whose chosen method of analysis is based on hierarchical OLS regression. This study explored the influences of small tourist remote economies (STRE) topographies, personal characteristics and academic support activities for the pursuit of entrepreneurship activities in explaining students’ intentions, this is the first attempt to provide an understanding of the Theory of Planned Behavior in the context of entrepreneurship of the small tourist remote. It offers a contribution to the literature in the field of entrepreneurship by analyzing a number of factors that reinforce, encourage or discourage students’ intentions to become entrepreneurs in a geographical setting characterized by macroeconomic policies informed by a neo-Keynesian approach. Moreover, this paper provides an understanding of the mechanism leading to the expression of entrepreneurial intentions by students living in one of the most adverse economic environments in the context of the European Union. Keywords: Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneur influencers
Small tourist remote economies

1 Introduction In this study, we analyze the impact of contextual environmental factors on students’ intention to become entrepreneurs, based on a specific geographic context. In Madeira island, according to data made available by the Regional Statistics Office1 the tourism represents 26.6% of regional GDP and employs 20,000 people in the region (16.7% of employment in the region). In 2011 the island was hit by a severe economic downturn after decades of steady economic growth. Between 1986 (the year after Portugal joined the EEC) and 2010, the region’s economy grew at 6,3% per year. But in 2011, the region experienced one of the largest increases in the unemployment rate in the Portuguese context. The unemployment rate rose from 3,5% in 1993 to 19,8% in 2013. This recession affected the pace of firm’s birth and the number of bankruptcies rose sharply, with a sizeable 1

https://estatistica.madeira.gov.pt/en/.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 328–340, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_29

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number of individuals emigrating to try to find out jobs elsewhere. In this context, one can hardly be surprised if come into possession of figures and official data pointing to low rates of creation of new businesses. However, on islands, necessity-driven entrepreneurship is more prevalent than opportunity-driven entrepreneurship. Lack of viable opportunities in the private sector, coupled with frequent episodes of recession and adverse economic contexts limiting opportunities to land a job in the public sector, prompt individuals to pursue entrepreneurial goals and to opt for self-employment, although in a limited number of traditional sectors, even under the most difficult economic conditions [8, 14]. The evidence available suggests that high-unemployment rates in time of economic crises may lead to a high number of necessity-driven entrepreneurial actions. However, the fact remains that the research available suggests opportunity-entrepreneurs, focused on seizing viable business opportunities based on innovative and technological advanced business models, tend to be more successful than necessity-entrepreneurs. The relatively poor economic conditions prevalent on islands, limit the opportunities to identify and explore relevant market niches and to follow a technology and market driven business idea. Devece [16] found out that necessity-driven firms revealed poorer performance, compare to opportunity-driven firms, during the recession in Spain. González-Pernía [18] demonstrated that economic downturns engender automatically a sizeable decline in firms’ birth rate for a number of reasons such as reduced levels of self-confidence and lowers levels of opportunity perception and reduced expectations linked to pessimistic views on the economic conditions. In such periods, both entrant and incumbent firms, face a number of challenges linked to a “reduced access to credit and financial markets, a disruption of supply goods and services, and increasing uncertainty about the recovery” [18]. On the other hand, as illustrated above, entrepreneurship may emerge as a valuable choice as a result of lower opportunity costs. The line of reasoning developed put forward in the previous paragraphs may lead to grim predictions. However, it is believed that entrepreneurship education (EE) at the University educational system in many of the European member countries, increases the number entrepreneurship actions. Initiatives aiming at supporting the promotion and implementation of education actions focused on teaching entrepreneurial competences are now the norm. Yet, little is known about its impact on students’ entrepreneurial competencies and intentions on islands placed on the periphery of Europe (European Commission, 2006), on to what extent such courses impact students’ willingness to engage in entrepreneurial activity and what kind of learning processes are responsible for these effects [19]. This study seeks to analyze the impact of the dynamics of a number of social, economic and academic factors that affect student’s entrepreneurship intention (EI) or their commitment to start a new business [28], as an alternative to finding a job through the creation of self-employment. As an approach to combat the lack of jobs and precariousness, it is important to understand the factors that influence or trigger entrepreneurship, namely the support environment (family and friends), entrepreneurial experience and capacity, resources (financial capacity, economic and socio-cultural support), motivation and entrepreneurship training and education.

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2 Literature Review 2.1

Background of Entrepreneurship

The importance of entrepreneurship to society has been identified and discussed since at least the fifteenth century [50]. Without a precise definition a large amount of literature tries to define and explain the essence of entrepreneurship, most of which are based on the works of Schumpeter [50], Kirzner [24] and Adekiya [3]. Research on entrepreneurship has been growing [52], in universities and colleges throughout the world [43], with governments supporting it directly and by financing major investments in advice-provision to potential entrepreneurs [45]. A sizeable number of countries invested substantially in entrepreneurship education at universities [60]. Although there is agreement that education and prior entrepreneurial experience should influence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur, there is still few research on their impact on entrepreneurship intentions [28, 29]. 2.2

Research Hypotheses

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) assumes that planned behavior (such as becoming an entrepreneur) are intentional and purposeful in nature and predicted by intention towards the behavior that is being taken into account [55]. TPB postulates that intention is conjointly predicted by three attitudinal constructs, namely attitudes towards the behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control [55]. Therefore, the first hypothesis is: H1 - There is a positive relationship between higher scores on attitudes, the subjective norm and perceived behavioral control (PBC) of students on small tourist remote regions and “self-employment” and “entrepreneurship as a career opportunity” and students’ intention to pursue a career as entrepreneurs. Factors such as experience and training are determinants in the decision to remain self-employed, and one´s intention to pursue an entrepreneurial career depends on their perception that it will lead to desirable outcomes [10]. Entrepreneurial training can be used as a precursor to student’s entrepreneurial intentions (EI) [3], which are evaluated on the GUESS study. Given these arguments, the second hypothesis is: H2 - There is a positive relationship between entrepreneurship education (EE) and students’ entrepreneurial intention Adekiya [3], assume that the cultural values shared by one individual, in combination with his skills and ability are essential in ensuring the development of entrepreneurships intentions. If one student is made to believe that a career in entrepreneurship can give him the impetus for self-fulfillment, this belief is likely to be translated into a significant intention to engage in entrepreneurial venture after graduation. However, negative market conditions have been found to impact negatively the adoption of pro-entrepreneurial attitude amongst individuals living in regions characterized by such hazardous conditions. Elsewhere, it was found that individuals “perceived possibility of failure” [56], affects decisively the decision making process and behaviour with this regard [31, 45, 57, 59, 61]. Given this, the third hypothesis is:

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H3 - There is a positive relationship between perceived difficulties (barriers) reported by students, with regards to start a business venture and students’ entrepreneurial intention. The family constitutes an important basis for the development of entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors [11]. Entrepreneurship research often views entrepreneurial parents as a source of entrepreneurship that stimulates entrepreneurial career and behavior of its descendants [39], influences the intention to start a business [6] and promotes a positive relationship between tolerance of ambiguity and risk-taking propensity [6]. Family members’ involvement in entrepreneurial activities is thought to impact positively students entrepreneurial intentions [26, 32, 53, 62] as well as their choices in terms of education and career via “formation of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control” [53], for a number of reasons. Hence, we establish the following hypotheses: H4 - There is a positive relationship between students reporting a family member that filed for bankruptcy and Students’ entrepreneurial intention H5 -There is a positive relationship between family entrepreneurial background and Students’ entrepreneurial intention Individual´s intention to become an entrepreneur depends on a number of personal characteristics, such as the individual’s family background, gender and age. The research available suggests that males exhibit a stronger tendency to report higher levels of intention and actual behavior compared to women [13, 15, 20, 42, 49, 64]. Haus [22] report that women exhibited lower scores in terms of entrepreneurial intentions, perceived behavioral control and subjective norm, compared to men. Students’ interest in pursuing an entrepreneurial career and stating a business venture is conditioned by their age [7, 36, 53]. These arguments lead to the following hypotheses: H6 - There is a positive relationship between gender demographic variable and the entrepreneurial intention H7 - There is a positive relationship between age demographic variable and the entrepreneurial intention The big differences in entrepreneurial intentions reported in the literature might be attributed to environmental factors, in particular to entrepreneurial education and support at the university level. It is expected that universities provide leadership in entrepreneurial and creative thinking, and initiatives across educational, research and engagement domains [1, 2]. The different levels of entrepreneurial culture in the universities are at least partly responsible for the differences in entrepreneurial activity after graduation [17], although the university´ entrepreneurial attitude could impact positively or negatively students entrepreneurial intentions [9, 38, 63]. These arguments lead to the following hypothesis: H8 - There is a positive relationship between University support and the entrepreneurial intention

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3 Research Methodology The theoretical framework developed in this study, based on the instruments/scales developed by others notably Zhao [63], Shirokova [53] and Liñán [38], intends to predict how a number of components constraint or encourage students´ intentions to become entrepreneurs, given the economic constraints at work on islands [34]. The empirical analysis examined is based on a sample of 352 university students enrolled at the University of Madeira in the academic year of 2017/2018. It adopts a convenience sample approach, in line with previous studies in the field [3, 27, 30, 38], a type of nonprobability or non-random sample, based on “practical criteria” issues of accessibility, willingness to participate, availability at a given time. Based on the studies of Shirokova [53] and Liñán [38] and in line with the main strands of research in the field of entrepreneurship, a broader theoretical framework grounded on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) developed by [4, 5] is proposed, linking students entrepreneurial intentions to a number of additional factors, besides those one listed above such as perceived competence, perceived difficulties, human capital, and attitudinal constructs such as perceived behavioral control (PBC). In order to generate empirically “testable hypothesis”, consistent with theoretical framework adopted in this study, we extended the work developed by Shirokova [53], Maresch [43], to outline the impact of the local economic specificities. The dependent variable in our model is defined as entrepreneurial intentions. In line with Maresch [43] and Shirokova [53] entrepreneurial intentions was operationalized based on a 7- point Likert scale adopted from Liñán [37]. The authors developed the scale base on the construct locus of control scale by Levenson [35]. The variable PBC is quantified and introduced in the model based on the average score of the items. Internal locus of control is measured based on the scale developed by Levenson [35]. Personnel attitude, grounded on the scale developed by Shirokova [53], and measured with a 7- point Likert scale intends to assess respondent’s attitude toward the idea of becoming an entrepreneur and entrepreneurship in general. Subjective norm is based on the scale developed by Maresch [43] and measured on 7-point scale. The study analyzes the impact of the following variables. Training and/or enrolment in a formal program in entrepreneurship provided either by the university of public body is considered as an antecedent of EI. “Family background” is a dummy variable taking value 1 (and 0 otherwise) if at least one of the students parent is a businessman. Parent´s occupation is a nominal variable converted into dummies taking into account the sector to which the parent´s occupation belongs. In the context of the remote tourist regions, student´s perceptions of the degree of difficulty associated with pursuing an entrepreneurial activity is of the uttermost importance. Based on Based on Cacciotti [12], Lee [33] and Peng [47], we analyze to what extent perceived constraints such as “fear of failure” are perceived as effective entrepreneurial barrier. The value of this scale per respondent is computed as the average score of all items pertaining to the scale. The variable “crisis impact” is a dummy variable that assume the value 1 if any of the students’ family members was obliged to apply for bankruptcy and 0 otherwise. Uncertainty avoidance is analyzed

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based on the scale developed by Shirokova [53]. The value of this scale attached to each observation is computed as the average score of all items pertaining to the scale. In order to study the impact of “formal institutions” [34, 57], we employ dummy variables to investigate whether students “have the knowledge, training and skills to carry out an entrepreneurial project” and to what extent “they consider that they have learned entrepreneurial topics, such as business plan and business model within the university”, respondents were asked to report if they had participated in training activities linked to the topic of entrepreneurship (dummy variable). The figure recorded on each observation on the subject of university entrepreneurial environment is calculated as the average score of all the items included on this scale. In terms of sociodemographic variables, we control for four variables: gender, age, place of residence and areas of studies. Respondents’ gender was recorded as 1 if the student is male or as 0 is the student is a female. The variable age (numeric) is designed to record students’ age. The chosen method of analysis is based on hierarchical OLS regression, with EI as dependent variable. Within this econometric procedure, we took a stepwise approach, by first entering the controls, then the TPB related components, and finally the moderators. In line with Urbano [56] and Shirokova [53], we opted for heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors adjusted for areas of study clusters “to control for possible heteroskedasticity in OLS estimation” and “potential correlated errors across observations”.

4 Results and Discussion Table 1 provides figures on the means, standard deviations, reliability scores, and pairwise correlation coefficients of the key variables employed in this study. Entrepreneurial intention is correlated with constructs analyzed within the context of the TPB model (attitudes (0,660; sig = 0,000), subjective norms (0,337; sig = 0,000) and self-efficacy (0,088; sig = 0,000)). University ambiance exhibit also a positive and significant correlation with entrepreneurial intention (0,391; sig = 0,000), which is in line with our hypotheses. The mean average for entrepreneurial intention across respondents is 4,85 which indicates that the respondents are moderately high in this construct. Therefore, it can be assumed that, largely, students are planning to start a new venture but in the medium and long term. The reliability of the constructs was assessed by applying the Cronbach Alpha coefficient. The results presented in Table 2, indicated that all the constructs exhibit Cronbach Alpha indicators above the recommended threshold of 0.7 as indicated by and Hair [21] and Sekaran [51], it presents the estimates of the coefficients of the variables included in the various models. Model 1 is the base model focused only on the control variables. Models 2 computed the main effect of each of the following variables: university ambiance, perceived difficulties, entrepreneurial education and crisis impacts. Model 3 is our final model containing all the variables included in the previous models plus the attitudinal constructs (attitude, subjective norm and PBC). The models are “highly significant” (p  0.000), and both R2 values and F Change suggest a good overall model fit according to the established procedures. The F-statistic “confirms that the joint effect” of PBC variables along with the control variables in explaining students´ entrepreneurial intentions.

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A. Almeida and P. Correia Table 1. Constructs key statistics. Capabilities Difficulties External environment Tasks performed University ambiance Entrepreneurial intention Uncertainty avoidance PBC Internal Locus of Control Personnel attitude Subjective norm PBC Perceived appropriateness Perceived consistence Perceived effectiveness Personnel attitude Entrepreneurial intention

Aver. 4,806 4,810 4,121 2,333 3,700 4,349 3,951 4,313 0,086 4,788 5,666 3,569 4,807 3,769 3,942 4,264 3,967

St. Dev 0,854 0,927 1,419 2,437 1,437 1,633 1,219 0,598 0,874 1,330 1,254 0,838 1,018 1,194 1,242 1,578 1,564

Perc. V. Low Perc. V. High 0,00% 6,00% 1,70% 9,20% 6,30% 9,20% 61,40% 0,10% 27,60% 4,00% 17,30% 14,20% 16,50% 2,30% 0,90% 0,60% 2,60% 1,70% 6,50% 19,30% 1,10% 40,10% 11,40% 0,30% 0,90% 11,10% 14,80% 2,80% 12,50% 4,00% 19,30% 11,40% 7,70% 9,40%

Table 2. Constructs´ reliability. 1.Entrepreneurial intention 2.Personal attitude (Marech) 3.Subjective norm 4.PBC (Marech) 5.University entrepreneurial environment 6.Perceived competence 7.Difficulties 8.Tasks

1 1 ,660** ,337** 0,088 ,391**

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1 ,487** 1 0,005 −0,051 1 ,270** ,153** ,201** 1

,438** ,374** ,284** ,177** ,295** 1 −0,008 −0,027 0,023 ,118* 0,039 −0,011 1 ,200** ,126* 0,040 ,136* ,193** ,320** −0,011 1

The regression model results presented in Table 1, shows satisfactory results in terms of adjusted R2 of 0,48. At a 95% confidence level, while support is found for hypothesis H3, H5 and H8, no support was found for hypotheses H2, H4, H6 and H7. Support for H1 is mixed because the coefficient of subjective norm is statistically nonsignificant, regarding the positive impact of attitudinal constructs on EI, tested in Model 3, benefits from strong empirical support except for the variable subjective norm. Subjective norm is negatively related to EI, but the coefficient turns out to be not significant. In line with Maresch [43], we didn’t find support to confirm H1, linking subjective norms to entrepreneurial intentions, “which is somehow in accordance with

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the literature” [57]. With regards to the hypothesizes about a positive impact of students personnel attitude on their intentions to become entrepreneurs, the coefficient is statistically significant, and therefore the hypothesis is partially supported by the results. Our results support the appropriateness of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in explaining students’ entrepreneurial intention. It is worth to mention that the largest standardized beta coefficient concerns personnel attitude (0,582). Therefore, among the precursors of entrepreneurial intention analyzed in this study, attitude has the highest beta coefficient, followed by university ambiance, which has a beta coefficient of 0,145. In line with expectations, gender revealed a negative effect, however non-significant (coef = − 0,734, p = 0,336), which indicates, ceteris paribus, that females are less interested in pursuing a career as entrepreneurs compared to males. However, a number of other variables, such as family entrepreneurial background are positively related to students’ intentions (coef = 2,63, p = 0,01). The university entrepreneurial environment revealed a positive effect (coef. = 0,313 p < 0.05; b = , p < 0.001, respectively), while the coefficient of the variable family member having filed for bankruptcy is not statistically significant (coef. = 1,082; p = 0,310). It must be stressed that the variable concerned is positively significant in the second model. As found out by Urbano [57], social interaction as an informal institution with entrepreneurs is highly relevant within the context of university students. The results show that students with previous experience in the labour market report higher levels of EI. Concerning the H3 and H4 hypothesis, asserting that higher levels of perceived difficulties and the existence of family members that have declared bankruptcy had a negative impact of the probability of being interested in become an entrepreneur, the evidence is mixed. The coefficient of the variable “difficulties” is statistically significant, with the expected sign, which corroborates H3, but the variable “crisis” fails to be statistically significant in the final model. In line with expectations, the higher the score of the index “difficulties”, the lower the reported level of entrepreneurial intention. Thus, greater consciousness of the adverse economic context will lead to a significant decrease in students’ intentions to become an entrepreneur. This results contradicts to a certain extent the overtly optimistic orientation prevalent among policy makers, experts and teachers, which adopt an overly voluntarist approach on the basis of the selfevident advantages and easiness of becoming an entrepreneur. Past studies suggests that fear of failure act as an effective barrier constraining entrepreneurial intentions [12, 25]. This lend support to the hypothesis that higher risks may generate fear among would-to-be entrepreneurs. The marginal effect of the variable indicates that the intentions of become an entrepreneur decreases by 5,5% when the level of perceived difficulties are increased by 1. It is established in this study that training programs being offered by the university exert a significant effect on the tendency to report an interest in engaging and pursuing entrepreneurial intentions, which corroborates H8. The coefficient of this formal institution [57] is found to be positive and statistically significant in explaining students entrepreneurial intentions, which suggests that formal education provided by the University increases the degree of willingness to become an entrepreneur. Our results are consistence with previous research. In this study, we fail to corroborate H7. However, the impact of age may be being confounded by the impact of previous experience. In fact, statistically significant differences in terms of age can be found

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between students with no previous experiences (mean = 19,6 years old) and students reporting working experience (mean = 23,4 years old), based on a t-test (t = − 7,402; sig = 0,000). On the other end, our study confirms a statistically significant but weak degree of correlation between students´ age and entrepreneurial intention.

5 Conclusion, Limitations and Future Research This paper explored the role of the STRE characteristics, university ambiance cultural characteristics and personal characteristics, such as gender, age, family entrepreneurial background, intelligence or aptness for the pursuit of entrepreneurship activities in explaining students´ intentions. Our results indicate a high level of entrepreneurial intention amongst students. However, most of them are not interested in becoming entrepreneurs after finishing their studies with only 10% referring became an entrepreneur as soon as they obtained their diploma, which is in line with past research [23, 40, 41], it can be assumed that to a large extent, respondents show preference in working for others in the first years as revealed also in the GUESS study, with 89.2% showing interest in creating something new. Perhaps related to the students’ perception of the difficulties in launching a business project, preferring first to acquire experience in basic activities in business management. As illustrated in the results section, the most important predictors of entrepreneurial intention is personnel attitude, driven by students´ experiences, training and values and worldviews, followed by university environment by the role in creating a learning environment and training dynamics aiming at spurring entrepreneurial intentions among students and PBC. This paper offers a contribution to the literature by addressing a relatively less researched area with important policy implications for the regions concerned. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to provide an understanding of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in the context of entrepreneurship of the STREs and by analyzing a number of factors that reinforce, encourage or discourage students’ intentions to become entrepreneurs in one of the most adverse economic environments, a geographical setting characterized by macro-economic policies informed by a neoKeynesian approach. In terms of policymaking, it offers the advantage of providing useful information to either target promising aspiring entrepreneurs, or, work out policies aiming at mitigating unfavorable profile characteristics. The study’s limitation is its focus on the students of only one higher education institution which makes the results uncovered, fall short of being generalized to all the students in Portugal. In line with Lee [34] we suggest further studies based on theoretical advances in the field of public policy issues, in general and in the area of institution-based view of entrepreneurship, in the literature, a neglected field of research according to Lee [33, 34, 47], geared towards the analysis the role to be played by formal institutions, that can help students to develop more entrepreneurship ventures and, as a result an extra economic development at a societal level.

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It should also analyze the impact variables moderating the “translation of intentions into entrepreneurial actions”. Which would provide background to understand the transformation of intentions into the effective establishment of a new venture. As suggested by Shirokova [53] another particularly promising strand of research would lie in “moving beyond the traditional individually-focused psychological theorizing to the level of social context, considering the influence of broader (social, historic, ideological, cultural) contingencies on both the formation of entrepreneurial intentions and the subsequent translating them into actions”, based on the work of Liñan [37, 38] and Moriano [46]. That is, the STRE key characteristics support an indepth analysis of politically and socially determined personal attitudes and family ties linked to the specific economic organization of most markets in STREs, besides individual motivations as drivers of entrepreneurship processes such as intention and action [53]. In this regard, it could be advantageous to consider the approach suggested by Shirokova [53] of exploring the impact of affective mechanisms in entrepreneurship processes. The role of positive and negative emotions (such fear, threat), “passions” and family links in explaining the entrepreneurship process.

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Digital Technologies and Tourism as Drivers of Economic Growth in Europe and Central Asia Conceição Castro1(&) , Fernanda A. Ferreira2 and Pedro Nunes3

,

1

CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, CEPESE, Porto Accounting and Business, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, 4465-004 S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal [email protected] 2 School of Hospitality and Tourism, Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal [email protected] 3 CEPESE, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Lugar do Aldão, Vila Frescainha, Portugal [email protected] Abstract. Advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are rapidly transforming the world, promoting social and economic development. At the same time, tourism is one of the fastest growing economic sectors and can play and important role in boosting a country’s economy. This paper aims to analyse the impact of ICT and tourism on economic growth in European and Central Asian countries. The analysis is based on a sample of 42 countries over the period 1995– 2018. Using panel data estimation techniques, the results suggest that ICT (a composed index of internet users, fixed broadband and mobile cellular subscriptions) and tourism are important determinants of economic growth. The results also reveal that and increase in the burden caused by non-working people on a nation’s working-age population has adverse effects on economic growth, while urbanization and inflation are insignificant. Promoting technology advancements, ICT diffusion and tourism expansion can foster economic growth. Keywords: Economic growth Technologies
Tourism


Information and Communication

1 Introduction Economic growth in Europe and Central Asia has undergone many changes over recent decades. While some countries have experienced accelerated growth in the period 2000–2018 (e.g. Azerbaijan and Armenia), others have had low growth rates (e.g. Italy and Greece). The financial and economic crises that hit the global economy after summer 2007, one of the deepest crises, affected profoundly economic growth. While this great recession started in the USA and spread around the world, the ensuing sovereign debt crisis began in Europe and particularly in Greece. Due to the European © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 341–350, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_30

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debt crisis, most of the eurozone countries re-entered into recession and only a few years after, the world is once more facing an unpredictable crisis due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In this context, more attention should be given to the determinants of economic growth. In recent years it has been recognized the important role of the information society, where ICT provides means to accelerate social, economic, and environmentally sustainable growth [1]. To guarantee countries to achieve sustained economic growth, governments in the European Union have made investments to develop the ICT infrastructure [2]. Central Asian countries are also making efforts to promote technological progress in the ICT and service sectors to improve economic performance [3]. However, the success of ICT to improve macroeconomic performance is still under debate. Also, tourism is perceived widely as a driver of economic growth [4, 5]. It is an industry that is highly interdependent with other activities necessary to offer the tourist product and therefore has spillover effects. Europe, the global leader in international tourism, recorded a total contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 9.1% in 2019 (a growth of 2.4%), and Central Asia a total contribution of 5.2% (a growth of 7.3%) [6, 7]. The economic crises aforementioned were felt generally in all sectors of activity, namely on tourism, but this sector has proven its resilience [4]. Now, the world is facing an unprecedented crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic which is the largest economic shock the world has experienced in decades. Europe is also experiencing important demographic changes that may have long-run economic consequences. The increase in the elderly population and a decrease in the labor force can slacken economic growth. This paper aims to analyze the determinants of economic growth in Europe and Central Asia, particularly the effects of ICT diffusion and tourism on economic growth, controlled by several variables such as age dependency, investment, urbanization, and inflation.

2 Literature Review 2.1

ICT and Economic Growth

Technological changes, including ITC, are beneficial to economic growth [8] and is known as the Supply-Leading Hypothesis. ICT changes the way how transactions are made, enables access to the global market, reduces the costs of doing business, allows enterprises to produce better and helps in decision-making, creates important spillovers, enhances market transparency, and is a factor of competitiveness [9–11]. Furthermore, ICT supports human capital development through training and education which is favorable to economic growth [12, 13]. Hofman et al. [14] state that ICT fulfills the demand for digital products and increase the productivity and investments in sectors that use ICT, contributing to economic growth. In the field of tourism, ICT was a crucial element of development and competitiveness [15]. Nevertheless, empirical research leads to mixed results. Myovella et al. [13] found a positive contribution of ICT to economic growth in the two groups studied, 41 Sub Sahararian Africa and 33 OECD countries. For a sample of European countries, over the period 1961–2016,

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Pradhan et al. [16] show evidence that ICT penetration stimulates economic growth in the long run, but in the short run in some situations the effect is bidirectional, while it is unidirectional (either direction) in other situations, depending on the proxies used for ICT penetration. Raheem et al. [17] refer that ICT can promote industrialization, which in turn drives economic growth, but due to the increase in industrialization also harms the environment. In the study, they explore the role of ICT on economic growth for the G7 countries for the period 1990 to 2014 and found that ICT has no meaningful effect on economic growth. Pradhan et al. [8] based on data from 25 European countries between 1989 and 2016, examine the dynamics among a diffusion of innovation, ITC penetration on economic growth and the results suggest that internet usage and latestage venture capital impact economic growth in the long run, and that there strong inter-linkages between the variables in the short run. 2.2

Tourism and Economic Growth

Tourism is regarded as an important engine for economic growth and development of countries, either in developed and developing countries. Tourism creates new direct and indirect jobs, has spillover effects on other sectors, improves infrastructures, contributes positively to current account through foreign exchange income that generates, increases tax revenues, and leads to economies of scale, thus reducing production costs [4, 5, 18]. However, empirical results have shown inconsistent results on the effect of tourism on economic growth. On a review of 346 papers published between 2000 and 2014, Li et al. [18] have found that about 69.27% of the articles confirmed a positive impact of tourism on economic growth, about 8.94% a negative effect and 10.62% a weak or unclear impact, and those results hold across different income groups. Concerning papers that found a negative impact, the presence of shocking events (e.g. terrorist attacks, Iraq War, and SARS), inefficient tourism policies, environment factors, and diminishing marginal effects are among the explanations for those effects. In Europe, previous studies have reported positive effects in European Union countries [5], Eastern and Western European Union countries [19], Mediterranean countries [20], European countries along the Mediterranean Basin [4], Western Balkan countries [21], among others. Sokhanvar [22] for a sample of seven European countries found a causality from tourism receipts to economic growth in Bulgaria, Estonia and Spain, but no causality in Croatia and Portugal. Antonakakis et al. [23] for 10 EU member states found that the magnitude and the direction of causality between tourism and economic growth varied over time and the effects of economic crises such as Great Recession and Euro-zone debt crisis on that relationship were more pronounced in countries that had economic recessions more serious. For Central Europe, Romão and Nijkamp [24] consider that this region has high productivity in economic services, although this is not a predominant sector in the regional economy. In Central Asia, the tourism sector started to increase its activity in 2000. Hasanli et al. [25] in a study for Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan concluded that investment in the tourism sector has a positive impact on the country’s economy.

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Other Determinants of Economic Growth

Urbanization is a sign of development and generally been a positive force for economic growth, poverty reduction, and human development [26]. Urban areas allow for more opportunities to education, health and employment [27], economies of scale and better market structures, and increase workers’ productivity and earnings [28] and may have positive effects on economic growth. But the rapid urbanization is also related to environmental degradation and other hindrances to productivity [29]. It is recognized in the literature that urbanization impacts economic growth [30]. Wang et al. [30] analysed the links between urbanization and economic growth in a sample of 170 countries, over the period 1980 to 2011, and the results suggest a long-run relationship from urbanization to economic growth in high income and lower-middle-income countries, but no causal relationship in upper-middle-income countries, and low income a long-run and short-run bidirectional Granger causality. For the EU Member States and candidate countries during the period 1992–2010, Kasman and Duman [31] did not find a long-run relationship, but in the short run, urbanization impacts economic growth. Henderson [32] question if there is an optimal level of urbanization and if a deviation from the optimal could imply economic losses. In its paper, he found no little support that urbanization promotes economic growth. For regions in a sample of European countries, Akçomak and Weel [33] concluded that urbanization was a significant determinant of economic growth. Demographic variables also affect economic growth and age dependency, which represents the age structure of a population, is one of the variables that capture the overall impact of demographic changes on economic performance [34]. A higher dependency ratio may reduce productive capacity and lead to a lower rate of economic growth [35]. Other variables traditionally are recognized in the literature to influence economic performance such as investment in physical capital [36, 37] and economic instability.

3 Methodology The empirical investigation on the impact of ICT and tourism on economic growth is examined for 42 European and Central Asian countries, for which all the necessary information was available, in a period of 24 year (1995–2018). Besides the 28 StateMembers of EU (including the United Kingdom that left the EU in January 2020), the sample also includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, North Macedonia, Norway, Russian Federation, Turkey, Switzerland and Ukraine. The empirical analysis will be conducted employing alternative econometric techniques, such as pooled OLS, fixed effects, and random effects models. It will be performed diagnostic tests to decide between pooled or panel data, and the Hausman test will be used to determine the appropriate model to use (fixed or random effects model). Model specification with static panel data, according to the identified variables in the literature is indicated by the Eq. (1): ln GDPpci;t ¼ b0 þ b1 ICTi;t þ b2 TTi;t þ b3 URBi;t þ b4 ln INVi;t þ b5 AGEDi;t þ b6 INFi;t þ ei;t

ð1Þ

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where i ¼ 1; . . .; 42 represents the number of countries and t ¼ 1; . . .; 24 the number of time periods; bj are the coefficients of the independent variables, and ei;t is a normally distributed random variable with zero mean and constant variance that represents the error term. GDPpc represents the GDP per capita in constant 2010 USD and data were collected from the World Development Indicators (WDI) database published by the World Bank (WB). To analyse the impact of ICT on economic growth it was established an index (ICT) through an unweighted average of three indicators: the number of internet users, fixed broadband subscriptions and mobile cellular subscriptions, all per 100 inhabitants. Data were collected from the International Telecommunication Union. Tourism (TT) was measured by the Travel and Tourism direct contribution to GDP (DCTT), i.e. the GDP generated by industries that deal directly with tourists, including hotels, travel agents, airlines and other passenger transport services, as well as the activities of restaurant and leisure industries, and data was obtained from the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). The DCTT reflects the total internal Travel and Tourism spending in a country less the purchases made by those industries (in % of GDP). To analyse the robustness of the impact of tourism on economic growth it was also used the receipts of international tourism (IR) (in USD). The model includes other variables that potentially influence economic growth. Investment is measured by gross fixed capital formation (INV). Economic instability is proxied by inflation measured by the growth rate of the Consumer Price Index (INF). The degree of urbanization is measured by the ratio of the urban population in the total population (URB), where the urban population refers to people living in urban areas. Demographic variables were measured by the ratio of dependents (AGED) - people younger than 15 or older than 64 - to the working-age population (ages 15–64) (proportion of dependents per 100 working-age population). Data on receipts of international tourism, investment, inflation, urbanization and age dependency were gathered from the WDI of the WB. We hypothesized that ICT, tourism, urbanization and investment positively foster economic growth, while the age dependency ratio and inflation negatively impact economic growth.

4 Results The results of the descriptive statistics (see Table 1) show that the average for GDP per capita is USD 26260, ranging from a minimum of USD 535 (Kyrgyz Republic, 1995) to a maximum of USD 111970 (Luxemburg, 2007). For ICT, the highest observed value is 97.48% (Finland, 2012) and the minimum is 0.002% (Moldova, 1995), with an average of 47.08%. Malta reported in 1995 the highest percentage of the direct contribution of Travel and Tourism to GDP (17%) and Belarus the minimum in 1995 (0.09%). In the sample, the direct contribution of Travel and Tourism for GDP was 3.1% in the EU28, 2.8% in other European countries, and 2.4% in Central Asia, on average, over the period 1995–2018. Tourism international receipts were maximum in France in 2017 (69894 million USD) and the lowest in the Kyrgyz Republic in 1996 (4 million USD).

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C. Castro et al. Table 1. Descriptive statistics Variable GDPpc (USD) ICT (%) DCTT (%) IR (million USD) URB (%) INV (million USD) AGED (%) INF (%)

Mean 26260 47.08 3.47 9813 68.97 98599 49.15 9.56

Median 19071 53.1 2.69 3772 68.63 33081 48.90 2.53

Standard deviation Minimum 23583 535 29.26 0.00189 2.48 0.09 14528 4 13.81 35.28 157750 430 5.27 34.76 47.29 –8.53

Maximum 111970 97.48 17.00 69894 98.00 811300 75.56 1058.4

As reported in Fig. 1, in general, there is a positive relationship between ICT and the ln of GDP per capita.

Fig. 1. Regression between ICT and GDP per capita (ln) by countries (1995–2018)

The panel data regression was run for pooled ordinary least squares (OLS), fixed effects (FE) and random effects (RE). To determine the appropriate estimation method the usual diagnostic tests were applied, the F-test, the Breusch-Pagan test and the Hausman test. The results of the F-test and Breusch-Pagan showed that panel data is more appropriate (F(41, 947) = 1512.59, p = 0.000, and v2 ¼ 8811:93, p = 0.000 in the model where tourism was proxied by DCTT; F(41, 908) = 1574.08, p = 0.000, and v2 ¼ 7962.35, p = 0.000, in the model with IR). Since both the fixed and random effects are more appropriate than OLS, it was performed the Hausman test to guide the choice between the two, which led to reject the null hypothesis (v2 =185.43, with p = 0.000, in model with DCTT and v2 =199.154, with p = 0.000, in the model with

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IR), and so the FE is the most appropriate methodology for our model. The discussion of the results is based on the findings of the FE model, which are reported in Table 2. Table 2. Results of panel data regression analysis Model FE, considering the robust covariance matrix computed with the Arellano method

The model, as measured by the adjusted R-squared, shows that 88% to 89% of the variance in the ln of GDP per capita is explained by the variables included in the analysis. The F-ratio is significant at the 0.01 level. All Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) are under the threshold of 10, denoting that there are not serious problems of multicollinearity.

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The estimated coefficients of ICT are positive and statistically significant. The findings suggest that an increase of 1 percentage
point
(pp.) in this indicator enhances GDP per capita by 0.30% to 0.40% ebi  1  100 , demonstrating that countries can benefit from the diffusion of ICT, which supports the Supply-Leading Hypothesis. Also, several authors [e.g. 8, 13] found positive effects of ICT on economic performance. As predicted by theory, tourism is an important engine of economic growth. According to the results, GDP per capita could increase by 2.94% for each increase in 1 pp. in the direct contribution of Travel and Tourism in ratio of GDP. These results are robust when tourism is measured by the International receipts of tourism. If these receipts increase 1% GDP per capita will grow by 0.08%. Regardless of how tourism was measured its effect on economic growth is always positive. Among the variables used for control, the estimated coefficients for investment are significant in the model at the level of 1%, and the age dependency ratio is significant at the 10% level and have the expected sign. An increase in the ratio of too young or old people to work on labour force decreases GDP per capita. If the dependency ratio increases 1 pp., GDP per capita decreases by 0.6% to 0.7%. A higher dependency decreases productivity, which reduces economic growth and these results are in line with Wei and Hao [35]. Empirical results also show that the level of inflation and urbanization are not statistically significant.

5 Conclusions Advances in ICT deliver significant economic benefits, and transform the way people work, and how organizations conduct businesses. ICT can be regarded as an engine of productivity and economic growth, and the results of this paper reiterate this. In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, with the adoption of social distancing measures, ICT has proved to be decisive, allowing the continuity of many activities, which reinforces the importance of an interconnected world. The results of this paper also suggest the important role of tourism on economic growth, and therefore the adverse effects that the sharp fall in tourism during the outbreak will have on economic growth. Additionally, besides the positive influence of investment, our findings also reveal that changes in the age dependency ratio influence GDP per capita inversely. In future research, it would be important to analyse the economic impact of COVID-19 pandemic as well as the channels through which the impact is felt. It would also be important to analyse if there are different responses of economic growth in different points of the conditional growth distribution to ICT and tourism development through a quantile regression approach. Acknowledgments. Conceição Castro acknowledges the financial support by Portuguese national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I.P., under the project UIDB/05422/2020. Fernanda A. Ferreira acknowledges the financial support of UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, under the Project UIDB/04752/2020.

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The Dismissal of Information Technology Opportunities in the Management Accounting of Small Medium-Sized Tourism Enterprise - a Research Note Helena Costa Oliveira(&) CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim s/n, 4465-004 S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Information Technology (IT) is so an important resource to management that, in a competitive and uncertain environment, its good and imaginative exploration structures conditions for success. The use of these technologies allows access to larger and more detailed information and the translation of data to support decision making. According to the accessed information, the manager builds a particular view of reality. Thus, good Management Accounting (MA) enables the control processes and can anticipate problems and opportunities, internal or external, that escape other’s attention. We propose a research note about the evolution of IT and the MA of Small Medium Enterprises (SME) in the tourism hospitality, in Portugal. Our aim is an overview, regarding the SME, of practical adaptations of MA to the new IT reality. We conclude that the MA of these enterprises should adopt and set new variables of control related to the social network reality, to the digital context and new sources of information. However, while the virtual world is increasingly more important to the business, the SME does not pay due attention to the digital context and its opportunities. The prevailing MA still has a conservative cost-based approach, and this is probably a reason for the poor response of SME to the opportunities and challenges of the IT world. Keywords: Information Technology
Management Accounting Small Medium Enterprises
Tourism JEL: M15


Portugal



M49
Z32

1 Introduction New technological tools-such as platforms for booking travel and accommodation or several aggregating delivery services or even mobile applications for travellers-affected the competitive environment of tourism. New opportunities emerged. It is easier to access to potential customers, to new and small initiatives, as mobile technology boosted a more personalized interaction between businesses and consumers. The audience of potential customers became ever-growing. Digital marketing is now considered the future of marketing. Studies show that tourism business gains value through © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 351–359, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_31

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the presence of social networks and online platforms [1]. These changes, along with the increase and dissemination of air transport and the current national and regional tourism policies, intensified the explosion of the tourism business in Portugal. Technological advances benefited Small Medium Enterprises (SME) providing tools that simplify processes and services worldwide. In the current digital era, this factor rather than differentiators enabled a levelling-out of the tourism business, opening competitive opportunities for small companies to succeed. Nowadays, the marketer’s competition is very important for consumer’s attention. This is known as Zero Moment of Truth [2], in the purchasing experience. Information Technology (IT) stimulated radical changes in the operation and distribution of the tourism industry. A market that demands attention to a dynamic and uncertain reality as the current health crisis proves – arouse and need to be supported by appropriate Management Accounting Systems (MAS). IT evolution has been an opportunity for SMEs because, besides assisting small tourism suppliers in the development of new products, the creative and innovative use of technology provides a wide potential in service innovations [3]. SMEs need to understand, incorporate, and use technology to serve their target markets, improve their efficiency, maximize profitability, improve services, and maintain long-term prosperity [4]. Besides, companies that innovate tend to create more efficient work processes and benefit from greater productivity and performance. Improving performance in SME is likely to be related to knowledge-oriented social networks [5]. We refer to IT evolution as the upsurge of the virtual world with a strong presence of social networks and the evolving capacity to gather and select data. The tourism industry is very diverse (from large to micro-companies) with several services (from catering and accommodation to car rental and events organization). According to the features of each company, proper Management Accounting (MA) must be purposed. The use of accounting systems differs according to the features of the tourism sector: customer heterogeneity, uncertainty, and labour-intensive [6]. Despite the current circumstances, tourism is an important sector for the creation of wealth and a job in Portugal. Tourism contributed to increasing employment in Portugal (336.8 thousand jobs in 2019), has a weight of 6.9% in the national economy (data referred to accommodation, food and beverage, and travel agencies) [7]. The tourism sector has 2790 travel agencies, in which 92.54% are micro-companies (i.e. companies that employ less than 10 employees and whose annual turnover or annual balance sheet does not exceed 2 million euros) and 44837 accommodation, and food and beverage companies (in which 87.62% are micro-companies) [8]. The tourism revenues contribute with 8.7% to the total GDP in Portugal [7]. This evident relevance of the SMEs (micro-companies included) in this business justifies deepening studies on its sustainability. MA, as a provider for conscious management, is a pertinent issue to be studied. This research note is organized into four sections. After this introduction, we present appointments about the use of MA in hospitality and information opportunities to MA in SME in Portugal. The last section presents the conclusions.

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2 Appointments on Management Accounting in Hospitality An accounting system collects and aggregates information for internal organization actors and external entities. This information can be legal imposed (taxation or to access public support), due to the market (access to bank credit) or for operational reasons (evaluation and internal control of performances). Beyond these perspectives, MA was developed to support strategic and long-term decision-making, also as a result of IT developments [9]. This development broadened the attention in accounting to a competitive environment and market analysis, opening up the company to external realities. This means a complexification of accounting, now more dependent on IT in the management and control processes [9]. It is now easier to collect information from diverse and dispersed sources that, filtered through appropriate information systems, becomes available in an aggregated, systematized, and readable form - organized in databases. These information bases must be effective in terms of comprehensiveness, updating, time, speed, and confidentiality to provide the necessary information for the process of decision-making. As a strategic accounting information system that seeks to integrate the dynamic of IT, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is a good example [10]. A common topic in the literature is the study of ERP implementation using contemporary MA techniques such as Activity-Based Costing (ABC) or Balanced scorecard (BSC), among others. Traditional techniques focus on the internal aspects of the organization and are oriented towards financial control. In opposition, new techniques gather financial and nonfinancial information and assume a strategic approach as a way to link operations, strategies, and company objectives [11]. Companies take the long term into account when making decisions about an unknown future. Accounting information systems should help in this process. Its implementation makes the budget dynamic and flexible, releases accountants time for other functions [12] more focused on future analyses – prospective, concerned with strategic possibilities – rather than on historical information – retrospective, traditional concern of financial accounting [13]. There is a lessening of the routine tasks of management accountants in favour of new tasks oriented to business development. In this context, the most important skills of the management accountant are the analysis of software and interdisciplinary capacities [14]. Management accountants must be more aware of business analytics and IT skills [15]. Thus, current management requires the development of an information system with multiple interfaces, oriented both to the inside and outside of the organization, instigating information flows with a high-quality level and whose objective is to achieve competitive advantages. The strategic sense should not be absent in SME´s MA. The MAS is the articulated way to stay in touch with the business reality, considering the potential costs involved. It is consensual for so long that MAS should seek to provide information to help managers to improve the quality of decisions and organizational performance [16], overcoming the restricted view based on budgeting and cost control. The relevance of this perspective is evident in the hotel business.

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The use of MA techniques at hotels is positively associated with the intensity of competition [17]. In an environment of greater and more complex competition, the MA is an important tool for enterprise survival. MAS is central in hotels and is responsible for providing important information such effectiveness of a sales promotion program, revenue by room type, customer category, and customer satisfaction [18]. The attention relay now on financial and non-financial measures, such as internal process effectiveness, customer satisfaction, worker’s empowerment, innovation, or creativity. These measures all aligned with the company assignment help to reach long term objectives effectively [19]. Despite this view, twenty years ago, when MA was already developed with a strategic sense, the practices of cost accounting and hospitality management were still very conservative, without innovative features [20]. For example, hotels in the United Kingdom remained focused on traditional measures of performance [21]. Hotel managers, in Australia, were much more concerned with financial indicators than with nonfinancial [18]. In the Greek hospitality industry, traditional techniques (such as budgeting practices, profitability measures, product profitability analysis, absorption cost of customer profitability analysis, and non-financial measures for assessing performance) have been adopted more widely than recently developed tools. Many hotels intended to emphasize techniques developed recently, particularly ABC, BSC, and benchmarking [22] but the conservative view still prevailed. Accordingly, in the Indian hospitality industry MA techniques of the SMEs have a major impact on reducing costs and improving quality [23]. The strategic concern was not present in the MA. Most firms in the hotel sector have been reluctant to change their MA systems, which remain cost-based, in their design [17]. The majority of Portuguese hotels use traditional MA techniques. The most used is budgeting [24]. The conservative tendency is notorious, even due to the little use of USALI [24], a sectorial plan that has become standard in the hotel industry, especially in large groups and in hotel chains [6]. This brief literature review signals that, though recognized the value of a developed MAS concerned with non-financial indicators, the MA still relies on the traditional cost-related tools. This traditional perspective raises doubts about the real incorporation of the IT evolution in the MA of the hospitality sector. The size of the organization is a variable that affects the use of MA techniques [25]. In the study of MA applied in the hospitality sector this should be taken into account when presenting any conclusions. As an example, a multinational hotel company may have an interest in a MAS that follows a model of “management by values” in the processes of monitoring and control [26]. Naturally, does not happen the same in an SME.

3 Information Opportunities to Management Accounting in SME of Tourism Hospitality in Portugal SMEs lack economies of scale, their marginal production cost is unfavourable compared to large companies and they are unable to access technological innovations that involve a given dimension. They are politically weak, if not inserted in a lobby that aggregates small individual interests. This means that they tend to lose out to the

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strongest voices of large companies and political groups in planning and managing destinations [27]. These companies also face significant financial constraints, as they have few assets to support their borrowing from financial institutions [28]. Therefore, they tend to suffer discrimination and unfavourable financial arrangements [4]. On the other hand, they benefit from flexibility impossible to large companies and more immediate perception of the daily reality of the business. To these enterprises, participation in cooperation networks is very important [29], but this is not the rule in Portugal. For example, the Portuguese Organization for Rural Tourism (PRIVETUR - Associação Portuguesa de Turismo no Espaço Rural) characterize rural tourism as a set of small firms with a lack of trust and cooperation. Many owners are absent from having others jobs and this justifies the gap between the initial intentions to develop a business and its concretization [30]. SMEs found a huge opportunity in the development of information and communication technologies, namely the emergence of aggregating platforms for online services. Airbnb or e-Booking are known cases in the field of accommodation. The emergence of these platforms made a radical change in the tourism market. A change shaped by a new socio-technological culture. We allude to the weight of social networks [1, 5, 31] and the inevitable public assessment of services in the influential virtual world. If the SMEs have found an opportunity in new technologies, they must consider the potential and dangers that they mean to their businesses. This should be considered in MAS; how simple it may be. Thus, these companies should systematize simple procedures to verify the reaction of their business on social networks and follow the communication techniques developed in the online market. Although managers in SME perceive that social networks enhance business performance, only a few SMEs measure the reactions in social networks [5]. An item that seems to be not considered in the MA. In the tourism services, the quality of service depends on human capital and relational capital [32]. The evaluation of the customers and the image of the business in the virtual world is an important indicator of these capital’s value. However, it is perceived that social network mechanisms are not being smartly exploited by the hospitality sector [31]. The disregard of the MA on this topic may explain its underuse. As another feature related to IT, SMEs should create personal online communication channels, initiate procedures in their MAS that allow direct and quick feedback from their customers. The evolution of IT creates an opportunity to develop and maintain a cooperation network, easing communication between small enterprises. IT should also be used to approach the businesses and the promoters, as many owners have other jobs and do not pay due attention to their tourism enterprise. The MAS should prescribe some procedures to develop a more attentive view of the business, taking advantage of the IT possibilities. For example, the analyse of deviation between the number of attempts for booking and its final concretization. On the other hand, SME must take advantage of the aggregate information developed by public tourism organizations such as the World Tourism Organization or Portuguese Tourism Authority (Turismo de Portugal). SME must keep in touch with this information to be aware of market trends and their segmentation processes. A small

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company cannot waste resources on market research but must remain up to date with government and regional studies about the tourism market. Furthermore, it appears that many of SME projects, namely in rural tourism and agro tourism [30], are supported by public and European resources and so required accountability. Thus, SMEs are required to have an accounting system aware of a strategic management perspective that considers the aforementioned variables and not only financial control. Regarding the importance of public resources to the development of the SME businesses, it is important to pay attention to the applications to such resources. Nowadays, the application is always on-line – as the case of the Portugal2020 program – and, any SME should found internal mechanisms to be alert to such reality and aware of eventual opportunities. Thus, there is a set of new issues, related to the IT evolution, on which management’s attention should rely on. As an informative tool about the business reality to the management, MA should contemplate these non-financial indicators through a set of procedures that systemize their measurement. These are initiatives that require more dedication than investment, taking advantage of widespread technology, are affordable to any SME, and represent possibilities for shaping MA with a strategic view. Literature is absent about the MAS in SMEs of the Portuguese hospitality sector, however, the opportunities of the IT to these enterprises are present in some literature. It is found that the IT evolution implied a new market reality with different challenges and opportunities, however, this new reality is not yet well explored by the SMEs. We identify some features that the MA could assume to deal with the IT evolution in the tourism market, and take advantage of them. If MA developed indicators related to these features, the management could be a better and broader perception of the business reality, with a smarter use of IT opportunities.

4 Conclusion The SME is the dominant sized enterprise in the hospitality sector in Portugal. In this context, the evolution of IT considering the emergence of digital platforms, social networks, and the virtual world is central to the competing market of tourism hospitality. Regardless of this evolution, the hotel industry remains with a traditional view of MA, essentially concerned with costs. The strategic perspective of MA is not developed in this sector. However, the development of the IT and its consequences in the tourism market raise reasons to improve MA practices of SMEs: the exposure to social networks demands the creation of assessment procedures; the costumers should have direct channels to express feedback; the very dynamical digital context imposes constant monitoring of trends and communication developments. The online proliferation of important information requires the development of mechanisms of attention – as the information about public programs of support and government agencies studies on tourism. Also, IT should be better used in MA. This way, absent enterprise owners could have a better and more prompt perception of its performance and build a set of indicators to develop the cooperation networks between SMEs.

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Former studies identified the IT challenges of the competitive tourism market as insufficiently addressed by the SMEs. We propose as a possible reason for that the dismissal of the IT world by the MA. The MA should try to develop new indicators related to the IT evolution, feeding a strategic view of survival in a very competitive market. Management makes decisions according to the disposable information, so the unattended informational opportunities constitute a setback for management success in the tourism hospitality sector. The SME just implement MAS affordable to its dimension. So, the developments we purposed for the MA, related to free and available technology, represent a cultural development to a changing economy that calls for aware management, sustained with an appropriate MAS. This work is constrained in its conclusions for the lack of previous SMEs studies particularly on the MA in SMEs of the Portuguese hospitality sector. This work can be a proposal to studies about the adaptation of MA to the evolving IT environment in SMEs. We suggest for future research a survey of the accounting information needs in the hotel sector, in Portugal, in the context of SME.

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Touristic Application to Visualize the Galápagos Islands Marcela Saavedra(&) , Juan Carlos Molina , Gabriela Chiliquimga , and Gustavo Caiza Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, UPS, 170146 Quito, Ecuador {msaavedrad,jmolinaa1,gchiliquinga,gcaiza}@ups.edu.ec

Abstract. The reach of virtual media and their relationship with the environment have enabled promoting the tourism worldwide, every day there is a greater demand in the virtual market for mobile applications, which have enabled significantly simplifying the interaction with reality, and therefore they are the most proper tool to offer a different look about the environment to be promoted, in this case the Galápagos Islands, which are considered one of the tourist attractions most visited worldwide. It is worth mentioning that the application developed seeks to provide a complete knowledge about the destination to be visited, i.e. hotels, restaurants, beaches and especially all the tours in the different islands that constitute the archipelago, the application was carried out through a research that enabled collecting different data so that the interfaces provide the best information to the tourist, it has various buttons to watch a brief introduction and in the interfaces of the islands there is the URL of each company stored in the database, similarly it has two languages so that the tourist may easily find the destination and information necessary to make the stay more productive, this application is very interactive with the user because it enables observing real images of the place to be visited. Keywords: Unity


Touristic
Vuforia

1 Introduction The technological use plays a relevant role in the area of tourism, since it provides high quality services, the technologies are being increasingly used by travelers for planning. Based on the exponential growth of mobile applications, it is expected that they surpass web applications [1]. At present, they have become a great ally when searching or investigating about tourist destinations and have enabled combining the real world with virtual data, enhancing the senses with which reality is perceived, which is achieved through the information available in the digital world, by means of different technological environments such as tablets and mobile phones, thus acting as a lens which is used to see the world [2]. The search for information is a fast and intuitive process, but at the same time wider regarding expectations for an information system with audiovisual content, multimedia applications, geographic information systems and electronic texts [3]. In this sector, virtual communities represent a great opportunity for travelers, since in them it is possible to find opinions about potential tourist destinations, the services © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 360–369, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_32

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that can be enjoyed (hotels, restaurants, etc.) and, above all, to receive first-hand information without commercial intermediaries [4], the attractions and their descriptions and images are extracted from accessible Internet sources which are classified by the special recommendation service of the application [5]. Mobile guides in the ambit of tourism have come a long way. From one of the first famous prototypes which had the main objective of developing work prototypes, to identify unknown problems related to particular mobile aspects and to test the prototypes in the field with the purpose of receiving comments from the users [6]. Tourism and hospitality is one of the most important economic sectors worldwide, the major appearance of the interaction using mobile devices, opens the opportunity for the mobile tourism service which leads to an increase in the market share and the demand of quality services by the tourist [7]. Tourists face a problem of information overload since they obtain a significant amount of information through the network, which extends the time to choose and reduces the experience of the user. Taking into account the preferences of the users, the habits and their needs, such preferences may be predicted [8, 9]. Ecuador is a country full of culture, tourism and has a beautiful nature, it consists of 4 regions with different natural and cultural potentialities. The Galápagos Islands have become a very much visited touristic destination, both by domestic and foreign tourists. The tourism industry is considered one of the biggest sectors worldwide, which generates 11% of the global gross domestic product, employs 200 million. People and serves 700 million tourists worldwide [10]. In Ecuador, the tourist activity has exhibited a sustained growth in the arrival of foreign tourists in recent years. With a growth of 48.7% in the number of foreign tourists from 2010 and the higher occupation levels in Latin America up to July 2015 (65%), Ecuador was the country with the best tourism growth rate [4]. As the tourism becomes one of the most competitive industries worldwide, investigating the future behavior of foreign travelers is a topic of interest in tourism that plays a vital role in the development of destinations [11]. It has been observed a global trend towards the increase of the range of products and tourist services, as well as its forms of distribution, i.e. developing an information system that provides advice to the tourists in making a decision about a trip [12]. Smartphones are very popular for a large number of users, because they have a mobile operating system with computing capability and advanced connectivity [13]. The present work develops an application that provides information about the enchanted islands considered cultural heritage and a great destination for all who visit Ecuador. The application has been developed taking into account the destinations in each of the islands that constitute the insular region, i.e. it enables linking to the official websites of hotels and restaurants so the application is necessary and useful for tourists to see by first-hand and consider the options that are given in the application, it should be noted that the tourist can carry with him a didactic guide for his visit to the enchanted islands, making his stay more durable because the application will have a range of valuable and important places to visit in the different islands that exist in Galapagos, unlike other applications, this one, allows you to link to the official websites, guide included in the application and the history of the places. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the methods, Sect. 3 shows the design and implementation, Sect. 4 shows the results and, at last, Sect. 5 includes the conclusions.

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2 Methodological Framework The application began by studying the possible platforms on which it could be developed, so it began with the investigation of tourism applications to get a better idea of what tourists need to make their stays more pleasant. All of this through didactic applications, taking all this data, we started with the creation of the application through the Unity platform which allows us to develop scenarios, after using the Visual Studio environment to program an interactive interface. 2.1

Tourism Application

The tourism applications have been widely developed about outings, weather, shopping, accommodation and other categories of tourist information; even though this satisfies the habits of the tourists, the satisfaction with the navigation to the tourist attractions and the recommended itinerary implies an improvement at the time of visiting different places. At present, user experience presented in designing humanmachine interface involves three stages: preparation, interaction and feedback. Based on these three stages, there are several available experience modes including invitation mechanism, search engine optimization, demand analysis, interaction design, visual design, usability testing, emotional design, association recommendation and restriction mechanism [14]. Tourism has shown to be one of the sectors most exploited by mobile technology and mobile applications, there are many services and applications that enable simplifying this search, providing information about interesting attractions in a proactive manner, comments from the users, the main categories of mobile applications accessible in the tourist sector are: “Online bookings”, “Information resources”, “Location-based services” and “Trip Journals” [15, 16]. An interesting and memorable promotion media can convey information better, the use of interactive media provides a new experience to users and, therefore, can attract users to utilize the product delivered through the media or ICTs [17, 18]. 2.2

Unity

It is a multiplatform developed by Unity Technologies. It uses the languages C, C++ and C Sharp compatible with Microsoft. Unity has sections of scripts with multiple libraries for graphic design. When creating a project in Unity multiple folders are generated, namely: library (stores the libraries utilized), projectSettings (includes configuration files of the Unity mechanics), obj (files related to the compiler), assets (files of the scenes created by the developer) [19]. 2.3

Visual Studio

It is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) programmed in C++ and Microsoft C Sharp. It may be installed in Microsoft Windows and Mac OS systems. It supports programming languages such as C++, C#, Visual Basic .NET, F#, Java, Python, Ruby, PHP and ASP.NET, among others. Unity 3D has the capability of working with Visual Studio Community [20]. Visual Studio enables creating web

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applications in any environment that supports the .NET platform, which provides a high-level programming language that generates the grammar to communicate with the computer [21]. The most important aspects of the codification of a program in Visual Studio are: instructions, flow control instructions, variables, assignment and function calls [20].

3 Design The application is carried out through a design of geometric figures that indicate the function in each process. Following each of these parameters, it is possible to detail a logical and structural sequence of the application (See Fig. 1).

START Galapagos Islands Tourist Introduction

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Selection of Islands with greater tourist reception

Santa Isabela Island

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Santa Cruz Island

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San Cristóbal Island

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Visit by Restaurants, Hotels, Beaches and Tours

Visit by Restaurants, Hotels, Beaches and Tours

Web view with official URL of the selected destination

Web view with official URL of the selected destination

Web view with official URL of the selected destination

Fig. 1. Main scene of the application

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Initial Configuration

The application has a script that enables scaling the screen canvas to the different smartphone resolutions, such that the application is compatible with as many smartphones as possible, trying to cover the largest market of smartphones. It has a variety of windows that enable covering the information about the Galápagos Islands to a greater extent; the first scene has a 2D character named Karen, who accompanies the user through a virtual tour, with the purpose of providing information in English and Spanish (See Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Main scene of the application

Once the Start button is pressed, Karen provides curious data about the Galápagos Islands; similarly, the buttons are in English and Spanish, such that English is included as the official language in the first world. 3.2

Tour Through the Islands

Then, the following window provides a quick look on the three busiest islands, namely: Santa Isabela, Santa Cruz and San Cristóbal, each of which has a figure of a portal, in charge of conducting to each of the islands, where the information about each of them is expanded (Fig. 3). Once the portal of the San Cristóbal Island is chosen, a scene with 4 main buttons shows up, providing information about beaches, restaurants, hotels and even tours; this information is taken directly from the companies responsible for each area, once the button is pressed (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 3. Window of the 3 busiest islands.

Fig. 4. Information window.

3.3

Informative Scene

The option tours is seen as initial test, and for this case the travel option offered by the Sol Caribe company will be seen, and immediately the VISIT button becomes visible, which takes the user directly to the official URL address of the page for expanding even more the knowledge about the offer of such company. For characterization, a script was utilized which enables opening a new scene that indicates the most important technical information about each sensor, either analog or digital. It is important to remark that this button appears only after the application has executed the object recognition (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Window of tour options.

4 Results 4.1

Interaction of the Application and the User

Once the development of the application has been completed it is important to interact with it, and it can be observed that through the download the user may interact in a simple way by means of the Karen character, the buttons displayed in the main scene are in two languages so that the tourist has a better accessibility to the services offered in the application. Once the Start button is pressed the users may see the islands that are available in the application for their prompt visit, using the tools provided. In order to verify if the application has a successful scope, it was decided to conduct a quick survey to a group of people through a survey that was conducted virtually on Google platform to people who decided to use it, Fig. 6 shows the template of the survey made to the people who decided to test the application.

Fig. 6. Survey applied

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SURVEY RESULT

95

5

10

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90

85

5

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1

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Fig. 7. Results of the survey

This survey was made to people who decided to test and give their point of view about the application. The data obtained were favorable, since the characteristics of the application had an approval rate of 92%. Based on these results, it was considered that the application of the Galápagos Islands is suitable so that the tourists may visit this place without any problem with the aid of their smartphone, and likewise the application enables promoting the tourism in Ecuador, the comments obtained in the field test were successful since there is a motivation to promote tourism through this means, and similarly there is a great opportunity that other companies add their services to the platform in the database so that no tourist sector is excluded. Figure 7 shows a plot of the results obtained in the survey.

Table 1. Recommended places Recommended place Snorkel in Los Túneles Tortuga Bay Ranchos Senderos Mirador Natural Bahía Gardner Punta Espinoza

Island Isabela Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Seymour Bartolome Española Fernandina

Percentage (%) 40% 30% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%

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After tabulating the results and corroborating that the application is successful regarding the interactivity with the user, it is important to indicate that some respondents expressed that the number of tours, hotels and restaurants may be increased, and above all creating a section containing the comments about the places visited by the tourists. A section was added in the survey to enable indicating the recommendations to improve the application and to generate more interactivity and above all that more people may visit Galápagos through this mean. Table 1 shows the places that were recommended. The objective of the survey is to know if the user finds interactivity in the application, especially if it is necessary and useful when they are traveling to Galapagos because it is a virtual tool that allows then to have real-time information such as contacts of hotel, restaurants and the address of each one of them, this application carries a lot of information in one of the best known languages in all the world.

5 Conclusions The data obtained during the process of developing the application enable having necessary and updated information about the different tourist sectors in the enchanted islands, it is worth mentioning that this place is one of the most recognized worldwide, and consequently the information described in detail in this application will provide a better access to tourists, to plan and arrange the places they wish to visit. The application developed seeks to promote the tourist destination; in the application there is a database containing official data about the companies that provide services for different tourism options such as hotels, beaches, restaurants and tours, which enables acquiring information about the place to visit. After conducting the survey, it was obtained a 92% of acceptance of the application, which shows that it has a great acceptance. It is very important to understand that this application can be focused on the incorporation of virtual tools such as augmented reality or creating a virtual area so that users can have the information in a more real way, this are tools that are important to promote the tourism sector.

References 1. Kurdi, H., Alnashwan, N.: Design and implementation of mobile cloud tourism application. In: Proceedings of Computing Conference 2017, vol. 2018, no. July, pp. 681–687 (2018) 2. Besbes, B., Collette, S.N., Tamaazousti, M., Bourgeois, S., Gay-Bellile, V.: An interactive Augmented Reality system: a prototype for industrial maintenance training applications. In: ISMAR 2012 - 11th IEEE International Symposium Mixed and Augmented Reality 2012, Science and Technology Papers, pp. 269–270 (2012) 3. Acaya, M.A., et al.: Fieldtrip Ni Juan: an augmented reality mobile application for the tourist spots in the Philippines for travel hub PH. In: IEEE Regional 10 Annual International Conference Proceedings/TENCON, vol. 2018, no. October, pp. 2242–2247 (2019) 4. Ram, R.: Costa , Sierra , Oriente y Galápagos en

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5. Smirnov, A., Kashevnik, A., Ponomarev, A., Shchekotov, M., Kulakov, K.: Application for e-Tourism: Intelligent Mobile Tourist Guide, pp. 2–7 (2015) 6. Grün, C., Werthner, H., Pröll, B., Retschitzegger, W., Schwinger, W.: Assisting tourists on the move - an evaluation of mobile tourist guides. In: Proceedings - 7th International Conference on Mobile Business, ICMB 2008, Create Converge, pp. 171–180 (2008) 7. Ismail, A., Kadir, S.A., Aziz, A., Mokshin, M., Lokman, A.M.: ITourism travel buddy mobile application. In: International Conference on Next Generation Mobile Application, Services and Technologies, pp. 82–87 (2016) 8. Cui, Y., Huang, C., Wang, Y.: Research on personalized tourist attraction recommendation based on tag and collaborative filtering. In: Proceedings of 31st Chinese Control Decision Conference, CCDC 2019, pp. 4362–4366 (2019) 9. Yabut, E.R., Te, C.M.C., Faeldonea, E.N.L., Lepiten, C.M., Villadores, J.P.A., Manuel, R. E.: A Framework for Guiding Travelers and Promoting of Different Tourist Destinations in the Philippines Using Mobile Platform, pp. 1–5 (2017) 10. Zhang, M., Yu, W., Yuan, J.: Embracement of e-tourism in Ecotourism: a case study of tourism websites for Galapagos. In: Proceedings - 2011 10th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information and Science, ICIS 2011, pp. 171–176 (2011) 11. Afshardoost, M., Eshaghi, M.S.: Destination image and tourist behavioural intentions: a meta-analysis. Tour. Manag. 81, 104154 (2020) 12. Romanovs, A., Merkuryev, Y.: Application of multi-criteria analysis methods to the tourist information system development. In: EUROCON 2007 - International Conference on Computing as a Tool, pp. 2234–2237 (2007) 13. Ketmaneechairat, H., Yoksiri, P., Jaisiri, T.: Searching application for Southern Thailand Travel Guide on iPhone. In: 5th International Conference on Application on Digital Information and Web Technology, ICADIWT 2014, pp. 195–200 (2014) 14. Zhang, L., Shen, P.: User experience based urban tourism app interface design. In: Proceedings - 20th International Conference High Performance Computing Communication, 16th International Conference Smart City 4th International Conference on Data Science System, HPCC/SmartCity/DSS 2018, pp. 1121–1124 (2019) 15. Smirnov, A., Kashevnik, A., Shilov, N., Teslya, N., Shabaev, A.: Mobile Application for Guiding Tourist Activities: Tourist Assistant – TAIS 16. Lu, L.: Study on the evaluation of tourist satisfaction in tourism destination based on variable precision rough set. In: 2010 International Conference Computing Design and Application, ICCDA 2010, vol. 1, pp. 124–128 (2010) 17. Safitri, R., Yusra, D.S., Hermawan, D., Ripmiatin, E., Pradani, W.: Mobile tourism application using augmented reality. In: 2017 5th International Conference Cyber IT Service Management, CITSM 2017 (2017) 18. Anthopoulos, L.G.: The smart city in practice. Public Adm. Inf. Technol. 22, 47–185 (2017) 19. Martín-Maldonado Jiménez, D., Ferrandis, J.S.: Desarrollo y edición de juegos serios con Unity y E-Adventure (2017) 20. Tim, P.: Programación con Visual Basic. In: 2008 Programming Conference on Visual Basic, pp. 33–34 (2008) 21. JLM, Antonio, G.: Solución integral para pc , tablet y smartphone dirigida a la gestión y lectura de libros electrónicos implementado en C# y XAML . DIRECTOR: Autor, p. 17 (2015)

Mixed Reality to Promote Cultural Tourism in La Merced Cloister in Cartagena Colombia Raynel Mendoza1 , Amaury Cabarcas2(&) and Bertha Arnedo2 1

,

Universidad Internacional de la Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain 2 Universidad de Cartagena, 130015 Cartagena, Colombia [email protected]

Abstract. Cultural tourism has become an essential space for countries and regions that have great potential in their cultural heritage. In this sense, Cartagena – Colombia is a city that has all the characteristics that motivate the development of this type of tourism. An important aspect within the cultural heritage of Colombia and Cartagena is the legacy that Gabriel Garcia Marquez, who is considered the most influential writer in the country, left in the city. The University of Cartagena creates a cultural space in La Merced Cloister, where their ashes rest and have become a space for the promotion of cultural heritage. This work presents a proposal for the promotion of cultural tourism and cultural heritage using virtual reality and augmented reality technologies as mixed reality, with which it is intended to promote cultural tourism in Cartagena and La Merced Cloister. Preliminarily, the proposal has been well received by experts in cultural heritage and the development of solutions based on mixed reality. Keywords: Cultural tourism


Mixed reality
User experience

1 Introduction Cultural tourism seeks conquest of numerous travelers and tourists who choose experience and enjoy these experiences associated with the cultural essence of the destination. This tourism has an intrinsic relationship with heritage, and this “heritage has become a resource for territorial development, and economic support” [1] insofar as a process of identification, valuation, planning, and enhancement of tangible and intangible assets that can be integrated into the tourism offer can be generated. Talking about tourism in heritage cities should, implicitly, refer to the cultural manifestation that identifies that community or to the elements that, from its history and memory, give identity to the destination city. Cartagena is a city with 487 year of history, among whose milestones multiculturalism stands out. The first cultural mix resulted from the legacy of Spanish, African blacks, and indigenous people, which lasts until today and which contributed significantly to Unesco’s declaration in 1984 as historical and cultural heritage of humanity. The city has a policy of protection of assets that, in the case of Cartagena, are declared © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 370–379, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_33

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cultural heritage, such as its port, fortifications, wall cord, and the architectural complex of the historic center. The city has racked through different types of tourism in a natural, spontaneous, unplanned way, warning its course according to the dynamics of preferences of tourists. The travel blog to Cartagena has recorded trips to enjoy the beach, sun, and walls. That attraction also summons another type of tourism: business and significant events, including wedding tourism. In recent years, this experience has been planned by different actors and, in parallel, expertise and community tourism have gained strength. Currently, visitors come to Cartagena to seek the “Cartagena experience”: life in neighborhoods and towns such as Getsemaní or La Boquilla, parties and celebrations, music, and popular dance, among others. This experience is facilitated by the positioning of the city. Which is classified in numerous articles in magazines and international media as a cultural destination [2], one of the 25 cities of the future according to the FDI Intelligence portfolio of the British newspaper Financial Times [3], having Getsemani as one of the “coolest” neighborhoods in the world according to Forbes magazine [4], the most exciting city in South America according to CNN in Spanish [5] and the best destination in South America for honeymoon according to World Travel Award in 2018 and 2019 [6]. All of the above elements cannot be mentioned without reference to their heritage status since their culture is nourished by material and in-material goods of great value to their own and visitors. For this reason, the University of Cartagena, quasibicentennial, leader in the Colombian Caribbean, has created the Cultural Heritage Observatory (OPC in Spanish). This observatory seeks to put the cultural heritage of the city at the center of citizen interest, to contribute through education and research, with the protection and preservation of the local heritage. The observatory strategically seeks the encounter between the University and the community, the University and tourism, in such a way that learning spaces, strengthening of identity and social appropriation of the cultural heritage of the city are generated. From this scenario, the University of Cartagena today adds four key elements to strengthen the city’s heritage education and cultural tourism plan: 1) Cartagena, as a city that is a historical and cultural heritage of humanity, 2) the University of Cartagena, with its 192 year of existence, 2) La Merced and San Agustín Cloisters, the city’s architectural heritage 4) Mausoleum with the ashes of Gabriel García Márquez, Nobel Prize for Literature 1982, in Cartagena. About the above, the La Merced cloister Cultural Space is created, a commitment to heritage education, promoting a large-scale cultural tourism project with the elements mentioned above. Within this cultural tourism, the heritage value of a property of cultural interest such as the La Merced Cloister and one of the most visited places by tourists in the historic center stands out. Finally, and no less important, is the return of Gabriel García Márquez, Nobel Prize for Literature, one of the essential feathers of the 20th century, to the University where he studied in 1948 and to the city that made protagonists and stage in several of his most famous novels. Today, a mausoleum with ashes of the Nobel Prize, are found in the University of Cartagena. Furthermore, this calls for a permanent tribute to the writer. The University does this tribute with the creation of the

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Cultural Space and the firm commitment to strengthen the cultural matrix of the Caribbean that García Márquez told through his Works. In times of creative industries, cultural ventures, innovation and creation, this work seeks to bring the heritage experience not only to the academic and scientific community but to the entire population of the city: boys, girls, young people, elderly, of all the socioeconomic status and conditions. With this proposal, the University assumes the challenge that reinvents and claims knowledge, social emancipation of learning from diversity. Proposing from the nature of the OPC and the cultural space, permanent dialogue and exchange between scientific knowledge and social, popular, artistic, tourist, Afro-descendant, in a teaching-learning process. For all of the above, the concept of cultural tourism to which we refer is related to the current definition of heritage, “monuments and manifestations of the past (objects) are not circumscribed… it encompasses multiple cultural manifestations, including popular culture…” that is, customs, traditions, beliefs, music, crafts, among others, according to [7]. Culture and tourism have always been linked. Cultural places of interest, attractions, and events provide important motivation to travel, and traveling itself generates culture. However, it is only in recent decades that the link between culture and tourism has been more explicitly identified as a specific form of consumption known as cultural tourism [8]. The concept of cultural tourism and heritage will be as dynamic in their conceptions and uses, as people use, recognize, and appropriate. The approach and the proposal will depend on the different institutions according to their mission and public. What is clear is that cultural tourism is a tourist typology, characterized by an interest in cultural attractions, motivating their trips. In this sense, this work starts from a literary, scientific, training, and cultural events tourism. New technologies will be a way to innovate and undertake to seek to facilitate access to children and young audiences for whom the audiovisual and networking experience becomes part of their learning. The article is organized into four sections, first refers to the introduction where the context of the proposal is presented. The second offers a background where the theoretical foundation with which the experience was designed is presented. The next section shows the conceptual design of the proposal. Finally, conclusions and future work are presented.

2 Background Augmented reality (AR) - is known as the overlay of the view of the real environment with additional digital information. These pieces of information are presented as twodimensional images, which are generally fixed in the user’s field of view or dynamically change location based on markers in the real environment [9–11]. Mixed reality (MR) is a superimposition of the view of the real environment with additional digital objects. These objects are presented as three-dimensional models. Their change and their appearance depending on the external environment or the actions/movements of the user. The position and orientation of the virtual model in the room are linked to one or more physical objects and also visually acts as a physical

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object. Consequently, the user can spatially move around the object in the room and view it from different angles [10, 12]. Virtual Reality (VR) is a powerful and very compelling technology by which humans interact with computer-generated environments in a way that mimics real-life and involves multiple senses [13]. These immersive technologies, such as AR, VR, and MR, introduce new opportunities for designers aimed at facilitating the development of visually enriched user experiences by combining the physical with the virtual world [14]. Parallel to the above, there is an emerging demand for experiences that provide an authentic immersion in cultural aspects in tourist sites, based on the co-creation process and that allows self-expression and the development of creative skills for the visitor [15]. In places of interest and attractions, such as museums, AR is an emerging technology aimed at enhancing the visitor experience through additional digital content by creating opportunities for a variety of stakeholders. However, to achieve this, both researchers and managers must better understand how to co-create value effectively through the participation of different stakeholders and their interconnected relationships [16]. AR has been successfully applied in several subsectors of the tourism industry, were a key benefit is increased visitor participation [17, 18, 19]. The use of AR and Virtual Reality (VR) in tourism has been to enhance the experience and interaction, where real scenes are mixed with multimedia to provide personalized interactive information in a user-friendly interface [18, 19]. There are several works where AR and VR are applied in use in marketing and to improve and create immersive tourism experiences on-site, as well as far from it [20, 21]. Regarding MR as immersive technology, it plays an essential role in what is known as Virtual Heritage (VH). Since in this domain, the importance of a contextual relationship between users is highlighted, immersive reality technologies such as MR and the interactive and attractive cultural context as essential aspects to allow cultural learning. Therefore, MR, as an interaction mechanism, plays a vital role in terms of allowing an interactive and attractive experience [22]. For the design of the mixed reality experience in La Merced cloister of the University of Cartagena, the “Framework for Heritage Education supported by Augmented Reality” is used as a reference, which is based on the LTSA Architecture [23]. This architecture is considered a neutral architecture in technical, cultural, and pedagogical aspects and a reference for the development of educational processes mediated by technology. The “Framework for Heritage Education supported by Augmented Reality,” proposes a framework for developers and content producers, developed applications and solutions based on augmented reality to support cultural learning processes and its main domain of application is cultural tourism [24].

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3 Design of Mixed Reality Experience for La Merced Cloister 3.1

Component Description

According to the methodology proposed, the following elements have been defined for the design of the proposal: Scenario Definition. The application will be used inside the La Merced cloister, which to this day, has become a famous tourist attraction in the city and the country, given that the ashes of the Colombian Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and other elements of his library rest there. Inside the first floor of the cloister, there will be several brands for the activation of the Augmented Reality content, and there will also be a space where visitors can access the Virtual Reality application. Heritage Map. As mentioned above, the Heritage Map refers to the set of assets that will be implemented in the applications, in this case, the central concept of implementation is “Recreating Macondo,” viewed as an experience that from work Gabriel García Márquez can discover the cultural heritage of the Colombian Caribbean. Reaffirming the identity and value of cultural heritage (literature, audiovisual, dance, games, and sounds) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Technological architecture.

The heritage appropriation process focuses on the so-called cultural heritage that refers to “the set of movable, immovable and immaterial property that we have inherited from the past and that we have decided is worth protecting as part of our signs of social and historical identity” [25]. Sequentially, cultural heritage can be divided into tangible and intangible. For this implementation, it has been considered an intangible heritage that refers to ways of life, traditions, language. That is part of the identity of a community [26], where aspects such as work and life Gabriel García Márquez, Macondo, and its characters, Costumes of the Colombian Caribbean culture are

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highlighted. Sayings of the Colombian Caribbean culture, Gastronomy of the Colombian Caribbean, Characters of the Colombian Caribbean culture, Representative music. This work seeks to turn La Merced Cloister into an epicenter for promoting and appropriating Colombian Caribbean culture, thanks to Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality. Technological Architecture. This proposal aims to create scenarios that promote heritage appropriation. For this, Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality technologies have been selected, since they have proven to have an application in tourist and heritage scenarios. For technological development, it is proposed the architecture shown in Fig. 1 As can be seen in the architecture, two applications will be developed, one for access using Virtual Reality and the other for access using Augmented Reality. However, both applications will have access to the same application server where relevant information such as users, experience rating and feedback will be store. The Augmented Reality application will be developed as a native application and will have functionality for both IOS and Android. The Virtual Reality SDK to be used will be Vuforia [27], and the contents will be published on the server, to have a dynamic application and that the contents can be updated and improved over time. On the other hand, the Virtual Reality application will be accessed from virtual reality glasses, it will be developed with google VR SDK, and the contents will be mostly hosted by the client. In Fig. 2, the distribution of the components of the applications and the distribution of the elements inside the cloister are presented.

Fig. 2. Distribution of applications and elements in La Merced cloister.

Content Design. For the design and creation of the contents, the OPC will have a group of experts who will be in charge of creating content. These contents will be presented in the Augmented Reality application and also have a Heritage Manager who will be in charge to validate that the contents have the level of quality required to be

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published. As proof of the process, the content shown below has been created, which refers to the story of how La Merced Cloister became a stage of cultural tourism after the donation of the ashes of Gabriel García Márquez Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Example of content created for the Augmented Reality application

In the meantime, the virtual reality application aims to make a digital recreation that shows the imaginary world of Macondo that Gabriel García Márquez described in his different novels. In Fig. 4, a representation of the content in Virtual Reality is displayed.

Fig. 4. Example of content for the Virtual Reality application.

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Design Validation

For the validation of the proposal, a validation study was carried out using the Expert Judgment technique. For this, a methodological expert and a technical expert were selected. The first is a historian who has extensive experience in the life and work of Gabriel García Márquez and Caribbean culture in general, with whom issues related to the definition of the concept and content were discussed. The second expert is a developer of Augmented Reality and virtual reality solutions with whom the proposed architecture and technologies for the development of the solution were validated. A presentation of the proposal was made to each expert with an average duration of 20 min to capture experts’ responses. A semi-structured interview was developed to motivate the conversation, said the interview had an average duration of 20 min. The information collected in the interview was recorded in a document for later analysis. 3.3

Validation Results

Expert 1 – Methodological. To the question: “What is your opinion about the contribution of this proposal to the appropriation of cultural heritage?” The expert indicated strengthens the La Merced cloister strategy. Moreover, the relation to the social appropriation of cultural heritage and that it would be its implementation is fundamental. When asked “What impacts do you think the implementation of this proposal would have in the cloister?”, The expert indicated that it would benefit in the interpretation of Gabo’s work and that it would motivate the entry of more tourists to the facilities, which would support the maintenance of the stage if tourists are made to pay for the use of technological devices and access to content. Also, the expert indicated that although the project is ambitious, it can be carried out in phases and seeking the support of other entities that want to participate in the construction of the content. Expert 2 - Technician: To the question “What considerations do you have for the architecture presented?”, The expert indicated that from his point of view, he meets the requirements for this type of solution and that the selected technologies give guarantees that have been validated in other settings. Regarding the question, “Do you think that the development of this project is technically viable?” He indicated that if it is feasible, however, he suggests that one of the two technologies be started, that is, virtual reality or the augmented, to make deliveries to end-users that allow these users to adopt these technologies. Finally, he said that according to his experience, it would be good to define content for different target audiences; that is, content should be created for children, for adults, for experts, which would support better ownership of these contents by different audiences.

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4 Conclusion and Future Work Information and communication technologies have become an opportunity to develop actions and strategies in different contexts. One of these contexts is tourism, where there are a large number of solutions for different needs: applications for reservations, applications for destination recommendations, and other alternative solutions that seek to improve the user experience. The Mixed Reality concept becomes an opportunity for application developers and content producers to develop technologies that allow tourists to connect even more with the cultural heritage of a particular site, given the characteristics immersive and motivating that both Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality have. In this case, the design proposed, allows tourists who visit La Merced cloister of the University of Cartagena to carry out tourist activities focused on heritage with solutions based on mixed reality, which becomes an excellent opportunity to enhance the tourist destination. That allows creating expectations among the University managers and people who have to do with the development of the city’s heritage tourism offer. On the other hand, it is essential to mention that this project has been presented before working tables of the Colombian Ministry of Culture, generating high expectations for its implementation, therefore, as future work there is the implementation of a prototype of the solution, starting with the application of Augmented Reality and the management of funds for the integral development of the project.

References 1. Martos Molina, M.: Herramientas para la Gestión Turística del Patrimonio Cultural, 1st edn. Ediciones Trea, Spain (2016) 2. COLOMBIA CO. https://www.colombia.co/visita-colombia/cartagena-todo-un-destinocultural/. Accessed 02 June 2020 3. Region Caribe. https://regioncaribe.com.co/barranquilla-y-cartagena-en-el-top-de-las-25ciudades-americanas-del-futuro/. Accessed 03 June 2020 4. Forbes Homepage. https://www.forbes.com/sites/annabel/2018/06/22/the-12-coolestneighborhoods-around-the-world/#6bbb7c0d6eb1. Accessed 02 June 2020 5. CNN Homepage. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2019/09/06/por-que-cartagena-es-la-ciudadmas-emocionante-de-sudamerica/. Accessed 03 June 2020 6. World Travel Awards Homepage. https://www.worldtravelawards.com/profile-34920cartagena-de-indias-tourism-corporation Accessed 02 June 2020 7. Fernandez-Zambon, G., Ramos-Schenk, A.: Patrimonio Industrial y Rutas Turísticas Culturales: Algunas Propuestas Para Argentina. Cuadernos de turismo 15, 97–112 (2005) 8. Richards, G.: Cultural tourism: a review of recent research and trends. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 36, 12–21 (2018) 9. Azuma, R.: Augmented reality: approaches and technical challenges. In: Fundamentals of Wearable Computers and Augmented Reality, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 27–63 (2001) 10. Sorko, S.R., Trattner, C., Komar, J.: Implementing AR/MR – aearning factories as protected learning space to rise the acceptance for Mixed and Augmented Reality devices in production. Procedia Manuf. 45(2019), 367–372 (2020)

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11. Azuma, R., Baillot, Y., Behringer, R., Feiner, S., Julier, S., MacIntyre, B.: Recent advances in augmented reality. IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl. 21(6), 34–47 (2001) 12. Milgram, P., Kishino, F.: A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst. 77(12), 1321–1329 (1994) 13. Burdea, G.C., Coiffet, P.: Virtual Reality Technology. Wiley 14. Raptis, G.E., Fidas, C., Avouris, N.: Effects of mixed-reality on players' behavior and immersion in a cultural tourism game: a cognitive processing perspective. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 114, 69–79 (2018) 15. Marujo, N., Serra, J., do Rosário Borges, M.: The creative tourist experience in the alentejo region: a case study of the CREATOUR project in Portugal. In: Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems, pp. 705–714. Springer, Singapore (2020) 16. Serravalle, F., Ferraris, A., Vrontis, D., Thrassou, A., Christofi, M.: Augmented reality in the tourism industry: A multi-stakeholder analysis of museums. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 32 (2019) 17. Chang, Y.L., Hou, H.T., Pan, C.Y., Sung, Y.T., Chang, K.E.: Apply an augmented reality in a mobile guidance to increase sense of place for heritage places. Educ. Technol. Soc. 18(2), 166–178 (2015) 18. Jung, T.H., Tom Dieck, M.C., Lee, H., Chung, N.: Effects of virtual reality and augmented reality on visitor experiences in museum. In: Inversini, A., Schegg, R. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, pp. 621–635. Springer, Cham (2016) 19. Kounavis, C.D., Kasimati, A.E., Zamani, E.D.: Enhancing the tourism experience through mobile augmented reality: challenges and prospects. Int. J. Eng. Bus. Manag. 4(1), 1–6 (2012) 20. Huang, Y.C., Backman, K.F., Backman, S.J., Chang, L.L.: Exploring the implications of virtual reality technology in tourism marketing: an integrated research framework. Int. J. Tour. Res. 18(2), 116–128 21. Neuhofer, B., Buhalis, D., Ladkin, A.: A typology of technology-enhanced tourism experiences. Int. J. Tour. Res. 16(4), 340–350 (2014) 22. Bekele, M.K.: Walkable mixed reality map as interaction interface for virtual heritage. Digit. Appl. Archaeol. Cult. Herit. 15, e00127 (2019) 23. Learning Technology Standards Committee (LTSC): Learning Technology System Architecture (LTSA), IEEE 1484. (1999) 24. Mendoza, R., Baldiris, S., Fabregat, R.: Framework to heritage education using emerging technologies. Procedia Comput. Sci. 75, 239–249 (2015) 25. Querol, M.Á.: Manual de gestión del patrimonio cultural. Ediciones AKAL, Spain (2010) 26. Hierro, J. Al., y Martín Fernández, J.: Activos culturales y desarrollo sostenible: la importancia económica del Patrimonio Cultural. Política y Sociedad, 1133–1147 (2013 27. Linowes, J., Babilinski, K.: Augmented Reality for Developers: Build practical augmented reality applications with Unity. ARKit, and Vuforia. Packt Publishing Ltd, ARCore (2017)

Experimenting Through Neuromarketing to Measure the Impact of Spanish Cultural Heritage Alexis-Raúl Garzón-Paredes1,2

and Marcelo Royo-Vela2(&)

1

Universidad UTE, Quito 170508, Ecuador [email protected], [email protected] 2 Universitat de València, 46003 Valencia, Spain [email protected] Abstract. This is the continuation of a study based on the traditional image model of destination, formed by the constructions of cognition, emotion, and image. The objective is to study the model through a deconstruction in all forms through the application of neuroscience, a system of structural equations, virtual reality, and the Spanish architectural and cultural heritage as a stimulus. Variables were studied with an electroencephalogram through brain bioelectric wave responses, alpha and beta. The deconstruction of the image model consists of evaluating the hypotheses of the traditional image model of the destination in all its possible forms, giving rise to 3 models. Model 1. When cognition is hierarchical to emotion and image. Model 2. When emotion is hierarchical to cognition and the image of destination. Model 3. When cognition and emotion influence the image in parallel. Keywords: Neuromarketing
Virtual cultural reality
The image of destination
Tourism marketing
Cultural heritage
Cognitive and emotional stimulation

1 Introduction The image of a destination influences the configuration of tourist destinations; it is in constant definition and plays a decisive role in the contemporary tourism management. It is a complex concept since it allows more than one interpretation, its understanding lacks a single meaning, and the definitions are as many as the authors interested in its conceptualization [1]. The image of a tourist destination has been an area worthy of investigation for approximately 50 years; Travel and tourism is the second largest industry in the world, generating daily income of about US $ 2 billion and investments of 12% of world GDP [2]. Not all places are the same; some destinations have a large amount of gifted resources or comparative advantages; others are disadvantaged with natural limitations and created resources [3]. Tourist destinations are formed of historical, political and cultural sources, through attractions, monuments, destinations and landscapes, increasingly interpreted as spaces through which power, identity, meaning and human behaviour are built [4, 5]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 380–400, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_34

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There is a large amount of scientific literature that, for almost five decades, has identified and measured antecedents, factors, constructions and consequences from various approaches, places, scales, constructions, structures and statistical techniques, mainly with the modelling of structural equations. The current study performs a deconstruction analysis of the image of destination model traditionally used by researchers. The deconstruction of the image model consists of evaluating the hypotheses from various possibilities, directing their influences in all possible ways in the systems of structural equations, giving rise to three evaluation models: Model 1. Cognition is hierarchical to emotion and image. Model 2. Emotion is hierarchical to cognition and image, and Model 3. Cognition and emotion influence the image of destination in parallel. This research is innovative on the ground that its uses neurosciences and EEG electroencephalography to obtain metric data directly from the brain of the study subjects, This study is convenient, innovative in methodology and timely to understand the cognitive and emotional impact generated by destinations with architectural and cultural heritage in the brains of tourists, making it possible to know factors that affect tourist behaviour and the formation of images of destinations. 1.1

Literature Review and Hypotheses Setting

The destination image is of utmost importance for a country, it serves as a behavioural construct; and motivates the interest of tourists [6–11]. Over time different theories have been identified, as well as dimensions about the image, for example, the next table it shows main historical landmarks in the study of image of destiny (Table 1). Table 1. Historical landmarks in the study of image of destiny Year Author

Historical landmark

1972 Gunn [12]

Proposed two dimensions: organic image, and induced image. He suggested that the former refers to beliefs or impressions towards a destination and the latter to the influence of communication from different sources Proved that cognition and affect are independent and propose an affectcognitive model by using an experimental Added one more dimension to this classification, a complex image, which is formed based on personal visiting experience This study suggests that, given self-images are abstract cognitive schemas, they are located at the highest levels of the cognitive hierarchy and are more likely to be interpreted before processing functional attributes Suggested three constructs: cognitive, affective and conative image. Cognitive image is based on the beliefs or knowledge of a destination; affective image refers to subjective feelings or emotional responses, and conative image relates to the behavior of an individual and his probability of visiting a destination

1988 Holbrook and Stephens [13] 1991 Fakeye and Crompton [14] 1991 Sirgy et al. [15]

1994 Gartner [16]

(continued)

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Year Author

Historical landmark

1993 Echtner and Ritchie [17] 1997 MacKay and Fesenmaier MacKay [18] 1999 Baloglu and McCleary [19] 2001 Bigné et al. [20]

Proposed adding the functional-psychological dimension Used an integrated approach, aiming to show how promotional images affect the Target Image Propose a image model made up of motivating factors and stimuli

2001 Gallarza et al. [21]

2004 Beerli and Martín [22]

2005 Trauer and Ryan [23]

2017 Mody et al. [24]

2017 Kotoua and Ilkan [25]

Used a structural equation model to demonstrate that a positive image result will affect perception of quality and satisfaction Mention that: the scope of the investigation of destination images is so vast that two very different approaches are proposed for its measurement: Empirical studies in which statistical instruments are applied without developing theoretical bodies, and empirical studies that explain a specific methodology. Studies with the former approach are more common than those of the latter. However, in any image study, the relationship between variables is shown in three dimensions Evaluate which factors can contribute to the subsequent visit in the image formation and conclude that these factors are sociodemographic characteristics, motivations before and after the visit, information received, learning process, and experiences of tourists Propose an application of the theory of intimacy to evaluate the formation of destination image. These authors seek to demonstrate that the target images are mainly related to intrinsic stimuli They Create a loyalty model by examining the background of tourist loyalty and identifying cognitive and affective environments of attitudinal loyalty They show that tourists make decisions based on the mediation of social networks websites with the intention of visiting the destination

The literature is extensive; however, the image of the destination is defined as mental impressions and perceptions that tourists have of a place [26]. The images represent a simplification of a large number of associations and pieces of information connected to the site; they are the product of the mind trying to process large amounts of data about a place [27]. Next, the traditional destination image model exposed by Royo-Vela [28] is shown, generally used by the scientific community and which will be deconstructed in all its possible forms, giving rise to the three study models in this research (Fig. 1). The previous investigations show that the destination image has a significant influence on a tourist’s attitude towards the destination [44]. Tourists are rational decision-makers who allocate their income to various goods and services, which include travel as a consumer experience [45]. The destination image is an interactive system of thoughts, opinions, feelings, visualizations and intentions towards a destination, which not only recognizes the diversity of elements - cognitive, affective, and conative - forming the construct, but also its influence on the purchase decision process, the image is a crucial determinant of satisfaction, attachment, and loyalty [46].

Experimenting Through Neuromarketing

Background

Reasons Information Personal characteristics Implication

Model

383

Consequences Satisfaction

Cognition

Image

Emotion

Loyalty Repetition Intention Repetition Intention Recommend

Fig. 1. Image model [28–43]

The perceived beneficial image of the destination is defined as a function of consumption values that influence the behaviour of the travel. However, the image of a destination is a concept whose measurement has been widely criticized [47]. The image of the tourist destination is a strategic effort that must be carried out by all tourism actors. Measurement problems occur when travellers value the quality of a tourist destination service subjectively with vague limits and perceive that the image varies [48]. It is a process in which communication aims to persuade the potential tourist to increase the attractiveness of the destination [49]. And a mental representation of knowledge, feeling, and impression on a destination formed of three components: cognitive image, affective image and general image [50]. The conceptualization and investigation of the destination image must allow the development of reliable and valid measurement scales. It is generally measured using attribute scales and a differential with Likert-type scales; a fundamental factor to consider the emotional content as an expression of affective states [10, 28, 51]. There is a hierarchical influence of sentimental and cognitive images on the general image of destination [52]. Cognition, together with socio-psychological evaluations of traveller motivation, form emotional assessments of the destination, and the effects hypothesize that this perception is positive. Therefore, its components can be presented through cognitive and emotional mapping [53]. That is, cognitive and affective images have positive influences. Previous studies show that cognitive image has a direct influence on the affective image and confirms the process of formation of the general destination image [54]. In accordance with the theory presented, the first three study hypotheses corresponding to the first model evaluated are shown below.

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Model Hypothesis No. 1 H1: The virtual cognitive image positively influences the virtual affective image. H2: The virtual cognitive image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. H3: The virtual affective image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. Concerning scales and measurement constructions, the image of the tourist destination is often measured with scales that evaluate its attributes. Cognitive attributes may include observable factors, such as weather conditions, and psychological features may consist of less observable ones, for instance, emotional elements [28]. Both factors affect the image of the destination and appear to be interrelated, cognitive impacts, directly and indirectly, influence emotion. This model enjoys a majoritarian acceptance in the academy, although some also criticize and question it [51]. With this information, the following three study hypotheses corresponding to the second model evaluated are displayed. Model Hypothesis No. 2 H4: The virtual affective image positively influences the virtual cognitive image. H5: The virtual affective image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. H6: The virtual cognitive image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. The emotional evaluation of an image is linked to experience, whereas cognitive assessment is associated to visual effects. Landscape perception elements are crucial to understanding the role of visual elements. Before an image can influence behaviour, it is essential to know how an image influences the viewer and causal links indicate that a person’s beliefs affect the attitude toward the image. Destination image influences the tourist, creating a general image through cognitive and affective dimensions [55]. The cognitive image is a combination of resources and capabilities, whereas the affective image is based on expectations [56]. In other words, the affective image is created by contextual quality, and cognitive image, by representation quality. Therefore, cognition and emotion are positively related to the image of destination [33]. According to this theoretical framework, the last two hypotheses to study corresponding to the third model evaluated are shown below. Model Hypothesis No. 3 H7: The virtual cognitive image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. H8: The virtual affective image positively influences the virtual image of the destination. Building an image means different things to different people; they are entities that can be classified according to the degree of conscious control a person has over the content of the image and the degree of image lived [57].

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The contribution of cognitive and affective images to the general image of destination is related to local heritage. Traditions can increase the cognitive and affective image of the place and, consequently its ability to attract visitors [41]. The cognitive and emotional components of the image of a destination can be studied through the historic architectural and cultural heritage of cities [28]. Cultural heritage shapes local and national identities, forms relationships between neighbours and communities around the world [58]. The concept of image is one of the most used in tourism; Researchers propose the concept in different ways. Also, there seems to be certain contradictions in its use: destination as a narrative, as an attraction, as a geographical unit, as an empirical relationship, as objective marketing, and as a place where tourism occurs [59]. Thus, it is necessary to investigate human behaviour through stimuli that mimic a possible visit to the destination to assess conceptions [60]. It is essential to mention that the hypotheses raised in this research affirm that the emotional and cognitive impact of architectural and cultural heritage in the brain of the tourist is intense, which generates a positive image of a destination.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Participants

Neuromarketing lies in the execution of techniques that belong to the neurosciences applied in the field of marketing to identify responses to stimuli designed with specific objectives. These techniques are applied to obtain accurate data on consumer reactions; the collection of responses to these stimuli has the primary function of investigating people’s behaviour and decision making. The current investigation uses electroencephalography experimentation to collect brain wave data as responses to virtual reality simulation in a sample of 25 subjects without neurological abnormalities and randomly selected between the ages of 21 and 60 years. Before the experiment, each participant has given their written consent, and they are informed that participation is optional and that they reserve the right to withdraw at any time [61]. 2.2

Materials and Procedure

The data collection procedure is performed in a physiology laboratory equipped with an electroencephalogram (EEG). Virtual reality (VR) glasses; headphones, an iPhone 6 smartphone that is inserted into virtual reality glasses to project 360° videos of tourist sites with architectural heritage, a computer that records the data measured by the EEG and a projector.

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Method- Brain Electromagnetic Waves Studied

The information generated by the electroencephalogram (EEG) is complex; therefore, it should be organized in such a way that facilitates visual analysis. The EEG has a series of oscillations that, given specific characteristics, are called rhythms. Its generation is due to a complex series of cellular and synaptic mechanisms that occur in the brain, in short, the EEG is the record of the rhythmic cerebral activity that is arranged in several channels, which represent the areas of the brain where they were obtained. In other words, a record of the rhythmic activity of the brain is obtained using electroencephalographic equipment. Oscillations obtained digitally or in paper, register result from the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. These signals are of low amplitude, but thanks to a series of differential amplifiers they can be magnified and analysed. The rhythmic activity is obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and given the fact that this signal is electronically amplified; it generates a register that makes it possible to visualize and analyse it. A typical EEG record consists of several strokes arranged in horizontal lines; each of these corresponds to a channel and the oscillations per unit of time (one second), to the different rhythms or “brain waves.” By convention, the same method is used to place the surface electrodes on the skull this system known as the international 10/20% electrode placement system. Electrodes must be placed on the same areas, regardless of the head size, and mainly depending on the cephalic perimeter. Interelectrode distance is three to six centimetres. The nomenclature uses uppercase letters and numerical subscripts. The frontal, central, temporal, parietal and occipital electrodes recognized with the letters: F, C, T, P and O respectively. Even subscripts indicate the right hemisphere and odd ones correspond to the left hemisphere. For example, F3 refers to the left frontal electrode, and T4 to the right one. Lastly, the channels are identified according to the two electrodes that feed them. In order to prove the hypotheses of this investigation, amplitude of waves generated must be high, that is, a greater the stimulus will produce higher amplitude in electrical energy generated by the brain. This experiment focuses on the investigation of alpha and beta waves. An important characteristic inherent to the behaviour of alpha activity is the variation usually presented in its amplitude. The amplitude is variable; it increases and decreases in amplitude and it is measured peak to peak from maximum positive to maximum negative. The term used to describe this phenomenon in Anglo-Saxon literature is that of “waxing and waning”, and it is known as modulation in Spanish. Alpha rhythm is the most critical finding to declare a subject as alert or awake. Alpha a waves are electromagnetic oscillations in the frequency range between 8–12 Hz. These waves appear from the synchronous and coherent electrical activity of brain cells in the area of the thalamus, and in the threshold between calmness and sleep; this relaxed state is perfect for meditation. Frequency of Beta waves ranges between 12 and 30 Hz as a result of intense neuronal activity, which produce states of fascination, as well as multiple states of high attention, and alertness.

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Frequency is the first step to identify cerebral rhythm; it is labelled in Greek letters and expressed in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Electric brain waves: delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma, coexist in the brain and vary in frequency according to the amount of electricity generated by stimuli. This allows breaking down the waves into high, medium, and low frequencies that are interpreted as impacts; the more significant the impact achieved by the stimulus in the subject, the more electricity will be generated in the brain a higher frequency wavelength will be recorded by the electroencephalogram (Table 2). Table 2. Types of brain wave frequencies captured by the electroencephalogram and their interpretation Name of the band d (delta) h1 (theta low) h2 (theta high) a1 (low alpha) a2 (high alpha) b1 (low beta) b2 (medium beta) b3 (high beta) c (gamma)

2.4

Frequency/range [Hz] 1–4 4–6

Detail Deep sleep Relaxed

6–8

Imaginative relaxed

8–10

Break, but not sleep,

10–12

Relaxing, emotionally pleasant

12–18

Relaxed, lax, even depressive

18–22

An optimal level of cognition these waves helps us to be much more receptive

22–30

Intense

30–40

Challenging to grasp it in electroencephalograms, high cognitive processing, tension, stress, happiness, euphoria

Obtaining Metric Data

The topographic and frequency distribution are fundamental to identify the different brain rhythms correctly. The former implies that brain activity has a specific assignment in different areas and the latter reveals that rhythmic brain activity adopts different frequency bands. The electroencephalogram shows this information in timelines that are called channels. The combination of several channels and their respective sources make up what is known as a registered assembly. In any case, experience is required for a visual analysis, and information should be presented in a simple manner so it does not become chaotic and difficult to analyse.

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Frequency distribution information used exclusively in order to obtain the quantitative data and achieve the analysis in the models of structural equations. The combinations of all channels are taken in alpha (8 Hz to 12 Hz) and beta (12 Hz to 30 Hz) waves; From these combinations in the timelines, six points of alpha waves and five points of beta waves are taken randomly. With this metric data, obtained in Hertz unit (Hz), The information is obtained to analyze the variables in the system of structural equations. In the structural model, composed of cognition emotion and image, beta points are associated with cognition, alpha ones with emotion, and since the imagery is the result of a compound of cognition and emotion, the sum of the alpha and beta waves is added to the construct. Variables a ¼ Emotion Variables b ¼ Cognition b5 a5 P P aþ b ¼ image i¼a1

i¼b1

In other words, the metric data for the observable variables of the structural model are taken directly from the participant’s brains. The target image is measured depending on constructs that represent the human brain and with the summation of the metric variable’s cognition plus emotion. a + b. 2.5

The Virtual Reality Multimedia Stimulus

Brain activity and visual stimulation caused by virtual reality can be quantitatively studied to identify the impact of architectural and cultural heritage. Table 3. Virtual destinations evaluated in the experiment No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Accumulated Start 00:00 00:37 01:39 02:00 02:30 03:01 03:33 04:02 04:33 04:59 05:23 05:54 06:19 06:50

time End 00:37 01:39 02:00 02:30 03:01 03:33 04:02 04:33 04:59 05:23 05:54 06:19 06:50 07:21

Destination Plaza de la Santa Cruz, Spain Plaza Mayor of Madrid, Spain Arco de Cuchilleros, Spain Doors of the market of San Miguel, Spain Street Mayor and church del Sacramento, Spain Plaza de la Villa, Spain Viaduct of Segovia, Spain Temple of the Employer Madrileña, Spain Plaza de la Armería, Spain Solar of the Plaza de la Armería, Spain Royal Palace of Madrid, Spain Center of the Plaza de East, Spain Monastery of the Incarnation, Spain Plaza de Ramales, Spain (continued)

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Table 3. (continued) No. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Accumulated Start 07:21 07:48 08:15 09:15 10:15 11:11 12:08

time End 07:48 08:15 09:15 10:15 11:11 12:08 13:06

Destination Plazuela de Santiago, Spain Castle of the Adrada, Spainz León, Spain, Spain Casa Botín, Spain Basilica of San Isidro, Spain Cathedral of León, Spain Plaza de la Paja, Spain

Each person is immersed into a sequence of virtual reality videos in 360° of tourist destinations that emulate sites with the historical architecture of Spain. Suring the virtual visit, an electroencephalogram operates in the head of the subject, obtaining data directly from the skull. Through experimentation, with the help of electroencephalography and subsequent modelling of structural equations, cognitive and emotional impact caused by the Spanish historical and cultural architectural heritage is measured using virtual reality. The Spanish virtual destinations that were evaluated in this experiment are detailed in the following table with the projection timecodes in the VR glasses (Table 3). 2.6

Structural Equation Modelling. PLS Procedure, Confirmatory Path Analysis, and Data Adequacy

A confirmatory factor was performed for each model. The algorithm chosen for the analysis of the structural model is the partial regression of least squares PLS. This analytic system performs well with small samples, and the software to process the data is SMART-PLS. As mentioned Ávila and Moreno [62] the modelling of structural equations with partial least squares PLS-SEM is a second generation method of multivariate analysis that currently has high acceptance in the scientific community; Mainly in the areas of social sciences and economics. Being a robust and flexible alternative, it facilitates workflow with estimates of simultaneous equations through multiple regressions; its objective is to increase the explanatory capacity of the empirical verification of the theory, the development of high performance computer software has also contributed to its use. This investigation was performed in 25 study subjects applying a complete Bootstrapping with 5000 subsamples, with the bootstrap confidence interval method with bias and acceleration correction (BCA). Also, it relies on The two-tailed test type, the significance level of 0.05, the schism of the route weights (route), 300 maximum interactions and the stop criterion (10 ^ -X) = 7, a set of unused vectors Weighting. Routes highlight absolute values. The latent variables evaluated in the three models are: cognition, emotion and image. All three are filtered through fourteen observable variables, which makes this

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investigation innovative. These metrics data, unlike those obtained through surveys, were obtained directly from the brains of the participants. The scale responds to brain waves in hertz units, specifically a (alpha) waves, which are associated with emotions and b (beta) waves, related to cognition. d (delta) and h (theta) waves were not used because they are related to sleep and extreme relaxation, and C (gamma) waves are related to unnecessary stress. In other words, the measuring range is between 8 Hz and 30 Hz (see Table 1). Hypothesis was raised according to the classification shown in the wave types table. a waves, associated with emotion, range between 10 Hz and 12 Hz and the b waves, associated with cognition, range between 22 Hz and 30 Hz.; outside this range, the impact is passive or stressful. Cognitive and emotional components structure the image of destination. The image measured in brain waves through an electroencephalogram, twelve random points (observable variables) is identified as metric data; 6 correspond to emotion alpha points (a) and 6 points of beta cognition (b). Then, for the structural analysis in the smartPLS software, observable variables (points taken from brain waves) are associated with each latent variable.

3 Results The partial least squares regression it is a statistical method robust for a small sample, used for to find the fundamental relationships between two matrices (X; Y) and explain the variance, to implement this technique is necessary to check the discriminant validity, reliability and convergent validity of the measuring instrument, the average variance extracted (AVE) and the hypothesis contrast. The results of the discriminant or divergent validity analysis shown, it is verified that the constructions determined in the model measure a different concept than the rest of the constructions, the variance that these constructions share with their indicators is higher than that shared with other constructions. The three models investigated verify the discriminant validity. The analysis of discriminant validity shows that it is >0.5 in all the models, which means that the construction explains more than half of the variance of all the indicators that compose it. In all models, the composite reliability CR is >0.6, so they are moderately acceptable since an optimal value in this indicator is >0.7. Similarly, the convergent validity behaviour that must be >0.5, is similar in all models. This demonstrates that the constructions be related. The indicator is acceptable in the variables: a1, a2, a3, a4, b1, b2, b6, Ra and Rb, however, it is not acceptable in the variables: a5, a6, b3, b4 and b5. The values of t are significant as they are >1.96, only three of the fourteen indicators are below this critical value. However, the average variance extracted does not meet the optimum measurement value since all constructs do not score higher than the minimum threshold of 0.5 suggested by Hair et al. [63].

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The hypotheses are positive. However, the values of t are not higher than the critical value >1.96; It is greater than the critical value only in models that establish a hierarchy of a construct over others. This behaviour of the variables is given by the diversity of the impact of the VR on the brain of study subjects; in some people, the videos caused a more significant stimulus. It is a potential line of future research to study virtual destinations with the multimedia design that leads to specific stimuli, for example, videos that cause sensations of peace, surprise, or mystery. The graphic analysis shows the deconstruction with the three structural models evaluated through a complete set of data; the internal structural models show t values. The external models show weights/loads and p values in brackets; the constructs indicate extracted variances and the paths that highlight their arrows through absolute values. In the first model, when cognition is hierarchical to emotion and the general image of destination, a significantly influential path of cognition on emotion and image is identified (Fig. 2 and Tables 4, 5, 6).

Fig. 2. Structural model No. 1

Table 4. Discriminant validity model No. 1 F1

F2

F3

F1. Virtual cognitive imagen 0,517 N/A N/A F2. Virtual affective imagen 0,335 0,511 N/A F3. The virtual image of the destination 0,079 0,073 0,674

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A.-R. Garzón-Paredes and M. Royo-Vela Table 5. Reliability and convergent validity of the measuring instrument model No. 1

Factor F1. Virtual affective imagen

F2. Virtual cognitive imagen

Indicator a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 Ra Rb

Load

Weight 0,554 0,667 0,524 0,563 0,211 0,422 0,733 0,557 0,465 0,238 0,379 0,585

P-value 0,000 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,177 0,007 0,000 0,000 0,005 0,235 0,069 0,000 0,000 0,000

Value t 3,771 5,784 3,098 5,026 1,336 2,658 9,248 6,893 2,810 1,187 1,820 5,731 10,504 10,504

0,674 F3. The virtual image of the 0,674 destination Note: CR = Compound Reliability; AVE = Average extracted variance

CR 0,661

AVE 0,261

0,666

0,268

0,642

0,454

Table 6. Hypothesis contrast model No. 1 Hypothesis H1: H2: H3:

Virtual cognitive imagen ! Virtual affective imagen Virtual cognitive imagen ! Virtual image of destination Virtual affective imagen ! Virtual image of destination

Beta standardized 0,335

P value 0,032

Value t (bootstrap) 2,145

0,079

0,737

0,336

0,052

0,872

0,161

When evaluating the following structural model, it can be assumed that when the emotion is hierarchical to the cognition and the image of the destination, the path is equally significant and does not represent any critical variation in the structural model (Fig. 3 and Tables 7, 8, 9).

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Fig. 3. Structural model No. 2 Table 7. Discriminant validity model No. 2 F1

F2

F3

F1. Virtual cognitive imagen 0,517 N/A N/A F2. Virtual affective imagen 0,335 0,511 N/A F3. The virtual image of the destination 0,079 0,073 0,674

Table 8. Reliability and convergent validity of the measuring instrument model No. 2 Factor F1. Virtual affective imagen

F2. Virtual cognitive imagen

Indicator a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 Ra Rb

Load

Weight 0,554 0,667 0,524 0,563 0,211 0,422 0,733 0,557 0,465 0,238 0,379 0,585

P-value 0,000 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,177 0,007 0,000 0,000 0,005 0,231 0,063 0,000 0,000 0,000

Value t 3,709 5,824 3,147 4,947 1,358 2,618 9,248 6,933 2,812 1,199 1,859 5,715 10,650 10,650

0,674 F3. The virtual image of the 0,674 destination Note: CR = Compound Reliability; AVE = Average extracted variance

CR 0,661

AVE 0,261

0,666

0,268

0,625

0,454

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A.-R. Garzón-Paredes and M. Royo-Vela Table 9. Hypothesis contrast model No. 2 Hypothesis

H4: H5: H6:

Virtual affective imagen ! Virtual cognitive imagen Virtual affective imagen ! Virtual image of destination Virtual cognitive imagen ! Virtual image of destination

Standardized beta 0,335

P value 2,199

Value t (bootstrap) 2,033

0,073

0,161

0,431

0,062

0,336

0,828

On the other hand, in the following model below, the analysis on the path of the influence of cognition and emotion on the image without cognitive or emotional hierarchy identified that constructs could effectively work in parallel on the image of destination (Fig. 4 and Tables 10, 11, 12).

Fig. 4. Structural model No. 3

Table 10. Discriminant validity model No. 3 F1

F2

F3

F1. Virtual cognitive imagen 0,517 N/A N/A F2. Virtual affective imagen 0,335 0,511 N/A F3. The virtual image of the destination 0,079 0,073 0,674

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Table 11. Reliability and convergent validity of the measuring instrument model No. 3 Factor F1. Virtual affective imagen

F2. Virtual cognitive imagen

Indicator a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 Ra Rb

Load

Weight 0,554 0,667 0,524 0,563 0,211 0,422 0,733 0,557 0,465 0,238 0,379 0,585

P-value 0,000 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,172 0,008 0,000 0,000 0,005 0,242 0,069 0,000 0,000 0,000

Value t 3,707 5,794 3,076 4.946 1,365 2,670 9,289 6,919 2,783 1,169 1,822 5,745 10,377 10,377

0,674 F3. The virtual image of the 0,674 destination Note: CR = Compound Reliability; AVE = Average extracted variance

CR 0,661

AVE 0,261

0,666

0,268

0,625

0,454

Table 12. Hypothesis contrast model No. 3 Hypothesis H7: H8:

Virtual cognitive imagen ! Virtual image of the destination Virtual affective imagen ! Virtual image of destination

Standardized beta 0,062

P-value 0,743

Value t (bootstrap) 0,328

0,052

0,870

0,163

The study shows that the emotional and cognitive impact of the emulated heritage with virtual reality positively influences the image of the virtual destination, confirming the positive emotional and cognitive effects of the heritage. However, the models do not confirm several quality indicators, so it is assumed that other factors in virtual multimedia reality influence the calculation of structural equations, such as image quality and the overall production of video and video stimuli. Brain waves may vary depending on the multimedia stimulus that can be designed with specific objectives, for example, terror or mystery. In this study, virtual reality videos taken, considering that the main attraction is heritage and not multimedia production. That is to say, they show mainly the infrastructure of the assets in a passive way without any other specific objective in the stimulation design. The frequencies of brain waves may vary depending on the design of the stimulus, which significantly affects the structural equations, which considerably opens up the potential lines of research for the future.

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4 Discussion The application of neuroscience and virtual reality constitutes a significant leap in the investigation of the destination image and the impact of heritage, by linking tourism with virtual reality, heritage has a crucial socio-psychological dimension connected with national identity through experience attributes. There is a psychological mechanism that influences behaviour; Its effects are significant due to the modality and navigability in the emotional and cognitive dimensions of the virtual travel experience. A broad understanding of the relationships between virtual reality and the image of the destination will allow better use of tourism opportunities. Understanding the destination as a product, the creation of images is critical, due to the impossibility of testing the product before acquiring it, virtual reality allows us to eliminate this restriction. Besides, virtual reality offers the possibility to create alternative experiences that can be extremely useful for heritage preservation. Its use will continue to increase potentially, both in applications and in importance. Researchers and professionals have an excellent opportunity to exploit virtual reality in this field. Since the hypotheses are positive, it can be concluded that the model of the image of the destination can effectively work with cognition and emotion influencing in parallel the image of the destination. The contrast of the models studied shows that the emotional and cognitive impact of the emulated heritage with virtual reality positively influences the image of the virtual destination and reaffirms the positive emotional and cognitive effects of the heritage. However, the models do not confirm several quality indicators, so it is presumed that other factors influence multimedia virtual reality. The frequencies of brain waves may vary according to the stimulus design, which significantly affects the structural equations; This is a line of future research to address. One variable that would improve the stimulus is to include manual interaction in virtual reality glasses, improving the virtual reality technology used in the experiment. It is also possible to improve the EEG tool to collect information, as well as a controlled environment, the improvement of the devices can develop further knowledge. The precise comparison of the EEG deadlines is another option to investigate the audiovisual stimulus or its lower impact. This idea of future research can be combined with the design of specific stimuli, thus expanding the lines of research. Another potential line of future research is the design and analysis of virtual reality videos with specific stimulation objectives. Familiarity plays a vital role in the image and it can be a variable that can also be investigated in future studies, for example, by taking two samples, one that knows the place emulated with virtual reality glasses, another that does not know the site and compare brain waves and structural models. The phenomenon of tourist attraction must have three components to be considered an attraction: a tourist, a place to see and a marker, and an image that makes the site meaningful. In this study, the attraction is framed in the architectural, cultural, historical heritage Spanish.

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Exploring Wine Terroir Experiences: A Social Media Analysis Elisabeth Kastenholz1,2(&), Diana Cunha1,2, Ainhize Eletxigerra3, Mariana Carvalho1,2, and Isabel Silva1 1

2

3

Departamento de Economia, Engenharia Industrial e Turismo (DEGEIT), Universidade de Aveiro, Gestão, Aveiro, Portugal {elisabethk,diana.cunha,marianacabral}@ua.pt, [email protected] Unidade de Investigação em Governança, Competitividade e Políticas Públicas (GOVCOPP), Aveiro, Portugal Facultad de Economía y Empresa, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Bilbao, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. The present study seeks to better understand wine terroir experiences as reported by visitors of a Portuguese wine region, namely Bairrada in Central Portugal that has also been dynamized through a wine tourism route development. The here presented approach focuses on experiences lived by visitors of this territory and correspondingly reported on Tripadvisor, an intensely used social media site with multiple, shared information on trips, destinations, tourism services and vacation or leisure experiences. It is correspondingly frequently used for travel planning and is recognized as significantly impacting destination image development and travel decision-making. For the present study a total of 137 comments reported on Tripadvisor regarding Bairrada experiences from 2019 to 2020 were analyzed using NVivo, following rigorous reliability procedures. Results show the role of wine, tangible cultural heritage and natural landscapes in providing emotionally gratifying, memorable and recommendable wine terroir experiences in Bairrada, with wine interestingly associated to a diversity of experience dimensions. To avoid negative experiences, professional services and quality facilities seem to be paramount. Keywords: Wine tourism
Terroir tourism
Rural tourism experience
Social media analysis
Bairrada
Tripadvisor


Tourist

1 Introduction Wine tourism in rural areas, sometimes also referred to as ‘terroir tourism’ [19], has attracted increasing interest from experience-seeking tourist markets as much as from wine producers and tourism agents and developers [12]. This appeal is mostly due to this tourism’s format potential to present distinctive, sensory-rich, entertaining and educational experiences to travelers [6, 39], thereby enriching a destination’s overall appeal [36]. However, also its potential to stimulate sales and promotion of particular wines and corresponding territorial brands is worth of notice [7], thus creating relevant © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 401–420, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_35

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multiplier effects in the region’s local economic base and constituting an interesting rural development tool [15]. In order to make the most of such potential, in terms of increasing a wine producing territory’s appeal and competitiveness, a thorough understanding of the visiting market’s profile, behavior, experiences sought and lived during the visit and corresponding evaluations, is crucial [28]. Formal market research is frequently used for that purpose [41], but today freely available experience reports, posted by visitors on social media, are a not-ignorable, most valid and valuable source of rich qualitative market information [26]. This information is additionally shared with thousands, sometimes millions of potential travelers, thereby simultaneously representing a significant determinant of future travel behavior of others, which tourism agents should be aware of (and eventually react on, in case of negative image formation). It is in this context that the present study analyses comments that visitors of the Bairrada region, which is organized around the Bairrada wine route, had posted on Tripadvisor, one of the most used C2C travel information platforms worldwide, mobilizing the global travel market [31]. The main objective is a better understanding of the travelers’ experience lived at the destination, in its diverse dimensions, and how it relates to positive feelings, memorability and effective recommendation. Thereby experience contents that may be more or less typical of the visited region, or eventually common to other rural wine destinations, may become clear, as much as the valuation of specific types of experiences amongst those tourists visiting a rural wine producing territory. This may contribute to improve such destination’s appeal through corresponding destination development. The following sections will start with a literature review regarding wine and terroir tourism, the tourist experience concept, and social media analysis, to then present the empirical study, with an initial presentation of the Bairrada case, an explanation of the methodological procedures applied and then a more detailed presentation of results. The paper concludes with both theoretical reflections regarding the tourist experience in rural wine terroirs, based on the here used conceptual experience framework, and a discussion of implications for destination management and marketing.

2 Literature Review 2.1

Wine Tourism: from Winery to Terroir

Wine tourism may be conceptualized as ‘special interest tourism’, particularly motivated by a particular interest in wine, in tasting it on-site or experiencing the atmosphere and diverse facets of a grape wine producing region [10, 17]. Initially, wine tourism has been mostly conceptualized as travel motivated primarily by and focused on wine tasting, wine events and purchases, frequently centered at the winery, also visited for the purpose of gaining knowledge about wine production processes, including wine cellar and vineyard visitation [10, 17]. However, the perspective of wine tourism has been increasingly widened to focusing not only on wine but rather on the entire wine producing terroir, its diverse facets as a ‘touristic terroir’ permitting the experience and exploration of a variety of physical, cultural and natural features that make up the region’s distinctive tourist appeal [12, 17, 19].

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This ‘terroir tourism’, if well managed, presents an opportunity for providing rich place experiences much beyond cellar doors and wineries, potentially intensifying the experience, making it more involving and memorable and desirably leading to place attachment [16], while stimulating setting into value a multiplicity of endogenous resources. For wine producers this may not only translate into more cellar-door sales but also stimulate increased future sales due to the development of such place attachment and brand loyalty, to both a specific winery and the wine region [14]. For the wine producing region, ‘terroir tourism’ simultaneously means enhanced and diverse economic opportunities, stimulating these wine-producing territories’ economic, social and cultural structures [12]. For the tourist, a better articulated and presented rural wine tourist destination would increase the destination’s appeal not only to the wine lovers, but also to the wine interested and novices [10], as well as to other general visitors to the region. Examples of such opportunities would be the development of diverse cultural events and services, the enhancement of local craft or other local products, apart from the possibility of developing a series of tourism, leisure and hospitality services, associated to a multiplicity of sensory experiences, storytelling, and co-creative experience opportunities that tourists may enjoy when visiting wine routes and territories. Despite the increasingly acknowledged importance of the wine producing regions’ diverse (natural and cultural, material and immaterial) heritage resources, landscapes, people and non-wine centered products and services, the differential appeal and role of these diverse facets of the wine terroir experience is rarely studied, while a simultaneous systematic analysis of the dimensions of these experiences and their impact on future behavior would largely enhance a wine destination’s potential to increase its market success. 2.2

The Tourist Experience

The tourist experience is most central to a destination’s appeal, since visitors increasingly seek enjoyable, meaningful, authentic and interactive experiences while travelling [9, 21]. Pine and Gilmore’s [34] experience economy paradigm highlights the value of involving customers in an emotional, physical and intellectual way to promote unique and memorable experiences. The tourist experience can be defined as “the sum of psychological events a tourist goes through when contributing actively through physical and/or mental participation in activities and interacting with other subjects in the experience environment” [8]. Accordingly, physical, social and organizational factors are part of the ‘experiencescape’, influencing the experience quality and contributing to its memorability [8]. Campos et al. [8] suggested that Destination Management Organizations (DMOs) should focus on delivering quality experiences that include local resources and stimulate the interaction between different stakeholders to increase competitiveness. The concept of co-creation addresses the systemic nature of the experience value creation [42], which, in the on-site tourism context, involves local community, local agents and tourists [21, 24], who get actively engaged in. Tourists are increasingly seeking unique, pleasurable and meaningful moments, involvement in different, sensory-rich environments and opportunities of self-expression [8, 22]. Visitors value unique and

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customized experiences through which they can develop skills and express themselves [8]. In this context, destinations, as ‘experience providers’, may facilitate competitive experience environments and conditions [8] to promote more engaging and memorable experiences [34]. We can therefore conclude that (1) local resources permitting immersive and authentic experiences, and (2) opportunities to engage cognitively, physically and emotionally in active and interactive place experiences, play an essential role in enhancing memorability, satisfaction and loyalty amongst visitors [8, 9, 22, 24]. In the specific context of rural tourism, such local resources and their perceived ‘authenticity’ are even more important [22], with local gastronomy and wine often playing an important role [17]. Also, interaction with local communities significantly add to perception of authenticity, the enjoyable social dimension of the rural tourist experience and, finally, its meaningfulness, enhancing place attachment [20]. Two models from consumer behavior research have marked the analysis of the tourist experience: (1) Pine and Gilmore’s framework [34] distinguishing experiences based on customers’ participation (active or passive) and on their interaction with the environment (absorption or immersion). Based on these extremes, four categories of experience realms are suggested: entertainment, aesthetic, educational, and escapist. And (2) Schmitt’s [38] Strategic Experiential Modules (SEMs) highlighting the complexity of consumer experience, specifically stressing the role of sensory (‘sense’), cognitive (‘think’), affective (‘feel’), behavioral (‘act’), and social-identity experiences (‘relate’). The ‘sense’ module comprises experiences of sight, taste, touch, smell and sound. ‘Think’ refers to cognitive experiences stressing the role of intellectual challenges and cognitive creativity, while ‘feel’ underlines the centrality of consumers’ emotions and ‘act’ highlights the relevance of physical experiences, interactions and lifestyles. Finally, the ‘relate’ dimension refers to the importance of being part of a social context, comprising aspects of the precedent modules [38]. Scholars in tourism found evidence for the applicability of these consumer experience models, revealing the role of diverse dimensions in making tourist experiences at the destination appealing, enjoyable and memorable [24, 33, 35, 37]. Such memorable experiences, if well-connected to the visited place’s most unique resources and involving personalized and enjoyable host-guest interaction, may indeed enhance visitors’ destination satisfaction and loyalty (i.e., recommendation of experience and repeat visitation) and contribute to the destination’s competitiveness [22]. 2.3

Social Media Analysis

Over the years social media’s influence on the day-by-day routine of the world’s population, in general, has been increasing continuously at a social, economic, political, cultural, environmental, and many other levels. From the tourist market’s perspective, social media can substantially decrease the distance between the client and the destination offer and thereby help tourists reduce the perceived risk of decision-making through travel experience sharing and electronic word-of-mouth [26]. Social media influence primarily the way tourists search, obtain, produce and reproduce information about tourism services and tourist destinations, before, during and after the trip [43].

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The information consumers share online is vast, generally perceived as authentic and trustworthy [18, 26] and can be processed in real time, through the automated technology that creates valuable information, which influences the potential market and thereby has an impact on the performance of organizations. The feedback presented online permits an assessment of current and to predict future performance, since evaluative content shared online reflects actual patterns of consumption and also allows to predict future behavior [1], helping organizations to better understand their market and adjust to it through better targeted and personalized marketing campaigns [2]. According to Ali et al. [1], organizations that take advantage of the information they get from social media are normally ahead of their competition. On the one hand, monitoring user-generated content is a powerful source of market information that permits a better understanding of what the market values most, what are the suppliers’ strong and weak points, thus contributing to improved product development [18]. Additionally, organizations using social media may create proactively a positive brand image amidst their consumers [1]. Accordingly, DMOs may largely benefit from getting actively involved in such online communities providing feedback and connecting to their markets [26, 30]. Also in the wine industry, wineries’ interaction with online social media platforms, such as Facebook, may be worthwhile to intensify companies’ visibility, market interaction and customer-relationships, which was shown as particularly interesting for small wineries in Sicily [14]. The authors found that especially content-rich interaction with consumers and an engaged online presence reflected on the construction of clients’ loyalty, brand recognition and overall market performance [14]. If this is true for wine sales, it should be especially relevant for creating an interest in visiting such wineries in an even more engaging and personalized tourist experience context, where social media have been found as substantially impacting on consumer choices [26, 30].

3 The Empirical Study 3.1

TWINE and the Bairrada Case

The present study is part of a broader project, entitled TWINE: co-creating sustainable Tourism & WINe Experiences in rural areas which aims to study the market for and issues involved in- co-creating integral tourist experiences in rural wine destinations, based on a study of three contrasting wine routes in Portugal’s Central region: Bairrada, Dão and Beira Interior. The project involves the Polytechnic Institute of Viseu and the University of Beira Interior as well as experts on sustainable rural tourism, wine tourism and regional development and focuses on tourist experiences as co-created, shared and impacting on tourists, local residents, agents of supply, and other stakeholders from the tourism and wine sector. One important perspective of analysis is the tourist’s point of view, whose experience, extended in time, is central to a wine destination’s market success and competitiveness. The present study presents the preliminary results from this ongoing task, referring only to experiences from the Bairrada region as diverse integral rural wine tourism experiences.

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This Portuguese region, located in Beira Litoral, between Aveiro and Coimbra, has a long wine-making tradition. Represented mainly by small-scale wineries, Bairrada is positioned as the main Portuguese region for sparkling wine, and recognized as a destination offering a wide range of experiences related to wine, local food, culture and nature. The Bairrada Wine Route was created in 1995 by a group of regional and local wine-related public and private entities, aiming at promoting the region’s wine and creating a regional structure to offer an innovative tourism product, based on regional wine traditions and other regional attractions. In this context, the visitors’ experiences as reported on social networks are relevant data, representing both memories and post-visit evaluations, additionally impacting on many others, through electronic word-of-mouth. 3.2

Methodology

This study was an exploratory investigation into the integral rural wine tourist experience and its relevance to develop successful and competitive destinations. To better understand the visitor experience, a qualitative research approach was used, namely passive netnography [4], which consists of analyzing online communication to answer a specific research question [29]. In this study, the research question was: From a rural wine tourism perspective, which are the elements and dimensions that constitute the tourism experience in the Bairrada region? To answer to this question, we analyzed online reviews posted by people visiting the Bairrada region in Portugal to identify tourist experience dimensions and outcomes at a wine tourism destination. Based on Kozinets [23], three steps were followed to operationalize passive netnography: (1) entrée, i.e., selecting suitable information sources (i.e., websites) providing high ‘traffic’ of postings and descriptively rich data, (2) data collection, and (3) data analysis. Entrée. In this study, we relied on user-generated content reported in social platforms, which has been highly used in hospitality and tourism as a rich data source to track trending topics and identify opinions and beliefs about products and experiences [25, 27]. Compared to traditional methods (e.g., interviews), online reviews from tourists offer some advantages: data availability, speed and simplicity of data collection, contextual relevance, freshness of information, and its non-intrusive nature [27]. Tripadvisor was selected as the platform from which to extract tourists’ reviews, since firstly, Tripadvisor is the largest travel platform worldwide, with 463 million users from all over the world (available in 49 different countries and 28 languages) each month, browsing 860 million reviews and opinions of 8.7 million accommodations, restaurants, airlines, cruises, experiences, tours, and popular attractions [40]. Secondly, in contrast to other online platforms that only include hotel and service reviews and ratings (e.g. Trivago, Yelp), Tripadvisor also covers travel experiences and activities. Thirdly, commentaries on Tripadvisor are usually enriched with personal user and travel data (e.g., place of origin, data of the experience, travel group). Fourthly, Tripadvisor is considered as largely reliable [11], demonstrating higher overall quality, helpfulness and rating-narrative coherence compared to other online review platforms with similar review volume [42]. Therefore, perceived as a premier data source, Tripadvisor has been largely used in hospitality and tourism research [e.g., 3, 13].

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Data Collection. A systematic procedure to retrieve travelers’ comments for later analysis was used. Firstly, all the experiences matching the word ‘Bairrada’ in Tripadvisor.pt were identified. We limited our selection to reviews with a wider experiential viewpoint related to the discovery of the territory and its attractions, rather than reviews containing just concrete service quality perceptions. After an overview of comments in diverse categories, we selected the categories ‘things to do’ and ‘tours and tickets’ for the purposes of this study. The categories ‘restaurants’ and ‘hotels’ were, therefore, ignored from the present inquiry, although some activities referred to hotel and/or restaurant contexts. In this phase we obtained 3,271 comments of 32 different experiences. Exclusion criteria were established to guarantee the adequacy of selected comments, i.e., narratives concerning tourist experiences in the Bairrada region. Thus, for instance, comments containing the word Bairrada only as a reference to the origin of wines and local products, or the origin of the visitors were not considered. In this stage we removed several reviews from the analysis, reducing this number to 807 comments that referred to 24 experiences. Finally, only recent reviews (2019 and 2020) written in Portuguese, English and Spanish were included in the analysis. After the three-phase filtering process, the final total number of reviews for analysis was 137, corresponding to 18 different experiences at Bairrada (see Table 1). These reviews were used to build a database containing personal information about the individuals (name, gender and nationality), information about the trip to Bairrada (data of the experience and travel group), information about the specific place visited (Table 1), and the commentary contributed –subject to content analysis. Comments were analyzed in their original language not to lose important connotations. They were only afterwards translated to English for better integrating into the argument of the text. Data Analysis. The NVivo 12 software supported content analysis. To this end, firstly, the most prominent experience dimensions were selected from a literature review. Due to research focus and objectives, we chose Schmitt’s [38] experiential modules (i.e., act, feel, relate, sense, and think) and two experience outcomes: memorable experience (Kim et al. [25]) and loyalty (Oppermann [35]), including intention to repeat and recommend (Jones and Sasser [21]). Then, a code tree based on these dimensions was created in NVivo (deductive approach) (cf. Table 2). Throughout the coding process (content analysis), new categories emerged, which were added to the initial code tree (inductive approach) (cf. Table 2). These included new experience outcomes, such as authenticity, not recommended experiences, suggestions for other visitors and suggestions for suppliers. Some of these inductive categories have attracted the attention of previous tourism literature; e.g., authenticity (Cohen [12]; Wang [45]). We also differentiated negative and positive tone of comments, where some specific ‘feelings’ (Schmitt [38]) were included; i.e., boredom, disappointment, and disorientation as negative emotions, and relaxation, romanticism, surprise, and comfort as positive emotions. Likewise, we distinguished the five ‘senses’ (sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch), and added an imprecise one as subcategories of Schmitt’s dimension.

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E. Kastenholz et al. Table 1. Experiences considered for analysis

Type of experience Things to do: Art Museums Things to do: Historic Sites Things to do: Bodies of Water Things to do: Fountains Things to do: Forests Things to do: Wineries and Vineyards Things to do: Sightseeing Tours Things to do: Wineries and Vineyards Things to do: Wineries and Vineyards Things to do: Visitor Centers Tours and tickets: Activities Things to do: Specialty Museums Tours and tickets: Activities Tours and tickets: Activities Tours and tickets: Activities Tours and tickets: Activities Things to do: Hiking Trails Things to do: Wineries and Vineyards

Experience

Location

#

Aliança Underground Museum

Sangalhos

25

The Palace of Buçaco

Buçaco

25

Pateira de Fermentelos

Agueda

17

Fonte de São João

Luso

16

Curia Park

Curia

9

Caves do Solar de São Domingos (Wineries)

Anadia

6

Bairrada Tours

Aveiro

6

Caves Messias (Wineries)

Mealhada

5

PRIOR LUCAS Vinhos Wines

Coimbra

5

Associação Rota da Bairrada

Anadia

5

Discovering the Lucas Prior Vineyards, Coimbra Museu do Vinho Da Bairrada (Bairrada Wine Museum)

Coimbra

4

Bairrada is Sparkling wine and more

Anadia-Porto

2

Bairrada Small Group Wine Tour: Visit 3 Wineries with Wine Tasting & Lunch

Porto-AveiroMealhadaSangalhos-Porto Sangalhos-Buçaco

2

Anadia

Tour from Coimbra to Bairrada Vineyards and Buçaco forest Visit to the Curia’s Old Station with Sparkling and Curia’s Love PR1 MLD Luso Buçaco 363

2

Curia

2

Luso

2

Adega Luís Pato (Winery)

Anadia

1

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Table 2. Visitors’ experiences at Bairrada: categories and description Category Type of attraction Tangible cultural heritage Nature/landscape Intangible cultural heritage (traditions) Strategic experiential modules [38] Act Feel Relate Sense Think Emotional tone (valence) Negative tone

Positive tone

Experience outcomes Perceived authenticity Recommended experience Intention to return/repeat visit Not recommended experience Suggestions for others visitors Suggestions for suppliers (for service/experience improvement) Memorable experience

Subcategories

Gastronomy, Wine

Imprecise sense(s), Sight, Smell, Sound, Taste, Touch

Boredom, discomfort (crowded), disappointment, disorientation, overpricing, lack of maintenance, poor accessibility, poor service provision and deficient facilities, and other general negative expressions Adequate accessibility, affordability, good signposting, prestige, good service provision and facilities, proper maintenance, relaxation, romanticism, surprise, comfort (uncrowded), and other general positive expressions

Directly expressed memorable experience, Indirectly expressed memorable experience, and Nostalgia

In a second approach, we opted for including in the analysis the types of attractions mentioned in reviews. We chose those attraction elements generally integrated in the literature about the tourism system that were most apparent in the reviews: nature/landscape, tangible cultural heritage, and intangible cultural heritage (e.g., Timothy [44]). Besides, a final revision of categories led to the incorporation of new subcategories. Firstly, we differentiated three subcategories within ‘memorable experiences’. Secondly, we put into evidence that many reviews referred to gastronomy and wine. Although these would conceptually meet the intangible cultural heritage category, the relevance of these elements in our context motivated their consideration as subcategories.

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The content analysis followed an interpretive perspective, with overlapping content observable and the same comment possibly being coded in more than one category. The process was iterative and reviews were continuously updated to fit the code tree (including new categories and subcategories). Regarding the coding procedure, in an initial phase, four authors coded together twenty comments, in order to define the main coding criteria and assure reliability. After that, two independent teams were formed. In pairs, each evaluator in each team independently codified all the assigned commentaries and results were compared afterwards with the colleague. Whenever necessary, all the authors met in order to overcome lack of agreement between the members of a team, with a fifth researcher knowledgeable about experience research further adding to the refinement of the coding approach. All categories encountered at the end of the coding process are presented in Table 2. These include deductive and inductive (sub)categories, i.e. following both previously identified categories and new ones resulting from discourses. NVivo provided the frequency of references (number of times that a particular category was coded), ‘encoding matrix queries’ (relations between variables, for example, frequency of categories by sex), frequency of words (word cloud and word trees), and the correlation between categories (cluster analysis based on the Pearson’s coefficient). Finally, results were presented and discussed using examples of narratives extracted from the analyzed comments, always protecting the identity of the people mentioned by replacing the name with its initial. Results from these analyses are discussed in the following section.

4 Results Most important results are presented below. Please note that the coverage percentages presented in parentheses indicate how much of the source content is coded into this category (i.e. percentage of characters coded in the category, as calculated by NVivo). 4.1

Most Important Dimensions

Firstly, as for the valence (emotional tone) of narratives, reviews reveal a predominantly positive emotional tone (56.5%), with only 13.3% of negative ones. Although most were general positive expressions (37.5%), visitors also highlighted their specific appraisal of the good service provision and facilities (7.6%) and relaxation (3.2%): “It deserves the maximum rating! In addition to a wide variety of routes to choose from, the company develops tailored tours for each client. The chosen places are fantastic (true treasures of Portugal!). Route planning is thoughtful and judicious. The eating places are reliable and the products traditional and delicious! The van is spacious, clean and comfortable, and they drive responsibly. The guide knows much about the region (born and raised in these lands of Bairrada), has an incredible sense of humor (immediately created empathy towards the group) and demonstrates passion for what he does, always showing us the best of the area (its monuments, customs, stories, traditions and gastronomy).” (S. C., 05/2019, about Bairrada Tours).

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“Pleasant place that inspires introspection. Idyllic landscape and bucolic environment where we can listen to birds chirping or frogs croaking.” (A. F., 01/2020, about Pateira de Fermentelos).

On the contrary, the negative aspects reported are mainly related to the lack of maintenance of natural spaces and buildings (4%), disappointment (3.7%), and poor service provision and deficient facilities (1.7%), as in the following fragments: “The local authority or the Hotel should pay more attention to this park. It would be a nice place to go with children as it has a playground, but someone must intervene and take care of it.” (P., 03/2019, about Curia Park). “Total disappointment, horrible!!!!! This hotel was highly recommended, won several awards for a classic hotel, castle hotel, etc., it is settled in a beautiful location and has a wonderful architectural style, but two days before our reservation we received information that the restaurant would be closed due to renovation works, causing inconvenience as the hotel is far from the city and we would have to take the car to go to dinner or order room service, which was discouraged by the employees themselves.” (D. S., 01/2020, about the Palace of Buçaco).

Secondly, as for the attractions mentioned, Bairrada was presented as a diversified tourist destination, providing visitors with interesting tangible cultural heritage experiences (20%), wine-related experiences (16.2%), and experiences related to nature/landscape (15.4%). Gastronomy was also relatively appreciated in the visitors’ experience narratives (5.1%). Most comments mentioning tangible cultural heritage refer to the Palace of Buçaco, art collections gathered in museums, and, to a lesser degree, hot springs. The following excerpts illustrate some of these aspects: “The beauty of this wonderful work impresses anyone. It is a visit that must be included in the itinerary. This historic monument was built for the Portuguese Royal family by the hands of great masters of architecture at the time. It is well worth a visit!” (E. R D. M., 04/2019, about the Palace of Buçaco). “First of all, I have never seen such an extensive and diverse collection of African Art. That was enough to make a visit here worth it. Then there is the gallery of crystals, geodes, minerals and semiprecious stones. It will make you appreciate the wonders of nature. The same happens for the fossils and petrified wood. The vast collection of ceramics is impressive.” (D., 11/2019, about the Aliança Underground Museum). “Fantastic Collection. Eight Collections which is the most interesting in a unique place…” (F. G., 11/2019, about the Aliança Underground Museum). “Centenary park suffering from lack of maintenance; however, it is interesting to understand how the thermal baths were used a hundred years ago.” (m., 06/2019, about Curia Park).

Wine-related experiences mainly refer to visits to wineries (Caves Messias, Caves São Domingos) and wine-related museums (Aliança Underground Museum), where the wine-making process can be appreciated, as well as wine tasting and purchase of homemade wine bottles: “The visit lasts about 1h30 and finishes with a tasting. The visit is guided, which helps a lot: it was explained to us not only the origin and history of the exhibits but also the way sparkling wine is produced in the region. There is a store where we can buy not only wines produced in the region but also other wines produced by the group.” (S., 11/2019, about the Aliança Underground Museum).

Reviewers also provided rich narratives about nature-related experiences and gastronomy:

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“I was so excited to spend an entire day wandering and hiking through the Buçaco Forest. We started with the Via Sacra to make it up to the Cruz Alta early in the day. Unfortunately while taking an alternative path back towards the palace, the poorly marked trails got us quite turned around. I wish that the stations of the cross buildings were marked with corresponding numbers on the park map to keep one oriented. They are doing a lot of restoration on those after a severe storm in 2006. The forest was indeed truly magical despite our frustration with directions! Do not miss the fern valley or fantastic fountain!” (L., 05/2019, about the Palace of Buçaco and surroundings). “For lunch we ate the famous suckling pig, with extra crispy skin and unique sauce. We had no idea this dish existed.” (A. R., 10/2019)

Thirdly, in relation to Schmitt’s modules [38], the narratives analyzed are dominated (attending to coverage percentage) by two dimensions: sense (36.5%), largely represented by sight (25.2%), and feel (33.3%), frequently with enthusiastic exclamations. “It has wonderful works of art: 9 different art collections, from ceramics, ethnography, mineralogy, paleontology, etc. Watching live will make your jaw drop!! The distinct spaces of the cellars are also noteworthy.” (G. R., 03/2019, about the Aliança Underground Museum). “Incredible experience!” (G. V., 06/2019); “Inspiring” (T. A., 06/2019, about Pateira de Fermentelos); “Fabulous Day!” (M. T., 05/2019)

To a lesser extent, act (13.4%) (e.g., engage in wine tasting, explore walking trails, visit wineries and museums), the taste sense (8.8%) (e.g., taste wine, eat local products) and think (10.5%) (e.g., learn about producing wine, be interested in collections at museums) also play important roles in the analyzed experiences at the Bairrada region. Interestingly, the reviews did not present any referral to the smell dimension of the experience. Finally, concerning detected experience outcomes, fragments analyzed in this study show that Bairrada visitors show moderate loyalty levels, with a prominent proportion of comments recommending the experience to others (9.9%). “I would definitely recommend to any wine lover!” (L. 08/2019, about Prior Lucas winery).

Similarly, there is a large number of reviews describing the memorable nature of the experience in terms of unique moments: “It was a very important moment to relive the history of the wines of this region. It reminded me of old stories from the old vineyard, and the typical grape variety of this region, Baga. Bravo, loved this visit.” (N. N., 09/2019, about the Bairrada Wine Museum).

Surprisingly, authenticity (1%) and intangible cultural heritage (traditions) (3.6%), which are two relevant factors in terroir and rural tourism literature, are scarcely referred to in our sample reviews. 4.2

Differences Between Attraction Contexts

The frequency of the most coded categories was analyzed according to the attraction context, whenever the number of references was sufficient to allow a comparison (cf. Table 3).

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Table 3. Number of references for each category by attraction context

Gastronomy (n = 39) Tangible cultural heritage (n = 79) Nature/landscape (n = 66) Wine (n = 77)

General positive tone 21 59

Recommended experience 4 12

Act Feel Relate Sight Think 13 22

19 40

5 5

7 60

5 26

36

17

21

31

1

43

2

66

16

43

46

25

31

43

The results show that the narratives with a positive emotional tone refer mainly to wine and tangible cultural heritage. “All in all, this was one of the most enjoyable winery visits I have ever had; when combined with the other parts of the tour it will be something I remember forever.” (P. E., 10/2019, about Prior Lucas winery). “Palace to visit and, if there is the opportunity, stay for a weekend. Fantastic architecture and for those who like history a Palace that is certainly worth visiting.” (P., 10/2019, about the Palace of Buçaco).

Despite this, the greatest number of recommendations appears in comments related to nature experiences and only afterwards in comments related to wine-related experiences and tangible cultural heritage. “I recommend for the surrounding natural beauty and be prepared to go for a walk and in the end maybe for a picnic!” (Anonimous, 03/2019, about Pateira de Fermentelos). “Would absolutely recommend, it was the most personalised wine tour/tasting we’ve done.” (Anonimous, 02/2020, about Prior Lucas winery). “Beautiful Palace-Would Recommend” (Anonimous, 01/2019, about the Palace of Buçaco).

Regarding Schmitt’s experience dimensions, it appears that wine is the attraction that triggers most observations in each of the dimensions (think, act, feel and relate), with the exception of the sight sense dimension, which is more present in tangible cultural heritage. “We had an amazing time exploring the vineyards near Coimbra! The tour guides, Fátima and Sérgio, did an amazing job as they know a lot and are passionate to tell you all about the winemaking process and Portuguese nature/life in general! Besides, the Prior Lucas wine was very, very tasty and is made throughout an interesting, traditional process. The Portuguese food tasted great together with the wine!” (L., 08/2019, about Prior Lucas winery). “The palace however is really spectacular, almost everywhere you turn there is another ornate detail to delight and amaze.” (L. S., 04/2019, about the Palace of Buçaco).

4.3

Word Cloud

The word cloud shown in Fig. 1 illustrates the most frequent words in the narratives provided by visitors. Portuguese and Spanish words were translated into English to group them into the same category. The most outstanding words are, initiating with the most used: visit (visita) (1.8%), wine (vinho(s)) (1.4%), place (local(s), lugar(es), place

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(s)) (0.9%), winery (cave(s), winery, wineries) (0.8%), water (água(s)) (0.7%), hotel (0.6%), tour (tour(s)) (0.6%), excellent (excelente(s), excellent) (0.5%), beautiful (bonito(s), beautiful(ly), beauty, beleza) (0.5%), good (boa(s), bom, good) (0.5%), region (região) (0.5%), art (art, arte) (0.4%), Bairrada (0.4%), palace (palácio, palace) (0.5%), making (make(s), making, fazer) (0.45%), nature (natural, nature, natureza) (0.4%), day (day, dia) (0.4%), recommend (recomendo, recommend(ed/ation)) (0.4%), tasting (taste(d), tasting, prova) (0.4%), and amazing (amaze(d), amazing, incrível) (0.4%).

Fig. 1. Word cloud

These results show that Bairrada is presented as a diverse and recommendable/ ‘must visit’ destination, great for touring and exploring as a region with many attractions ranging from water fountains to wine, where a positive emotional tone predominates, marked by the feel and sight dimensions (‘good’, ‘excellent’, ‘beautiful’). However, it also becomes clear that the Bairrada region is often rather object of a timely rather limited ‘visit’ or a ‘tour’ than of a longer ‘stay’. Single places seem to mark these visits to the region, where wine is a clearly outstanding attraction, presenting a connecting element. 4.4

Correlation Between Categories

Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was calculated in order to analyze the relationship between coded categories. Following Pestana and Gageiro [33], we established 0.70 as the cut-off value, so only strong correlations were considered. The most interesting results extracted from this correlation analysis are listed below. Firstly, we found that a set of categories are positively and highly correlated with favorable feelings, thoughts and opinions of Bairrada visitors. These correlated

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categories might give some clues about the features/contexts triggering emotionally more positive tourist experiences. Eight important categories highly correlated with a general positive tone of sample narratives stand out: (1) feel (r = .95), (2) wine (r = .89), (3) think (r = .88), (4) act (r = .88), (5) tangible cultural heritage (r = .86), and to a slightly lesser extent (6) nature/landscape (r = .83), (7) good service provision/facilities (r = .82), and (8) relate (r = .78). This means that experiences that make visiting travelers feel something, experiences that stimulate thinking and reflection, and experiences that provide the opportunity to be active are those in which the visitor declares more positive emotions, followed at some distance by experiences with an important component of social interaction or valuation. From a perspective of destination attractions, the general positive tone of reviews is correlated most strongly with wine-related experiences (r = .89), followed by tangible cultural heritage (r = .86) and nature/landscape (r = .83). Experiences marked by the professionalism of the suppliers (good service provision and facilities) are also found to be correlated with the positive emotional tone of narratives (r = .82). Secondly, considering the comments with negative emotional tone in the sample reviews concerning experiences at Bairrada, disappointment of visitors is closely related with poor service provision and poor service facilities (r = .79). Thirdly, and not surprisingly, the experience was found to be more recommended when marked by a positive emotional tone of visitors (r = .79). Besides, the most recommended experiences are those linked with nature/landscape (r = .75), although not being the attraction found most correlated with the general positive tone. Fourthly, people narrating wine-related experiences mention the thinking dimension the most, and to a lesser extent acting and feeling (r = .92, .89, .87, respectively). Therefore, we can say that wine tourism in Bairrada is closely linked with cognitively stimulating experiences; e.g., learning about the wine producing process, listening to explanations connected to vineyards and wineries, etc. Additionally, visitors seem to ‘do’ things when encountering wine-related experiences, such as visiting museums and wineries, tasting wine, and buying wine bottles. Finally, feelings arise in visitors that mention wine-related concepts. Moreover, wine is highly and positively correlated with the relate dimension and with good service provision and facilities, which suggests that in wine tourism the interactional aspect, predominantly with tour guides and producers, is highly appreciated.

5 Discussion and Conclusions Through careful monitoring of online social media communication and additional interaction with potential wine tourists, wineries, other agents of wine tourism supply and wine routes should not only maintain loyal clients and increase their place attachment [1, 26]. They should also obtain important information on how to improve the wine terroir experience and thus increase the territories’ capacity to attract new travelers, curious to explore the wine terroir, as recommended by previous visitors, for both wine tasting and other tourism purposes. In the specific context of this study and according to the emotional valence of the sample reviews, Bairrada clearly arises a positive emotional tone in its visitors.

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However, also some negative comments are very useful [32] to obtain important information to improve the tourism experience at Bairrada. Firstly, service quality is an important positively appreciated aspect of the experience according to its visitors, describing it as professional and attentive. Still, this is the most repeated element connected to a negative emotion. Therefore, a solid investment in services quality would be required so as to guarantee adequate and knowledgeable staff as well as proper facilities at the destination. Secondly, it became clear that the most important destination attractions, leading to a general positive appraisal, which is typically correlated with recommendation, are wine, tangible cultural heritage and nature/landscape. Thus, apart from wine tourism activities typical for a wine destination, Bairrada emerges also as a more holistic destination with cultural and scenic appeal. A paradigmatic example of this varied and integrative character of this destination is the Aliança Underground Museum, which presents an eclectic art collection within a winery. Thirdly, the analysis of comments according to Schmitt’s dimensions [38], showed no references to the smell sense, despite its role in evoking memories, since the nose is directly connected to the area of the brain responsible for memory processing. Regardless of this neurophysiological reality, smell has been neglected in cultural narratives, considering it as a basic and primitive instinct, incompatible with the rationality and intellectuality, valued in modern cultures and probably being a less consciously perceived sense [5]. This aspect may justify the hegemony of sight in visitors’ reports. Still with regard to Schmitt’s modules [38], it is interesting to realize that different tourism attractions (wine, nature/landscape, tangible cultural heritage) seem to be more associated with certain dimensions. Interestingly, wine-related experiences appear as the richest, being associated to most dimensions: act (e.g., wine tasting), think (e.g., knowing the wine production process), feel (e.g., feeling surprised or amazed), relate (e.g., the interaction with the guide or the wine producer proved to be very important) and sight (e.g., appreciating the aesthetics of winery exhibitions). On the other hand, experiences related to nature or tangible cultural heritage are mainly associated with sight (e.g., seeing/observing the beauty of landscape or a particular building) and feeling (e.g., feeling relaxed, feeling amazed). Another sense that was expected to stand out concerned ‘taste’, since Bairrada is not only known for its wine, but also its gastronomy (particularly the suckling pig, rustic bread and some typical desserts), although these experiences may be rather dominating the ‘restaurant’ category in Tripadvisor, which was not analyzed here. Bairrada visitors recommend this destination (obviously) because it arises positive emotions, triggers multiple sensations, feelings, and offers a rich and varied natural context, with some cultural highlights. On the other hand, there are a couple of attractions that do not attract the interest they might deserve (e.g. Station Curia), while the most highlighted seem to require some intervention in order to also please the most demanding travelers (e.g. restoring and improving comfort in the otherwise highly praised Palace Hotel or improving signposting in the Buçaco forest). The here presented passive netnographic analysis of user-generated content may thus help improve the destination’s development as well as its understanding of the most valued aspects of its experience to continue enhancing them to build a strong

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destination brand and possibly place attachment. Additional studies of comments, from more visitors, permitting comparisons between visitor groups, should improve the usefulness of the here presented approach.

6 Limitations and Future Research Avenues Although contributing to the debate of several academic and managerial issues, this research is not without limitations. Firstly, this is an exploratory study contextualized in a specific region in Portugal. Therefore, the investigation may suffer from a low generalizability of results, due to a rather narrow context of application (i.e., wine tourism in Bairrada). Secondly, this study explores the experience of visitors in Bairrada from a passive netnographic approach, using only online reviews posted in Tripadvisor. In this regard, it can be interesting to broaden the scope and go to other sources of user-generated content and to also attempt interaction with reviewers in a more active approach. Thirdly, the analysis of reviews is limited to the last 2 years (2019–2020), although the number of discourses identified and its richness and variety seems to permit an interesting perspective of wine tourism experiences as actually lived in the region Future research may further include a longitudinal approach that focuses on a broader time period to understand the evolution of the tourist experiences reported. Finally, it should be noted that, being a qualitative study, it may be susceptible to the authors’ interpretation during the coding process, a risk that was here minimized through pairwise comparisons of all codifications and an ongoing process of discussion of meanings of codes and less consensual discourses, involving 5 researchers. Additionally, quantitative data on the tourist experience in the region collected from a representative sample of visitors may add to our understanding of also more generally shared aspects of the tourist experience. Acknowledgements. This work was developed in the scope of the research project TWINE PTDC/GES-GCE/32259/2017 - POCI-01-0145-FEDER-032259, funded by the ERDF through the COMPETE 2020 - Operational Programme Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI), and national funds (OPTDC/GES-GCE/32259/2017-E), through FCT/MCTES.

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Qualitative Photo-Based Analysis of Product Innovations in Culinary Tourism: Case of Traditional Food at Czech Culinary Events Jiří Zelený(&)

, Petr Studnička, and Zbyněk Vinš

Institute of Hospitality Management, Prague 181 00, Czech Republic [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to identify the innovations in traditional food at culinary events in the Czech Republic, to classify these emerging innovation aspects and to explore the attitudes of chefs and visitors of culinary events towards these innovative aspects. Qualitative methodology, in particular, a photo-based analysis was used employing initial sorting and coding of 1551 photographs from 92 culinary events. Standardization of the process was controlled by Krippendorff’s alfa, and by comparison with university archeological databases containing traditional dishes. With the use of Grounded Theory, five innovation aspects for traditional dishes at culinary events were detected in the final set of photographs: reduction of portion sizes, the inclusion of edible food wrapper, change to a liquid state, visual imitation, and fortification with traditional ingredients. Most representative dishes for each innovative aspect were chosen and cooked for standardized presentation, which took place during photo-elicitation focus groups (PEFGs) with experts (chefs) and visitors of culinary events. PEFGs results showed regionality/authenticity of dishes and ingredients together with innovative appearance as the most important components of traditional dishes for encouraging tourists to visit the culinary festivals and for increasing destination attractiveness. Sensible seek for balance between too intensive innovative approach and low attractivity is crucial. The visitors were not interested in extreme innovations or fusion cuisine implemented by chefs in the case of traditional dishes due to the presence of neophobia. Frequently neglected phenomenological qualitative photo-based analysis employing PEFGs can be a useful tool for research in the tourism field, especially during its initial phase. Keywords: Authentic food
Cultural tourism
Gastronomy festivals
Photoelicitation

1 Introduction In the last twenty years, there has been significant progress in culinary tourism worldwide, offering both modern and innovative dishes as well as a traditional and authentic experience. Culinary tourism is an important part of destination marketing and has an impact on its sustainability, and in the future, it is expected to be even more emphasized on food regionalism and cooperation with stakeholders [1]. More to this, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 421–433, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_36

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culinary tourism can be considered as a part of cultural tourism, for UNWTO [2] definition includes the culinary heritage and the importance of experience and consumption of products in a particular tourism destination as well as the importance of local traditions. Contemporaneously, culinary festivals do not encompass only traditional regional food, but often cultural performances reflecting locally embedded practices. For the Czech Republic, as for the beer-drinking country, culinary tourism is known for beer tourism above all other types. Visits of commercial breweries, as well as micro-breweries, are being broadened with famous regional beer festivals where most of the tourists want to experience new types of lesser-known beers [3]. Nonetheless, merely small attention was paid to the research connected with Czech culinary festivals in general. Some of the rare Czech studies dealt with participants’ intentions to visit gastronomy events [4], or with regional quality certifications and their inclusion in culinary tourism, in which the lack of platform connecting culinary tourism and regional products was stressed [5]. Czech local farmers’ markets and the participation of food producers in the structure of events are of increasing attention as well [6].

2 Literature Review Another aspect that is explored by scholars and is added to the regionalism/locality of food festivals is the traditionality of the food offered. It was confirmed that traditional food and beverages improve the attractiveness of tourism destinations as well as their development [7]; therefore, they are vital for culinary tourism, which was confirmed in the Czech Republic also [8]. Concurrently, traditional food is responsible for the shaping of local identity, and culinary festivals containing traditional food are important for strengthening links between residents of the region and incoming tourists [7]. The culinary festival itself can be classified as both traditional or modern, enabling the possible comparison of these exemplary opposites [9]; however, it is not always uncomplicated to define the term “traditional” as can be seen below. Traditional food (or traditional food festival) can be described as composed of local ingredients [10], and it can be connected with the term “authentic experience” [11]. Nonetheless, the true authenticity and roots of Czech food coming from particular regions are often part of an elaborated discourse as there are new dishes and ingredients imported from abroad, and historically there were many foreign influences, especially regarding the Central European context. In this instance, distinguishing between typically Czech and imported food can be often impossible. One of the ways of defining the Czech traditional food is by framing it within various historical contexts. As Bočák [12] states, the post-communist era in the Czech Republic was typical with a strong reluctance of food representing socialist patterns and with a search for anything that would be truly traditional. For this purpose, it is requisite to search back in the era of the former country of the Czech Republic, i.e., Czechoslovakia called “The First Republic” lasting until 1939. Alternatively, the search can be extended by looking for recipes of even earlier date where there can be found the archetypal figures of grandmothers cooking traditional Czech food tightly bounded to rural areas. Reversely,

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Zelený et al. [13] examined the traditional Czech food from the globalization perspective, in particular, the possible occurrence of McDonaldization aspects. It was found out that traditional Czech fish dishes are being sidelined in the restaurants due to their high time requirements during preparation and content of bones; thus, these traditional fish dishes are slowly disappearing or are being substituted by glocalized variations that can be seen as innovations in traditional food. Paradoxically, traditional fish dishes were more preferred by Czech consumers when compared during sensory evaluation with modern fish dishes. Naturally, the preferences for innovative traditional dishes at Czech culinary events can differ compared to restaurant facilities. Various innovations in traditional foods were previously studied; however, they can be perceived as controversial, since the authenticity of food can diminish with increasing novelty [14]. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that innovative traditional foods are usually well accepted by consumers [15] as they are willing to pay more for innovative food products [16]. On the contrary, there is a persisting tendency of consumers for a certain amount of authenticity and a lower level of standardization in traditional local products [17]. Focus groups with consumers showed that innovative changes in traditional food can be connected with new processing technology or eating convenience, amongst other aspects [18]. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed approaches were used in the researches mentioned above. With the emphasis of our study, special attention is paid to the qualitative methodology. The phenomenological approach in tourism was recently used, for example, by Ferreira and Castro [19], or more precisely in cultural tourism by Ferreira and Sousa [20]. Mostly, in-depth interviews or focus groups were used to explore the consumers’ attitudes, including verbal associations with various traditional foods. Verbal associations enable subsequent classification of traditional foods into certain categories, and with the help of qualitative triangulation, it is possible to find patterns as “heritage and history” association with traditional food in southern European countries and “health and convenience” association with traditional food in Central Europe [21]. Concerning the specific phenomenological nature of food causing an interpretivist perception by each consumer, verbal associations or common interviews and focus groups are being substituted with photo-elicitation methods, more general qualitative photo analysis, or photo sorting according to perceived healthiness of traditional food compared to modern [22]. Former sociological research recommends the usage of visual qualitative analysis for food since food preparation and consumption is embodied and rather connected with a tacit than explicit dimensions [23]. The elaborated technique of photo-elicitation can be used either for one-to-one in-depth interviews or focus groups [24–26]. Whilst photo-elicitation is usually considered as a method of interpretative phenomenological analysis [27], for our research, the PhotoElicitation Focus Group (PEFG) approach is employed to obtain new proposals, especially based on the experts’ knowledge. This had been one of the first purposes to use photo-elicitation [28], and it can be utilized for “knowledge expansion” [23]. Previously published research using Photo-Elicitation Interviews (PEI) or PEFG in the Czech Republic is hardly to be found, but worldwide, many studies employed the PEI/PEFG approach in food research. Mostly, it is used to explore alimentary patterns in families, and it can incorporate capturing pictures by interviewers themselves [29]. These eating aspects are often related to health issues connected with local food as an

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outcome [30]. Objects of the research for PEI can be local food, as mentioned above, or globalized articles, e.g., Starbucks’ products [31]. Most of the studies employing PEI/PEFG have in common that they deal with consumers’ perceptions, in some cases including their social status and possible trajectories in social fields [32]. The contribution of our study is in the inclusion of the suppliers’ point of view – the sellers of traditional food, respectively, the experts’ PEFG. As mentioned above, culinary events are an indispensable part of cultural tourism since the offer of food is often traditional and accompanied by various cultural programs. Therefore, there is the importance of questioning the possibility of PEI/PEFG usage in tourism. PEI/PEFG can be used as a triangulation technique when conducting qualitative methodology in tourism research, for example, when interviewing tourists, especially when their experience is to be collected [33]. In the tourism field, PEFG was used to explore a small island destination – Aruba – in particular, the residents’ point of view of authenticity. The results showed their perceptions to be phenomenological, connected with culture and lifestyle. The importance of cultural tourism was underlined [34]. An analogical approach using PEI with residents was used in the Himalayas for classification of changes caused by humans in tourism destinations [35]. In some of the cases, the photographs captured by the researched agents themselves were used [36]. One of the rare studies dealt with the attitudes of food tourists using PEFG, showing regional food or regional restaurants as top choices amongst the participants. Research showed that food festivals were chosen mostly by experienced food tourists [37].

3 Research Methodology The aims of this paper were (i) to identify the innovations in traditional food at culinary events in the Czech Republic, (ii) to classify these emerging innovation aspects, and (iii) to explore the attitudes of experts and visitors towards these innovative aspects. For fulfilling the aims, a qualitative photo-based analysis approach was used in each phase. For the aim (i), 92 culinary events from March 2018 until March 2020 were visited in the Czech Republic. During the visits, 1551 photographs were captured, containing all stands with a detailed structure of every food and beverage offered. Photographs contained accompanying cultural programs including folklore performances, traditional clothes, tools and gastronomical equipment, fish harvests, pig slaughters, and other cultural expositions. Most of the events were with prevailing ethnographic and traditional character, but modern culinary events were visited as well. All the visited culinary events were promoted across the Czech Republic to attract not just residents, but tourists from other Czech regions or foreign tourists as well. The photo-based analysis was initiated by the coding of each image. Different codes were assigned to images to distinguish between ingredients as such, already prepared dishes and images that did not contain any food. Various codes for different dishes enabled to remove duplicities when there were more pictures of the same ingredient/food from more events. For the recognition of the duplicities offood offered on the stands, there must have been the same appearance of food as well as the same name of the food. The name of the food could be easily read from the price lists. Duplicities, pictures of very low quality, or photographs with no content of food were removed from the analysis.

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To maintain standardization and reliability in the process, the coding was done by three research workers. A very high consensus in coding was achieved (95.01%) with a high value of Krippendorff’s alpha (0.81) [38]. Initial coding by researchers narrowed the set of further analyzed photographs to a total number of 412. Each food contained within the set of 412 pictures was compared with the traditional food in an existing database of traditional food operated by Silesian University in Opava, Faculty of Philosophy and Science. This database is where historians collect and provide a traditional food list using historical archives, historical cooking books, and other sources. The list usually encompasses the description and photographs of traditional food, so the photographs from events could be easily compared with the university list. Based on the above-mentioned comparison, it was possible to exclude the modern or foreign dishes from the set as well as the traditional food in its original appearance (i.e., with no innovation aspects); therefore, the total number of 88 photographs containing traditional food with innovative aspects was achieved. Even in this phase, sorting was done by three researchers resulting in high consensus (84.55%) with a relatively high value of Krippendorff’s alpha (0.73) [38]. The last separation of photos was used for the reduction of duplicities within 88 photographs, which led to a final set of 35 pictures of unique and distinguishable traditional food with innovative aspects. To fulfill aim (ii), therefore, to create a classification of emerging innovations in traditional food, 8 Czech chefs that have experience in the cooking of traditional Czech food were remotely asked to visit a shared folder on-line, where 35 images were placed. They had to propose categories of innovation aspects together with choosing the most typical food representing each category. After receiving required answers, final categorization was made, and for standardization of following presentations during PEFGs, the typical dishes for each category were prepared in the laboratory kitchen of The Institute of Hospitality Management in Prague, Department of Hotel Management. Five categories of innovation aspects were established with food cooked in pairs for each category. Each pair consisted of traditional and innovative version. To fulfill aim (iii), two PEFGs were conducted, first with the same eight chefs and second with eight regular Czech traditional food consumers who visit culinary festivals across the Czech Republic. Table 1 (see Results and Discussion) was presented to both groups to obtain an elaborated phenomenological description of innovation aspects. Therefore, PEFG was used for knowledge expansion [28]. Discussion content covered the processing-technology point of view (for chefs), the serving issues (for visitors), perceived level of innovativeness, perceived level of Czech authenticity, and possible links to tourism potential. Willingness to participate in tourism activities including visits at culinary festivals with some of the examined innovations were mostly discussed. Each PEFG took 120 min and was sound-recorded, followed by a verbatim transcription. PEFGs were semi-standardized with the above-mentioned scenario of topics, but with an opportunity of participants to add arbitrary information. For both focus groups, the verbal association method was used when presenting the images. Before the PEFGs, Grounded Theory [39] was used due to the creation of the classification of innovative aspects aposteriorically, after initial remote communication with the chefs.

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4 Results and Discussion Emerging innovative aspects in traditional Czech food at culinary events can be seen in Table 1, as classified by experts. It includes examples of traditional food or ingredients before innovation and traditional food from culinary events after innovation. We labeled the first innovative aspect as “reduction of portion sizes”. It is important to mention, that some of the Czech traditional dishes have been appearing in small portions for a long time; nonetheless, our examination includes only the newly emerging reduction of traditionally huge portions of dishes with bountiful side-dishes. The food sellers seek new ways of offers of traditional food that would be convenient for visitors at culinary events. Processing-technology newly employs frying of smaller fragmented portions in breadcrumbs, but in some cases, frying could have been used in traditional dishes before. A typical example of this category was the appearance of carp fries with dips, whilst traditional Czech food is carp fillet served with potato salad, i.e., food that is a vital part of Christmas dining eve in the Czech Republic. PEFGs results (Table 2) showed verbal associations as modern, attractive, crispy, tasty but, also fatty for carp fries in both groups. The chefs pointed out the convenience factor of fast preparation, the possibility of preparation throughout the year (not just during the Christmas) and ecological aspect as the carp fries are prepared from the fatty fish belly, which is normally considered as food waste. Simultaneously, the advantage of the absence of bones due to the use of the fish belly part was emphasized. The visitors saw carp fries as very easy-edible food with no cutlery needed for its enjoyment. A discrepancy was found out for the perceived level of authenticity. Although this food is completely innovative and it cannot be sorted as traditional Czech food, chefs perceived no level of innovation as the preparation has only slightly changed and they have already got used to its preparation. Contrarily, the visitors described the food as authentic regarding the ingredients, but modern concerning the design. During both PEFGs, the regionality of the dish was stressed as the carp fries were recently invented in the South Bohemian region, where annual fish harvests take place. Participants were convinced that carp fries are must-to-taste when visiting the South Bohemian region, and this food would most probably convince them to visit any culinary festival offering carp fries when attending to tourism activities in the region. Second of the innovation aspects can be labeled as “inclusion of edible food wrapper”. An example of traditional Czech food is “knedlo vepřo zelo” which is a nourishing dish containing potato dumplings, pork meat, and sauerkraut. Innovative modification frequently appearing at culinary events was the transformation of dumplings into a pocket that contained pork meat as well as sauerkraut, so normally separate parts of the dish were held together and could be easily eaten as canpés. By participants of both PEFGs, dumplings stuffed by “vepřo zelo” were identified as more attractive but possibly with worse taste dominated by dough taste. Whilst visitors believed in eating convenience during the culinary event, the chefs expressed their experience with the highly laborious process of preparation of stuffed dumplings. Since this food resembled other traditional Czech dishes, it was considered as low in the level of innovation. The dish was described as using old and well-known technology for slightly different food; therefore, it is still traditional and authentic. Unfortunately, no

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Table 1. Categories of innovation aspects and typical examples of innovative traditional Czech dishes at culinary events – as detected by experts and used for both PEFGs Innovation aspect

Original appearance of the traditional food/ingredients

Innovative appearance of the traditional food at culinary events

Carp in breadcrumbs, potato salad

Carp fries with dip

"Knedlo vepřo zelo"

Dumplings stuffed "vepřo zelo"

"Spanish bird"

"Spanish bird" soup

Pie of Chodsko

Quiche with cod and caviar

A. Reduction of portion sizes / portion fragmentation

B. Inclusion of edible food wrapper

C. Change to liquid state / soup creation

D. Visual imitation of traditional Czech food

Chocolate muffin with prunes, plum brandy, and Czech honey

E. Fortification with traditional Czech ingredient

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Innovation aspect (innovated food)

Experts’ PEFG results

Visitors’ PEFG results

A. Reduction of portion sizes (Carp fries) - verbal associations - level of innovation - level authenticity - tourism potential B. Inclusion of edible food wrapper (Stuffed dumplings) - verbal associations - level of innovation - level authenticity - tourism potential C. Change to liquid state (Spanish bird soup) - verbal associations - level of innovation - level authenticity - tourism potential D. Visual imitation (Cod quiche, caviar) - verbal associations

Easy to prepare, event food, all-day food, allyear food, ecological (use of all carp parts), boneless, beer pairing Modern, attractive, fatty, crispy, tasty Low Traditional Czech/authentic High: food of South Bohemian region Laborious, event food

Easy to eat, event food, no cutlery needed, finger food, tasting, canapé, boneless Medium Authentic ingredients, new food Easy to eat, event food, no cutlery needed, finger food

Attractive, worse taste, dough taste Low: old technology for different food Traditional Czech/authentic None: with no connection to particular region Easy to prepare, event food only, separate Easy to eat, event food, consumeringredients friendly Succulent, nourishing, funny High Czech ingredients, Asian appearance High: when applied to regional food Quick expiration

Attractive, innovative, liquid

unimportant for visitors, they were excited about appearance

Different, decorative, special

Different, deceptive, imitation, strange, incomparable - level of innovation Very high: different food None: different food - level authenticity Low None - tourism potential Medium: original pie is food of Chodsko region E. Fortification Viscosity, dried fruit, processing of plum unimportant for visitors, they were (Muffins with Czech brandy, pair with coffee excited about appearance ingredients) - verbal associations Unusual, fusion, dough taste Imitation, fusion, mixture, form and shape, unoriginal - level of innovation Medium - level authenticity Medium: resemble some traditional Czech food, but with foreign shape and foreign name - tourism potential Medium: vision of the potential None: attracted by originals only

potential for tourism was found due to the very low innovative level of the food as well as due to missing links to a particular locality or region. Agents of both PEFGs would not be attracted by culinary festivals offering such food when visiting a particular region because of the absence of a regionalism aspect.

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Innovative aspect labeled as “change to liquid state” was represented by cooking soup instead of the regular traditional dish in a solid-state. A typical example was the transformation of traditional Czech food “Spanish bird” into a soup. Although the name of the dish may not seem like a typically Czech, the history of this dish goes back to the 15th century, when Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, gave work to Spanish cooks at his court. In the Czech lands, the cooks created a roulade from beef meet filled with baked eggs, pickles, and pork fatback. The traditional side dish consists of dumplings made from bread rolls. The innovation of this dish in the form of soup includes all of the ingredients, but the bread rolls are prepared as croutons. According to experts, the food is easy to be prepared and was described as succulent and nourishing, whereas the visitors stressed the liquid state of traditional food and convenient eating. Both groups considered the dish to be highly innovative, causing funny and attractive appearance. An example is analogous to the first dish since the agents considered the ingredients used as authentic, but in a new shape resembling foreign food. No linkage to a particular region can be a drawback of “Spanish bird” soup compared to carp fries; nonetheless, all participants admitted they would be highly interested in tourism including visits of culinary events, where food with “change to liquid state” innovative aspect would be included and applied to any regional food too. Innovations mentioned above still included all of the typical Czech ingredients; however, another innovation aspect was rather copying the traditional Czech dish in its appearance; therefore, we labeled it as “visual imitation”. An example is traditional Czech pie coming from the Chodsko region, that contains curd cheese, poppy seeds, and plum butter. Imitation meant the adoption of the Chodsko pie appearance by foreign dish as quiche with cod and caviar, which causes that the authenticity of traditional Chodsko pie is being challenged. Significant differences in impressions of both groups were identified. Experts’ PEFG showed meaningful worries about the quick expiration of the dish, however a very high level of innovation with words as different, decorative, and special was acknowledged, but with a low level of Czech authenticity. Visitors found the dish to be deceptive. The product appeared to be traditional, but in reality, such imitation was incomparable with anything familiar and made them feel strange. The excitation of visitors was that high they did not admit any level of innovation as well as they did not pay any attention to service convenience. After their initial expressions of neophobia and elaborated explanation by the conducting researcher about the character of the presented dish, some of the agents decided to assign a medium tourism potential as they were willing to experience new dishes when visiting the culinary event. Compared to the carp fries or soup, where there can be possible foreign appearances, but all of the ingredients as well as the names of the dishes were Czech, the last innovative aspect “fortification”, better known as fusion cuisine, meant foreign dish with a foreign name, but fortified by several regional Czech ingredients. An example was the fortification of chocolate muffins with typical Czech plum brandy called “slivovice”, Czech prunes, and Czech honey. Experts mostly underlined the technological usage of plum brandy causing sparse viscosity of the dough and the inclusion of various types of dried fruits. In parallel with the “imitation” aspect, for “fortification”, the visitors were disturbed by the mixture of Czech ingredients together with foreign shape and name of the dish, which led to a medium level of authenticity as well as a

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medium level of innovation. Visitors were convinced that more admissible would be if the name and shape of the dish had remained typically Czech instead of fusion approach and imitation rendition causing unoriginality, therefore the dish is hard to be classified as Czech or foreign either. Again, this excitement about the strange appearance caused paying no attention to eating convenience during gastronomy events. Interestingly, chefs saw the inclusion of fusion cuisine and an unusual dough taste as an opportunity to bring new tourists to culinary events contrary to visitors that were attracted only by original food. Based on the results, if culinary tourism as a part of cultural tourism [2] should be successful, we consider the locality/regionality/authenticity component of dishes and ingredients as crucial. Only then the traditional food can significantly improve the attractiveness of tourism destination [7, 8] and encourage the tourists to visit culinary festivals. Our results have shown, that not just the traditional regional food in its original appearance could be attractive for visitors, as previous researches showed on the example of fish dishes in restaurants [13], but its innovative and “McDonaldized” appearance can be appealing tourism product as well, which can ensure an offer of previously huge portions of dishes unsaleable during culinary events. Nonetheless, the ubiquity of very new dishes does not seem to be fully justified. The consumers are attracted by innovative, but still traditional dishes, especially in terms of input ingredients; therefore, willingness to experiment seems to be lower when compared to beer festivals [3]. In particular, the visitors are highly interested in traditional regional food offered in a newly prepared innovative form that can resemble foreign food in appearance, by contrast, they are not willing to accept food appearing as a foreign dish with domestic ingredients since they consider such food as extremely innovative. If some chefs fancy more intensive innovations, our recommendation is to perform careful explanations to consumers in order to suppress the visitors’ neophobia. Experts’ conviction about consumers’ interest by adding domestic ingredients into foreign dishes does not seem to be potentially successful. Therefore, the reasonable level of innovation should be considered as “authentic experience” is demanded [11] over extreme innovations, which can be controversial [14], with neophobia manifestation as a result. Not all of the experimental technological procedures used by chefs meet the success from the side of the consumers, so more than anything else, a seek for a sensible balance between innovations (causing attractivity but loose of authenticity) and traditions (persisting authenticity but not increasing attractivity) seems to be the most important element [15–17].

5 Final Remarks Photo-based analysis employing the qualitative phenomenological approach can be an auxiliary tool for many purposes, including more general analysis of tourism products, but for identification of particular changes in offered products at the same time. Frequently neglected photo-elicitation in the tourism field (with some exceptions [33, 35]) seems to be a useful method for the exploration of stakeholders’ and consumers’/ visitors’ attitudes. It should be an indispensable part of the research, at least before the initiation of the representative quantitative part, extending one-to-one in-depth

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interviews [21]. As a focus group, it encourages the more elaborated discussion between agents. More to this, PEFG is capable of collecting knowledge from agents [23, 28]. The tourism field can be inspired by various studies comprising food as a part of gastronomy using PEI/PEFG [24–26]. In terms of gastronomy and tourism, PEFG is a beneficial approach for identifying differences between innovative and traditional dishes [22], especially due to the interpretative character of humans’ taste [23, 27]. Subsequent research could embrace the quantitative approach exploring the visitors’ attitudes towards innovative dishes at culinary events. It could incorporate the multi-disciplinary approach by using sensory evaluation of food appearing at culinary events. Acknowledgements. The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research of this paper: this article was supported by The Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic, project No. DG18P02OVV067 entitled Culinary Heritage of the Czech Lands: Memory, Presentation and Education.

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Neural Deep Learning Model to Characterize the Brand Perception in Insurance Corporate Advertising Brand Attributes to Create Travel Insurance Products Based on Sentiments Angelica Henao1, Carolina Panesso1, Alejandro Peña1(&), Alejandro Patiño1, and Joao Vidal Carvalho2 1

EIA University, Envigado 055413, Colombia {angelica.henao,carolina.panesso,juan.pena, hector.patino}@eia.edu.co 2 Polytechnic of Porto/CEOS.PP, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The evaluation of brand perception through corporate advertising is currently a challenge for companies since the effectiveness of traditional marketing methodologies depends on the ability of human interpretation, which can lead to un-objective perceptions. This paper proposes a methodology to characterize the brand perception for insurance companies based on a neuroscientific methodology which uses a series of electroencephalographic signals (EEG – Emotive Epoc R) that gather the brain activity of a set of people (from 18 to 25 years) subjected corporate advertising. For analysis of brand perception or brand attributes, the methodology incorporates a Stacked Deep Learning model which has a Softmax function to classify the EEG signal according to four basic emotions. The internal layers of neurons that make up the model were configured using an auto-encoder learning strategy. The methodology reached accuracy indices close to 90% against the classification of EEG signals in four categories or basic emotions. These results allowed to characterize the brand attributes, establishing the general methodology to create novel travel insurance products for an insurance company based on emotions and taking as reference a scale of affinity according to the perceptions that an individual recognized in a set of corporate guidelines selected for this study. Keywords: Brand perception
Emotional patterns
Brand attributes
Machine learning
EEG signals
Neural networks
Travel insurance products

1 Introduction 1.1

Problem and Framework

The evaluation of brand perception through corporate advertising is currently a challenge for companies based only in the use of traditional marketing methods. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 434–447, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_37

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According to [1], the effectiveness in brand perception depends on the ability and willingness of people to interpret and detail their level of involvement and affinity for the information to which they are exposed. This makes organizations have biased and limited evaluations that hinder the design and execution of marketing strategies aimed at brand perception in line with their communication strategy. Therefore, the characterization of brand perception through corporate guidelines using non-traditional marketing methods based on the principles of computational intelligence, becomes an innovative tool for organizations, since these facilitate the creation of effective and objective communication strategies according to what consumers really perceive [2]. 1.2

Background

For the characterization of brand perception through corporate guidelines using nontraditional methods, in the literature, two general development trends focused mainly on the study of emotional affinity for the identification of emotional patterns and brand attributes can be clearly identified. A first development trend focuses on the use of traditional market methods for the identification of different brand values in corporate advertising. Here, [3] evaluated the existence of brand values in food advertising using surveys adjusted by numerical and graphic representations, where through a protocol of reception tests the accuracy of the tool (survey) and the adjustment to the subjective perception of the groups of receptors studied; [4], conducted a study focused on the identification of 32 social values in print advertising using a multidimensional scaling technique (MDS), which allowed studying the similarity and affinity relationships between the same values; finally, [5] determined the relationship between the intrinsic values of a sample of 823 adolescents and the values perceived in certain television programs, using the Schwartz model that statistically was validated through a multidimensional analysis where television is an influential communication agent around the moral of things (what is right or wrong). This development trend clearly shows the importance of affinity in the evaluation of brand perception using different methods and methodologies. A second development trend focuses on the use of neuroscientific methods to assess audio-visual affinity, where [6] used a series of neuro-scientific methods, where through neural networks and vector models based on the principles of computational intelligence, they evaluated emotional affinity through the classification of emotional patterns identified in audio-visual advertising, taking as reference the brain bioelectric activity (EEG signals) of a group of individuals, achieving effectiveness up to 97%. For its part, [7] achieved from a set of multimodal data (DEAP) and EEG signals and using discrete wavelet transformation, with the goal to extract the most important statistical characteristics of emotions that were then classified through an hybrid improved neural network with two training algorithms, one called PSO and another called “Cuckoo”, achieving accuracy values greater than 95%. This development trend shows two relevance papers in this field, which use a series of EEG signals and computational intelligence models to assess audio-visual affinity in different advertisings.

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Proposed Model and Results

According to the second development trend, we propose a neuronal model with deep learning structure in order to characterize the brand perception in corporate advertising from a series of EEG signals obtained from the brain activity of a set of individuals exposed to two advertising guidelines of an insurance company, (e.g. one of an informative nature and the other with an emotional nature) [8]. The proposed model has a SoftMax function to characterize four brand attributes (e.g. Latin, Expert, Reliable, Close and Dynamic) based on four basic emotions (e.g. Joy, Anger, Fear and Sadness) perceived by a person subjected to these corporate advertising [9]. The internal structure of the proposed model is composed of a sequence of MADALINE neural layers which were configured based on an auto-encoder learning strategy [10, 11], where the input data was defined by 14-EEG signals related with the electrodes that make up the EMOTIV – EPOC R device (14 electrodes). The results show that the model allows to characterize different brand attributes in terms of a combination of four basic emotions [12]. In general, the model reached accuracy indices above 90% on average in the classification of basic emotions, which allows to characterize the brand attributes as a combination of this emotions in a better way. In general, the results show that the model was able to characterize a corporate advertising based on a combination of brand attributes, becoming an effective methodology for creating novel travel insurance products, in the same way as the papers presented by [13]. In this way, the paper is organized as follows: one section that describes the case study, the specific company that was evaluated, the selected sample, the characterization of the input variables, the form in which the data were obtained and the structure of the model that was formed by a series of neural networks and auto-encoder Stacked Deep Learning Models (ASDLM), configuring a structure by deep learning [14] (Sect. 2). Section 3 presents the metrics used for the effective measurement of learning and classification of emotional patterns, as well as brand attributes, while Sect. 4 describes the steps necessary for the implementation of the model. In Sect. 5, the most relevant results obtained in accordance with each of the configuration and learning phases described in Sect. 4 are presented, and finally, Sect. 6 shows the most relevant conclusions and recommendations found in this studio.

2 Methodology The automatic identification of brand attributes in corporate advertising based on emotional patterns suggests a challenge from the technological ones, for which the following methodology is proposed. 2.1

Case of Study

To identify the perception of the brand attributes in corporate advertising, an insurance company from the financial sector and two of its current corporate guidelines were chosen (Informative & Emotional) (Table 1). These corporate advertisings were

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characterized according to expert judgment (four experts) taking as reference the brand attributes of the company (e.g. Latin, Expert, Reliable, Close and Dynamic). A corporate video was available for each brand attribute (Table 1). For the characterization of these brand attributes, four basic emotions were selected (e.g. Joy, Anger, Fear and Sadness) based on GAPED (Geneva Affective Picture Database) that is composed of 730 images classified according to valence and excitation and that can be separated into the four basic emotions [15, 16]. These GAPEDs images allowed the creation of four emotional patterns, for which a video of emotions was created. For this study, a set of four individuals (from 18 to 25 years) were subjected to the set of stimuli defined by Table 1. Each stimulus was characterized through a series of electroencephalographic signals (EEG – 14 fixed electrodes) that gather the brain activity of an individual using a BCI device (Brain-Computer Interface) of EMOTIV EPOC® series [17, 18]. The frequency of sampling for this device was defined for 128 Hz, which allow characterizing videos and advertisings in terms of several records.

Table 1. Audiovisual stimuli - number of records per stimuli Audiovisual stimuli Video of the emotions Video of expert attribute Video of reliable attribute Video of dynamic attribute Video of close attribute Video of Latin-American attribute Informative advertising Emotional advertising

2.2

Number of records 73,278 76,000 24,000 28,000 44,000 56,000 7,000 4,000

Neural Stacked Deep Learning for Brand Perception

For the characterization of brand perception, in a first stage, we proceeded to characterize each brand attribute in terms of four basic sensations or GAPED patterns, based on a cognitive model structure as shown in the Fig. 1. The cognitive structure has two stages: Identification of emotions (Stage 1: Brand Characterization), Brand configuration (Stage 2: Advertising Characterization). Autoencoder Stacked Deep Learning Model. According with the structure of the EEG signals (14-electrodes) used to characterize a visual stimuli, a neuronal model with a series of stacked autoencoder layers with a MADALINE structure was proposed [19]. This stacked structure allowed the sequential compression of the 14-signals to identify the main characteristics or stimuli patterns (Compression Structure). The input data for this model was defined by a Hamming window strategy as shown in Table 2, taking as reference the records that describe each video (Table 1).

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Fig. 1. Cognitive model structure Table 2. Input data structure

i (Sample) k (Hamming number)

Emotions

Attributes

[1 : 1 : 14000] [1 : 1 : 72]

[1 : 1 : 12000] 1 : 1 : 451

Informative advertising [1 : 1 : 7000]

Emotional advertising [1 : 1 : 7000]

[1 : 1 : 27]

[1 : 1 : 15]

The auto-encoder neuronal stacked deep learning model can be expressed: xi;k;o ¼ Cj;i;k :hj;k

ð1Þ

wj;i;k ¼ wj;i;k þ a : Cj;i;k :xi;k;i

ð2Þ

Where: xi;k;i , xi;k;o : Input and output signals, i: Number of electrodes multiplied by the number of records of each Hamming window. k: Size of sampling period for each i signal. j: Number of neurons to compress the information. Cj;i;k : Weights output connections. The input and output connections can be updated using the Generalized delta rule as following [10]: Cj;i;k ¼ Cj;i;k þ a : hj;k

ð3Þ

wj;i;k ¼ wj;i;k þ a : Cj;i;k : xi;k;i

ð4Þ

Where: a: Learning factor. The internal layers that make up the model were configure an auto-encoder learning strategy [20].

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Brand Characterization Deep Learning Model. For the classification of brand attributes in terms of four basics emotions (e.g. Joy, Anger, Fear and Sadness), and according to the compress on the EEG signals carried out by the stacked auto-encoder structure aforementioned in the previous section, the structure of the deep learning classification model can be expressed as following [21, 22] (Fig. 2):

Fig. 2. Deep learning classification model

The characterization of brand attributes was supported in the identification of basic emotions using a hard limiter activation function [23], which is denoted and defined as following (Stage 1: Brand Characterization): yrk;np ¼ 0;

ysk \0

ð5Þ

yrk;np ¼ 0;

ysk \0

ð6Þ

ysk;np ¼ Cjo ;np : hjo

ð7Þ

Where: np: Indicates the number of emotional, which are defined in the Table 3. jo : Indicates the number of neurons that make up the fully connected layer (FCL) or output layer. Table 3. Neural network output – emotions Emotion Joy Anger Fear Sadness

yrk,1 1 0 0 0

yrk,2 0 1 0 0

yrk,3 0 0 1 0

yrk,4 0 0 0 1

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For the brand classification, the second substructure that defines the proposed model was defined in terms of a SoftMax function. This function can be expressed (Stage 2: Advertising Characterization) [24]: 1 1 þ eysk ( ) ysk;np np ¼ max Pno j¼1 ysk;j ysk;np ¼

ð8Þ ð9Þ

Where: np: Represents the number of brand attributes. Each brand attribute is made up of a combination four basic emotions, that is gather for a np − SoftMax function. 2.3

Metrics

For the analysis and validation of the proposed model against the corporate advertisings (identification and characterization guidelines), the following metrics were used [25]: – Index of Compression: According to [26], the index of agreement provides information about the linear relationship between two variables. This metric was used to check if the output of the two models was correlated with their expected output, which gave indications of the good performance of deep learning networks in both compression and signal classification. qx;y ¼

rx;y rx : ry

ð10Þ

Where: qx;y : Is the co-variance between x and y; rx : Is the standard deviation of x; ry : Is the standard deviation of y. – Mean square error (e2k ): Indicates the mean of square error between the network output and the expected output in a model. e2k ¼

2 1 Xnd  yd  ys k;np k;np k¼1 2

ð11Þ

Where: k: Number of windows for each EEG signal used to configure the model. ydk;np : Indicates the general value of reference for k window for the np pattern or brand attribute. – Accuracy Index (acc i): Measures the effectiveness of the model in terms of the number of errors with respect to the total data evaluated. acc i ¼

VP þ FP NDT

Where: FP: False positives, VP: True positives. NDT: Total number of data.

ð12Þ

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441

Experimental Validation

For the analysis and validation of the proposed model, it was proceeded in the first instance to create a database with a set of stimuli for learning emotional patterns and a database with a set of brand attributes (Table 1). Later, we proceeded with the capture of brain activity for the set of individuals (from 18 to 25) exposed to videos available for this study. The EEG signal were subjected to a centralization and a normalization process using a linear method, as well as windowing Hamming process, throwing as a result of 72 windows makes up of 1.000 records for emotion, 451 windows of 1.000 records for attributes, 27 windows of 500 records for informational advertising and 15 windows of 500 records for emotional advertising (Table 2). The structure of the auto-encoder stacked deep learning model was configured in order to reduce the dimensionality of the signals of emotions (14,000-100-80), brand attributes (12,000-200-100-80) and corporate guidelines (7,000-100-80). An IOA greater than 90% and a result for the mse of less than 5  10−3 in each phase of the reduction will expect. For the classification of the basic sensations, FCL was configured for 80 input neurons, 4 output neurons, 10 hidden neurons, a = 0.001 and 1000 iterations. Here, its expected an IOA close to 90%, an error less than 5  10−3 and with an accuracy in the classification greater than 75% for the test data was expected. These values were also established by the FCL based on the Softmax structure. Then, with the results of the weights of the deep learning networks, the set of emotional patterns that define each brand attribute and subsequently, the set of attributes that make up each corporate guidelines were determined [27]. Finally, to establish a scale that would allow each individual in the sample to be located at a level of perception given the brand attributes perceived in each corporate guideline, some studies of the company chosen for the case study were analyzed in which each of the brand attributes was rated according to its relevance on perception.

3 Analysis and Discussion of Results The Table 4 shows the results given by the proposed model against the identification of the basic emotions videos available for this study. Here, the proposed model is made up by three compression layers and a has a hard limiter function, which reached IOAs above 95% on average as a result of an auto-encoder learning process, with e2k \5:103 , which also shows the good performance of the model in this stage of the brand characterization. Table 4. Auto-encoder parameters for identification emotions Layers

NE

NO a

e2k

IOA

Layer 1 14,000 – 100 14,000 100 0.00001 2.9261E − 05 99.9% Layer 2 100 – 80 100 80 0.00001 3.38E − 27 100% Layer 3 80 – 70 80 70 0.00001 0.074036 99%

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Regarding the FCL against the classification of basic emotions, this good performance can be evidenced through acc i, which reached a value above 80% on average, taking as reference a set of 72 basic emotions described in Table 2, just as the Eq. (13) shows. acci ¼

64 ¼ 88:8% 72

ð13Þ

Regarding the attributes characterization, Table 5 shows the configuration of brand attributes based on four basic emotions. The model was configured of three autoencoder layers and a SoftMax activation function. In general, the model achieved an IOA above 95% on average as a result of an auto-encoder learning strategy, similar to the behaviour exhibited by the model in the previous analysis. In this way, the FCL layer was configured using 30,000 iterations, 10 hidden neurons and an a = 0.001. Table 5. Auto-encoder parameters for attributes and metrics NE

NO a

Layer 1 12,000 – 200 12,000 200 0.00001 Layer 2 200 – 100 200 100 0.00001 Layer 3 100 – 80 100 80 0.0001 FCL 80 10 0.001

e2k

IOA

0.00027 0.00027 0.00013 3.4  e−6

99.9% 99.99% 100% 94.23%

Taking as reference the number of brand attributes defined by this study (Table 1), the proposed model reached an acc i above of 80% (82.2%) on average, which evidence the good performance of the model to predict brand attributes in general (Eq. (14)). acci ¼

370 ¼ 82:2% 451

ð14Þ

According to the SoftMax activation function that make up the FCL structure (Eq. (8), Eq. (9)), Fig. 6 shows the composition of brand attributes based on four basic emotions defined by this study, and taking into account a total of 451 patterns (Table 2) (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Emotional composition brand attributes

As it can be observed, although in each of the brand attributes some emotions prevail over others, in general, each one is composed of a combination of emotional patterns that exclude do not. According to emotional and informative guidelines, Fig. 4 shows the configuration of advertisings based on the brand attributes and the set of individuals defined for this study. Is important to note that for emotional advertising the highest percentages were reached by the attributes of Dynamic and Expert, while for informative advertising, the highest percentages were reached by the attributes of Expert and Latin American, which agrees with the attributes that the insurance company wants to communicate.

Fig. 4. Brand attributes recognition - emotional advertising

According to the basic emotions, Fig. 6 shows the percentage composition of corporate advertisings taking as reference the basic emotions. In general, it can be observed that each corporate advertising shows a non-homogeneous composition regarding the basic emotions, which does not allow a good characterization of corporate guidelines, which reinforces the importance of brand attributes against corporate advertising characterization (Stage 2) (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Brand attributes recognition - informative advertising

For its part, the combination of brand attributes recognized by each of the individuals becomes highly relevant in the definition of the perception of corporate advertising, because based on different studies of brand tracking carried out by the company in question and the needs of the segment or sample, it was possible to prioritize some attributes over others according to the effect of each of them on perception. The following order of importance was obtained from 1 (less important) to 5 (more important). Figure 6 also shows the individual perception against Informative advertising. Here, the characterization is defined by a combination of attributes such as reliable, close and experienced above dynamics and Latin America, this can be placed in a perception range superior to the extent that it is more aligned with the current brand communication strategy as shown in Table 6.

Fig. 6. Emotional pattern recognition - emotional advertising

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Table 6. Level of perception by individual - informative advertising

S1 S2 S3 S4

Expert (4.1) 0% 10% 39% 0%

Reliable (4.3) 0% 0% 0% 0%

Close (4.25) 0% 0% 0% 0%

Dynamic (3.75) 0% 0% 0% 83%

Latin-America (1.65) 100% 0% 61% 17%

Grade 1.7 4.1 2.6 3.4

4 Conclusions and Future Work The proposed model allowed to characterize the brand attributes in corporate advertising for an insurance company based on the identification and classification of emotional patterns using neuro-scientific methods and EEG signals. For its adaptive structure, the proposed model can be extended to characterize different brand attributes, setting up a general tool to characterized brand attributes in corporate advertising. This methodology can be extended to configure novel travel insurance products for people who travel to different tourist destinations around the world based on emotions. The proposed model integrates in a single structure two stages to characterize the brand perception in corporate advertising (Fig. 1). A first stage is defined by the characterization of brand attributes based on four basic emotions, while a second stage is defined by the characterization of advertising based on the brand attributes defined by the company. Here, the Softmax function allowed to identify the configuration the corporate guidelines (Informative and Emotional) as a combination of band attributes. The quality of the results of the model are influenced by technical aspects of the EMOTIV EEG helmet, so it is recommended to calibrate it before starting the study and capture the signals in an isolated place. Additionally, given that the model is very sensitive to inputs, the choice of adequate differential stimuli for both emotional patterns and brand attributes, would further enhance effective learning and hence classification of these attributes and patterns. The results produced by the model for the characterization of the perception of corporate advertising of the company under study, allowed us to ingest whether or not a person is aligned with what the company wishes to transmit to its customers in a given moment - brand communication strategy. However, these results are not generalizable to the rest of the public even if they belong to the same segment (young people aged 18 to 25) due to the number of individuals that were used to carry out the experiment, so it is recommended to expand the sample in order to find patterns within said segment.

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Augmented Reality Applied to the Tourism in Churches of the Historic Center of Quito Morelva Saeteros(&)

, Marcela Saavedra and Gustavo Caiza

, Cristian Molina

,

Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, UPS, 170146 Quito, Ecuador {csaeteros,msaaveedra,cmolinac,gcaiza}@ups.edu.ec

Abstract. Augmented Reality (AR) is a technology that combines the real world with a virtual object in 2 or 3 dimensions. It is related to a real environment that contains virtual objects of different forms, including images, videos and audios. Such technology is being currently utilized in the tourism industry with the purpose of promoting and improving the tourist experience. The application developed enables the user to interact and manipulate objects using a mobile device to know about the place that the user wishes to visit, the location, the features and a photo gallery of each church, for which Vuforia, Unity and Visual Studio were utilized. Results show that the application offers a new tourist experience and makes the visits and tours more enjoyable, providing attractive, informative and interactive means to the tourist. Keywords: Augmented Reality


Vuforia
Unity
Tourism

1 Introduction The technological development and the popularity of mobile devices, the increasing availability of Wi-Fi in all places, smartphones and tablets [1, 2]. All this is changing the way in which people access to information and this positively influences in different areas, with the tourism being one of them. In such area, the use of the technology may be applied as a guide for tourists [3]. In 1978 Quito was declared a Cultural Patrimony of the Humanity by the UNESCO because it conserves one of the most dynamic historic centers of Latin America [4], and in addition, it has a great number of domestic and foreign tourists, which may be 545000 yearly, whereby the need arises for showing visitors the most important places of the city, as is the case of the Historic Center [5]. One of the main attractions are the churches which have structures very ancient and full of history. In addition, the tourism industry has become a gateway to reactivate the economy of the city. Tourism has improved the development of countries worldwide, producing a broad employment rate, directly or indirectly [6]. One of the technologies that is considerably growing in this area is augmented reality [7], which is related to a real environment that contains virtual objects of different forms, including images, videos and audios [8]. The objective with these tools is to improve the tourist experience having access to valuable information, such as a guide of the place being visited, and improve the knowledge and perception about a © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 448–457, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_38

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tourist attraction or a destination [9, 10]. AR offers many possibilities for interaction, and consequently it is present in many fields such as architecture, entertainment, education, art or medicine [11]. It also improves the way in which the user may interact with the physical world, adding information that is utilized to advertise tourist objects in a more effective and attractive manner [12, 13]. The purpose of this work is the development of an application based on AR in order to promote tourism in the city of Quito; the app shows information where users may interact and choose the church they wish to visit, displaying relevant information such as location, opening hours, history, photos, etc., in a fast and intuitive manner. The paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 describes preliminary concepts and the methodology utilized; Sect. 3 shows the design of the application, Sect. 4 presents the results and, at last, Sect. 5 includes the conclusions.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Augmented Reality in Tourism

AR technology has been widely used in a variety of fields, including education, engineering, entertainment, advertising, tourism and television broadcast. Tourism, as one of the most productive economic activities worldwide, has the potential of obtaining great benefits from the AR technology [14, 15]. Therefore, it is considered as a technique that stimulates the senses with data generated by means of computers, such as graphics, video, text and GPS that are captured from the camera, mobile phone or any other device [9]. It enables including additional information in two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D) combining real-time environments. This technology is utilized in the tourism industry to offer a new experience to the tourists, so that they can access additional information and interact with the application in real-time [12, 16]. One of the traditions in the tourist sector is providing visitors with printed media, brochures, travel guides, audios, videos, advertising [17]; at present applications with AR are utilized to find the destination to visit with greater ease, creating new multi-media systems that improve reality and experience with an additional digital layer over people, addresses and relevant tourist places which would impossible otherwise [18, 19]. Augmented reality is a system that has three main features, namely: the combination of real and virtual aspects, interactivity in real time and support for 3D representation [20]. In tourism, AR may be utilized to provide its advantages and features in this area (see Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Design tourism App

2.2

Vuforia

Vuforia is a software development kit (SDK) for mobile devices in AR applications, which provides detection and follow-up of image objectives by means of the use of feature detection. Vuforia provides an Application Programming Interface (API) in C++, Java, Objective-C and .Net languages, through an extension of the Unity game engine [12]. 2.3

Unity

Unity is a graphic engine which is utilized to construct scalable applications and enables creating multiple platforms with the same code base [9]. It is known as a development engine or multiplatform game engine that may be executed in mobile devices, web browsers, desktop computers and consoles, thus it supports systems such as Windows, Mac, Android and others. Unity 3D is created using the C++ programming, and is also compatible with other programming languages such as JavaScript and C# [3].

3 Design The development of this document initiates with a research about the tourism in the historic center of the city of Quito, obtaining data about the 7 crosses. The collection of the statistical antecedents is based on text, image, video, legends and history reports, and consequently the users requirement diagram is designed with its possible solutions that include the test phase in an application for Android, designing a tourist map with markers and virtual objects, which has influence on the implementation and user tests. This can be observed in the research model of Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Research model

For the development of the AR application it was utilized a computer with the following tools: Unity which enables designing the graphical environment; Visual Studio Community which enables programming in C language for creating various screens; Vuforia Development which generates the object recognition and Android Studio which enables the creation of an application suitable for installation in a mobile device compatible with Android (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Graphical design of the app.

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3.1

Image Recognition

For this case it was utilized an analysis through Vuforia Scanner, which acts as a marker, i.e. as a surface for recognizing 3D objects. When employing the Vuforia scanner application, the camera recognizes the marker present in the image of a quick response (QR) code, identifies the recognition patterns of the element, and when focusing it displays a graphical environment of the map with the location of the seven crosses of the historic center of Quito. 3.2

Configuration of the Application

Unity and Vuforia enable performing the recognition of 2D and 3D images, and the buttons and animations are programmed using Visual Studio, as seen in Fig. 5. The buttons enable accessing the different scenarios of the application, and enable opening each interface of the chosen church depending on the button pressed; each scene corresponds to a created window that contains information of 3D objects, texts, 2D analysis, images and buttons, which will be executed when the APK is generated, with the final state being the complete ending of the application, where no register is kept about locations in the tourist scene. This is clearly seen in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Graphical design of the app.

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In what follows it is shown the development of the application according to the flow diagram of Fig. 4, and enables browsing between scenes created for each church, which contain information that provides an idea prior to the visit, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Scene of the church “LA COMPAÑIA” developed with the application AR-Unity.

Once the application is finalized, all scenes are included in the platform, each corresponding to a created window that contains information in scripts, 3D shapes, texts, 2D analysis, objects, images and buttons, which will be executed when the APK is generated.

4 Results After the application was designed, tests of its operation are carried out. The application can be downloaded from Play Store. Initially the QR code is scanned and thereafter it is displayed an image containing all the churches in the historic center, enabling users to interact according to their interest. This can be seen in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Main screen of the app.

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Afterwards, the user can click on any of the churches and the 3D modeling will be displayed in the screen, and it will be played in the video section. Fig. 7 shows the screen obtained after clicking on the button “Ubication”, which will automatically display information from Google Maps.

Fig. 7. Screen of Location of the church

In order to validate the application, a survey was conducted with the purpose of obtaining an approval rate about the suitability, scalability and interactivity of the application. The issue is understanding the evaluation algorithm offered by Vuforia SDK about the features of each standard image. As a first aspect it is analyzed the type of image recognition selection and it is pointed out the variation of the user rating of each scene within the platform, as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Vuforia validation by selected destination. Image of destination Iglesia del Carmen Alto Iglesia La Compañía Iglesia La Concepción Iglesia Santa Bárbara Capilla de San Lázaro Iglesia El Sagrario Iglesia La Catedral

Selection type User rating Object in 3D 5 stars Object in 2D and 3D 4 stars Object in 3D 3 stars Simple Image 4 stars Simple Image 3 stars Object in 2D and 3D 5 stars Simple Image 5 stars

Percentage (%) 100% 96% 88% 95% 79% 100% 93%

The survey was conducted with the application available in smartphones and printed documents, involving 50 tourists chosen by means of random sampling, 32 of which were foreign aged between 22 and 75 year and 18 were domestic aged between

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16 and 56 year. It was verified an acceptance of 93% regarding the operation of the app as an interactive medium for tourism in the historic center of Quito, being an environment that provides tourist information, ludic illustrations and versatility in the user experience; this can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Validation of the application. Questions

Agree

Disagree

¿Is the app friendly with the user? ¿Is the location shown accurately? ¿Are the history and photo gallery necessary information? ¿Does it detect the QR code in an efficient manner? ¿Does the image of the app adapt well to the phone screen?

50 47 41

0 3 9

Percentage (%) 100% 94% 82%

50 45

0 5

100% 90%

Since it is considered to perform the assessment and interpretation of the pilot version, the established hypotheses were taken into account regarding the use of AR as a benefit in guided and non-guided mobile tourism, concluding that it enabled in an excellent manner: a) To find information about important facts and historic events of the visited places. b) To improve the tourist itinerary, resulting in a good user experience regarding opening hours, related activities, addresses, map guide, images and 3D modeling. At last, it was obtained a feedback from the users with the objective of having a better perception about their opinions with respect to the use of AR technologies in the implementation of tourist activities, benefits and key points, in order to try to improve the pilot version, as shown in Table 3. Table 3. Comments received to improve the pilot version No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Feedback Extend the application to visit museums and restaurants It is interesting to read the curious data and know which places to visit The addresses and maps are of great help The 3D modeling is amazing The tourists can manage by themselves with the help of the application The persons require a guide to interact with Looking for information by oneself may be exhausting

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5 Conclusions Augmented reality is a technology applied in the tourist industry which enables representing 2D and 3D objects and audio, to improve tourist experience and make it more pleasant, providing media more attractive, informative and interactive for the tourist. The user may download the app for free, and it will enable the interaction as an additional guide of the churches in the historic center. The results of the application show that augmented reality may be utilized to increase the tourist experience providing additional and relevant information. The application had a functionality of 100% and an acceptance of 93% in a conducted survey, in which also a feedback to improve the application was obtained.

References 1. Hu, P.Y., Tsai, P.F.: Mobile outdoor augmented reality project for historic sites in Tainan. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Advanced Materials for Science and Engineering Innovation Science and Engineering IEEE-ICAMSE 2016, pp. 509–511 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAMSE.2016.7840184 2. De La Nube Aguirre Brito, C.: Augmented reality applied in tourism mobile applications. In: 2015 2nd International Conference on eDemocracy eGovernment, ICEDEG 2015, pp. 120– 125 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEDEG.2015.7114484 3. Kurniawan, D.E., Dzikri, A., Suriya, M., Rokhayati, Y., Najmurrokhman, A.: Object visualization using maps marker based on augmented reality. In: Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Application and Engineering, ICAE 2018 (2018). https://doi. org/10.1109/INCAE.2018.8579411 4. Najas, R.T.: Repensar el patrimonio: el caso del Centro Histórico de Quito. Rev. del Patrim. Cult. del Ecuador, vol. 96 (2014) 5. Yánez, D.V., Díaz, Q., Marcillo, D.: Aplicación Móvil Para Apoyar Al Turismo Del Centro Histórico De Quito, Utilizando Realidad Aumentada Y Geolocalización, p. 10 (2014) 6. Llerena, J., Andina, M., Grijalva, J.: Mobile application to promote the Malecón 2000 tourism using augmented reality and geolocation. In: Proceedings of - 3rd International Conference Information System and Computational Science INCISCOS 2018, vol. 2018, pp. 213–220 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/INCISCOS.2018.00038 7. Cassar, L.B., Inguanez, F.: ARC: augmented reality for catering. In: IEEE International Conferene on Consumer Electronics - Berlin, ICCE-Berlin, vol. 2018, pp. 7–11 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCE-Berlin.2018.8576165 8. Nusawat, P., Kwangsawad, A., Saikatikorn, N.: “Cultural Tourism Web Service via Augmented Reality for Public Relations in Prachuapkhirikhan Province, TIMES-iCON 2019–2019 4th Technol. Innov. Manag. Eng. Sci. Int. Conf. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ TIMES-iCON47539.2019.9024571 9. Katkuri, P.K., Mantri, A., Anireddy, S.: Innovations in tourism industry development using augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR). In: IEEE Region 10 Annual International Conference Proceedings/TENCON, vol. 2019, pp. 2578–2581 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1109/TENCON.2019.8929478

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10. Malca, J., et al.: ARTOUR: augmented reality for tourism - a case study in Riobamba, Ecuador. In: Proceedings - 2019 International Conference on Information System and Computer Science INCISCOS 2019, pp. 116–123 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ INCISCOS49368.2019.00027 11. Paz, A., Guenaga, M.L., Eguíluz, A.: Augmented Reality for maintenance operator training using SURF points and homography. In: 2012 9th International Conference on Remote Engineering on Virtual Instrumentation, REV 2012, pp. 12–15 (2012). https://doi.org/10. 1109/REV.2012.6293130 12. Herumurti, D., Hariadi, R.R., Kuswardayan, I., Yuniarti, A., Suciati, N., Arifiani, S.: IARTour for Indonesia tourism object. In: Proceeding - ICAMIMIA 2017 International Conference on Advanced Mechatronics, Intelligent Manufacturing Industrial Automation, pp. 165–170 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAMIMIA.2017.8387579 13. Lashkari, A.H., Parhizkar, B., Mohamedali, M.A.: Augmented reality tourist catalogue using mobile technology. In: 2nd International Conference on Computer Research and Development, ICCRD 2010, no. Figure 1, pp. 121–125 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCRD.2010.57 14. Wei, S., Ren, G., O’Neill, E.: Haptic and audio displays for augmented reality tourism applications. In: IEEE Haptics Symposium HAPTICS, pp. 485–488 (2014). https://doi.org/ 10.1109/HAPTICS.2014.6775503 15. Kadi, D., Suyoto, Santoso, A.J.: Mobile application development with augmented reality for promoting tourism objects in Southwest Sumba. In: Proceeding - 2017 3rd International Conference on Science and Information Technology Theory and Application, IT Education Indian Society Big Data Era, ICSITech 2017, vol. 2018, pp. 200–205 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1109/ICSITech.2017.8257110 16. Dangkham, P.: Mobile augmented reality on web-based for the tourism using HTML5. In: International Conference on Information and Networking, vol. 2018, pp. 482–485 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOIN.2018.8343165 17. Binti Mat Sah, S.B., Teck Chyan, N., Binti Hisham, S.: Interactive augmented reality art book to promote Malaysia traditional game. In: I4CT 2014 - 1st International Conference on Computer, Communication and Control Technology Proceedings, no. I4ct, pp. 203–208 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/I4CT.2014.6914175 18. Nóbrega, R., Jacob, J., Coelho, A., Weber, J., Ribeiro, J., Ferreira, S.: Mobile location-based augmented reality applications for urban tourism storytelling. In: EPCGI 2017 - 24th Encontro Port. Comput. Graf. e Interacao, vol. 2017, pp. 1–8 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/ EPCGI.2017.8124314 19. Lim, Y., Park, Y., Heo, J., Yang, J., Kang, M., Byun, Y.C.: A smart phone application based on AR for Jeju tourism. In: Proceedings - 1st ACIS/JNU International Conference on Computing Networks, System Industrial Engineering, CNSI 2011, pp. 271–272 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1109/CNSI.2011.101 20. Zaifri, M., Azough, A., El Alaoui, S.O.: Experimentation of visual augmented reality for visiting the historical monuments of the medina of Fez. In: 2018 International Conference on Intelligent System and Computer Vision, ISCV 2018, vol. 2018, pp. 1–4 (2018). https://doi. org/10.1109/ISACV.2018.8354051

Too Many Policy Options, Not Enough Diversity? A Typology of Tourism Policy Tools Cláudia S. Costa1,2(&) 1

Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal [email protected] 2 Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CiTUR), Guarda, Portugal

Abstract. The design of a typology of policy tools specifically aimed at tourism policy represents the main goal and the original contribution of this article. Based on the theory of market failures and the tools of government approach, we extend Weimer and Vining’s original typology of public policies to the field of tourism by relying on an empirical analysis of tourism policy tools adopted by local governments in Portugal. The results suggest the existence of specific situations requiring the enlargement of Weimer and Vining typology. The ultimate goal is to contribute to research and practice in the field of tourism policy and management by providing both scholars and decision-makers with a policy toolbox, which can be useful to tackle policy problems in tourism markets. Keywords: Tourism market failures
Typology of tourism policy tools
Local governments

1 Introduction The evolution of Public Administration, in general, and Public Policy, in particular, has recognized that governments have at their disposal a wide range of policy tools, to design and conduct the provision of public goods and services [1–3]. In this context, the development of the tools approach has enabled the elaboration of several public policy typologies. Typologies of public policies are useful not only because they allow us to understand the politics that underlie these policies [4, 5], but also because they suggest different ways to match policy problems and policy tools. The typology presented by Weimer and Vining [6] is considered one of the most influential in categorizing government interventions to solve market failures [7]. According to this typology, government intervention becomes a substitute for markets forces when market outcomes are not acceptable from a societal point of view or when they fail to achieve economic efficiency (Pareto optimality). Thus, this typology covers situations where market failures are addressed through government intervention and represents the main economic rationale for public sector involvement in private matters [8, 9]. More specifically, tourism activities occur in a market context and the literature has pointed out that the main justifications for government intervention in the economy apply to tourism markets as well [8, 10, 11]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 458–479, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_39

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Prior empirical work has investigated the presence of market failures in the context of tourism by focusing on specific policies to promote economic development [12, 13], to address tourism externalities [14], and to correct distorted spatial patterns of tourism development and activity [15]. This work extends prior research by investigating the adoption of tourism policy tools by Portuguese municipalities experiencing different levels of tourism activity. The paper focuses on two main research questions: 1) Do different levels of tourism activity lead to the adoption of different types of policies adopted in Portuguese municipalities? 2) If so, what types of policies are associated with municipalities with different tourism profiles? The paper develops a typology of tourism policy tools based on Weimer and Vining’s original typology, which is then employed to conduct an empirical analysis of tourism policy tools adopted by local governments in Portugal experiencing different levels of tourism activity (international, national or regional/local). The ultimate goal is to contribute to research and practice in the field of tourism policy and management by providing both scholars and decision-makers with a policy toolbox, which can be useful to tackle specific policy problems in tourism markets with different profiles. The paper proceeds as follows. The next section analyses the tourism activity as an imperfect market with a strong presence of public goods, externalities, natural monopolies, and asymmetric information and identifies the main policy tools suggested in the literature to solve specific problems associated with these market failures. The second section introduces a set of hypotheses, derived from the literature, linking different levels of tourism activity to specific policy tools designed to address market failures. Section three presents the context of tourism policies in Portuguese local governments. The fourth section describes the data and methods employed in the empirical analysis conducted in section five. Lastly, a revised typology of tourism policy tools is introduced, followed by the conclusions of our study and the discussion of the implications for tourism policy and development in Portugal and elsewhere.

2 Tourism Market Failures and Public Policy Tools: The Literature From an economic point of view, the tourism activity can be regarded as an imperfect market, with a strong presence of public goods, externalities, natural monopolies and asymmetric information [16]. Under imperfect market conditions, individual buyers and sellers can influence prices and production, perfect information is not widely available to all agents, and perfect competition is absent. [8] refers to tourism as an economic activity more predisposed to market failures, because it depends on the output of many industries to deliver its own product; typically, this requires some form of public intervention to restore the parameters of competition. The standard reasons for public intervention in the economy are perfectly applicable to tourism activity [10]. The presence of market failures in tourism markets provides legitimacy to government intervention through policy tools capable of correcting these market distortions [16]. The following subsections summarize tourism market failures and present key policy tools employed to solve inefficiencies caused by each of these failures.

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2.1

Public Goods

Pure public goods are characterized by non-rivalry of consumption and nonexcludability. Tourism promotion, tourism infrastructures, tourism coordination, and tourism planning have often been described as pure public goods [17]. The promotion of national tourism and/or destinations is the most distinct example of a non-rival and non-exclusive good in the tourism market [18]. The financial resources employed to promote a destination will equally benefit all the firms operating in that destination (non-rivalry). Firms tend to minimize their investments in promotion in the expectation that other firms will invest. Any benefits from these investments will be shared by all firms in the tourist destination, a sign of non-excludability [19]. As a result, firms have minimal incentives to pursue such a voluntary pattern of investments [20–22]. Thus, this kind of behaviour produces an inadequate allocation of economic resources, due to underfunding of tourism promotion [23]. In light of this, it seems consensual that tourism promotion requires some form of public intervention, since it is extremely difficult to determine accurately who benefits from tourism promotion [24]. In fact, scientific community recognizes the direct involvement of governments in the provision and funding of tourism promotion [18, 25]. Despite the importance of this direct public intervention, the increase in public budgetary restrictions has led to a set of alternative policy tools to public provision and financing of tourism promotion, namely i) tax levies on businesses; ii) “user pays”/cooperative funding systems; iii) tax on foreign exchange earnings; iv) tax on tourism investment; and v) a commercial bed tax [19, 26]. Nonetheless, several authors continue to advocate that the most appropriated policy tool is direct intervention and public funding of tourism promotion [24]. The provision of tourism infrastructures is another example of a public good [27, 28]. Given the concepts of infrastructure and tourism superstructure [29], it is obvious that they represent an important part of the tourism product and therefore require provision in order to increase the competitiveness of tourist destinations [30]. However, despite the fact that the private sector guarantees the provision of some infrastructures, it has no incentive to provide infrastructures with public good characteristics, particularly those that are non-excludable [17]. In this sense, the efficient level of provision of tourism infrastructures requires some form of government intervention. Several policy tools that can be used, including direct provision, public and private capital co-financing, financial and fiscal incentives, and taxation of tourism infrastructures [31, 32]. Nevertheless, and despite the diversity of these tools, some authors insist that an efficient level of provision of tourism infrastructures can only be reached through direct government intervention [26, 27]. The coordination of tourism activities represents yet another form of public good [17]. Tourism is an extremely complex industry that brings together a wide range of activities and products and involves a large number of public and private actors [32, 33]. Due to this significant fragmentation, it is very common to find coordination problems in tourism activities, which often take place in an unplanned manner and without any institutional arrangement [26]. Although short-term goals in tourism may be attractive, the process of tourism development should result from medium and longrange planning, in order to maximize the potential of investments and avoid possible

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negative impacts [26]. Given that the interrelations and interdependencies with various sectors of activity produce a highly fragmented activity, private firms alone cannot secure tourism planning [34]. Planning has the potential to address coordination issues in tourism markets but planning itself displays characteristics of a non-excludable good, incapable of generating profits to private firms [35, 36]. As a result, most literature recognizes the important action of coordination taken up by governments adopting long-term plans exclusively dedicated to tourism [22, 37–39]. Alternatively, others have pointed out the existence of self-organizing, voluntary coordination structures operating closer to market logic [40, 41]. 2.2

Externalities

Due to its importance and magnitude, the tourism industry generates a vast number of impacts, which the literature commonly describes as externalities or spillover effects [42, 43]. The external effects of tourism activities can be positive or negative and are usually categorized as economic, socio-cultural or environmental [44]. The external effects caused by tourism activities create differences between the private optimum and the social optimum, thus requiring a policy solution to internalize those effects [45]. In general, two types of policy solutions have been suggested. The first type assumes that governments take on an active role in the market through regulation of the activity or by changing the cost structure through price-based policy mechanisms. Even though regulation constitutes a political action recognized as appropriate by academics and practitioners in the field of tourism policy, the most commonly used policy tool is by far the adoption of taxes or fees to tourism industry and/or visitors, especially in areas where the intensity of tourism activity is more evident [43, 46]. Various authors have pointed out the use of Pigouvian taxes as the most efficient solution to address problems caused by externalities [46, 47]. In contrast, the second set of alternatives supports purely voluntary policy solutions to correct external effects. This group of policy tools is inspired by the Coase Theorem, which argues that in the presence of clearly defined property rights and negligible transactions costs, externalities can be corrected through market mechanisms, i.e., voluntary arrangements between parties involved in the externality [48–50]. 2.3

Natural Monopoly

The third tourism market failure discussed in this section is commonly referred to as natural monopoly. Several authors indicate the presence of natural monopolies in the tourism industry, focusing on specific characteristics of tourist attractions, particularly scarcity, uniqueness, immobility, and regional differences [27, 51, 52]. The “iconic” nature of many tourism products, in terms of typology and quality of tourist attractions, suggests the presence of a natural monopoly [53, 54]. There can only be one Parthenon, one Niagara Falls, one London Tower, one Grand Canyon and one Eiffel Tower, which are all described by Veal [51] as social monopolies. This author emphasizes that leisure organizers can take advantage of natural monopolies due to the unique historical features of such tourist attractions leading to social surplus losses due to monopoly pricing. In these situations, some form of

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government intervention is required in order to avoid the exploitation of monopolistic advantage by private agents. [51] points out the governmental control and ownership of these types of tourist attractions, also considering economic regulation as a useful alternative to monopoly power [52]. In turn, [54] suggest the use of taxation to alter the incorrect allocation of resources. 2.4

Asymmetric Information

Tourism has been widely described as a market prone to information asymmetries [55–57]. Due to the fragmented nature of tourism markets and the separation between the origin of tourism firms and tourist destinations, it can be expected that information asymmetries will be felt with great intensity [58]. Under information asymmetry, market adjustment mechanisms fail to take effect, justifying the intervention of governments in the regulation of information provided to tourists [59]. Indeed, governments may carry out quality grade standards for tourist attractions and other normative criteria, such as official hotel classification systems as one of the best examples of this type of policy [60]. In addition, [61] suggest the definition of quality standards resulting from certification processes by non-governmental and specialized agencies as another set of tools to reduce the negative effects of asymmetric information in tourism markets. [52] suggest that governments can provide tourism information directly through their own offices and/or encourage private agents to assist in the dissemination of such information [62]. Finally, several authors emphasize other forms of public intervention, such as the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as powerful tools in the dissemination of tourist information [12, 63]. In sum, this survey of the literature suggests some consensus regarding the presence of market failures in tourism markets. Most scholars suggest that government intervention is crucial to improve resource allocation in tourism markets, and several policy tools appear as possible solutions to accomplish this goal. However, the debate surrounding the match between perceived market failures and the appropriate policy tools to correct them is far less consensual. In addition, there is also some sense that the gap between policy recommendations and policy adoption is wider than previously thought. In order to start overcoming these perceived gaps, the following section presents five sets of hypotheses, derived from the literature, linking local governments with different tourism profiles to their choices of policy instruments designed to correct tourism market failures.

3 Hypotheses The literature shows that direct government provision is relevant to solve most market failures, perhaps with the exception of tourism externalities. However, local government involvement in tourism policy is likely to vary according to the importance of tourism as an economic activity in each municipality. Typically, the intensity of tourism development varies across regions and municipalities, not only due to the different levels of concentration and clustering of tourism activities, but also as a result of government interventions providing incentives and/or imposing restrictions on spatial patterns of tourism development [15]. The hypotheses developed in this section

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take into consideration this spatial variation of tourism activities by making predictions about which policy tools are more likely to be adopted in municipalities appealing to different tourism markets (international, national and regional/local). In the case of tourism public goods, several authors argue that the most appropriate way to promote a tourist destination is through direct intervention and public funding [24]. The level of tourism importance of a municipality is also likely to Bonham affect the use of direct provision and regulation in tourism promotion. It can also be expected that municipalities with an international touristic profile will rely more often in marketbased mechanisms. As a result, we predict that: H1a: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to develop their own tourism brand. H1b: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to participate in international tourism exhibitions or fairs. H1c: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to adopt a marketing plan specifically dedicated to tourism than municipalities appealing to national or regional markets. H1d: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to attract funding from private local actors expecting to profit from tourism initiatives than municipalities appealing to national or regional markets. Public sector initiatives are also advocated in the case of the provision and funding of tourism infrastructures [17]. Just as with tourism promotion, the level of tourism importance of each municipality should affect its ability to attract investment and funding for infrastructures. Municipalities involved in international markets for tourism are also expected to display higher professionalism in addressing policies to promote tourism infrastructures. Because of this level of professionalism, we can expect that: H2a: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to capture European Union funds for tourism infrastructures; H2b: Municipalities appealing to international markets are more likely to charge entry fees and infrastructures fees in order to curb overcrowding; H2c: Municipalities appealing to international markets are less likely to resort to financial incentives to local operators than those appealing to regional or national markets. Finally, tourism coordination and planning are also carried out through direct government intervention [10]. Given the demands and complex nature of tourism activities, it can be argued that only governments are able to plan, coordinate, facilitate and integrate all relevant public and private actors in the tourism industry [41]. As a result, it is expected that Portuguese local governments will be actively involved in the provision of tourism public goods. Since the tourism industry in Portugal is characterized by many small and mediumsized businesses co-existing with a few large tourism operators, coordination organizations are crucial to secure the development of a coherent municipal strategy for tourism. In more complex tourism markets, it is likely that the coordinating organizations are more autonomous vis-à-vis the local government and involve a more diverse set of agents. Hence, it is expected that:

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H3a: Coordination involving multiple stakeholders will be more frequently adopted in international markets than in national or regional ones. H3b: Coordination using market mechanisms will be more frequently adopted in international markets than in national or regional ones; H3c: Tourism development plans/strategic plans will be more frequently adopted to regulate tourism land use in international markets than in national or regional ones; H3d: Municipal Master Plans will be more frequently employed to regulate tourism land use in national and regional markets. The typology presented by Weimer and Vining [6] recommends the use of subsidies and taxes to address externality problems. The literature on tourism also points out that the most common and simplest policy tool to address externalities is the use of taxes on businesses and/or visitors. [17] state that both regulatory and market mechanisms are not efficient solutions because they fail to target the source of the problem. The authors defend the use of taxes as more efficient, since they allow the effective resolution of the situation and not just its remediation. However, given the previous findings about service provision in the context of Portuguese municipalities (Reference removed for peer review), it can be expected that taxes will rarely be employed as policy solutions to internalize the costs of tourism activities. Instead, it is hypothesized that: H4a: Taxes will be more frequently used to address externalities in international markets than in national or regional markets for tourism. H4b: Direct government intervention through regulation will be more frequently used in national and regional markets than in international markets. Lastly, concerning information asymmetry in tourism, regulation constitutes the primary solution proposed by Weimer and Vining [6]. However, and considering not only the importance of direct provision of tourism information in the case of Portuguese municipalities, but also their limited competences in the regulation of tourism information, it is expected that local governments will be directly involved in the provision of tourism information through their local bureaucracies. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that: H5a: The direct provision of tourism information will be more likely in municipalities appealing to international markets than in those appealing to national and regional markets. H5b: The provision of tourism information in digital formats will be more likely in municipalities appealing to international markets than in those appealing to national and regional markets. H5c: The presence of tourist offices in addition to the standard municipal office will be more likely in municipalities appealing to international markets than in those appealing to national and regional markets. H5d: The use of official networks involving actors from multiple sectors will be more likely in municipalities appealing to international markets than in those appealing to national and regional markets.

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4 Tourism Policy Tools in Portuguese Local Governments Historically, local governments in Portugal have assumed an important role in this policy area. During the dictatorship period (1926–1974) they represented the administrative arm of the State, implementing tourism policy according to strict authoritarian rule. During the first years after the reinstatement of the democratic regime, municipalities became the sole actors involved in tourism planning, as a result of a bottom-up, laissez-faire type approach to tourism by the national governments. [64] and the [65] defined a set of strategic areas where Portuguese municipalities could play an active role at the time, namely: i) forecasting the evolution of demand and the levels of use of tourism infrastructures; ii) identifying tourist resources, attractions and upcoming events; iii) managing the transportation network, accessibilities, and signaling; iv) creating or participating in local institutions aimed at tourism promotion; v) building infrastructures for tourism and local communities, ensuring, for example, water supply, sewage, and refuse collection; vi) developing tourism planning strategies; vii) involving public tourism agents at the national and regional levels; viii) assessing the economic, sociocultural, and environmental effects of tourism; ix) elaborating local strategies for tourist attractions; and x) providing tourism information. The approval of the National Strategic Plan for Tourism in 2007 marks the beginning of a new era. This plan established the legal framework to promote growth and sustainable development (economic, social, and environmental) of national tourism, taking into consideration the articulation between public and private tourist agents, including also local governments. The Law of Tourism Public Policies (Law-Decree 191/2009, August 17) identifies municipalities as public tourism agents along with other national and regional authorities. Indeed, municipalities are local entities with responsibilities in planning, development and implementation of tourism policies, whose role is to promote tourism development through coordination and integration of public and private initiatives in order to achieve the goals of the Tourism 2020 Action Plan. The current political-administrative organization of tourism in Portugal reflects an orientation towards multi-level governance, combining a vertical structure headed by the national government providing strategic orientations with a horizontal structure involving regional, local and private actors. Currently, Portuguese municipalities invest human and financial resources in the promotion of tourism at both national and international levels. They work in close connection with Regional Tourist Offices for internal tourism promotion, and with the Regional Tourism Promotional Bureau, for international tourism promotion. Local governments have also been involved in the development of several forms of collection, systematization, and dissemination of touristic information. Municipalities actively promote the development of mobile applications, tourist websites, social networks and tourist flyers and newsletters, among others. Tourism is now a strategic priority for both the national government and the municipalities, as confirmed by the presentation of the Strategy for Tourism 2027. This strategic reference for tourism in Portugal was developed through a broad and creative participatory process, in which the national government assumes a coordination responsibility and mobilizes tourist agents and society. It is a long-term strategy that

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aims: i) to ensure stability and commitment on strategic options for national tourism; ii) to promote the integration of sectoral policies; iii) to generate a continuous articulation between the various stakeholders involved in tourism markets; and iv) to act with a strategic sense in the present and in the short/medium term. Empirical work concerning municipal service provision in Portugal suggests that local governments actively engage in the direct provision of public goods and services through their own internal bureaucracies and that market-based policy tools are far less preferred (Reference removed for peer review). In addition, Law 69/2015, July 16 transferred competences from the national government to local governments, reinforcing the role of Portuguese municipalities in tourism policy. Competences related to rural and urban infrastructures, energy, public transportation, heritage, culture, among others, are just a few examples of competences connected, directly or indirectly, to tourism. Given this background, the expectation was that municipalities are heavily involved in the provision of tourism policies, primarily using their own staff and, alternatively, using organizations at arm’s length of the municipalities (municipal corporations, public-public partnerships, and assorted forms of intermunicipal cooperation) (References removed for peer review).

5 Data and Methods Given these arguments, a multi-methods research plan was adopted, using questionnaires and interviews as data collection techniques to help achieve the main goal of this paper. Specifically, based on information gathered from exploratory interviews and the literature review, a survey questionnaire to tourism managers in all 308 Portuguese municipalities was elaborated and applied between December 2013 and April 2014 (at the moment this it’s the more current study). The questionnaire was pretested in the limited set of municipalities where the interviews had been conducted. The final response rate was approximately 70% (214 municipalities). For each tourism market failure, policy tools were structured in different groups inspired by the Weimer and Vining typology. For each of these groups, all the policies mentioned by our respondents as present in their own municipality were added and divided by the total number of policy tools in each group to obtain the average value use for each group, thus allowing comparisons between groups of policy tools. Given the expectation regarding the spatial distribution of tourism activities stated in the hypotheses section, the analysis of the adoption of tourism policies was structured by dividing the municipalities in our sample into three groups according to tourism importance: regional, national and international markets. The first group – regional markets – includes municipalities in the lowest quartile of bed capacity (municipalities with capacity varying from zero up to 41 beds). The second group corresponds to national markets and includes municipalities in the second and third quartiles of bed capacity (between 42 and 513 beds). Finally, the upper quartile group includes municipalities appealing to international markets (capacity above 513 beds). Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis tests are employed to compare these independent samples. The following section presents the results of the empirical analysis.

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6 Empirical Analysis In this section, the results from our survey are analyzed and their implications for the core hypotheses of this work discussed. The overall findings suggest a strong and direct involvement of Portuguese local governments in the adoption of policies to solve market failures related to public goods, information asymmetry, and negative externalities. In the first two cases, this presence is translated into direct intervention using the municipalities’ own workforces; in the case of negative externalities, local governments prefer municipal regulation (ordinances) as the main form of policy intervention. The results support the theoretical argument that tourism promotion activities are primarily secured by governments through direct provision and public financing to avoid free-rider problems (see Table 1 – Appendix 1). On average, 166 municipalities out of 214 indicated policies from this group as the preferred choice. Almost all municipalities surveyed report the preparation of promotional materials (207), and most mention the use of the municipal budget, European Union funds, and the participation in national and international exhibitions to promote tourism. In support of H1a, the findings show statistically significant differences in preferences for the development of a tourism brand. Municipalities where tourism has international relevance are more likely to favor the establishment of a tourism brand to project their national and international importance as a touristic destination. Local planning policies for tourism promotion – a plan for tourism promotion and tourism marketing plan – were adopted by 80 and 36 municipalities, respectively. The results related to planning policies are also statistically significant at conventional levels, therefore supporting H1c. Tourism marketing plans are most often adopted by municipalities with an international level of tourism importance. In addition, tourism planning tools, as a unique set of policies, tend to be adopted by municipalities where tourism is a highly relevant economic activity. In contrast, no support was found for both H1b and H1d. Municipalities with an international tourism profile are not more likely to participate in international tourism fairs or fund tourism promotion with the help of private sector agents. Direct provision policies are also extremely important in the case of tourism infrastructures, closely followed by the use of subsidies and taxes (see Table 2 – Appendix 2). The use of European Union funds is reported by 191 municipalities (out of 214), whereas 148 indicate the municipal budget as a source of financing for tourism infrastructures. In general, the results support the literature stating that the provision and financing of tourism infrastructures should be secured directly by governments [17]. In addition, the results also confirm prior findings that taxes and subsidies are employed by a considerable number of municipalities and can be used as complementary policy tools, or secondary solutions [6]. Besides fiscal and financial incentives, local governments in Portugal also charge entry fees and infrastructure fees (also known as impact fees) to finance local infrastructure to accommodate tourism pressures. More specifically, the results related to financial incentives and entry fees indicate statistically significant differences between municipalities at confidence levels of 90% and 99%, respectively. Both results provide

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support to H2b and H2c. Consistent with the idea of local government direct promotion of tourism infrastructures, the use of financial incentives, such as the provision of grants or loans for the construction of tourist facilities, is most often used by municipalities where tourism is less relevant (regional or national levels of tourism importance). In contrast, the use of entry fees is more common in municipalities with national and international levels of tourism. This finding supports the argument that entry fees are employed to moderate access of tourists to tourist attractions subject to congestion and overcrowding. In contrast, the findings fail to support H2a. Municipalities with an international tourism profile are not more likely to resort to European Union funds to finance tourism infrastructures than municipalities without that profile. Table 3 (Appendix 3) shows that regulation is the preferred group of policy tools to address coordination/planning failures. We investigated whether municipalities regulate land use activities related to tourism through a special-purpose tourism strategic plan or if they simply regulate these activities using the general Municipal Master Plan. Tourism strategic plans were adopted in 68 municipalities, whereas 103 respondents mentioned that tourism planning is addressed in the municipality’s Master Plan. Contrary to other public goods, direct provision policies are scarcely used by Portuguese municipalities to tackle coordination. These findings partially contradict the main arguments present in the literature. Since tourism coordination and planning have public good characteristics, the main policy tool referenced to minimize the effects of this market failure consists of direct government intervention [10]. The results fail to show statistically significant differences between the three groups of municipalities. Municipalities with an international level of tourism importance are not more likely to favour tourism strategic plans and municipalities where tourism is less relevant also do not show a preference to regulate land use for tourism activities through the Municipal Master Plan. H3c and H3d do not receive empirical support. In contrast, the findings are highly supportive of both H3a and H3b. Consistently with H3a, the existence of a coordination advisory body involving the participation of public and private actors as well as a structure oriented to coordination involving the participation of a similar set of actors are more likely in municipalities where tourism takes on international importance. Still related to coordination issues, Portuguese municipalities adopt market/voluntary mechanisms as policy tools to solve coordination/planning failures. Once again, in line with H3b, municipalities with an international level of tourism are far more likely to opt for coordination structures totally independent of the public sector. Just as in the case of tourism infrastructures, the results for tourism coordination/planning do not show any dominant group of policy solutions adopted by Portuguese local governments. In sum, these results reveal that local governments in Portugal play a very active role in the provision of tourism promotion and infrastructures, displaying a somewhat lesser role in tourism coordination/planning. The findings presented in Table 4 (Appendix 4) show that local governments in Portugal prefer regulatory policies over the use of subsidies and taxes to curb negative externalities. However, neither set of policy tools is adopted more frequently by municipalities with an international tourism profile. Thus, the findings fail to support both H4a and H4b. Nevertheless, these results confirm the conclusions of a study presented by [66] pointing out that, contrary to what happens in many European countries, Portuguese local governments have failed to adopt tourism taxes in a

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systematic manner. Despite the controversies regarding this kind of taxation, the literature suggests that if tourist taxes are properly designed and effectively implemented, they can contribute to improve social welfare. Portuguese municipalities are not taking advantage of the potential benefits associated with tourism taxes and infrastructure fees. According to the information obtained in our interviews (but not evident in the responses to our survey), direct provision represents yet another group of policy tools employed to address negative externalities. Tourism managers mentioned the use of direct provision policy instruments to internalize negative external effects, such reinforcing the collection of municipal solid waste, cleaning beaches and recreational areas, creating logistical support, among other policies. Lastly, the results suggest that municipalities opt for direct provision in the preparation and dissemination of tourism information (Table 5 – Appendix 5). Several policies in this category receive almost unanimous acclaim, including tourist maps, tourist brochures, tourist circuits, and the provision of information in foreign languages. These results are consistent with the theoretical arguments present in the literature [62]. Statistically significant differences were found for the use of policy tools across municipalities with different levels of tourism importance. Municipalities with an international profile are more likely to adopt direct provision of information, thus confirming the argument conveyed by H5a. This group of municipalities is also more likely to support the provision of information using digital formats, in accordance with the prediction stated in H5b. These municipalities are also more likely to have tourist offices which are not sponsored by the municipality, which lends support to H5c. The only hypothesis which does not receive support is H5d: the use of official networks with multiple stakeholders for information provision does not seem to vary significantly between municipalities with different tourism profiles.

7 Conclusions and Future Research This research investigated the adoption of tourism policy tools by Portuguese local governments and whether these choices are closely aligned with the predictions made by the public policy literature regarding the correction of market failures. In particular, it focused on two research questions: 1) Do different levels of tourism activity lead to the adoption of different types of policies adopted in Portuguese municipalities? 2) If so, what types of policies are associated with municipalities with different tourism profiles? The empirical analysis shows that some policy choices by Portuguese municipalities are quite conventional: the use of direct intervention to supply public goods and address information asymmetries and the adoption of taxes and fees to finance tourism infrastructures. However, Portuguese local governments also display innovative policy features, which distinguish them from conventional tourism policy practices. For example, some municipalities adopt planning policies for tourism promotion, use their own bureaucracies to address negative externalities, and opt for market mechanisms to solve natural monopoly situations (see Table 6 – Appendix 6). Based on the theory of market failures and the tools of government approach, this work builds on existing work [17, 26] to extend the Weimer and Vining’s public policy typology to the field of tourism and performs an empirical analysis to test hypotheses

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about the patterns of policy tool adoption in Portuguese municipalities. The analysis divided the municipalities in the sample in terms of their levels of touristic appeal – regional, national, and international markets – and tests whether the types of policies adopted vary across these groups. The key argument stated throughout the paper is that the policy tools adopted by local governments in Portugal are associated with the tourism profile of each jurisdiction. Consistently with a more professionalized outlook on tourism, municipalities where tourism is a highly relevant economic activity are more likely to display more sophisticated policy instruments to address market failures such as public goods, negative externalities and information asymmetry problems. For example, they are more inclined to develop a tourism brand, to involve multiple stakeholders in the planning and coordination of tourism activities, and to engage in the use of information and communication technology tools to disseminate information about the municipality. They are also more likely to charge entry fees to pay for tourism infrastructures. Our study suffers from a number of limitations. First, the use of a survey questionnaire to investigate the adoption of tourism policy tools to correct market failures requires an adjustment of the technical language in order to get the intended results. Unfortunately, this language fine-tuning was not always effective. In the case of one specific type of market failure – natural monopolies – the information collected from our survey suggests that tourism managers answering our survey were thinking about the municipality’s main tourist attraction(s) rather than situations where natural monopolies are present. This rendered unusable the survey results for this particular situation. Another limitation of this work is related to the absence of longitudinal data, which has prevented testing causality between the different levels of importance of tourism activity and the adoption of specific policy tools. This investigation suggests that the intervention in tourism markets by Portuguese municipalities relies primarily on the use of direct provision. For most municipalities, direct provision using the municipality’s own workforce is still the main, sometimes the only, set of policy tools employed when addressing tourism market failures. However, if one considers that local initiatives to encourage tourism development are related to the mitigation of tourism market failures, the question that arises is whether such policy tools are the best way to promote local tourism development. Future work will explore this relationship by attempting to identify which tourism policy tools most contribute to enhance local economic development and to promote sustainable tourism development. In addition, future research should also focus on monitoring and evaluating tourism policies to assess their contribution to these development goals.

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Appendix 1 Table 1. Tourism Policy Tools, Tourism Promotion. Policy tools for tourism promotion (yes)

Level of tourism importance

Pearson’s Regional National International chi-squared [n = 57] [n = 101] [n = 56]

Policy Tools Kruskal-Wallis Groups or Pearson’s [n = 214] chi-squared

Number of yes Municipal budget for tourism promotion (165) European Union funds (184) Preparation of promotional materials (207) Tourism brand (100) Participation in national tourism promotion exhibitions (168) Participation in international tourism promotion exhibitions (161) Logistical support to private local actors in the different promotional activities (178) Tourism marketing plan (36) Plan for tourism promotion (80) Tourism promotion funding by private local actors (46)

44

80

41

Not Significant

Direct provision [n = 166]*

Not Significant

50

89

45

Not Significant

55

97

55

Not Significant

20

44

36

42

81

45

Pearson chi2 (2) = 17.474 p-value = 0.000 Not Significant

40

78

43

Not Significant

44

84

50

Not Significant

9

8

19

Regulation [n = 58]*

Chi-squared (2) = 7.812 p-value = 0.020

27

Pearson chi2 (2) = 10.444 p-value = 0.005 Not Significant

21

32

11

20

15

Not Significant

Market Not Significant mechanisms [n = 46]*

* Numbers in parentheses corresponds to the sum of all “yes” divided by the number of items in each policy tool group.

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Appendix 2 Table 2. Tourism Policy Tools, Tourism Infrastructures. Policy tools for the development of tourism infrastructures (yes)

Level of tourism importance Pearson’s Regional National International chi-squared [n = 57] [n = 101] [n = 56] Number of yes

Municipal budget for tourism infrastructures (148) European Union funds (191) Banking protocols with financial institutions (86) Structure to support promoter of tourism investment (105) Preparation and provision of guidelines to support promoter of tourism investment (74) Financial incentives (76)

37

72

39

Not Significant

50

91

50

Not Significant

21

37

28

Not Significant

24

48

33

Not Significant

18

34

22

Not Significant

26

36

14

26 18

43 35

23 35

Charging of 50 infrastructures fees (188)

89

49

Pearson chi2 (2) = 4.677 p-value = 0.096 Not Significant Pearson chi2 (2) = 14.460 p-value = 0.001 Not Significant

Fiscal incentives (92) Charging of entry fees (88)

Policy Tools Groups [n = 214]

KruskalWallis or Pearson’s chisquared

Direct Not provision significant [n = 121]*

Subsidies Not significant and Taxes [n = 111]*

* Numbers in parentheses corresponds to the sum of all “yes” divided by the number of items in each policy tool group.

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Appendix 3 Table 3. Tourism Policy Tools, Tourism Coordination/Planning. Policy tools for tourism coordination/planning (yes)

Level of tourism importance

Pearson’s Regional National International chi-squared [n = 57] [n = 101] [n = 56]

Policy Tools Kruskal-Wallis or Groups Pearson’s chi[n = 214] squared

Number of yes Coordination advisory body involving the participation of public and private actors (24)

2

10

12

Pearson chi2 (2) = 9.442 p-value = 0.009

Oriented coordination structure 12 involving the participation of public and private actors (67)

31

24

Pearson chi2 (2) = 6.278 p-value = 0.043

Coordination structures created 2 by government that operate closer to the market logic (16)

8

6

Not Significant

Direct provision [n = 36]*

Chi-squared (2) = 13.037 p-value = 0.002

Coordination structures totally independent of public sector intervention (53)

8

19

26

Pearson chi2 (2) = 19.548 p-value = 0.000

Pearson chi2 Market mechanisms (2) = 19.548 [n = 53]* p-value = 0.000

Tourism Development Plan/Strategic Plan (68)

16

33

19

Not Significant

Regulation [n = 86]*

Municipal Master Plan (103)

30

51

22

Not Significant

Not Significant

* Numbers in parentheses corresponds to the sum of all “yes” divided by the number of items in each policy tool group.

Appendix 4

Table 4. Tourism Policy Tools, Negative Tourism Externalities. Policy tools to mitigate negative externalities from tourism (yes)

Level of tourism importance Pearson’s Regional National International chisquared [n = 57] [n = 101] [n = 56] Number of yes

Charging of entry fees (17) Charging of infrastructures fees (15) Charging tourist fees (overnight rate) (1) Charging fees to local tourism industry (7) Regulations and/or municipal ordinances (60)

4

11

2

7

6

2

0

0

1

2

2

3

15

25

20

Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant

Policy Tools Groups [n = 214]

Kruskal-Wallis or Pearson’s chi-squared

Subsidies Not significant and Taxes [n = 10]*

Regulation Not significant [n = 60]*

* Numbers in parentheses corresponds to the sum of all “yes” divided by the number of items in each policy tool group.

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Appendix 5

Table 5. Tourism Policy Tools, Tourism Information Asymmetry. Policy tools for the disclosure of tourism information (yes)

Level of tourism importance Pearson’s Regional National International chi-squared [n = 57] [n = 101] [n = 56]

Policy Tools Groups [n = 214]

Kruskal-Wallis or Pearson’s chisquared

Direct provision [n = 164]*

Chi-squared(2) = 18.925 p-value = 0.000

Number of yes Additional tourist offices distributed by major points of tourist interest (128) Municipal tourist office (169) Tourist guides (151) Tourist maps (199)

27

65

36

Pearson chi2 (2) = 5.006 p-value = 0.082

48

82

39

Not Significant

38 47

73 97

40 55

Tourist brochures (208) 56 Tourist circuits (190) 54

97 83

55 53

Tourist information in foreign languages (194) Tourist signposting (directional and information signs) (195) Information and communication technologies in tourism (99) Virtual social networks (185) Institutional website (211) Tourism institutional website (37)

49

92

53

Not Significant Pearson chi2 (2) = 13.490 p-value = 0.001 Not Significant Pearson chi2 (2) = 8.385 p-value = 0.015 Not Significant

54

90

51

Not Significant

20

41

38

Pearson chi2 (2) = 14.673 p-value = 0.001

46

89

50

Not Significant

56

100

55

Not Significant

4

13

20

Non-municipal tourist office (58)

4

25

29

Official network of tourist information involving private local tourist actors (71) Official network of tourist information involving public local tourist actors (73) Official network of tourist information involving non-tourist actors (38)

14

35

22

Pearson chi2 (2) = 18.878 p-value = 0.000 Pearson chi2 (2) = 29.190 p-value = 0.000 Not Significant

14

37

22

Not Significant

7

16

15

Not Significant

Hybrid forms Chi-squared [n = 60]* (2) = 16.024 p-value = 0.000

* Numbers in parentheses corresponds to the sum of all “yes” divided by the number of items in each policy tool group.

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Appendix 6

Table 6. Tourism Market Failures and Public Policy Tools. Market failures (1)

Tourism public policy tools (2)

Tourism public goods Tourism promotion Direct provision of tourism promotion Taxes charged to tourism activities Financial participation by private agents ———

Portuguese local governments (3)

Typology of tourism policy tools (4)

Direct provision of tourism promotion Taxes charged to tourism activities ————

Direct provision of tourism promotion Taxes charged to tourism activities Financial participation by private agents Tourism marketing plan Tourism marketing plan and Plan for tourism and Plan for tourism promotion promotion Tourism Direct provision of Direct provision of Direct provision of infrastructures tourism infrastructures tourism infrastructures tourism infrastructures Financial incentives Financial incentives Financial incentives Fiscal incentives Fiscal incentives Fiscal incentives Tourist taxes Tourist taxes Tourist taxes Users charges or entry fee Users charges or entry fees Users charges or entry fees Tourism Direct provision of Direct provision of Direct provision of coordination/planning coordination/planning coordination/planning coordination/planning Coordination structures Coordination structures Coordination structures created by government created by government that created by government that that operate closer to operate closer to market operate closer to market market logic logic logic Coordination structures Coordination structures Coordination structures totally independent of totally independent of totally independent of public entities public entities public entities Tourism activity plans Tourism activity plans Tourism activity plans Tourism externalities Positive/negative Regulation of tourism Regulation of tourism Regulation of tourism activities activities activities Tourist taxes Tourist taxes Tourist taxes Definition of property ———— Definition of property rights rights ——— Direct provision Direct provision Natural monopoly in Direct provision of Direct provision of tourist Direct provision of tourist tourism activity tourist attractions with attractions with natural attractions with natural context natural monopoly monopoly characteristics monopoly characteristics characteristics Price regulation Price regulation Price regulation Taxation of profits of Taxation of profits of Taxation of profits of private agents private agents private agents ——— Absence of regulation or Absence of regulation or direct provision direct provision

(continued)

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C. S. Costa Table 6. (continued)

Market failures (1)

Tourism public policy tools (2)

Portuguese local governments (3)

Typology of tourism policy tools (4)

Tourism information asymmetry

Direct provision of tourism information Official network of tourist information (hybrid forms)

Direct provision of tourism information Non municipal tourist office (hybrid forms) Official network of tourist information involving private local tourist agents (hybrid forms)

Regulation of tourism information (by governments) Regulation of tourism information (by private agents)

————

Direct provision of tourism information Non municipal tourist office (hybrid forms) Official network of tourist information (hybrid forms) Official network of tourist information involving private local tourist agents (hybrid forms) Regulation of tourism information (by governments) Regulation of tourism information (by private agents)

————

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Informational Heritage, Sustainable Development and Tourism: The Urban Route of the Fisherman’s Project Susana Martins1

, Milena Carvalho1 , Maria João Castro1(&) and Beatriz Gonçalves2

,

1

CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim S/N, 4465-004 Matosinhos, Portugal {susanamartins,milenacarvalho,mjcastro}@iscap.ipp.pt 2 Bachelor Degree Student in Information and Documentation Sciences and Technologies ISCAP/P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim S/N, 4465-004 Matosinhos, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The Fisherman’s Route reflects the interinstitutional collaboration between the Higher Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto and the Parish Council of Vila do Conde, developed as part of a sustainable tourism project based on the largest fishing community in the Country: Poça da Barca and Caxinas. It aims to safeguard cultural and immaterial heritage, promoting the transfer of knowledge using the skills of the information professional acquired in the degree in Sciences and Technologies of Documentation and Information. Through the application of semi-structured interviews and documentary analysis, the identification of the relevant information was carried out, regarding informational heritage, ethnographic, cultural, religious, architectural, related to shipbuilding and the clothing and gastronomy. The results are: the creation of the project logo; the creation of merchandising and a glossary of the typical language of the caxineiro; the outline of a small pedestrian route; the creation of a Facebook page and the re-creation of certain community traditions as well as an online portal and an app designed for tourists. The project assumes itself as a model of great importance in the sustainable development based on tourist initiatives, valuing the traditions and the memory, preserving the informational heritage connected to the fishing activity of those communities. Keywords: Informational heritage


Sustainability
Tourism

1 Introduction Tourism is assumed as a broadly global phenomenon, based on an increasingly larger and more diversified set of natural, historical, cultural and socio-economic resources, presenting new development guidelines, having an increasing importance in national and regional economies, in the strengthening of local identities as well as environmental protection and nature preservation. Given these premises, the implementation of sustainable tourism initiatives means applying new development concepts, adopting © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 480–489, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_40

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new technologies and working methods in multiple domains, introducing new quality tourism activities and products, privileging and valuing the History and Culture of the places. Indeed, the growing importance of the informational heritage as an agent that generates value and differentiating identity is an essential element for the creation of distinctive tourist activities that value local realities and heritage if considered in the context of local strategic development. In fact, the strategic approach to safeguarding the local cultural heritage is in line with Freland’s definition of cultural heritage “(…) material or living” forms of cultural heritage encompass living traditions or expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed down to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive celebrations, knowledge and practices related to nature and the universe and the knowledge and techniques necessary for traditional crafts” [9]. In the same document, the adoption of the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2003 is mentioned as being the first legal and binding instrument expressly directed towards this type of heritage and promotion of its safeguard. According to this Convention, the term safeguard encompasses measures implemented to guarantee the viability of intangible cultural heritage such as identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion, enhancement and transmission (through formal and non-formal education and training of individuals), promoting a revitalization of the diverse aspects of this heritage. In 2015 the Former Superior School of Industrial and Management Studies and, since 2016, the Higher Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto, both organic units of the Polytechnic of Porto, were/ are partners of the Vila do Conde Parish Council, in order to carry out the creation and development of a joint cultural and tourist project, called “A Rota do Pescador” whose target audience are tourists visiting the north of Portugal. This project takes as a guideline, the preservation of the identity and cultural connection of this city to fishing and its fishermen, which has in place of Caxinas and Poça da Barca one of the largest fishing communities in Portugal. Through the process of safeguarding cultural and intangible heritage, and this project, in addition to heritage security, it also promotes the transfer of secular knowledge and its maintenance, despite the resources available in the modern society in which we live, preventing it from being lost information of high cultural and identity value for the city of Vila do Conde. The purpose of this paper is to present the work carried out in order to create an urban route of The Fisherman´s Route Project. Increasingly, citizens have a community awareness of the historical value and ethnographic wealth of their collective heritage, mobilizing themselves with determination on their defense. Simultaneously, and in a perspective of in-depth training or professional specialization, surprisingly promising synergies were developed, marked by historical-artistic and architectural study and research, in the disciplinary scope of conservation and restoration. Simultaneously, and in a perspective of in-depth training or professional specialization synergies were developed, marked by historical-artistic and architectural study and research, in the disciplinary scope of conservation and restoration. With these manifestations of cultural dynamism, the intention is to preserve for the generations to come the precariousness of the material remains of millennia of human history and cultural identity. Consequently, a science of heritage was born, whose emergence and epistemological importance are obvious. Heritage, as a set of

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values, a structure of mediation between the past and the present, today takes on a privileged framework for conceptual reflection in the context of development. Indeed, heritage, especially through its cultural component, is a recurring theme on the road to development. However, the capabilities to identify and activate these values are uneven across places and societies. We can say that cultural heritage is an expression of the culture of human groups that recovers memories, ritualizes sociability, selects cultural goods and transmits legacies for the future.

2 Theoretical Framework Heritage has entered the agenda of political, scientific and social concerns in recent years. Cultural diversity and the consequent plurality of values associated with heritage, with their different meanings and resulting conflicts of interest, are reflected in the current conceptual range of heritage themes. The cultural dimension, due to the enormous temporal and spatial amplitude of the notion of culture, has experienced a great diffusion and popularity, a trend aligned with the deepening of the territory as a cultural experience, in such a way that it gathers the acceptance of a large number of researchers and scholars, and that is why it is increasingly associated with the word heritage. It can be said that the purpose of heritage is to guarantee the survival of social groups and to interconnect some generations with each other and according to this, it can be accumulated, lost or transformed from one generation to another. Heritage is a resource to be valued and can be used to be at the service of sustainable development, as it originates numerous tourist activities. It is necessary to consider that the cultural heritage is constituted by everything that history transmitted, culture in its immaterial dimension: language and customs, folklore, musical and artistic traditions, dances, homemade products, culinary specialties, crafts, and ancient know-how. For Rodríguez Becerra the concept of heritage refers to the legacy that we have inherited from the past and that we pass on to future generations, and heritage cannot be understood only as the tangible vestiges of the historical process. There is a cultural choice underlying the desire to bequeath the cultural heritage to future generations. And there is also a notion of ownership on the part of a certain group in relation to the legacy that is collectively inherited. The notion of heritage arises “when an individual or a group of individuals identifies an object or a set of objects as their own” [3]. The determining element that defines the concept of heritage is its ability to symbolically represent an identity [17]. And being the symbols privileged vehicles of cultural transmission, the human being maintains close links with the past. It is through this past-present identity that we collectively recognize ourselves as equals, that we identify with the rest of our group and that we differentiate ourselves from the rest. There are few studies on maritime communities, as complex societies, with different groups directly and linked maritime life, with fishing communities being one of the examples of maritime communities [15].

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Fishing communities are coastal communities that use resources that rely on coastal ecosystems for their livelihood and food. The elements that make up a fishing destination are the natural, sociocultural and/or built environment where tourist and nontourist activities are developed, this environment, as a general rule, is located by the water, as most fishing activity occurs in the coast and also in the inland rivers. A markedly maritime society is one that is built in association with a port and that takes advantage of maritime dynamics as a determining factor and whose population develops specific social processes and dynamics. These communities are heterogeneous, with complex histories, intergroup dynamics and patterns of resource use and therefore are one of the main differentiating elements that make tourists travel and visit them and simultaneously experience ways of life and products [7]. According to the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the US, cited by OECD, cultural tourism translates into the creation of jobs and businesses, the increase in tax revenues, the diversification of the local economy, the possibility of creating partnerships, in attracting visitors interested in the history and culture of the place, in increasing the revenues provided by cultural attractions, in preserving local traditions, in promoting investments in historic places, in developing a sense of pride in cultural heritage and in increasing notoriety the location [14]. The Northern Region Coordination and Development Commission sees tourism as an essential axis of its development strategy because it assumes that, on the one hand, the Tourism-Leisure cluster is a priority strategic sector for the country and that it can provide an important contribution, namely through the increase in external revenues, to cover the trade deficit and to fight unemployment [13]. On the other hand, it also recognizes the contribution that tourism can make to enhancing the country’s natural and cultural heritage, as well as improving the quality of life of the Portuguese and mitigating regional asymmetries. Traveling to meet people, traditions, stories and learn about the past in a lively and authentic way has been one of the strongest trends in tourism. According to Barretto, tourists who travel with this objective go in search of cultural tourism, one in which the main attraction is some aspect of human culture, be it history, daily life, handicrafts or any other aspect that the concept of culture covers [2]. Naturally, all tourist activity should be thought of as a possible sustainable activity, capable of inducing and contributing to local development, concerned with the preservation of natural resources, with the inclusion of the local community in economic activity and with the conservation of the historical heritage- cultural. Through correct planning and gradual development and constant monitoring, tourist approaches can generate jobs and income for the local community, they can provide the emergence of new markets and encourage the implementation of new infrastructure and the appearance of services and resources associated with local traditions. The driving and inherent problematic of the project is related to the growing concern regarding the loss/ forgetfulness of these traditions, due to the fact that the new generations do not dedicate themselves as much to fishing as their ancestors, in addition to the sustainable economic development aspect due to creation of services and products typical of these communities, making them more dynamic. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, in 2019, the world´s accounted direct, indirect and induced impact represents US$8.9 trillion contribution to

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the world’s GDP, 10.3% of global GDP, 330 million jobs, 1 in 10 jobs around the world, US$1.7 trillion visitor exports (6.8% of total exports, 28.3% of global services exports) and US$948 billion capital investment (4.3% of total investment) [21]. This shows that more and more people are dedicated to leisure and looking for new experiences and knowledge. And with the tourism sector full of identical experiences, tourists are looking for new activities that unite natural resources and culture, where heritage appears as an advantageous resource compared to other places, making it if differentiating. In this way, the heritage passes to be a “competitive argument in development strategies.” [18]. The less developed and great potential, which meets the new need for tourism and the new way of captivating tourists, is cultural and heritage tourism. Although Prentice claims that heritage tourism is a form of cultural tourism [20]. This new type of tourism is a good tool for economic development as it aims to attract tourists outside the community, through historical, artistic, scientific or lifestyle/ heritage offers from a community, region, group or institution as claimed by Silberberg, 1995. Tourists looking for this new type of tourism intend to choose trips focused on landscapes, lifestyles, values, traditions and events [16]. The organizations considered important for this type of tourism are libraries because they can develop and improve tourism through the documents and materials they have as well as technical competencies and equipment [20]. With the development of this type of tourism, locals have used their cultural resources for tourism, originating the creation of programs for the restoration, revitalization or even strengthening of a community [16] that will have more care and concern for their heritage, causing more initiatives that promote the “safeguarding and enhancement of heritage” and it also provide new developments and renovations of resources [6]. Therefore, “heritage emerges as a differentiating resource (…), using it increasingly to obtain comparative advantages between places” [18], in this sense a good opportunity for tourism development associated with the informational heritage. Tourism will make the economy move with the increase in business revenues, increasing the quality of life in the sense that there is more money, developing the place and increasing the visibility of the community. According to the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, “Cultural and heritage tourists stay longer and spend more money than other kinds of travelers thus making such tourism an important economic development tool” [16]. However, this tourism raises a big question: authenticity. According to Rosenfeld, this tourism must be sustainable, and it must find a balance in order to preserve and develop using carefully technologies. This type of tourism can be organized through the availability of thematic “routes, itineraries, circuits and routes designed in networks” that promote all types of heritage, from the material to the cultural and even the immaterial [18]. The purpose of cultural and heritage routes “is to raise awareness of cultural identity (…) based on shared values and provide opportunities for (…) development” [16], safeguarding and enhancing cultural heritage and allowing the local community to stand out. There are several thematic routes and tourists see them as a way to “recover a cultural identity, belonging to history, that at some point, they either feel they have lost, or just want to

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(re) know and be an active part of it.” [18]. This usage of heritage will only enhance and reinforce the importance of the place and the tourist activities that it can present. With this informational heritage, there is the possibility of creating routes or other types of services and products, which have already been mentioned above, based on old community routines within a certain theme. In the case of “The Fisherman’s Route”, the informational heritage will allow us to identify routes that both fishermen did at sea, as well as the community did on land. It also made it possible to revitalize festive traditions, such as Christmas Eve supper, which, over time loses interest among the younger generations. Carvalho mentions “The integration of heritage in the economic, social and cultural development processes of territories and populations, reveals a wide and complex typology of strategies/ interventions, which includes leisure activities” [6]. As Hadžić states “on the one hand, cultural heritage can serve as a tourist attraction, while tourism can lead to financial and political support” [10]. On the other hand, the lack of specialized professionals is the problem in the management of this type of tourism, because they may not know how to use all the information they have in the best way and even all the technology available [5]. The UNESCO [8] and the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) both emphasize the need to promote research and training of professionals of documentary heritage and providing the means to do so [11]. Information and Communication Technologies have a fundamental role in this type of tourism because it allows the preservation of informational heritage as it allows its dissemination [5].

3 The Fisherman’s Route Project 3.1

Method

This project intends to use the informational heritage, about the fishing community, as a strategic resource for the development of tourist activities, so that the community can enjoy it in a sustainable way and, simultaneously, promote local development, collecting information that is not registered, traditions that are passed on from generations to generations and add it to the information already registered in order to be able to share and preserve it. But it also allows the rest of the country and international audience to get to know this community, which is so rich in knowledge and experience. The general objective of this work was to use informational heritage previously collected and research more in order to suggest a pedestrian route, that allows the community to obtain more economic resources, in a sustainable way – the work breakdown structure is presented on Fig. 1. The specific results to be achieved were: a) finalize the design of the pedestrian route; b) create the process for registering the pedestrian route associated with the Fisherman’s Route as an Urban Route. To certify the pedestrian route, it was necessary to gather all the information already produced on it, contact the regulatory authority that certifies this type of path, the Portugal Camping and Mountaineering Federation (FCMP), complete and send the technical file and the route design. For this it was necessary to use computer applications that would allow to

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obtain necessary data on the terrain such as Runtastic by Adidas (used by convenience, it was already installed on the smartphone used and allowed to export data), Google Maps, Google Earth.

Fig. 1. Work breakdown structure of the project.

3.2

The Project Development

After analyzing the necessary materials and information, it is concluded that the topics dependent on bureaucracies would be: • A route maintenance plan, which consists of the name and contact details of the entity responsible for periodic supervision and maintenance; • The typology of complementary signage, figures of information panels, signs and posts, with the respective dimensions and typology of the information included, as well as the materials used and the number of units of each typology necessary to mark the route; • The necessary authorizations for the movement of people, the marking of the route and the implementation of complementary signs; • Written declaration to assume the obligation to comply with the maintenance plan for a period of 5 years; • Timing of the implementation phase on the ground; • Map the route in the Military Letter of Portugal, from the Army Geographic Institute, on a scale of 1/25 000. To write the project proposal, we gathered all the existing information about the route and checked which points were missing. An important part that needed to be done was the identification of elements on the ground along the route such as the number of kilometers, altitude profile, route profile, among others. At the end of the recognition, the data collected with the application was also possible to export in KML.

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The route goes through and identifies the coastal fishing area, places of religious worship, shipyards and the fishing districts of Caxinas and Poça da Barca. Along with these elements, others are a mandatory requirement for registering routes in accordance with the FCMP regulations.The elements of the land, such as geological, fauna, flora and forest, were identified, with the collaboration of the Center for Environmental Monitoring and Interpretation (CMIA). Information was also collected about stately homes, architectural aspects, traditional festivals, gastronomy and monuments that were part of the route, in the Municipal Archive and in the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage of Portugal, as well as through the collaboration of the Parish Council and the Municipality of Vila do Conde. The Figs. 2 and 3 show the outline of the pedestrian route.

Fig. 2. Google Earth total route print.

Fig. 3. Altimetric profile of the entire route.

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4 Conclusions Tourism is constantly evolving and is assumed to be an activity of great importance for the country, therefore, Portugal must invest more and more in its development and its connection to the sea, since the country has the knowledge, and the natural conditions to do so. In turn, these requirements provide for the transformation of a community with strong and ancestral links to the sea and fishing in a tourist destination. One of the partners in this transformation may be the information professional. One of the impacts of tourism is the potential contribution to regional development. According to Beni, tourism is an important element of the social and economic life of the regional community, as it reflects the real aspirations of people to enjoy new places, assimilate different cultures, rest and benefit from leisure activities [4]. But tourism also has an important economic value as it helps economic development and the environment of peripheral regions. Thus, cultural tourism is an important element for the development of a region and has contributed to promote the involvement of communities with its history, its cultural attractions and its social memory [12]. With the promotion of heritage, it is intended to enable local development, with the integration of the community and creating sustainability through tourism as said by Silva [18] and Carvalho [6]. With this usage of heritage, the need arose to research all informational heritage that already exists and that is not written, but which is often intrinsic in communities, such as intangible heritage [6]. Regarding the urban route, the present work is not finished, it is a work in progress. The biggest difficulty of this project is the implementation of the route, namely in terms of the completion of bureaucratic aspects and of articulation between the different local government bodies. The information professional has always existed, but was only subdivided into archivists, librarians and documentalists [17]. Increasingly, in the 21st century we need to know how to monetize, responsibly and profitably, information, including informational heritage. The professional that Souza identifies will be the mediator between producers and holders of information and their users and consumers [19]. Information, if used well, can become an essential resource for transforming a society. The information professional must be able to value information related to society and allow it to evolve in a sustainable and sustainable way, through tourist activities, for example [1]. These professionals have the skills to collaborate in the development of cultural and heritage tourism, using information registered in libraries and archives, or unregistered, that may allow the reconstruction of old activities and that can become tourist activities. In the case of “The Fisherman’s Route”, the information professional has the role of guaranteeing the safeguarding of the informational heritage of these fishing communities. Yet, the professional must identify the traditions transmitted orally, in the community, so as not to get lost and to preserve themselves. It will also mediate the relationship between the community and traditions by promoting, through its survey, characterization and registration, the creation of tourist activities that can positively impact the community and its sustainable economic development.

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References 1. Amaral, S.: Marketing e desafio profissional em unidades de informação. Ciência da Informação, IBICT, 25(3), Brasil (1996) 2. Barreto, M.: Turismo e legado cultural: as possibilidades do planejamento. Papirus, São Paulo (2000) 3. Becerra, S.R.: Patrimonio cultural, patrimonio antropológico y museos de antropología. Boletín del Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico 21, 42–52 (1997) 4. Beni, C.M.: Política e estratégia do desenvolvimento regional - Planejamento integrado e sustentável do turismo. Teoria e Prática. Atlas, São Paulo, Turismo (2000) 5. Bovero, E.: Cultural tourism and libraries. new learning needs for information professionals. In: 75th IFLA General Conference and Council. Milan (2009) 6. Carvalho, P.: Património e Museus em contexto rural: dos lugares de memória aos territórios do lazer e do turismo. Fundación Universitaria, Andaluza Inca, Patrimónios e Lazeres Turísticos. Málaga (2012) 7. Christie, P.: Is integrated coastal management sustainable? Ocean Coastal Manag. 48(3–6), 208–232 (2005) 8. Edmondson, R.: Recommendation concerning the preservation of, and access to, documentary heritage including in digital form, UNESCO (2015) 9. Freland, F.X.: Capturing the intangible: perspectives on the living heritage. UNESCO, France (2009) 10. Hadžić, O.: Tourism and digitization of cultural heritage. Pregled nacionalnog Centra za Digitalizaciju, (5), 74–79 (2004) 11. IFLA Homepage. https://www.ifla.org/node/91669 Accessed 26 June 2020 12. Lucas, S. M.: Turismo cultural no Vale do Paraíba - Uma experiência histórica. In: Turismo, novo caminho no espaço rural brasileiro, atas do 2º Congresso Brasileiro de Turismo Rural, Brazil (2000) 13. Ministério do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional. Comissão de Coordenação e Desenvolvimento Regional do Norte: Plano de Ação para o Desenvolvimento Turístico do Norte de Portugal, Porto (2008) 14. OECD Homepage. https://www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism/theimpactofcultureontourism.htm Accessed 26 June 2020 15. Polónia, A.: Vila do Conde: Um porto nortenho na expansão ultramarina quinhentista. Universidade do Porto, Portugal, Porto (1999) 16. Rosenfeld, R.: Cultural and Heritage Tourism. Eastern Michigan University, Municipal Economic Tool Kit project (2008) 17. Silva, A.M., Ribeiro, F.: Formação, perfil e competências do profissional da Informação. In: Atas do Congresso Nacional de Bibliotecários, Arquivistas e Documentalistas. 8, Estoril (2004) 18. Silva, S.: Património, Lazeres Turísticos e Desenvolvimento: dos Lugares às Redes. Universidade de Málaga, Espanha, Patrimónios e Lazeres Turísticos (2012) 19. Souza, J.: O perfil do profissional da informação bibliotecário e o mercado de trabalho: diretrizes para pesquisa. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil (2010) 20. Tosic, V., Lazarevic, S.: The Role of Libraries in the development of cultural tourism with special emphasis to the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Egypt. UTMS J. Econ. 1(2), 107–114 (2010) 21. WTTC Homepage. https://wttc.org/Research/Economic-Impact Accessed 26 Jun 2020

Analysis of Maturity Level of the Management System in Hotel Sector Companies Alexander Parody Muñoz1(&), Malory Beatriz Guerra Lara2, Wilfrido Montes Lopesierra3, Bulmaro Fuentes Morales4, and Miguel Santana5 1

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Industrial Engineering Program, Universidad Libre Seccional Barranquilla, Barranquilla, Colombia [email protected] 2 Master in Integrated Management Systems, Bogota, Colombia [email protected] 3 Universidad de La Guajira, Riohacha, La Guajira, Colombia [email protected] PhD in Information Technology Integration in Organizations, Barranquilla, Colombia [email protected] 5 Universidad de La Costa, Barranquilla, Colombia [email protected]

Abstract. The main purpose of this research is to evaluate the impact of maturity in quality management systems on assets, income and current ratio in companies of the hotel sector in the city of Barranquilla and its metropolitan area, based on the analysis of the level of maturity of the system and the application of multivariate statistical models. To achieve this, the Business Management strategies of this sector were characterized, based on a structured model of variables and based on field data referring to a representative sample of companies in the sector (n = 64). With this information, the determining factors in the level of maturity of the quality management systems were identified, which allowed to know if the processes developed in a management system, such as these, in the Hotel Sector, impact positively or negatively on the performance of the sector’s companies based on assets, income and the current ratio by means of a multiple regression model, since, although these processes are being implemented, there are no current studies that evidence the contributions to the performance of the sector’s companies. Keywords: Level of implementation
Organizational system
Formal and informal management system
Quality system
Business economic performance

1 Introduction According to a report by the World Tourism Organization in 2015, “for several years, international tourism has grown because many destinations have been concerned about having programs and policies that allow them to offer the qualities that travelers seek, so they have invested in infrastructure, education and jobs among other factors” [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 490–497, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_41

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In this regard, it must be said that every day more hotel companies are concerned about improving the quality of service, which is reflected in the high interest observed in these organizations in relation to the implementation of quality management systems. Likewise, in its reports, the World Tourism Organization points out that “so important has this sector become in world trade that it now ranks fourth in the most important sectors after fuels, chemicals and food products” [2]. In this regard, it should be noted that, according to experts in the field, this sector is not just important for developed countries, but that, on the contrary, tourism represents one of the main sources of income and economy in developing countries. According to statistics from the Colombian Hotel and Tourism Association (COTELCO for its name in Spanish), this sector has shown good levels of growth in recent years [3]. But in 2004, Albacete stated that “this promising panorama must be accompanied by the implementation of real management systems in hotel organizations, given that the quality of service is becoming more and more relevant every day, because if it is managed properly, it allows organizations to achieve competitive advantages that generate incalculable added value for them. The author considers that “in addition, loyalty actions aimed at increasing customer loyalty show that even today the efforts made by hoteliers have not been sufficient to consolidate the competitiveness of the sector” [4].

2 Level of Maturity of Quality Management Systems When analyzing the importance of a quality system for the management of hotel services, it is found that academic papers justify the study of quality from different points of view that are supported by different scholars on the topic of tourism worldwide. In that sense, it can be stated that “the trends that characterize the development of the tourism and hotel sector, with changes in the intensity and distribution of tourist flows, have changed the environment and the way of competing” [5]. In 2001, López and Serrano mentioned that “this scenario obliges businesses in the tourism sector to refocus their competitive strategy in the market, moving from one centered on prices to another focused on obtaining elements of differentiation [6]. In the same sense, Poon, in the 90’s, stated that “this scenario implies that the competitiveness of the hotel establishment, must focus on improving service through better quality of service and the search for differentiating elements” [7]. For Ingram and Daskalakis, “the search for greater competitiveness makes quality a key issue for the hotel industry” [8]. In that sense, Getty and Thompson, believe that the “viability of the company is directly related to consumer satisfaction. A quality service has a direct impact on customer satisfaction” [9]. 2.1

Defining the Sector

According to Mestres Soler, “the hotel sector includes all those establishments that are traditionally and professionally devoted to providing accommodation to people, by means of price, with or without services of a complementary nature”. The hotel sector in the district of Barranquilla and its metropolitan area is made up as follows: Three (3) large, two (2) medium, one hundred and twelve (112) micro and sixteen (16) small establishments, for a total of one hundred and thirty-three

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accommodation establishments that are duly registered with the Barranquilla District Chamber of Commerce. During the Jan–Oct 2016 period, the total number of travelers was 4,047,828, growing 11.2% compared to the previous year, that is, 406,756 more travelers arrived than in 2015. Travelers classified as non-resident foreigners and cross-border travelers are the most representative for the period, participating with 52.2% and 29.5% respectively; followed by Colombian residents abroad with 13.1%, according to reports from Migration Colombia, Maritime Ports, and the Vice-Ministry of Tourism. Values from the year 2016 were taken as a reference to evaluate the hotel dynamics due to the fact that subsequent years were altered by the migration of Venezuelans to the country.

3 Methodology This research is considered to be of a descriptive and field type because it is framed within a real problem, interpreting the current nature of the facts under study such as that of carrying out an evaluation of the degree of maturity and its relationship with variables associated with the economic performance of companies in the Hotel sector in the city of Barranquilla and its metropolitan area. In that order of ideas, it should be noted that the universe of study for this research was conformed by the 133 hotels of the District of Barranquilla and its Metropolitan area that are duly registered in the Chamber of Commerce. The data collection and processing tasks were carried out with a confidence level of 95% and an estimated error of 5%. After making the respective calculations, it was determined that the sample size, considering that the population is finite, made up of 133 units, would be 65, taking a p of 9% given the high homogeneity of the study population. Subsequently, a detailed review of the state of the art associated with the measurement of maturity in management systems was carried out, identifying the preponderant factors associated with the level of maturity of the system. A questionnaire was designed to obtain the variables under study related to the degree of implementation, maturity and economic performance, with categorized questions and Likert scale answers that have five (5) response options or estimation categories for each of the questions, as shown in Table 1. In the present research, the instrument used was validated by applying the technique of expert judgment, with professionals with expertise in the area of research methodology and Management Systems, specifically in the area of Quality; with the purpose of objectively evaluating whether the content identifies contrasts and sufficient elements for data collection. In order to test the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test was applied and Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (alpha) was calculated, obtaining a value of 96.33%, which allows establishing that the instrument is reliable when measuring the level of maturity of the management systems in the hotels of the city. Sixty-five hotels were randomly selected from the population of 133 and the survey was applied to them in addition to establishing the values corresponding to the level of assets, income and current ratio for each business. Subsequently, multiple regression models were applied to establish the factors associated with the level of maturity of the management system in the hotels of the city.

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4 Results The multiple regression model for the level of assets yielded a p-value of 0.0 for the model’s ANOVA and of the 20 questions in the instrument, questions 11, 17 and 18 were the ones that showed a statistically significant relationship with the level of assets as can be seen in the ANOVA Table 2 for the independent variables. Table 1. Questionnaire to measure the maturity level of the management system in hotel sector companies Question

1

Does the organization periodically analyze its environment, in the aspects that can influence it?

2

Does the organization define its strategic direction?

3

Is there a management focus?

4

Does the organization identify, analyze and update information on the needs and expectations of its customers, suppliers, employees and other stakeholders?

5

Is the company planned, as well as its strategy and policies?

6

Are company policies and strategy communicated?

7

Does the Organization determine and provide the necessary resources for the operation of its processes?

8

Is a leadership approach defined?

9

Are there spaces to decide what is important?

10

Are daily activities organized?

11

Is there a tactical planning (for the management of the operational levels) of the company?

12

Are product/service processes tracked to control changes?

13

Does the organization have defined criteria for the acquisition of goods and services?

14

Does the organization identify and control nonconforming processes, products and services?

15

Is the control of non-conforming products and services carried out?

16

Does senior management review compliance with corporate strategy, policies and objectives?

17

Does the organization carry out internal audits at planned intervals to provide information about whether the applied management model is in line with the organization’s own requirements?

18

Does the organization carry out inspections of its processes?

19

Does the company establish improvement actions when it identifies non-conformities?

20

Does the organization identify convenient improvement opportunities to implement in the processes?

Nonexistent

Initial

Intermediate/formalized

Advanced and measurable

Improved and automated

Integrated

494

A. P. Muñoz et al. Table 2. Multiple regression—asset level Statistical error Parameter Estimate P11 0.447034 P17 0.450384 P18 −0.458098

Standard T P-value 0.110329 4.05183 0.0001 0.165387 2.72321 0.0085 0.173978 −2.63308 0.0107

The adjusted R-square obtained for the model was 83%, therefore it could explain the behavior of the level of assets in the hotels through the generated regression model: Asset Level ¼ 0:447034  P11 þ 0:450384  P17  0:458098  P18

ð1Þ

Question 11 corresponds to “Is there a tactical planning (for the management of the operational levels) of the company?”, question 17 to “Does the organization carry out internal audits at planned intervals to provide information about whether the applied management model is in accordance with the organization’s own requirements?” and question 18 to “Does the organization carry out inspections of its processes? (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1. Component plot + remainder for Ind 1

The quality assumptions of the regression model were tested, verifying the homoscedasticity of variance of the prognostic errors versus the questions that were significant, the predicted values and the row number. Additionally, the test of goodness of fit of Kolomogorov–Smirnov to the residues was performed, proving that these follow a normal distribution (p value of 0.2014) and that the mean of the errors is very close to zero (0.021).

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The multiple regression model for the income level yielded a p-value of 0.0 in the model’s ANOVA and of the questions in the instrument, only question 10 showed a statistically significant relationship with the income level as can be seen in the ANOVA table for the independent variables (Table 3): Table 3. Multiple regression—income level Statistical error Parameter Estimate Standard T P-value P10 0.384181 0.0224732 17.095 0.0000

The adjusted R-square obtained for the model was 83%, so it could explain the behavior of the level of assets in the hotels through the regression model generated: Income Level ¼ 0; 384181  P10

ð2Þ

Question 10 corresponds to “Are daily activities organized? (Fig. 2) 3,4

2,4

1,4

0,4

-0,6 0

1

2

3 P10

4

5

6

Fig. 2. Component plot + remainder for Ind 2

In the test of the quality assumptions of the regression model the homoscedasticity of variance of the prediction errors was verified against question 10, the predicted values and the row number, but the test of goodness of fit of Kolomogorov-Smirnov to the residues showed that they do not follow a normal distribution (p-value of 0.013), although the mean of the errors is very close to zero (0.043). The multiple regression model for the current ratio yielded a p-value of 0.0 in the model’s ANOVA and of the 20 questions in the instrument, questions 12, 13 and 14 were the ones that showed a statistically significant relationship with the current ratio as can be seen in the ANOVA Table 4 for the independent variables.

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A. P. Muñoz et al. Table 4. Multiple regression—current ratio Statistical error Parameter Estimate P12 0.317901 P13 0.520234 P14 −0.318228

Standard T P-value 0.13188 2.41054 0.0190 0.123799 4.20226 0.0001 0.141924 −2.24224 0.0287

The adjusted R-square obtained for the model was 84%, therefore it can explain the behavior of the current ratio in the hotels through the generated regression model: Current Ratio ¼ 0; 317901  P12 þ 0; 520234  P13  0; 318228  P14

ð3Þ

Question 12 corresponds to “Are the product/service processes monitored for change control, and question 13 refers to “Does the organization have defined criteria for the acquisition of goods and services?”. And question 14 refers to “Does the organization identify and control non-conforming processes, products and services? (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Component plot + remainder for Ind 3

The quality assumptions of the regression model were tested, verifying the homoscedasticity of variance of the prognostic errors versus the questions that were significant, the predicted values and the row number. Additionally, the test of goodness of fit of Kolomogorov–Smirnov to the residues was performed, proving that these follow a normal distribution (p value of 0.4814) and that the mean of the errors is very close to zero (0.041).

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5 Conclusion From the first model, it can be concluded that tactical planning of operations and planned audits to determine the level of agreement between the applied management model and the requirements of the organization contribute to increase the levels of assets in the hotels. Although this is negatively influenced with respect to frequent inspections, it is necessary to study more thoroughly if an over-inspection phenomenon is occurring that is affecting operational behavior and is reflected in the level of assets in the hotels. From the second model, it was possible to demonstrate that when the level of organizational maturity in relation to management is greater than the programming and planning of activities, a positive impact on the level of income in the hotels is achieved. And from the last model, it is possible to point out that the follow-up of the processes to control the changes and the definition of clear criteria for the acquisition of goods and services help to increase the level of the current ratio in the hotels, although it is necessary to study in depth the reason for the negative association with the advanced management on the non-conforming products and services. The hotels that have focused a lot on improving their management on the non-conformities are those that are showing liquidity problems, so this improvement in the management is part of their implemented improvement strategies. In conclusion, the multivariate models generated showed a high capacity to explain the behavior of the financial indexes studied (R squared above 80%) and the great majority complied with the assumptions in the behavior of the waste, so that they become reliable tools to evaluate the impact of the level of maturity of the management system on its economic performance.

References 1. Organización Mundial del Turismo: Panorama OMT del turismo internacional. Sección Datos y cifras en mkt.unwto.org (2015) 2. Cotelco y Jones Lang La Salle: Hotelería en Números—Colombia (2012) 3. Albacete, C.A.: Calidad de servicio en alojamientos rurales. Universidad de Granada, Granada (2004) 4. Aguiló, E.: Evolución y expectativas de la actividad turística. En Introducción a la economía del turismo en España, Pedreño, A. (Dtor.) y Monfort, V. (coord.), Civitas, Madrid (1996) 5. López, M., Serrano, A.: Dimensiones y medición de la calidad de servicio en empresas hoteleras. Revista Colombiana de Marketing 2(3) (2001). Recuperado el 10/12/2012. de: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=10900303 6. Poon, A.: Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies. CAB International, Oxford (1993) 7. Ingram, H., Daskalakis, G.: Measuring quality gaps in hotels: the case of Crete. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 11(1), 24–30 (1999) 8. Getty, J.M., Thompson, K.N.: The relationship between quality, satisfaction, and recommending behavior in lodging decisions. J. Hosp. Leis. Mark. 2(3), 3–22 9. Rodríguez-Sánchez, J.L., Mercado-Caruso, N., Viloria, A.: Managing human resources resistance to organizational change in the context of innovation. In: Marketing and Smart Technologies, pp. 330–340. Springer, Singapore (2020)

Challenges and Opportunities for Island Tourist Destinations: The Case of the Island of Sal, Cape Verde Gilberto A. Neves1 , Catarina S. Nunes2,3 and Paula Odete Fernandes4(&)

,

1

2

Universidade Aberta, Rua do Amial 762, 4200-055 Porto, Portugal [email protected] Departamento de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Aberta, Rua do Amial 762, 4200-055 Porto, Portugal [email protected] 3 INEGI/LAETA, Porto, Portugal 4 Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The Tourism Area Life Cycle destination goes through different phases from its exploration until its decline or rejuvenation. The knowledge about these different phases allows the improvement of investment decisions by the private sector or by the government, in a context of challenges and opportunities. The main objective of this study was to verify in which phase the Island of Sal and Cape Verde were at an individual and competitive level during the period 2010–2018, considering the Tourism Development Index (TDI). To calculate the TDI, destinations with the same ‘sun and beach’ market were chosen, such as the Dominican Republic, Morocco, Tunisia and the Canary Islands, because they compete for the same European market and their geographical proximity to this market; data from government and non-government sources were used. It was concluded that the Island of Sal is in the Development phase, the same phase as that of Cape Verde. As for competitiveness, they are in the exploration and stagnation phase, both needing to increase the TDI to 48% and 43%, respectively to reach the involvement phase. For the calculation of the TDI, data from Cape Verde can be used to analyse the Sal Island index and vice versa. Strategic policies must be considered in the long term, incorporating information on the relative positions of direct competitors and unexpected events such as COVID 19, which can be seen as an opportunity to diversify the offer, create new segments and discover new inbound markets. Keywords: Tourism Area Life Cycle Island


Tourism Development Index
Sal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 498–508, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_42

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1 Introduction Tourism today represents a highly competitive sector and has been assumed as an alternative or even as the main driver of development for countries and localities, whose dynamism and complexity permeate other crosscutting segments, corroborating its potential for profitability and sustainability. However, when these countries have integrated tourism products and a defined geographical area, establishing themselves as a tourist destination, they end up facing competitors for the same source markets. However, what is “tourism”? There are several definitions and ideas on tourism however, according to Balanzá and Nadal [1], a consensus has not been reached. Cooper et al. [2] indicate that tourism is “a multidimensional and multifaceted activity, which has contact with many different lives and economic and social activities”, therefore, “the discussions on the concept of tourism are intrinsically related to the context, […] and they can cover tourists, or what tourists do, or the agents that serve them, and so on” [p. 4]. The World Tourism Organization sees this sector of economic development as a rapidly growing industry worldwide that expands businesses and creates new products, and as a tool for poverty reduction in the least developed countries. Therefore, it is vital for sustainable development. Looking at the data, globally in the last two years the flow of tourists has been gaining another, with a 7% increase in 2017 (the largest increase since 2010) and another 5% increase in 2018 [3, 4]. This translated into a sharp increase in exports generated by tourism, which reached 1.6 trillion dollars in 2017 and more than 1.7 trillion in 2018, converting tourism in one of the most important export sectors in the world. In addition to the $1.6 billion in revenue received by destinations, international tourism generated another $256 billion in international passenger transportation by non-residents. One thing is certain, tourism reaches everyone this is done regardless of the level of development of the countries, according to Zaei and Zaei [5]. Returning to the question of competitiveness, according to Coelho and Lourenço [6] the conquest of source markets depends, on the ability of destinations to differentiate themselves from their competitors, both in terms of basic resources and strategic performance. However, the strategies have been based on input from technicians and stakeholders, and often without regard to the importance of the life cycle of the tourist destination. It should be noted that Coelho and Butler [7] affirm that for each phase of the cycle there is a different strategy. In this context, the main objective of this research is to verify in which phase the Island of Sal and Cape Verde were at an individual and competitive level during the period 2010–2018, considering the Tourism Development Index (TDI). This article is structured after the present introduction, as follows. Section 2, presents a brief overview of tourism on the Island. The third section the concepts of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) and the Tourism Development Index (TDI) will be presented, that is, the methodology that supports the present investigation will be presented. The analysis of the results obtained is carried out in Sect. 4, where the life cycle is identified both by the Butler model [8] and by the [6] approach. Finally, the conclusions, summarizing the essential elements of the study.

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2 Overview of Tourism in the Island of Sal The island has been growing demographically at an average annual growth rate of 4,5% and currently has a resident population of at least 38.243 inhabitants [9, 10], with approximately 6,8% of the population residing in Cape Verde. Its economy is markedly touristy with a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 151.752,60 euros1 with a predominance of the tertiary sector that generates 2/3 of the island’s wealth, with a GDP/per capita of 4.496,69 euros. Transport and storage are the main economic activity with 23,6% of the island’s wealth, determined mainly by the airport. The Island continues to grow up with 30 tourist establishments, 10,6% of the total existing in the country and an accommodation capacity of 13.451 guests and 343.211 guests (47,9%) and 2.519.487 overnight stays in 2017. Of visitors arriving in the Island of Sal as a tourist destination, those from the United Kingdom are the most frequent (86.731) followed by Belgium and the Netherlands (39.392) and Germany (29.470). There are 5.068 people employed by hotel establishments, of which 55% are Cape Verdeans and 52% women. In terms of the number of rooms and beds, the Island of Sal is one of the islands with the highest expression (45,7% and 44,7%) at the national level [9, 11]. Considering the Island of Sal tourist potential, different types of tourism can be developed from ‘sun and beach’ tourism (diving, windsurfing, surfing, kitesurfing, kite beaching, shark bay, fishing and sports); nature tourism (hiking, cycling, quads, the tour of the island), cultural tourism (Museum of Sal, handicrafts, Palmeira town, Pedra de Lume village, gastronomy) and health tourism (massage/spa, mud baths, baths salt, specialized health services). Santa Maria beach with 3 km of white sands was named by TripAdvisor as one of the 25 most beautiful beaches in the world and one of the seven wonders of Cape Verde.

3 Methodology and Methods 3.1

Tourism Area Life Cycle Approach

The model of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) destination mostly used to describe the development of tourism over time, according to [12] is that of Butler [8], with five phases of the cycle (see Fig. 1). With this model, decision-makers depend on knowledge of the destination life cycle phase to determine their strategic options [8]. However, this model has some limitations identified by [13]. For example, concerning to the indicators that determine when the change in phase occurs, since it often checks different elements in different phases of the cycle, that is, it does not limit a single phase. The description of the model phases is as follows:

1

Monetary value converted into euros using the Banco de Portugal currency converter at www. bportugal.pt on 05/22/2020.

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Fig. 1. Evolution of the life cycle of a tourism destination (Source: Adapted from [8, p. 7]).

1. Exploration: In this phase, small groups of tourists appear in destinations and rarely stay in facilities for the local population. The social, economic and environmental impacts do not change. 2. Involvement: This phase is characterized by the regular increase in visitors to the destination and the perception of the community as a business opportunity. The community begins to realize the benefits and they begin to create exclusive accommodations for visitors. The focus of the population and the visitors becomes more formal and some sectors of the community are beginning to improve. Starts a process of advertising and marketing about the destination, as well as some organization. 3. Development: This is the pre-consolidation phase, the promotion of the destination intensifies, the number of tourists tends to be equal to or greater than that of the population, and the community begins to perceive some changes and social, economic and environmental impacts, both positive and negative. More tourist infrastructures are created in terms of the tourist environment, as well as the exploration of cultural and natural attractions. Foreign investment in the community increases. 4. Consolidation: Tourism becomes the main responsible for the economic development of the destination. The promotion of the destination takes on other dimensions and aims to increase the average stay of tourists diversify and conquer new markets. 5. Stagnation: At this stage, the destination has already reached or exceeded its maximum tourist capacity. It faces environmental, social and economic problems. Destination promotions carried out in other phases made it successful as a destination, but the peculiarities that characterized it cease to be so attractive. At this stage, two things can happen:

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5:1. Decline: In this stagnation phase, the destination begins to move towards the starting point, the exploratory phase, as it no longer has the ability to compete with other destinations, the number of tourists will drastically decrease and visits will become rarer. Tourist infrastructures lose their utility and the community tends to acquire them at low cost. 5:2. Rejuvenation: At this stage of stagnation, the destination bets on the exploration of other natural and cultural attractions, which until then had been little or nothing used. It is a phase of reinventing yourself with what is original in the destination. 3.2

Tourism Development Index

The TALC model not only established the stages through which a tourism destination passes, but it also has the limitation of not being able to distinguish when it happens. To solve this problem, [7] proposed a tool called Tourism Development Index (TDI), which would allow to deterministically quantifying the phases of the life cycle of a destination. Besides, the main concern shown in the index is to highlight a certain level of well-being of the local population as a result of tourism. This index is calculated according to the expression given by: TDIjt ¼

  n X 1 Dijt i¼1

n DiTt



    PTt Tjt  Pjt TTt

ð1Þ

where, Dijt —are the values of the variables ðiÞ in relation to the tourist conditions of the attractions and the fixation of the destination ð jÞ in a certain period of time ðtÞ, Pjt —the resident population of the destination ð jÞ in a determined period of time ðtÞ, Tjt —number of tourists in the destination ð jÞ in a determined period of time ðtÞ, DiTt —is the sum of the values of the variables ðiÞ in relation to the tourist conditions of the attractions and the fixation of the destination ð jÞ in a certain period of time ðtÞ, PTt —the sum of the population of all destinations ð jÞ in a certain period of time ðtÞ, TTt —the sum of the number of tourists in all destinations ð jÞ in a certain period of time ðtÞ. Coelho [14] presents a demonstration of the index through what he calls the TDI calculation matrix (see Table 1) with w destinations and n destination variables. Using destination 1 ðj ¼ 1Þ for a given period of time ðt ¼ 0Þ as an example, demonstrate expression (1) as follows: TDI1t¼0 ¼

  1 D =P1 D21 =P1 Dn1 =P1 P 11 P P P þP þ


þ P D2j0 = Pj0 Dnj0 = Pj0 n  D1j0 = Pj0 T1  P Tj0

ð2Þ

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Table 1. TDI calculation matrix (Source: Adapted from Coelho [14, p. 292]). Tourist Conditions Resident Population Tourists Variable 1 Variable 2 . . . Variable n D21 . . . Dn1 P1 T1 Destination 1 D11 Destination 2 D12 D22 . . . Dn2 P2 T2 .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . D2w . . . Dnw Pw Tw Destination w D1w P P P P P D1jt D2jt Pjt Tjt ... Dnjt

Rewriting expression (2), TDI1t¼0 ¼

P P P     1 D11  Pj0 D21  Pj0 Dn1  Pj0 T1 P þP þ


þ P  P n D1j0  P1 D2j0  P1 Dnj0  P1 Tj0 ð3aÞ 

TDI1t¼0 ¼

1 D D D P 11 þ P 21 þ


þ P n1 n D1j0 D2j0 Dnj0

P

 





Pj0 T1  P P1 Tj0

 ð3bÞ

This results in expression (1). The environmental, economic and sociocultural variables, related to the tourist conditions of attraction and fixation, are protected area, historical heritage, four and five-star hotels, animation activities, medical services, urban planning, security, accessibility, human resources training, information and communication, and urbanization plans. See the original TDI construction in [6, p. 24]. For a ‘sun and beach’ destination (as is the case of the Island of Sal), variables such as the quantity/quality of the beaches and other, provided they have a direct relationship with well-being [6]. This proposal led to the quantification of the Life Cycle for a competitive context, as shown in Table 2. Due to the diversity of the variables that constitute the factor Conditions of attraction and tourist fixation, the difficulty in obtaining the data in due time and what it is understood as goods and services available in a given region, Coelho and Lourenço [6] proposed the replacement of the set of variables related to that factor by the nominal variable of GDP. This represents a set of goods and services produced or available in a given region in a certain period, without considering transfers received or sent abroad. To carry out this substitution, [6] defined some assumptions and hypotheses that can be found in [6, p. 27–29]. All the hypotheses were verified and, because of this new approach, the TDI is given by the expression (4), and the variable GDP is now considered free of tourist income ðGDP Þ and a new variable —Tourist Income (TI): 1 TDIjt ¼ 2



       GDPjt TIjt PTt Tjt þ   GDPTt TITt Pjt TTt

ð4Þ

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Table 2. Different values of Tourism Development Index (TDI) corresponding to different angles of the stages of the life cycle (Source: [6, p. 23]). Life Cycle Phases Exploration Involvement Development Consolidation Stagnation

TDI values

Angle of the tangent line at the point of phase change

0\TDI\0; 194 0; 194  TDI\0; 577 0; 577  TDI\1; 401 1; 401\TDI\3; 019 TDI [ 3; 019

0 \a\11   11  a\30   30  a\90   11 \a\45   0  a\11





In addition, the new construction of the TDI that allows improving the model of the Life Cycle of a tourist destination (TALC) can be viewed in [6, p. 30]. Before continuing with this study, three hypotheses were put forward due to different opinions on the state of tourism on the Island of Sal and, consequently, in Cape Verde. Therefore, the following hypotheses were established to analyse the period 2010–2018: (1) the relative positioning and the stage of the life cycle of the Island of Sal in terms of competitiveness concerning other destinations with the same market as ‘sun and beach’ and looking for the same emission markets, in this case, the European market; (2) which of the destinations to use for the analysis of competitiveness through the TDI: Cape Verde or Island of Sal; (3) the stage of the tourist life cycle the Island of Sal at an individual level and whether one should consider the island as a tourist brand or the country in which it is inserted. To find the answers to the hypotheses proposed in this study, a bibliographic search was carried out referring to the Island of Sal and the country where it is inserted (Cape Verde), of the Life Cycle model of a tourist destination proposed by [8] as TDI proposed by [6, 7]. The analysis of the TALC of the Island of Sal and its TDI were performed in comparison with countries with the same type of tourism: ‘sun and beach’. The chosen countries were: Canary Islands, Morocco, Tunisia, and the Dominican Republic, since they are also those with a short distance in relation to the European market. For the analyses, data from the years 2010 and 2018 for each of the factors present in formula (4) were used, to make the appropriate comparisons in terms of competitiveness. The variables ‘GDP’, ‘Resident population’, ‘Tourist income’ and ‘Tourists’ were considered, as previously defined. To calculate the relative position of each country in its competitive context for the market considered ‘sun and beach’, Microsoft Excel was used. The data to support the calculations was obtained from governmental and non-governmental sources. The monetary values collected at the sources were in euros, dollars, dirhams and escudos, all of which were converted into euros using the Bank of Portugal’s currency converter at www.bportugal.pt. The same calculations made for the Island of Sal were made for Cape Verde, to verify the importance of the island and the archipelago.

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4 Presentation and Analysis of Results According to [15], the Island of Sal as a tourist destination, and within the ‘sun and beach’ segment, is in the third phase of its life cycle, that is, in a development phase. Due to the following characteristic reasons for this phase: in high seasons, the number of tourists is greater than the population; there is already pressure on the environment, basic and urban infrastructure; foreign investors are present on the island; the number of offers is increasing and the product is beginning to diversify and better living conditions for the population. Regarding the Life Cycle model proposed by [8], we found that Cape Verde’s Tourist Life Cycle in 2010 was in the exploration phase. The Strategic Plan for Tourism Development begins the process of promoting Cape Verde as a tourism brand and in 2018 in the Development phase (the number of tourists is greater than the country’s population; large hotel chains, mainly on the island of Sal; there is already a certain pressure on the environment and basic infrastructure, especially on the more touristy islands of Sal and Boa Vista; the living standards of Cape Verdeans improve mainly on these two islands). Regarding the Island of Sal, in 2010 it was in the Development phase, the same phase as in 2018, for the reasons described previously (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Life cycle phase of Cape Verde (CV) and the Island of Sal tourist destination 2010 and 2018 (Source: Own elaboration).

4.1

Tourism Development Index Applied to Cape Verde

With the values obtained in 2010, the Canary Islands led the market with a TDI of 0,9576, that corresponds to the development phase. Cape Verde (0,0044) was already in the exploration phase, as was the Dominican Republic (0,1796). Tunisia (0,2483) and Morocco (0,2188) were in the engagement phase. In relation to 2018, Cape Verde has a TDI of 0,0002, revealing a loss of position within its phase and in a worse competitive situation; The Dominican Republic also loses position (0,0099); and Tunisia (0,5493) showing an improvement in its relative position, being the destination that grew the most in 2018, remaining in the same phase despite its growth of around

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121%. The relative positioning of the remaining destinations has changed: the Canary Islands have a TDI of 0,0265, revealing a change from the development phase to the exploration phase; Morocco (0,0061), revealing also a negative change, moving from the involvement phase to the exploration phase, translating into the possibility of a decline, despite having increased the number of tourists by 32%. 4.2

Tourism Development Index Applied to the Island of Sal

With the values obtained in Table 3, one can see that in 2010 the Canary Islands led the market for ‘sun and beach’ with a TDI of 0,9619, standing in the range 0,577–1,401 that corresponds to the development phase. The Island of Sal (0,0039) was in the exploration phase, as well as the Dominican Republic (0,1798). Morocco (0,2191) and Tunisia (0,2486) were in the engagement phase. In relation to 2018, relative positions remained for three destinations: Island of Sal (0,0002), revealing a loss of position within its phase and in a worse competitive situation; Tunisia improves its position (0,5467), being the destination that grew the most in 2018, maintaining the same phase despite its growth around 120%; Dominican Republic (0,0099) also loses position. The Canary Islands (0,0265) has a change from the development phase to the exploration phase; Morocco (0,0061) has a negative change, moving from the involvement phase to the exploration phase, translating into the possibility of a decline.

Table 3. Determination of TDI (year 2010 and 2018) – Island of Sal (Source: Own elaboration). Destinations Island of Sal Canary Islands Dominican Republic Morocco Tunisia Total

Year Net GDP (€) 2010 143717 2018 197197 2010 40811 000 2018 45720000 2010 41683 000 2018 72589000 2010 70305 000 2018 100414000 2010 33231 000 2018 33760000 2010 26545 395 2018 260545395

Tourist recipe (€) 26013 196445 8028000 12895000 3859063514 6954102921 7580899397 6616376776 3223922114 1261010663 14844581804 14844581805

Population (no.) 25779 38243 2064876 2207225 9479000 10266000 32182000 35220000 10640000 11565204 59296672 59296672

Tourists (no.) 154115 379020 10649727 15559791 4125000 6500000 9288000 12300000 7828000 1400000000 1434738811 1434738811

TDI 0,0039 0,0002 0,9619 0,0265 0,1798 0,0099 0,2191 0,0061 0,2486 0,5467 1,6134 0,5893

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5 Conclusion The competitive situation, considering similar destinations, of Cape Verde and the Island of Sal is the same, which shows that they remained in the exploration phase for eight years (2010–2018). Given their relative loss of position, it is an indication that the two destinations are in a stagnant phase. In this competitive space (“sun and beach” market) the competitors of the Island of Sal/Cape Verde have not evolved in terms of tourism, except for Tunisia, which despite having grown more than 100%, did not change in relative terms which indicates a certain stagnation. The destination of the Dominican Republic is stagnant, and the destinations of Morocco and the Canary Islands are in decline. For Cape Verde and the Island of Sal to enter the exploration phase, in this market, their TDI is expected to grow 43% and 48% respectively, considering that their competitors improve little during the low period revision. In global terms, there is a certain reduction in inequalities in this market, since the total TDI went from 1,6133 in 2010 to 0,5893 in 2018, indicating that the Island of Sal tends to improve in terms of competitiveness. In that sense, the island got closer to developing destinations, albeit in a minor way. The same is true of Cape Verde. A limitation of these type of studies is related to the availability of the data. On the one hand, its quality remains questionable, since different institutions work with different collection criteria. On the other hand, the unavailability of these certain data and the need to resort to unofficial sources, making it difficult to compare destinations. Other competing destinations can be used in other studies and for other inbound markets, and it is advisable to apply the TDI of expression (1) using the set of variables that refer to the factor “Tourist conditions”. Since it is easier to obtain data for Cape Verde and because the calculation of the TDI of both destinations leads to the same phase of the life cycle, one can be recommended in some cases to use data from Cape Verde to analyse the Island of Sal, and this can be understood as the tourist brand of Cape Verde. Currently, the Island of Sal is amid a health crisis in the context of the pandemic COVID 19, significantly impacting tourist demand. This disturbance to tourism caught the destination unprepared, so it is necessary to include in planning strategies the question of developing models and forecasting methods that can integrate these unexpected events, to improve competitiveness. Furthermore, it is a time that the Island of Sal (and Cape Verde) has the opportunity to be more creative and innovative to diversify the offer, create new segments and discover new inbound markets, especially if the European market remains suspended by this or other crises. Acknowledgement. The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG, under Project no. UIDB/04752/2020.

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References 1. Balanzá, I.M., Nadal, M.C.: Marketing e Comercialização de Produtos Turísticos. Thomson, São Paulo (2003) 2. Cooper, C., et al.: Turismo: Princípios e Pratica, 3ª Ed., pp. 40–43. Bookman, São Paulo (2008) 3. WOT—World Tourism Organization: International tourism continues to outpace the global economy. Homepage, https://www.e-nwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152 (2019). Accessed 10 Feb 2020. 4. WOT—World Tourism Organization: Facts & Figures—Informations, Analysis and KnowHow, Tourism 2020 Vision (2010) 5. Zaei, M.S., Zaei, M.E.: The impacts of tourism industry on host community. Eur. J. Tour. Hosp. Res. 1(2), 12–21 (2013). Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK 6. Coelho, J., Lourenço, P.: A Identificação da Fase do Ciclo de Vida de um Destino Turístico para as escolhas Estratégicas: Uma Proposta de uma Ferramenta expedita. Homepage, https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/72046663.pdf (2015). Accessed 31 Mar 2020 7. Coelho, J., Butler, R.: The Tourism Area Life Cycle: a quantita-tive approach of the of the tourism area life cycle. Eur. J. Tour. Hosp. Recreat. 3(1), 9–31 (2012) 8. Butler, R.W.: The concept of a tourism area cycle of evolution: implications for management resources. Can. Geogr. 24, 5–12 (1980) 9. INE: Estatísticas do Turismo – Inventário Anual dos Estabelecimentos Hoteleiros 2018 (2019) 10. INE: Estatísticas das Famílias e Condições de Vida – Inquérito Multi-Objetivo Continuo 2017 (2018) 11. INE: Estatísticas do Turismo – Inventário Anual dos Estabelecimentos Hoteleiros 2017 (2018) 12. Hovinen, R.: Revisiting the destination lifecycle model. Ann. Tour. Res. 29(1), 209–230 (2002) 13. La Torre, G.M.V., Naranjo, L.M.P., Cárdenas, R.M.: Etapas del ciclo de vida en el desarrollo del turismo religioso: una comparación de estudios de caso. Cuadernos de Turismo, Murcia, V.0(30), 241–266 (2012) 14. Coelho, J.: Um Índice de Desarrollo Turístico baseado en el Ciclo de Vida de un Destino. Tesis Doctoral, vol. 1. Universidade de Extremadura – Faculdade de Ciencia Económicas e Empresariales. https://iconline.ipleiria.pt/bitstream/10400.8/312/1/Doutoramento%20-% 20Volume%20I%20%28Tese%20Final%29.pdf (2010). Accessed 20 Apr 2020 15. Ministry of Finance: Master Plan do Turismo 2020–2030 para a Ilha do Sal (2019)

Challenges of Tourism in Northwestern Mexico Between Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua and San Luis Rio Colorado in the Face of COVID 19 Uncertainty Tomás Jesús Cuevas Contreras1(&) , Sonia Guadalupe Zermeño Flores2 , Isabel Zizadra Hernández1 and Zyanya María Villa Zamorano1 1

,

Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Mexico {tcuevas,izizaldr}@uacj.mx, zyanya.villa. [email protected] 2 Universidad Estatal de Sonora, Sonora, Mexico [email protected]

Abstract. The manuscript refers to the challenge and the uncertainty in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and San Luis Rio Colorado, Sonora, for the pandemic (COVID 19). Like border cities. They have a geostrategic position because of their closeness to the United States. Both destinations have the necessary tourist infrastructure to serve and receive national and international visitors. Both cities have health restrictions, the slowdown in the economy, and the closure of borders, situations that have put the entire tourism industry in social, economic ambiguity. Other realities are the similarities on issues their territory; mutually, cities seek bi-national collaboration. And have experienced in the field of medical tourism, which allows them to generate attractive tourist products that motivate binational mobility. Although which aims to create interdependent agreements in the Buffer Zone (Paso del Norte Region) and position the city brand, reinforcing from an operational approach for workers and tourism service providers. To analyze the ambiance, we use the SWOT and Semantic Networks. This quality technics, it could display the Sustainable Dynamic Strategic Lines related in these two cities in the north of Mexico. Keywords: Post COVID-19 recovery strategy
Economic recession
Strategic response
Scenario planning
Northwestern Mexico

1 Introduction The context in the socioeconomic before the pandemic, world tourism grew at rates higher than the global economy; the activity placed with a broad development perspective, in addition to generating multiple positive benefits for those countries and destinations involved. Tourism report activity with increasing importance, during 2018, according to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), collected revenues of 1.7 billion dollars, representing 7% of total exports of goods and services worldwide (Ministry of Tourism, SECTUR 2019) The productivity of the sector was evident, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 509–520, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_43

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reaching growth of 4% in 2018. According to the WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council 2020), tourism recovery times in the face of health pandemic crises between 2001 and 2018 decreased by an average of 19.4 months. The COVID-19: […] It has given rise to the mother of all crises, due to its scope (practically global), its intensity (the toll on human and economic lives) and its extent (duration in time). Vargas 2020. […] The effects on tourism will increase by 108 percent, with a figure of 500 billion pesos for the period from March to May, estimated the Center for Tourism Research and Competitiveness. And the fall of 2 percentage points of GDP (Madrid and Díaz 2020). Therefore, the three largest airlines in the Avianca region (158), Latam (313) and Aeromexico group (119) with a fleet of more than 500 aircraft have filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the United States (Reportur.com 2020). The international situation of tourism has not been an exception. Although it is difficult at the moment to make concrete estimates, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO 2020) foresees a contraction in demand and, consequently, a fall in income of between $ 910 billion and $ 1.2 trillion (Madrid and Diaz 2020). A fall in tourism GDP anticipated in 2020, in an adverse scenario, between −3 and −5%, and to continue decline in 2021. So, the information produced in the international and national information systems is useful to know the environment in which the activity of each entity occurs. Still, it is not adequate for decision-making at the state and local levels. In the world health emergency in which there is uncertainty about tourism and its incorporation into the economy, the challenges of its new form of development in the current pandemic, the federal entities must take measures that allow them to have more knowledge detailed of the tourist activity. The apparent need for intelligence agencies contrasts with the scarcity of these tools in contemporary tourist destinations (Blasco and Cuevas 2013). Because Tourism is a complex activity and now: Small and medium-sized service companies face unstable conditions; it will Increase in destination competition; Insecurity in every way; and the Standardized health security processes are needed. Although a differentiation as a desirable alternative. Moreover, to challenge: involves strength, agility, or skill. Deal with difficulties decisively because it requires competition or opposes another. And sometimes Undo, decompose, etc., and the scenario needs. Certain. Consequently, Certainty: it is the: “clear and sure knowledge of something.” (Real Academia Española: RAE).

2 State of Art Mexico reported in its Tourist Balance a balance in 2019 of 14.7 million dollars, occupying 4.1 million people, and income in the value chain estimated at 65 billion dollars. Likewise, it is essential to note that tourism is the leading employer of young people and the second to employ women (CNET 2020). Meanwhile, the United States closes its international borders with Mexico and Canada to stop the flow of people to the interior of its country. However, this is not a total closure, travel related to trade, military cooperation, or medical reasons is allowed only to US citizens or those with work permits. Therefore, Mexico is a desirable destination for North Americans and Canadians in retirement, mainly due to its geographical proximity, climate, natural beauties, lower cost of living, and lately, for lower cost and good quality medical and health services. But, unstable policies in the national security measures in charge of

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addressing structural problems and international aspects, which risk the credibility of the nation (Bringas and Verduzco 2008). One of the representative characteristics of tourism on the northern border of Mexico is that space blur in traffic. Still, without being considered homogeneous. Instead, it is a space structured by networks, whose roots, as Delaunay (1994) pointed out, are they go much further south, calling it “reticular space,” with physical distance being much less critical than communication networks. However, we find a vision, culturally stigmatized (Meyer 2006). What can explain under the concept of spatial stigma, an attribute named after Goffman (1963), as one where a complete and constant person has another contaminated and discounted. This concept is multidisciplinary (Pearce 2012; Makki and Van Vuuren 2017; Boyle 2018), such as that developed by researchers in the fields of urban sociology and urban geography. Those residing in degraded places may mark a stigma of residence, which influences their sense of self, their daily experiences, and their relationships with “strangers” (Keene and Padilla 2014). 2.1

Research Question

According to projections made by the Tourism Research and Competitiveness Council (Cicotur), in Mexico, the reduction in tourism consumption may be reduced by 1.6 trillion pesos with the loss of one million jobs and a possible drop in tax collection for 101 billion pesos (Madrid and Díaz 2020). The COVID-19 pushed the world economy to a distressing condition very rapidly. In this crisis, most organizations have an excellent opportunity to take advantage of Scenario planning for the next couple of years. Therefore: What kind of Challenges of Tourism in northwestern Mexico between Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and San Luis Rio Colorado are necessary for the face of uncertainty?

3 State of Art 3.1

Border

The definition of border tourism starts from the notion of international visitor granted, as pointed out by Bringas (2004). Understood as the temporary displacement of people outside their usual place of residence towards the cities contiguous to the dividing line between two countries, originated for different reasons (leisure, fun, rest, health, business, visits to family and friends, religion, social events or shopping, among others). Whose stay does not exceed one year, and that commits at least one overnight stay in the place visited. Border hikers adapt to this definition; the only difference is that they do not stay overnight in the visited site. Displacement occurs within a radius of approximately 3 h by car or 200 km from the dividing line (Shi, Zhong et al. 2016). Specifies; Tourism in border counties inextricably involves a highly sensitive political environment. […] It is also essential to consider how national policy and unexpected incidents impact tourism development in border counties […]. 3.2

Spatial Stigma

The concept of spatial shame has developed by researchers in the fields of urban sociology and urban geography. Those who reside in degraded locales may mark by a stigma of place, which influences their sense of self, their daily experiences and their relations with

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‘outsiders.’ (Keene and Padilla 2014) In this way, Wang et al. (2020) adopt the concept of particular stigma to understand the phenomenon where perceptions, feelings, beliefs, and other aspects of daily life can distort from the place they visit. This theory based on the unique relationship between American and Mexican society, with clear ups and downs, and where there have been more conflicts than agreements (Meyer 2006). They characterized by a marked discrepancy in the levels of development and cultural references. Although there essential changes in the treatment. One of them is the Constant perception of a threat in the destination prevails. They were partially preventing, at the event of a cultural, medical, and health tourism, without referring to the old beliefs of the border, like a recreation center for adults, with a high degree of violence, or insecurity, even prostitution, drug trafficking, poverty, and migration (Pries 2019). Those situations undermine the image of the border cities of northern Mexico. 3.3

Mobility of Tourism Imaginaries

Tourism imaginaries come to occupy a central position in a complex set of connections among very diverse societies, unique locales, and very different kinds of relations of production and consumption. (Salazar 2017). Therefore, the physical and mental landscapes of the imaginaries of residents, tourism intermediaries, and tourists are similar and, sometimes, so different. Already the other, respond by social practices, ideologies, and behaviors derived from the relations in tourism imaginaries because their discourses have influenced how people engage with the other. 3.4

Networks in Tourism Destinations

It is an adequate knowledge-based destination management study. Moreover, the knowledge should consider both the virtual and the real components of the network structure of the destination (Del Chiappa and Baggio 2015). Networks also undergo phase transitions, from being collections of isolated nodes and small components to a system that has a significant part that contains a nontrivial fraction of nodes, and then finally to one in which all nodes can reach each other through routers on the network (Jackson 2019). Because of the results in the analysis of causal net graphs, the reader should be aware that diagrams display the cause-and-effect relationships between the keywords. (Pechlaner and Volgger 2013). Example in Sicilia, findings showed a clear convenience of the participation to alternative food networks compared to the case in which was conferred to traditional sales channels (Testa et al. 2020).

4 Objetive and Method 4.1

Objetive

To analyze the strategies of Tourism in northwestern Mexico between Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and San Luis Rio Colorado, are necessary for the face of uncertainty. 4.2

Method

It is a research site with a SWOT because it is an analysis with a simple review process. The process, combined with a goal-setting activity, SWOT is a useful tool that will

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provide your organization with a roadmap to set and reach its goals successfully. (Culp et al. 2016) Hai and Tsou (2009): used SWOT to develop a strategy for the Department of Information Management of Shih Chien University’s Kaohsiung campus in Taiwan. The authors used a quantifiable method by including Multiple‐Criteria Decision Making with the SWOT analysis. In other words, the resulting SWOT indices are voted and weighted to determine the best strategic alternatives (Table 1). Table 1. SWOT Matrix

Source: own development.

These are established in four Strategy quadrants: 1. Strategy of strengths and opportunities; 2. Weaknesses and opportunities; 3. Strengths to avoid threats; and 4. minimize weaknesses to avoid threats (Table 2). Table 2. SWOT Strategy

Source: own development.

With these strategic lines of action for the fate of Ciudad Juarez and that of San Luis Rio Colorado, they are taken up again for the analysis of a semantic network, and the keywords that link their relationship identified. The similarity between the communities is defined in two stages, on the one hand: the context; scene before COVID 19; Diagnosis; and activities for the plan. And, on the other hand, the actions and programs. Because we use: Semantic networks are a logic-based formalism for knowledge representation. Semantic networks are graphs which constructed from both a set of vertices (or nodes) and a set of directed and labeled edges. The vertices or nodes represent concepts, and the edges represent semantic relations between the concepts. Knowledge about accepted meanings should be processed in adjacent regions of the semantic network (Pirnay et al. 2012).

5 Findings SWOT Tourism Conditions, May-June 2020 of CJS and SLRC. (Table 3), On Based on the external and internal analysis and tourism activity research data and information, we developed the future scenarios. The derived work of the SWOT of Ciudad Juarez has defined the following strategies divided into:

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The strategies for each item reflect the opportunities, threats, weaknesses and strengths of a border community, with a greater burden on manufacturing and tourism with an unclear vocation (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Ciudad Juarez destination conditions. Own source bv Atlas.Ti

The derived work of the SWOT of Ciudad Juarez has defined the following strategies divided into (Table 4):

Table 4. SLRC strategies

(Continued)

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The SWOT of San Luis Rio Colorado, the following strategies have been defined divided into: The strategies reflect the opportunities, threats, weaknesses and strengths of a border community, with a vocation in services (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. San Luis Rio Colorado destination conditions. Own source bv Atlas.Ti.

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6 Discussion and Conclusion Health Tourism Councils have been formed from previous municipal administrations, with the interest of maintaining the activity of medical and health tourism in the city of San Luis Rio Colorado, including in its member’s doctors, entrepreneurs in the area of tourist services such as restaurants, hotels, pharmacies, etc. (Zermeño et al. 2016). By photographing the individual CJS and SLRC semantic network, you open up the opportunity to do link analysis. That is, they link their strategies and existing keyword ties. These have allowed the configuration of a scenario where similarities derived from the territorial environment. But in addition to those that are configured by the influence of their primary economic activities. In contrast with the Global Health and Aviation, Travel and Tourism, are at the World Economic Forum, with smart strategies for tourism. They are analyzed by units so that through the contributions, it is possible to consider a proposal, which is Sustainable Dynamic Strategic Lines (LEDS, means: liderazgo estratégico, dinámico y sustentable), with a focus on tourism and mobility. Figure 3 shows the coincidences in which the CJS and SLRC communities come together. This environment allows identifying joint actions, which can lead to Specific Public Policies. It is necessary to clarify that the LEDS is still working to deepen its lines.

Fig. 3. Outline of Tourism challenges before COVID. Source: own elaboration based on Atlas.Ti

Social Relationships The predominant cultural perception in the United States is that there is permanent insecurity on the border, which has shaped the tone of recommendations made to its population so that they avoid visiting Mexican border cities or take extreme precautions if they do so (Bringas and Verduzco 2008). The reasons behind this displacement can social relationships Emphasizes the differences between themselves and other border towns to deny membership in this category. Others: deny social discrimination and

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social exclusion of visitors. Some features become an essential indication for residents to identify ‘tourists’ multiple, but at least one of them must be considered tourists. Physical spaces Keene and Padilla (2014): […] by considering the more significant sociocultural meanings that surround marginalized places, the concept of spatial stigma introduces new considerations for the development of effective policies to address geographic health inequality. Furthermore, the border cities have a lot of USA citizens or residents consulting medical services on the Mexican side. With a different perspective, the spatial stigma, because they know in part of the culture. So, they can differentiate the bad image at border towns in Mexico like: • Geostrategic territory: It is almost 3200 km and home to a tourism destination at the border. • Tourism destination: for health, leisure, fun, pleasure, relax, and restoration, a structural contradiction between tourist function and the social-cultural structure. • Social-cultural structure of the border city. Lack of scientific knowledge about mobility; Afraid of a pandemic; Bad luck and misfortune. Meanings of Place Overall, the findings suggest the different levels of tourism governance are variously interrelated and interdependent. On this basis, analyzing single levels of tourism governance in an isolated manner without keeping their embeddedness into a broader framework in mind is of little value (Pechlaner and Volgger 2013). Residents distanced themselves from specific physical spaces and certain social groups to maintain their positive image and the reputation of the place. Despite the spatial stigma in border towns, residents are still willing to support the development of tourism. Because now, tourism income became their primary source of income and freed themselves from another stigma related to social identity. We examine how a unique ‘spatial stigma,’ associated with a fatal disease and tourism mobility, is embodied in a wellness tourism destination. Residents in the border Mexico - United States construct distinctions between separate locations and criticize individual districts or social groups for unsettling their positive actions. Results show the diverse impacts of tourism locally and mobility. Consequences have spatial patterns. The idea of business and health landscapes helps situate the geography of effects. Finally, Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and San Luis Rio Colorado, Sonora, are border cities. They have a geostrategic position because of their closeness to the United States. Both destinations have the necessary tourist infrastructure to serve and receive national and international visitors. The contribution of the states of the northern border to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2018 was equivalent to 24.5% (INEGI 2019). Besides, they have human capital specialized in tourism. Meanwhile, cities have health restrictions, plus the slowdown in the economy, and the closure of borders, situations that have put the entire tourism industry in uncertainty. Moreover, emphasizes the need to look for alternatives to face the consequences of the current COVID-19 contingency, which from the understanding that international long-distance travel will not be possible in the coming months, shifts the focus towards regional tourism. Therefore, in addition to seeking national tourism, due to their

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strategic position, both cities seek bi-national collaboration. Both cities have experienced and recognition within the field of medical tourism, which allows them to generate attractive tourist products that motivate binational mobility. Ciudad Juarez has a cluster of health and medical tourism. This cluster allows a better position in the image of the city. Like a destination under this type of tourism, it could have another kind of opportunity. The historical attractions can reinforce with different programs such as Treasures of the Border, which seeks to generate interdependent agreements in the Buffer Zone (Paso del Norte Region) and position the city brand, reinforcing from an operational approach for workers and tourism service providers. San Luis Rio Colorado also identifies the lack of tourist identity. It seeks to position itself through medical tourism, backed by more than 50 years of experience, which is why it must face the low certification of tour operators and little cooperation to promote the destination. For this reason, the creation of a medical cluster sought. That will allow organized networks as well as the development of the mobile application that virtually promotes the destination.

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Economic Recovery and Strategic Transformation Planning for Tourism in Botswana Olivia Molefe (Nee Nthoi)(&) Botho University, Gaborone, Botswana [email protected]

Abstract. Tourism remains one of Botswana’s most important services industry responsible for export and vital for employment and poverty reduction. Tourism in Botswana is currently highly based around the country’s natural resources although it stands as having the potential to grow beyond this by diversification facilitated for by Tourism product development. The success of this industry in Botswana can be attributed to the low volume, high value, nature-based tourism in national parks and game reserves taking place mostly in the north of this country Globally Tourism development is increasingly being viewed as an important tool for promoting economic growth and alleviating poverty amongst others. While Tourism is a multi-sector industry, it is not an industry that is immune to rapid decline due to the effects of global pandemics and other events. In the year 2020 this is proving to be true in the case of not only Botswana’s economic development and progression, but the Covid 19 pandemic is negatively affecting global tourism to date. This paper addresses strategic interventions to be explored through tourism education for the revival and recovery of Tourism in Botswana. Keywords: Tourism development education


Strategic recovery planning
Tourism

1 Introduction Globally Tourism development is increasingly being viewed as an important tool for promoting economic growth and alleviating poverty amongst others [13]. Although statistics may vary due to variables being analyzed in this research, over the last few decades, tourism has grown to become one of the most dynamic and fastest growing economic sectors in the world [7]. In 2002 it was reported to be the largest industry in the world, with receipts totaling to about US$474 billion in 2003 [3]. Moreover, it has been known to be a labor-intensive industry, employing directly an estimated 74 million people around the world as of 2003 [6]. Consistent with global trends, in Botswana tourism has been growing substantially over the years. Between 1994 and 2000, the number of recorded holiday arrivals in the country grew by an average of 8.5% per year [8]. Since 2015 tourist arrivals have been estimated to have possibly grown to 1,874,000 international tourist arrivals and in 2018 predicted to a further 2,847,000 international tourist arrivals [3]. This rapid expansion in tourism stands as © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 521–528, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_44

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having a considerable potential to contribute toward Botswana’s much needed economic diversification therefore assisting the country to move away from dependence on diamond mining [10]. Currently Diamond Mining has been argued to form between 65% and 75% of exports of the country, therefore accounting for about 30% of GDP in the country [8]. In this way, Botswana has been argued to be one of the world’s fastest growing economies over the past 50 years. This rapid growth has allowed the country to move from being among the poorest to upper middle income status therefore, pulling the majority of the population out of poverty [16]. Embracing social, economic and environmental impacts in order to remain sustainable, Tourism is a multi-sector industry, however, it is not an industry that is immune to rapid decline due to the effects of global pandemics and other events. In the year 2020 this is proving to be true in the case of not only Botswana’s economic development and progression, but he Covid 19 pandemic is negatively affecting global tourism to date.

2 Review of Tourism in Botswana Tourism remains one of Botswana’s most important services industry responsible for export and vital for employment and poverty reduction [15]. Tourism in Botswana is currently highly based around the country’s natural resources although it stands as having the potential to grow beyond this by diversification facilitated for by Tourism product development [9]. The success of this industry in Botswana can be attributed to the low volume, high value, nature-based tourism in national parks and game reserves taking place mostly in the north of this country [3]. The need for diversification outside of the UNESCO-listed Okavango Delta and Chobe areas where this nature-based tourism occurs should be well understood with the background that further growth of the industry may be limited by serious weaknesses in the structure of competitiveness and access to opportunities for the indigenous Botswana citizen [11]. According to World bank [16], Botswana’s competitiveness has slipped in recent years, with its global ranking at 95th of 140 countries in the World Economic Forum’s Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) therefore now being well behind peers. Among the main issues barriers to growth in tourism include Skills, particularly lack of specialized tourism training and difficulties in bringing in skilled labor for advancement of this industry. While the number of training institutions offering hospitality/tourism has increased in past years specific knowledge gaps as well as core skills remain insufficient these embrace business management, problem solving, customer service, and tourism-related technology [16]. Other issues have included Air travel connections where no direct, long haul connections are available in the country and regional connections are costly. Travel Visa requirements have been said to affect the growing tourism supply markets, from countries such as China and India who are not automatically on the visa exemption list of this country, this being argued to often leading to significant delays in arrivals that sometimes end as cancellations. In the case of conservation endeavors Botswana has long been praised for its strong wildlife conservation efforts, but important challenges in the industry still exist. Decreasing wildlife numbers due to drought, habitat loss, and increased poaching although managed significantly stand as a challenge in the country. Policy challenges and approaches to

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tourism management seem to also work somewhat against the product and geographical diversification of the tourism sector, this affecting some poor communities from a livelihood perspective [12].

3 Tourism Development Planning in Botswana Researchers have pointed out that Tourism was not a priority sector in Botswana until the formulation of regulatory and legislative frameworks in the early 1990s therefore claiming that the industry is still not fully developed at present [12]. The Tourism Policy (1990) preceded the regulatory Tourism Act (1992) which sets procedures for licensing, regulation of tourism enterprise categories. These two legal frameworks advocated for a high value/low volume approach to tourism development which has been in existence ever since. The Tourism Regulations (1996) sets the license and training levy fees as well as requirements for grading of tourism establishments which were later driven by the Botswana Tourism Organisation (BTO) after its establishment [9]. At present the Draft Revised Tourism policy (2018) and the Botswana Tourism Master Plan (2000) stand as documents which set future goals for the development of tourism [9]. Tourism product diversification, citizen participation, public/private partnerships and ecological/economic sustainability are identified to be given priority in driving tourism development in this research in this way. Although this structured approach may be viewed at face value as a straight forward means of not only improving the industry but it is important to improving the shortcomings of the industry.

4 The Impact of the COVID 19 Pandemic on Tourism in Botswana Declared a pandemic, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed that a novel coronavirus known as COVD 19 is the cause of a respiratory illness which was reported to the WHO on 31 December 2019 [17] Since the outbreak of this illness, it has spread rapidly affecting most countries in the world with fatalities and associated unrest and uncertainty worldwide. According to World Tourism Organization [17] the worldwide outbreak of COVID-19 has brought the world to a standstill, and tourism has been the worst affected of all major economic sectors. Similarly, on September 11, 2001, when hijacked aircrafts were used as terrorist weapons of destruction in the United States resulted in a rapid decline in the Tourism industry this therefore suggesting that travel and tourism are not only vulnerable to violent events such as terrorism, political unrest, and military conflicts [8] but not to disease pandemics. The year 2020 is experiencing a drastic decline in tourism globally due to the dramatic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on this industry globally [1]. Together with the rest of the world, Botswana is currently faced with preparing comprehensive tourism recovery plans as well as to re-think the tourism sector for effective resuscitation of this industry. This paper based on a desktop study approach, therefore recommends the development of a Tourism and hospitality recovery and strategic transformational plan

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in order to revive Tourism in the country. The paper places emphasis on the notion that development of Tourism cannot be optimal if it is not undertaken as a partnership that engages all of the stakeholders concerned. As Botswana has been overly reliant on Diamond mining, although diversification in the mining sector offers potential to support external and fiscal balances in the country, one may conclude that it is not the solution only to sustainable poverty reduction due to its limited job creation potential. Instead, what is required is the development of a more competitive, outward-oriented private sector, particularly in creating among others employment. While Botswana is praised for its management of resource wealth, it is apparent that the high levels of investment by government (in health, education, and infrastructure) are not delivering desired outcomes, making it increasingly difficult to meet the objectives of growth, diversification, and poverty elimination [12]. However, the tourism industry in Botswana has facilitated a number of opportunities for local communities and has contributed to the country’s economic diversification, therefore moving away from the above mentioned dependence on Diamond Mining [15]. The tourism industry in Botswana has been criticized for being exclusively nature based therefore lacking inclusiveness for the average indigenous Botswana citizen to take part in Tourism enterprises therefor calling for a major course correction. This paper therefore views the COVID-19 pandemic as not only a challenge but an opportunity for the country to address other festering problems within the tourism industry that need deeper solutions that will render exponential results through the recovery of this industry in Botswana. UNWTO has made a strong statement in an initiative dubbed “Stay home today. Travel tomorrow” The containment of the pandemic stands as a main priority while tourism has come to a halt through complying with all measures taken to curb this outbreak. Nevertheless, The pandemic being a double edged sward, currently the recovery strategy or restarting of the industry in Botswana is addressing this above mentioned issue in an overdue but necessary change that will not only restart the industry but also allow it to be more inclusive for those who previously could not participate in the low volume high value Nature based tourism. This exclusive Nature tourism environment has been observed by many as not seeming to have generated commensurate benefits for the economy and its population as the years have gone by. Existence of limited linkages between this sector and other sectors has led to high economic leakages from the sector among others. Possibly, COVID-19 has only exacerbated the need to address these existing problems in the industry that needed sustainable solutions by taking the powers that be back to the blackboard. Botswana is currently following the Botswana Tourism Organization Tourism Industry Covid-19 Guidelines as a Toolkit assisting and enabling the transition from lockdown to full operation of tourism businesses. The country is also following a UNWTO approach towards recovery that is guided by the recommendations of managing the crisis and mitigating the impact, providing stimulus and accelerating recovery as well as Preparing for tomorrow. Recently the new The Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) guidelines were announced in July, 2020 and they currently stand as an opportunity for the average Botswana citizen to stand a chance of running a successful business. Social media observations have revealed that underlying structural disabilities that indigenous Batswana have had will still prevail however. While the tourism sector being one of the most hard-hit, and this has tremendous implications for

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economies worldwide: to date, tourism represents 30% of the world’s exports of services (US$ 1.5 trillion) and up to 45% of the total export of services in developing countries [1]. While the ultimate size of the ultimate impact of this pandemic, millions of livelihoods all over the world are at risk and threatens to roll back the progress made in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) immensely. As a result of this the revival of this industry is crucial for ensuring that the impact of Covid 19 is reduced as strategically as possible for future growth of the industry and restoring the livelihoods of those who are dependent on tourism. The UNWTO [1] has indicated that in the past tourism has also shown a strong resilience to adapt, innovate and recuperate from adversity with particular emphasis on areas of consumer confidence, entrepreneurship, women and youth employment to technological innovation. This paper therefore aims to identify areas for improvement of this industry and further opportunities for tourism product development in Botswana.

5 Strategic Management for Recovery It is apparent that Tourism provides both, economic and non-economic benefits to any given country [5] The economic benefits of tourism at national economy level is often associated with creation of new jobs, decrease in the levels of unemployment, stimulation of production of products and services to be consumed by tourists and others [4]. Non-economic benefits of tourism, on the other hand, include facilitation of cultural exchanges, contribution to the levels of knowledge as well as through facilitation of communication [4] Within Business Management, strategy can be defined as determining basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, as well as the adopting of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals [2]. Strategic planning in this paper is explained as the process involved for developing approaches to reach a defined objective, the objective in this instance being to recover Botswana’s Tourism industry following the impacts of Covid 19. This Study therefore identifies three general principles of planning for tourism recovery in Botswana, namely, anticipation, regulation and monitoring. Anticipation involves making projections about the future state of the tourism on the basis of relevant secondary and primary data. Regulation, on the other hand, is closely associated with the levels of regulation of tourist and affiliated organisations in direct and indirect manners. The importance of monitoring relates to the collection of relevant data with the aims of analysing the performance of the tourism industry [5]. 5.1

The Following Objectives Have Been Identified for This Study

a) To establish the extent in which diversification has been achieved in Botswana despite challenges encountered b) To establish ways in which a tourism strategic management framework can be established for tourism recovery from Covid 19 in Botswana.

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5.2

Research Questions

This study was be led by the following research questions: a) To what has tourism diversification been achieved in Botswana despite challenges encountered in the past few years? b) Which ways can tourism strategic management framework be established for tourism recovery from Covid 19 in Botswana?

6 Research Methods 6.1

Data Collection

Observation: The researcher observed research subjects for an appropriate amount of time that depended on emerging issues and subject under investigation. This including observing and analyzing Social media information, News reports as well as laws and acts concerning tourism recovery local and globally. Archival research will include literature that may be kept deposited in official or private libraries or archives including publications and annual reports and/or brochures concerning Tourism Development and recovery planning.

7 Findings and Tentative Recommendations Botswana is currently following a UNWTO influenced strategic approach towards industry recovery that is guided by the recommendations of managing the crisis and mitigating the impact, providing stimulus and accelerating recovery as well as Preparing for tomorrow. This approach is aligned with the definition of Strategic planning for tourism according to [5]. Recently the new guidelines were announced as an opportunity for the average Motswana to stand a chance of running a successful business by The Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA). This organization was established by the Government of the Republic of Botswana to provide financial and technical support for business development with a view to promote viable and sustainable citizen owned business enterprises. Although [11] argues that there are underlying structural disabilities that indigenous Batswana have still prevail, thus far Botswana is, firstly managing the Covid 19 crisis through a toolkit and secondly, providing stimulus with the intention to accelerate recovery. It is unclear on how the country is preparing for tomorrow to insure sustainability of interventions that have been put in place for the industry to recover. We can see from the recovery of the September 11, 2001 attacks and 2008 global recession that tourism has shown us a strong resilience to adapt, innovate and recuperate from adversity. In order to rapidly transform this industry in Botswana into a much-needed source of income for all stakeholders alike, as part of preparing for tomorrow education service providers should focus on strengthening the curriculum in order to restore and improve consumer confidence, grow entrepreneurship, encourage women and youth employment as well

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as embrace technological innovation. The need to satisfy both academic and the industry stakeholders does have special implications for the delivery of tourism education. The special implications include a deeper understanding of the industry. With intensified tourism education that is based on transferrable skills, the industry performance can be enhanced as its practitioners will be knowledgeable therefore ensuring the sustainability of not only reviving the industry but also diversifying the tourism project moving away from only nature based tourism as the backbone of tourism in Botswana.

References 1. Bulin, D., Iulian-Petru, T.: Preliminary assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic impact on the tourism industry. Glob. Econ. Observer 8(1), 41–46 (2020) 2. Campbell, D., Edgar, D., Stonehouse, G.: Business Strategy: An Introduction. Palgrave Macmillan (2020). http://www.palgrave.com/business/campbelledgarstonehouse/index.asp. Accessed 5 June 2020 3. Centre for Applied Research. 2016 Review of Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Botswana. Report prepared for Southern African Environmental Programme (SAREP) (2016) 4. Croes, R.: Tourism specialization and economic output in small islands. Tourism Rev. 68(4), 34–48 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-09-2013-0050 5. Dudovskiy, J.: Pepsico: Analysis Of Corporate Strategy - Research Methodology. [online] Research Methodology (2013). http://research-methodology.net/pepsico-analysis-ofcorporate-strategy/. Accessed 3 June 2020 6. Halicioglu, F.: An Ardl Model of Aggregate Tourism Demand For Turkey, International Trade 0503005, University Library of Munich, Germany (2005) 7. International Labour Organisation [ILO]. World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2020. International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO (2020) 8. Kaynak, E., Marandu, E.E.: Tourism market potential analysis in botswana: a Delphi study. J. Travel Res. 45(2), 227–237 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287506291595 9. Leechor, C., Fabricius, M.: Developing tourism in Botswana: Progress and challenges. Gaborone: World Bank & BIDPA (2006) 10. Maruatona, M.K.: The manufacturing sector of Botswana: an analysis of the impact which development of the manufacturing sector could have on economic growth. MDF thesis, Stellenbosch University (2013) 11. Mogapi, S.: CEDA’s new guidelines ignored specific advice from BIDPA. Sunday Standard Botswana Newspaper. 26 July–1 August (2020) 12. Morupisi, P., Mokgalo, L.: Domestic tourism challenges in Botswana: a stakeholders’ perspective. Cogent Soc. Sci. 3(1), 1298171 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017. 1298171 13. Richardson, R.B.: he Contribution of Tourism to Economic Growth and Food Security, Food Security Collaborative Working Papers 97140, Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics (2010). https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ. 97140 14. Sekwati, L.: Botswana: a note on economic diversification. Botswana J. Econ. 7(11), 79–85 (2010)

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15. Stone, L.T., Stone, E.M.: Special issue on environment, tourism and contemporary socioeconomic issues in the okavango delta and other ecosystems: tourism in botswana in the last 50 years: A Review. Botswana Notes and Records, 49 (1), 57 –72 (2017) 16. World Bank Group. Botswana: Systematic Country Diagnostic. Systematic Country Diagnostic; World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank (2015) 17. World Tourism Organization, UNWTO Briefing Note – Tourism and COVID-19, Issue 1 – How are countries supporting tourism recovery?, UNWTO, Madrid (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.18111/9789284421893

Sports as a Competitive Factor for Tourism Destinations: The Case of Porto Marta Quintas1, Rui Costa2(&), Zélia Breda2, and Filipa Brandão2 1

Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 2 GOVCOPP, Aveiro, Portugal {rui.costa,zelia,filipa.brandao}@ua.pt

Abstract. Nowadays competition is a reality and it has led to several changes. In this sense, analyzing the competitiveness of tourist destinations is a complex but extremely important task as it allows each destination to be aware of its strengths but also of its competitive weaknesses. Within this scope of competitiveness, the capacity of differentiation and innovation of the tourist destinations is vital and it is through the importance of the differentiation of the tourist destinations that the relevance of sport as a tourist product is emphasized since it can constitute a differentiating product regarding the destinations on offer, which also allows us to meet the new needs of tourist demand and the profile of the new tourist, who is increasingly looking for active holidays and even wishes for sports experiences during the travels. This research aims to determine the role of sports tourism in the competitiveness of Porto and the North of Portugal as a whole and to verify if this type of tourism constitutes a competitive advantage in the region under analysis. For this purpose, data were collected through interviews with all stakeholders, public organizations, enterprises, and researchers. The results indicate that sport is seen as a type of tourism that is relevant in the region and its supply has been increasing. Nevertheless, there is still work to be done to increase its importance and make it a competitive factor for Porto and the whole Northern region. Keywords: Competitiveness


Tourist destinations
Sports tourism

1 Introduction The competitiveness of a destination is a major factor for its growth, increase in its market share, and is reflected both in its real and potential tourist flows [1, 2]. The importance of competitiveness is such that the success of a tourist destination on world markets depends on its competitiveness [3]. Analyzing the competitiveness of destinations is increasingly important, being also relevant for tourist destinations whose supply is based on sports experiences, however, studies on the competitiveness of destinations that incorporate the scope of sports have not deserved much attention in research [4]. When looking at the number of people who participate in sports activities or their spectators, as well as the number of individuals who work or volunteer in sports © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 529–539, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_45

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organizations, it is possible to perceive the importance that sport holds in societies. Also, the number of facilities and sports facilities and the benefits that sport provides at economic, health, and community-level makes its importance even more evident [5]. Through the data analysis related to Portugal, it can easily be seen that the number of people practicing sport has been increasing significantly, and besides, sport is also a relevant activity for the economy at a national level, both in terms of Added Value Gross Income (GVA) or in terms of employment. Regarding strategic products from Porto and northern Portugal, some of them involve sports activities such as city and short breaks, where outdoor activities and nature tourism are also mentioned. adventure activities and outdoor activities such as cycling or walking. This research aims to find out what the contribution of sport in the factors that determine the competitiveness of the tourist supply in the region of Porto and North of Portugal. To this end, this research aims to study the phenomenon of sports tourism in this region to verify whether it is seen as a factor of competitive advantage by the stakeholders of the tourist supply of Porto and North of Portugal.

2 Competitiveness The current context is characterized by an exacerbated competition in the world, the notion of competitiveness being fundamental, and its concept worthy of high interest and attention since there is no universally accepted definition of competitiveness [6]. The lack of a single concept of competitiveness [7] is related to the fact that it is difficult to measure since it is, at the same time, a relative and multidimensional concept, which leads to the existence of several indicators that are used in this field as the trade balance, market share, real income, profitability and relative changes in productivity [6]. For Hallmann et al. [4], competitiveness is a concept that varies in terms of competition and can be seen internationally, nationally, or regionally and in terms of its main objective, which may include, among others, the product or service offered. Thus, it is possible to see that the question of competitiveness can be analyzed from different perspectives and even in different areas and can be studied at an international level or more focused on its field of analysis. Porter [8] reinforces the idea that there is no single definition of competitiveness or theory that allows explaining this concept and it can be seen from different perspectives. Cellini and Soci [7] also report that there are several indicators of competitiveness separating the indicators related to price and profitability from those related to commercial performance and the same authors also speak of a concept that refers to the attractiveness of a country and which is one of the elements of competitiveness that includes aspects such as political stability. In addition to national competitiveness, in macroeconomic terms, competitiveness at the regional level has been increasingly interested in seeking to define and promote its determinants of competitiveness [9]. Now, according to Sepic [10], competitiveness is currently gained on a regional scale, however, it is necessary to reveal that regional competitiveness is a complex concept, which means that there is no single definition in terms of its concept and how it can be measured [9].

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3 Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations Competition is currently taking place in a global context, not just at a local level, leading to changes and new challenges with some destinations coping well with this competitiveness and others trying to adapt to an increasingly competitive and dynamic tourism sector [6, 11–14]. In the last decades, there have been great changes both in terms of tourist demand and supply due to factors such as the proliferation of new technologies, new forms of production, and the management of destinations [4]. Many traditional destinations have seen their market share decrease significantly and in some destinations, tourism continues to grow but not to the same extent as other emerging destinations as travelers are now looking for new experiences concerning destinations [6, 14]. Through this evidence, it is possible to immediately realize that the changes that have been taking place in terms of tourism are undeniable. Given these changes, destinations must find tools that allow them to deal with these changes so that they can become or remain competitive in the tourism market [2, 6] considering that in this field, competitive strategies are of tremendous importance to guarantee the survival of destinations and tourist stakeholders in the market [15]. In the case of more traditional destinations, they must then look for a new form of growth through competitiveness, and, for this, they must consider the determinants that generate that same competitiveness [16]. Only in this way is it possible for destinations to maintain and increase their global competitiveness. However, it is important to mention that managing the competitiveness of destinations is a very complex task, starting with the fact that a tourist destination has completely different characteristics from other products since the tourist product is formed by the global experience in the destination which, in turn, instead, it consists of a range of services provided by different players that influence the tourist experience [6, 12, 13]. In this sense, the number of players that are involved in the tourism supply makes the management of destinations a much more complex process than managing, for example, the products of a company [13] right away because multiple interests are at stake. Within these stakeholders, tourist companies can be highlighted; other supporting industries and organizations such as sport and entertainment; destination management organizations that can be private, public or public-private partnerships; the public sector, which provides public goods to residents, which are also used by tourists, such as roads and government departments or agencies of tourism; residents; and other audiences [12, 13].

4 Methodology Qualitative research has been increasingly used in tourism studies [17] and is more descriptive than predictive, arguing that knowledge can be acquired through communication and interaction, with this knowledge being built through people’s perceptions and interpretations and not through numbers. Also, qualitative research tends to analyze a smaller sample and allows greater detail and depth in the collection of information and, consequently, in the understanding of the study population, is flexible and less

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directive research that does not seek generalizations but rather the in-depth knowledge of respondents’ opinions [18–20]. Regarding the qualitative research for this investigation, the instrument used for data collection was the semi-structured interview in which the interviewer has a set of topics to guide the interview, with the freedom to introduce new subjects [17, 21]. The interview guide was prepared with questions based on the carried-out literature review. Concerning the structure, the script was divided into three fields: (i) competitiveness of Porto and the north as a tourist destination that made it possible to understand how the destination has been managed and the factors that form its competitiveness, as well as those in which it is crucial to improve the performance of the destination; (ii) competitiveness of Porto and the north as a sports tourist destination, (iii) adaptation of the Integrated Competitiveness Model of Tourist Destinations, which allowed us to perceive the determinants of competitiveness in which the destination is competitively stronger and weaker. Concerning the administration of semi-structured interviews, interviews were requested: to the Regional Tourism Authority of the destination under analysis, Porto and Northern Portugal Tourism; the National Tourist Authority, Turismo de Portugal; to the Regional Tourism Promotion Agency of this region, the Porto and Northern Portugal Tourism Association; the Northern Regional Development and Coordination Commission (CCDR-N); and two National Associations, more specifically, the Portuguese Association of Travel and Tourism Agencies (APAVT) and the Portuguese Association of Companies of Congresses, Tourist Entertainment and Events (APECATE), plus two interviews, one carried out to an academic with knowledge in this theme of the competitiveness of tourist destinations and another to a consulting company, which allowed to broaden ideas/perspectives on the phenomenon under study through an academic and professional perception. In this way, seven interviews were conducted, Table 1 condenses the characteristics of the interviews: Table 1. Interviews’ Characterístics Gender E1 Male E2 Female E3 Male E4 Male E5 Female E6 Male E7 Male Source: Own

Category Enterprise Enterprise Consultant Researcher Public organization Public organization Public organization elaboration

Location Lisboa Porto Centro Norte Lisboa Norte Norte

Scope level National Regional Local Local Nacional Regional Regional

The interview method is associated with content analysis [18] and, therefore, when analyzing the interview data surveys, we used the content analysis that is defined by Bardin [22].

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In the first instance, the transcription of the word interviews was carried out. After this, the transcribed interviews were introduced in webQDA and organized in the “font system” in the “internal fonts” functionality. WebQDA is a specific software for qualitative research in general that allows the analysis of a text, video, audio, and image that works in a collaborative and distributed environment based on the internet. Then, codification was carried out, which allows organizing the information collected in the qualitative methodology and facilitating the description and interpretation of the phenomenon under analysis [23].

5 Data Analysis 5.1

Competitiveness of Porto and the North Region as a Tourist Destination

Regarding the competitiveness of the destination at the national and international level, three interviewees point to the notable evolution that this region has been experiencing. Interviewee E2 says that “The main indicators of tourism activity show that tourism demand has been showing consistent growth over the past few years.” Interviewee E6, on the other hand, considers that “We are the region of the country that has grown most in the number of visitors, in the number of overnight stays, in the number of income that is fundamental for the regional economy and the national economy.” However, three other interviewees have a different opinion like E1 when revealing that “I think there is still a long way to go despite there being a great evolution, I think it is still possible to increase it much more”, or E3 that it addresses in a more particular way the growth that needs to be made in terms of tourist revenues “above all it has allowed increasing many tourists, perhaps for revenue, with an average expenditure per tourist that is not yet the desired one”, opinion shared by E5 “we still have room to grow from the number of tourists but fundamentally we must grow from the point of view of revenues”. Some respondents addressed the factors in which the destination is most competitive. The E3 “I speak of Porto, having an airport, having accessibility infrastructures capable of receiving international markets, competitiveness starts to speak there”, and the E4 “Low-cost companies came to boost and increase the competitiveness of the destination because there is a variable that is always essential, if there is accessibility there is tourism, if there is no accessibility there is no tourism.” In addition to the issue of accessibility, some interviewees highlight other attributes that, in their opinion, are also relevant to the competitiveness of Porto and northern Portugal, such as the hospitality, safety and cultural offer highlighted by E3 and of the endogenous characteristics of this destination highlighted by E4 that make it different from other destinations at a national level, something also highlighted by the E5 that addresses the issue of the distinctive assets of this destination such as culture, hospitality, and authenticity. Other interviewees also speak of the issue of price and quality and the differentiation that has been achieved in terms of the tourist supply of the destination. Thus, E6 indicates that “the price-quality is excellent” and E3 reveals that “in global international

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terms, price, hospitality and safety (…) and hotel-quality”, an opinion reinforced by E6 that addresses the existence of “New hotel units, completely differentiating”. Also, E2 mentions that “about the supply, one of the differentiating factors of Porto and the north region is precisely the diversity and exclusivity of the tourism products it offers, covering different segments” adding that “the destination has also been betting in the development of new tourist products that can attract more and new segments of visitors”. Cooperation and Partnership Environment Regarding this specific issue, four respondents disagree with the existence of an environment of cooperation and partnerships between the public and private sectors. The E5 mentions “In this respect, the north is no different and therefore there is no habit of partnership, sharing, cooperation.” For E1 “The public sector has normative interventions, essentially, often not correct, therefore, without taking into account the specific reality of each case.” However, three other interviewees have a different perspective and consider that this cooperation between the public and private sectors is already visible in the destination under analysis, as indicated by E7 “public sector partnerships with the private sector are significant” or E6 that speaks of a concrete project “this is the region which, in European terms, for the first time also has a consortium called North Natural where it involves in the region all public entities linked to the nature sector and more than 110 private entities in terms of tourist entertainment”. Regarding the collaboration between the stakeholders of the tourist destination and the development of a network, the interviewees agree that there is still work to be done. E4 considers that “There is a lot of work to be done at this level, but I think this is a cultural issue”, and E1 “That is where I think it fails, they work in an isolated way creating partial partnerships, at best, and are not coordinated, there is a great lack of dialogue between the various actors.” 5.2

Competitiveness of Porto and the North Region as a Sports Tourist Destination

About this specific issue, there are several opinions and different motivations were highlighted by the interviewees, highlighting the following reasons: a) Cultural reasons with cultural city breaks and short breaks, as well as cultural touring to be highlighted by E1, E3, E4, E5, and E7; b) Professional reasons or business mentioned by E1, E2, E3, E5, and E7, with E3 indicating that “there is a lot of this capacity to do events because then there is wine tourism in the Douro or the cellars, that part of socialization that events value a lot and this is a very important market”; c) Nature mentioned by E1, E3, E5, and E7; d) Gastronomy and wines, motivation highlighted by E3, E4, and E7. About sport, E1 indicates that “punctually yes” and E4 show that “sport could be if we consider it in a logic of nature tourism” with E7 revealing that “Golf and Nautical Tourism are emerging”. E3, on the other hand, reveals that it considers sport an

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important motivation, however, it points to some factors that constitute a limitation for increasing its relevance not only in this region but at the national level. Concerning the sports tourism supply in this region and its weight, for four interviewees there is still work to be done and that “the resources are here and the territory has this vocation” (E4), according to E1 “It is a matter of organizing the supply, so the potential is there” and “it is necessary to do this work of product development and dynamization” (E4). Already three respondents have a different opinion such as E2, which states that “in the last few years the supply of sports activities has been growing and retaining public, as is the case with the races that have been replicated in several cities in the region and that each year they hold a greater number of participants”, as well as the E6, which states that “today in the North, the sport does not coexist without tourism and tourism above all takes advantage of sport and invests in sport and sporting events to give feedback”. Sports Motivation: Main Motivation or Complement About this specific question, the interviewees agree that sports tourism is sought as a complement to the main motivation, as indicated by E1 “I think it works as an attraction but that it is not alone” and E3 when defending that “it is as I say, I do not believe that there is enough infrastructure for Porto to have a great expression”. However, when looking at the sports events that exist in this region, opinion differs and according to four interviewees, sports events can motivate tourist demand to visit this destination “great sports events always work as a main motivation” (E1), “there are indeed sports events that can be attractive and constitute a travel motivation, yes” (E5) and “events with greater media coverage generate primary demand” (E7). Sports Tourist Profile In terms of the sports tourist profile, concerning nationality, E3 highlights the “English, French”, while E4 the “Scandinavian market”. As far as income is concerned, according to two interviewees, these are variable, and “it depends on the segments” (E3). The E5, on the other hand, has a different idea by indicating that “there are people who do not necessarily look for the cheapest things”. Regarding the way of traveling, some resort to tour packages but also those who prefer to travel individually, as indicated by the E5 “considering what companies tell us, there are people who buy the activities package, but there are more and more tourists who want to come alone”. As for the age group, according to E3 and E7, young people stand out at the level of the public that looks for sports experiences in this destination, while E4 indicates that there is “a lot of market in the 60s, 70s”. The E5 has a more concrete opinion and states that the public that looks for sports tourism is diverse in terms of ages, being sophisticated and valuing differentiation in terms of the tourist supply of destinations and that, in addition to sport, seeks to experience other activities on site.

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Sport Tourism Categories About this issue, the interviewees highlight sports tourism and adventure tourism activities given the characteristics of the territory “because traditional tourism, football, athletics, and everything, the Algarve is much more attractive because the weather conditions are very favorable and therefore it doesn’t make sense for Porto to bet on it” (E3), revealing that “you must bet on your added value that is the mountain, its natural resources and therefore, whatever nature activities are because the North has great potential” (E3). E1 also says that the destination should bet “on the so-called new physical and leisure activities, so I think so, for example in Gerês we now have trails that are very strong, we have canyoning, we have hiked and then yes, I think that has a great margin for progress”, an opinion shared by E4 that also focuses on the region’s natural resources and once again highlights Gerês “We have Gerês, we have many parks, we have huge nature reserves in the north and I think that in this meaning is a product to be explored”. Regarding the existence of sports infrastructures and equipment, according to E3 “some cities already have the infrastructure and need to enhance it”, that is, “what is needed is to qualify what already exists” (E4). Two interviewees reveal the existence of hotel units with sports equipment “there are already some hotel units dedicated specifically to sports” (E2) and “there are already quite a few dedicated now to biking, to cycling, therefore, that are the bike hoots that there are also several that provide this service” (E1), and “many other units already offer a gym” (E2). Three interviewees also talk about sports attractions such as museums and stadiums “there is a new architecture, the Porto Museum” and “Porto has a brand that is Futebol Clube do Porto, that brand, worked and all its derivatives” (E1). In addition to these infrastructures, two interviewees also address high-performance centers since “the country has infrastructures and then it also has the organizational know-how and security and climate and those attributes that allow it to develop this business area” (E5), and for this interviewee, the destination may grow at the level of sports internships because “there are infrastructures that can be used” (E5). 5.3

Integrated Model of Competitiveness of Destinations and Determinants of Competitiveness

About this specific issue, two interviewees referred to the fact that sports tourism contributes to greater notoriety and dissemination of the destination (E1; E6) and another interviewee (E3) talks about the ability to promote the destination that occurs mainly in events of greater scale. Also, six interviewees mentioned the ability that sport must generate tourist flows, generate income, generate jobs, generate dynamics at the territorial level, create new opportunities, diversify the local supply and attract other markets. E4 also mentions the ability of sport to take tourists to inland areas “it is one of the products that most manage to take tourists inland by the type of resource they need” and the same interviewee also mentions the capacity of sports tourism to increase the average stay. E3 addresses the issue of sport tourism promoting healthy living and, as already mentioned by E3, E7 also addresses the fact that this type of tourism can lead to demand loyalty, with four respondents reporting their ability to combat seasonality.

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Regarding the negative impacts, three interviewees did not indicate any “no specific negative impacts are resulting from this tourism product” (E2). One respondent addressed the issue of costs and another of the management and salt-wandering of the destination’s resources, both natural and at the level of local communities. For E1 “The negatives, imagine, is that we are building things, assembling and disassembling things at a crazy cost, it is eventually we are even creating structures that they do not have full use and with a frightening maintenance cost.”

6 Conclusion Currently, competition is a reality and occurs in the global market, which leads to the emergence of new challenges and constant changes in terms of tourism. Thus, with the constant competition of the current market, studies on the competitiveness of tourist destinations have become valuable instruments since the success and permanence of a destination in the current market depends on its competitiveness and its ability to remain competitive or even improve your current competitive position. Thus, studies on the competitiveness of tourist destinations make it possible for destinations to recognize their competitive strengths and weaknesses, that is, the advantages and disadvantages of their competitive position and allow the destination to be aware of its real competitive position but also potential by detecting weaknesses in competitiveness that can be improved to increase the competitiveness of a destination in the market. Thus, analyzing the competitiveness of tourist destinations in the current market is vital today, although no single and universal formula allows measuring the competitiveness of different tourist destinations since each destination is different and has certain competitiveness factors that are more determinants for your success in the market than others. Within this field of competitiveness, an issue must necessarily be highlighted and is related to the capacity for innovation and differentiation of the supply of a tourist destination in comparison with other competing destinations since this differentiation is vital for the attractiveness of a given destination which, in turn, is one of the decisive factors of its competitiveness. It is precisely through the importance of differentiation in the context of the competitiveness of tourist destinations that the relevance of sport as a tourist product is emphasized since, as indicated by Ritchie and Crouch [6], it can strengthen the tourist industry and increase the competitiveness of tourist destinations. Thus, sport can be a differentiating product in the supply of a tourist destination, contributing to an increase in its competitiveness. It is within this line of thought that a destination can have in sports and sports tourism a differentiating product that meets the new needs of demand that no longer wants only passive holidays, but rather active ones, seeking to emerge in different experiences throughout of your tourist experience in the destination. Thus, it is crucial that the tourist supply has knowledge of the profile of the new visitor and adapts its

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services to meet the needs of the tourist, namely in the sports supply, something that is already possible to be verified with a greater bet by part of the tourist supply in the sports area. In this way, the importance that sports tourism has for the tourist sector and the competitiveness of tourist destinations is visible. As proposals for future research, it is suggested to carry out a study that analyses the perceptions of visitors to verify differences and similarities of opinion between tourism demand and supply and to provide a source of information to the stakeholders of the destination that can support them in their decisions. It is also considered that it would be relevant to extend this study to the remaining stakeholders of the tourism offer, namely in terms of accommodation at the destination to verify whether there is a bet in terms of sports equipment in the accommodation units of the destination. Another pertinent study would be to verify the extent to which the destination’s sports tourism offer can respond to tourists with some type of disability and the extent to which sports tourism in the region can be considered Tourism for All.

References 1. Dwyer, L., Livaic, Z., Mellor, R.: Competitiveness of Australia as a tourist destination. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 10(1), 60–78 (2003) 2. Omerzel, D.: Competitiveness of Slovenia as a tourist destination. Manag. Global Trans. 4 (2), 167–189 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 3. Armenski, T., Marković, V., Davidović, N., Jovanović, T.: Integrated model of destination competitiveness. Geographica Pannonica 15(2), 58–69 (2011) 4. Hallmann, K., Müller, S., Feiler, S.: Destination competitiveness of winter sport resorts in the Alps: how sport tourists perceive destinations? Current Issues Tour. 17(4), 327–349 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2012.720247 5. Torkildsen, G.: Leisure and Recreation Management, 5a edn. Routledge, London (2005) 6. Ritchie, B., Crouch, G.: The Competitive Destination: a Sustainable Tourism Perspective. CABI Publishing, Wallingford (2003) 7. Cellini, R., Soci, A.: Pop competitiveness. Banca Nazionale Del Lavoro Q. Rev. 55(220), 71–101 (2002) 8. Porter, M.: A vantagem competitiva das nações. Editora Campus, Rio de Janeiro (1993) 9. Kitson, M., Martin, R., Tyler, P.: Regional competitiveness: an elusive yet key concept? Reg. Stud. 38(9), 991–999 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340042000320816 10. Sepic, D.: The regional competitiveness: some notions. 2 November 2016 (2005). http:// recep.ru/files/documents/regional_competitiveness_en.pdf 11. Buhalis, D.: Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tour. Manage. 21(1), 97– 116 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00095-3 12. Crouch, G.: Modeling destination competitiveness: a survey and analysis of the impact of competitiveness attributes. Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre, Gold Coast (2007) 13. Crouch, G.: Destination competitiveness: an analysis of determinant attributes. J. Travel Res. 50(1), 27–45 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287510362776 14. Heath, E.: Towards a model to enhance destination competitiveness: a Southern African perspective. J Hosp. Tour. Manage. 10(2), 124–141 (2003) 15. Poon, A.: Tourism, Technology, and Competitive Strategies. CAB International, Wallingford (1993)

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16. Dupeyras, A., Maccallum, N.: Indicators for measuring competitiveness in tourism: a guidance document. OECD tourism papers, 15 November 2016 (2013). http://www.oecd. org/cfe/tourism/IndicatorsforMeasuringCompetitivenessinTourism.pdf 17. Jennings, G.: Tourism Research (2a). Wiley, Milton (2010) 18. Quivy, R., Campenhoudt, L.: Manual de investigação em ciências sociais (J. Marques, M. Mendes & M. Carvalho, Trad, 2a edn. Gradiva, Lisboa (1995) 19. Vanderstoep, S., Johnston, D.: Research Methods for Everyday Life: Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (2009) 20. Veal, A.: Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, 2a edn. Longman, Harlow (1997) 21. Ketele, J.-M., Roegiers, X.: Metodologia da recolha de dados: Fundamentos dos métodos de observações, de questionários, de entrevistas e de estudos de documentos. Instituto Piaget, Lisboa (1993) 22. Bardin, L.: Análise de conteúdo (L. Reto & A. Pinheiro, Trad. 5a ed.), vol. 70. Edições, Lisboa (2011) 23. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de investigação em ciências sociais e humanas: Teoria e prática. Almedina, Coimbra (2011)

E-Business in Pandemic Context - A Systematic Literature Review Miguel Barros(&) and Anabela Mesquita Polytechnic of Porto, Jaime Lopes Amorim, 4465-004 S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The world changed with the spreading of the new Coronavirus, considered by the World Health Organization as a Pandemic. Economies stopped, hospitals and morgues got overcrowded, economic indicators abruptly deteriorated, people found themselves confined to their houses. This times challenge organizations by guiding them to reinvent themselves in order to survive. This study focuses on the identification and explanation of the Systematic Literature Review Methodology, to survey the State of the Art regarding the adoption of E-Business Models by Portuguese Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises, forced to rethink their activity, given the restrictive measures taken to face the Pandemic. It is explained how the works in this area will be researched, selected and referred in the future study of investigation. The aim of the study is to evaluate the idea of how an e-business model can become vital, if implemented, in a Portuguese SME, with the current situation. Keywords: E-business • Covid-19 • SME

1 Introdution Currently, we live in a context of uncertainty, with the Pandemic caused by the new Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease identified as COVID-19. It is transmitted through the respiratory system, through droplets of the nose and mouth, on a human to human basis, through close contact with the infected or through contact with contaminated surfaces and objects [1]. To date, more than 16 million confirmed cases of Covid-19 were reported, including more than 600 thousand deaths from the disease [1]. In Portugal, a State of Emergency was declared, as the Portuguese Law and Constitution demand, with an agreement between the President, Government and Parliament. The rights of travel within the national territory, economic initiative, international circulation, the right to gather around and the freedom to religious worship, in its collective dimension were partially suspended, among others [2]. It is also important to explain that “Emergency” is understood as requiring coordination and response in order to save lives, protect property, protect public health and safety, or reduce/avoid the threat of a disaster [3].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 540–549, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_46

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Like Portugal, countries affected by the Pandemic closed schools, banned gatherings, sports, collective activities, flights, closed borders, to confine people to their houses and prevent the spread of the virus. With this, there was a general reduction in global industrial production and an abrupt drop in the price of oil, which caused a big drop, around 20%, in the global markets, in a short period of time. Thus, the scenario of a global recession has become very likely. The more the virus spreads, geographically and temporally, the more the performance of the world economy will be affected, raising concerns about financial sustainability, especially in highly indebted countries, such as Portugal. Therefore, coherent and coordinated responses are needed to limit the economic consequences of this Pandemic [4]. In this context, there are many challenges facing Smal and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SME) on how to survive and even how to be competitive. One of the possible solutions, which many have been trying, is to use the potential of technologies to reach customers. E-business has a very significant impact, as it streamlines the processes of traditional business models, optimizing and automating them. The main advantage associated with E-business solutions is increasing companies’ effectiveness and efficiency. This business model also improves the internal and external communication of the organizations that practice it, reducing costs and highlighting the company’s growth [5]. Given the importance of SME for economic development, academics and politicians have studied the adoption of E-business Models in these entities. Numerous Business Models have already been proposed as ideal, but they are constantly changing, depending on the context, and there are still problems with them. These models proposed at the time tend to be very linear and prescriptive for specific cases; the problem is that each case is different and SME adopt them in the light of their reality. Given the diversity of existing SME, the adoption of an E-business Model becomes anything but linear. In addition, most of these models tend to neglect the secondary activities of the value chain that support a company [6]. Therefore, it is important to make an in-depth survey of the E-business Models proposals already launched, to rethink them in order to adapt them in support of the creation of a new Model, idealized for Portuguese SME, during and after the pandemic context. With this study, it is intended, therefore, to explain the process of research, selection and referencing of works relevant to the combined scope of E-business, SME, digital work of SME and the economic impact of the new Coronavirus. The objective is to clarify, for future study, the State of the Art and to come to evaluate the feasibility of the transition to an E-business Model for SME, in a Pandemic context. This work, being in progress and limited by the recent occurrence of the mentioned events, is structured as follows: after contextualization, the scientific research methodology to be adopted to collect the empirical knowledge already generated is identified, highlighting the initial research questions and the path to your answers; data is released for later phases of work in terms of the research methodology, and this task ends with the references.

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1.1

Initial Research Questions

The challenge in creating and launching appropriate research questions detects with determination of open research questions that can or should be studied [7]. With this, the following research questions were launched: • What is the impact of E-Business Models on Portuguese SME? • How to generate an E-Business Model suitable for a Portuguese SME facing the consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic? • How to implement an E-Business Model, in a Portuguese SME, in order to help it survive, and even grow, the consequences of Pandemic? For a better understanding of the purpose of each research question, the objectives associated with each one was identified in Table 1 [8]. Table 1. Research questions and respective objectives, following the selected model [8]. Research questions What is the impact of E-Business Models on Portuguese SME

How to generate an E-Business Model suitable for a Portuguese SME facing the consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic?

How to implement an E-Business Model, in a Portuguese SME, in order to help it survive, and even grow, the consequences of Pandemic?

Objectives Generically understand the functioning of Portuguese SME, what are the current practices of using E-business tools and how they can leverage business Knowing, through predictions and the unfolding of the facts, the consequences of the Covid-19 Pandemic and, with that, studying models of conception of E-business Models, to create one that suits the pandemic context Evaluate, taking into account the available scientific knowledge, how the E-business Model generated in the study may impact the activity of a Portuguese SME

2 Research Methodology The method for carrying out this study, at this initial point, involves gathering the existing scientific evidence, to date. With this, the State of the Art will be verified, through the Systematic Literature Review (SLR), around: • E-business - realizing how it emerged, its impact on business and society, its evolution over the years and, essentially, how they can support business in the current context. • The E-business Models - for a comprehensive survey of the existing Models, their characteristics, potential, in view of the objective of creating a new Model adapted to Portuguese SME.

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3 Systematic Literature Review As priorly explained, the methodology adopted to analyze the State of the Art for this study will be Systematic Literature Review (SLR). SLR tries to gather all the empirical evidence, within previously specified eligibility criteria, to answer an initial investigation question. Using explicit and systematic methods, selected with the objective of minimizing bias, this research methodology provides more reliable data and from which conclusions can be drawn and decisions made. As it summarizes the results of the original studies, SLR is usually considered as high-quality evidence [9]. This same study highlights, as the Stages in the SLR process, the following points 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Formulate the initial investigation question. Produce a record of what the study will be and its research process. Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria for literature material. Develop a research strategy and search the literature - find the studies. Select and evaluate the quality of the studies. Extract and synthesize data, assessing the quality of the evidence. Disseminate results - Publication.

This task is guided by these steps to present the Research Methodology that will be developed in the future work. It is assumed that the registration of the investigation process, or the investigation protocol (point 2. of the stages of the SLR process) is represented throughout this document. 3.1

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

With a careful consideration of the inclusion/exclusion criteria of the works obtained as a result of the research work, Table 2 was developed, explaining the main requirements. The main focus, in this analysis, was the partial reading of the work, through the respective “title”, “abstract”, “Index” and “conclusion” of the works, in order to guarantee the greatest possible coincidence with the theme [8]. Additionally, the publication date of the work weighs predominantly in the exclusion or inclusion in the research work. The conditions, in each criterion, for selection and exclusion are demonstrated: Table 2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria Criteria Partial reading

Year of publication

Inclusion Approach to the creation of e-business models, consequences of the pandemic of COVID-19, Portuguese SME companies, SME’s work in digital Preferably from 2020 onwards

Exclusion Repeated/duplicated works; approaches to topics in areas outside business sciences Older than 2016

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Searching Strategy

In order to answer the objective of the investigation, it is necessary, first of all, to carry out a survey of studies in the area, which allow to understand what is already known, already studied and what remains to be investigated in this scope of the creation and adoption of E-business Models, especially in the current situation. Performing this survey will require a good relationship between sensitivity and precision/specificity, in the research. This will result in a comprehensive and representative research of the scientific knowledge already generated, reducing, however, irrelevant, duplicate or impertinent results for the case [9]. So, it begins by explaining that searches will be carried out in various databases, as follows: • • • • • •

Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.pt). Scientific Repositories of Portugal (https://www.rcaap.pt). Higher Education Institutions Scientific Repositories. Presidency of the Portuguese Republic electronic diary (https://dre.pt/). B-On (https://www.b-on.pt/). ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net/).

It is clarified that in the works extracted by the research, the references of the articles will be verified, a practice that is expected to take a long time, but, it is believed, will add efficiency to the review and will help to identify additional relevant works that the research has filtered. Terminology is an important part of obtaining relevant results for research work, with a direct impact on the transmission of different points of view to each new academic work [10]. Considering this and considering the research questions, the use of the following search terms, in Portuguese and English, is launched to obtain relevant and representative works of scientific knowledge already generated for future work: • Coronavirus Business Impact; • E-Business Models creation and adoption. 3.3

Selection of Studies

Due to the incipient research work developed so far, it has become expected that the volume of results obtained from the research, in the absolute number of works, will be considerably large. This will make the correct evaluation and selection of the highlighted studies vital, in order to make this SLR representative of the knowledge available to date. It is suggested, first, to start by eliminating the duplicate results that are expected to be extracted from the research, given the scope inherent to the research by the methodology in question [9]. Then, it is intended to categorize the studies, in order to separate them depending on whether they answer one or another research question. The categorization of the study, associating it with the respective research question, will be done by carefully examining the “Title” and “Abstract”/“Abstract” of the work [9].

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To ensure greater relevance and academic rigor, it is suggested to remove works with less novelty content or with a less relevant contribution in the field of E-business [11]. At the suggestion of the studies referred to in the previous paragraphs, a reference management application will also be used, with emphasis on academic advice, Zotero. In addition, a flowchart and selection form will be created, to ensure greater consistency in the work selection decision and validating the number of studies/articles remaining in each stage. 3.4

Evaluation of the Quality of Studies

Assessing the quality of studies obtained through work Assessing the quality of studies obtained through scientific research work is fundamental to the SLR process [9]. For this study, at the suggestion of the investigation by [12], a checklist will be made to understand the relevance of each work extracted from the research and included in the works. That checklist will include the points listed below, despite the Table 3. Adapted checklist to assess the quality of the studies obtained by the investigation [13]. Item da checklist Rigor Description of Research Sample 1. Sampling plan recruitment strategy 2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria 3. Number of cases excluded/Final sample size for each analysis 4. Basic sociodemographic info on sample Description of Measures/Manipulations 5. Basic information on scales and their descriptive statistics 6. Scale adaptations/Translated scales 7. Provide access to all scale items 8. Manipulation checks reported, along with how failed manipulation checks were handled Description of Analysis and Interpretation 9. Correlation matrix including ALL variables (including controls, sociodemographics, multiplicative and transformed variables) 10. Full results from model testing 11. Effect size and variance accounted for estimates included 12. Using relative (“higher/lower”) rather than absolute language when depicting and discussing interactions

Replication

Transparency/Openness

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fact that it may still undergo changes depending on the evolution of the investigation and the passage of time. It is also explained that the response of each work to each of the checklist points will be evaluated from zero to five, with “zero” attributed to the non-compliance with that point and, on the other hand, “five” is attributed to compliance point total. Table 3 represents the checklist proposed, at the time, for assessing the quality of studies, in an adaptation of a selected model [13]. 3.5

Extract and Synthesize Data, Assessing Quality of Evidence

The methods of data synthesis, obtained by an SLR, are preponderant for the promotion of innovative scientific research approaches, facilitating consensus in the formation of more scientific knowledge [14]. For the synthesis and extraction of the most relevant data from the studies obtained by the future research of this study, we will choose a model that [9, 15], highlights and explains, in the construction of a scheme synthesis based on the answer to the points: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 3.6

Formulation of the problem. Literary review. Evaluation and analysis of information. Interpretation of results. Publication. Disseminating Results

This SLR process will constitute one of three phases of the methodology of a scientific research work, with the ultimate goal of validating the possibility of an E-business Model being central to the survival of a Portuguese SME during and immediately after the current pandemic context. In this research work, as already mentioned, the State of Art around E-business is raised, from its history, to the creation and implementation of Business Models. With this, it is intended to be able to design a Model to later assess the impact that its adoption would have on a Portuguese SME. With this, a monograph will be produced, with all its presupposed components, for, hopefully, publication in mid-2021. To conclude and better illustrate the research process, within this SLR Research Methodology, the Summary Table (Image 1) was created, with the steps mentioned above, described in a more schematic way. This picture follows as an adaptation of the selected model [11].

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Image 1. Summary table of the research, through SLR [11].

4 Conclusion and Future Work SLR, as an integral part of the methodology to be used in future research work, presupposes a lot of rigor in the survey of the State of the Art, in this case, the scope of E-business. It is expected to obtain numerous research results, to be selected or excluded, to later formulate duly validated knowledge [9]. From the initial research to the data transition for the study to come, there will be a long and laborious process, but at the same time, enriching and right-handed. Thus, this Research in Progress task, allowed us to better understand how the task of developing the monograph to focus on the subject in question is foreseen. There is, after investigating various knowledge already scientifically launched, a better notion of how to proceed properly in an SLR. Expectably, there will be limitations in the work, which are related to the fact that there is still a huge amount of scientific evidence, currently, that allows to read the impact of E-business Models on SME, in the current context of Pandemic. Even so, the objective is to deepen the knowledge of the E-business models and the possible impact of their adoption, in this context that is expected to be unfavorable. This will be the core work of this study in the future. Realize what is working, what did not work, what

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allowed a company to survive, what compromised its activity, what made companies grow, what made companies end…. With this, in future work, a model will be formulated that best fits the reality of a Portuguese SME in order to study more concretely the best possible solution, in the sense of survival or even, eventually, the growth of the organization. It is hoped that this hypothesis around the positive impact of the E-business on Portuguese SME will materialize. On the other hand, there is a notion that the risks, especially due to the limitations of financial resources, of the implementation of an Ebusiness model can compromise the stability of companies, therefore, it is explained that these models are not a guaranteed bet since at the start [5, 16].

References 1. World Health Organization. (03 June 2020) Coronavirus Dashboard. https://covid19.who. int/ 2. Presidency of the Portuguese Republic. (2020, março). Decreto do Presidente da República number 14-A/2020 March 18th. Diário da República no. 55/2020, 3 Suplement, Series I 2020-03-18. https://dre.pt/pesquisa/-/search/130399862/details/maximized 3. Cruz, R.: Protocolos de Actuação em Caso de Emergência (Publicação oai: digitool.fe.up. pt:57773) [Tese de Mestrado, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto]. Repositório Aberto da Universidade do Porto (2009). http://hdl.handle.net/10216/59200 4. Gupta, M., Abdelmaksoud, A., Jafferany, M., Lotti, T., Sadoughifar, R., Goldust, M.: COVID-19 and economy. Dermatol. Ther. 2020, e13329 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1111/dth. 13329 5. Supriya, G.: The impact of e-business and competitive advantage. Int. J. Innov. Sci. Res. Technol. 2(6), 2456–2165 (2017). https://www.scribd.com/the-impact-of-e-business-andcompetitive-advantage 6. Putra, P., Hasibuan, Z., Sunarya, P.: Depicting E-business application adoption for small and medium enterprises (SME): the e-business triangle model. In: 2017 International Conference on Computing, Engineering, and Design (ICCED), pp. 1–6 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/ CED.2017.8308135 7. Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B., Farrokhyar, F., Bhandari, M.: Research questions, hypotheses and objectives. Can. J. Surg. 53(4), 278–281, 4p (2017). https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/ pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&sid=78d5b7ad-fa67-4398-ad1d-863cb90f7246%40sdc-vsessmgr01 8. Ahmed, S., Shah, M., Wakil, K.: Blockchain as a trust builder in the smart city domain. IEEE Access Access, IEEE. 8, 92977–92985 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020. 2993724hannels/ 9. Donato, H., Donato, M.: Etapas na Condução de uma Revisão Sistemática 32(3):227–235. https://doi.org/10.20344/amp.11923 10. Slisko, J., Dykstra, D.: The role of scientific terminology in research and teaching: is something important missing? J. Res. Sci. Teach. 34(6), 665–660 (1997). https://doi.org/10. 1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199708)34:6%3C655::AID-TEA7%3E3.0.CO;2-M 11. Chang, S., Chen, Y.: When blockchain meets supply chain: a systematic literature review on current development and potential applications. IEEE Access. 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1109/ACCESS.2020.2983601

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12. Ward, R., Usher-Smith, J., Griffin, S.: How to produce a systematic review. Innov. Educ. Inspiration Gen. Pract. 12(3), 155–157 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/1755738018794715 13. Eby, L., Shockley, K., Bauer, T., Edwards, B., Homan, A., Johnson, R., Lang, J., Morris, S., e Oswald, F.: Methodological checklists for improving research quality and reporting consistency. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 13(1), 76–83 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2020.14 14. Sheble, L.: Research synthesis methods and library and information science: shared problems, limited diffusion. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 67(8), 1990–2008 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1002/asi.23499 15. Cooper, H., Hedges, L.: The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis. Russell Sage Foundation, New York (1994) 16. Leite, A.: Fatores de Sucesso no E-commerce - Uma Perspetiva Operacional (Publicação no. 10400.14/19297) [Tese de Mestrado, Faculdade de Economia e Gestão da Universidade Católica Portuguesa]. Veriati - Repositório da Universidade Católica Portuguesa (2015). https://repositorio.ucp.pt/handle/10400.14/19297

Experiential Tourism and Experiential Marketing: An Innovative Approach Teresa Dieguez1,2(&)

and Oscarina Conceição1,3,4

1

3

Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal [email protected] 2 CiTUR, Porto, Portugal Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), DINÂMIA’CET-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal 4 UNIAG, Viana do Castelo, Portugal

Abstract. The present paper addresses the theme “Experiential Tourism and Experiential Marketing” under the scope of the economy of experiences. The word “experience” appears to be very abstract and difficult to conceptualize due to its complexity and dynamic nature. Several authors, namely Pine and Gilmore, studied the theme and develop “The Four Realms of an Experience” construct, finding that experience must be studied and worked taking in account several dimensions. The need to understand and evaluate the tourist experience, as well as to investigate how the tourist perceives his experience in the tourist context, resulted in different researchers coming from diverse areas, including the marketing area. In this sense, this study focuses on the concept of experiential marketing, explaining how it relates to the tourist experience, and how both can positively contribute to the tourism sector. The present investigation does not present empirical results, being only theoretical. Keywords: Co-creation Experiential Tourism


Economy of experiences
Experiential Marketing


1 Introduction The entry into the current economic era - the era of experience – represents a general challenge for the tourism industry, as customers’ expectations and requirements become radically different. Products and services are no longer enough to generate economic prosperity, being experience a tool for differentiation [1]. Experiences are subjective, highly personal and intangible phenomenon [2], very difficult to define [3], dynamic and with complex nature [4]. At the individual level, researchers correlate the experience with intrinsic aspects such as perception, learning, previous experiences and memory [5]. The tourist experience remains in the memory, preceded by motivations and expectations and result in satisfaction or dissatisfaction [6]. Businesses and tourist destinations, who wish to prosper and globally compete, are now forced to recognize that the experience is what motivates visitors to travel, to repeat visits to the destination and to recommend it to friends and family [7, 8]. Tourism is no more identified as the sale of products and services and is increasingly interested in “selling” experiences that © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 550–559, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_47

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meet consumer expectations [9]. As a consequence, traditional marketing also had to adapt to the current consumer and become experiential marketing [10]. This new economic perspective requires an innovative approach about the way experience can be improved and worked, as well as to build external relationships to manage the opportunities that may appear [11] and reinforce the involvement of the region’s stakeholders [12]. In 1998, Pine and Gilmore argued that the “experience of experiences” appears as a fourth stage in the progression of the value chain. They identified four domains in the area of experience, namely education, entertainment, contemplation and avoidance. Recently, other researchers have contributed to the deepening of this matter, working on the four dimensions of experience and developing a model that allows evaluating experiences in the tourist context [13]. Experience is intrinsically linked to travel and tourism and it is the result of finding, passing or living through life [14]. Functional values are replaced by sensitive, emotional, cognitive, behavioral and relational values [14]. Sustainable competitive advantage requires delivering unique, extraordinary and memorable tourism experiences to target tourists [15, 16]. The present article began with a literature review on the tourist experience, the economy of experiences and tourism, as well as the dimensions of experience and experiential marketing. After, a reflection on the relationship between experiential tourism and experiential marketing is presented, allowing us to conclude that the two themes are intrinsically interconnected and crucial when making a decision.

2 Literature Review 2.1

The Tourist Experience

There is no common terminology or shared vision by researchers from different areas regarding the definition of experience [17]. The experience is a consumer response to the occurrence of a particular stimulating event, usually induced by direct observation or involvement in it [18]. Consumer experience refers to consumer behavior as well as psychological activities in a variety of situations that bound consumers and that they directly experience during the process of obtaining, consuming, and disposing of products and services [19]. Therefore, the term “tourist experience” also presents several definitions according to different authors. For example, [20] argue that “a tourist experience occurs when a company intentionally uses services such as stage and goods as props, to involve individual customers in a way that creates a memorable event”. [21] defines “tourist experience as a social phenomenon that consists of the voluntary and temporary displacement of individuals or groups of people who, fundamentally for reasons of leisure, rest, culture or health, move from their place of usual residence for another, in which they do not engage in any gainful or remunerated activity, generating multiple interrelationships of social, economic and cultural importance”. [22] classifies it as “an occurrence experienced by a person outside the usual environment and the contracted time limits that are composed of a sequence of the following events: sensation, perception, interpretation and learning”. However, it seems that there is a relative consensus between the different definitions and that the tourist experience appears as an escape from the daily life of a consumer society [23], “which makes them eager to

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embark on different holiday experiences” [24]. Tourist experience appears connected with a very abstract and difficult to conceptualize concept, related to a dynamic and complex nature [25]. It generates a panoply of interactions between the tourist and the consumed service, meaning that all the experienced interactions by tourists at the destination can be considered to be an experience [26]. In this sense and as a result of the need to understand the effect of the tourist experience on the current tourists’ profile, [21] focused their attention to the economy of experiences, in which consumers try to get involved and feel absorbed during its performance. 2.2

The Economy of Experiences and Tourism

Consumers unquestionably want experiences and “experiences emerged as the next step in what we call the progression of the economic value” [21]. At this stage, consumers are clearly willing to pay more for an “experience” than for a product, as “Experience buyers (…) value involvement” [27]. And this means that if consumers are willing to pay more, they are undoubtedly a better-informed type of tourist, attentive to detail and critical of what they are buying [28]. Figure 1 represents the progression in the economic value chain: while commodities, goods and services exist outside the individual buyers, “the experience stager effectively reaches inside customers with the sensations, impressions and performances they orchestrate together in order to engage each guest and create a memory” [27]. And this customization meets expectations guest as an individual and gives them authenticity and differentiation from others [27].

Fig. 1. The progression of economic value [1]

Goods and tangible goods can be replaced by others of the same type, quality or quantity. However, as this new phase of the value chain approaches, there is a differentiated product/service, which approaches consumer expectations. It is commonly accepted that, in general, all experiences are unique and have a very individual character. The same experience of an individual or group of individuals will result in different experiences and with different felt feelings [16].Within the economy of

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experiences’ logic, tourism has to prepare business to adapt to market changes and to create memorable models of services/ products that make customers not only interested in the product, but also available to pay more for enjoying that moment [29]. New data is required for decision-making, including the search for emotional aspects and the individuality of experiences, as well as perception through the five senses and memories [26]. The certainty is that today’s customers are more difficult to please, more demanding, better informed and aware of prices [30]. 2.3

The Dimensions of Experience

Regarding the understanding of what constitutes or contributes to the creation of tourist experiences, several authors agree that the experience must be analysed under several domains/ dimensions, combined of several elements, even if the experience is evaluated in a holistic way [17]. In the present research, the concept of tourist experience follows the four domains introduced by [20]. As already seen, tourism is an industry that sells experiences [31, 32]. The individual wants to experience something unique, memorable moments that make each consumer experience unforgettable, providing opportunities to build its identity, increase personal competencies and fulfill cherished desires and dreams [33]. However, it is important to remember that “staging experiences is not about entertaining customers, it is about engaging them” [27]. And it is in this context that Pine and Gilmore introduce the four domains in the design of the experience (“The Four Realms of an Experience”), depending on the context and centered on learning/ education, entertainment, avoidance and contemplation. Each individual can participate considering the two axes of Fig. 2: the horizontal refers to the degree of participation (active or passive) of the individual in the experience; the vertical axis describes the degree (absorption or immersion) of the emotional involvement and connection with the experience.

Fig. 2. - The four domains of experience [27, 34]

In what concerns the dimension of Education, the authors argue that individuals only learn something if they truly want it and are physically and spiritually involved in the experience. For this reason, it is crucial that, in tourism, producer defines what information and content he wants the consumer to absorb, as well as what skills he wants him to acquire during the experience. When experience has the ability to make

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the visitor immerse in the activities that are proposed, Escape (Escapism) dimension represents the true escape from everyday life or reality. However, it is required for the producer to understand the importance that tourists attach to the surrounding physical space and how they evaluate it. The Contemplation (Esthetic) dimension implies the creation of a warm, inviting, and comfortable environment, in which the visitor feels the desire to stay and even longer to contemplate it. Finally, Entertainment is considered the most passive domain of the experience, as it is representative of a response (satisfaction/ joy, excitement, relaxation, etc.) by the individual in relation to the lived experience. An experiment to be considered as an “ideal experience”, must be creatively developed and must contain aspects of the four domains of the experience [20]. [34], through their investigation, propose that memory, stimulation, perceived quality and satisfaction are consequences that result from the tourist experience. They developed some measurement scales, adaptable to other contexts and including the four domains of experience presented by [27]. The results can be easily compared for benchmarking, which will help destination marketers to improve their offerings and serve visitors’ needs better. It is crucial to understand that all the involved steps in the process of the experience must be closely monitored, resulting in consumer satisfaction or even exceeding their expectations [35]. 2.4

Experiential Marketing

Experiential marketing is the result of the convergence between the brand and the consumer, through a direct and positive interaction [36]. Its main objective is to create experiences that completely involve the consumer, so that their later memories result in brand preference and loyalty [36, 37], focuses on the importance of the consumer, arguing that experiential marketing understands the consumer as a person, someone who has experience, lives, gets emotional and participates in what is happening. Thus, the preference for a brand is the result of the lived experience. Experiential marketing is also related to the management of consumer sensations and emotions [18]. Therefore, it focuses on the creation and orientation of stimuli in people’s minds, senses and hearts, which in turn are increasingly immune to cognitive messages that only value the functional. In this sense, the main objective of experiential marketing is the creation of holistic experiences in customers, through brands, combining sensorial, affective and creative perceptions. That is why [18] identified four main characteristics of experiential marketing, namely focus on customer experiences, consume of holistic experiences, understands the client as a rational and emotional being and understands methods and tools as being eclectics. Its studies also noticed that brands can create experiences using five strategic modules, as shown on Fig. 3, and after explained. The five strategic modlues are: i) Sense, appealing to the five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste) in order to create complete sensorial experiences; ii) Internalize (feel), claiming to the feelings and emotions of consumers, with the aim of creating affective experiences that may vary in intensity depending on how they connect with a brand; iii) Thinking: demanding to the intellect in order to create cognitive experiences that make consumers engage with the brand in a creative way, by opposing convergent and divergent reasonings that lead to surprise, intrigue and provocation, iv) Act: seekink

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Fig. 3. – Experiential wheel [14]

to trigger behaviors, lifestyles and interactions and v) Relate (report): appealing to a desire for individuals improvement, creating a community. These strategic modules can be applied through ExPros (Experience Providers), technical-tactical available components to the marketers, helping them creating marketing campaigns based on sensations, feelings, thoughts, actions and relationships [14]. These components include vehicles through which the brand can communicate with the consumer, namely: • • • •

Communication ExPros: advertising; catalogs; internal communication; etc. Identity ExPros: brand names; brand logos and symbols; etc. ExPros of product presence: product design; packaging; brand characters; etc. ExPros for brand management: events; sponsorships; product placement; etc.

All these elements can be used in an integrated way to create different experiences for consumers, with the aim of achieving a holistic, more enriching and complete experience [14]. In this sense, experiential marketing goes far behind of the four domains of experience presented by [27].

3 Experiential Tourism and Experiential Marketing As previously shown, the evolution of the experience economy has manifested itself in several sectors, and the tourism sector was no exception. Tourists are now demanding authentic, experientially oriented opportunities with more meaningful interactions with locals [38]. Thus, experience is the element that adds value to the tourist product and can therefore be a competitive advantage for tourism [39]. In this sense, traditional marketing has to evolve to experiential marketing, in order to respond to a highly competitive market demanding, not only with product categories and rivalry, but also with consumer’s characteristics and investigation methods [40]. Experiential marketing

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appears has an understanding of an integrated thinking of traditional marketing [14, 41], focused on consumption as a holistic experience [42]. Two investigations, the first one carried out by [43], and the second one by [44], used Schmitt’s strategic modules, in order to understand the impact of experiential marketing on the perception of the tourist experience. [43] studies explored the relationship between experimental marketing, customer satisfaction and the desire to revisit. [44] examined the role of experiential marketing of festive events during the famous Lantern Festival. Their results also confirmed that experimental marketing was an important antecedent that affected the images of events in consumers and influenced their willingness to revisit. According to [45], customer satisfaction depends on the perceived value of the product’s performance upon delivery in contrast/ comparison to initial expectations: if the product’s performance falls expectations, the customer is dissatisfied; if it meets expectations, it will be satisfied, and if the performance still exceeds expectations, the customer will be delighted. Therefore, experiential marketing puts an end to a closed brand concept in itself, encouraging a more active participation by the consumer in the construction of its value. Consequently, added value starts to be based on the cocreation of engaging experiences for the consumer, where products and/ or services represent only means to achieve this same objective [46]. Basically, it is about providing holistic experiences, preferably memorable, not based on isolated products, but in environments that appeal to the five senses, feelings, fun and total involvement of the client in the experience. This means that objectives of experiential marketing are intrinsically linked to the objectives of the experience economy, aiming the tourist experience.

4 Conclusions and Future Research The understanding of tourists’ experiences, based on the identification of perceptions and emotions that tourists and visitors have during their stay at the local destination, is a central issue for Destination Marketing Organizations (DMO) in terms of supply and positioning for potential segments. Although there is a considerable theoretical thinking on this subject, there is not much available empirical research [47]. Through the assumptions of the literature review, it is possible to conclude that one reason for this gap is the multidimensional, complex and highly diversified nature of the tourist experience. Another basis is related to the fact that concepts such as satisfaction, quality and value are relatively ambiguous and are not always part of an integrated vision and consistent research. However, understanding the main and relevant dimensions of tourist experiences is crucial for building the operationalization and effective management of the experience at the tourist destination level. The evaluation instrument developed by [34] allows evaluating the tourist experience and the five experimental modules suggested by [18] can measure consumers’ experiential feelings. The symbiosis of both models will enable the creation of an “ideal experience”. Consumers must try the product to determine how satisfied they are with it and producers have to get customers feedback regarding the different domains of the experience, obtaining a complete appraisal of it. Results are valuable for all stakeholders

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in the tourism sector, especially for organizations and marketers that create this type of experiences. With it, they will be able to build an image of the product/ service very close to consumer’s expectations, with no risk of selling false experiences. The creative process must be based on the obtained results, based on the consumers’ authentic opinions. As a major limitation of this study, it can be concluded that it only has an informational nature and does not present empirical results. However, this work outlines a path and encourages future authors to research about this theme, investing in empirical studies based on the foundation of this research, especially at the Portuguese regional innovation system.

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Pedagogical Tourism in National Parks: Relations Between Brazil and Portugal Flaviano Oliveira Fonsêca1(&), Jorgenaldo Calazans dos Santos1, Lício Valério Lima Vieira1, and Fernanda A. Ferreira2 1

2

Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Polytechnic Institute of Porto, School of Hospitality and Tourism, Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. Tourism has established itself as an important economic and social activity in almost all world scenarios, with emphasis on the segments related to nature. With this, the Conservation Units have significantly corroborated the quality of the offer of spaces where it is possible to practice this type of tourism. In this work, we will highlight the potentialities and possibilities of the practice of Pedagogical Tourism in the national parks of Serra de Itabaiana, in Brazil and Peneda-Gerês, in Portugal. To achieve the objective, this research requested documentary and bibliographic analysis from the public data platforms of the countries in question and proceeded to the consultation of documents provided by the Institute of Nature Conservation and Forests, Portugal. Interviews were conducted with the most important managers of both Conservation Units. It was concluded that the parks under study already perform the function of living laboratory for the practice of pedagogical tourism and, therefore, are potentially expressive and recognized by research institutions of both countries. However, it should be noted that economic sustainability has proved problematic for the analyzed realities and requires public and private interventions in order to make them more effective and sustainable for the improvement of man and nature relations. Keywords: Tourism


Protected areas
National parks
Pedagogical tourism

1 Introduction Tourism, on a global scale, has imposed itself and, consequently, has gained a prominent place in various sectors of the economic chain, the production of knowledge and entertainment and leisure services. In this sense, to identify and analyze the pedagogical potential of this multidimensional and intersectoral human phenomenon, with strongly economic bias, implies discussing about the repertoire of elements that are typical of the tourist activity whatever they are: basic and tourist infrastructure; diversity of supply; consolidation of destinations; expansion of jobs; inclusion of local © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 560–571, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_48

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communities in the provision of services; education and preservation strategies and environmental preservation as a structuring factor of the entire chain. Moreover, the search for nature has been occurring as a differential, when seeking to occupy free time, applying the elements of entertainment and leisure in the activities developed in nature. In turn, it should be noted that the creation of conservation units – CU, significantly corroborated the quality of the offer of natural spaces, conducive to the practice of tourism. Because it adopts a sustainable model in the areas of preservation and conservation of protected areas, it is important to consider that among the categories of CU that allow sustainable use for the practice of tourism are the National Parks. Thus, tourism in protected areas has also been configured as an important tool within the training process. The pedagogical practice of visiting green areas has become a necessity in the face of the intense processes of transformation of nature by human action. The recognition of natural landscapes different from those highly urbanized is imposed as a differential in the formation of sensitive citizens aware of the role of welcoming the environment as something inherent to the well-being and human life itself. This study, it is referenced in the Serra de Itabaiana, in Brazil and Peneda-Gerês National Park, in Portugal, both framed in units that allow the practice of tourism. Therefore, some questions help us to better configure the object of study, they are: What is Pedagogical Tourism and how is it practiced in the National Parks? What are the potential of the National Parks for the development of pedagogical tourism practice? In what sense can Pedagogical Tourism be considered sustainable when practiced in natural environments? These are some challenges that the theme itself imposes and that will be considered in this article. It is noteworthy that this work is part of a broader study linked to the Pro-Rectory of Research and Extension (PROPEX), of the Federal Institute of Sergipe (IFS), through the Teaching Productivity Program (PPD/2019/20). Such studies are still in development, which is why it is not possible to present final data and conclusive analyses. As for the structure of the article, we initially worked on the theoretical framework in which some definitions of pedagogical tourism were emphasized, their importance and scope in protected areas both in National Parks of Serra de Itabaiana and Peneda-Gerês. Follow this, will present a brief geographical, demographic and environmental characterization of the parks so that later it is possible to analyze the pedagogical potential, namely for educational and research purposes, in view of their potential and how these areas are being explored today. The development of theoretical analysis includes the following categories: pedagogical tourism, protected areas, sustainability, education, research, leisure, entertainment and economic impacts for the countries involved, namely Brazil and Portugal. With regard to the practical part, it will be carried out by an exploratory analysis of National Parks of Serra de Itabaiana, Brazil and Peneda-Gerês, Portugal. Finally, what we want is to corroborate the elucidation of the potentialities, the immeasurable riches, their potential in the pedagogical, educational and research aspects, considering the efforts of managers and entities involved so that the activities carried out in the CU are: environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially just, when relations with local communities and tourists, although this desire is not yet configured in a satisfactorily palpable and universal reality.

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2 Methodological Paths To answer the initial questions it was necessary to use a methodology based on several techniques, among them: a) bibliographic analysis using scientific publications, theses, dissertations, books, in printed and digital format, also web pages; b) contact with the entities that work in the PNSI (Serra de Itabaiana National Park, SE, Brazil) and PGNP (Peneda-Gerês National Park, Northern Portugal), with the management entities and the entities responsible for the maintenance and conservation of the National Parks; c) analysis of statistical documents, through national platforms. In the field activities, in addition to the representatives of the park management, it was also possible to interview those responsible for the maintenance and direct conservation of the national parks, the first-line employees, including: brigadiers, security, general services, among others. With these interviews we can feel closely the daily life of the park, as well as the difficulties encountered by the workers of these institutions. We also emphasize that a more complete dossier on these interviews should be affected in the final and definitive conclusion of this research. However, here there are already many data captured in the realities visited, for this, we used the content analysis ended in Bardin [1], which is based on the repetition of the information issued by the interviewees.

3 Education as a Pedagogical Process The educational process is inherent to all beings. If you consider wildlife, you can see that this process occurs as an irreplaceable condition for the perpetuation of life. That said, it is inferred that all beings are generally the target of an educational process. For human communities, it is noted that they incorporate learning from different environments, namely: the family, the environment, the cultures, the arts, the social context, school, religion and others. Certainly, it is the social and environmental networks and structures that transmit and perpetuate knowledge between generations. It is, of course, knowledge, experiences, values, beliefs, ways of acting, techniques, customs, especially those acquired, accumulated and improved over the years. In this context, it is important to highlight that contact with nature is natural or programmed, as occurs most of the time, when practicing Pedagogical Tourism, in its direction to the learning process that are viscerally linked to the various aspects of nature tourism that it is our interest in this article. This practice is fundamental in the process of intellectual growth of students. It is at this moment when theory is linked to educational practice, thus reaching the objectives of teaching-learning.

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4 Contextualizing Pedagogical Tourism Although it can be considered recent, when compared to other traditional types of tourism segments, pedagogical tourism precedes leisure tourism, considered as the most remote practice of the activity. It should be noted that the first trips of an educational nature refer to England of the eighteenth and nineteenth century. This was very common among young British aristocrats in order to improve their studies to enter a career in politics, government or diplomatic service. To this end, they made a great trip through the European continent, lasting approximately three years, which at the time was entitled grand tour [2]. In this sense, Beni [3] corroborates arguing that pedagogical tourism constitutes the resumption of the old practice widely used in Europe and, mainly, in the United States by private colleges and universities. It also reiterates that this practice was also adopted in Brazil by some elite schools, which consisted of the organization of cultural trips through the accompaniment of specialized teachers of the educational institution itself with programs of classes and visits to historical points or places of interest for the educational development of students. Called pedagogical tourism, teaching, educational or educational tourism, the activity has been pointed out as an important resource of the teaching-learning process. It should be noted that for Perinotto [4] pedagogical tourism is a tool that demonstrates in practice the theory observed in the classroom. In this context, the teaching-learning process involves the activity of tourist animation, through which, schools or specialized agencies, based on a joint and wellplanned work, propose the use of trips and field classes inside or outside the city itself to students and/or researchers, as a methodological strategy. In turn, Ansarah [5] highlights that “in the activity of pedagogical tourism, the important thing is to awaken the student’s interest in new knowledge, for the location, for the uses and customs of the population”. Perinotto [4] points out that this modality of tourist animation by promoting on-thespot contact with the subjects studied, this action induces the best apprehension of daily life and its singularities. Certainly, this educational practice also facilitates the achievement of pedagogical objectives, because in general students appreciate this form of playful learning. According to Hora and Cavalcanti [6], pedagogical tourism can be planned and developed by multidisciplinary teams formed by bachelors in Tourism and teachers from various areas, aiming at the elaboration of proposals for activities that include some kind of displacement of the school environment, such as a visit to the natural attractions of a municipality, a farm, a park or participation in a camp. What is intended with this activity is the organization of learning situations related to curricular contents, ethical and aesthetic values, as well as formative attitudes, such as the development of the capacity for initiative and solidification of friendships; respect for the other and strengthening the notion of belonging to a group or an ecosystem; autonomy experience; elaboration of rules of coexistence, among others. According to daily practices, it is verified that trips and excursions include learning that occurs in at least three moments: that of planning, that is, the phase of organization, which is important to request the participation of students, in an exercise of democracy,

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which implies when possible the choice of the place to be visited, the elaboration of rules and research on the place to be visited; the execution effectively, through observation and data collection, of the enjoyment of the pleasure of directing the gaze to a landscape; and, finally, the return activities, which are: systematization of knowledge, preparation of reports, the organization of panels with photographic records and texts. With this, pedagogical tourism certainly induces the formation of the sense of process, that is, the understanding of different aspects intervening in the history of the local community to be visited and the understanding of the various stages necessary for the composition of products and services [6]. It is important to highlight that the activities developed in rural areas, collaborate greatly so that participants learn about the processes: garbage collection and recycling, production of handicrafts, varied food, photographs, utensils, local manufactures, the harvesting of agricultural crops, the way of organizing a cultural group, providing services related to visitation, handling with money and others. In this context, the search for historical-cultural and natural aspects should be one of the axes when the activities are executed. The presentation of the activities developed should incorporate aesthetic and artistic resources, enabling the emergence of the skills of students, who, in most of the time, do not find space in the school environment. The issue of pedagogical tourism is not restricted to school visitation, but also implies intellectual production from the perspective of scientific production that translates into articles, monographs at undergraduate levels, specializations, master’s degree, doctorate and postdoctoral degrees. Thus, research centers should be taken as examples, namely: public and private universities, federal institutes of education, science and technology and other research centers and municipalities. In these institutions there are records of important work carried out in conservation units, and especially in National Parks. Examples in the vicinity of Serra de Itabaiana National Park are the Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Federal Institute of Sergipe (IFS), University Tiradentes (UNIT) and the various Higher Education Institutions (IES) of the State of Sergipe. In Portugal, in the vicinity of Peneda-Gerês National Park should be highlighted the researches carried out by the Polytechnic Institute of Porto (IPP), Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo (IPVC) and Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (IPB), where we locate numerous works in the area of completion of undergraduate courses, dissertations and theses, as well as several scientific articles and research projects completed and in progress. In this particular, we highlight the ongoing project entitled TURNOUT (Development of Outdoor Tourism in the North region) of a team of researchers. The main objective is to evaluate Outdoor Tourism (both supply and demand) and the conditions for development in the northern region of Portugal, and contribute to the enhancement of the associated resources and equipment, providing best conditions for the sustainable development of competitive tourism products and activities. This project is still underway and expected to be completed in the end of 2021.

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5 Brief Characterization of Serra de Itabaiana National Park Serra de Itabaiana National Park is a CU, with 8,024.79 ha, inserted in the Atlantic Forest Biome, created on June 15, 2005 [7]. It is inserted in the Tourist Pole of the Sergipanas Mountains, along with the municipalities of the Geographic Mesoregions of Agreste Sergipano and East Sergipano, namely: Areia Branca, Itabaiana, Laranjeiras, Campo do Brito, Itaporanga D’Ajuda and Malhador, which was inserted because it is within the limits of the UC. Access to the headquarters of PARNA Serra de Itabaiana is by BR-235, Km 37, Municipality of Areia Branca [8–10]. It is located between the sergipanos municipalities of Itabaiana and Areia Branca, comprising the Cajueiro, Comprida and Itabaiana mountains, the latter being the largest of them. Its altitude ranges from 400 to 659 m and is approximately 40 km away from Aracaju, the state capital, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Map of Serra de Itabaiana National Park [11]

The Management Plan (MP) published in June 2016, by the Ministry of the Environment (MMA) in partnership with the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio), is structured in two parts: the first, the diagnosis, which presents all the characterization, including survey of the visitation, and the second, which involves planning, including among other aspects, the vision of the future, action strategies, zoning and general rules of use and administration of the CU. Carvalho and Vilar [12] notes that the Serra de Itabaiana is one of the most representative places where there is still the presence of remnants of forest and other formations in stable conditions of preservation.

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Thus, these are more than sufficient reasons for this protected area to enjoy the prerogatives proposed here and, at the same time, gather all the conditions for the exercise of pedagogical tourism. The Park has rich fauna and flora, being part of the nature tourism options developed in the state of Sergipe. It receives frequent visitation composed of a general public, in addition to students, teachers and researchers. 5.1

Pedagogical Tourism in Serra de Itabaiana National Park

Pedagogical tourism in protected areas as an instrument of environmental education for various audiences is a reality in several countries. In Sergipe, particularly in Serra de Itabaiana National Park this practice is very expressive. However, it should be noted that such a practice still needs greater encouragement from the government that is the maximum manager of this unit. Another fundamental support for this type of tourism to continue to thrive is the issue of economic sustainability and organization of the receptive of the Park itself. The issue regarding economic sustainability, it is important to understand that the management of the park is maintained only by the Federal Government through an agreement with ICMBio. Returning to the question of the potential of the park as a living laboratory for the practice of pedagogical tourism, it should be noted that: the geosystem and aesthetics of the landscape of the Serra de Itabaiana allow the perception of a variety of scenarios by the common observer, from micro-landscapes to macro-landscapes, whose aesthetics is able to stimulate all sensory components by the diversity of shapes, smells, colors, sounds, flavors, lights, texture, the atmosphere of dawns, mists and clouds, sunsets, moons in the Mountains [13]. In this sense, for the pedagogical tourism expedient certainly, the prerogative of the development of the analytical and critical sense fits in a very timely way to the time when it promotes discontinuity towards the usual environment of the classroom as a place of learning. Thus, this counterpoint results in gains in the teaching-learning process. At this point it should be noted that Serra de Itabaiana National PArk has already incorporated this practice in its daily life, as it was possible to verify on the spot and also in all channels of records of the park. It should be noted that pedagogical tourism is an environmental education tool that, in practice, demonstrates the theory of classrooms. In this case, it is experienced next to nature, in the field, where students come into contact with the local community, experience the difficulties of the daily life of the locality, acquire new knowledge and information about the countryside, interacting with the attractions and tourist resources visited. It should also be highlighted that the scenario composed of the natural heritage of National Park under study has always been the scene of socio-cultural and religious experiences and manifestations incorporated into the cultural heritage of the state of Sergipe, which makes the Serra a special place capable of sensitizing and awakening in the perception of visitors a range of meanings, sensations and personal interpretations, referring them to a climate of magic, in summary, a unique experience, even for those who seek the objective knowledge of its elements, according to statements collected in the interviews with managers and maintenance team of the park. It can also be highlighted other activities

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that are developed in the park and that in a certain way imply the pedagogical dimension and even education for the sustainable use of the park. All activities must comply with the Management Plan [14], a document that has the conditions of use of the park.

6 Brief Characterization of Peneda-Gerês National Park The Peneda-Gerês National Park, created in 1971, is located in the Northern region of Portugal covering the territory of 22 municipalities or parishes that are circumscribed in the “municipalities” of Arcos de Valdevez, Melgaço, Montalegre, Ponte da Barca and Terras de Bouro, totaling an area of 70,290 ha. Of this amount, 5,275 belong to the State, are the National Forests under the management of the Institute of Nature Conservation and Forests. The amount of 45,577 is wasteland and the remainder, 19,438 of the area are admittedly privately owned, as shown in Fig. 2. Is the second highest elevation of Mainland Portugal, with 1546 m of summit altitude and which integrates the mountainous system of Peneda-Gerês, according to the sheet of the Geographic Institute of the Army [16].

Fig. 2. Map of Serra do Gerês [15].

This protected area forms a set with the natural park of Spain of Baixa-Limia-Serra do Xurês, created in 1997, the Gerês-Xurês Cross-border Park, coupled to it is the biosphere reserve entitled with the same nomenclature [17]. It is also verified, the hydrographic basins of the Lima, Homem and Cávado rivers, which cross and replete

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this territory, have always conditioned the human occupation of this region, where the rains are abundant and the humidity indexes are high. Most of the mountains were humanized in continuity, this dates back to the Neolithic period and the invention of agriculture and pastoralism. Nowadays the territory of the park has 114 villages, where about 10,000 inhabitants live. The most important activities are: agriculture, pastoral care and livestock. Thus, according to the working document entitled “Strategy and Action Plan for Nature Tourism in Minho” it is important to consider that the Peneda-Gerês National Park, assume the role of nature tourism destinations, representing the main centers of attraction or tourist interest. In addition to the Natura 2000 protected areas and classified sites, the region benefits from the coexistence of mountain, river and sea territories. These are in fact the large units of landscape or physical environments considered, par excellence, as the support spaces for tourist activities and experiences of nature trips [19]. These are in fact the large landscape units or physical environments considered, par excellence, the spaces of activities and tourist experiences of nature trips. Peneda-Gerês National Park has rural characteristics that correspond to a large part of the territory of Minho region. National Park also presents very interesting conditions for the development of nature tourism, which is also the pedagogical tourism. Minho is, therefore, a blessed region with regard to the existence of physical and natural conditions, starting, to more easily be able to assert itself by the tourist product nature tourism, oriented to the segments of visitation in protected areas, tourist activities associated with the mountain, rivers and the sea and experiences in rural areas. In this context, there is a significant potential for the practice of Pedagogical Tourism, in view of the diversity of scenarios, landscapes, natural resources, experiments and many other possibilities. It should be noted that the guardianship of Peneda-Gerês belongs to the Institute for Conservation of Nature and Forests (ICNF), being managed by the Department of Management of Classified Areas of the North. Thus, the regions of the northern mountains of Portugal is the only area of national protection that has the category of National Park, the highest level of classification of protected areas [18]. 6.1

Potential for Pedagogical Tourism at Peneda-Gerês National Park

Some data are important to start the discussion on the expansion of tourism that is practiced in Peneda-Gerês National Park, In general terms the lodging sector in Portugal registered 2.7 million guests and 7.1 million overnight stays in June 2019 [19]. It should be noted that specifically in the area of nature tourism, preliminary information also points to very encouraging data although until the time of completion of this article we do not have accurate statistical data. The pedagogical tourism in protected areas, in the case of Peneda-Gerês National Park is certainly a very important direction and can be verified from various levels. This article highlights only two levels: in the first can fit the teaching and research institutions as the Universities and congeners that are directed there and that elaborate projects and scientific articles or studies and post-graduate research. The second level of pedagogical reach, practiced in the park, occurs through the action of park managers. In this item will be highlighted only one aspect: that which

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concerns the actions of NaturMinho. It is an anchor project of the product Turismo de Natureza do Provere Minho In, under the coordination of ADERE-PG, associated with a work team that involves: ADERE-PG, CIM Alto Minho, CIM do Cávado, CIM do Ave. In this project, it is verified that there are several pedagogical actions that are carried out in the five entrance doors of the PNPG (Arcos de Valdevez, Mezio, Lamas de Mouro, Lindoso, Campo do Gerês), represented by information center and reception of visitors and interpretation of the territory, with the following valences: information about the PGNP and the “municipality”, environmental education activities, thematic exhibition on habitats and characteristic species, auditorium and thematic workshop, theme park on the form of characteristic settlement and leisure park. With this reference framework that is properly the working instrument of the anchor project NaturMinho it is possible to verify that the PNPG already has a very significant amount of activities that imply pedagogical tourism. If, on the one hand, this nomenclature is not used by its authors, on the other hand, the nature of these actions clearly fits into the profile of actions that the authors themselves call “Education and Interpretation of the Territory”. However, it remains only to check the scope of each action and then catalog it. It should also be noted that the PGNP aggregates a locality of great geological interest, where testimonies of the action of the processes are observed both of the internal dynamics and of the external dynamics of the earth over geological time. It can be highlighted among the observed elements of this geodiversity: the variety of granite rocks, the occurrence of metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks; the diversity of geoforms, existing at various observation scales and resulting from various types of processes. Some of the sites are geosites of regional and even national relevance, with intrinsic value associated with the types: scientific, didactic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological.

7 Final Considerations Considering the preliminary data still collected here, it is possible to trace some clues for final considerations. Certainly, both units under study should be framed as large and complex systems made available by nature with immeasurable wealth, fundamental for ecological and human balance, with evident aptitude for the practice of Pedagogical Tourism. However, it should be noted that in both parks the issue of sustainability in the management aspect is very problematic, although this question requires the verification of more of the data and corresponding analysis, something that is ongoing and that will be presented at the end of this research. Also, on a preliminary basis, it is possible to attest that the value and recognition of parks are uncontested by the highest educational and research institutions and by political authorities at local, national and international levels. These are imposing natural laboratories, irreplaceable, unique that are important to be cared for and preserved in the parameters of sustainability in its various levels, something that is already happening before its institutions as parks. However, it was found that the resources for maintenance are insufficient.

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The parks lack a greater number of teams to combat forests, which is noticeable through simple observation. In the Serra de Itabaiana National Park, at the time of the interview, there was a chief, three analysts and an intern and six rangers, not enough to inspection. In the Peneda-Gerês National Park the lack of a greater number of forest rangers is also a reality faced by park administrators. Also greater investment in technologies improves safety, comfort and logistics for educational tourism and tourism in general. Another issue that can be improved is the maintenance of trails and service to backpackers. These are some verified demands, however in the final conclusion of the study that is still in progress, it will be checked if this occurrence status has been modified,that is: answered, partially answered or not answered. Finally, it is worth mentioning the disposition and commitment of the managers of both parks to satisfactorily meet the demands indicated here as deficient. Acknowledgments. Flaviano Fonsêca, Jorgenaldo dos Santos and Lício Vieira thank to the Internationalization Program of the Federal Institute of Educations, Science and Technology of Sergipe, Rectory (IFS) and Pro-Rectory of Research and Extension (PROPEX), through the Teaching Productivity Program (PPD/2019/20). Fernanda A. Ferreira thanks to the Project “TURNOUT: Desenvolvimento do Turismo Outdoor da Região Norte de Portugal”, with the reference POCI-01-0145-FEDER-032289, and funded by the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) (through the Operational Programme ‘Innovation and competitiveness’) and by the Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science (FCT), of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. This work is, also, funded by National Funds through the Foundation for Science and Technology under the project UIDB/04752/2020.

References 1. Bardin, L.: Análise de conteúdo (L. de A. Rego and A. Pinheiro, Trads). Edições 70, Lisboa (2009) 2. Andrade, J.V.: Turismo, fundamentos e dimensões. 8th edn. São Paulo (2004) 3. Beni, M.C.: Análise Estrutural do Turismo, 7th edn. SENAC, São Paulo (2002) 4. Perinotto, A.R.C.: Turismo Pedagógico: uma ferramenta para educação ambiental. In: Caderno Virtual de Turismo, 8(1) (2008) 5. Ansarah, M.G.R.: Teoria Geral do Turismo. In: Ansarah, M.G.R. (Org.) Turismo: como aprender, como ensinar. SENAC, São Paulo (2001) 6. Hora, A.S.S., Cavalcanti, K.B.: Turismo pedagógico: conversão e reconversão do olhar. In: Rejowski, M., Costa, B.K. (Orgs.) Turismo Contemporâneo: desenvolvimento, estratégia e gestão, São Paulo: Atlas (2003) 7. ICMBio Homepage. http://www.icmbio.gov.br/portal/unidadesdeconservacao/biomasbrasileiros/mata-atlantica/unidades-de-conservacao-mata-atlantica/2211-parna-serra-deitabaiana. Accessed 15 Jun 2019 8. Decreto s/n de 2005. Brasília, DF Homepage (2005). http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ Ato2004-2006/2005/Dnn/Dnn10557.html. Accessed 15 Dec 2019 9. Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Ministério do Turismo. Programa de turismo nos parques. Brasília, DF (2008)

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10. Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Ministério do Meio Ambiente. Plano de Manejo Parque Nacional Serra de Itabaiana. Brasília, DF (2016) 11. PSI Homepage. https://www.fundaj.gov.br/index.php/parna-serra-de-itabaiana. Accessed 15 Jun 2020 12. Carvalho, C.M., Vilar, J.C.: Parque Nacional Serra de Itabaiana: levantamento da biota. UFS, São Cristóvão (2005) 13. Menezes, L.C.: Uso Sustentável da Serra de Itabaiana: Preservação ou Ecoturismo. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade Federal de Sergipe Homepage (2004). https://ri.ufs. br/jspui/handle/123456789/4343. Accessed 15 Jun 2020 14. Management plan of PARNA Serra de Itabaiana. Homepage. http://www.icmbio.gov.br/ portal/images/stories/plano-de-manejo/dcom_plano_de_manejo_Parna_Serra_de_Itabaiana. pdf. Accessed 17 Jun 2020 15. Homepage. http://www.serradogeres.com/index.php/9-newsflash-module?start=4. Accessed 15 Jun 2020 16. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serra_do_Ger%C3%AAs. Accessed 15 Jun 2020 17. Homepage. http://www2.icnf.pt/portal/ap/pnpg. Accessed 17 Jun 2019 18. Homepage. https://www.cm-melgaco.pt/visitar/conheca-melhor/turismo-de-natureza/parquenacional-peneda-geres/. Accessed 15 Jun 2019 19. Homepage. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/rss/Portugal_pt.%20Acesso%20em%2005% 20de%20julho%20de%202019. Accessed 05 May 2020 20. https://aderepenedageres.wixsite.com/naturminho/naturminho. Accessed 05 May 2020

Sport’s Events: Rally de Portugal as a Promoter of Porto Tourism Destination Elga Costa1 1

2

, Dália Liberato1(&)

, and André Ferraz2

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila Do Conde, Portugal {elgacosta,dalialib}@esht.ipp.pt School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila Do Conde, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of the Rally de Portugal in the tourism destination Porto, thus answering the question “What is the role of the Rally de Portugal in the tourism destination Porto?”. In this study it was used a qualitative methodology, and the sampling method for convenience, according to the availability of the participants. Therefore, individual interviews were applied to two of the event organisers. The interview guide was divided into two sections: Planning and Organisation of the Rally de Portugal, and Porto as a Tourism Destination. The holding of the Porto Street Stage has several positive impacts, being this event a successful one. However, for that to happen, it is necessary to follow three stages during the planning and organization of the event: budgeting, performance, and evaluation. This procedure takes over a year to manage, concerning the Rally de Portugal, or only a few months, regarding the Porto Street Stage. Events influence the economy, environment, culture, society, and politics of a destination [1]. Therefore, as the Rally de Portugal is an event, such influence is also present. However, there are no studies associated with the perspective of stakeholders on the Rally de Portugal as a promotor for the tourism destination Porto, justifying therefore the relevance of the present study. Keywords: Rally de Portugal


Porto
Tourism destination
Events

1 Introduction Having been considered by European Consumers Choice as the Best European Destination three times, in the years 2012, 2014 and 2017 [2], tourism is a vital part of the economy of Porto. Consequently, the city of Porto has gained international notoriety, thus contributing significantly to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [3]. According to the Regional Entity of Tourism of Oporto and Northern Portugal (ERTPNP – Entidade Regional de Turismo do Porto e Norte de Portugal), the tourism sector stands out in the economy of Oporto and Northern Portugal more than ever, significantly influencing the interest of visitors, both domestic and foreign. In addition, the Regional Entity of Tourism of Oporto and Northern Portugal (ERTPNP) also states © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 572–583, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_49

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that this is due to the fact that tourism in the city of Porto is based on the existence of a cultural, historical, natural, and architectural heritage of unique character. Based on this, the ERTPNP developed a tourism marketing strategy for the period of 2015 to 2020. The main objectives of this strategy are to reinvigorate and adjust the quality of supply, improve the tourism indicators; establish an ideal of collaboration with stakeholders so that the destination can be strategically developed and promoted; make the destination more attractive and noticeable; and reduce the existing discrepancies between the sub-destinations [4]. It should be noted that since the implementation of the tourism marketing strategy, the region of Porto and the North of Portugal has grown as a tourism destination [5]. Moreover, according to the National Institute of Statistics (INE – Instituto Nacional de Estatística), the Portuguese region that economically grew the most in 2018 was the North. This growth was influenced by the industry, tourism, and energy, and manifested itself through the 2,9% increase in GDP [6]. It is therefore essential to continue attracting tourists to the city of Porto, and this may be one of the reasons why Porto hosts several events, thus relying on event tourism. One of the events that takes place in Porto is one of the stages of the Rally de Portugal, justifying the relevance of a study of its impact on Porto as a tourism destination. This is the focus of the present study, which is divided into several sections. First, this article presents a literature review on the subject presented, followed by the methodology applied in the study, the obtained results and, finally, the conclusions of the study.

2 Literature Review Events are limited to a certain space and have a beginning and an end. As such, events are something unique and exclusive, being the reason behind their notoriety [7]. In addition, they can be considered as a tourism product, as they are increasingly popular [8]. Therefore, there is event tourism, being necessary to know its definition, its planning process, and the types of events. In what matters to its definition, event tourism links the notion of “events” with that of “tourism” [9] and this phenomenon is appreciated by the community for strategic reasons [7], which then adopts a different behaviour than the one normal at the time of the events [10]. This is because event tourism consists of promoting demand and/or satisfying the needs of visitors by creating tourist attractions. Thus, the supply and demand sides must be taken into consideration. On the supply side, “destinations develop, facilitate and promote events of all kinds to meet multiple goals: to attract tourists (especially in the offpeak seasons), serve as a catalyst (for urban renewal, and for increasing the infrastructure and tourism capacity of the destination), to foster a positive destination image and contribute to general place marketing (including contributions to fostering a better place in which to live, work and invest), and to promote and improve specific attractions or areas” [11, pp. 405–406]. In addition, when events get tourists to the destination, there is a rise of local commerce and catering [12]. Demand, on the other hand, concerns consumer behaviour and the trips related to that event, more specifically the reasons why the consumer wanted to participate in the event and the effects that the characteristics of the trip had on the consumer [12]. Therefore, events influence the economy, environment, culture, society, and politics of a destination [1].

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Regarding the planning phase, it should first be considered that events must be held during low season [13]. This is because “a larger tourism flow that the destination entails should be avoided” [14, p. 70]. In addition, there are other aspects to consider during the planning of an event, including: the target audience and the location where it will take place [14], considering the accessibility conditions to it, the accommodation that the destination may offer, the climate and tourist attractions, among others [13]. This is fundamental, since the image of the destination is an important factor for tourists, who have expectations about the destination [16]. Additionally, it should also provide a positive experience to the individual, so that they want to repeat the experience [15]. For this, it is necessary that the local government provides support regarding the event planning, whether it is economic funding or locations availability [16]. As for the types of events, these are distinguished by their size [18]: mega events [7, 8, 19, 20], major events [19], hallmark events [8, 18], and local/community events [8]. Mega events are the most important and the largest [7, 8]. As such, they attract a lot of visitors and capture attention worldwide [8], affecting the economy of the destination [19]. However, such events are of short duration [20]. Major events are those capable of attracting many individuals and bringing economic benefits to the destination. Therefore, they mostly focus on sport and cultural events [19]. In turn, hallmark events concern the location where the event takes place, creating a link between the location and the event [7, 8]. These serve to attract a larger number of individuals to a specific destination [8]. Examples are the Oktoberfest in Germany and the Carnaval do Rio de Janeiro in Brazil [19]. Finally, local/community events, also known as “small events” [21], arise from a specific set of people from a community who want to celebrate something related to their way of life and/or history. Thus, they are usually small and organized by volunteers and members of local organizations [8]. The Rally de Portugal is an event which began to be held in Portugal in 1967, under the name of “TAP Rally”, having been organized by Automóvel Club de Portugal (ACP). Six years after its debut, in 1973, the TAP Rally became part of the World Rally Championship, having been awarded in several editions. However, the International Automobile Federation withdrew the TAP Rally from the competition until 2007, when the ACP managed to get the Rally de Portugal back to the championship, and the World Rally Championship was held in Algarve. It was in this city and in Baixo Alentejo that this event was almost always held [22], having been confirmed, with the 2007 edition, that the event presents advantages and disadvantages for the tourism destination Algarve [23]. In 2015, the Rally de Portugal returned to the North and it was recorded a high level of competitiveness and success, aspects that have remained at a high level since then [22]. In addition to the fact that the Rally de Portugal is part of event tourism, it is also part of sport tourism. This type of tourism arose from the existence of an interception between contexts, activities and common practices in tourism and sport over time [24]. It should then be noted that sport tourism is based on two distinct areas of socioeconomic development, which are increasingly important and relate to each other. The first concerns tourism; one of the largest economic sectors in the world. The second relates to sports activities and events, which are globally influential [25]. As a consequence and considering the organization of mega events is strategically important for its positioning in the tourism market, this specific typology of tourism has been the

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target of global attention and participation, with sports being considered as a channel of public diplomacy [26, 27]. Besides, one of the most important aspects associated with sport tourism is the location of the sport event [28]. The location where the event takes place influences the overall experience of a visitor [29]. In the case of sport tourists, this happens because their experiences result from their interaction with the location where the event takes place. These experiences should hence happen in locations different from the tourists’ homeland [30], so that the location will seem unique, and have differences and similarities from the tourist’s homeland. These aspects will then influence tourists’ experience [28], turning the location that hosts the event meaningful to the tourist [32]. This determines if a specific location is chosen for hosting the event. In addition, the location must also offer the necessary tourist infrastructures for the event to be successful [28]. Another aspect to take into consideration when choosing the location for the event is that the location must offer the necessary conditions to receive tourists who take part in the event [31]. Holding sport events in a specific location will also impact the destination, being the positive impacts reflected in the importance of holding sport events at the destination. First, the adoption of an active lifestyle through the practice of sport is encouraged, hence increasing society’s participation in sports [31, 37] and in the organization of the event [28]. Thus, there is a professionalization of sport [38], the improvement or construction of infrastructure and sports venues [31, 37, 39], the promotion of safety in urban infrastructure, and the creation of new sports programs [31, 37]. Secondly, there is a positive reinforcement of the international image of the location [2, 38, 40], both in marketing and opportunities [41–43]. This increases the quality of life of the destination society [2, 36] and the tourist influx of the destination [39, 40], fighting seasonality [28]. This is because the events are incomparable phenomena and their dimension attracts the attention of individuals from several countries [44]. An example of this is the Olympic Games, which attract many subjects to the destination where it takes place [38, 44, 45]. There are also some annual sport events that become tourist activities of the destination, being Formula 1 an example of this [46]. In addition, the destination receives not only the help of government and social organizations but also the participation of the community. This results in the attraction of many investments and in an increase in its innovative character, attracting individuals to the destination [44]. Therefore, sport events enable the countries where they take place to spread the cultural diversity and natural features of their tourist destinations [47], internationally positioning themselves [28]. Thirdly, the organization of sport events is reflected in a rise in the economy of the destination [2, 28, 35, 37, 38, 48–50], which results from the realization of the event and the support infrastructures [28]. Thus, the example of the Euro 2004, which took place in Portugal, is presented, since its realization reflected in a profit for the destination, while promoting the country internationally [51]. Finally, sport events promote positive values for society and a feeling of pride and self-esteem, promoting the common good, turning the destination modern and giving it the opportunity to demonstrate its economic dynamism, while also promoting peace [11]. With the organization and realization of the event, the destination also proves to be open to global influences and adaptable to any situation [28]. In addition, there is a stimulus to trade in products and services [31, 36], increased employment [28, 36, 38,

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39] and wages [39], the expansion and improvement of technological structures (resulting in economic development), an increase in surveillance and police control technologies (resulting in a greater sense of security), and a focus on entrepreneurship [38]. As such, there is economic and urban restructuring (in devalued areas and in public roads and transport), and an increase in investment in the destination [38]. As for the negative impacts that events have on the destination, these happen at a socio-cultural and security level [33–35]. The insecurity factor links itself to crime and delinquency, which leads to a sense of tourist vulnerability. Nevertheless, this can be the tourists’ feeling, since they can be the cause of disturbances when participating in tourism events [36]. For example, fans who are problematic when supporting their teams and who cause problems with fans of other teams. In addition, there may be damage and some unexpected consequences resulting from the event. These negative impacts will influence both society and its tourism development [2]. Despite the reference of a study mentioning the advantages and disadvantages of holding the Rally de Portugal in Algarve, there are no studies associated with the perspective of stakeholders on the Rally de Portugal as a promotor for the tourism destination Porto, justifying therefore the relevance of the present study.

3 Methodology This research focuses on answering the question “What is the role of the Rally de Portugal in the tourism destination Porto?” from the perspective of the destination’s stakeholders. Moreover, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the role of the Rally de Portugal in the tourism destination Porto. In this sense, a qualitative methodology was used, and the sampling method for convenience, according to the availability of the participants. Therefore, individual interviews were applied to two of the event organisers: to the Director of Communications of Ágora – Porto (E1) and to the General Secretary of ACP – Automóvel Club de Portugal (E2). The interview guide was divided into two sections: Planning and Organisation of the Rally de Portugal, and Porto as a Tourism Destination. However, the planning and organisation of this sport event was influenced by the global pandemic of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, thus being possible to assess the data results as from three categories: sport tourism, pandemic, and tourism destination Porto. It is then possible to organize that data in Table 1, which is divided accordingly to the previously mentioned categories. This table contains the considered to be the most important questions asked during the interviews and the main conclusions that arose from the answers. Therefore, in some cases the participants are fully quoted, being referred to as “E1” and “E2”.

4 Results Table 1 summarizes the results of the semi-structured interviews applied in this research, whose main encoders are sports tourism, the pandemic situation, and Porto as a tourism destination.

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Table 1. Main conclusions retrieved from the interviews Category Sport Tourism

Question Conclusions How long, on average, does it take to Regarding the Rally de Portugal it plan and organise the Rally de Portugal? takes a “year and a half or two years” (E2) for the planning and organization of the event. However, the planning and organization of the Porto Street Stage begins in “January/February, until the end of May, when the Rally [de Portugal] takes place” (E1) Ágora – Porto, ACP – Automóvel Who are the teams involved in organising the Rally de Portugal? Who Club de Portugal, GO Porto, Proteção Civil (“National are the partners in the destination Emergency and Civil Protection involved in the Authority”), firefighters, INEM organisation? (“National Institute of Medical Emergency”), Municipal Police, PSP (“Public Security Police”), GNR (“National Republican Guard”), STCP (“Porto Public Transport”), Metro do Porto (“Subway of Porto), Comboios de Portugal (“Portuguese Railways”) (E1), Porto City Hall and International Automobile Federation (E2) What stages do you identify in the There are three stages: budgeting, process of planning and organising the performance, and evaluation (E1) Rally? What is/are the main Tradition and international reason(s) that make(s) you organise the promotion of the tourism destination Rally de Porto (E1 and E2) Portugal? It was necessary to “design a circuit How did the organisation of the event have to adapt itself to Porto (regarding that would fit the city, that would the resources that the city had to make also have some spectacular factor for the people watching, and that would available for the event)? also be exciting for the drivers. We have the area of Porto downtown, which has a very particular land surface” (E1) (continued)

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Category

Question

Conclusions

What do you think are the positive impacts of the Rally de Portugal?

There is a big proximity between the viewers and the event itself (E1), an international promotion of the city, a rise in the economy of the city (E1/E2) and a rise in the stay duration of the viewers (which allows them to enjoy and get to know the destination) (E2) It is necessary to close roads (E1/E2), some people have difficulties in assisting the event and there is a negative impact on the Ecological Footprint (E2) Most people involved in the event stay accommodated in Porto, due to the great number of hotels the city has to offer. Besides, the event takes place off season, which allows the city to have enough accommodation for everyone (E1). However, it should be considered that the hotel capacity in Porto decreases (E2) There is an environmental certification that all the autarchies have with ACP (E1). Concerning the cars, they are much more environmentally friendly than a few years ago, and they are to be hybrids, and follow all sort of rules that protect the environment by 2022 (E2) “There is a very positive perception of who is coming here regarding the destination [Porto]. People would like to come back and perhaps have more time to get to know the city, particularly the Douro region, which is also very beautiful.” (E1) The impacts of the cancellation of the event were gigantic (E1), mostly concerning the (now lay-off) revenue that the event provided (E1 and E2) (continued)

And the negative impacts?

Is there enough accommodation in the city to accommodate all the national and international committees, and the tourists who come for the event?

What practices of Environmental sustainability are considered when organising the Rally de Portugal?

How does the Porto Street Stage meet the needs and expectations of tourists?

Pandemic

What impacts did the cancellation of Rally de Portugal, due to the current pandemic, have on the organisation of the event?

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Table 1. (continued) Category Porto as a Tourism Destination

Question In your opinion, what are the characteristics that you consider differentiating Porto from the other places where the Rally de Portugal takes place?

Conclusions Porto is an internationally well-known city which has a lot of history (E1 and E2) and it happens in an urban setting (E2). This allows it to be considered different when in comparison to the other places where the event takes place In your opinion, how does the local “Since the local community loves community this type of sport, it likes to be participate in the Rally de Portugal? involved and it likes to help, so that everything goes well” (E2) What does the community of Porto Hospitality, pride (E1 and E2), transmit to you? passion and emotion (E1) List five characteristics that allow you to E1: It is a city that can be visited qualify the attractiveness of Porto as a mostly by foot; it has beaches, a destination. river, natural heritage and a very big history; and it is a very lively city where many events take place E2: the history of the destination, hospitality, gastronomy, and urban landscape Do the participants and tourists stay, or There are studies which conclude the individuals extend their stay to get to extend their stay, in the destination beyond the days of the race? Are there know the tourism destinations (E2). any data about situations of first visit or Regarding the national audience, the individuals stay two to three nights repetition of the destination? in Porto, while the international audience stays four to five nights (E1) Select five events in Porto considered to E1: São João, Christmas, New be essential in the annual activity plan. Year’s Eve, NOS Primavera Sound and Rally de Portugal E2: NOS Primavera Sound, football matches, Rally de Portugal, New Year’s Eve, Red Bull Air Race and Volta a Portugal em Bicicleta

Source: own elaboration Based on the information presented on Table 1, it is possible to conclude that there are many aspects to consider when organizing and planning an event as great as the Rally de Portugal. Besides, Destination Management Organization’s DMO’s and stakeholders should also consider that the destination where the event takes place could be seen as a tourism destination.

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5 Conclusion Regarding the organization and planning of the Rally de Portugal, the participants of the present study mainly focused on the Porto Street Stage. First, while the Rally de Portugal takes more than a year to plan and organize, the organization and planning of the Porto Street Stage only begin a few months before the event. Secondly, it is necessary the involvement of several teams, which follow three stages during this process: budgeting, performance, and evaluation, while considering the environmental sustainability. The following of this process allows the destination to have enough accommodation for the teams involved and the viewers, as well as it is possible to satisfy the tourists’ needs and expectations. Therefore, the event is to be successful in a way that the destination where it takes place is internationally promoted, being this, one of its positive impacts, alongside the revenue that comes from it. However, there are also negative impacts that come from the holding of the Rally de Portugal, particularly in what concerns the destination residents’ lives, due to road blockage. Considering that the event did not take place this year due to the global pandemic, on the one hand, the residents of Porto did not have to deal with the negative impacts that come with the Rally de Portugal. On the other hand, there was no revenue to the destination, which must be considered a very negative impact. Considering Porto as tourism destination, there were many characteristics of Porto mentioned by the participants of the study. It is known that Porto is a city with a significant history and that its community has a huge influence in the holding of the event. That is, since this community is great in hospitality and is extremely proud of and passionate about its city, in a way that is involved in the success of the Porto Street Stage. Nevertheless, this is not the only event that Porto holds which is successful. Therefore, the participants also selected some more events that are important for the city, being the New Year’s Eve and NOS Primavera Sound (a music festival) the most mentioned ones, already considered in previous studies [51, 52]. In conclusion, the holding of the Rally de Portugal is of high importance for Porto as a tourism destination, despite the negative impacts that come from it. Besides, it is known that the community of Porto is one of the reasons for the success of this event.

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Food Media Experience and Its Impact on Tourism Destinations: The Chef’s Table Affair Pedro Liberato1 , Teresa Mendes2, Hugo Barreira3 and Dália Liberato1(&) 1

2

3

,

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal {pedrolib,dalialib}@esht.ipp.pt School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal [email protected] Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Porto/CITCEM, Porto, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract. This article aims to question the importance of food media experiences of a tourist’s destination (TD) branding, associated with luxury gastronomy and celebrity chefs. To this end, a literature review was made, to evaluate the role of food in the tourist’s relationship with TD’s, as well as about the role, celebrity chefs and luxury gastronomy experience play, in the tourism experience. The reviewed scientific production was confronted with a case study, the Chef’s Table (CT) series, created by David Gelb for the digital platform Netflix. Its analysis, through a methodology designed to extract information from moving image [1] allowed to understand a clear intention to create a media experience of great quality, of luxury and inaccessible food experience. This was possible through image and sound, arranged in a way to exalt the celebrity chefs’ status, thus conveying the viewers’ desire to experience that chefs’ food, that TD’s food and the possibility to socialize with that chef. This acts in addition with the use of plating arrangements, created by chefs, inspired by compositional framings of the visual arts, enhancing the visual characteristics of food, something we were able to demonstrate in this study. Finally, we highlight the importance of carrying out future studies concerning tourists’ food media attractiveness and food media experiences, thought what we believe to be a turning point since the release of CT, in a TD’s digital branding. Keywords: Tourism destination branding
Chef’s table


Luxury gastronomy tourism
Digital

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 584–594, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_50

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1 Introduction In 2017, the United Nations World Tourism Organization presented the Second Global Report on Food Gastronomy [2] and, according to [3–5], three main reasons pointed out to visit a tourist destination (TD) are, in order of importance: culture, nature, and gastronomy. [5] tell us that the authors Hall & Mitchell, in 2001, have been the first to seek a broader definition for food tourism. In fact, until the beginning of the 21st century, food, in the tourism area, was researched as one of several components that were part of a TD as a complementary attraction, where the cuisine of a TD was framed as one of its cultural components, and the food consumption, observed as a functional component of tourism [6]. Currently, food tourism is a key factor for economic revitalization and for local and regional development, being one of the most dynamic segments of the tourism market. It is estimated that the total of the tourist’s expenses of a receiving market visitor can go up to 1/3 concerning the purchase of food products. However, through the several typologies proposed by [7] the authors warn us of the need to segment food tourism. The same authors define the typology of gastronomic tourism, underlining “the importance of wines and well-referenced cuisine of a destination as a global economic engine” [7] which can be used as a “vital resource that adds value and provides solutions for the need of destinations to differentiate themselves and offer exclusive products” [7]. In fact, [5] and [6] report that the lack of research regarding the various types of food tourism is also limiting the one-dimensional analysis that the food image of a TD may have for its branding. Many destination management organizations [DMO’s] are currently using digital tools, including social networks, to promote their TD’s. Digital branding is becoming a concerted strategy, among others, through the creation of blogs, Instagram and Facebook accounts, videos that use the image of public figures, including celebrity chefs [6, 8–10].

2 Literature Review 2.1

Food Tourism and Tourism Destinations’ Branding

Food tourism of gastronomic expression, as a main product, aggregates on a largescale, other products, namely cultural, thus generating a multiplier effect of the economic activities allocated to the tourism of this TD. It should be noted that [11, 12], and [4] among others, point out that tourists from the gastronomic segment spend more of their food budget, and their incomes are above average, compared to the tourists profile from other segments. [7] also underline that this typology will be most of the times paired up with the official discourse of the image of that TD. In fact, [6] report that food and gastronomy directly and indirectly affect the character of a place and its brand image, and that tourists travel to TD’s that have established a reputation as places with local quality products. Nowadays, [5] consider that social media has changed the creation paradigm of brand images. According to them, with regard to continuous technological advances

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and the life cycle of promotion of a TD, the branding process is crucial: food products from a TD, are considered intangible ones, for the tourist who has not yet visited the TD. In this sense, the strategies of digital branding are crucial to the promotion of the TD’s food image and are continuously needed. On the other hand, [6] through the analysis of the perceived image that tourists have concerning to food tourism, from the cognitive, affective and conative components (see Fig. 1) that compose this image, tell us that this perception is complex and composed by several elements. The cognitive image is a significant antecedent of the food image of TD, connecting it positively to the conative image, which evaluates the repetition factor of this TD. The authors [12] claim that a virtual experience in food tourism is being created, calling it ‘food media’, which uses the elaboration of interactive and virtual digital pages, through increased graphics, videos, sound clips, sharing of digital cookbooks and, above all, with recurrent use of image (universal means of communication). Images represent much of the power of retention on the sites in question and, according to them, all these aspects contribute to the construction of the of TD’s food image. The branding of a food region is an instrument of persuasive communication, and its many rhetorical approaches (conservative or transformationist) are used to seduce market perceptions, both of individual products and of complex experiences in TD. These strategies, according to [8] can be carried out through promotional videos on the official sites of TD’s, promotion, monitorization and interaction in personal blogs, specialized content online about TD, customer loyalty to the image of TD with restricted access to digital platforms through registration and, among others, the aforementioned use of actors and well-known chefs media projection.

TD Food Identity Characteristics 1. TD Environment and Geography

6. Food related activities 5. Restaurants and other food consumption places

2. Food and Culinary Culture

3. People and Food

4. Food Quality

A) Food aesthetic B) Local food culture C) Dishes and local cuisine D) Unique aspects of food E) Cooking technics F) Food authenticity/exoticism G) Variety H) Food with visibility I) Food heritage J) Perceived image of local food K) Local food production

New trends through sustainability

Fig. 1. Cognitive and affective components of a TD’s image [6]

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Luxury Gastronomy and Celebrity Chefs

The author [14] tells us that the celebrity chef phenomenon exploded in the beginning of the 21st century, paired up with the progressive autonomy of food tourism. The author also mentions that this rise resulted in a significant growth of popular visibility through the media, and in a set of related by-products to the chef’s image (television shows, magazines, websites, blogs, apps about chefs, etc.). These, among other aspects, easily convey reviews and food images of these restaurants which, in the end, modified and conditioned this profession. Most of the celebrity chefs emerged from the luxury gastronomy segment, and authors [8] underline a specific phenomenon related to the law of supply and demand, which consists of the ‘Veblen’ effect applied to this market segment. Veblen’s effect suggests that there are some goods that can be seen as “ostentatious” or of high status and, therefore, the more expensive the good, the more desired it may be, i.e. for socioeconomic reasons, ostentation and power. In this way, luxury gastronomy is not food, it is not ‘popular’ gastronomy, it is luxury consumption. This should be perceived not only as quality consumption, but an exceptional one, in terms of products, execution, creativity and service, and the images it projects, we add. The attractiveness factor and its costumers’ turnover in luxury restaurants are enhanced by 25% when a chef is distinguished with a Michelin star or joins the annual list of the 50 best restaurants worldwide. The real demand for luxury gastronomy eventually led to the demand for luxury gastronomic tourism. Also, the media coverage of star chefs, as well as the recipes production, TV shows and specialized content created on social networks, contributed to the massification of this high-level segment: luxury gastronomy. By becoming a new trend in the economic market, chefs have to be both exclusive creatives and artists for a global market, where the process of food product creation borrowed some of the artistic qualities of the art world, as mentioned by the above authors, and also by [14]. From the tourists perspective in this segment, and according to [10] the gastrotourist is prepared, sometimes even with a lower budget, to spend money on memorable food experiences, where tourists indicate that the planning part of the trip is very important for the later gastronomic experiences. Many claim to read books, watch chefs’ and cooking programs, search the internet about TD to structure the gastronomic experiences during the visit. On the other hand, [5] state that the tourist familiarity concerning a TD [not yet visited] results from the information to which he/she was exposed through the DMO’s that provide contents, and this familiarity increases the behavioural involvement of the gastronomic tourist with the TD’s food. Regarding this process of a TD’s image creation via foodways [13], intangible products are ideal to be promoted through these tools, and they continually need them. [10] go further, in terms of the impact that these virtual media [through digital branding] can have on the motivations of a food tourist, quoting a surveyed couple of tourists that purposely went to a specific luxury restaurant, because they wanted [and had] the Chef’s Table experience.

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[6] indicate that the affective and conative components of a TD’s food image can be consolidated through the emotional attribute of [re]living a memorable experience in that TD, exemplifying with the importance that some tourist give to socializing with celebrity chefs. Finally, [15] segmented the attributes of celebrity chefs restaurants’ into 3 components: quality of service, environment [composed of sound, light, colour, odours] and quality of food, having concluded that a meal in a high gastronomy restaurant is part of the TD’s experience, being one of the main tourists attributes. This experience promotes an emotional connection and is partly obtained through the attractiveness factors of the celebrity chef, associated with the attractiveness of their products, which are both enhanced through branding strategies. 2.3

Food Media Experience: Chef’s Table

2.3.1 Moving Images of Food and Celebrity Chefs We already stated the importance of audio-visual media in the motivation of the gastronomic tourists. Although these media are currently very numerous and diverse, we have shown the significance of pictures and the sense of vision in the (re)creation of a gastronomic experience’s mental image. In this field, moving image media play a fundamental role, allowing the reconstitution, through the storytelling process, of a set of sensations by summoning the other senses fundamental to the gastronomic experience. Thus, the so-called food programs constitute a television typology to be considered in the analysis of food media experiences. Those familiar with this television gender, notice a clear paradigm shift in 2015, as Calum Marsh [15] points out. This turning point is Chef’s Table [CT], a series created by David Gelb for the Netflix digital platform and already mentioned in the previous section. Being the first original Netflix documentary series, Chef’s Table can be perceived as a tailored-made product for an Over-the-top media service, one that is offered directly to viewers, via the internet. This means each episode is clearly meant to be an audio-visual experience, using 4 k image and digital surround sound. CT audio-visual qualities are clearly highlighted by its viewers and reviewers alike. The series origins, date back to 2011, with the documentary Jiro Dreams of Sushi, conceived, directed, and filmed by Gelb. If one watches the 2011 film after watching an episode of CT, it is quite clear the film was a sort of an experimental prototype for the storytelling patterns as well as for the audio-visual language of the series. A set of testimonies (Gelb, Brian McGinn, associate in the creation of CT, Adam Bricker, one of the series directors of photography and Shane Reid, colourist) gathered by [15] are fundamental to understand how CT stunning visuals were achieved. According to Gelb, “I didn’t want it to feel like a normal documentary. I wanted it to feel like a real movie.” [vulture], further stating “You’re not going to learn a whole lot about how to cook, but you will get a beautifully told story.”. By filming CT with cinema-grade equipment, and teams with diverse backgrounds, instead of using television or documentary standards, and by favouring the experience of form and narrative over the informative values, Gelb created an alternative path for food programs. Unlike most television productions, CT has the visual grandiloquence of a feature film, with spectacular production standards mixed with the narrative strategies and the poetic

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quality of the experimental documentary. McGinn clearly states that CT is “not an easy show to do. Instead of flying in and doing an hour-long episode a day, when we make an episode of Chef’s Table, it is eight, nine days” [15]. Although CT is in many ways innovative, the discourse conveyed is affiliated in the secure terrain of the celebrity chef. Over the first three seasons [2015–2017], as well as in the first spin-off, Chef’s Table France [2016], almost all chefs have earned Michelin stars and are featured on the List of the 50 best restaurants in the world. Likewise, the names summoned to present and discuss them, which constitute the talking heads of each episode, belong equally to the tight niche of an exclusive segment. This selection puts the gastronomic experience conveyed by the first three seasons of CT in a panorama of inaccessibility for the common viewer. Consequently, it clearly associates CT with the profile of the potential luxury gastronomy tourist. For the analysis of CT characteristics, we used a methodology developed by [1] to extract information from the moving image. This method is based on the decomposition of the moving image in four components [see Table 1]. Each component, thus, corresponds to an analytical viewing, allowing the isolation of a set of object characteristics. Through this method, we can closely analyse the several stages of production in reverse. Each episode was thus the object of free viewings and of analytical ones that, in articulation, allow the exploration of the narrative structure and technical characteristics of CT, such as: shooting locations, photography, camera movements, soundtrack and montage. Table 1. The moving image components according to [1] Component Pro-filmic

Photographic

Cinematographic

Sound

Source: Authors

Description The characteristics of the physical space captured in film. This space, found, built, or transformed on purpose, is always the result of the director and team selection. The characteristics of the photographic image – such as colour or framing, etc. The characteristics of the moving image – movements inside the frame, camera movements or movements created through montage techniques. The sound design characteristics of the soundtrack, such as music, noises, dialogues, etc.

Example in CT S05 Ep. 01–43:50 [Cristina Martinez – dir. Abigail Fuller] – the use of a similar table to the one where the community meal takes place to reveal the creations. S02 Ep. 01–48:10 [Grant Achatz – dir. Brian McGinn] – static framing of the plating like Jackson Pollock canvas. S03 Ep. 01–49:17 [Jeong Kwan – dir. David Gelb] – the movement and racking focus in the revelation of Shiitake mushrooms boiled in soy sauce. S01 Ep.01–46:50 [Massimo Bottura – dir. David Gelb] – the use of Beethoven Symphony no. 3 [Eroica] to mark the chef’s triumph.

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One of the aims of this research’s analysis was trying to understand the narrative identity of CT and its transformations. Like most television programs, CT has a conventional structure that has changed very little in its six seasons. Each episode begins with the presentation of the chef and his creations, setting the episode’s aesthetic leitmotif and like in an operatic overture, presenting a set of images that will be further developed. The narrative of the chef’s life and work is created through a series of situations and, most of the times, mishaps. Meanwhile a gradual presentation of the chef’s creations takes place. This strategy follows closely what has become the first History of Art methodology, the artist’s biography. The process is largely dependent of the chef’s and guest’s statements, appearing as talking heads. Depending on the chef, other approaches [sociological, political, or technical] can be used. At the end of each episode, the various creations are revealed and identified through a distinctive audiovisual highlight. Also explored, was CT’s construction of its imposing audio-visual identity. Although there are various directors and directors of photography, the concept that David Gelb explored in 2011 constituted, as Marsh [2019] pointed out, a playbook for CT and, in part, for its spin-offs. This identity is based on a set of characteristics presented in all episodes. First, the music’s role, fundamental in the narrative, and based mostly in classical music. In CT, one of the recurring elements is the opening of each series, set to an excerpt from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons Recomposed by Max Richter [2012] - Winter, Movement 1. All episodes also use archive material, such as photographs, home movies or newscast. This documentary strategy, besides adding a more self-reflective approach, enables a connection to the viewers own memories. The trademark of the series lies, however, in the characteristics of its cinematography. A brief analysis highlights the attention paid to framing, to focus and to detail, with abundant macro shots. Colour, is another major aspect, fine-tuned in postproduction to allow the film-like approach [15]. These features are enhanced by a judicious use of camera movement, using the more free hand-held camera for everyday filming, in line with a documentary, and the use of a static camera, with extended shots, smooth movements and slow motion when food is filmed. CT relies heavily in post-production. The montage is non-intrusive, its discursive role is mostly demonstrated in the sound design or in the manipulation of the shots speed. The sound captured on the spot is, in many cases, suppressed, giving way to music and narration, as in the dreamlike shots that reveal the chefs’ creations. Thus, we can talk about a style, where cinematography and sound design take major roles, giving expression to a main narrative structure, that works as formula, well noted by critics and several parodies. Within this style unit, each episode develops, as we saw, an aesthetic leitmotif anchored in the figure of each chef, that enables some minor tonal changes. Like in the musical film gender or in some videoclips, CT uses its spectacular production to engage the audience, thus reinforcing its role as a meticulously handcrafted mediated food experience. Despite its success, CT adopted some transformations. In Series 3, in the first episode, dedicated to Jeong Kwan, the first sentence uttered is “I’m not a chef”. Here the chef, Éric Ripert, becomes the talking head. In Season 4 [Pastry] we saw a reduction in the number of episodes to 4 that would continue until Season 6. The scarce gender or diversity representation originated several critics [16] and thus, Gelb and

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McGinn proceeded to CT’s major change. From Season 5, we are beyond the recognition of the chef and outside the strict scope of Michelin stars. Cultural diversity and women proliferate, and the place associated with the chef’s sphere of action [TD] begins to gain a gradual importance. Visually, the presentation of the food also changes, moving from the individual dish to the shot of the whole table. The way was, thus, paved to the current spin-off, Street Food, organized geographically, using as guideline a shared commensality, outside the atmosphere of elite restaurants and individualized plating. Its two seasons [Asia, 2019 and Latin America, 2020] are the corollary of this turn, presenting a new narrative and audio-visual formula. Using a main cook, acting as principal, and a set of secondary ones, a discourse is constructed about the street food of a given city, articulated by graphic intertitles and local music that convey a more light-hearted character in contrast with CT’s pathos. 2.3.2 Plating Images Continuing the analysis of the mediated food experience in the CT series, there is also the issue of the plating images, in the series’ frames but also as photography, when transported to social networks, being used, among other reasons, for advertising the series and for chefs marketing, including their restaurants. Here, we will raise questions, concerning the individual plating aesthetics filmed in the first three series, as mentioned above, and their possible connection to the classical compositions of the art world, namely their arrangements by geometry and colour. The author [14] tells us that chefs suffer from endogamous influence when creating their dishes, and that they seek influence in other chefs to produce their creations, especially from the same restaurants segment. Thus, we can say that there may be a visual contamination in the field of the plating aesthetics. On the other hand, [16] also indicate that the trend of food images is becoming viral in social networks, and that this way of conveying the food aesthetics is, itself, creating preferences of plating compositions in consumers. However, these authors have assumed that chefs use their plating techniques in an intuitive way. These authors, as well as [17] analyse various types of plating compositions [balanced and unbalanced, symmetrical and asymmetric, centralized and triangular] and considered that they should be more deeply analysed in future according to willingness-to-pay consumer’s point of view. [17] also focused on the fact that plating styles follow fashions, as in the field of artistic creations, and that it is possible that the plating aesthetics borrows influence from the artistic field. By making a free comparison of several food images that chefs convey, especially in the first three CT series, with multiple geometric and colour compositions of the art world, we were able to identify arrangements used in classical artistic compositions, in platings, namely: monochromic use of primary or secondary colours [monochrome in orange: Orange Chromatism Desert, Jordi Roca], balance between secondary colours [harmonization with secondary colours: Gazpacho with Yogurt Sorbet and Parsley, Dan Barber], complementary colours, harmonization between warm and cold colours [The Sea, by Dominique Cren], contrasts between colours and non-colours; compositions arranged by geometric lines and figures: vertical, horizontal, oblique [descending diagonal composition: Pickled Vegetables in Bamboo, Jeong Kwan], triangular composition [triangular composition: Ceasar Salad in Bloom, Massimo Bottura] rectangular

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[horizontal rectangular composition: Lick it up, Gaggan Anand], centralized, association by food concentration or dispersion, axiality [non-central axial composition: Ten years of Solitude, Will Goldfarb] symmetrical and asymmetric, use of the golden section, use of the shape of letters such as T, D [D composition: Avocato Taco, Enrique Olvera] and L, among others. We would like to point out that many other examples were fond trough this free screening, throughout all the series of CT, but only the platings that have been formally baptized by the chefs were presently included, to more accurately appear as future internet search results. Like [17], we believe that the acknowledgement of specific composition guidelines in platings, will have a scientific growth, concerning interest and research in the coming years.

3 Discussion Regarding the preceding notions, [15] state that there is still a gap in specialized studies, namely static data, concerning the connection between the celebrity chefs’ mediatization and the increase for the TD’s tourism demand. Also, it is our understanding that the third analysis component contributing to the mediatization of the celebrity chef, previously proposed by the same authors [food quality], should unfold several other aspects, including the plating aesthetics and its visibility trough the social media. On the other hand, [14] points out that chefs, themselves, when they go out to dinner, pay attention to the following aspects of the luxury restaurant: service, tableware, décor, beverage program, pricing, and food [namely quality of the ingredients, ingredient pairings and presentation]. [17] show us that these chefs also use their social media accounts to launch plating prototypes to monitor its feedback and test its attractiveness factor, thus acknowledging the importance of food media. In fact, [14] reveals that star chefs get inspiration and borrow ideas from their pairs but, unlike artists or others artistic creators, they have no means to reference their inspirations. However, food media has contributed to a massive rise of this visual contamination. [16] go further, suggesting that culinary schools should include in their teaching curricula basic notions of art and aesthetics, to teach to future chefs. Focusing on this notion, we point out to what it could, or not, be an academic coincidence: the arise of scientific production after the launching of the first CT series [2015] by, among others, authors [14, 16, 17] and [15], focused on the correlation between celebrity chefs’ food creation process and food media, namely the attractiveness of their plating compositions. In line with the demand for more specialized research, we believe that a detailed study of CT and other media, focused on plating compositions will bring further contributions to the connections between chefs and artists creations. This can be achieved with the four components method [1] through the analysis of the photographic and cinematographic components information regarding, amongst others, patterns of chromatic compositions and spatial organization.

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4 Conclusion In an increasingly global world, mostly due to its virtual expansion, there are places of image convergence in luxury gastronomy, which contribute to the food media experience, like the experience of dinning in a celebrity chef restaurant and, recently, the willingness to experience a tourism region, which can lead to the rising of the conative component, concerning the repetition of the TD. Already in 2009, [8] identified two major trends within luxury gastronomy: the elite luxury gastronomy and the mass luxury gastronomy. According to the same authors, this later segment was arising due to the increasing food media prominence and mediatized celebrity chefs’ images. Chefs were then mostly responsible for the creation of this niche in the tourism market, gastronomic tourism, by using their image to increase the demand factor in their restaurants, opening several restaurants in numerous TD’s. This is being progressively translated into powerful branding images of TD’s via food media, and where, like other exclusive players, chefs play a role as ambassadors, as [13] refer: food tourism, by involving taste, smell, touch and vision, offers a complete in-depth type of involvement to the gastrotourist, and the pre-visit gap must be fulfilled with digital branding strategies, like previously mentioned. In CT’s case, due to the media limitations, we can only rely on vision and hearing, with all the other senses being suggested through the images created by Gelb and his team. On the other hand, this absence of smell, taste, texture, or temperature, although essential to a food experience, brings food media experience closer to admiring a painting and its visual qualities. By transforming a chef’s creation in an aesthetic revelation composed only of pictures and sounds CT further contributes to bring chefs closer the status of an artist, as mentioned by [8, 14] and [18]. With its aim clearly stated, CT is not, as we have seen, a food show where one will learn how to cook or where one can understand, in a holistic perspective, a chef’s creative process. CT is a luxury gastronomic experience transformed into a luxuriant media experience. Being produced like a feature film, sets a standard for other television shows, and further increases the significance of its images as objects of desire. This engages the viewer and inspires the gastronomic experience’s emulation, as well as the media itself, through a series of social network subproducts like amateur photographs of different food experiences with meticulous compositions and colours. Finally, with this food media emulation phenomena, CT images become the new postcard pictures for gastronomic tourism destinations.

References 1. Barreira, H.D.S.: Imagens na Imagem em Movimento. Documentos e Expressões. [Ph.D. Thesis]. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto (2017). https://repositorio-aberto.up. pt/handle/10216/110018 2. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO): Affiliate members global report, volume 16 – second global report on gastronomy tourism [Internet]. World Tourism Organization [UNWTO] (2017). https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284418701

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3. Sorcaru, I.A.: Gastronomy tourism - a sustainable alternative for local economic development. Ann. Dunarea Jos Univ. Galati Fascicle Econ. Appl. Inform. 25(1), 103– 110 (2019) 4. Privitera, D., Nedelcu, A., Nicula, V.: Gastronomic and food tourism as an economic local resource: case studies from Romania and Italy. Geoj. Tour. Geosites 21(1), 143–157 (2018) 5. Kim, S., Choe, J.Y., Lee, S.: How are food value video clips effective in promoting food tourism? Generation Y versus non–Generation Y. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 35(3), 377–393 (2018) 6. Lai, M.Y., Khoo-Lattimore, C., Wang, Y.: Food and cuisine image in destination branding: toward a conceptual model. Tour. Hosp. Res. 19(2), 238–251 (2019) 7. Liberato, P., Mendes, T., Liberato, D.: Culinary tourism and food trends. Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. SIST, vol. 171, pp. 517–526. Springer, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_45 8. Barrère C, Bonnard Q, Chossat V.: Luxury gastronomy as an attractive activity for luxury tourism, vol. 8 (2009) 9. Gyimóthy, S.: The reinvention of terroir in Danish food place promotion. Eur. Plann. Stud. 25(7), 1200–1216 (2017) 10. Williams, H.A., Yuan, J., Williams, R.L.: Attributes of memorable gastro-tourists’ experiences. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 43(3), 327–348 (2019) 11. de Jong, A., Varley, P.: Food tourism policy: Deconstructing boundaries of taste and class. Tour. Manage. 60, 212–222 (2017) 12. Madaleno, A., Eusébio, C., Varum, C.: Purchase of local food products during trips by international visitors. Int. J. Tour. Res. 20(1), 115–125 (2018) 13. Matwick, M.: Culinary tourism in central America: a cross-analysis of government tourism websites. J. Culin. Sci. Technol. 16(3), 286–309 (2018) 14. Leschziner V.: At the Chef’s Table: Culinary Creativity in Elite Restaurants, p. 256. Stanford University Press, Stanford (2015) 15. Chen, Y.-S., Raab, C., Chen, C.-C.: The influence of celebrity chefs on restaurant customers’ behavior. J. Hosp. Mark. Manage. 26(5), 489–510 (2017) 16. Michel, C., Woods, A.T., Neuhäuser, M., Landgraf, A., Spence, C.: Rotating plates: online study demonstrates the importance of orientation in the plating of food. Food Qual. Prefer. 44, 194–202 (2015) 17. Velasco, C., Michel, C., Woods, A.T., Spence, C.: On the importance of balance to aesthetic plating. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 5–6, 10–16 (2016) 18. Sousa, B.M.: A theoretical contribution from the perspective of innovation process in wine tourism contexts. Mark. Tour. Rev. 4(2), 1–18 (2020). https://doi.org/10.29149/mtr.v4i2. 4744

Reinventing Basic Education After COVID: Technologies for Entrepreneurship in Education at the Ukids Case Study Maria Inês Ribeiro Basílio de Pinho(&) Cultural and Social Studies Department, IPP – Escola Superior de Educação (Porto), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal [email protected] Abstract. When five partners from Austria, Netherlands, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal came together three years ago to create a joint project for Social Entrepreneurship/Entrepreneurship in Education, they did not imagine that in late 2019/1st semester of 2020 this would be so relevant. Indeed, the occurrence of a pandemic called COVID-19 has largely destroyed, if not all, the objectives of the global and capitalist society where the western world lived. Previously, bodies like the United Nations (UN) had already stressed the urgent need for joint work by all societies worldwide for Sustainable Development. This concept encompasses many realities from environmental issues, to the eradication of hunger and poverty in the world, to gender equality or the need to create sustainable cities and communities. Two documents stand out and guide human behaviors until 2030 and 2063, respectively the Sustainable Development Goals and the 2063 Agenda for Africa. The child of today is the adult of tomorrow; therefore, the programs and teaching activities of Basic Education must educate for the world that you want to have in 2030 and 2063. The present work presents the new teaching strategies followed and the technologies of education support used in the implementation of the UKIDS pilot project. Keywords: Entrepreneurship in education
COVID
Basic education UKIDS technologies
Sustainable development goals




1 Introduction Individuals responsible for Education have long argued that one cannot continue to teach as they learn in their time. In this sense, a revolution is advocated for all levels of Education, namely for the Basic Education (in Portugal also called 1st cycle). One of the differences lies in the use of technologies. In this work, the concept of technology should not be seen only as everything related to hardware, software, machines, among others, but rather to “know how to do” and “know how to be”. The “job for life” idea has also ended. The young adult of the future knows that, regardless of the area where he works, he will have to internalize entrepreneurial behaviors, sometimes creating his own job, sometimes assuming entrepreneurial attitudes. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 595–609, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_51

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Likewise, it will have a permanent concern to update itself, adopting behaviors of lifelong training, where technologies will be a constant. The project presented in this work is called the Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program For Kids (UKIDS) and is the result of the application, in 2017, to the European program Erasmus + KA2 Strategic partnerships for School Education- Cooperation for Innovation and Exchange of Good Practices, sub-measure KA201 Strategic Partnership for School Education, with a view to development and innovation (skills in Entrepreneurship and Mindfulness in education). Its goal is ambitious. That is, while looking for ways to work on the concept of Entrepreneurship in Education, it strengthens the quality of citizenship in children. That is how we seek to combine techniques of Entrepreneurship in Education with the Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the UN, remaining as clues for future work the application of that concept to Agenda 2063 what we want for Africa [24]. To this end, the following work begins by addressing the concepts of Entrepreneurship, Social Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship in Education, followed by an observation of the recent phenomenon of COVID-19 and the consequences for Education; the introduction of technologies in the 1st cycle; the presentation of the Sustainable Development Goals/Africa Agenda 2063 and its application to entrepreneurship in education from the Ukids project, ending with the conclusions and clues for future research.

2 Revision of Literature 2.1

Concepts of Entrepreneurship, Social Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship in Education

Nowadays, organizations are looking for multi-skilled professionals who help them to work with a systemic view, acting and interacting between teams from different sectors. For this, the professional needs to be: “creative, innovative, instigator, original, persistent, communicative, good listener, flexible, balanced, intuitive and who has the selfconfidence to seek innovations, or rather, who is an individual entrepreneur or who has an entrepreneurial behavior” [21, p.170]. Schumpeter [22] defines entrepreneurship as consisting in the creation of new businesses, but also in the innovation of existing businesses. The same author refers to the definition as a “creative destruction” process, through which existing products or production methods are destroyed and replaced with new ones. In this sense, entrepreneurship results in the annihilation of old ideas that, because they are not new, no longer have the capacity to surprise and enchant. Here it is understood that the essence of entrepreneurship lies in change and innovation. Since Schumpeter [22], the concept has undergone changes and has been extended to other areas of knowledge such as Cultural Entrepreneurship [9] or Strategic Entrepreneurship [10, 14–17]. More recently, there is talk of Entrepreneurship applied to Education [18]. Entrepreneurship in Education is understood by Grivokostopoulou, Kovas & Perikos [8] as the process of endowing students with the ability to generate ideas and

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skills to make them implement. Thus, the student acquires additional knowledge, attributes and skills required in the context of a new business. In another perspective Lindner, J. [11] considers entrepreneurship in education as an important and distinctive part of a good education in school. And it is in this sense that the idea of creating the Ukids project arises. The concept of Entrepreneurship in education is a branch of a larger concept: the concept of Social Entrepreneurship. This issue aims to inspire students to work, in groups or individually, the problems of the society in a practical way. It also makes students more aware of their social, economic, and natural environment. According to Roberts and Woods [19], social entrepreneurs are people with behaviors similar to conventional entrepreneurs, but with the difference that “they operate in the community and are more concerned with caring and helping than with making money”. In this way, teaching from entrepreneurship in education means working with students’ knowledge in workshops, where they develop their knowledge of the world and the individual talents that are so necessary for the society of 2030. Starting from principles of citizenship, students learn to respect others and to respect people with different opinions from their own. In summary, children from a specific classroom and school learn: – that are part of a society; – that are responsible for the common interests of citizens; and – that must be involved in society’s problems and take the initiative to help resolve them. Regarding this conception Manić and Trajković [12] defend a set of values, norms and behaviors that must be disseminated in an Entrepreneurial Education. These are summarized in Table 1. Therefore, Education for Entrepreneurship is a practice-oriented education that involves the school’s external environment community, supports creativity, and encourages initiative and action. The student is active in the learning process, interacting with other people, and the teacher acts as a consultant and a model. In this process of education for entrepreneurship students acquire knowledge about entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial thinking and develop skills to act in an entrepreneurial way. And this is what the Ukids project tries to do. In a summarized way, it can be said that both you can teach about Entrepreneurship and you can teach through Entrepreneurship. Teaching about Entrepreneurship means using traditional textbook teaching, where it is a matter of acquiring knowledge on the subject. Teaching through Entrepreneurship means resorting to more practice-oriented teaching, that is, pedagogical and didactic teaching that uses methods in which students act, feel and do, while obtaining knowledge and experience, and based on this knowledge and experience.

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Table 1. Values, norms and behaviors to be disseminated in an Entrepreneurial Education. Values to be passed on in an entrepreneurial education

Norms and behaviors to be passed in an education entrepreneur

Natural and environmental resources

Responsible and planned protection of the environment and nature; responsible management of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, use of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency, waste management Build a democratic society with respect to non-violence, peace and tolerance. Respect for human rights and equality, security, ethical standards, global, national and local responsibilities, civic dialogue and the like Social service, better quality of life, social responsibility and solidarity Information and education on disease prevention, healthy lifestyles, high quality and affordable public health and the like Development of cultural identity, understanding and protection of intangible and material and related cultural assets Socially responsible business, sustainable production and consumption, transparency in business, information and consumer rights, principle of efficient use of resources, principle of limited use and substitution, principle of green public procurement, issuing certificates, organic production and the like Local, regional, rural and urban development and the like

Human rights and Democracy

Social Cohesion Health Culture and Traditional Heritage Sustainable production and consumption

Encouraging and planning sustainable development

Source: Adapted from Manić, A. and Trajković, S. 2019. pp. 67.

2.2

COVID-19 and Consequences for Education

For a few weeks, the Covid-19 pandemic overwhelmed many national health systems. The uncertainty about its degree of mortality and the knowledge of its high level of contagion has led many governments, worldwide, to impose blockades and to reduce economic activity. Among the key measures to limit the risk of contagion, the following stand out: the decrease in tourist activity, the contention of trade with the exception of pharmacies, supermarkets and other establishments selling basic necessities and the closure of schools/universities [20]. Covid-19 was thus precipitating an educational crisis, fueled by the deep and multiple inequalities discussed in this sub-chapter. According to UNESCO [25], these inequalities have existed for a long time, however they were obscured in classrooms. With the need, from one day to the next, to close schools and adopt distance learning systems or to start teaching synchronous and asynchronous classes, it was found that many students/teachers had no possibility of either in a state of emergency, or in a state of calamity or in confinement or quarantine having access to a computer or internet networks. In summary, have access to the teaching/learning relationship. For these reasons, governments need to address the new challenges of inclusion or sustainable development to rebuild better and accessible educational systems for all students. And this is the proposal of the Ukids project.

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The COVID-19 pandemic brought changes that increased costs and decreased revenues. In fact, there was a reduction in support for scholarships, canteens, libraries, or research, as these public expenditures were directed towards the discovery of a vaccine. And students question whether to renew enrollment or pay tuition if it is to stop taking face-to-face classes. As of June 8, 2020, the African continent recorded more than 88,000 confirmed cases of COVID-19, with 2832 confirmed deaths and 33,898 recoveries [1]. On June 20, there were 287,385 cases with 7,708 confirmed deaths and 132959 recoveries [5]. In response to the coronavirus outbreak, many African governments have taken the decision to close educational institutions to contain the disease. Egypt was the first African country to report a case of COVID19 [1]. Despite the relatively smaller number of COVID-19 cases in Africa compared to Europe and other parts of the world, the virus has spread, becoming a major threat to the continent’s health systems. Almost all African countries responded by implementing blockages and public health measures to promote physical distance, namely: wearing a mask, good hand hygiene, isolated patients, and testing/screening for COVID-19. While these measures have helped to slow the spread of the pandemic in Africa, it has affected all aspects of life and changed the world as we know it. At the school level, COVID-19 exposed some of its weaknesses. In response to the pandemic, almost all African governments have decided to shut down educational institutions to help minimize the spread of the disease. To guarantee academic continuity, most of these institutions were managed to make the transition from classroom teaching to the virtual environment. This decision was abrupt, hurried, and quick, with no contingency plans. This exposed a series of challenges for most institutions that lacked the ability to switch to the virtual environment/that lacked technological infrastructures and whose connectivity to the Internet was a challenge. In addition, there was a lack of adequate faculty preparation, inadequate technical support, and most students lacked access to connected devices, in addition to reliable Internet connectivity. According to UNESCO, 9.8 million African students suffered interruptions in their studies due to the closure of their schools [5]. The fact is that COVID-19’s long-term impact on schools cannot yet be predicted, but it has been learned that the gap between African schools and the rest of the world or between rural and urban African schools is large and that these students face several challenges in trying to transition to the online environment. 2.3

Technologies in Primary Education

Until the Covid crisis, technology was merely essential for part of the educational experience. In fact, only a few students and teachers, especially high school students, felt the need to use it [7]. When the state of emergency sets in, all over the world, most teachers and school administrators had to change, in less than two days, to new tools that would allow them to provide lessons, distribute content, correct assignments. home and communicate with students and their parents. Closer to the end of the school year, they still had to conduct remote assessments.

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Working from home has become almost mandatory and at the same time impossible for caregivers or other family members. This situation is even worse when it appears that most teachers do not have the technical and pedagogical skills to integrate digital devices while teaching. Soon teachers, using online platforms, had to learn much more during the crisis than just a few technical skills, namely: – they had to redefine the less expository way of teaching and without having the receiver physically present; and – they had to look for ways/platforms/software to carry out online assessments at a distance, where the use of plagiarism or other less honest ways were taken care of. During this period, it was also found that low- and middle-income countries are much more disadvantaged for an effective transition to online learning platforms, as they lack essential goods such as electricity or internet access [4]. In fact, it is noted that, in these countries, households that have internet do so via telephone, which means that mobile internet data is paid according to the consumption made. The solution that the governments of these countries resorted to was to try to provide educational materials in the homes of these students. But even when distance learning modalities were available, the problem of disadvantaged students’ opportunity to learn continued to be negatively affected, since it presupposed that they had the support of parents or family members. And according to the ODCE [13], these parents have low levels of education and children/young people do not have a good environment at home since they have to support home tasks, such as, help other family members or young siblings have to take care of their children [3]. In the specific case of girls and young women, spending more time at home exposed them to domestic chores, sexual violence, or risks of teenage pregnancy [6]. The greatest danger of exclusion, however, is in students with disabilities. As an example, mention is made of blind or deaf students for whom their own technology is not always affordable or children with attention deficit and hyperactivity, whose independent work on a computer can be difficult. For these students, despite the group of special needs in which they find themselves, the School represented a safe haven or a place where they guaranteed vital goods and services such as school meals and access to toilets. Therefore, and in a nutshell, by increasing social isolation, pandemics also increased the risk of these students separating further from education and leaving school earlier. To monitor the progress of education in achieving the Sustainable Development goals by 2030 and to report on the implementation of national policies and international education strategies, keeping partners responsible for their commitments, in 2015 the international community developed a tool, in the form of a report, called “Global Education Monitoring” (GEM). To better fulfill its mandate, this GEM tool has developed an online resource called SCOPE (Scoping Progress in Education) [23], which allows participants to obtain interactive data visualizations, comparing data between countries or regional and global averages. SCOPE’s content is organized into five themes, respectively: access, equality, learning, quality, and finance. Access has to do with the number of participants at the respective level of education. Equality refers to the similarity of opportunities for access to education between boys and girls.

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Learning shows low reading and math skills in many countries. Quality, on the other hand, shows the existence of appropriate environments for learning, including adequate water and sanitation, electricity, internet, and the absence of practices of violence and bullying. Finally, finances show how much governments, media/donors and families spend on education, highlighting how little the poorest countries receive. In terms of sustainable development objectives and in terms of access, it is expected that, in 2030, 100% of young people will have completed high school. At the date of delivery of this work, the world time series show that only 88% of children complete basic education, 72% of adolescents complete high school and 53% of young people complete secondary education (in https://www.education-progress.org/en/articles/ access/, consulted on 30 June 2020). In practice, access in low-income countries, in 2020, presents the following problems: – only 77% of children attend Childhood Education. – students who attend basic education are older than normal. Thus, it is possible to observe adolescents attending this level of education. – there are still 258 million children without access to basic education. Essentially children who are in conflict zones. – the number of students who complete the proposed level of education is less than the number of entries (55%). As for equality, it is known that only 2 in 3 countries have achieved gender equality in Basic Education. This effort has resulted in a greater number of girls than boys attending different levels of secondary and higher education and completing it. Overall, the SCOPE investigation helps to reveal that the differences in education between girls and boys are not as great as between rural and urban areas and between the rich and the poor. For 2030, the goal is to have 100% equality at the level of high school. In terms of learning, it appears that more than 50% of countries do not report levels of reading or knowledge acquisition in mathematics. In the poorest countries, even if the individual has 6 years of schooling, it does not mean that he has acquired the corresponding skills. In this sense, it is an objective for 2030 that 100% of elementary school children have reached minimum reading proficiency. In the interpretation of the quality indicator, it cannot be said that good quality in Education is only about learning outcomes. In fact, in many countries of the world, children with access to basic education have teachers without their own training, lack good school infrastructure or have a learning environment that is safe and non-violent. Having a basic education teacher education means having pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of the profession and knowledge of the contents. Thus, it is an objective for 2030 that 100% of teachers have training in the area. Finally, the theme of finance argues that by 2030 national governments should spend at least 4% to 6% of GNP or 15% to 20% of Public Expenditure on Education.

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3 Ukids Social Entrepreneurship Case Study and Sustainable Development Goals 3.1

Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda Africa

The problems of extreme poverty, hunger, AIDS and the non-attendance of the 1st cycle by all children in the world, led the members of the United Nations (UN) to define, in 2008, the 8 Millennium Goals. In 2015, it was found that the goals outlined in this document would no longer be achieved by the expected date (2020), so it was decided to review them. That is how, in that same year, a new document appears, more extended in time, since it allowed the new goals to be reached in 2030, and more ambitious, since the 8 objectives would be converted into 17 objectives, as indicated in Fig. 1, and 169 targets to be achieved by the 193 countries that signed it. This document became known as the Sustainable Development Goals. Basically, we sought to halt the harmful effects of globalization and radical technological change, working on fundamental areas for humanity such as people (poverty and hunger), the planet (degradation, climate change, production and sustainable management), prosperity (economic, social and technological progress), peace (peaceful and non-violent societies) and partnership (solidarity between all peoples and participation by all countries).

Fig. 1. Sustainable Development Goals. Source: In UN (2015). 17 Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.unric.org/pt/objetivos-de-desenvolvimento-sustentavel last accessed on 30th of June of 2020.

In addition to this document, the African Union Commission also produced, in 2015, a statement thinking about the African continent that it is intended to have in 2063 [25]. This document would be called “Agenda 2063- The Africa we want” and includes the aspirations summarized in the following table (Table 2):

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Table 2. Aspirations for the Africa we want 1. A prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development 2. An integrated continent, politically united and based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the vision of Africa’s Renaissance 3. An Africa of good governance, democracy, respect for human rights, justice and the rule of law 4. A peaceful and secure Africa 5. An Africa with a strong cultural identity, common heritage, shared values and ethics 6. An Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children 7. Africa as a strong, united and influential global player and partner Source: African Union Comission, 2015, p. 2

The two documents are part of the democratic values that, with some exceptions, still resist in the world. The recent temptation to move to extreme right or totalitarian regimes, on the one hand, and the need to train individuals with entrepreneurial attitudes, on the other, lead the School to appeal to Teaching practices for citizenship and Entrepreneurial Education. The Ukids project is a practical example of this. 3.2

Ukids Project Presentation

The Ukids project is the result of a joint application by 10 educational institutions from 6 European countries (Austria (and also the project leader), Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Netherlands and Portugal, respectively) to the Erasmus + program, measure KA2 and sub-measure KA201 (strategic partnership development of innovation). Its mission is to promote Entrepreneurship in Education as a permanent element in teaching learning, in the initial and continuing training of teachers with a view to their integration into active life. As for their objectives, they seek to: develop an Entrepreneurship in Education program with a view to promote entrepreneurial skills in primary school students and their teachers, to encourage citizenship practices; to compare different approaches in different countries, to manage project quality based on impact assessment; to promote Entrepreneurship in Education among stakeholders. To implement them, a tripartite model of social entrepreneurship in the form of entrepreneurship in education is used. This Tripartite Model consists of a holistic education system, comprising three dimensions: “Education for Entrepreneurship” (which includes core competencies for entrepreneurial thinking and action, namely, the ability to develop and implement ideas); the “Culture of Entrepreneurship” (that promotes the development of personal skills in a social context, translating a culture of openness of spirit, empathy, teamwork, creativity, awareness and risk-taking) and “ Education for Entrepreneurial Citizenship”(which aims to develop social skills and empower students as citizens, helping them, through democratic thinking and selfreflection, to express their opinions and to be responsible for themselves, for others and for the environment).

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Each dimension includes challenges to be addressed by the 1st cycle teacher and his students in the classroom. Table 3 shows these entrepreneurial challenges by dimension.

Table 3. Entrepreneurial challenges by Entrepreneurial Dimension Entrepreneurial dimension Challenge Core entrepreneurial education Idea challenge My personal challenge Real market challenge Hero challenge Lemonade stand challenge Start your project challenge Entrepreneurial culture Empathy challenge Perspectives challenges Extreme challenge Storytelling challenge Trash value challenge Be a yes challenge Buddy challenge Open door challenge Expert challenge Entrepreneurial civic education My community challenge Volunteer challenge Debate challenge Source: Adapted from http://www.youthstart.eu/en/challenges/ last accessed in 30th of June 2020

With this model, it is believed to be able to integrate an entrepreneurial education at the same time that children of today and future adults are prepared for the society that, in the light of the objectives of sustainable development, they intend to have in 2030. 3.3

Ukids First Project Results Discussion

As seen in Subsect. 3.1, the United Nations realizes the importance of economic empowerment to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SGD). It has also been shown that entrepreneurship contributes to social advancement and to areas of environmentally sustainable development with positive impacts in areas such as financial inclusion, women’s empowerment, or sustainable agriculture. Therefore, entrepreneurship has direct positive impacts, specifically on poverty alleviation (SDG1), on economic development and unemployment reduction (SDG 8), on improving infrastructure and innovation (SDG 9), on equality and social inclusion (SDG 5 and 10) and sustainable production and consumption (SDG 12).

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Likewise, the European Commission proposed, in 2013, a way to promote entrepreneurship in Europe and to emphasize the importance of teaching and practicing it from pre-primary to university. The plan focuses on promoting entrepreneurship in education to develop an entrepreneurial culture conducive to economic development and sustainability [8]. From the report developed in Subsect. 3.2, the Ukids project seeks to introduce changes in primary education and to meet these two standards. To this end, the different partners chose two challenges to implement a case study from each country in the school. In the Portuguese case, due to the stoppage imposed by COVID-19, it was only possible to implement the “trash value” challenge belonging to the “Culture of Entrepreneurship” dimension. Here the students received a series of notes on how and why to separate the garbage at home and what are the possibilities of reusing things before we throw it away. The students were invited to keep boxes of eggs and to make objects from them, thus stimulating their creativity and capacity for innovation, while developing an entrepreneurial culture and values of citizenship. At a Christmas event, they also had the opportunity to share them with the project stakeholders (for example, parents, school principals, school group, parent and/or student association or local community). A mini questionnaire on the perception of the concept of entrepreneurship was also carried out with 4th year students. Its results are now being discussed. So, faced with the question: What is an entrepreneurial person to you? The children answered as shown in Table 4 Table 4. What is an entrepreneurial person to you? Variable categories Frequency Percentage Know how to learn 26 54% Know how to do 6 12% Know how to be 9 19% Others 7 15% Total 48 100% Source: In [18, p. 6]

Therefore, the idea with which children became about entrepreneurs is that they know how to learn (54%), how to be (19%) and only then how to do it (12%). Regarding the question: What skills do I expect to develop a lot, just develop, develop a little or develop nothing with the project? the answers obtained are given in Fig. 2. In other words, students expect to develop a lot of skills such as respect (33 or 70%), curiosity (32 or 68%), responsibility (31 or 66%) and cooperation (30 or 64%). They expected to develop a lot of argumentation skills (15 or 32%), persistence and self-confidence (14 or 30%) and autonomy (13 or 28%). They expected to develop little argumentation skills (14 or 30%), to pay attention to the social environment (14 or 30%) and self-nomination (12 or 26%). Finally, between 10 and 11% of students expected not to develop any of the skills with the project.

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Skills 31 8 3 5 33 5 3 5 30 10 3 5 32 5 4 6 Curiosity 7 15 14 6 20 14 8 Persistence 3 15 13 12 5 19 14 7 5 Self-Confidence 31 9 5 3 13 13 14 Be aware of the social… 5 Respect

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

I will not develop

I will develop a liƩle

I will develop

I will develop a lot

100%

Fig. 2. Entrepreneurial skills expected to develop students. Source: In [18, p. 9].

Finally, and in relation to the opportunities and threats that the project represented for themselves, the students responded according to Figs. 3 and 4.

OpportuniƟes 4, 12%

4, 12%

16, 49% 9, 27%

Learn more Know How To Do (apply others methodologies) Know How To Be Be wareness the opportuniƟes without idenƟfy Fig. 3. Opportunities of the project. Source: In [18, p. 11].

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Difficulties 10, 28% 17, 47% 9, 25%

To understand solve problems To have autonomy and self confidence To be wareness difficulties, without identify Fig. 4. Difficulties of the project. Source: In [18, p. 13].

As project opportunities, they reported having learned more (49%) and having had the chance to work with other methodologies to increase knowledge (27%). As threats, they mentioned being aware of difficulties without however identifying them (47%) and having to solve problems (28%).

4 Conclusion The present work addressed some concepts about the technological revolution, the characterization of a new digital generation that is required by the job market, as well as the way that Digital Information and Communication Technologies (TDIC) can mobilize entrepreneurial skills. In view with the profile of this new generation (where the exacerbated dynamism promises a turnaround in the labor market) and the moment experienced by major changes in the market due to globalization, companies are constantly looking for multiskilled professionals who help to work with a systemic vision, acting and interacting between teams from different sectors. For this, the young person must be an entrepreneur. By this it is understood here that what was defended throughout this work, that is, education for the entrepreneurial sense must be present from the initial stages of schooling, which is the same as saying since basic school. The school, in turn, needs to promote alternatives that enable and facilitate the teaching-learning process if it wants to transform its reality into a multicultural, technological and entrepreneurial space. As for the teacher, he must make use of an entrepreneurial pedagogy that provides the educational success of his students. But how can this be done, if the conditions of many schools today are still those of the 19th century, with teachers of the 20th century and students of the 21st century?

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This was what the Ukids project sought to demonstrate when trying to train students in the competence of entrepreneurship, while developing in them the quality of Citizenship. The short duration of the project (about 3 years), as well as its objectives, only allowed it to be implemented in European countries. However, at the time of writing, Europe continued to have low birth rates and an increasingly aging population, while Africa had the youngest population in the world, with an average age of 18 years. In addition, Europe oscillated between democratic and far-right governments, while Africa struggled to eradicate hunger, poor living conditions, lack of security or war, thinking of values such as democracy, equality gender, the rights of the child or even considering: the urgent need to intervene on climate and environmental change, or on the almost 2/3 oceans that it dominates, to promote access to education and all schooling levels, modernizing agribusiness and the ore industry, and improving transport and energy infrastructures. From this reasoning emerges a clue for future investigations. In other words, the idea extracted is if it would not make sense to try to apply the project in African countries. Indeed, it will be those who, in 2030 and 2063, will have more young adults who should be, at the same time, entrepreneurs and individuals with citizenship values.

References 1. Adotey, S.K.: Next Einstein Forum What will higher education in Africa look like after COVID-19? Global Shaper, Accra Hub World Economic Forum, (2020) 2. African Union Comission: Agenda 2063: The Africa we want 23(5), 1–21 (2015). https:// www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2020 3. Asanov, I., Flores, F., McKenzie, D., Mensmann, M., Schulte, M.: Remote-learning, TimeUse, and Mental Health of Ecuadorian High-School Students during the COVID-19 Quarantine. World Bank. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 328261589899308503/pdf/Remote-learning-Time-Use-and-Mental-Health-of-EcuadorianHigh-School-Studentsduring-the-COVID-19-Quarantine.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2020 4. Arnhold, N., Ziegele, F., Kivistö, J.: Under pressure: COVID-19 and the funding of European higher education Education for Global Development, World Bank. https://blogs. worldbank.org/education/under-pressure-covid-19-and-funding-european-higher-education. Accessed 30 June 2020 5. Darkwa, N.O.: Africa: Impact of COVID-19 On Higher Education in Africa - the Transition to Online Teaching and Learning Paper all Africa, Ganaian Times (2020) 6. Elston, J.W.T., Moosa, A.J., Moses, F., Walker, G., Dotta, N., Waldman, R., Wright, J.: Impact of the Ebola outbreak on health systems and population health in Sierra Leone. J. Publ. Health 38(4), 673–678 (2016) 7. Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Duckworth, D., Friedman, T.: IEA International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2018 Assessment Framework. Springer Open; International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Amsterdam (2019) 8. Grivokostopoulou, F., Kovas, K., Perikos, I.: Examining the impact of a gamified entrepreneurship education framework in higher education. Sustain. Rev. 11(5623), 1–17 (2019) 9. Hagoort, G.: Cultural Entrepreneurship, Freedom to Create Art and the Freedom of Enterprise, Inaugural Lecture, Summary version. Utrecht School of Arts, Research Group Art and Economics, Utrech (2007)

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10. Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D., Hoskisson, R.E.: Strategic entrepreneurship: creating value for individuals, organizations, and society. Acad. Manage. Perspect. 25(5), 57–75 (2011) 11. Lindner, J.: Entrepreneurial spirit for the whole school ways to become an e.e.-si entrepreneurship school. Discour. Commun. Sustain. Educ. 10(2). 5–12 (2019) 12. Manić, A., Trajković, S.: The role and importance of formal elementary education for the development of entrepreneurial abilities in accordance with the ethical principle. J. Process Manage. New Technol. Int. 7(2), 60–69 (2019) 13. ODCE (2020). https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/en/. Accessed 30 June 2020 14. Pinho, M.I.: Strategic entrepreneurship and PWYW in value creation of cultural organizations. In AIMAC 2019: 15th International Conference on Arts and Cultural management, Venice (2019) 15. Pinho, M.I.: Strategic entrepreneurship as an incentive for the current economy of culture. In: Facultad de Comercio, Turismo y Ciencias Sociales Jovellanos, II Gijon Conference on the Economics of Leisure, Culture and Sport, Gijón (2018) 16. Pinho, M.I.: Strategic entrepreneurship: model proposal for sustainable cultural organizations in the post troika. In: WASET, ICACM 2018: 20th International Conference on Arts and Cultural Management, Miami, EUA (2018) 17. Pinho, M.I.: Ph.d thesis “O Empreendedorismo Estratégico como Fator de Melhoria de Desempenho Organizacional. Estudo de Caso Casa da Música, In: Portucalense University (2014) 18. Pinho, M.I., Fernandes, D., Serrão, C., Mascarenhas, D.: Youth start social entrepreneurship program for kids: Portuguese UKIDS-case study. Discour. Commun. Sustain. Educ. 10(2), 33–48 (2019) 19. Roberts, D., Woods, C.: Changing the world on a shoestring: the concept of social entrepreneurship. Univ. Aucland Bus. Rev. Autumn, 45–51 (2005) 20. Rosenberg, J.S.: The corona virus campus: the factors influencing the fall semester and beyond. Jonh Harvard J. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2020/07/jhj-coronaviruscampus. Accessed 30 June 2020 21. Silva, B., Duarte, E., Souza, K.: Tecnologias digitais de informação e comunicação: artefactos que potencializam o empreendedorismo da geração digital. In: Morgado, José Carlos; Santos, Lucíola Licínio de Castro Paixão; Paraíso, Marlucy Alves (Org.), Estudos curriculares. um debate contemporâneo. Curitiba: Editora CRV, pp. 165–179 (2013) 22. Schumpeter, J.A.: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. Harper and Row, New York (1942) 23. SCOPE, Scoping Progress in Education. https://www.education-progress.org/en/. Accessed 30 June 2020 24. UN (2015). 17 Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.unric.org/pt/objetivos-dedesenvolvimento-sustentavel. Accessed 30 June 2020 25. UNESCO. Global Education Monitoring Report 2020: Inclusion and education: All means all. UNESCO, Paris, (2020)

Sports Tourism and Sports Events as a Niche Market in Oporto as a Tourism Destination Pedro Liberato1(&) , Dália Liberato1(&) , Bruno Sousa2 and Alexandra Malheiro2 1

,

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal {pedrolib,dalialib}@esht.ipp.pt 2 Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), CiTUR (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), UNIAG Research Member, Barcelos, Portugal {bsousa,amalheiro}@ipca.pt

Abstract. Football is experienced in a much more intense way compared to other sports, which is also why it has a relevant place in society, when compared to other sports activities. The general objective of this research study is to ascertain the importance and perception of FC Porto regarding the ability to influence the main activities performed during the trip. Considering the general objective, an hypothesis was proposed: The importance and perception of FC Porto in Porto as a destination, influence the main activities carried out during the trip. Visioning the research objective, a quantitative methodology was applied through the application of a questionnaire to 400 tourists/visitors in the city of Oporto. Considering the results, regional and local DMO’s are suggested to promote programs that guarantee complementary offer at the destination, coincident with sporting events, in order to ensure the extension of the stay. Keywords: Sports tourism
Tourism destination
Oporto
Porto football club

1 Introduction Football is understood as a leisure activity capable of awakening the emotional side of individuals and manifesting their emotions and excitement [1]. This sport is experienced in a much more intense way compared to other sports, which is also why it occupies a prominent place in society in relation to other sports activities [1]. Considering this important aspect, [2, 3] point out that “sport tends to generate extraordinary emotional responses from its audiences, and that they are stronger than in any other sector of activity”, which may become an opportunity for the definition of strategies for valuing this segment. Football is a growing industry with the advantage of being able to reach all ages and social layers [4]. Despite being a predominantly male sport, it has had a great growth of interest since the 1970s on the part of female fans [1, 5]. According to [6, 7], this sport, as a business, has seen great growth in recent years. At European market level, revenues were evolving between the 2006/2007 and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 610–623, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_52

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2016/2017 seasons with an increase from EUR 13.6 billion to EUR 25.5 billion, an increase of 46.7% over a ten-year period [7, 8]1. On the world market, there was a 35% increase between 2006, with US$107.52 billion, and 2015 with US$145.34 billion. Football followers around the world tend to do everything in their power to support their team and their club [7], and regardless of the number of wins or losses, they do not lose the sense of belonging and identity they have in relation to their team, thus remaining constant over time [9]. The presence of fans at a football match is explained by [1] due to the satisfaction of watching the game, search for stimulus, liberation and aggression, entertainment and goal achievement. This author also adds the importance of the game, the quality of the teams, travel costs, positive tension, group membership, self-esteem and family and economic reasons. In so that the tourist can be identified as a sports tourist, his/her travel motivations are crucial for his study. [10, 11] state that although the sports tourist is motivated by the competition or by the sport show or event itself, by the performance of recreational or competitive sports activities, or by physical activity (active or passive), sport is the primary motivation of the trip, as well as that individual or group of individuals who travels to a place different from that of their habitual residence to participate actively or passively in a competitive or recreational sport. When sport is addressed as a factor of tourism development in the region, it is crucial to mention the central role of sports event tourism. It is known that the sport is used by several countries and cities as an instrument of tourist development, in order to increase the influx of people in sporting events. This development is thus complemented with the various promotion strategies through the tourism of sporting events. Visitors are the main diffusers of the city elsewhere, which makes it extremely important to know your level of satisfaction, as they can recommend the destination or even return to it, causing a possible increase in tourist flow. The analysis of this variable of satisfaction of sports tourists also allows to analyse its viability same, which demonstrates its sustainability capacity [12]. Sports tourism is considered as a fundamental tool for the development of the tourism phenomenon [13], as, according to [14–16], it has shown in recent decades a huge economic contribution, a strong and constant growth that implies a trip, a trip to contemplate sports or sports attractions, or to practice sports. Inserted in the context of sports tourism also appear the tourist-sports attractions, as is the case of stadiums, museums, theme parks, and tourist-sports events, encompassing all major sporting events that mobilize a large number of spectators, participants and organizers [9]. From the point of view of [9, 14], the participation of tourists in sports contexts assumes three typologies: the first associated with sports, the second linked to sports spectacle and the third related to other tourist-sports contexts. In Oporto, the FC Porto museum was awarded the Innovation and Creativity Award 2015, by the Portuguese Association of Museology (APOM). The Museum also distinguished itself as the centre of cultural attraction of the city of Porto, positioning in the tourism market, through the first place of TripAdvisor’s tourist network, among the choices of museums, from the entire northern region of Portugal. In 2017, the FC Porto Museum was the first Museum of the World to be accepted as an affiliated member of the World

1

Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/261223/european-soccer-market-total-revenue/, consulted at 10th July 2018.

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Tourism Organization, and Porto Football Club was the first one to be represented in the UNWTO. This distinction is considered very important, as it denotes a great honour, importance, and extraordinary international recognition. The FC Porto Museum will thus share technical knowledge, about the tourism sector, with other affiliated members, organize conferences and events in collaboration with UNWTO and access privileged information, among other benefits. The Dragon Stadium, as a result of its unique dimensions, features and characteristics, is an infrastructure that reports a multifunctionality model, as it is a diversified and versatile space of fun and spectacle, capable of hosting various events. It is extraordinarily recognized worldwide [17–20] and considered as a sporting and cultural reference point of the city and the region [21]. This article is divided into three parts. The literature review aims to highlight the importance of sports events in the promotion of the destination and appreciation of the tourist experience, in particular in the destination Porto, revealing the latest themes in the publication of scientific articles in 2019 and 2020, in the area of sports tourism. The methodology evidences the application of a study in Oporto and main results. The conclusions of the study reinforce its main results, considering also the existing scientific literature.

2 Literature Review Over the last decades, the development of the sports show has been underway, with increasing importance due to the mediated development of competitions at the global level. This development is mainly due to the evolution of the means of transport and the [14]. Sports show tourism is characterized by the set of sports activities that tourists enjoy as spectators in the assistance to sports shows, and the sports show tourist is the individual who during his trip attends any show or sporting event, regardless of the predominant reason for his trip, that is, his participation is considered passive [14, 16, 22]. [14] define this relationship between tourism and sport as “event sports tourism”, due to participation in events or exhibitions focused on sport and in which “sensory and emotional proximity to the real situation” is essential. This concept of sports event tourism is also addressed by [14] and [23], in which individuals travel essentially to attend an event that involves sport, eventually not participating in any competition, and these sports tourists are considered merely spectators. According to [12], sporting events are included in the context of sports tourism, because any sports exhibition that develops in a given location, seeking to increase its number of visitors, will be pointed out as a sporting tourist activity or a sports event. [2], also highlight that sporting events are considered motivated, casual and performed by individuals or groups of individuals linked to sport, which benefit a certain locality when wellplanned and articulated between the several sectors of society. Sporting events have also developed very strong brand images due to their global appeal, excellence, competition and media attention. Some other studies show the influence that sports events and brand images of the destination have on the intentions of tourists to participate in the events and visit the host country [24–27], because tourists when they participate in this type of sporting events, have internal and external reasons that justify their presence. The promotion of events is seen as an opportunity to reheat the

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economy and strengthen the international image of the city, hosting the event. According to [28], the symbolic dimension acquired by these events can attract attention around the world and promote rituals that are not compared to another and any social phenomenon. The tourist destinations that host sporting events can have the perception of the positive effect that these events have, due to the increased arrival of tourists [29]. Regarding the permanence of tourists in the city, the higher the number of days, the greater the movement of services and tourist products, which provides the growth of demand for local goods and economic revenues. Due to the movement of tourists from place to place, a greater demand for consumption of tourist products is generated [12]. Also, recently, Gibson, [30] concluded that the unique atmosphere of the sport environment may evoke sport nostalgia, expanding the scope of sport nostalgia to include physical objects (equipment), places (stadia or museums), and social relationships (friendships) [31, 32]. [32], found that a group level sport nostalgia was found to highly influence revisit intention (Fig. 1). [33] developed a model in which, nostalgia represents a strong factor that motivates individuals to re-live their past experience as it prompts them to revisit their nostalgic destinations.

Fig. 1. Model proposed by [33], adapted

Visiting a destination contributes not only to cultural enrichment, but also to the reduction of some negative stereotypes that may exist, and to the creation of a single, more complete, singular and global image of the destination itself [34], created through specific characteristics and values that the consumer considers important [35]. The city of Porto is part of the list of the best European cities to visit, being pointed out as one of the great capitals of European culture, with places rich in art, history, architecture and gastronomy, valuing the whole territory and serving as a springboard to all the regions around it [36]2 (Table 1).

2

Source: https://issuu.com/marques.soares/docs/magnitude_8_integral, consulted at 10th April 2020.

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P. Liberato et al. Table 1. Recent research in sports tourism (2019–2020)

Author Goal

Research project

Notes and results

[37]

To this end, data gathered from U. S. sport tourists to college football games were analysed using a multilevel approach. Results showed that the relationship between nostalgia and intentions concerning college football was fully mediated by attitude toward college football at both individual and group levels

Such findings provide evidence for the positive link between nostalgia and intentions in a sport tourism context as well as for the applicability of the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism

[32]

[33]

Given that sport tourists usually come to sporting events in groups and are exposed to multiple types of stimuli, the influence of sport tourists’ nostalgia on their attitude or behaviour can be more complex than in other settings. Thus, this study explored how sport tourists’ nostalgia toward a sporting event shapes their intentions to engage in related activities when their attitude toward the event functions as a mediator. Such findings provide evidence for the positive link between nostalgia and intentions in a sport tourism context as well as for the applicability of the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism To evaluate the cross-cultural generalizability of the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism (NSST), originally developed and examined in the context of football tourists in the United States

Data were collected from baseball tourists in South Korea, and multilevel confirmatory factor analysis and multilevel structural equation modelling were used for data analysis

Results showed a significant effect of sport nostalgia on revisit intention both at individual and group levels. The findings indicate that the NSST is applicable in understanding sport tourists’ nostalgia across different sport and cultural settings Based on cognitive–affectiveResults from 301 European football A questionnaire application with behaviour theory, authors examined measures of nostalgia, motivation, club fans, yet to visit their favourite how European football club fans’ football team stadium, showed that and intention to visit an overseas nostalgia positively affected nostalgia and motivation affect the stadium. Items were slightly modified to cater to the context of motivation and motivation intention to visit an overseas football fans and were measured via significantly influenced intention to stadium visit the stadium. Testing the 7-point Likert scale ranging from mediation effect between nostalgia (1) Strongly Disagree to (7) Strongly Agree. This study used and intention to visit an overseas stadium, only the indirect effect was Cho, Lee, Moore, Norman, and Ramshaw’s (2017) nostalgia scale significant and not the direct effect. This study extends the knowledge for sport tourism (NSST) to of first-time visitors’ decisionmeasure football fans’ nostalgia. making process and provides The NSST scale consisted of 29 insights for sport marketers to items across five factors: sport develop effective marketing team, environment, socialization, strategies in sport tourism. personal identity, and group Nostalgia is found as a novel identity construct that may predict intentions to visit overseas sport stadiums and the underlying dimensions of nostalgia and motivation provided insights for managerial implications

(continued)

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Table 1. (continued) Author Goal

Research project

[38]

In addressing the research goal, survey data were collected from 487 sport tourists to professional baseball games in South Korea, which were then analysed using structural equation modelling

[39]

[40]

This study explored the relationships among sport tourists’ team identification, sport nostalgia, and revisit intention

Notes and results

Results showed team identification had an indirect influence on revisit intention, suggesting full mediation by sport nostalgia. This study provides greater insights into how sport tourists’ team identification contributes to sport nostalgia and how the two constructs collectively influence revisit intention. The findings can be used in developing more effective marketing strategies in sport tourism To investigate how sporting and Following the methodology No evidence of significant changes cultural events impact economic developed in Depken and in daily revenue, customers served, activity at a single full-service Stephenson (2018), related one of and revenue per customer on the restaurant in center-city Charlotte, the three dependent variables (Log day before, day of, and day after NC scaled revenue- lnRevenue; Log many of the events. The exceptions number of customers servedwere National Football League lnCustomers; Log scaled revenue (NFL) home games, swimming per customer- lnCustomerAverage), events, events at the Charlotte to dummy variables that indicate Convention Center, the 2012 day before, day of, and day after an Democratic National Convention, event occurred and various other NASCAR races, PGA tournaments, control variable and entertainment events at the Spectrum Center To evaluate the significance of Based on ethnographic fieldwork Considering both everyday and touristic trips by European football from 2009 to 2014 with one exceptional aspects of football fans particular group of fans, Europesupport helps rebalance tourism based supporters for the Turkish studies: away from disproportionate football team Beşiktaş focus on the touristic moment to considering its interpolation with everyday life. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork with supporters of the Turkish team Beşiktaş, the author considers that, journeys to watch sides play, constitute an ‘exceptional habit’, a ritualised shot of unorthodoxy that provides structure for other practices of football support. These trips are characterized by bodily practices less common in everyday life, such as mass imitation, fighting and drinking to excess. Yet examining fans’ home lives also shows how they draw on exceptional practices to prepare for and memorialise the away match experience

(continued)

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P. Liberato et al. Table 1. (continued)

Author Goal

Research project

Notes and results

[41]

To evaluate the inbound tourist expenditure generating role of football (soccer), particularly the English Premier League (EPL). An enhanced economic and management understanding of the role of regular sporting fixtures emerges, as well as quantification of their impact. Expenditure on football tickets is isolated to identify local economic spillovers outside the stadium walls

Authors used the UK International Passenger Survey, unconditional quantile regressions (UQR) to evaluate the distributional impact of football attendance on tourist expenditures. Both total expenditure and a new measure which adjusts expenditures for football ticket prices are considered. UQR is a novel technique, yet underexploited within sport economics and management, offering important methodological advantages over both ordinary least squares and quantile regressions

[42]

To analyse the positive role and Quantitative methodology, through influence of large-scale sports questionnaires events on the development of host cities, which are mainly reflected in three aspects: politics, economy, society and culture, as well as how to combine computer technology with large-scale sports events organically

Authors found significant cross quantile variation. High spending football fans spend more, even after ticket prices are excluded. Surprisingly, spending effects owing to attendance are strongest for those who overall spend the least, confirming the role of sport as a generator of tourist expenditure. Though the attendance effect is smaller for higher aggregate spenders, there is nevertheless a significant impact across the distribution. Distributional expenditure impacts highlight clear differentials between attendance by high and low spenders. Globally, this paper makes three key contributions to enhancing the economic understanding of the role of regular sporting fixtures, both in the determination of expenditure by inbound tourists and in the distribution of that impact Three large-scale sports events in Wuxi have positive effects on Urban Development: they have better political and image functions; they promote economic development, especially in the service industry; they promote the progress and exchange of society and culture

Source: Authors

3 Methodology The general objective of this research study is to ascertain the importance and perception of FC Porto regarding the ability to influence the main activities performed during the trip. Considering the general objective, an hypothesis was proposed: H1The importance and perception of FC Porto in Porto as a destination, influence the main activities carried out during the trip. Visioning the research objective, a quantitative methodology was applied through the application of a questionnaire to 400 tourists/visitors in the city of Oporto.

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4 Results Hypothesis H1: The importance and perception of FC Porto in Porto as a destination influence the main activities performed during the trip. To study this hypothesis will be analysed the relationship between the Questions “The influence of FCP in my choice/visit to the destination Porto” and “FC Porto in Porto as destination” with the Question “Main activity(s) performed during the trip” (Table 2). Table 2. H1: spearman correlation: relationship between questions N = 400

Visit the Old Town

Visit the main tourist attractions

Attend cultural events

Visit Dragão stadium

Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto

Watch football matches at Dragão Stadium

Other

The influence of FCP in my choice/visit ..

R P

−,276 (**) ,000

−,287 (**) ,000

−,145 (**) ,004

,451 (**) ,000

,307 (**) ,000

,576(**) ,000

−,134 (**) ,007

For sport

R P

−,259 (**) ,000

−,267 (**) ,000

−,140 (**) ,005

,447 (**) ,000

,233 (**) ,000

,606 (**) ,000

−,088 ,079

For football

R P

−,261 (**) ,000

−,271 (**) ,000

−,132 (**) ,008

,446 (**) ,000

,268 (**) ,000

,597 (**) ,000

−,128 (*) ,010

By the presence of international players

R P

−,273 (**) ,000

−,239 (**) ,000

−,120 (*) ,016

,369 (**) ,000

,242 (**) ,000

,476 (**) ,000

−,122 (*) ,015

By The Dragão Stadium

R P

−,269 (**) ,000

−,256 (**) ,000

−,148 (**) ,003

,452 (**) ,000

,269 (**) ,000

,542 (**) ,000

−,132 (**) ,008

By the Museum of FC Porto

R P

−,195 (**) ,000

−,262 (**) ,000

−,124 (*) ,013

,367 (**) ,000

,372 (**) ,000

,404 (**) ,000

−,121 (*) ,015

FC Porto in Porto as destination

R P

−,197 (**) ,000

−,233 (**) ,000

−,092 ,065

,429 (**) ,000

,302 (**) ,000

,432 (**) ,000

−,126 (*) ,012

I prolonged stay… due to FC Porto

R P

−,207 (**) ,000

−,238 (**) ,000

−,090 ,072

,395 (**) ,000

,222 (**) ,000

,396 (**) ,000

−,103 (*) ,039

The FC Museum Porto is a great …

R P

−,123 (*) ,014

−,158 (**) ,002

−,034 ,494

,357 (**) ,000

,268 (**) ,000

,363 (**) ,000

−,095 ,056

The FC Museum Porto is an equipment …

R P

−,134 (**) ,007

−,188 (**) ,000

−,072 ,150

,367 (**) ,000

,287 (**) ,000

,342 (**) ,000

−,142 (**) ,004

The Dragão Stadium of the is an important …

R P

−,190 (**) ,000

−,217 (**) ,000

−,071 ,154

,317 (**) ,000

,254 (**) ,000

,361 (**) ,000

−,098 ,051

r: correlation coefficient, p-proof value *p < 0,05 **p < 0,01. Source: Authors

For Hypothesis 1, there are statistically significant positive relationships between: – The global appreciation of “The influence of FCP in my choice/visit to the destination Porto” and the activities “Visit the Dragão Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Porto Football Club” and “Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “For sport” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”;

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– The appreciation of “By the presence of international players” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “Pelo Estádio do Dragão” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “By the Museum of FC Porto” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The global appreciation of “FC Porto in Porto as a destination” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “I prolonged my stay in Porto, due to FC Porto” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “The Fc Porto Museum is a great example of the relationship between the city, culture and football” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “The Museum of FC Porto is a reference equipment in the city as a destination, due to the distinction of the UNWTO (World Tourism Organization)” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”; – The appreciation of “The Dragon Stadium is an important sporting and cultural reference point of the city” and the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”. These results show that those who perform the indicated activities value more the “The influence of FCP in my choice/visit to the destination Porto” and its items, and “FC Porto in Porto as destination” and its items. Overall, hypothesis “H1: The importance and perception of FC Porto in Porto as a destination influence the main activities performed during the trip”, was observed, mainly, in the following situations: The global appreciation of “The influence of FCP in my choice/visit to the destination Porto” and all its items is superior for those who perform the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”. The global appreciation of “FC Porto in Porto as a destination” and all its items is superior for those who perform the activities “Visit the Dragon Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of Football Club of Porto” and “ Watch football matches in Dragão Stadium”. The global appreciation of “The influence of FCP in my choice/visit to the destination Porto” and its items “For football”, “By the presence of international players”, “By the Dragão Stadium” and “By the Museum of FC Porto” is lower for those who perform the activities “Visit the Historic Center”, “Visit the main tourist attractions”, “Attend cultural events” and “Other”; the appreciation of “For sport” is lower for those

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who perform the activities “Visit the Historic Center”, “Visit the main tourist attractions” and “Attend cultural events”. The global appreciation of “FC Porto in Porto as a destination” and its items “I prolonged my stay in Porto due to FC Porto” and “The FC Porto Museum is a reference equipment in the city as a destination, due to the distinction of the UNWTO (World Tourism Organization)” is lower for those who perform the activities “Visit the Historic Center”, “Visit the main tourist attractions” and “Other”; the appreciation of “The FC Porto Museum is a great example of the relationship between the city, culture and football” and “The Dragon Stadium is an important sporting and cultural reference point of the city” is inferior for those who perform the activities “Visit the Historic Center” and “Visit the main tourist attractions”. The study of [12] points out that cities’ present differences in the level of their offer to tourists: different aspects, characteristics and peculiarities that make them distinct, unique, and attractive to their eyes. One of these characteristics mentioned is hospitality, essential and highlighted by tourists as the most positive aspect of cities. The study of [43] reveals how fundamental it is for cities to be prepared for all people, because only in this way is the perfect balance of the open city that welcomes in the best possible way, and which is fully lived by the people who enjoy it. For this reason, the city should be a prepared space, with identity of collective use and accessible to all. Tourists choose the city as a tourist destination, seek the new, but also want to find places that contain attributes that give them security, and so tends to choose attractive cities, interesting and with a wide cultural offer [29]. The city of Porto was distinguished as european capital of culture in 2001 and is seen as a city of traditions, but also as a modern city. As a result, the city has the need to create a brand that allows it to be competitive and that enhances its qualities, so that these characteristics result as an element of differentiation in relation to other cities [34, 43, 45]. [34] states that destinations such as the city of Porto should continue to focus on aspects related to modernization and tradition, and characteristics such as simplicity, authenticity and consistency, so that tourists recognize the city and withdraw positive experiences and experiences, later recommending the destination. [35] concludes and also reveals that the best way to positively spread a tourist destination is to bet on the quality of the tourist’s stay, because if the tourist has high levels of satisfaction, most likely will extend your stay, you can return and even recommend the destination [7, 9].

5 Conclusions According to the Marketing and Communication Plan Visit Porto 2017, one of the motivations of the city of Porto is history, culture and world heritage (Historic Center of Porto), while, according to the study of the Visit Porto Brand, respondents mention the World Heritage, museums and cultural offer as the main attractions of Porto. It is also mentioned by the Barometer of Tourism of Porto, the visit to the Historic Center, the visit to the main tourist attractions, the visit to museums and the assistance to sporting events [45]. These activities are related to the visit to the Dragão Stadium, the visit to the FC Porto Museum and the assistance of football matches at the Dragão Stadium, to the extent that this sports venue is affirmed by [18, 19, 46] and [20] as one

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of the maximum symbols and an indispensable tourist reference in the sports and cultural life of the city of Porto. The Stadium is thus considered by [47] as a tool to increase the tourist and cultural offer of the city and which is currently among the most visited tourist attractions of the city. Segundo [1, 47] and [13], visit the Dragão Stadium, visit the Museum of Porto Football Club and watch football matches at Dragão Stadium are related to the tourist destination, since they are increasingly common activities when tourists visit the city of Porto. It is through these sports activities that the individual can experience new experiences in new contexts of evasion [14] and from a cultural perspective, because the Dragão Stadium is a diverse and versatile space of fun and spectacle, capable of hosting various events [20]. Another of the main activities carried out during the trip, the assistance to cultural events, is mentioned by the Porto Tourism Association [45] and [48] as one of the activities carried out by tourists during the visit to the tourist destination and perceived as an incentive for the attraction of visitors [49]. These events are provided by the FC Porto Museum, when they are scheduled in their program. As an example, guided tours of the city are highlighted, as they have a great impact on the museum’s connection to the city of Porto and its own history and culture. In conclusion, it can be stated that the results obtained are in line with the studies of [13, 14, 19, 44, 47–49] and [20], to the extent that for example, statistically significant positive relationships were found between those who decided to extend their stay in Porto due to FC Porto and the activities “Visit the Dragão Stadium”, “Visit the Museum of FC Porto”, and “Watch football matches at Dragão Stadium”. It was also observed the appreciation of the “FC Porto Museum” as a great example of the relationship between the city, culture and football”, or “The FC Porto Museum is a reference equipment in the city as a destination, due to the distinction of the UNWTO”, and the activities “Visiting the Dragão Stadium”, “Visiting the Museum of FC Porto” and “Watching football matches at Dragão Stadium”. Considering these results, regional and local DMO’s are suggested to promote programs that guarantee complementary offer at the destination, coincident with sporting events, in order to ensure the extension of the stay. Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge the financial support of CiTUR, R&D unit funded by the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, under the scope of the project UID/BP/04470/2020.

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#ITravelSolo: Women Solo Travellers Lucy Silva1, Zélia Breda1,2(&) , Filipa Brandão1,2 and Rui Costa1,2 1

,

Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism of the University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal {lucysilva,zelia,filipa.brandao,rui.costa}@ua.pt 2 GOVCOPP – Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, Aveiro, Portugal

Abstract. Travelling alone is a form of empowerment for women, who deal with and transcend the constraints of travel, resulting in greater confidence, inspiration, freedom, and eventually more social skills, which they end up having to develop. This paper aims to put into context the gender issue in the tourism sector, from a demand perspective, through the characterisation of women who travel alone. The empirical study carried out is exploratory and qualitative in nature. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with women travelling alone, being its structure based on the dimensions identified in the literature, namely previous travel behaviour, and the period before, during and after the solo trip. The study reveals that the first solo trip occurs between the ages of 17 and 23, being motivated by leisure, followed by academic reasons, which generally serve as a trigger for the next solo trips. Women travel alone for personal development and consider that travelling with others hampers their total freedom of travel. Another reason is that they do not find someone with availability or interest in the trip. As for the destination, the cultural immersion seems to be a major motivation, coupled with contact with local residents. Interestingly, security was not strongly mentioned. Regarding the organisation of the trip, they prefer to plan in advance, while a minority do not organise the trip, letting it flow. Booking of services is not a common practice. The main sources of information are those identified in the literature, also using the same places to recommend services and places to visit. There is an openness to the type of activities that exists at the destination, although existing preference for high-impact activities. The main barriers relate to the fact that women travel to unknown places. However, the destination image also projects fears prior to the trip. The adverse reactions of “others” are usually because they are women and travelling alone. The sensation of restricted access and mobility were mentioned, as they justify some behaviours for being a woman (e.g. going back to the accommodation before darkness). The most common form of accommodation is the hostel, followed by hospitality networks, such as Couchsurfing. The duration of the trip is usually long (more than three weeks), typically during the low season. In general, these women interact with other travellers, becoming sometimes travel buddies, while others prefer to interact with local residents. Keywords: Tourism Empowerment


Gender
Solo female travellers
Barriers


© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 624–636, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6_53

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1 Introduction Solo travel emerges as a recent form of travel, following the development of independent tourism and backpacking. However, it should not be confused with any of these typologies, since the solo traveller may not be totally independent, opting for flexibility and freedom, but with a minimally organised package [1]. It is also known that this segment is mainly composed of women [1–4], who increasingly choose to travel alone [4–7]. According to Wilson [4], women solo travellers are those who travel most of the time alone (even if they meet other people during the trip), and who are responsible for their choices in terms of activities and itineraries. McNamara and Prideaux [6] designate this segment as “solo independent women travellers”, understood as women who arrive at a destination alone and do not travel as part of a package, group or tour trip; have available time and financial resources; and the desire to embark on a journey that takes them out of the usual environment. This study aims to deepen the study of the solo traveller segment from the perspective of women. The issue of gender was not a focus on research until 1990, since tourism was traditionally seen as a gender-neutral process. However, today it is known that societies, being influenced by gender, end up affecting the processes of tourism. Nonetheless, this is still a somewhat marginalised topic in the literature [8–10]. In the following sections, the characterisation of the solo traveller is presented, seeking to understand who this type of tourist is, and what are the motivations and barriers to travel. In the second part, the methodology used in the study is presented in more detail. Finally, the results obtained in the analysis of the semi-structured are presented.

2 Theoretical Background No travel experience can be understood without reference to the body, since it is from the body that travel is understood. The use of a slim, tanned, young, Caucasian and bikini body is a crucial object in a consumer culture, where it has become the outward sign of success in the world. Tourism is no exception, using women as passive objects and sexually available [11–13]. Tourist advertising creates this expectation since it is based on images of happy people, escaping the pressure of everyday life, thus creating illusory geography, where the fusion of the representations in the brochures contrasts with reality [14, 15]. Gender is one of the main variables when we talk about consumer behaviour, being one of the most common forms of market segmentation [16, 17]. From studies conducted by Booking.com [18], Chiang and Jogoatnam [5], McNamara and Prideaux [6], Travelzoo [19], and Wilson and Little [7] it was possible to gather several aspects that allow characterising the segment of women solo travellers: (i) no age group is common in these studies, with studies with a greater predominance between 18 and 35, and other studies that point above this range;

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(ii) in the case of younger people, the majority are single, with older women being married, but age does not influence the desire to travel alone; (iii) the average length of stay was 12.17 nights and most preferred to travel during the high season (April to June); (iv) hostels were the most common form of accommodation; (v) they try to escape from the daily routine, and the trip is seen as an experience of empowerment, freedom, inner search and development of the sense of autonomy; (vi) motivations change according to age, with women from 35 to 44 years old saying they are inspired to travel alone to self-discovery, while older women travel alone because they had no one to travel with and for the freedom to do what they want; (vii) the literature shows that there are some differences concerning the preferences of men and women: it appears that they are more likely to seek adventure and outdoor activities, such as hiking, fishing, hunting, canoeing, among others, whereas women prefer cultural, educational and recreational activities (festivals, museums, historic sites, etc.). In the study of the Booking.com [18] there is a preference for spas; however, the study by McNamara and Prideaux [6] shows the preference for extreme sports, concluding that women feel equally safe to participate in risky activities; (viii) the reasons why women feel hesitant to travel alone are fear for security, vulnerability and loneliness; (ix) digital technology provides a sense of security while travelling alone, with 70% of women using the Internet instead of approaching local residents for advice; (x) they tend to stay longer and are likely to visit beyond the centrality of the destination, with the potential to generate more tourist revenue. Concerning destinations, the decision factors most mentioned in blogs aimed at women travelling alone are: the level of security, the activities that the destination offers, the kindness of the local people, the gastronomy, and even the fact that residents speak English [20–24]. Women choose to travel alone because they do not find someone with the same interest or because they prefer to have complete freedom to participate in activities without thinking about the preferences of other people [25–36]. However, several studies report that women feel more embarrassed about travelling alone than men, mainly due to harassment and violence against women [5, 15, 33, 37, 38]. According to Wilson and Little [7], there are four expressions of fear: (i) the influence and concern for the perception of others; (ii) the vulnerability of being in unknown spaces; (iii) the feeling of restricted access based on fear of travel; and (iv) the fear of the male gaze while travelling.

3 Methodology The methodology used in this study is qualitative, being increasingly accepted and used in tourism research [39] and widely used in gender studies [4, 7–9, 15, 39–44].

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The data collection technique used was the semi-structured interview, aiming to consolidate or verify information from the literature, and collect data on aspects that have not been fully elucidated in previous studies. The construction of the interview guide was based on the literature review: first, the dimensions of analysis were defined - namely travel history, and the period before, during and after the trip - and then categories were defined (Table 1).

Table 1. Dimensions and categories of analysis Travel history First trip alone (when, at what age and why) and destinations visited Before the trip Travel motivations and the trip planning process Category Sources Motivations: Why do women travel alone and what constraints they feel [15, 45–49] when travelling with others Planning: How women choose the destination and how they organise the [1, 4] trip Barriers: How women deal with fear and what is the reaction of others [7, 15, 16, 28] During the trip What happens during the trip, namely what kind of services they use, how long they stay, what transportation they use, etc. Category Sources Activities: Where they stay, how long they travel, what activities they [5, 6, 17, 18, 38, pursue, etc. 50] [7, 18, 19] Difficulties: which ones they identify when travelling alone and what level of security technology can provide After the trip Recommendation and loyalty to destinations Source: Own construction

The study was carried out on ten women, aged between 23 and 37 years. The selection of respondents went through non-probabilistic sampling, more precisely the snowball, in which the respondents indicated other people with the desired characteristics for the study, using their network of contacts. The interviews took place in March 2017, using Skype and voice recording, with the authorisation of the interviewees. The interviews lasted an average of 40 min, six of which were conducted in Portuguese and four in English. Table 2 shows the sociodemographic profile of the interviewees.

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L. Silva et al. Table 2. Sociodemographic profile of the interviewees

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7

Age Nationality Country of residence

Academic qualifications

Occupation

Marital Status

Children

23 24 25 26 28 32 33

Student Receptionist Receptionist Barista Student Beautician Cardiopneumology technician Journalist Craftswoman Babysitter

Single Single Single Single Divorced Single Single

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Single Single Single

0 0 0

M8 34 M9 35 M10 37

French Portuguese Portuguese Portuguese Belgian Portuguese Portuguese

France Portugal Portugal Denmark Belgium UAE Portugal

Master’s Graduation Master’s Graduation Graduation 12th grade Graduation

Finnish Spanish Brazilian

Finland * USA

Master’s Graduation Graduation

*Traveling since 2014 and no end date Source: Own construction

Subsequently, the collected data were analysed, using content analysis. According to Franzosi [51], this technique follows a coding scheme in which the researcher quantifies the frequency of occurrence of the categories, transforming non-quantifiable data into information that can be analysed. In order to analyse the collected data, the interviews were transcribed and uploaded into webQDA, which is a text, video, audio and image analysis software, intended for qualitative research in general [52].

4 Results and Discussion 4.1

Travel History

For the majority of respondents (90%), the first trip alone took place between the ages of 17 and 23, with only one case (10%) in which the trip took place at 32 years old. This first trip was made for leisure reasons (50%), for study and internship purposes (40%), and for learning a new language (10%), namely English. Figure 1 illustrates the destinations to which the interviewees have travelled alone. Some countries in Europe, Asia and America were the most visited, with only three women (30%) travelling to the Middle East, one (10%) to Africa and one (10%) to Oceania. As for Asia, there is clearly a preference for Southeast Asia. Concerning America, there is a predominance of destinations in South America. Firstly, we wanted to understand whether the characteristics of this segment met Cohen’s [52] non-institutionalised tourists, Plog’s [47] adventurers, Smith’s [48] explorers, elite and off-beat, and, finally, adventurers from Burns [46]. According to Cohen [52], non-institutionalised tourists want novelty, seeking to immerse themselves in culture, with authenticity as the main motivation for travel. Smith [48], on the other hand, characterises, in a similar way, the explorers, the elite and the off-beat travellers as easily accepted by the norms of the host communities and preferring less visited places.

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Fig. 1. Destinations of female solo travellers Source: Own construction based on ArcGis There are more places to see than on Lonely Planet. Monuments are not very important. You know a country by sharing the daily life with people, by going to the market, to the coffee shop. (M5)

Plog [47], on the other hand, characterises adventurers as independent, intellectually curious and looking for new challenges. Very close to this vision are the adventurers and dreamers of Burns [46], who seek new realities and new experiences. I felt like I wanted to get away from it all and wanted to feel like I was having an adventure. I just say that I am travelling until Monday and that they [family and friends] will not be able to speak to me, and that I will go to this region of the world. If they don’t hear from me it’s good; if they do, it’s because I had a problem. (M5) It has to be something new; it always has to be something new. (M7)

4.2

Before the Trip

According to Bianchi [45], travelling alone is an opportunity for reflection and personal development, with greater spontaneity. The concern of having to deal with the preferences of another person and the conflicts that arise from this negotiation is also identified [15, 45], these aspects being mentioned several times by the interviewees. Another reason why they travel alone is because they have no travel companion. Living outside your culture is very enriching because you start to see things from the outside. It was like I started to be who I want to be. (M10)

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In Argentina, I felt completely free. In addition, I am forced to interact much more with the locals, make friends and get away with it. I like to pull myself in that direction. (M3) Then my cousin arrived and I was feeling bad about being with her because I had the impression that she was cutting off my freedom to discover the world. (M1) At the time I travelled alone because my friend was unable to go. (M8) The choice of a destination is mostly defined by the cultural impact and by the contact with local residents, looking for a different reality from the one that is known to them. […] The cultural impact is something I like a lot. This is my big factor [of choice], sincerely. (M7) I like being with local residents and asking them about life. I usually stay with them. (M8)

Regarding the organisation of the trip, it appears that prior research is carried out on accommodation, prices, transportation, among others. The information sources mostly used are electronic, especially social networks, blogs and other websites. In the segment of cyclists solo travellers, they use only specific sources of information. As for the level of travel organisation, most do not book services prior to their arrival at the destination. I see the flights on Skyscanner and then I check the airlines’ websites to see if a day before or after there are cheaper flights. And I always see the currency exchange. (M2) Backpackers’ Facebook, Youtube channels, travel blogs. (M10) I use the blogs of other travellers who are travelling in the same way, people who travel by bicycle, not tourism in general. I don’t use TripAdvisor and the more general ones. (M9) I booked only for the first two nights. Then I made the reservation as I travelled. I made a plan, but a very open plan. (M6)

Women see security as relative, saying that their perception of a destination can also be understood as a type of fear. As for specific fears, they focused on the fact that they usually go to an unknown place, and on the fact that a long trip can compromise a stable life, variables that were not identified during the literature review. I heard bad things about Guatemala and I was a little nervous, but when I got there it was nothing like that. In Belgium, there are also streets that we cannot go because they are dangerous, but so is everywhere. (M5) From this last trip, it was the decision to leave things here and because it was a much longer trip, than the fear of where I was going. It was a mixture of fear of the unknown and enthusiasm. (M7)

The influence and concern of others, stated by Wilson and Little [7], are also mentioned, along with the condition of women and their social role. Being older and having a nomadic lifestyle was also mentioned. Fear comes first from the outside, when people say “you can’t go to South America alone”, “you can’t go there by bicycle”, “you’ll be raped”. (M8) The problem is not travelling, the problem is not the bicycle, the problem is that I am a woman and I go alone. (M9) Nowadays it is more because of my age and that I must stabilise. At least on my family’s side. (M8)

On the other side, some women answered that they were not afraid; optimism cancelled the feeling of fear. In another case, the absence of fear was justified by the use of drugs, namely Ayahusca.

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I have always trusted that people are there doing their best. I wouldn’t go to a slum alone, maybe I wouldn’t go accompanied. But I went to the slums with my cousin that lived there, I didn’t take my camera, I didn’t take jewellery. (M3) I took so many drugs that I was in a state of mind that everyone looked good; everyone can be happy.

4.3

During the Trip

According to studies by Booking [53] and McNmara and Prideaux [6], the most common form of accommodation is the hostel. The hostel has been referred to seven times as the usual form of accommodation, simultaneously with hospitality networks (for example, Couchsurfing). However, the hostel is interpreted as a type of accommodation more targeted at a young audience. It is always a very young group, they drink, they arrive at night to party. There are no activities for more than thirty years, such as wine tasting. You rarely meet someone you really connect with. (M10)

Regarding the time of year, the responses did not match the literature review, in which in the study by McNamara and Prideaux [6] the high season had the highest response rate. In the present investigation, it was concluded that women prefer to travel in the low season. Regarding the duration of the trip, all responded that they preferred longer trips (more than three weeks). The reason for the preference for the low season was that fewer people were walking around the streets and absorbing the culture better. The most used types of transport are the plane, bus and hitchhiking, especially the night bus, with three women using it in order to save on accommodation: Low season, always cheaper. Usually what I do is: I take a long period of at least three weeks to get to know a country. (M7) Despite being a warm person, I like to travel in the winter because there are fewer people around and you can really rest. I prefer long periods, but always in the same place. (M2) The night bus is good because it saves you a night’s stay in a hostel and you are travelling. (M6)

Regarding the type of activities, the Booking.com study [53] indicates that women prefer low impact activities, such as spa. Also in the study by Meng and Uysual [17], women prefer cultural, educational and recreational activities. However, in the study by McNamara and Prideaux [6], women did some high-risk activities. When asked about this issue, the answers were not in line with those mentioned in the literature, in which the majority responded that they had no preference, but rather an openness to the type of offer that exists at the destination. When they answered that they had a preference, they chose high impact activities. I am very open-minded about what the country can give me. And if that country can give me nature, climbing, I will do that. If it is a museum-based country, I will go for it too. (M6) I did high impact activities in Mexico: rappel, slide. It all depends on the destination. (M4)

In general, there is interaction with other travellers, and most interviewees travel afterwards with the people they meet during the trip. In some cases, it was found that they prefer to interact with the local residents.

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I make many friends and sometimes travel with people I know during the trip. (M10) I prefer to talk to local people and make local friends. I don’t need the tourist to feel comfortable. (M9)

The feeling of restricted access, temporal immobility and vulnerability [7] was also mentioned by the interviewees. As for being a woman, I am always paying attention to see if the place is not too deserted, not to return at the dark. (M10) I feel insecure when I am camping alone because it is mostly male environments, like fire brigades. Other female travellers say you can go anywhere, but I don’t think that’s the case. I have a friend who is [travelling] on a bicycle in Asia and they’ve tried to rape her three times. (M8)

The monetary part is also interpreted as an inconvenience, since people who travel alone pay more fees for services, applying, for example, the single supplement, and may add 10% to 100% to the base rate [54, 55]. Traveling alone is more expensive because there is no one to share the food with, for example. (M10) They increase the price of things, taxis and food, because you are alone. (M2)

The fact that they feel alone is also perceived as a difficulty, as identified in the study conducted by Travelzoo [19], and technology can create a feeling of security, as concluded in the study by Booking.com [18]. I’m a little tired of being alone because when I get to a place, I know people, but they stay there. Now I would like to have someone with me. […] I use my cell phone a lot. I don’t feel so alone because I have Whatsapp. If I didn’t have it, I would feel more lonely, more insecure”. (M8)

4.4

After the Trip

Most women recommend on electronic platforms, such as social networks (Facebook), review platforms (TripAdvisor), or other websites (Booking.com and blogs). Where to stay, what to spend, how to take the bus, how to save. In the forums, I answer many things and give many tips. (M10) I share on social networks. And also on Facebook groups where it is possible to share bicycle route information. (M9)

Regarding the fact that they return to destinations where they have been previously due to the familiarity factor, most of them noticed a pattern of wanting to explore the destination more, and not because they feel safer. Yes, because I feel like I didn’t have much time to sense the country. (M5) For example, I frequently travel to Amsterdam because I have family there and because it is a city that I like a lot and I have a place to stay. If there are cities I like, sometimes I’ll come back. (M7)

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5 Conclusion The study reveals that the first solo trip takes place between the ages of 17 and 23, with the strongest motivations for doing so being leisure, followed by studies and internships. This last motivation gives rise to the first trip and can usually serve to boost the next ones. As for the regions visited, there is a preference for Europe, South America and Southeast Asia. This segment meets the characterisation of Cohen’s [52] non-institutionalised tourists, Plog’s [47] adventurers, Smith’s [48] explorers, elite and off-beat, and finally, Burns’ [46] adventurers. Women travel alone as a form of personal development, and it has been mentioned that travelling with others acts as an obstacle to the total freedom of travel [15, 45]. Another reason why women travel alone is because they do not find someone with availability or interest in the trip. As for choosing a destination, the cultural impact seems to be a strong motivation, accompanied by contact with local residents. Interestingly, the issue of security was not strongly mentioned, as they argued that security was relative and that all countries have dangerous places. Another factor in choosing the destination is that it is sometimes random, resulting from mobility for studies or internships, resulting later in passing through neighbouring countries. As for women returning to the same destination because these are perceived as safer due to the level of familiarity, they replied that they do not return for this factor, but to explore it better. About the organisation of the trip, some interviewees preferred to plan, while a minority responded that they did not organise the trip, allowing it to flow. Reservation of services is not a common practice in this segment, in which women prefer to reserve them closer to the date of the trip or even during the same, mainly because these are long trips. The sources of information were those already identified during the literature review, noting that, in the case of cyclists, they only sought recommendations for this type of tourism. When asked about the type of activities, the answers did not match the literature, with a predominance of responses in which there is no preference for activities but an openness to the type of offer that exists at the destination. About fear and barriers, these focus mainly on the fact that women travel to unknown places. However, the image they have of the destination is also a type of fear, since it projects fears prior to the trip. The adverse reaction of “others” is also mentioned, usually for being women and for travelling alone. The feeling of restricted access and mobility was also stated [7], since they justify some behaviours for being women, for example, returning to the accommodation during the day. On the other hand, there was the testimony of women who did not feel any fear, and one justified this absence of fear with the use of drugs. The most common form of accommodation is the hostel, followed by hospitality chains like Couchsurfing. The duration of the trip is generally long (more than three weeks), giving preference to the low season. The most common means of transportation are the plane, bus and taxi, and night transportation, such as the bus. In general, women solo travellers interact with other travellers, being able to travel with them later. However, some women prefer to interact with local residents.

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Author Index

A Almeida, António, 328 Almeida, Helder, 52 Antošová, Gabriela, 76, 96 Arnedo, Bertha, 370 B Barabas, Sorin, 293 Barreira, Hugo, 584 Barros, Miguel, 540 Bedoya, Santiago, 162 Benavides, Arturo, 106 Bessa, Maximino, 153 Bohórquez, Emanuel, 106 Braga, José Luís, 125 Brandão, Filipa, 529, 624 Breda, Zélia, 529, 624 C Cabarcas, Amaury, 370 Caiche, William, 106 Caiza, Gustavo, 360, 448 Carvalho, Aida, 26, 42 Carvalho, Célia Barreto, 15 Carvalho, Joao Vidal, 162, 434 Carvalho, Mariana, 401 Carvalho, Milena, 480 Castanho, Rui Alexandre, 15 Castro, Conceição, 341 Castro, Maria João, 480 Chiliquimga, Gabriela, 360 Coelho, Pedro, 186 Conceição, Oscarina, 550 Correia, Pedro, 328

Correia, Ricardo, 202 Costa, Cláudia S., 458 Costa, Elga, 572 Costa, Nuno, 86 Costa, Rui, 529, 624 Couto, Gualter, 15 Cuevas Contreras, Tomás Jesús, 509 Cunha, Carlos R., 42 Cunha, Diana, 401 D de Lima, Ana Pinto, 266 de Pinho, Maria Inês Ribeiro Basílio, 595 Dias, Ana, 212 Dieguez, Teresa, 550 dos Santos, Jorgenaldo Calazans, 560 E Eletxigerra, Ainhize, 401 F Fernandes, António J. G., 1 Fernandes, Gonçalo, 52 Fernandes, Joana, 26 Fernandes, Paula Odete, 498 Ferraz, André, 572 Ferreira, Fernanda A., 341, 560 Ferreira, Jéssica, 86 Florescu, Adriana, 293 Fonsêca, Flaviano Oliveira, 560 Foris, Diana, 293 Foris, Tiberiu, 293 Furtado, Marco, 177

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 A. Abreu et al. (Eds.): ICOTTS 2020, SIST 209, pp. 637–639, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4260-6

638

Author Index

G Garzón-Paredes, Alexis-Raúl, 380 Gomes, Luís M. P., 314 Gomez, Gregorio, 162 Gonçalves, Beatriz, 480 Gutierriz, Ives, 251

N Neves, Gilberto A., 498 (Nee Nthoi), Olivia Molefe, 521 Nunes, Alcina, 251 Nunes, Catarina S., 498 Nunes, Pedro, 341

H Henao, Angelica, 434 Henriques, Pedro, 229

O Ojino, Ronald, 142 Oliveira, Adriana, 304 Oliveira, Helena Costa, 351 Oliveira, Luciana, 304

I Ibarra, Kevin, 162 J Jorge, Filipa, 153 K Kastenholz, Elisabeth, 401 L Lara, Malory Beatriz Guerra, 490 Liberato, Dália, 280, 572, 584, 610 Liberato, Pedro, 280, 584, 610 Lima Santos, Luís, 96 Lisboa, Inês, 114 Lopes, Isabel M., 1 Lopes, Isabel Maria, 251 Lopesierra, Wilfrido Montes, 490 Losada, Nieves, 153 M Machado, Luiz Pinto, 229 Malheiro, Alexandra, 610 Marinho, Madalena, 202 Martins, Susana, 480 Melo, Helena Maria Pascoal, 66 Melo, Miguel, 153 Mendes, Benedita Barros e, 280 Mendes, Teresa, 584 Mendoza, Raynel, 370 Mesias, Jorge, 162 Mesquita, Anabela, 304, 540 Mich, Luisa, 142 Molina, Cristian, 448 Molina, Juan Carlos, 360 Moniz, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda, 66 Monteiro, Albertina Paula, 186 Morais, Elisabete Paulo, 202 Morales, Bulmaro Fuentes, 490 Moreira, Jacinta, 114 Moreira, Victor, 26 Muñoz, Alexander Parody, 490 Mvungi, Nerey, 142

P Pacheco, Jorge, 266 Panesso, Carolina, 434 Pascoal, Sara, 177 Patiño, Alejandro, 162, 434 Peña, Alejandro, 162, 434 Peralta Mejía, Mauricio, 76 Pereira, Adalmiro, 222 Pereira, Cláudia, 186 Pérez, Maritza, 106 Pimentel, Pedro, 15 Pires, Ana, 241 Q Queirós, Alexandra, 212 Quintas, Marta, 529 R Rafael, Célia, 241 Ribeiro, Diamantino, 229 Ribeiro, Maria I. B., 1 Ribeiro, Neuza, 114 Rocha, Nelson Pacheco, 212 Rodrigues, Carlos, 212 Rodrigues, Mário, 212 Rodriguez, Vanessa, 251 Royo-Vela, Marcelo, 380 S Saavedra, Marcela, 360, 448 Sabogal Salamanca, Mauricio, 76 Saeteros, Morelva, 448 Santana, Miguel, 490 Santinha, Gonçalo, 212 Santos, Arlindo, 42 Santos, Carlos Alberto Silva Melo, 66 Santos, Eleonora, 114 Sequeira, Arminda, 304 Silva, Francisco José Ferreira, 66 Silva, Isabel, 401 Silva, Lucy, 624

Author Index

639

Silva, Pedro, 266 Sousa, Áurea, 15 Sousa, Bruno, 86, 125, 610 Stradová, Sara, 96 Studnička, Petr, 421

V Vaz, Angela, 222 Vieira, Lício Valério Lima, 560 Villa Zamorano, Zyanya María, 509 Vinš, Zbyněk, 421

T Tallone, Laura, 177 Teixeira, Fábio L. C., 314 Teixeira, Mário Sérgio, 153

Z Zelený, Jiří, 421 Zermeño Flores, Sonia Guadalupe, 509 Zizadra Hernández, Isabel, 509