Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems: Selected Papers from ICOTTS 2022, Volume 2 9811999597, 9789811999598

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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340

António Abreu João Vidal Carvalho Dália Liberato Iván Suazo Galdames   Editors

Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems Selected Papers from ICOTTS 2022, Volume 2

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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies Volume 340

Series Editors Robert J. Howlett, KES International Research, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK

The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the topics of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the series is to make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of single and multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest results available in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research combining two or more of these areas is particularly sought. The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence, which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination of intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need for a synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities. The series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs, handbooks, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions. High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality principles. Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago, DBLP. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.

António Abreu · João Vidal Carvalho · Dália Liberato · Iván Suazo Galdames Editors

Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems Selected Papers from ICOTTS 2022, Volume 2

Editors António Abreu Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto (ISCAP) Polytechnic of Porto São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal Dália Liberato School of Hospitality and Tourism Polytechnic of Porto Vila do Conde, Portugal

João Vidal Carvalho Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto (ISCAP) Polytechnic of Porto São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal Iván Suazo Galdames Universidad Autónoma de Chile Santiago, Chile

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic) Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies ISBN 978-981-19-9959-8 ISBN 978-981-19-9960-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Editorial

This book—Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems volume 2—from the SIST Series is composed of the best-selected papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the 2022 International Conference on Tourism, Technology and Systems (ICOTTS’22). The ICOTTS is a multidisciplinary conference with a special focus on new technologies and systems in the tourism sector and was held between 03 and 05 November 2022. The ICOTTS’22 was supported by the Autonomous University of Chile, Santiago, Chile and by IADITI (International Association for Digital Transformation and Technological Innovation). The International Conference on Tourism, Technologies and Systems is an international forum for researchers and professionals in the tourism sector, which enables the discussion of the latest innovations, trends and concerns in several areas, in the Tourism sector, associated with Information Technologies and Systems. It is an event for professionals in the sector, in search of technology solutions, where academics, IT experts and business managers meet to discuss new ideas that help them maximize the potential of tourism business through technology. The ICOTTS’22 Scientific Committee is composed of a multidisciplinary group of 137 experts who assessed some 296 papers from 22 countries, received for each of the main topics proposed for the conference: (a) Tourism research in providing innovative solutions to social problems; (b) Information and communication technologies in hospitality and tourism industry; (c) Sustainable Tourism; (d) Tourism Trends; (e) Health and wellness Tourism; (f) Tourism Management; (g) Marketing strategies in hospitality and tourism industry; (h) Hospitality, tourism and foodservice environment; (i) Tourism in the different scientific areas; and (j) eTourism and Tourism 2.0. The papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the Conference are published by Springer and will be submitted for indexing by ISI, SCOPUS, EI-Compendex, Google Scholar and Springerlink.

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Editorial

We thank all those who contributed to the ICOTTS’22 conference (authors, committees, workshop organizers and sponsors). We deeply appreciate your involvement and support, which were crucial to the success of the conference. Porto, Portugal November 2022

António Abreu [email protected] João Vidal Carvalho [email protected] Dália Liberato [email protected] Iván Suazo Galdames [email protected]

Contents

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Professional Skills Developed in a E@D Practicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosa Martins, Estrela Paulo, Dulce Noronha-Sousa, Eusébio Costa, and João Pascoinho

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ICT and the Role of Educators in the Inclusion of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tânia Silva, Sónia Leite, Rosa Martins, Eusébio Costa, Estrela Paulo, and João Pascoinho

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The Importance of the Family in Early Intervention Practices Using ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mário Faria, Sónia Leite, Rosa Martins, Eusébio Costa, Estrela Paulo, and João Pascoinho Higher Education Dropout in COVID-19 Pandemic Times: Validation of a Student Survey (PSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Susana Sá, Cândido Gomes, Carlos Ângelo Meneses Sousa, Dulce Noronha-Sousa, João Pascoinho, Agostinho Sousa Pinto, and Eusébio Costa Interdisciplinarity in University Education: Application to Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Joana Costa, Dimas Pinto, Inês Oliveira Gonçalves, Joana Rodrigues-Carvalho, and Aldina Sofia Silva The Importance of Motivating Students with Special Needs Attending Higher Education in the Face of Distance Education . . . . Sónia Leite, Rosa Martins, Eusébio Costa, and Dulce Noronha-Sousa Challenges of Initial Training in Times of Pandemic: Social Education Internship Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Camões and Isabel Baptista

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The Impact of Reading Habits on School Success: Perspectives of Student and Teacher Librarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pedro Lopes, César Freitas, João Pascoinho, Estrela Paulo, Rosa Martins, Sofia Gonçalves, Joana Cavalcanti, and Teresa Macedo The Promotion of Playful Reading—Evaluation by the Participants of the “10 Minutes Reading” Project . . . . . . . . . . Cristina Ribeiro, César Freitas, João Pascoinho, Estrela Paulo, Rosa Martins, Sofia Gonçalves, Joana Cavalcanti, and Teresa Macedo

10 DPO Framework for Canvas GDPR Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miguel Magalhães, Tiago C. Pereira, Eusébio Costa, Agostinho Sousa Pinto, José Luís Braga, and Isabel Borges

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11 The Impact of Remote Teaching in Teachers’ Motivation: In Time Pandemic COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Joaquim Paulo Lima, Susana Sá, João Pascoinho, Eusébio Costa, Joana Torres, and Manuel Trigueiro da Rocha 12 Digital Training and Satisfaction in Hotel Business in Portugal: The Case of a Hotel in the District of Braga . . . . . . . . . . 123 Paulo Cunha, Laurentino Guimarães, Susana Sá, Isabel Borges, and Eusébio Costa 13 Eco-Schools in Higher Education Institutions: Analysing Portuguese Students’ Practices and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Joana Torres, Rosa Martins, César de Freitas, Ana Camões, and Isilda Rodrigues 14 The Technological Impact on Local Tourism: The Case of Fafe . . . . 145 Catarina Freitas Da Mota, Isabel Borges, José Luís Braga, Sandra Brás, Américo Silva, and Sónia Leite 15 Understanding the Adoption of Certified Electronic Signature in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Agostinho Sousa Pinto, António Abreu, Eusébio Costa, and Jerónimo Paiva 16 Intervision of School Practice in Educational Context: Validation of a Focused Observation Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Ana Cabral, Antónia Freitas, Paula Freire, Fernanda Macedo, Susana Sá, João Pascoinho, and Dulce Noronha-Sousa

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17 A Neural Model with a Deep Learning Structure for Characterizing Relaxation Levels Through Olfactory Stimuli to Enhance the Guest Experience in Hotels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Valentina Pérez, Isabel González, Alejandro Peña, Lina María Sepúlveda-Cano, Jorge Guerrero, and Joao Vidal de Carvalho 18 Senior Entrepreneurship, Sustainable Tourism, and Preservation of Collective Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Teresa Medeiros, Susana Goulart Costa, José Mendes, Licínio Tomás, and Joaquim Armando Ferreira 19 Inclusive Cultural Heritage Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Nuno Escudeiro, Paula Escudeiro, Bruno Cunha, and Márcia Campos Gouveia 20 Aqua Spa, a New Business Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Clara Teixeira, Maria José Ferreira, Norberto Fernandes, Pedro Barroso, and Teresa Dieguez 21 Communication Skills in Higher Education Versus the Labor Market: Different Perceptions and Valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Inês Braga and António Abreu 22 Meeting the Rural Tourists’ Expectations in the Azores Destination: A Preliminary Study-Based on the Perceptions of the Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Rui Alexandre Castanho, Gualter Couto, Pedro Pimentel, Àurea Sousa, Maria da Graça Batista, and Mara Franco 23 Digital Transformation in Companies: A Literature Bibliometric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Albertina Monteiro, Catarina Cepêda, and Amélia Silva 24 Smart Destinations and Consumer Journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Fernando Nahat Jardim, Cristina Helena Pinto de Mello, and Suzane Strehlau 25 Impacts of Events’ Tourism in Local Development: The Case of Águeda, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Filipa Almeida, Rui Augusto da Costa, Filipa Brandão, and Márcio Ribeiro Martins 26 The Challenge of Applying Ancient Board Games to Teach Accounting in Higher Education: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Paulo Morais and Amélia Silva

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27 Using Machine Learning to Predict Business Failure in Iberian Hospitality Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Amélia Ferreira da Silva, José Henrique Brito, and José Manuel Pereira 28 Determinants of Green Consumer Behavior in Tourism and Hotel Management Contexts: A Study Applied to the Côa Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Aquiles Fortes, Aida Carvalho, and Bruno Sousa 29 Management Control Practices in Tourism Agencies—Information Systems Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Helena Costa Oliveira, Susana Bastos, and Wendy Carraro 30 Promoting Favela Storytelling in the Tourist Visitation: An Exploratory Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Bruno Sousa, Annaelise Machado, Frederico Ferreira de Oliveira, Alexandra Maria de Abreu Rocha, and Miguel Ribeiro 31 Studying Global Warming from a Correspondence and Covariation Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Darío A. González 32 How the 5G Network Will Boost the Concept of Smart Tourism in Portugal: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Isabel M. Lopes, Teresa Guarda, António J. G. Fernandes, and Maria I. B. Ribeiro 33 Online Impulse Buying Tendency—Impact of Psychological, Social, and Technological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Daniel Costa Pacheco, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Suzana Nunes Caldeira, and Osvaldo Dias Lopes da Silva 34 Vital Signs Monitoring Platform to Promote Sports and Wellness Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Sandro Carvalho, Dinis Pereira, Joana Santos, and João Vidal Carvalho 35 Market Segmentation and Relationship Management of Fashion Tourism: An Exploratory Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Bruno Sousa, Annaelise Machado, Márcia Gonçalves, Lara Santos, and André Catarino 36 Promotion of Tourism Through the Digital Dissemination of Innovation Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 João Almeida, Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, and Ana Paula Camarinha

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37 The Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal—The Current State of Health and Wellness Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Maria Carlos Lopes, Dália Liberato, and Elisa Alén 38 The Role of Football Clubs as a Driver of Tourism Marketing Management and Local Development: A Preliminary Study in Minho (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Cláudia Rodrigues, Bruno Sousa, Laurentina Vareiro, and Victor Figueira 39 Tourism as an Indicator of Integration with the World Economy: The Case of the World’s 93 Smallest Economies Generating 1% of Global GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Aneta Teperek and Luís Lima Santos 40 Residents’ Attitudes and Visitors’ Motivations for War-Related Tourism: An Exploratory Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Bruno Sousa, Mary Sánchez, Francisco Gonçalves, Luzia Amorim, and Vítor Silva 41 A Preliminary Study on Internet of Things (IoT) in Collaborative Tourism Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Vasco Ribeiro Santos, Rui Carvalho, Rita Peres, and Bruno Barbosa Sousa 42 Paradoxes in Tourism and Hospitality Sectors: From Work-Life Balance to Work-Life Conflict in Shift Work . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Dora Martins and Susana Silva 43 The Intangibility and Tangibility in Hospitality Management: The Customer Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Mónica Oliveira and Filipa Brandão 44 Impacts of City Brand Personality (CBP) and City Image on City-Related Media Engagement and Resident Satisfaction . . . . . 509 Ana Isabel Moniz, Osvaldo Silva, and Tânia Rego 45 Evoli System in Portugal: Experience Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Adriana Oliveira, Paulino Silva, and Anabela Mesquita 46 Multiplicative Networks and Slates: Mathematical Learning with Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Dárida Fernandes, Maria Inês Pinho, and Luísa Alves 47 Communication as a Means of Boosting Tourism: Case Study Santa Maria Da Feira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu, Adriana Sousa, Ivone Cardoso, and António Vieira de Castro

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48 The Binary System of Higher Education—The Case of Portugal in the Light of the Current Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Olímpio Castilho and Maria de Lourdes Machado-Taylor 49 Place Marketing and Destination Management: A Study in the “Quadrilátero do Minho” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Júlio Silva, Bruno Sousa, and João Abreu 50 Event Planning as a Sustainable Development Strategy for Tourism Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Dália Liberato, Teresa Dieguez, Leonor Jesus, Pedro Liberato, and Teresa Mendes 51 The Potential of Responsible Nature Tourism as a Driver of Sustainable Development in Northern Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 A. I. Correia and I. Sousa 52 The Role of Social Media in the Regrowth of Formula 1 in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu, Luís Miguel Martins, Ivone Cardoso, and António Vieira de Castro 53 The Role of “Age of Society” Games in Cultural Heritage Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 Paula Maria Flores, Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Maria Fernandes, Bruno Gavaia, and Catarina Ribeiro 54 An Approach to Revenue Management Strategies in the Hospitality Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Dália Liberato, Mónica Oliveira, Rui Cardoso, and Pedro Liberato 55 Tourism Safety and Security with a Sustainability Vision, Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Manuel Ramón González Herrera 56 The Economic Impacts of the Tourism Sector Within the Residents’ Valuation Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 Pedro Liberato, Dália Liberato, and Ricardo Cerqueira 57 Sustainable Destination Development Based on Gamification and Storytelling: Empowering the Douro Region Through Wine and Gastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Dália Liberato, Pedro Liberato, Marta Nunes, and Ana Ferreira 58 Telework as a Management Tool in Public Administration: Advantages and Disadvantages of Its Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Adalmiro Pereira, Hugo Castro Mendonça, Mário Queirós, and Barbara Soares de Moura

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59 Accessible Tourism and Digitalization: Stakeholders Perspective in the City of Barcelos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 Bruno Sousa, Francisco Gonçalves, António Abreu, Victor Figueira, João Rolha, Ana Paula Camarinha, and Ivone Cardoso 60 Is There an Economic Bias in Academic Success? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Eleonora Santos, Milena Carvalho, and Susana Martins 61 The Role of the Balanced Scorecard as a Differentiating Factor for Education Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Ana Catarina Azevedo, Patrícia Quesado, Bruno Sousa, and Alexandrino Ribeiro 62 Education Crisis—Digital Solutions After Covid-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Ana Branca da Silva Soeiro de Carvalho, Nídia Menezes, Susana Fonseca, and Miguel Mota 63 The Commoditisation of Literature Analysed in the Classroom. The Case of Porto’s Literary Hotels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 Sara Pascoal, Laura Tallone, and Marco Furtado 64 Blockchain and Digital Signature Supporting Remote Assessment Systems: A Solution Approach Applied to Higher Education Institutions Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Paulo Victor Dias and Firmino Silva 65 Personal Report of Communication Apprehension—Adaptation, Application and Validation on Portuguese Accounting Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Rui Silva, Francisco Carreira, Amélia Ferreira da Silva, and António Abreu Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797

About the Editors

António Abreu is an associate professor at the Higher Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto. He has done a post-doctorate in Information Technologies and Systems, by the University of Coimbra, Department of Computer Engineering of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra, and Ph.D. in Software Engineering based on reusable components with human–machine interface applications, by the University of Vigo. He is a master in Management Informatics by the University of Minho and has a degree in Informatics-Applied Mathematics by the Lusíada University. He is currently a lecturer, in the scientific area of information systems, at the Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto/Politécnico do Porto, ISCAP/PPorto. He is an integrated researcher of the Research Centre CEOS.PP—Centre for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Porto. Between 2015 and 2018, he was a coordinator of the Professional Higher Technical Courses (CTeSP) of the Higher Institute and Accounting and Administration of Porto (ISCAP) and a coordinator for Market Development of the Training Centre and Services Abroad of ISCAP. Currently, he is responsible for the information systems discipline group of CTeSP. He is a member of the scientific committee of the research centre CEOS.PP, a member of the Direction of the Master in Digital Communication and a member of the scientific committee of several national and international conferences and initiatives in the area of Technologies and Information Systems (CISTI—Conferencia Ibérica de Sistemas y Tecnologías de Información; WORLDCIST—World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies; CAPSI—Conference of the Portuguese Association of Information Systems; COMETEL—Congresso Internacional de Computación y Telecomunicaciones; RISTI—Revista Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação; MICRADS—Conferência Internacional Multidisciplinar de Pesquisa Aplicada à Defesa e Segurança; ICOTTS—International Conference on Tourism, Technology & Systems; ICITED—International Conference in Information Technology & Education. He is an editor-in-chief of the Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management (JISEM). He is a president of IADITI—International Association for Digital Transformation and Technological Innovation. He is a general chair of ICOTTS—International Conference on xv

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About the Editors

Tourism, Technology and Systems and ICITED—International Conference in Information Technology & Education. He is author of several articles/book chapters/books indexed in the Scopus and Web of Science databases, some of which with a JCR impact factor, with publication in the area of information systems. João Vidal de Carvalho is an associate professor at Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto (Portugal). He has done post-doctorate in Technologies and Information Systems from University of Coimbra (Portugal), Ph.D. in Information Systems and Technology from University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain), M.Sc. in Information Technology Management from University of Minho (Portugal) and a bachelor in Computer Science. He is a vice-director of the CEOS.PP Research Centre—Centre for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Oporto and a member of LIACC Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory—FEUP. He is a member of the Iberian Systems and Information Technology Association (AISTI). He is an effective member of the ISCAP/Polytechnic of Porto Skills Recognition/Certification committee. He is an editor-in-chief of the Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management (JISEM). He is a conference general chair of the ICOTTS—The International Conference on Tourism, Technology and Systems and ICITED—International Conference in Information Technology and Education. He published some books in computer science/database management. He is a scientific committee member of several conferences in the area of information systems and technologies. He is currently involved in an international quality assurance research project for Higher Education Institutions’ Information Systems. Dália Liberato done Ph.D. in Tourism Management and Planning and Master’s in Management and Planning of Inland and Health Tourism, from the University of Vigo (Spain). She is an associate professor at the Tourism and Leisure Department of the School of Hospitality and Tourism (Polytechnic Institute of Porto), where she teaches several curricular units in tourism at undergraduate and master levels. Currently, she coordinates the Tourist Activities Management degree in the same school (ESHT-P.PORTO). Her main research interests are tourism destination planning and management and regional development, tourism management, tourism planning, border tourism, creative tourism and e-tourism. She supervised and cosupervised several M.Sc. dissertations and Ph.D. theses. She is also involved in applied research and consultancy projects in tourism and leisure and is a member of organizing and scientific committees of international conferences. She is the author or co-author of more than 50 book chapters and articles published in international journals and international conference proceedings, indexed Scopus and/or Web of Science. Iván Claudio Suazo Galdames is Ph.D. in Morphology from the Federal University of Sao Paulo (Brazil), a master in Neurosciences and Behavioural Biology from the Pablo de Olavide University (Spain) and a dental surgeon from the University of Chile (Chile). He has been professor of Morphology at Chilean and foreign Universities

About the Editors

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and is a member of the SINPOS research group (Peripheral Nervous System and Sense Organs) at the University of Oviedo. He has more than a hundred publications in international scientific journals, an author of four books and has been a professor of Master and Ph.D. programmes in his specialty. He is an editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Medical and Surgical Sciences and the European Journal of Health Research. He is currently vice-rector of Research and Doctorates at the Autonomous University of Chile.

Chapter 1

Professional Skills Developed in a E@D Practicum Rosa Martins , Estrela Paulo , Dulce Noronha-Sousa , Eusébio Costa , and João Pascoinho

Abstract The practicum is a period of excellence in the academic and professional training of a student, being guided by highly specific and intense learning, favoring the development of professional skills. With the pandemic situation, the institutions adapted to distance learning and the practicum took place in this teaching modality. With this study we intend to evaluate the impact of the E@D practicum on the development of the professional competencies of the future teacher. Participated in the study of 12 students attending the Master’s course in Pre-School Education and Primary Education in a school in the north of Portugal. In a qualitative approach, in a naturalistic paradigm, a self-assessment questionnaire of professional competencies was used, where the analysis of the data collected is of a descriptive-interpretive orientation, where the changes under study concern the development of the professional competencies of each trainee throughout the practicum. The main results indicate that students consider the practicum as an enriching experience that contributes to the development of professional skills, where reflective practice is an important element. Professional competencies were developed however it was found that some competencies were more developed than others, which is consistent with evidence that the dimensions of professional competencies do not develop in the same way. R. Martins (B) · E. Paulo · D. Noronha-Sousa · E. Costa · J. Pascoinho CIDI-IESF, IESF - Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] E. Paulo e-mail: [email protected] D. Noronha-Sousa e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS.PP, ISCAP - Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_1

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1.1 Introduction Initial training must provide experiences where future teachers can acquire the skills that support adequate professional performance in the different domains of the professional profile. The practicum makes it possible to acquire technical knowledge, as well as transfer and consolidate theoretical and empirical knowledge to a work context, through a continuous articulation between training and the experiences, needs, and challenges recommended in a work context [1]. The practicum also favors the development of professional skills, which are primarily based on scientific knowledge inherent to an area of knowledge and professional performance [2]. It’s an opportunity for professional development for the future teacher, a source of new learning [3]. It represents one of the most important moments in the training curriculum of future teachers, where they have the opportunity to experience the learning, knowledge, and interpersonal relationships they have acquired in their training. Taking into account, in particular, the teaching of the Primary Education, future teachers should benefit, during their practice, from opportunities that favor theoretical-pedagogical and professional learning, among which experiences of observation and action in a practical context stand out [4]. These experiences have been identified as central to the development of skills necessary for successful professional performance in the future [5]. The practicum is of great importance since the development of professional skills can only be built in real contexts of practical intervention, where knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and emotions interact as a way of responding responsibly to complex situations that may emerge in the context [6, 7]. Competent professional performance results from the level of competence development and the self-perception that each one has of it. A teacher who presents high values of self-perception of his competence tends to be more motivated to perform his tasks and thus strive to achieve his goals [8]. With regard to professional skills in the Primary Education, [9] suggests that these can be framed in 11 broader dimensions: (a) Organizational, which includes skills of institutional integration and involvement in the school community; (b) Planning, which involves observation skills, choice, and programming of curricular contents; (c) Communicative, which integrates argumentative skills and the adequacy of discourse to different groups and audiences; (d) Curriculum management, which encompasses digital, scientific, didactic-pedagogical and curricular content mastery skills; (e) Organization of school environments, which includes skills in managing didactic, pedagogical and personal resources, teamwork and collaboration with colleagues and other professionals; (f) Classroom management, which encompasses group-class management skills, classroom work routines and behaviors; (g) Student autonomy, which includes skills for promoting active student participation and moderating debates, points of view and ideas; (h) Students’ motivation, which includes practical skills focused on students, favoring their interest in the contents covered, self-esteem and responsibility; (i) Educational inclusion,

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which integrates competences of respect for difference and inclusion of all students, without neglecting their learning rhythms; (j) Assessment of student learning, which encompasses feedback skills, adequacy of practices and promotion of active student learning; and (k) Self-assessment of teaching practice, which integrates reflexivity, critical analysis and introspection skills on teaching and pedagogical practices. These dimensions, articulated with the professional profile of a teacher of primary education, presuppose that the future teacher is capable of promoting learning, reflection, citizenship and student autonomy, managing the curriculum, promoting inclusion, collaborate with colleagues, and relate positively to the school community [10]. The construction of a professional profile is fundamental for the configuration of teaching functions and competencies. Hence, it is essential to define a profile of competencies for the construction of areas of knowledge, of important action to guide the training work, and the production of knowledge of training institutions [11]. The practicum experience is more significant when combined with opportunities to stimulate reflection, which allows for thoughtful professional decisions to be made and contribute to the construction of oneself, as a professional, more responsible, reflective, and aware of their skills [12, 13]. The future teacher must not limit himself to the appropriation of practices and their reproduction, he must expand them, enrich them and, through reflection, access new interpretations of learning situations. He follows with responsibility and some degree of autonomy with his/her supervisor in the teaching tasks. You should get involved in the process, collaborate, and develop teaching tasks with the appropriate guidance, reflecting on your practice [6]. Reflective learning can be considered a fundamental piece in the development of professional competencies. These competencies must translate into observable behaviors in the practicum. The practices observed and experienced require constant and duly substantiated questioning and in-depth analysis with the application of strategies and tools that lead to teaching improvement [14]. The opportunities that COVID-19 has brought in terms of incorporating new, more flexible, and innovative formulas in distance education and skills development [15]. With the closing of schools due to Covid-19, institutions had to adapt to this reality, creating a new challenge to fulfill the objectives of the practicum, it became necessary to readapt learning to teach from home in a virtual way [16], with a view to developing the professional skills of the future teacher. This change led to a change in the way of thinking and acting of educational agents, with the readaptation of the management of resources and acquired knowledge about the teaching and learning process, putting creativity and imagination into practice [17, 18]. Creation of strategies for solving problems or situations that arise in the context so that the teaching-learning process is developed, questioning, discovery, and reflection on the processes are some of the fundamental elements. Schools created E@D plans adapted to their realities, in order to find the most appropriate responses and enhance students’ educational success. Various studies demonstrate the potential of digital learning as an opportunity for innovation and flexibility [19, 20]. Teachers had to reinvent themselves, be more creative, and develop more digital skills [21], using various digital platforms (Zoom,

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Classroom, Meet, and Teams), necessary for the current teaching modality [18]. With the right tools, teachers can provide their students with an experience as robust as if it were face-to-face [19, 20, 22], putting the student at the center of the process [23]. By recognizing the relevance of the practicum in the professional path of future teachers, this study aims to evaluate the professional skills developed in E@D practicum experiences. It is essential to rethink the professional skills developed during the internship, exploring the potential of digital learning as an opportunity for innovation.

1.2 Method The study is part of a qualitative approach, in a naturalistic paradigm, the analysis of the data collected is of a descriptive-interpretive orientation, where the changes under study concern the development of the professional skills of each trainee throughout the Internship. It is limited to its specific context (practicum) where it allows us to assess the development of professional skills of interns in the E@D practicum.

1.2.1 Participants Twelve female students participated in this study, aged between 23 and 30 years old, attending the Master’s course in Pre-school Education and Primary Education in a school in the north of Portugal.

1.2.2 Survey A self-evaluation questionnaire on professional skills was used and submitted to experts and a pilot group of higher education students [9]. Each student answered the questionnaire twice, at the end of the E@D practicum and at the end of the presential practicum. With these two questionnaires we intended to verify the conceptions of the practicum and assess the level of development of professional skills, from the students’ own perceptions. In the self-evaluation questionnaire regarding the organization, the first three items seek to collect sociodemographic information (e.g., name, sex, age). Item one has an open-response format (e.g., “Given your current internship experience, what does the practicum mean to you?”). The remaining items are organized into 11 dimensions: (a) Organizational dimension (nine items, e.g., “Knows about institutional documents and guidelines for school life; Builds effective relationships with family and community”; (b) Dimension planning (four items, e.g., “Uses different observation techniques, in order to

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document its decision-making at the planning level; Overcome unforeseen situations (unplanned and/or problematic) by making coherent reformulations in the planned plan”; (c) Communicative dimension (eight items, e.g., “Communicates openly with students; Establishes eye contact with different students”; (d) Curriculum management dimension (14 items, e.g., “Applies activities appropriate to students’ needs and communicates with rigor” and effectiveness; Uses ICT as a way of acquiring study methods and intellectual work in learning, namely in terms of research, organization and processing of information”; (e) Dimension organization of school environments (seven items, e.g., “Uses time efficiently and effectively; It organizes and promotes a classroom climate that stimulates the student’s curiosity and creativity”; (f) Classroom management dimension (seven items, e.g., “Places himself in strategic positions maintaining the visibility of the whole class; Reveals ability to pay attention to more than one situation at the same time”; (g) Dimension student autonomy (five items, e.g., “Values students’ ideas in the construction of learning situations; Does it encourage students to substantiate their ideas?”; (h) Student motivation dimension (five items, e.g., “Promotes activities that interest students; Encourages the participation of all students in the various activities”; (i) Educational inclusion dimension (two items, e.g., “Encourages the inclusion of all students respecting cultural diversity; (j) Assessment dimension of student learning (five items, e.g., “Uses various assessment strategies and uses them consistently, contemplating knowledge, skills and attitudes; Provides students with valid feedback for future learning”; and (k) Dimension self-evaluation of teaching practice (four items, e.g., “Uses information about what happens in class to plan and develop improvement strategies; Do you understand the need to reflect on teaching practice?”). These items were answered using a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 “Not at all developed” to 4 “Very developed”.

1.3 Results Taking into account the instruments used, it seemed important to organize the analysis system around two categories: Practicum and professional skills. Content analysis was used to examine the results obtained from the different instruments. In this way, tables were prepared that are divided into categories. As it is a shift the recording units refer to the answers made by each student. For a better contextualization of the surveyed students’ perceptions we present some speeches. To identify them we use an alphanumeric coding (A1, A2, …, A12). The tables and an analysis of their content are presented below. Table 1.1 refers to the practicum category and through it we can see the students’ conceptions regarding the face-to-face practicum and the E@D practicum. We can see that in both types of teaching, students consider the practicum as an enriching experience that contributes to the development of professional skills, through the methodologies used, activities, and strategies adopted. They refer to the importance of reflective practice for teacher improvement.

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Table 1.1 Practicum concepts Category

Practicum Presential

E@D

Registration units Practicum concepts The practicum is an enriching experience (A1) We found the teaching methods and different strategies used (A3) Important part of the training that allows the development of professional skills (A5) It was possible to reflect on all the action, skills and dimensions, modify behaviors and attitudes allowing us to progress (A7) Develop activities with students (A10) Analysis and reflection on teaching practice (A11)

Dealing with alternative, digital methodologies (A1) Enriching experience (A3) The practicum helped me to understand which skills were developed and which are under development, thus making the profession evolve through the development of “new skills” (A4) Dynamics of teaching and learning through digital platforms (A9) Application of digital activities with students (A11) Reflective practice (A12)

In the E@D practicum they highlight the use of digital methodologies and resources. Table 1.2 that referring to the professional competencies category shows us the level of development in the face-to-face practicum and in the E@D practicum. We can verify that, in general, the students are committed to the teaching-learning process both in the face-to-face practicum and in the E@D practicum. In the face-to-face practicum, the most developed professional skills are curriculum management, classroom management, inclusion, and self-evaluation of teaching practice and the least developed is the organizational dimension. In the E@D practicum some skills are a little more compromised, namely at the organizational level, curriculum management, and organization of the educational environment. The self-evaluation of teaching practice is the most developed dimension in both modalities, so the professional skills that the participants most acquired refer to the critical analysis of their work and the construction of themselves as reflective interns. On the other hand the organizational dimension is the least developed in both modalities, with the respondents having acquired fewer skills at the organizational level of an institution.

1 Professional Skills Developed in a E@D Practicum Table 1.2 Level of professional skills development

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Category

Level of development professional skills Presential practicum

E@D practicum

Organizational

2,9

1,3

Planning

3,5

3,6

Communicative

3,5

3,8

Curriculum management

3,8

3

Organization of school environments

3,7

2,8

Classroom management

3,9

3,5

Student autonomy

3,4

3,9

Student motivation

3,6

3,8

Educational inclusion

3,8

3,7

Assessment of student learning

3,4

3,5

Self-evaluation of teaching practice

4

4

1.4 Discussion Through the results obtained, we were able to verify that the conceptions of future teachers regarding the face-to-face and E@D practicum go against the conceptual framework of the study, demonstrating that practicum is an enriching experience, first contact with practice leading to the development of professional skills [5, 7]. They also recognize the importance of reflective practice in the development of their professionality, in line with what has been exposed by authors such as [2, 12]. The practicum allows the intern to establish an adequate teacher-student relationship and, in general, an opportunity for the development of a set of professional skills, where reflective practice is one of the important elements [13]. In the E@D practicum, they refer to the use of technological resources in teaching and developing technological skills [21]. In terms of the development of professional skills we can see that all professional skills were developed, which is generally satisfactory. It was also found that some skills were more developed than others, which is consistent with evidence that the dimensions of professional skills do not develop in the same way [9]. The most developed competence in both teaching modalities was the selfevaluation of teaching practice. This result reflects the importance of the practicum in the assimilation of theoretical knowledge and in stimulating critical reflection about teaching practice. The reflexive component underlying this dimension also highlights the role of the practicum in promoting successful professional practice

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[5], through its support by scientific knowledge [2] and a critical stance on the part of the teacher who is characterized as a reflective professional [13]. In the E@D practicum, future teachers developed creativity in their teaching practice, using new strategies and digital resources [18, 19, 21]. Organizational professional skills, curriculum management, and organization of the educational environment were somewhat developed in E@D but obtained lower scores. These results compromise the development of competencies in terms of institutional integration and involvement in the scientific school community and collaborative work with the different professionals existing in the school. Studies such as [18] refer to the lack of opportunity for interaction with families, and collaborative work between different professionals, compromising the organizational dimension. The Practicum requires contact with the real contexts of practical intervention for the development of professional skills [6, 7] despite the dimensions of curriculum management and organization of the educational environment being evaluated with a low level in the E@D practicum, the adaptation to digital platforms for teaching and classroom management proved to be a great challenge for future teachers [18].

1.5 Conclusions This study is based on the assumption that a reflective practice contributed to the development of professional skills. Since the development of professional skills is the essential point, a goal to be achieved in the teaching career, it is necessary for training institutions to adopt strategies that allow the future teacher to experience in practice, ways of operationalization that lead to their development. It becomes important to challenge interns to more current practices, even if they require creativity and technical knowledge [1]. Reflective practice is a facilitating element in the development of professional skills. The E@D practicum caused by the pandemic situation we are experiencing demanded that educational institutions and agents reinvent themselves, be more creative and develop digital skills, necessary for the current teaching modality [19, 22], incorporating new, more flexible, and innovative formulas in distance education and skills development [15]. It is essential to rethink the professional skills developed during the internship, exploring the potential of digital learning as an opportunity for innovation.

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Chapter 2

ICT and the Role of Educators in the Inclusion of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Tânia Silva , Sónia Leite , Rosa Martins , Eusébio Costa , Estrela Paulo , and João Pascoinho Abstract The growing relevance of Inclusive Education has led educational agents to reflect on their practices in the school context in order to positively influence the development of children with ASD. ICTs play a very important role in the inclusion and development of the skills of children with ASD. This work aims to assess whether the role of the educator in the inclusion of children with ASD in the school context is being fulfilled and to understand how the educator can be a vehicle for promoting the inclusion of children with ASD in the different dimensions of Inclusive Education and if the same uses ICT to support his intervention. Thus, the questionnaire authored by Mel Ainscow and Tony Booth [1] was applied, adapted to the reality under study, and aimed at a sample of 200 educators in office. The results positively emphasize the role of the school in valuing all students, in minimizing forms of discrimination, and if the role of the Early Intervention (EI) educator in the inclusion of children with ASD is being fulfilled as they are a vehicle for inclusion. On the other hand, there is a need to improve the partnership work between educators and parents, the fair distribution of material resources to support inclusion, and there is still a long way to go in terms of their full participation in our schools. T. Silva · S. Leite (B) · R. Martins · E. Costa · E. Paulo · J. Pascoinho CIDI-IESF, Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] E. Paulo e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS - Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal S. Leite CeiED, Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_2

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2.1 Introduction In order to be able to respond to all children, the Portuguese education system has undergone changes over the years. In this sense [2], considers that the current school is in a phase of transformation, focused on valuing diversity, and promoting personal and educational success for all students, regardless of their characteristics. In Portugal, the creation of a National System for Early Intervention in Childhood (SNEIC) took place in 2009, through Decree-Law no 281/2009 [3] integrating the Action Plan for the Integration of People with Disabilities or Disabilities. This decree mentions the intervention needs with a view to ensuring the right to social participation of the children and young people and adults they will become. In this sense, Carvalho considers that it is essential “to meet the individual needs of each child and their families, in an acceptable and accessible way for the families themselves” [4].

2.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder The term autism was referred to for the first time in 1911 by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler, being identified as one of the criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia [5]. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, ASD is defined as “persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction in multiple contexts” [6]. The etiology of ASD originates from a longitudinal investigation carried out by Leo Kanner, an Austrian psychiatrist, in Boston in the year 1943. This researcher evaluated 11 children (8 boys and 3 girls) and described their behavior as markedly different from most children with ASD. Throughout Kanner’s investigation, it was noticed that the children, despite having a normal physical appearance similar to other children, showed a deep withdrawal from people, preferring to maintain contact with objects. A year later, in 1944, in Vienna, the psychiatrist Hans Asperger published the article “Autistic Psychopathy in Childhood”, which studied four children with behaviors similar to those described by Kanner, these behaviors manifested from the age of three. The children observed by Asperger had a considerable degree of intelligence and good language” [7]. In the 50s and 60s of the 20th century, psychoanalysts considered that autism resulted from affective disturbances experienced by children in the family environment, such as coldness and lack of sensitivity. In this sense, according to Roriz and Caniço [8] parents were blamed for the disorder of their child(ren), and the removal of children from their family members was proposed as therapy [6]. According to Assumpção and Kuczynski [7], in 1976, autism was considered a syndrome related to cognitive deficit and not a psychosis, characterizing it as a developmental disorder defending the possibility of comorbidity of the syndrome with other pathologies.

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In the 1980s, with new research, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) [6] publishes the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—DSM III, autism appears for the first time as a written representation in which the nomination of “autistic disorder” appeared. Years later, the DSM-IV [9] presents autism characterized by severe impairment in several areas of development, considering it a global developmental disorder. The definition of ASD is currently published in the DSM-V [7] and covers the Disorders formerly called Asperger’s Syndrome, Kanner’s Autism, Early Childhood Autism, Infantile Autism, High Functioning Autism, Atypical Autism, inheriting the criteria of ASD, a single diagnostic category of autism. Thus, at a social level, children with ASD find it difficult to establish friendly relationships with peers of the same age and may reach social isolation and at a behavioral level, patterns of behavior, interests and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped activities are observed. Intervention with these children and their families must be able to stimulate several areas: cognition, socialization, communication, behavior, autonomy, play, and academic skills. In this way, “for the effectiveness of the EI all stakeholders need to be aware of diversity and have the ability to meet the complex problems of this field” (…) “Professionals who demonstrate a high level of competence in family orientation also demonstrate a high level of orientation to the child” [5].

2.3 ICT and Autism Teaching people with Learning and Inclusion Support Measures (LISM), namely people with autism, is a challenge for education professionals. However, this challenge can take on more optimistic contours if we consider the training not only of education professionals and technicians who work with these children but also of their families, through the use of methods oriented towards new technologies. Professionals must review their own pedagogical practices, reposition themselves in the role of mediator and not the sole holder of knowledge, and rethink their practices. Their practice cannot be limited to the domain of technological resources, however this domain is essential. It is necessary to know and use different tools in their professional practice [10]. In this sense, it is essential to study the most comprehensive and appropriate models and new technologies for this type of instruction. We emphasize that the computer constitutes, in itself, the basis of several solutions, such as the use of the internet, hypertext, and hypermedia that benefit, to a greater or lesser extent, the interactive exploration regardless of the type of LISM. Productivity applications, common with their various options, can be an aid in different situations, as well as different types of pedagogical software. The interest shown in the relationship between ICT and Autism has been notorious, and in recent years we have witnessed a boom in software, devices, and projects that

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cover these areas, namely Tartalogo, Alternative and Augmentative Communication Systems, Alpha Talker, Vanguard, Cheap Talk, and Pathfinder, among others.

2.4 Method The present study aims to assess whether the role of the educator can be a vehicle for the inclusion of children with ASD and whether the educators include ICT in their teaching practice with children with ASD. The study was based on quantitative research, as it is an effective method to answer the research objective and questions. According to Amado [11], quantitative research allows us to give voice to the participants since we have access to the interpretation and attribution of the meaning of the importance of their practices, knowledge, and needs through the applied questionnaire.

2.5 Instrument An adaptation was made to the Instrument of “Indicators of Inclusion”, Annex 1 of the Handbook of Support to Practice-Towards Inclusive Education, authored by Mel Ainscow and Tony Booth [1]. In this adaptation and based on the questions presented, direct answer questions were asked, maintaining their division into dimensions AInclusive Culture, dimension B-Inclusive Policy, and dimension C-Inclusive Practice. Subsequently, the questionnaires were sent to the participants through the Google Forms platform, which facilitated not only the collection of data but also the treatment of the same and sent, via email, to kindergarten teachers. All procedures relating to anonymity and confidentiality of participants’ data were complied with. After collecting socio-demographic data, the second part of the questionnaire contains seventeen closed-ended questions concerning the promotion of inclusive practices in the school context. In order to respond to our study objectives, some of the questions contained in the original survey were selected. The classification of responses was statistically treated as a percentage, the aforementioned questionnaire uses a Likert-type response scale: “I totally agree”, “I agree to some extent”, “I disagree” and “I need more information”.

2.6 Results The sample is mostly female (n = 182, 92.5%), male (n = 18.9%), aged between 20 and 29 years (n = 3, 1.5%), 30–39 years old (n = 29, 14.5%), 40–49 years old (n = 95, 47.5%), 50–59 years old (n = 50, 25%), and over 60 years old (n = 23, 11.5%). Most study participants have more than 15 years of service: up to 5 years (n = 21,

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10.5%), 6–14 years (n = 51, 25.5%), 15–24 years (n = 60, 30%), 25–34 years old (n = 38, 19%), over 35 years old (n = 30, 15%). After analyzing the sociodemographic information about the participants, the data collected in the second group of the questionnaire is presented (Table 2.1). The data in the table show that 92% of the participants reveal that they are familiar with Decree-Law No. 54/2018 of 6 July. Regarding the descriptors linked to inclusive culture (Table 2.2), the role of the school and its professionals in minimizing any form of discrimination is highlighted, in which we found that (n = 69, 34.5%) of the participants fully agree, (n = 113, 56.5%) of the participants agree to some extent that this takes place in schools, (n = 16, 8%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 2, 1%) reveal that more precision information. Regarding the valuation of equality among students with ASD, we found that (n = 37, 18.5%) of the participants fully agree that this reality exists, (n = 119, 59.5%) of the participants agree to some extent that this takes place in schools, (n = 40, 20%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 4, 2%) of the participants reveal that they need more information. With regard to concepts imminently linked to the dimension of inclusive policy (Table 2.3), the effective response of the school in the admission of all students with ASD in its geographical area and/or territory is highlighted. We found that (n = 75, 37, 5%) of the participants fully agree, (n = 78, 39%) of the participants agree to Table 2.1 Degree of knowledge of Decree-Law No. 54/2018 of 6 July [12] Degree of knowledge of Decree-Law No. 54/2018 of 6 July

N

Don’t know it Know it

%

15

7,5

114

57

71

Know it perfectly

35,5

Table 2.2 Inclusion indicators—inclusive culture Dimension A—Inclusive culture

I entirely agree

I agree to a certain extent

I disagree

I need more information

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

A.1.4 Teachers and students 56 with ASD respect each other

28

123

61,5

4

2

17

8,5

A.1.5 Teachers and parents of children with ASD work in partnership

31

15,5

145

72,5

14

7

10

5

A.2.3 All students with ASD 37 are equally valued

18,5

119

59,5

40

20

4

2

A.2.6 The school strives to minimize all forms of discrimination

34,5

113

56,5

16

8

2

1

69

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some extent that this takes place in schools, (n = 18, 9%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 29, 15, 5%) of the participants reveal that they need more information. In the same sense, we found that in the question related to the reduction of exclusion for disciplinary reasons (n = 71, 35.5%) of the participants fully agree, (n = 83, 43%) of the participants agree to a certain extent that this takes place in schools, (n = 18, 9%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 25, 12,5%) of the participants reveal that they need more information. Finally, it is important to mention negatively the school’s role in welcoming and integrating new teachers, as (n = 33, 16.5%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 7, 3.5%) of the participants reveal that more information is needed, which represents about 20% of the opinions. When analyzing the responses to the survey by the participants with regard to the dimension of inclusive practices (Table 2.4), it appears that, of the nine inclusive practices questioned, two stand out, since more than 35% of the participants responded strongly agree, namely in the promotion of participation and learning of all students with ASD promoted by support teachers (n = 71, 35.5%) and in the issue related to the development of resources to support learning and participation by teachers with (n = 69, 35.5%). It should also be noted that the question regarding the school’s resources being distributed fairly so that they can support inclusion, it appears that more than 50% of the participants answered, I agree to some extent, only (n = 27, 13.5%) of the participants fully agree that this reality exists, (n = 108, 54%) of the participants agree to a certain extent that it takes place in schools, (n = 50, 25%) of the participants reveal to disagree and (n = 15, 7.5%) of the participants reveals that they need more information. With regard to partnership work by teachers, the highest number of responses shows that (n = 122, 61%) of the participants agree to some extent that this takes place in schools, only (n = 43, 21.5%) of participants fully agree, (n = 30, 15%), of participants reveal that they disagree, and (n = 5, 2.5%) of participants reveal that they need more information. Finally, the issue related to the participation of all students with ASD, encouraged by the teachers, stands out (n = 5%) of the participants agree to some extent that this takes place in schools, (n = 31, 15.5%) of the participants reveal that they disagree and (n = 5, 2.5%) of the participants reveal that they need more information (Table 2.5). Regarding the Inclusion Indicators, it can be concluded that the results related to “Inclusive Culture” (86.6%) are more positive than those related to “Inclusive Policy” (81.7%) and “Inclusive Practices” (77.6%). The data on “Inclusive Policy” and “Inclusive Practices” are equally positive (Table 2.6). Most respondents consider ICT important for students with ASD (n = 125, 62.5%) however, only 27% state that they use ICT in their professional practice.

46

75

71

105

B.1.2 The school seeks to admit all students with ASD in its geographical area

B.2.3 The school seeks to minimize the exclusion of students with ASD for disciplinary reasons

B.2.5 The school seeks to eliminate school violence 51,5

35,5

37,5

23

81

86

78

114

40,5

43

39

57

%

I agree to a certain extent N

%

I entirely agree

N

B.1.1 New teachers are helped to integrate into the school

Dimension B-inclusive policy

Table 2.3 Inclusion indicators—inclusive policy I disagree

12

18

18

33

N

6

9

9

16,5

%

2

25

29

7

1

12,5

15,5

3.5

%

I need more information N

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18,5 21,5 35,5

11,5

35,5

13,5

37

43

71

34

23

C.1.6 Assessment promotes learning for all students

C.1.8 Teachers plan, teach and assess in partnership

C.1.9 Support teachers promote the participation and learning of all students with ASD

C.1.11 All students with ASD participate in activities outside the classroom

C.2.1 The diversity of students with ASD is used as a resource for teaching and learning

C.2.3 Teachers develop resources 69 to support the learning and participation of students with PES

C.2.5 School resources are distributed fairly so that they can support inclusion

27

18,5

37

C.1.2 Classes encourage the participation of all students with ASD

17

13,5

27

108

118

110

108

93

122

122

127

120

54

59

55

54

46,5

61

61

63

60

%

N

%

N

I agree to a certain extent

I entirely agree

C.1.1 Classes are planned according to the learning of all students with ASD

Dimension C-inclusive practices

Table 2.4 Inclusion indicators—inclusive practices

50

8

45

33

21

30

33

31

43

N

I disagree

25

4

22,5

16.5

10,5

15

16,5

15,5

21,5

%

15

5

22

25

15

5

8

5

10

N

7.5

2,5

11

12,5

7,5

2,5

4

2,5

35

%

I need more information

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Table 2.5 Inclusion indicators Inclusion indicators

Dimension A-inclusive culture Dimension B-inclusive policy Dimension C-inclusive Practices

I entirely agree I agree to a certain extent

I disagree I need more information

N

%

N

%

86,6

107

13,4

693 656

81,7

144

18,3

1027

77,6

404

22,4

Table 2.6 ICT indicators Questions Do you perceive ICT as important for the learning of your students with ASD? Do you use ICT in your professional practice?

Yes

No

N

%

125

62,5

54

27

N 75 146

% 37,5 73

2.7 Discussion The objectives of the present study were achieved, as the data represented allowed us to answer the research questions formulated as shown below. The initial training of teachers must be completed by specialized training, suitable for the exercise of various functions, in accordance with the provisions of article 33 of the Law of Basa on the Educational System. Training is unequivocally very important for the development and updating of good educational practices, in the implementation of inclusive and diversified approaches and strategies, as recommended in article 11 of this decree, amended by Law 116/2019 of 13 September. Focusing on the promotion of an inclusive culture, the partnership between teachers and parents of children with ASD should be highlighted as a satisfactory point, we found that (n = 31, 15.5%) of the participants fully agree and (n = 145, 72.5%) answered that they agreed to some extent, these data suggest the adoption of measures aimed at a greater presence of parents in the school context and involvement in the activities of the annual activity plan, which is in line with Decree Law 54/2018 of 6 July. In the investigation, we verified the consolidation of a school culture based on values such as equality and individual valorization, namely in question A.2.3 All students with ASD are equally valued, in which 60% of respondents agreed to some extent and 18.5% say they fully agree, so we are moving towards the definition of inclusion defined by UNESCO [13]. Regarding the political dimension of the value of inclusion in a school context, the school’s effort to have a broad training response that aims to encompass all students in its geographical area and/or territory is recognized. In this dimension, the school and its professionals play an active role in the management of educational

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resources and in the inclusion of all children. When analyzing the answers, there is a reduction in the exclusion of students for behavioral reasons such as concern about the eradication of violence in the school context, fundamental aspects in the promotion of success, and establishment of an organizational climate. In question B.2.5 Does the school seek to eliminate school violence, we can see (n = 105, 51.5%) of the respondents fully agree, this being the highest value recorded, which leads us to prove the abandonment of exclusionary practices and even infanticide. At the level of human resources management policy, namely the way in which teachers are welcomed in the school context, the investigation found that for more than 50% of respondents it is only a reality to a certain extent, which could mean levels of identification with the school culture on the part of these unfavorable educational agents and inherently less involvement and concern with educational practice. Focusing on “promoting inclusive practices”, the data in the table show that participants are of the opinion that schools largely promote encouraging the participation of all students in the classroom as well as in school activities, which goes to the CDC. It should be noted, however, that the use of children’s diversity in the teaching and learning process and the fair distribution of resources to support inclusion are aspects that are poorly consolidated and need to be improved. Planning in the educational process is essential to respond to the children’s needs will allow the school to strategically align its goals and plan according to the students’ skills and meeting their needs and family expectations. In the results obtained, we can see that 60% of respondents agree to some extent that this happens in our schools, which shows that there is still a long way to go for full inclusion. Focusing on inclusive practices, namely in question C.2.3 Teachers develop resources to support the learning and participation of students with ASD, with regard to assessment practices, it appears that 35.5% of respondents fully agree, which is in line with Decree-Law no. 54/2018, of 6 July [12], this is no., the object under evaluation, the recipients and the type of information to be collected, which vary according to the diversity and specificity of the curricular work to be carried out with the students” (p. 2936) and, in paragraph 1 of article 27. which reinforces “The formative assessment supports the definition of teaching strategies, generating pedagogical measures suited to the characteristics of the students and the learning to be developed.” (p. 2937). With regard to the distribution of school resources in support of inclusion, paragraph 2 of article 6 of Decree-Law no. 54 [12] “developed taking into account the resources and support services for the functioning of the school (…) according to the specificities of the students” (p. 2921), which implies that this distribution must be fair and equitable. In addition, Law no. support for learning and inclusion” (p. 24). In this sense, we found that 25% of respondents disagreed with compliance. As for the value given to the use of ICT, the vast majority of respondents reported recognizing the importance of this aspect in the teaching/learning process of children with ASD, however they still use these resources little in the classroom context. It is important not only to know digital resources but also to use them in professional practice [10].

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2.8 Conclusion Each child has its own characteristics, abilities, interests, and needs, so everything that they are destined to learn at school should be in accordance with those same needs and should play a facilitating role in overcoming their difficulties or problems, living up to the concept of the so-called inclusive school and facilitator of learning and skills. The school assumes the full integration of students, regardless of the additional support and learning needs to be expressed. In this sense, it is absolutely relevant to know the needs expressed by the families, their greatest difficulties, their fears, and concerns, in order to better plan the intervention not only with the children but also with the families that experience this problem. The results obtained positively emphasize the role of the school in valuing all students, in minimizing all forms of discrimination and exclusion and the role of the IP educator in the inclusion of children with ASD is being fulfilled as they are a vehicle in the inclusion. It was also possible to verify that educators recognize the importance of ICT, however they need to explore its use in the classroom context. As limitations to the study, we highlight the fact that teachers feel tired and overloaded with the excess of bureaucracy they have to face and that takes up a lot of time, revealing some reluctance to answer another questionnaire. “Making education more inclusive is not something negotiable is our only option” [13, p.1], in this sense we propose for future research whether the importance that each education professional attaches to their performance is or is not related to with the activities it performs, and what can lead to EI practices not being applied on a daily basis [13].

References 1. Ainscow, M.: Promoting inclusion and equity in education: lessons from international experiences. Nordic J. Stud. Educ. Policy 6(1), 7–16 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2020. 1729587 2. Nóvoa, A.: Os Professores e a sua Formação num Tempo de Metamorfose da Escola. Scielo Educação & Realidade Educ. Real. 44(3) (Porto Alegre) (2019). ISSN 0100-3143, ISSN 21756236 3. Decreto-Lei n.º 281/2009 do Ministério da Educação (2009). Diário da República: I série, n.º193 4. Carvalho, O.: De pequenino se torce o destino: O valor da Intervenção Precoce. Porto, Legis Editora (2011) 5. Cunha, E.: Autismo e Inclusão: psicopedagogia práticas educativas na escola e na família – 7ª edição – Rio de janeiro Wak Ed (2017) 6. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-V-TR. Manual de Diagnóstico e Estatística das Perturbações Mentais. Lisboa: Climepsi Editores (2014) 7. Assumpção, J., F.B., Kuczynski, E.: Autismo Infantil: novas tendências e perspectivas – 2ª edição – São Paulo – Editora Atheneu (2015) 8. Roriz, D.C.A., Caniço, H.P.: Autismo: O doente, a Família e a Sociedade – Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal. ACES Baixo Mondego, ARS Centro (2016)

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9. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV-TR. Manual Diagnóstico e Estatística das Perturbações Mentais. Lisboa: Climepsi Editores (2002) 10. Rodrigues, A.: Ensino Remoto na Educação Superior: desafios e conquistas em tempos de pandemia. SBC Horizontes (2020). ISSN 2175-9235. http://horizontes.sbc.org.br/index.php/ 2020/06/ensino-remoto-na-educacao-superior. Accessed 2022 Apr 07 11. Amado, J. (Coord.).: Manual de Investigação Qualitativa em Educação, (2ª edição). Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra (2014) 12. Decreto-Lei nº54/2018 de 6 de junho. Diário da República, n.º 129/2018, 1ª Série. Ministério da Educação. Lisboa 13. UNESCO.: Resumo do Relatório de Monitoramento Global da Educação: Inclusão e educação para todos. Paris (2020)

Chapter 3

The Importance of the Family in Early Intervention Practices Using ICT Mário Faria, Sónia Leite , Rosa Martins , Eusébio Costa , Estrela Paulo , and João Pascoinho

Abstract Families with children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are faced with several challenges, not only in the moment of diagnosis but also throughout the intervention. Therefore, assessing the concerns and needs of those families regarding the help of Early Intervention (EI) must be taken into consideration. With the purpose of learning and identifying the ICT practices of EI professionals, and understanding if those same practices meet the needs of the families, a case study was carried out, with the participation of a primary school teacher and the mother of a child with ASD. After conducting a survey in order to collect data, it was observed that the acting professional implements the ICT measures that contribute to ease the family’s anxiety and encourage their participation in the intervention process together with the child. On the other hand, the professional states that developing a working partnership with the families makes them feel safer, more informed, and better prepared to respond to the needs of children with ASD. With this study, one may conclude that EI, as well as the use of ICT, apart from contributing to the development of the child, also M. Faria · S. Leite (B) · R. Martins · E. Costa · E. Paulo · J. Pascoinho CIDI-IESF, Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. Faria e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] E. Paulo e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS - Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal S. Leite CeiEd-Lusófona University, Lisboa, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_3

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reinforces the importance of the family’s active participation in all moments of the EI support.

3.1 Introduction The first years of a child’s life are considered extremely important for their development. Currently, it is recognized that the participation and involvement of the family are essential for the intervention process to be successful. In this way, for the family to be aware of the fundamental role it plays, Early Intervention (EI) professionals must act as early as possible and implement all formal and informal support that best suits the needs of children and their families. Since the family is a privileged means of development, it is important to understand the family structure and what its needs are [1]. Understanding these needs will only be possible with the active and objective participation of all IP professionals involved in the intervention process. Based on a case study, this work will focus on the importance of the family of a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) from the beginning of preschool to the completion of the primary school, in order to respond to the needs and anxieties to which they may be exposed in the different stages of the child’s development. In order to understand how this involvement is or is not effective, the teacher who implements, together with the Special Education teacher and the Speech Therapy technique, the EI measures with the child and their family will be consulted, in order to analyze the importance it attaches to involvement in the definition of support using ICT and their respective application. It will also be analyzed the relevance of the support provided by the professional and how this support contributes to respond to the family’s needs and degree of involvement in the entire intervention process. In parallel, with the application of a questionnaire “Attitudes and characteristics manifested by a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder”, the positive aspects of family involvement will be analyzed and, on the other hand, the main difficulties in responding to the needs of the family and, consequently, their involvement in the entire intervention process.

3.2 Concept of Early Intervention The EI concept is supported by providing and mobilizing support and resources to children’s families, in the early years of life, through the members of their social network of formal and informal support, who directly or indirectly influence the parents, the family, and child development and behavior [1]. Thus, according to Almeida [2], EI is seen as a set of services, support, and resources provided in the different life contexts of children from 0 to 6 years of age with disabilities, developmental delay, or at serious risk of delay. Development, as well as their families. Also,

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Shonkoff and Meisels [3], consider that these services aim to promote children’s wellbeing and health, strengthen skills, minimize developmental delays, mitigate existing or emerging disabilities, prevent functional deterioration, and promote an adequate global functioning of the child family.

3.2.1 Early Intervention in Portugal In Portugal, more and more importance is given to EI. This is driven by the publication of joint order No. 891/99 of October 19th [4]. According to Brandão [5], this order is considered a set of rules conceptually framed in what are considered recommended practices in EI. Subsequently, Decree-Law 3/2008 [6] is published, with the purpose of improving the quality of education and considers that a determining aspect of this quality is the promotion of a democratic and inclusive school, oriented towards the educational success of all children and young people. Currently in force, Decree-Law No. 281/2009 of October 6 [7], contemplates the creation of a National System for Early Intervention in Childhood (NSEIC). This decree-law recognizes the importance of triggering interventions and policies that affect the growth and development of human capabilities as early as possible. Subsequently, Decree Law nº 54/2018 [8] is published, which has given even more relevance to inclusion, as a process that aims to respond to the diversity of needs and potential of each and every child, through increased participation in the learning processes and in the life of the educational community.

3.3 Autism Spectrum Disorder 3.3.1 Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorder Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can be naturally identified in the first three years of a child’s life. It was in the forties that Infantile Autism was defined by the Austrian psychiatrist Leo Kanner [9], who used the word “autism” to define individuals with a severely impaired ability to relate to other people, preferring to be isolated, reclusive in their own worlds. These individuals also had impaired communication and social interaction, with difficulty using language to convey meaning to others Kanner further noted that spontaneous activities were limited as well as the variety of their behaviors. For Asperger, the definition of autism, as he identified it with the name of “autistic psychopathy” is broader and more comprehensive than that of Kanner, including cases with severe and identifiable organic pathology and even some cases that are situated bordering on normalcy [9].

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3.3.2 Causes and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder There are several factors that alter the child’s neurodevelopment during pregnancy, including complications during pregnancy, infections, exposure to chemicals, pesticides, and certain medications. According to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) [10], ASD is often associated with intellectual difficulties and structural language difficulties, which should be noted above the relevant specifiers, where applicable. Also, according to Marques [11], individuals with this disorder tend to present hyperactivity, restrictions in terms of attention span, impulsivity, aggression, self-harming behaviors, and, fundamentally in children, very frequent tantrums. There is also frequent instability in terms of affect and mood, as well as the absence or excess of the notion of danger and fear in the face of dangerous situations.

3.3.3 Behaviors Observed in the Case Study The child under which our study fell has a reduced autonomy and sometimes reacts with some resistance to changing routines. In this study it was found that children with ASD may also demonstrate difficulty in dealing with change [12]. In terms of communication and language, she presents, on a recurring basis, a deficit of attention and concentration and alienation in relation to the environment that surrounds her. Echolalia also frequently occurs and, for this reason, denotes language disturbance, and difficulty in communicating with others. In social interaction, the child has some limitations in socializing with their peers and family members, sometimes they reject eye contact and show some emotional instability, not exposing their emotions on a regular basis. Despite rarely manifesting aggressive or self-aggressive attitudes, it reveals a lack of patience for them to comply with their wishes. These characteristics are supported by Watkins et al. [13], who defend that PEA is a condition or state of someone who seems to be centered in a very own world and alien to the surrounding context. At the cognitive level, despite not always having the same learning rate as the other colleagues, he reveals a higher cognitive ability than the other colleagues of the same age group.

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3.4 Family 3.4.1 Importance of Family The relationships established in the family context are, in themselves, an important factor that can influence, positively or negatively, the development of a child, as well as, as a learner, their own interaction with the school community in general. The theory of social learning advocates that the child learns social behaviors through observation and imitation of models, that is, by observing the elements existing in their family structure. Thus, the family has a fundamental role in the harmonious development of the child. According to Minuchin Colapinto and Minuchin [14], the family is considered the system that most directly influences the child’s development. Following this reasoning, Dias [15] refers that the family is a group of people considered a social unit, as a systemic whole where relationships between its members and the outside are established.

3.5 ICT and Children with ASD Amante [16] has discussed the use of ICT by preschool-age children, and for this there are positive and negative aspects. However, the potential of the ICT available through the nature of the programs, the possibilities of access to information and communication, available through the Internet, software, and hardware, has marked our day-to-day, making it enriching in terms of teaching, learning, and information sharing. There are skills, competencies, and knowledge to develop with ICT, providing positive teaching and learning contexts that encourage students to “learn to build knowledge and live in a world of new demands” and at the same time “know how to take advantage of this technology, to put it at the service of a renewed educational project in which, in addition to what is learned, one learns to learn” [16]. The teacher must focus his attention on the abilities and skills of each student, and more specifically those with ASD, in order to work on the strategies and particularities of the group and each one. It is necessary for the teacher to work the different methodologies through proposed activities that reflect the different learning profiles. The close relationship that is intended to be created between the school, represented by the teacher, and the family, allows for continuity in the work that is carried out at school, extending, then, to the family context [17].

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3.6 Methodology and Objectives of the Study The method chosen to carry out this study was the case study. This method consists of observing, in greater detail, a specific context. [18], consider the case study as presenting specific characteristics for the development of studies in the area of education. Bogdan and Biklen [19] also refer that this method allows the detailed observation of a context, or individual, of a single source of documents or of a specific event. This context includes the family of a child with ASD and the professional who implements IP measures with this same family. A methodology of a mainly qualitative nature was chosen, as it was understood that it would lead to a more in-depth knowledge of the particularities related to the professional’s practices and a better understanding and analysis of the object of study [20]. The emergence of a child with ASD implies profound changes in the dynamics of any family, as it causes feelings and emotions full of anguish, anxiety, and frustration, which can alter the emotional balance of this family. As an education professional, it is essential to have a broader knowledge of the reality of these families and understand what their needs are, in order to act in a timely manner and adopt strategies that meet their needs. The relevance of this study arises from the need to understand, through a qualitative analysis, how the professional, first-cycle teacher, knows and uses the ICT recommended in IP, with a family with a child with ASD, and what variables can condition the adoption of these practices.

3.6.1 Instruments To collect data from the teacher who works with a child with ASD, the questionnaire “Skills for Working with Parents—Professionals’ View” was applied. This questionnaire was validated by a group of four peers working in the field. With the aforementioned questionnaire, information was collected regarding the practices carried out by the professional and the importance he attributes to each of the domains in the relationship with the family. Data were also collected on the frequency with which these practices are implemented. Finally, information was collected on the need for professional training in each of the parameters presented. For the collection of data related to the “Behaviors observed in the case study”, a questionnaire prepared for this purpose and duly validated was applied. This is entitled “Attitudes and characteristics manifested by a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder” and data was collected related to the behaviors manifested in terms of communication and language, social interaction, cognitive level, routines, and autonomy. In order for the data collected to be a detailed and more reliable characterization of the child’s behavior, this questionnaire was prepared using the “likert” scale.

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3.7 Presentation and Discussion of Results The active teacher is the head of a 2nd-year class, has been in the profession for twenty-four years, and has no training in the EI area. The professional considers it very important to provide all the information and knowledge related to the intervention process for children with ASD. To facilitate this communication, it uses clear and objective language, making the message easy for the family to understand. For the latter to play a leading role in the planning, implementation of measures, and evaluation in the intervention process, the professional states that it is essential to encourage communication on the part of the family and respond to the communication needs of the family, promoting communication in an appropriate and efficient way. regular. Corroborating this practice [21], states that EI should be seen as a set of strategies applied in different contexts and should always be developed, based on a partnership relationship with the family. Considering that this work is important, the professional says that he should negotiate and agree with the family, on the scope and basis of work to be developed and, in this way, allow the work carried out to be effective and have the desired effects. On the other hand, it considers that the selection of strategies and materials is important to meet the needs of the child and their family, providing an adequate adaptation of ICT to changes that may arise over time. This idea defended by the professional coincides with the Early Childhood Intervention Australia [11], which cites some national and international organizations, recommending that EI professionals should promote family participation in decision-making throughout the intervention process. In parallel with working in partnership, the teacher considers it very important to promote services that meet the needs of parents and, for that, in-depth work must be carried out. In this way, given the changes and challenges that may occur, it will be possible to develop response strategies that may occur throughout the different stages of development. In line with this practice, Dunst [1] states that it is essential to mobilize support and resources for families, as this is of decisive importance in the development and behavior of the child. Regarding the practices adopted, the professional points out that, taking into account the respect for the diversity of the parents’ culture and life context, their practices are important to provide a safe and inclusive environment. For this objective to be achieved, the professional states that it is important to listen to parents and recognize their feelings, the value of their experiences and, in this way, recognize the strength of parents and help them to rebuild themselves according to the different stages. To which they are subject over time. For this reason, in agreement with the professional [19], states that it is essential to enhance and promote the participation of families in the evaluation processes, in order to understand and value their strengths, concerns and expectations, frustrations, routines, and relationships. On the other hand, the professional states that it is essential to recognize the difficulties that families may face and, therefore, only in this way will it be possible to identify and implement the support measures they need. This perspective is defended by Dunst [1], who states that professionals should work in partnership, providing the

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family with all the information they need to make informed decisions. Therefore, in this study, it appears that strategies are being put into practice that value regular and relevant contact, suggesting an open and systematic exchange of information. Regarding the positive aspects, the professional to whom the questionnaire was applied considers that the family’s participation in the entire intervention process is important and, to that extent, provides parents with all the necessary information, using objective and concise language, listens to parents and takes into account their doubts and anxieties. It also contributes to the active participation of parents, helping them to know their rights and to use parenting support services. Regarding the creation of safe and inclusive environments, the professional also considers it important to help parents feel safe and confident, respecting the diversity of cultures and the family context in which the child is inserted. In addition to the attention given, the professional considers that their actions with the family are very important or even essential to meet the needs of their children. For this, the work developed with the family must have as a premise the implementation of positive measures that contribute to the physical and emotional evolution of the same, in order to develop the child’s potential, something that is also worked through the use of ICT. Regarding the difficulties felt by professionals in the implementation of EI programs using ICT, the professional, despite defining and implementing strategies that contribute to the involvement of the family, considers that he needs to acquire more training in this area of intervention since New platforms and software are constantly emerging to work with children with ASD. From what can be seen in this case study, the professional values the family’s participation in the entire intervention process and, to that extent, selects and implements the most appropriate strategies that respond to the needs of the child and his/her family. It is also evident that, despite adopting the practices that coincide with several authors, it considers essential to acquire training in various domains, in order to acquire new tools that allow for a more adequate response to the needs of families and, in this way, to contribute to the child development.

3.8 Conclusion A child with ASD has characteristics that can compromise their cognitive, behavioral, and relationship development with the people around them. The child, object of study, presents several characteristics that are verified, namely, the lack of autonomy, difficulty in the relationship with others, difficulty in dealing with changes in routines, and inability to deal with frustrations. These characteristics, according to Watkins et al. [13], are the condition or state of someone who seems to be centered in a world of their own and alien to the surrounding context. Over the last few decades, there has been a paradigm shift and several authors have reinforced that, for IP practices to be adequate to the needs of families, it is essential that this becomes the focus of intervention. For this, according to Coelho and

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Aguiar [22], it is essential that intervention planning be individualized, systematic, and intensive, initiated as early as possible and extended to the family and other life contexts. With this intervention model, from an ecological perspective, the child’s development results from interactions with the various contexts in which he is inserted since it is within the affective and meaningful relationships that the whole process begins. This development is initially promoted within the family and, to that extent, assumes a crucial role in the entire IP process. This idea is defended by Carvalho et al. [23], when stating that collaboration between professionals and the family is the engine of work carried out in a transdisciplinary team. The child’s development results from interactions with the various contexts in which he is inserted, as it is within affective and meaningful relationships that the entire process begins. This development is initially promoted within the family and, to that extent, assumes a crucial role in the entire IP process. This idea is defended by Carvalho et al. [20], when stating that collaboration between professionals and the family is the engine of work carried out in a transdisciplinary team. This study aimed to analyze how the practices adopted by the professional contribute to the intervention process being carried out with a family-centered approach. For this to be possible, it is essential that professionals adopt a more interventionist stance and adopt new crucial skills for working with families. In this case study, the professional adopts practices, using ICT, that allow strengthening this link between school and family and, in this way, contributes to strengthen the role of the family, both in the process of choosing strategies and also in the its implementation. On the other hand, by meeting the family’s needs, it helps them feel more confident in all the work carried out by the professional and thus contributes to the achievement of the outlined results. The results obtained also demonstrate that the professional values the close and collaborative relationship established with the family, referring to providing the necessary information, using clear and objective language. In this way, the family has all the instruments available for the implementation of a timely intervention that is adequate to the child’s needs. This partnership relationship will contribute so that the situations of anxiety, to which the family is exposed throughout life, can be more easily overcome. In subsequent studies, it would be relevant to analyze the family’s perspective regarding their satisfaction with the professional’s practice and to what extent it fully responds to the family’s needs throughout the intervention process. Another relevant aspect to consider in future studies will be to analyze how the school-family partnership interferes with the child’s development and academic achievement.

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References 1. Dunst, C.J.: Family systems early childhood intervention. In: Sukkar, H., Dunst, C.J., Kirkby, J. (eds.) Early Childhood Intervention: working with Families of Young Children with Special Needs, pp. 36–58. Routledge, Abingdon, OX (2017) 2. Almeida, L.S., Freire, T.: Metodologia da investigação em psicologia e educação (5ª Edição). Psiquilíbrios, Braga (2017) 3. Amante, L.: As TIC na Escola e no Jardim de Infância: motivos e factores para a sua integração, sissifo/Revista de ciências da educação n.º 3 Mai/ago07 ISSN 1649-4990, pp. 51–64 (2007) 4. Despacho Conjunto n.º 891/99, de 19 de outubro. Diário da República n.º 244/1999, Série II de 1999-10-19. Disponível em. https://dre.pt/dre/detalhe/despacho-conjunto/891-1999-1091509 5. Brandão, M.T.: Intervenção precoce - Parecer sobre o despacho conjunto nº 891/99 (2007) 6. Decreto-Lei n.º 3/2008 de 7 de janeiro. Diário da República n.º 193/1991, Série I-A de 199108-23 7. Decreto-Lei nº. 281/2009 de 6 de outubro. Diário da República, I série - n. º193, de 6 de outubro de 2009. Lisboa: Ministério da Saúde 8. Decreto-Lei nº. 54/2018 de 6 de julho. Diário da República, 1ª série- nº 129, de 6 de julho de 2018. Lisboa. Ministério da Saúde e Ministério da Educação 9. Souza, L.P.N.: Diagnóstico diferencial entre transtorno do espectro autista (TEA) e distúrbio específico de linguagem (DEL). Revista Ibero-Americana De Humanidades, Ciências E Educação 7(7), 1465–1482 (2021) 10. DSM-IV—Manual diagnóstico e estatístico de transtornos mentais (2000) 11. Early Childhood Intervention Australia: National guidelines: best practice in early childhood intervention, 1–24 (2016) 12. Marques, C.: Perturbações do espectro do autismo – Ensaio de uma intervenção construtivista desenvolvimentista com mães. Quarteto Editora (2000) 13. Birtwell, K.B., Willoughby, B., Nowinski, L.: Social, cognitive, and behavioral development of children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: McDougle, C.J. (ed.) Autism Spectrum Disorder, pp. 19–27. Oxford University Press (2016) 14. Watkins, L., O’Reilly, M., Kuhn, M., et al.: A review of peer-mediated social interaction interventions for students with autism in inclusive settings. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45, 1070– 1083 (2015) 15. Silva, C.B., Nancy, Nunes, C.C., Betti, M.C.M., Rios, K.S.A.: Variáveis e seu impacto sobre o desenvolvimento infantil. Temas em Psicologia 16(2), 215–229 (2008) 16. Dias, M.O.: Um olhar sobre a família na perspetiva sistémica – o processo de comunicação no sistema familiar. Gestão e Desenvolvimento, 139–156 (2011) 17. Amante, L.: Infância, escola e novas tecnologias. Porto Editora, Porto (2007) 18. Lüdke, M., André, M.: Pesquisa em Educação: Abordagens Qualitativas. Editora Pedagógica e Universitária, Brasil (1986) 19. Bogdan, R., Biklen, S.: Investigação qualitative em Educação: uma introdução à teoria e aos métodos. Porto Editora, Porto (1994) 20. Chueke, G.V., Lima, M.C.: Pesquisa qualitativa: evolução e critérios. Revista Espaço Acadêmico 11(128), 63–69 (2012) 21. Capitão, S.: O uso das TIC para a Inclusão com necessidades educativas especiais e as suas famílias, Tecnologias de Informação em Educação, Superar Barreiras com [TIC], CIDTFF – Indagatio Didática – Universidades de Aveiro, pp 56–67 (s/d) 22. Coelho, A.M., Aguiar A.I.: Intervenção Psicoeducacional integrado nas Perturbações do Espectro do Autismo. Edições Afrontamento, Porto (2014) 23. Carvalho, L., Almeida, I.C., Felgueiras, I., Leitão, S., Boavida, J., Santos, P.C., e Franco, V.:. Práticas recomendadas em intervenção precoce na infância:Um guia para profissionais. Associação Nacional de Intervenção Precoce, Coimbra (2016)

Chapter 4

Higher Education Dropout in COVID-19 Pandemic Times: Validation of a Student Survey (PSS) Susana Sá , Cândido Gomes , Carlos Ângelo Meneses Sousa , Dulce Noronha-Sousa , João Pascoinho , Agostinho Sousa Pinto , and Eusébio Costa Abstract Higher education student dropout during the 1st year has become an everpressing topic during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is important to know the factors behind intentional and actual large dropout rates among higher education students. Such rates imply individual, family, institutional, and social losses. This international study, carried out on two continents, aims at validating a pandemic student survey (PSS), with five dimensions: study conditions, emotions, academic performance, teaching strategies, and sociability. It was validated from a pre-test with factor analysis at 0.40. The PSS survey is part of a research project that aims at guiding concrete institutional policies to support students so they can stick to and complete their degrees in higher education institutions, allowing for the early identification of dropout intentions or students at risk.

S. Sá (B) · C. Gomes · D. Noronha-Sousa · J. Pascoinho · E. Costa Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação- CIDI-IEES), Instituto Europeu de Estuos Superiores, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] D. Noronha-Sousa e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] S. Sá Post-Doctor at the Catholic University of Brasilia under the Aegis of the UNESCO CHAIR, UNESCO CHAIR, Brasilia, Brazil C. Â. M. Sousa Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil A. S. Pinto · E. Costa CEOS-Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_4

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4.1 Introduction The issue of higher education (HE) dropout and its relationship with public educational policies have earned the attention of researchers for some decades [1, 2]. This phenomenon is complex and manifests itself both internationally and nationally [3, 4], causing damage affecting individuals, families, organizations, and society. Thus, an international research group was organized from a comparative perspective: Portugal, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay, with the aim of listening to students of various nationalities in Higher Education regarding their learning, their emotions, and their modus vivendi during the pandemic. There is no consensus in the international literature regarding the understanding of the term school dropout, especially at the university level. Tinto [5] one of the references on the subject, defines dropout as the movement of the student leaving the Higher Education Institution (HEI) and never receiving the diploma. Some authors [6–8] refer to the non-completion of “an educational unit (school, course, training, qualification, specialization or any other educational modality) that leads the student to specialized knowledge” [7, p. 872]. Fritsch and Vitelli [9] describe school dropout as the loss of students who start their courses but do not finish their studies, omitting the particularity of obtaining a diploma in that or another course. Thus, school dropout is distinguished as a means of reorienting the training path, from dropout as a definitive abandonment of any higher academic training [7]. Abandoning the course may correspond to reorientation within the same institution, often in similar areas; or the replacement of one HEI by another. Abandoning the system means giving up and leaving any HEI permanently. Tinto and Cullen [10] highlight types of exits: voluntary and involuntary. In the first case, the cancellation of the course takes place at the request of the student [11, 12]. In the second case, dropout occurs due to the intervention of the HEI, for a variety of reasons, such as [7]: (a) an excessive number of absences; (b) non-payment of tuition fees; and () violent practice. A full set of personal factors (e.g., expectations, self-perceptions, evaluations, goals…) and family-related issues (family environment and perceived parental style) have an impact on the decision to leave school prematurely [13]. Could these situations, referenced here, be exacerbated by the pandemic?

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4.2 Methodology and Results 4.2.1 Dimensions of the Pandemic Student Survey (PSS) PSS is a self-report instrument consisting of 39 items with responses on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (Disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The survey assesses five dimensions of reasons for dropping out: (i) Study conditions; (ii) Emotions; (iii) Academic Performance; (iv) Teaching strategies; and (v) Sociability.

4.2.2 Application of the PSS Pre-test PSS questions were validated by three recognized experts in this field of academic research. A sample of 32 students attending the 1st year of the master’s degree program in Nursery, Pre-School and 1st Cycle of a private Higher Institution in the North of Portugal and 41 students attending the master’s degree program of a private university in Brazil answered the survey (PSS). The instruments were applied during class, in the 1st semester of the 2021/2022 academic year, the sum of the two makes up the total (n = 73). PSS had 59 questions and took between 12 and 18 min to answer. Validation is a necessary procedure whenever we want to test data collection instruments. According to [14, p. 220] the validation of an information collection instrument is a “process by which researchers or evaluators make sure that what they wish to collect as information is what they actually collect and that the way they collect it adequately serves the investigation purpose”. In turn, Morgado [15, p. 123] defines validation of an instrument as “a process that allows us to determine whether that instrument measures what it intends to measure”. Thus, it is understood that the validation of data collection instruments is of utmost importance, as it ensures that such instruments allow the collection of information necessary to achieve research objectives. Concerning the way(s) in which instruments are validated, Bisquera [16] states that most authors agree on recognizing diverse types of validity, as well as the respective procedures for estimating it. In this sense, Tuckman [17, p. 8] refers to two types of validity: internal validity and external validity. A study has internal validity when “its result is a function of the program or approach to be evaluated more than other causes not systematically related to the study” and has external validity if “the results obtained are applicable on the ground to others similar programs or approaches”. External validity influences our ability to trust the research results, and it is on this basis that the possibility of its generalization is considered. External validity “has little value without a reasonable degree of internal validity, providing confidence to our conclusions before we try to generalize them” [17, p. 9]. Still in the domain of validity [18], highlights the existence of two essential components that any instrument must have, in order to guarantee the informative quality

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of the data—validity, and fidelity and/or reliability—and that despite being different concepts they meet. Validity refers to the “quality of research results in the sense that we can accept them as indisputable facts, while fidelity or reliability “assures us that the data were obtained regardless of the context, instrument or researcher” [18, p. 116], that is, an instrument is only reliable if it is applied twice to the same phenomenon or situation by different researchers and if they obtain the same results, “in addition to the conditions of instrument application or the researcher” [18, p. 116]. In this case, in the phases of elaboration and validation of the survey, the steps that Moreira [19] suggests for this purpose were taken into account, namely: (1) the elaboration of an initial version of the survey; (2) the submission of the initial version to an analysis by experts in the area of study; a procedure called agreement of judges; finally, (3) carrying out a pre-test, with a relatively significant sample of experts, asking them to comment on all aspects that could make it difficult to understand what was requested and to fill out the survey. According to [19, p. 177] when preparing the survey, “the researcher’s attention turns to the problems of implementation of the survey”, namely to the pre-test and the subsequent data collection procedures. Regarding the pre-test, Ghiglione and Matalon [20, p. 172] point out that “when the formulation of all the questions and their order are provisionally fixed, it is necessary to guarantee that the survey is in fact applicable and that it effectively responds to the problems posed by the researcher. Pre-testing served to confirm the reliability and validity of the instruments, as well as to determine the average time spent completing the survey.

4.2.3 Factor Analysis of the 59 PSS Items It was decided to move towards a factor analysis, eliminating all items that did not reach the required saturation of 0.50 [21]. With the survey reduced to 34 items, we proceeded to a new factorial analysis not so reductive on the survey dimensionality. Thus, we required the criterion of 0.40, as the minimum value for the saturation of items, fixed five factors according to the original version of the scale, and proceeded to a varimax rotation. Thus, for the homogeneity and sphericity indices of the correlations obtained among items, we obtained a Kaiser-Mayer-Olkim (KMO) coefficient of 0.861 and a statistically significant Bartlett coefficient of sphericity of 2445.875 (df = 496, p < 0.001), the eigenvalues of the five factors accounting for 46.6% of the variance of items [22]. Table 4.1 shows item saturations in the five isolated factors, as well as the commonality value (h2 ), the eigenvalue of each factor, and the percentage of results variance in each item, which is explained by the combination of the isolated factors, as well as all items already left out in the two previous varimax. Three more items were recovered. Finally, it must be said that the analysis was developed with the IBM/SPSS program (Statistics Package for Social Sciences) in version 29.

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Table 4.1 Results in the pandemic survey with higher education students by dimensions Factor analysis of the 37 items of the pandemic student survey h2

Items

Component

Study conditions

1

25. It was really hard for me to handle the computer and/or other electronic equipment during remote classes

0.799

0.671

29. My place of study is quiet and allows for the necessary concentration

0.745

0.603

79. My institution has adequately prepared for the 0.738 transition

0.572

80. Lack of physical distance, avoidance of crowding, and other preventive measures against COVID-19

0.722

0.636

81. Facilities were properly cleaned for the new stage

0.660

0.463

2

3

4

5

Emotions 47. I felt very lonely as I was not able to meet my friends, colleagues, and professors in person

0.605

0.465

52. There are times when I don’t think I can handle the concern and loneliness during these pandemic times

0.721

0.544

53. There are times when I can’t take so much stress and I want to drop out of school, in these pandemic times

0.711

0.521

54. I feel a deep sense of sadness. It seems that life will never get better

0.685

0.550

55. There are days when I can’t get out of bed because of discouragement

0.679

0.563

56. Fortunately, I have people who support me, give me strength to keep on studying

0.584

0.500

73. We excitedly returned to face-to-face activities because we wanted to

0.495

0.478

78. I preferred to continue with fully remote education

0.502

0.479

83. As the pandemic has brought psychological struggles, psychological support is offered to students

0.473

0.476

84. The atmosphere surrounding the institution and academic activities has been disturbing in the new stage

0.466

0.486

Academic performance 26. It is better to study remotely than in person

0.713

0.544 (continued)

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Table 4.1 (continued) Factor analysis of the 37 items of the pandemic student survey Items

Component

Study conditions

1

2

h2 3

4

5

28. My grades have improved with remote activities

0.654

0.571

29. I participate more in remote activities than in face-to-face activities

0.523

0.481

31. It is easy for me to consult with professors during remote activities

0.513

0.462

34. Most remote classes are understandable

0.577

0.487

58. Remote activities make it possible to learn the subject as well as attitudes and values

0.543

0.472

59. I feel that face-to-face activities give more time to think, judge, and address values and attitudes than remote activities

0.502

0.489

Teaching strategies 32. Professors respond more quickly in remote activities than in in-person activities

0.401

0.471

35. Professors teach remotely as if they were in a face-to-face classroom

0.745

0.579

36. Professors use the computer screen the same way they use the whiteboard

0.741

0.576

37. The vast majority of remote activities relates to content explanation

0.451

0.451

38. Remote assessments are harder than on-site assessments

0.452

0.472

39. I can easily obtain the materials recommended by professors

0.523

0.481

60. Everything goes faster with technologies than with face-to-face classes

0.634

0.561

63. When the day’s virtual activities are over, I feel more tired than after daily face-to-face classes

0.701

0.503

66. If I could choose, after the pandemic I would continue with internet activities

0.657

0.479

65. Online and face-to-face classes are no different: professors talk and I listen to them

0.548

0.482 (continued)

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Table 4.1 (continued) Factor analysis of the 37 items of the pandemic student survey Items

Component

Study conditions

1

2

h2 3

4

5

Sociability 43. I kept on talking to friends and colleagues online as if nothing had changed

0.758 0.588

44. Group work is easier remotely than in on-site meetings

0.503 0.477

67. Online chat rooms are the most used means of communication among students during classes

0.401 0.400

69. The daily use of messaging systems via WhatsApp and other apps facilitates the use of chat rooms in the classroom

0.409 0.301

70. Spontaneous, fast language and often full of images (memes, GIF, Emojis, etc.) or abbreviations used in chat rooms allow for a freer expression of what I think and want to express

0.401 0.300

Eigenvalue

7.113

% Variance

22.229 7.496 6.719 5.871 4.312

2.399 2.150 1.879 1.80

Source Authors

4.3 Results Results suggest the grouping of the 37 items into five factors, taking into account the contents that the items present and according to their dispersion by the factors. The first factor includes five items (25, 29, 79, 80 and 81), which describe study conditions. The items composed by this factor are all related (e.g., item 29. My place of study is quiet and allows the necessary concentration) and (e.g., item 25. It was really hard for me to handle the computer and/or other electronic equipment during remote classes). Given the content approach, we designate this factor as study condition. The second factor contains ten items (47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 73, 78, 83 and 84), which refer to emotions (e.g., item 47. I felt very lonely as I was not able to meet my friends, colleagues, and professors in person) and (e.g., item 53. There are times when I can’t take so much stress and I want to drop out of school, in these pandemic times). All items correspond to emotional aspects. Therefore, we chose to designate this factor as emotions. The third factor comprises seven items (26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 58 and 59), which relate to students’ academic performance (e.g., item 28. My grades have improved with remote activities) and (e.g., item 29. I participate more in remote activities than in face-to-face activities). Given the nature of these items, we call this the third factor Academic Performance. The fourth factor grouped ten items (32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 60, 63, 66 and 65), which refer to teaching strategies. The ten items

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are interconnected with each other, presenting the situation of remote study during the pandemic, (e.g., item 32. Professors respond more quickly in remote activities than in in-person activities) and (e.g., item 36. Professors use the computer screen the same way they use the whiteboard). Taking into account the nature of these items, we designate this factor as teaching strategies. The fifth factor consists of five items (43, 44, 67, 69 and 70), which address issues of socialization, (e.g., item 43. I kept on talking to friends and colleagues online as if nothing had changed, item 67. Online chat rooms are the most used means of communication among students during classes). As this factor describes aspects related to socialization, we chose to call it sociability.

4.4 Closing Remarks Considering the results for the five dimensions of PSS it appears that it has a good range of validation of the results with saturation at 0.40. Remember that for the validation range of the results with saturation at 0.50, the same results were obtained as at 0.40. For the recovery of some items, we would have to reduce the saturation to 0.30 for education, as defended by [21]. Thus, according to these authors, the validation for the education area may vary between 0.30 and 0.50, although they point out that the lower the saturation, this may cause increase in bias and a decrease in reliability in the results, which could compromise validation and, in turn, research. Through these processes, an attempt is made to generate generalizable knowledge [14], that is, it tends to have a strong external validity [22]. The possibility of generalization, even if it leads to a departure from a singularity, allows knowledge to be useful and valuable in a greater variety of situations [14]. The analysis of quantitative data always aims to “(a) describe the distribution of entities by the different values of the variables or (b) describe the relationship between the variables” [14, p. 51]. Frequent criticism against quantitative methodologies, especially when associated with positivist positions, concern the absence of questioning the researcher’s social role, and the social or political effects of the investigation, masked by the objectivity of techniques used and the logical and mathematical reasoning used. On the other hand, as they often do not meet the subject’s perspective, their lack of internal validity, that is, ambiguity as to what is measured is criticized [22]. Considering all the issues mentioned above, it was still understood that our option for a quantitative model better meets the hypotheses and objectives proposed in this investigation. In contrast, using duly adapted and validated surveys, it is believed that the most subjective experiences and feelings of students about the reason for students dropping out during the pandemic are properly characterized and, in this way, allow for the early identification of intention to drop out or students at risk.

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References 1. Almeida, L.S.: Estudantes do ensino superior: desafios e oportunidades. ADIPSIEDUC (2019) 2. Prestes, E.M., Fialho, M.G.: Evasão na educação superior e gestão institucional: o caso da Universidade Federal da Paraíba. Ensaio: avaliação, políticas públicas educacionais 26(100), 869–889 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1590/s0104-40362018002601104 3. Almeida, L.S.: Formatar o ensino a pensar na aprendizagem. In: Pouzada, A.S., Almeida, L.S., Vasconcelos, R.M. (eds.) Contextos e dinâmicas da vida académica. Universidade do Minho (2002) 4. Casanova, J.R., Bernardo, A., Almeida, L.S.: Abandono no Ensino Superior: Variáveis pessoais e contextuais no processo de decisão. In: Almeida, L.S. (ed.) Estudantes do ensino superior: desafios e oportunidades, pp-233–256. ADIPSIEDUC (2019) 5. Tinto, V.: Dropout from higher education: a theoretical synthesis of recent research. Rev. Educ. Res. 45(1), 89–125 (1975) 6. Almeida, L.S., Casanova, J.R., Bernardo, A.B., Cervero, A., Santos, A.A., Ambiel, A.R.: Construção de um Questionário Transcultural de Motivos de Abandono do Ensino Superior. Avaliação Psicológica 18(2), 201–209 (2019). https://doi.org/10.15689/ap.2019.1802.176 94.11 7 Souza, T.S., Sá, O.S., Castro, P.A.: Evasão escolar no ensino superior: um estudo qualitativo via mapeamento de licenciaturas. Revista Lusófona de Educação 44, 63–82 (2019). https://doi. org/10.24140/issn.1645-7250.rle44.04 8. Fritsch, R., Vitelli, R.F.: Evasão escolar, a escola e o mercado de trabalho: o que dizem jovens do ensino médio de escolas públicas (2016). http://www.anpedsul2016.ufpr.br/wp-content/upl oads/2015/11 9. Tinto, V., Cullen, J.: Dropout in higher education: a review and theoretical synthesis of recent research. Columbia University. Teachers College (1973). http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED0 78802.pdf 10. Almeida, L.S.: Acesso ao Ensino Superior : Pensar a transição e a adaptação vivenciadas pelos estudantes. Seminário: Acesso Ao Ensino Superior. Revista Científica da Educação 1(1), 13–32 (2015) 11. Scali, D.F.: Evasão nos cursos superiores de tecnologia: a percepção dos estudantes sobre seus determinantes. (Dissertação de Mestrado). Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo (2009). http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/251456 12. Prego, L.R., Llorente, C.R., Lestón, T.V.: El papel de la repetición y el rendimento académico en el abandono escolar temprano. Int. J. Dev. Educ. Psychol. Rev. Psicol. 2, 83–92 (2019) 13. De Ketele, J., Roegiers, X.: Metodologia da Recolha de Dados, Fundamentos dos Métodos de Observações, de Questionários, de Entrevistas e de Estudo de Documentos. Instituto Piaget, Colecção Epistemologia e Sociedade (1999) 14. Morgado, J.C.: O Estudo de Caso na Investigação em Educação. De Facto Editores (2012) 15. Bisquera, R.: Métodos de Investigação Educativa: Guia Pratica. Ediciones CEAC, S.A (1989) 16. Tuckman, B.: Manual de investigação em educação. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian (2000) 17. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas: teoria e prática, 2nd edn. Almedina (2014) 18. Moreira, J.: Questionários: teoria e prática. Livraria Almedina (2004) 19. Ghiglione, R., Matalon, B.: O inquérito: Teoria e Prática. Celta Editora (1993) 20. Nguyen, H.V., Waller, N.G.: Local minima and factor rotations in exploratory factor analysis. Psychol. Methods (2022). https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000467 21. Kaiser, H.F.: The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika 23, 187–200 (1958). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289233 22. Serapioni, M.: Métodos qualitativos e quantitativos na pequisa social em saúde: algumas estratégias para a integração. Ciência saúde coletiva 5(1), 187–192 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1590/ S1413-81232000000100016

Chapter 5

Interdisciplinarity in University Education: Application to Research Joana Costa , Dimas Pinto , Inês Oliveira Gonçalves , Joana Rodrigues-Carvalho , and Aldina Sofia Silva

Abstract Since 19th century guidelines from primary school up to university include interdisciplinarity, nevertheless few studies addressed the results of this tool in scientific research teaching. Therefore, we aimed to describe an innovative interdisciplinary methodological approach to research as well as demonstrated how the results observed in the investigation (Sport patterns practice in adults of the city of Fafe) motivated the participants for teaching/learning processes. For that, 30 students and 5 teachers from 2018/2021 Sport graduation of the Higher School of Education of Fafe, engage in the research project with a sample of 1198 subjects from Fafe, with ages over 18. The study design was developed in statistics, sport management, introduction to professional practice, sport sociology and research methodology subjects. At the end of the research project, teachers and students were interviewed with the aim describing their experiences and how the results obtained in the investigation

J. Costa · D. Pinto · I. Oliveira Gonçalves · J. Rodrigues-Carvalho · A. S. Silva (B) Center for Research, Development and Innovation of the European Institute of Superior Studies (CIDI-IEES), Rua Universitária, Apartado 178, 4824-909 Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Costa e-mail: [email protected] D. Pinto e-mail: [email protected] I. Oliveira Gonçalves e-mail: [email protected] J. Rodrigues-Carvalho e-mail: [email protected] I. Oliveira Gonçalves Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal A. S. Silva Research Center in Training, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_5

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motivated of them to the teaching/learning processes. For the investigation, a questionnaire throw interview was applied to city citizens and this data was analyzed through quantitative inferential statistics. The results of this project were profoundly positive and useful in terms of developing skills at the end of a Sport University course, but also gave students powerful information to develop sports practice in Fafe as it shows the prevalence of physical activity and related barriers.

5.1 Introduction In recent years, we have witnessed significant changes in teaching-learning processes at different levels of education. In Higher Education, it was necessary to adjust to new recommendations, as well as follow all the technological developments to which we are subject daily. Among teachers’ concerns is the promotion of interdisciplinarity in the learning process of their students and the graduation in Sports, of the Higher School of Education of Fafe (ESEF), has been no exception to the rule. Throughout this study cycle, interdisciplinarity has been promoted between different curricular units in order to promote research practices and encourage students to use developed skills in their personal and professional lives. Therefore, this study intended to analyze the sport practice in the city of Fafe through different pedagogical dimensions, covering the entire academic community and involving Fafe citizens. This will allow extending all scientific knowledge of the course to an investigation that aims to improve people’s quality of life through sport. The impact of sport in life is highlighted by national sports evolution, as a huge progress is observed in sports practices, in equipment and in the way each person looks at sport [1]. However, this evolution was not accompanied by an increase in sports practice. The percentage of Portuguese who practice exercise or sport regularly has been declining in recent years by around 5%, according to the latest Eurobarometer [2]. In this report, it was found that Bulgaria, Greece, and Portugal were the countries with the highest percentage of physical inactivity (68%), compared to the European average (46%), with this percentage being more expressive in women (Portugal 78% vs. Europe 64%). The Portuguese General Health Department (GHD) [3], estimates that in a country with around 10 million inhabitants, where 50% of the population is insufficiently active, there is an annual cost derived from this physical inactivity, of 900 million euros. Just as according to the WHO [4], four to five million deaths a year could be avoided if the world population were more physically active. Specifically in Portugal, it is estimated that about 14% of annual deaths are associated with physical inactivity [3]. Considering this reality in 2018, WHO published the first global action plan for physical activity, these global guidelines allow countries to develop evidence-based national health policies and support the implementation of the Global Action Plan for Physical Activity 2018–2030 [5]. However, before making decisions, it is essential to know what the population really wants and intends [6] and local authorities, due to citizens proximity, have

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better capacities and greater responsibilities in improving the access to generalized sports practice [7], assuming a leading and increasingly participatory role in the national sports development. Therefore, we believe that researchers’ themes should be influenced by motivations and abilities, but also by specific topics and items of research. Scientists’ motivations to research affect whether and how public engagement contributes to responsible research and innovation [8, 9]. Therefore, the research should consolidate actions and investments in policies to promote physical activity and reduce sedentary behavior that can help to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Good Health and Well-being, Sustainable Cities and Communities, Action against Climate Change, as well as Quality Education [4]. In Portugal, the teaching/learning processes of sports practice teachers rarely take advantage of novel alternative methods of teaching, almost always opting for traditional techniques, which can lead to greater difficulties for students. In addition, programmes in Higher Education remain largely unaware of innovative strategies for teaching and learning, instead relying on methodologies that make little or no use of active teaching techniques, scientific investigation or digital resources, due to either scarcity of technological devices or a lack of ways to meaningfully incorporate them in the construction of students’ knowledge [10]. Thus, it is evident that the teaching/learning of sports needs to be constantly reviewed, seeking ways to interest and engage students in the classroom, adopting methodologies that attract their attention and enable teaching to be integrative, interdisciplinary, and effective [11]. If we recognize that the Basic Law for Physical Activity and Sport (Basic Law No 5/2007) determines the elaboration of the National Sports Card (Article 9) [12]: “1-The law determines the elaboration of the National Sports Card, which contains the register and registration of data and indicators that allow the information of the several factors of sports development, in view of the knowledge of the national sporting situation, in particular with regard to: (a) Sports facilities; (b) Natural spaces for recreation and sport; (c) Sports associations; (d) Sporting habits; (e) People’s physical condition; (f) Human framework, including the identification of participation according to gender.” The syllabus of a Sport Course should recognize the inseparability of technical and social needs in this area and seek to broaden the civic and reflective capacity of students. Betting on the interdisciplinarity of subjects, research, and innovation to increase transparency, reflection, and responsibility, and to push technical activity in the socially desirable direction. Consequently, the aim of this study is to describe an innovative methodological approach to research and demonstrate how the results obtained in the investigation (Sport patterns practice in adults of the city of Fafe) motivated the participants for teaching/learning processes.

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5.2 Methodology 5.2.1 Sample 5.2.1.1

Interdisciplinary Approach Project

The interdisciplinary project was guided by 5 teachers of the ESEF Sports course and applied by 30 students of the 2018/2021 Sport graduation. The curricular units (CU) participating in the study were: statistics, sports management, initiation to professional practice, methodology investigation applied to sport, and sport sociology.

5.2.1.2

Investigation: Sport Patterns Practice in Adults of the City of Fafe

In this research a questionnaire was applied to 1198 subjects (624 males and 574 females) from the city of Fafe (North of Portugal), aged 18 years old or more.

5.2.2 Procedures 5.2.2.1

Interdisciplinary Approach Project

Students were instructed in the application of the questionnaire, data analysis, and research skills (writing and presenting a paper) in the described CU. At the end of the semester students had to present their papers in a Public Seminar held at the Institute of Higher Studies of Fafe. Still at the end of the research, teachers and students that participate in the project were contacted to schedule an online face-to-face interview. Before the interview, the purpose of this part of the study was explained to the participants—description of their experiences after implementing this methodological approach and how the results obtained in the investigation motivated of them to the teaching/learning processes. The identity and confidentiality of the responses were ensured, and consent was obtained for participation and recording of the interview. The semi-structured interview script was composed of non-directive open questions adapted from Baber [13]. Each interview was conducted in the participants’ native language for 30 min. Finally, the interviews were transcribed, written, read, reviewed and the recordings were heard again by the investigators. The recorded data were analyzed using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis to identify similarities between the participants, with unique experiences related to the themes and allowing the similarities to be considered alongside the individual experience.

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5.2.2.2

47

Investigation: Sport Patterns Practice in Adults of the City of Fafe

The sampling procedure chosen was a non-probability by quotas of representativeness. The calculations for defining the sampling error and the sample size to be surveyed, were performed through the formula, for non-proportional, non-random samples and finite population (1), with a confidence level of 95% and an aggregate sampling error of 3%, for a population of 40,815 inhabitants (individuals’ resident in the municipality of Fafe aged 18 years old or over). n=

(

(

)

2 Z α/2 ×N ×P×Q 2 Z α/2 ×P×Q +e2 (N −1)

)

Z α/2 (95%) = 1.96 P = Q = 50%

(5.1)

The distribution, of the sample used in the project, according to age group and sex, can be seen in Table 5.1 and according to practice or non-practice of sport in Table 5.2.

Questionnaire The specific objective of this study was to analyze the reasons that lead to the practice or non-practice of sports by the adult population residing in the Municipality of Fafe. The questionnaire and assessment scale were adapted from the study of Marivoet [14]. Table 5.1 Distribution according to age group and sex (n) Age group (years)

Males

Females

Total

(n)

(n)

(n)

G1

18–24

73

51

124

G2

25–34

113

125

238

G3

35–44

121

124

245

G4

45–54

87

78

165

G5

55–64

88

76

164

G6

+65

142

120

262

624

574

1198

Sample total

Table 5.2 Distribution according to pratice or non-pratice of sport by sex (n)

Group

Pratice

Non-pratice

Total (n)

(n)

(n)

Male

219

405

Female

152

422

624 574 1198

48 Table 5.3 Dimensions of the questionnaire

J. Costa et al. Sociodemographic characterization Sports practice characterization Sport inactivity characterization

The questionnaire was divided into several parts, according to the themes addressed and structured with closed and open questions to cover the different behavioral attitudes of the population to be surveyed (Table 5.3).

Statistical Analysis Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences® (SPSS28.0.1), quantitative analysis was applied and inferential statistics, to locate significant differences within and between conditions, using Pearson’s chi-square test (p < 0.05), with complementary Bonferroni test (p < 0.05).

5.3 Results The results of this study shows the application of an innovate methodology and how the practical results of the investigation motivated the participants. The project proves to be extremely positive and useful for the development of skills and the improvement of the teaching/learning processes at the end of the Sports graduation. It not only developed pedagogical, technical knowledge and personality skills in the students, but also resulted in a high impact research study, which may be used in development of sport projects by the municipality. Regarding the project, a teacher reported: “It was a very positive experience that involved adapting the questionnaire to the reality of Fafe, preparing the students to interpret the questionnaire, preparing them to act as inquirers and supervising the fieldwork and all stages of the investigation” T1. This project required interdisciplinarity and teamwork by several teachers using transversal methodologies in the curricular units during a period of three years. It was imperative for the success of the research project that the students acquire the necessary knowledge. Concerning this chapter of the project, we observe a positive feeling, a teacher said: “This was a very rich experience, since students were able to apply several theoretical knowledges and concepts to research field. Moreover, they were able to follow all the steps in a scientific research project that is very important to exercise prescription and local and national physical active programs development. In the future these students have all the tools to continue with this initiative in other cities. Other teacher referred: “(…) this kind of initiatives are very important to bring the students close to science. Nevertheless, they have some difficulties, related with

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their lack of experience, namely using citation rules, but with some work and the help of all teachers involved is easier to overcome” T2. Appling the questionnaires and analyzing data, was slightly difficult for most of the students, because on the one hand the sample was very large and on the other the students had never analyzed the results of a scientific study. One of the teachers said: “The approach to subjects, people are not very available to respond to surveys and especially when they are a little time consuming. With the preparation they had and their commitment, they overcame the difficulty. They also presented some difficulties in discussing the results” T1. Similarly, another teacher said: “The main difficulties experienced in carrying out the tasks were the organization of many elements and people, as well as the acquisition of data for the study, since the sample was very large and covered the entire municipality of Fafe.” T3. The achievement of objectives was clear. Students developed scientific skills in different areas (statistics, management, research). One teacher described: “in my opinion, this project should integrate the study plans of courses in higher education, because due to the practical application experienced and the multidisciplinary, students leave graduation more prepared” T3. Another teacher reported: “Oh… they were, very, very motivated to be on the skin of a researcher. They feel they were actively part of the project. They were not only spectators of the education process, but they were “finally” part of it” T4. Over again, other teacher informed: “students have difficulties due to their low experience in this kind of activities. Nevertheless, this is part of the process…help students to overcome their difficulties…some with citation tools, others in the research for scientific papers related with study background, with interview process, with statistics methodology. Moreover, they have already the theoretical basis, so at this moment they really need practice to understand some difficulties and barriers that happen on the field and are not reported on books” T5. During the research study students had to analyze all the collected data. As they concluded the results analysis and discussion their motivation increased. In the study, students comprehend that there are statistical differences: (i) in the practice of sport between subjects aged 18–24 years and all of the other groups (p = 0,000); (ii) in sports practice between subjects with 18–24 years in relation to: 55–64 years and older than 65 years (p = 0.000); (iii) in sports practice between subjects aged 35–44 years in relation to subjects older than 65 years (p = 0.000); and (iv) in the group of 25–34 years and more da 65 years old group, in sports practice (p = 0.025 and p = 0,046, respectively) as seen in Fig. 5.1. In relation to the question about the main reason why the individuals do not currently practice any sports activity, students found that the analysis between age groups for males (see Fig. 5.2) demonstrates that the most significant reasons for males not to practice sports activity are: health reasons; not finding it interesting or not having patience for sports practice; lack of time and age reasons. As for the women, we observe that the resaons for not praticing sport were: not finding it interesting; and health reasons (for women with more than 65 years old) and lack of time (see Fig. 5.3).

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*

25-34 YEARS

practice male

35-44 YEARS

86 76 14

45-54 YEARS

practice female

24

23 24

29

33

36

* 21

18-24 YEARS

77 76

67

64

51

*

34

49

52 43 48 57

66

71

79

*

55-64 YEARS

non-practice male

OLDER THAN 65 YEARS

non-practice female

28 10

12 14

18

21 14

5

9

12

17

19 12

11

14

28

29

23

24

28

31

32

37

38

Fig. 5.1 Percentage of male and female participating in sport according to age group

18-24

25-34

Health reasons For lack of time

35-44

45-54

55-64

OLDER THAN 65

AGE (YEARS) I don't find it interesting/no patience For age reasons

Fig. 5.2 Reasons for not practising any sport activity (male percentage)

Through the examination of these results students were highly motivated, one student said: “We managed to get an exact idea of why adults don’t play sports in Fafe. I had no idea…” S1). Another said: “With these results we could propose a project to increase the practice of physical activity in the Municipality Chamber. One, no… several… one for each age group. It was difficult but very interesting … I want to do more studies…” S2.

51

35.6 16.3 14.4 21.2

31.0 55-64

19.0 17.2

45-54

4.5

10.2 17.0

9.8

19.0

25-34

17.7 25.8 24.2 12.9

15.9 19.5

18-24

30.5

10.3 20.7 31.0 13.8

48.9

5 Interdisciplinarity in University Education: Application to Research

35-44

OLDER THAN 65

AGE (YEARS) Health reasons For lack of time

I don't find it interesting/no patience For age reasons

Fig. 5.3 Reasons for not practising any sport activity (female percentage)

Similarly, one student reflected” I had a lot of difficulties in writing the article and in applying the statistics, but it was worth it. We got an objective knowledge about why people practice sports or not in Fafe.” S3. Still, one student said: “I had never done a statistical treatment. It was very interesting to understand the variations in sports practice depending on people’s ages and sex. A scientific study is a lot of work but it’s worth it because we can really work with society and change life habits” S4.

5.4 Discussion The interdisciplinary project methodology applied here, place students in the centre, making them builders of their own learning process and encouraging them to solve problems autonomously while teachers provide the necessary supervision and support, which are very important values mentioned in the literature regarding significant learning in higher education students [15]. In fact, researchers have suggested the use of active methodologies to promote interdisciplinarity [18]. The study carried out by the students showed the prevalence of physical inactivity in the municipality of Fafe, 69% of the population surveyed does not practice sports, which is above the European average and in line with the percentage values of national physical inactivity (68%) being the highest in Europe [2]. Physical inactivity has a very significant value in the municipality of Fafe, both for men and women, values much higher than the average of Europeans [16]. The main reasons presented by GHD [3] for sedentary behavior are lack of time and motivation/interest, corroborated by Eurobarometer, which are identified as main reasons for lack of time (40%), lack of motivation (20%) and disability or illness (14%). This is in line with the reasons presented by the subjects in the present study, which are listed as the main reasons

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for not performing physical activity, lack of time, lack of interest or patience, for health reasons and age. On the other hand, the percentage of sports practice in the municipality of Fafe is nine percentage points below the European average (40%) [17]. According to the literature, there is a decrease in sports practice, with age [19], which is also observed in the present study. These results suggest that the efforts to develop and reorganize the plans of studies in an interdisciplinary perspective, and with practical applicability to the society where the Institutions are inserted are important, a fact that we already observe in the literature in this field [17]. Young scientists’ motivations for investigating practical themes that affect the public in sport engagement contribute to responsible research and innovation [8]. In students’ perspective’s, we observed they were very interested, and clearly understood the usefulness of all the knowledge and skills they were acquiring for their professional career. The responsibility they had, because they were alone in the field doing questions to unknown people, being under pressure to not fail, making them more driven and focus as referred by Klein [20]. On other hand the reflexion about the data analyzed made by students realize how important it is to do a scientific research. This approach visibly allowed an effective integration of curricular unit contents, promoted a stimulating, pragmatic, active learning, which translated into a clear individual achievement of each student at the end of the project. In this regard Robles [21] highlighted those personal and technical competencies that are the skills of the 21st century, and additionally, Mitchell et al. [22] recognized these competencies, as the interpersonal and communication skills, as important as the "hard skills" for the employability of graduates.

5.5 Conclusion Our results suggest that innovative pedagogical methodology translated into an interdisciplinary research project, produces a very positive and useful tool in terms of students’ learning outcomes and contribute to link science and community concerns. We observed that this project stimulated the teaching/learning process, both from the point of view of teachers and students, interdisciplinary skills development, motivation, and collaborative work to carry out the tasks proposed by teachers and students. The knowledge acquired now allows the development of a sport strategic plan for Fafe citizens. Despite the success verified in the results of this study, there were limitations such as limited time for performing the project. More studies and research projects are needed in other areas to complete the limited existing knowledge regarding this thematic approach in the training of Sport Students. In particular, future lines of research should include other areas of Sports Science as physical fitness and nutritional assessment of the population as these are two of the most important factors for a healthy lifestyle.

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References 1. Barbosa, L.: Os hábitos e os consumos de desporto no concelho da amadora - contributos para o papel das autarquias na retenção de pessoas na prática desportiva efectiva. Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (Portugal) ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 28796027 (2009) 2. European Commission.: Special Eurobarometer 472 Sport and physical activity. Wave EB88.4 – TNS opinion & social (2018) 3. Direção-Geral da Saúde.: Estratégia nacional para o envelhecimento ativo e saudável 2017– 2025. Serviço Nacional de Saúde (2017) 4. World Health Organization.: WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour: at a glance. Genebra, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO (2020) 5. World Health Organization.: Global action plan on physical activity 2018–2030: more active people for a healthier world. Geneva: World Health Organization (2018) 6. Cordeiro, A.M., Rochette, C.P., Castro, E.: Cartas de Equipamentos Desportivos Intermunicipais (Cartas metropolitanas, regionais ou nacionais). Aproximação metodológica ao planeamento de infraestruturas desportivas a nível regional. Actas do PLURIS BIBLIOGRAFIA 178 2005 – 1º Congresso Luso-Brasileiro para o Planejamento Urbano, Regional, Integrado e Sustentável, São Carlos (SP). Brasil (2005) 7. Li, J.W., O’Connor, H., O’Dwyer, N., Orr, R.: The effect of acute and chronic exercise on cognitive function and academic performance in adolescents: a systematic review. J. Sci. Med. Sport (2017) 8. Loroño-Leturiondo, M., Sarah, R.D.: Responsibility and science communication: scientists’ experiences of and perspectives on public communication activities. J. Responsib. Innov. 5(2), 170–185 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/23299460.2018.1434739 9. Gjefsen, M.D., Jørgen, V.K.: Propping up interdisciplinarity: responsibility in university flagship research. J. Responsib. Innov. 8(1), 48–69 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/23299460.2021. 1899520 10. Lima, L.F., Moreira, O.C., Castro, E.F.: Novos olhares sobre o ensino da fisiologia humana e da fisiologia do exercício. Revista Brasileira Prescrição Fisiologia Exercício 8, 507–513 (2014) 11. Oliveira, M.I., Pesce, L.: Emprego do modelo rotação por estação para o ensino de língua portuguesa. Teccogs: Revista Digital de Tecnologias Cognitivas (16), 103–118 (2018) 12. Lei de Bases n.º 5 de 2007. Lei de Bases da Atividade Física e do Desporto-Carta Desportiva Nacional (2007) 13. Baber, J.E.: The [integrated] art of teaching: early career english teachers’ perceptions of integrated arts practices and their creative self-efficacy. Dissertation. Doctor of Philosophy. University of Oklahoma (2019) 14. Marivoet, S.: Hábitos desportivos da população portuguesa. In Salomé Marivoet, Instituto Nacional de Formação e Estudos do Desporto, Lisboa. ISBN 972-8460-27-9 (2001) 15. Wood, E.J.: Problem-based learning: exploiting knowledge of how people learn to promote effective learning. Biosci. Educ. 3, 1–12 (2004) 16. Cordeiro, A.: Carta Desportiva – Município de Vila Nova de Poiares. FLUC – CEGOT, Coimbra (2010) 17. Instituto Nacional de Estatística: Censos 2011 Resultados Definitivos – Portugal. Instituto Nacional de Estatística, I.P. 2011. ISBN 0872-6493 (2011) 18. Silva, A.S., Gonçalves, I., Rodrigues-Carvalho, J., Pinto, D., Costa, J.: Innovative pedagogical practices: a longitudinal study conducted at the ESE of Fafe, Portugal. Perspect. and Trends Educ. Technol. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_69 19. Arem, H., Moore, S.C., Patel, A., Hartge, P., Berrington de Gonzalez, A., Visvanathan, K., et al.: Leisure time physical activity and mortality: a detailed pooled analysis of the dose-response relationship. JAMA Int. Med. 175(6), 959–67 (2015)

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20. Klein, J.T.: Beyond Interdisciplinarity: boundary Work, Communication, and Collaboration. Oxford University Press (2021) 21. Robles, M.: Executive perceptions of the top 10 soft skills needed in today’s workplace. Bus. Commun. Q. 75(4), 453–465 (2012) 22. Mitchell, G.W., Skinner, B., White, B.J.: Essential Soft skills for success in the twenty-first century workforce as perceived by business educators. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal 52(1), 43–53 (2010)

Chapter 6

The Importance of Motivating Students with Special Needs Attending Higher Education in the Face of Distance Education Sónia Leite , Rosa Martins , Eusébio Costa , and Dulce Noronha-Sousa Abstract The various transformations marked by social, economic and political life in recent decades have given a prominent place to education, both in education systems and in the institutions themselves as complex and modern organizations. In times of uncertainty, there are several proposals regarding education. It is also in this scenario that distance education (DE) assumes a fundamental role in the development of education itself. DE thus arises as a response to the pandemic situation experienced in our country since March 2020, raising with it the question of motivation of students with Additional Support Needs in Higher Education in face of adaptation, motivation and experiences related to DE. Through an exploratory-descriptive investigation of a qualitative approach based on the application of a motivation to learn scale—EMA-U (adapted), our aim was to measure the levels of motivation expressed by students with Special Education Needs (SEN) to attend Higher Education Institutions in view of the change to the distance education modality due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

S. Leite CeiEd-Lusófona University, Lisboa, Portugal S. Leite (B) · R. Martins · E. Costa · D. Noronha-Sousa CIDI-IESF- Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] D. Noronha-Sousa e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS - Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_6

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6.1 Distance Education Educational processes can be classified involving two variables: time and space. In the face-to-face education processes teacher and student find themselves in the same space and at the same time, the educational activities are carried out in the classroom. In distance education (DE) there is a separation of teacher and student in space and/or time. Distance education has been known for a long time as the educational process that took place without the presence of the teacher, in which all the instruction material was sent by mail and that the student should carry out his studies individually and autonomously, from the material received, generally printed, which had been specially prepared for that course, with lessons or assignments sent later by the student via correspondence. With the technological advancement, new means of communication expanded access to information through newspapers, magazines, radio, television, video, and education importance also began to be conveyed by these other means of communication and information technologies. The various transformations marked by social, economic and political life in recent decades, have given rise to a prominent place in education, both in the education systems and in the institutions themselves as complex and modern organizations. In times of uncertainty, there are several proposals around education, as a public cultural space, which seeks other scenarios and, above all, lead to the need to “open the teaching systems to new ideas” [1] where “difference and change”, the new “conception of learning” and the “strengthening of public space” are considered the main guidelines of these proposals. Today, for the world to be more open and more accessible in the various cultural aspects, educational institutions have to face new cultural and educational challenges, once inserted in an increasingly globalized society, which currently deals with knowledge as an economic resource, but at the same time it requires “globalized, educated, responsible and creative human beings” [2], in a kind of “contradiction” that could probably become one of the “engines of history” in the current century. It is also in this context that distance education comes to assume a fundamental role for the development of education itself (in a broad sense). Educational institutions, namely those of higher education, with exclusivity in this way, or in a dual perspective (dual mode: face-to-face and distance), already allow a positive and safe balance of their experiences, taking into account that they expand opportunities for individuals and social groups, confined either by the social agenda (rhythms of life and work), or by space [3]. Today, worldwide, distance education has taken a strategic position. It can be seen as a relevant option to respond to the social and pedagogical demands of education, supported by new information and communication technologies. Censored by some, and misunderstood by others, it has been gaining support from educators, seeking an alternative for those seeking access to education. This paradigm shift demonstrates that today’s society is moving towards increasing adherence to distance education. In addition to this conjuncture, society has turned to the understanding that learning is not something watertight, determined to happen at a specific time and with a standardized configuration and that, on the

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contrary, the education of the present times needs to be constantly reviewed bearing in mind that it is available to everyone at any time and place, as long as it finds technological and pedagogical conditions to be present. This context of emerging renewal requires a recurrent update of didactic and technological methods to the same extent and intensity that requires a proactive attitude on the part of the teachers involved in the process, who must be receptive to changes so that their role does not become out of step and dissociated from the real needs of the educational market [4]. In view of the current socio-historical reality, the issues surrounding distance education in higher education institutions have emerged in an opportunity dimension in which, more than understanding the nature of change, it facilitates the transition process between classroom and virtual in times of pandemic. It is in this context that the DE regime is positioned as an interactive, shared and collaborative structure, assuming its role in the reconfiguration of processes and practices of continuous learning.

6.2 The Digital Transformation in Higher Education Institution (HEI) Digital Transformation (DT) is redesigning all sectors of society, allowing greater efficiency and effectiveness in organizational processes, creating new and interesting business areas, changing, in particular, paradigms in the management and interaction of Higher Education Institutions with the community adjusting its training offers to students’ expectations. The HEIs have gradually adhered to DT, adapting to new social demands. HEIs must play an active role, applying Information and Communication Technologies at the organizational level, maximizing the integration of ICT in their processes, as well as in the context of teaching and learning. HEIs have to develop strategies and actions that allow them to play an active role in the DT process [5]. HEIs integrate digital technologies and online resources to reach all areas of teaching and learning, driving innovation in the pedagogical sector and in teacher training [6]. TD in HEIs allowed the creation of innovative courses, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), Electronic Learning (e-Learning) and Blended Learning (bLearning), as well as a greater integration of students in face-to-face courses according to their needs and expectations. Today, it is possible to integrate Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, Blockchain, Chatboots, Learning Analytcs and Gamification in the context of teaching and learning, allowing to create innovative and integrative learning environments. The higher education institutions and education itself must have the capacity to do more and better and use the Covid-19 pandemic as an “opportunity to innovate”. Distance Education thus emerged as a response to the pandemic situation experienced in our country since March 2020, representing a teaching modality that constitutes a quality alternative for students unable to attend the higher education institution in

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person, based on integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in teaching and learning processes as a means for everyone to have access to education. From one moment to the next, teachers and students found themselves unable to continue the face-to-face classes, having to readjust to a new form of teaching. But what happened in the case of students with special needs? Were these taken into account? Did the students with special needs feel motivated to learn through DE? By taking the perspective of IPMAIA and IESF students with additional support needs in this investigation, we intend to contribute to a more in-depth knowledge of their motivations to attend DE teaching regime in response to the challenges introduced by Covid-19 Pandemic. The objective of this study was to assess, through the application of a questionnaire, IPMAIA and IESF students’ motivations to attend DE teaching regime in response to the challenges introduced by Covid-19 Pandemic. This study is justified by allowing to understand the actions that were taken and their adaptability to the needs of the students with additional support needs.

6.3 Motivation The motivation of students has been highlighted in the educational context as an important factor to be aware of considering a significant learning. Many teachers show great concern about how to motivate students who do not show interest in learning, presenting unsatisfactory results [7]. Teaching in higher education is also known to promote changes in students at various levels, notably at the personal, cognitive, affective and social levels, reflecting both compulsory and non-academic activities [8]. Motivation then emerges as a concept that encompasses different strands of real importance for learning. Among the many lines of research that address this issue, we highlight the Theory of Self-Determination, which assumes that humans have a natural propensity for healthy development and self-regulation [9]. The same authors differentiate human motivation as intrinsic and extrinsic, and, in the first, behavior is motivated by the pleasure of the activity itself, it occurs freely, without restrictions or pressures, originating in psychological needs of competence, self-determination and relationship, whereas in the second, the behavior is motivated by the consequence, the person acts motivated by external factors such as threats, deadlines or rewards, among others. As we mentioned earlier, the HE has been expanding its training offer at the national level in recent years, assuming a decisive role in the formation and qualification of young people. By pursuing this research, from the students’ perspective, we aim to contribute to a deeper understanding of their interests and motivations when they enter the HE, taking into account their socio-educational profile. Knowing the characteristics and motivations of students can contribute to the understanding of the problems they face, as well as pointing out possibilities for improving educational management.

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6.4 Methodology The design adopted in the present investigation is of the exploratory-descriptive type with a qualitative approach based on the application of a questionnaire. Our aim was to assess IPMAIA and IESF students’ motivations to attend DE teaching regime in response to the challenges introduced by Covid-19 Pandemic, also allowing us to understand the actions that were taken and their adaptability to the needs of the students with additional support needs.

6.4.1 Participants In the present study, a non-probabilistic or non-random sampling process was used, using convenience sampling, focusing on the study of students with additional support needs of all levels of teaching at IPMAIA and IESF. Participated in this study 10 students with additional support needs, where most are under 20 years old (7 students). The rest are aged between 20 and 30 years. 6 students attend the 1st year of the degree and 4 attend the 2nd year.

6.4.2 Instrument and Procedures A questionnaire was applied with the intention to know the motivations of the students to attend the E@D. The questionnaire was adapted from the EMA-U scale. The questionnaire consisting of two parts was applied: I—Sociodemographic data, and II—Specific questions in order to obtain information considering the object of study of the present investigation. Part II is organized into 16 items: 1-I study because studying is important to me; 2-I want to study and learn new subjects; 3-I attend higher education to get a better job; 4-I attend higher education out of obligation; 5-Honestly, I don’t know why I attend distance classes; 6-I attend distance classes because they are mandatory; 7-I attend distance classes for the pleasure it gives me to talk to teachers and learn new subjects; 8-I attend distance classes to prove to myself that I can do it; 9-I attend distance classes because I want to complete the course; 10-I think I’m wasting my time with distance classes; 11-I attend distance classes because teaching is a privilege; 12-I don’t understand what I’m doing in my course; 13-I don’t understand what difference it makes to attend distance classes or not; 14-I attend distance classes because I don’t want people to think I’m sloppy; 15-I attend distance classes because they are oriented towards my difficulties; 16-My friends are the main reason I attend distance classes. These items were answered on a scale ranging from little match, match to high match.

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6.5 Results The analysis of part II of the questionnaires allows us to assess the motivation of students with special needs to attend Distance Learning at IPMAIA and IESF. Regarding the results presented in Fig. 6.1, from IPMAIA respondents, the results show that all students consider the items “I attend higher education out of obligation”, “Honestly, I don’t know why I attend distance classes” little corresponding. Most respondents still consider the items “I think I’m wasting my time with distance classes”, “I don’t understand what I’m doing in my course” and “I don’t understand what difference it makes to attend or not to at a distance”. Regarding the very corresponding items, all respondents refer to the item “I attend distance classes because I want to complete the course”. All respondents consider that there is correspondence in the items “I attend distance classes because they are oriented towards my difficulties” and “My friends are the main reason for me to attend distance classes”. The results presented in Fig. 6.2, from the IESF respondents, the results show that all students consider the items “I attend higher education out of obligation”, “I honestly don’t know why I attend distance classes”, “I think that I’m wasting my time with distance classes”, “I don’t understand what I’m doing in my course”, “I attend distance classes because they are oriented towards my difficulties”. Regarding the very corresponding items, all respondents refer to the item “I attend distance classes because I want to complete the course”. All respondents consider that there is correspondence in the item “I attend distance classes because they are mandatory”. Comparing the results obtained by respondents from the two institutions of the study, we can see that they present some similarities, namely in the item with the highest correspondence “I attend distance classes because I want to complete the 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10Q11Q12Q13Q14Q15Q16 Not very correspondent

Correspondent

Very correspondent

Fig. 6.1 Motivation of students with special needs to attend IPMAIA distance learning

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2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10Q11Q12Q13Q14Q15Q16 Not very correspondent

Correspondent

Very correspondent

Fig. 6.2 Motivation of students with special needs to attend IESF distance learning

course” and some items with little correspondence “I attend higher education out of obligation”, “I honestly don’t know why I attend distance classes”, “I think I’m wasting my time with distance classes”, “I don’t understand what I’m doing in my course”.

6.6 Discussion This study aims to assess the motivations of IPMAIA and IESF students to attend the E@D education regime, in response to the challenges introduced by the Covid-19 Pandemic. The results show that students with special needs, from both institutions, attend higher education by choice and are motivated to attend E@D. Respondents know why classes are in this teaching modality and how they intend to finish the course, they attend classes. Given the pandemic situation, institutions had to adapt to this situation, integrating digital technologies and online resources to reach all areas of teaching and learning [6], opening the education system to new ideas [1]. Classes are oriented towards their difficulties and they consider teaching to be a privilege. Teaching must take into account all students and E@D represents an opportunity for all individuals. Higher Education institutions must develop digital transformation strategies and actions that allow them to play an active role [5] and contribute to the success of their students. Once students with special needs demonstrate motivation in E@D, schools should take this opportunity to rethink the teaching and learning process, allowing for the creation of innovative and integrative learning environments.

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6.7 Conclusion After analyzing the results obtained, it was possible to conclude that students do not feel any type of obligation to attend classes in EAD, doing so because they consider their attendance privilege to acquire new knowledge/learning and not because they feel some type of obligation to do it. We were able to conclude that the greatest motivation of students to study is related to the objective of completing the course to demonstrate to themselves and others that they were able to complete the cycle of studies, being also aware of the importance of completing it for the professional path. It was also possible to verify that, despite the exceptional moment experienced due to the Covid-19 Pandemic, responsible for the great change that took place in the education system, alternating between face-to-face teaching and distance learning, students maintained their motivation to the frequency of the course they chose, not having been compromised by the change in the way of teaching, referring that their special needs were taken into consideration. Finally, it was possible to verify that the vast majority of students reported continuing to study, as they consider education a privilege.

References 1. Nóvoa, A.: Para Uma História Do Futuro. Revista Iberoamericana (2009). http://www.rieoei. org/rie49a07_por.pdf. Accessed 22 Feb 2022 2. Nóvoa, A.: Reflexões sobre Formação Continuada e a Formação a Distância. Atos de Pesquisa Em Educação 10(2), 561–567 (2015) 3. Moraes, R.C.C.: Educação a distância e efeitos em cadeia. Cad. Pesqui. 40(140), 547–559 (2010) 4. Corrêa, A., Silva, B.: A docência em EAD e o papel do e-tutor. Revista de Estudios e Investigación En Psicología y Educación 220 (2015). https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2015.0.13.669. Accessed 20 Mar 2022 5. Guthrie, C., et al.: OECD reviews of evaluation and assessment in education: Bulgaria, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education. OECD Publishing, Paris (2022) 6. European Commission.: Transforming higher education: how we teach in the digital age. Key messages from the joint PLA in Malta (2017). https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/ files/2016-pla-digital-highereducation_en.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2022 7. Guimarães, S.E.R., Bzuneck, J.A.: Propriedades psicométricas de um instrumento para avaliação da motivação de universitários. Ciências & Cognição, Ilha do Fundão 13(1), 101–113 (2008) 8. Joly, A., Prates, R.: Avaliação da Escala de Motivação Académica em estudantes paulistas: propriedades psicométricas. Scielo 16(2), 175–184 (2011) 9. Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M.: Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum, Nova Iorque (1985)

Chapter 7

Challenges of Initial Training in Times of Pandemic: Social Education Internship Experience Ana Camões

and Isabel Baptista

Abstract This article addresses the challenges of initial formation in times of pandemics, presenting conclusions resulting from a study on the experience of curricular internship in the degree course in Social Education. In an international context marked by an unprecedented crisis and its human and social consequences, new challenges have arisen for all educators and trainers, especially for those who work in the so-called “front line”, with vulnerable people and communities, as is the case of social educators. For that matter, the study aimed to identify and analyze the challenges, difficulties and learning experiences experienced by final-year Social Education students during their internship period (2019–20), in a higher education institution, located in northern Portugal. The data collected and analyzed highlight traits that are traditionally recognized as structuring the identity profile of social educators while suggesting the need to consolidate and rethink the initial training paradigm, with a focus on the development of complex thinking skills and practical wisdom.

7.1 Introduction The pandemic of COVID-19 affected globally the life of people and communities, in all dimensions, causing changes with significant impact on work routines, especially in the field of education. The challenges generated by this unexpected circumstance assumed particular acuity within the initial training of future social educators, as

A. Camões (B) CIDI-IEES – Instituto Europeu de Estudos Superiores | CEDH/FCT, UCP – Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Fafe | Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Camões · I. Baptista Faculty of Education and Psychology, Research Centre for Human Development, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_7

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professionals dedicated to the intervention in context, according to logics of human proximity, close to people and their problems. “Literally, from one day to the next, we saw the world turned upside down and life, as we knew it, being interrupted by the entrance of an unexpected, unwanted and terrifying guest” [1]. Towards this reality, and with the need to provide continuity to the teaching and learning processes, the face-to-face classes were replaced by the virtual modality, using digital platforms, including, in this case, the Internship activities, developed in the context of practice. This experience challenged both the students and the supervisors and tutors, given that, although there are already “advances in online teaching and virtual learning environments, (…), it has been a major challenge for education to adapt the teaching-learning methodologies to a virtual environment.” [2]. How to develop socio-educational intervention skills without having direct contact with the contexts of practice? How to design and implement projects in dialogue with people, as is a requirement of Social Education, without listening to their needs? What difficulties did the student trainees experience? To what extent did the learning about professional practice, acquired in this context, fit in with the theoretical knowledge acquired during initial training? What new learning has emerged? In order to answer these questions, we tried to understand how the students lived this training process, specifically within the scope of the Course Unit (CU) called “Internship”, included in the study plan of the Social Education course, corresponding to the last year of the study cycle. That is, the year of completion of the course and preparation to the professional life.

7.2 Curricular Internship—Training Requirements in Situation and in Relation Social Education corresponds, simultaneously, to an area of academic training and professional activity, being framed by Social Pedagogy and, as such, marked by technical-pedagogical polyvalence, by the plurality of performances and by the diversity of work contexts. After all, it is about trying to promote lifelong learning conditions for all people, without exception. As an “intrinsically innovative educational knowledge that produces a significant impact on human development processes, especially among the most vulnerable people,” [3], Social Pedagogy equips social educators with tools that make them capable of finding appropriate, unique and creative responses to the problems and challenges that emanate from social contexts, thus becoming professionals with a unique profile established in humanized pedagogical practices that boost personal and social development [4]. Precisely, in a pandemic crisis scenario the social contexts require increasingly qualified and differentiated professionals, and this is where social educators come in, who act with the intention of “guiding people in outlining and building life projects,

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and this whole process is carried out with and for the “other”, seen as a person wrapped in dreams, desires and responsibility for their life path.” [5] recognizing their capacities, strengthening them and stimulating the individual’s participation in their life projects. In the case of Social Education, it is intended that these practices be developed from initial training, where it is imperative to promote contact experiences with real work contexts. The curricular unit of Internship aims precisely to achieve these goals. The “internship goes beyond a staging, a situation of mere assessment in the training process, as it can enable students/trainees to carry out a theoretical-practical, critical—reflective activity” [6], contributing to draw a path for the promotion of personal and professional development. In this context, it is intended that students participate in real work situations, with a view to approaching the functions inherent to their future professional activity. In this particular case, it is expected that the future social educators apply and develop the theoretical knowledge acquired throughout their academic training, that they put into practice the knowledge obtained in the different curricular units that integrate the course, according to training-action logics directed at the acquisition of specific competences, consonant with their ethical-professional profile, “recording the demands of professional reflexivity of social educators in the framework of an “ethics of hospitality” based on the values of welcome, responsibility and kindness as a condition for ethical and aesthetic qualification of the socio-educational action” [7]. Through this perspective, it is considered that, as a reference figure and an influencer of the socio-pedagogical process, the social educator needs, therefore, a constant reflective attitude, supported by their own ethical skills, “an essential ethical requirement that (…) leads the social educator to another level of relationship, to the reflective relationship with himself, so necessary for the development of professional maturity” [8].

7.3 Methodological Option Considering the objectives set out, the study was framed by a qualitative methodology, using documental analysis and direct enquiry of actors, through the collection of personal narratives, valued as “a symbolic account of the actions of human beings that has a temporal dimension” [9]. In other words, it is recognized that the use of recording memories about significant experiences enhances the critical and reflective function, favouring the formative processes. It should be noted that the “use of narratives in initial training contexts (…) is likely to lead the narrator to understand the historicity of his/her learning” [10]. For that matter, the narrative can function, simultaneously, as an instrument of training and research. This is why in the training of social educators we often use the socalled “logbooks”, considered “as a privileged vehicle for reflection on practices”

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[11]. In fact, “narratives do not speak for themselves, nor have any merit without being analyzed, they require interpretation when used as research data” [12]. Thus, we proceeded to collect narratives, produced by a set of 13 student trainees (total number of final-year students of the academic year 2019–2020 of the institution in reference), based on a script and the explanation of the proper research protocols. Eleven students, 10 female and one male, aged between 20 and 44 years, agreed to participate in this study, having given their free consent. “The participants were purposively selected based on their experience of internship in confinement and were invited to record this experience in the form of a “diary”, recognizing, as previously mentioned, that it is a form of expression and (…) an effective way of reflecting and learning” [12], corresponding to a time period between November and December 2021. Since this is a process of questioning actors involving sensitive personal data, special attention was paid to the ethical issues of the research. As such, participants were previously informed “and clarified about all aspects related to their participation in the research, (…) and could even withdraw their consent at any time during the research” [13]. For this purpose, we also followed the recommendations for scientific research in Education Sciences, recommended in our academic context of reference, the Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP), described in article 11, paragraph (b) of the Code of Ethics and Conduct [14]. In the same way, in order to safeguard the requirements of confidentiality and anonymity, we duly coded the testimonies. With regard to the data processing and analysis criteria, three dimensions of analysis were used (challenges, difficulties and new learning experiences), corresponding, respectively, to the previously stated objectives which, for this purpose, worked as main categories, opportunely broken down into subcategories in order to translate the meanings emerging from the research process.

7.4 Traineeship in Times of Pandemic—Challenges, Difficulties and Learning Experiences According to the categorization process mentioned above and based on the participants’ testimonies, which “help us understand what evolves in the situation, leading us to a situation of deeper reflection” [11], we found that the general feeling towards this unprecedented internship experience was the loss of face-to-face contact between students and the lack of connection to the practice context. This situation led to a disruptive period, and it was not possible to fulfil the objectives initially proposed by the UC. The first concerns emerged here, as evidenced in the participants’ words: “the internship was interrupted due to covid 19 which made participatory action research very difficult:” (P4), thus jeopardizing the implementation of the respective intervention projects. After the initial concerns about the interruption of the on-site internship, specific difficulties were generated, such as the difficulty in accepting this interruption, which

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created a lot of anxiety and a desire to quit, as well as uncertainty regarding the completion of the course. “From then on everything became very uncertain. The feeling of anxiety and anguish took over, because the uncertainty about the completion of the degree was constant” (P1). They never knew how the next day would be, they simply lived one day at a time, always depending on the evolution of the pandemic, with back and forth and many tears in between. Negative feelings such as anguish, anxiety, fear and loneliness caused by the whole situation, i.e. due to the isolation and the new forms of intervention, were, indeed, an emphasis felt by the student trainees “(…) it also left me with a lot of anxiety and fear because I was in a race against time (…) the anxiety and the fear of failure started to come alive and took over us (…) I still had to add the adversities at a personal level, which were not so light, I think I can dare to say I went through terrible days.” (P8). Students experienced situations that changed their way of studying and interacting with the practice context. According to what was witnessed, the major challenges occurred due to the lack of time for the implementation of the intervention project, which caused many unforeseen events, such as the fact that they were not able to put their intervention project into practice, since it was not possible to implement the activities designed for and with people online, as we can see in the participants’ speech fragments, At my internship site they asked me if it would be possible to implement my project online, I said no! How was I going to carry out activities with parents and with children via online when the activities would have to be face to face? (P6). Admitting that challenges are linked to learning, and believing that the learning acquired in the context of practice is increasingly important for the future of student trainees, i.e., for future social educators, since “the demands of the labour market and the current social problems assume new outlines and paradigms that require differentiated responses and ways of acting” [4], we believe that it is precisely the learning described by the participants that lead us to think about new training needs within the scope of Social Pedagogy. New learnings such as online learning, the ability to adapt to turn these setbacks around, gaining the ability to adjust to unexpected situations, resilience and creativity thus emerge in evidence. As stated in the Education Council 2020 Report “We are seeing a return to the importance attached to intrinsic motivation and the acquisition of skills such as being able to cope with uncertainty, risk, frustration and loneliness.” [15], thus promoting the adaptation of each student in the face of adversity. These new learning experiences, both at a personal, social and professional level, were well evidenced in the participants words, as we can verify “I always managed to turn things around, which made me a person with more determination, with more courage, with more firmness and also with more aptitude” (P8). Another learning was “having continued with the internship via online” (P3), since no trainee felt “prepared to think of an intervention project at the internship site that was online” (P6), however, they managed to adapt, increasing “creativity, longing, the ability to adapt, and very importantly, increasing solidarity with the other” (P10), where it was also possible to “deepen knowledge, exchange opinions and meet new

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people” (P7), thus developing new knowledge involving digital tools. These are the learning experiences most felt and evidenced in the participants’ narratives. According to [2] “The situation in which we find ourselves should reinforce, more than ever, that Social Pedagogy is a science focused on human-social problems, in direct contact with people’s reality”. This idea reinforces that the praxis of the social educator, “as a socio-pedagogical intervention specifically aimed at working closely with people and human groups in situations of vulnerability and social exclusion,” [16], should be learned from the practice contexts, which was not the case. Despite the whole situation of instability and full of setbacks, the students, recognize positive points, manage to look back and laugh at all the things that haunted and complicated the path, because they were stronger, even in the most difficult situations. They stress the importance of proximity intervention, “a welfare worker needs to work closely with people” (P10), because it is only by paying attention to people that it is possible to intervene according to their needs and wishes, this being one of the values endorsed by Social Pedagogy, as the core knowledge of welfare workers. The students recognize the strangeness, but believe that it may be a new practice, i.e. “doing an online internship, without direct contact with people, is different to say the least, but from now on, it may become a more “normal” practice than up to now” (P2), which indicates that new forms of practice contexts may emerge, they may be adapted to virtual mobility using digital platforms. However, “education cannot thrive on ready-made content constructed (…) outside human relationships (…) neither can it depend on digital platforms controlled by private companies” [17]. Here, then, lies a challenge for the initial training of future social educators. In summary, the data collected, through the narratives of the participants (student trainees) suggest the need to rethink the initial training paradigm, with a focus on valuing contexts of practice and at the same time reinforcing the fundamental principles of socio-pedagogical action, related to humanistic and relational values. We refer, for example, the need to “promote students’ intellectual, social and moral capacities to work together and transform the world with empathy and compassion.” [18]. This idea becomes extremely important for the practice contexts of social educators, since they work in the so called “front line”, with vulnerable people and communities. Thus, we believe that the Internship curricular unit, if properly structured, regulated and directed to the new practice contexts, plays a key role in the academic and professional training process of the social educator, even in challenging contexts and requiring the adoption of new approach and communication strategies.

7.5 Final Reflections The UNESCO Report 2021, entitled “Reimagining our futures together: a new social contract for Education”, published on 10 November 2021, draws attention to two educational trends that are overlapping and leading to selfishness and individualism. We are talking about digital education (also known as online or remote education) and

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homeschooling, to the detriment of what is the matrix of education, which favours collaboration, interaction, relationship and proximity. This idea is entirely related to the essence of Social Education. Social educators, “endowed with resilience (…) believe and seek to invest in professional growth and in the differentiation of their action in the construction of a society guided by humanistic values, which mirrors equity.” [4]. It is precisely this belief that leads us to consider that the contexts of practice, in training, have to be (re)valued and (re)thought out, because only then will future professionals be prepared for the labour market. The pandemic has highlighted the need for a change in the initial training of social educators insofar as “we should not sit back passively and observe what happens,” if, however, this has put into question the traditional values of the socio-educational intervention, on the contrary. We conclude this study with the conviction that the student trainees finished the course without the necessary practical training to face the professional contexts, namely regarding the direct and active contact with the practice context, where they should develop the relationship of proximity, hospitality, solidarity, where the activities designed and developed for and with people are very close to the tasks carried out in the future labour market. For this reason it is urgent to think of new practical training strategies that improve the skills needed to face unexpected situations, such as this pandemic situation, i.e. there is a need to consolidate and rethink the initial training paradigm, focusing on the development of practical wisdom skills. To this end, it is also important to listen to those responsible for conducting the training process, the tutors and supervisors, so that a new training process can be outlined for the Internship curricular units.

References 1. Baptista, I.: Ética e Pedagogia do Cuidar. In: Ilharco, F. (coord.) A Sociedade do Cuidado, pp. 100–107. Universidade Católica Editora, Lisboa (2021) 2. Pérez-de-Guzmán, V., Do Poço Serrano, J., Pascual Barrios, M.: Pedagogia social em tempos de pandemia: relatos da academia e da pesquisa. Educação social. Revista de intervenção socioeducativa, nº 78, pp. 15–32 (2021). https://raco.cat/index.php/EducacioSocial/article/ view/384125. Accessed 09 Feb 2022 3. Vaz, C., Baptista, I.: Pedagogia Social e Inovação Socioeducativa – Imperativos de formação académica. Brazilian J. Dev. 7(8), 77886–77898 (2021) 4. Camões, A.: Formação Contínua e Ethos Profissional - O caso dos Educadores Sociais em Portugal (Tese de Doutoramento não publicada). Universidade Católica Portuguesa. Porto, Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia (2018) 5. Machado, R.: Ética e Formação de Adultos: Estatuto do Formador TCA. (Dissertação de Mestrado). Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa. Porto (2008) 6. Andrade, R.C.R.: Prática de Ensino e Estágio Supervisionado no processo de Formação de Professores. Revista Ciranda, Montes Claros, v. 1, n. 1, pp. 125–143 (2020). https://www.per iodicos.unimontes.br/index.php/ciranda/article/view/1579/3211. Accessed 09 Feb 2022

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7. Baptista, I.: Ética e Educação social - interpelações de contemporaneidade. In: SIPS - Pedagogia Social. Revista Interuniversitária, vol. 19, pp. 37–49 (2012). http://www.redalyc.org/articulo. oa?id=135025474003. Accessed 02 Feb 2022 8. Baptista, I.: Inovação, Pedagogia Social e Desenvolvimento Humano. In: Vieira, A.M., Vieira, R., Marques, J.C. (orgs.). Temas e Contextos de Pedagogia- Educação Social, pp. 59–86. Edições Afrontamento, Porto (2021) 9. Sarbin, T.: The narrative and the root metaphor for psychology. Narrative Psychology. T. Sarbin. Praeger, New York (1986) 10. Abrahão, M.H.M.B., Passeggi, M.: As narrativas de formação, a teoria do professor reflexivo e a autorregulação da aprendizagem: uma possível aproximação. In: Simão, V., Frison, Abrahão Autorregulação da aprendizagem e narrativas autobiográficas, pp. 53–71. Natal: EDUFRN: Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS (2012) 11. Banks, S., Nøhr, K. (Coord.).: Ética Prática para as Profissões do Trabalho Social. Porto Editora, Porto (2008) 12. Amado, J. (Coord.).: Manual de investigação qualitativa em educação. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra (2014) 13. Carta Ética da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação (2020). http://www.spce.org. pt/assets/files/CARTA-TICA2.EDICAOFINAL-2020-COMPACTADO.pdf. Accessed 15 Jan 2022 14. Código de Ética e de Conduta da Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) (2015). https://m. porto.ucp.pt/sites/default/files/files/CRP/UCP_CEC_out16_PT.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2022 15. Conselho Nacional de Educação. Estado da Educação 2020, Conselho Nacional de Educação (CNE), Lisboa (2021). ISBN: 978-989-8841-39-1. https://www.cnedu.pt/content/edicoes/est ado_da_educacao/EE2020_WEB_04.pdf 16. Azevedo, J., Baptista, I.: Educadores Sociais: o que são? O que fazem? Como desejam ser reconhecidos? Cadernos de Pedagogia Social, Cadernos de Pedagogia Social, vol. 2, pp. 45–60. Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Porto (2008) 17. UNESCO: education in a post-COVID world: Nine ideas for public action (2020). https://en. unesco.org/news/education-post-covid-world-nine-ideas-public-action. Accessed 15 Feb 2022 18. UNESCO: Reimagining our futures together: a new social contract for education (2021). https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707. Accessed 01 Feb 2022

Chapter 8

The Impact of Reading Habits on School Success: Perspectives of Student and Teacher Librarians Pedro Lopes , César Freitas , João Pascoinho, Estrela Paulo , Rosa Martins , Sofia Gonçalves , Joana Cavalcanti , and Teresa Macedo Abstract The study aims to identify the impact of reading habits on the academic success of students who completed the 9th year of schooling in the 2019–2020 school year, in the school named Agrupamento de Escolas de Alpendorada, school of North of Portugal and to what extent the School Library (SL) contributed to the construction of these reading habits, from the perspectives of the students and librarian teachers involved. This article is divided into two parts—the first, which presents the theoretical framework of SL as a promoter of reading, the action of the librarian teacher, also looking at reading habits as a factor of school success, and the second, dedicated to the presentation and analysis of the data collected in the P. Lopes (B) Agrupamento de Escolas de Alpendorada, Alpendurada e Matos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Freitas · J. Pascoinho · E. Paulo · R. Martins · S. Gonçalves · J. Cavalcanti · T. Macedo Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Paulo e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] S. Gonçalves e-mail: [email protected] J. Cavalcanti e-mail: [email protected] T. Macedo e-mail: [email protected] C. Freitas Centro de Investigação Transdisciplinar “Cultura, Espaço e Memória” (CITCEM), Porto, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_8

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questionnaires applied to students and librarian teachers and in the observation of the final evaluations of the students in the previous academic year, in the statistical data related to the home requisition of books and in the evaluation reports of the last three years of the SL. The data allowed us to conclude that students with more and better academic success are simultaneously those who cultivate better reading habits and those who most value and take advantage of SL’s action.

8.1 Introduction Nowadays it is widely accepted that reading is essential for learning and consequently for achieving academic success. Therefore, the means of developing reading habits are a central concern of the School which must work together to encourage them inside and outside the classroom. To fulfill this purpose the School must be in tune with the specifics of the media and information society, taking into account the way in which young readers currently interact with information. In this context SL must assume itself as an organism capable of helping to consciously promote the training of critical readers who gradually and autonomously build knowledge and educational success. However until we arrived at this model of the reader, the school had to focus on the concept of what it is, in reality, to read, abandoning its traditional mechanical and static way of encouraging reading without giving importance to the meanings that come from this an act in which a broad relationship is established with the text and a mediating action between it, the reader and the context [1, 2]. With this study, we seek to analyze the contribution of SL to the development of reading habits of a group of students from a school in the municipality of Marco de Canaveses and the importance of these reading habits in achieving their academic success.

8.1.1 The School Library and the Promotion of Reading Until the last decades of the 20th century, the nature of SL did not change significantly, remaining a place similar to a book deposit, functioning as a passive and closed organism. This circumstance is addressed by Cabral, when verifying that the SL is one of the least valued sectors of the school: “(…) it is a meeting room, it is a classroom, it is, how often, a small room with closed cabinets with network ports, containing books of no interest” [3, p. 72]. Calixto expresses a similar view referring to the entire physical, material and human universe of SL when he considers that “talking about a school library in Portugal is talking about something that does not exist, if we want to be rigorous in the use of the concept” [4].

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In fact, for a long time, SL was a space without dynamics, strategy or connection to the curriculum or the Educational Project, clearly an organization that was attributed less importance. However the educational system gradually valued SL more due to its lack of adaptation to technological advances and in December 1989, in n. 3 of GEPEDUCAÇÃO, a first news of the sub-program “School Mediatecas” appears realizing that “reading is a determining factor in a child’s school success and SL can play an important role not only in learning to read and write but also in raising awareness and establishing habits of analysis and research” [5]. Through the law no. 43/ME/MC/95 of 29 December, which launched the School Libraries Network, the intention was to begin to remove SL from the lack of innovation to which it was referred [6]. In 1996/97 with the implementation of the School Library Network Program, there was a great improvement in the modernization of the SL, making it more adapted to the functions for which it exists, accepting the stimuli of a society in permanent transformation, as mentioned in the launch report: “The transformation of the school library can have a driving effect on school change in general. But this transformation (…) will have to correspond to a need of the school itself, at least of the most innovative and dynamic sectors, and, in particular, of its management bodies” [7]. In all public schools the SL began to be conceived as multimedia centers, being equipped with resources for reading and multimodal interaction with information in different supports. SL should provide the best information opportunities so that students’ daily lives make sense and so that they are independent and constructive [8]. For this it is important to build information connections that lead to a greater understanding of Man and his world, as stated by Freire [9]. From this interaction comes the conquest of critical, divergent thinking, openness to new realities, close contact with careful writing and contact with the richness and potential of language, as the expressive capital of peoples. Modern SL must stand out for its contribution to the participatory construction of knowledge. In other words “it must be directed towards strengthening, connectivity, participation, interactivity and its result/end product is the construction of knowledge” [8] and, also, the reading of fruition, which boosts capacity imaginative, in dialogue with the text, inferring, predicting and creating new meanings. The role of SL as spaces of knowledge and memory must be enriched with new forms of interaction with knowledge, striving for the development of various literacies, especially reading, information and digital [10]. To this end there must be a link between SL and the school’s Educational Project, with cooperation between curriculum teachers, important and conscientious mediators, and the librarian professor being essential, with obvious advantages in learning the curricula. These designs are in line with the objectives set out in the IFLA/UNESCO Manifest about SL [11]. The IFLA guidelines for SL point to the need for it to have an educational program integrated into the curricular contents, promoting the development of different skills, of which we highlight the “Capabilities and attitudes related to reading and literacy, the pleasure of reading, reading for learning across multiple platforms, as well as

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the transformation, communication and dissemination of text in multiple forms and modes, which allow for the development of meaning and understanding” [12].

8.1.2 Reading Habits as a Factor of School Success The stimulation of reading habits in which SL should be committed namely through various activities with greater or lesser connection to the curriculum, finds a very positive support in the activities and specific programs for the various education levels. In fact this connection could enhance the habit of reading and make reading an activity of capital importance for the development of numerous skills of structuring thought. This transversality of reading presides over the objectives of the National Reading Plan, which begins with the investment in pre-school education, through the presentation of a wide range of works of potential children’s reception, registered in the PNL (National Reading Plan) which must be mediated immediately in the first years of life, so that the foundations of interaction with knowledge are soon established. Santos developed a study in the Coimbra area, focused on 544 secondary school students, with the aim of finding out if students with more reading habits are more successful at school using the existence or number of failures as an indicator. The conclusion reached by the author was that effectively “there is a certain association between the comprehension of texts and school success […] difficulties in understanding and interpreting texts” [13]. The mediation of readings provided by all the agents involved in this process and the consequent promotion of literacy and reading are central to the action of SL as they are the basis of all learning. Krashen concluded that research shows that there is a direct relationship between the reading level and learning outcomes and that access to reading materials is a key factor in developing enthusiastic and competent readers [14]. Monteiro considers that the school library is one of the school’s structures that can benefit student results by improving reading and writing performance [15]. This focus on reading as a means and as an end begins by being playful, but without neglecting its comprehensive feature, adding the construction of autonomy as an objective [15]. In fact reading has a transversal character since the student’s academic success largely depends on the mastery of this skill. Knowledge recorded through writing requires students to reach it through reading [16] and mastering all the rules underlying a language, whose acquisition is facilitated by contact with literary works of diverse genres [17]. Thus, being an activity present throughout the school course, reading must be promoted for the formation of efficient readers who develop the discursive capacity that they will use in all subjects, avoiding failure, frustration and social exclusion.

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8.2 Method Participated in the study are 105 students attending the 10th year of schooling in the school named Agrupamento de Escolas de Alpendorada, in the municipality of Marco de Canaveses, North of Portugal, and two librarian teachers from the same school. Most of the students (64) are 15 years old (61%); with thirty 16 year olds (28.6%); 17 years old 10 students (9.5%) responded and 1 student is 18 years old (1%). The mean is approximately 15.5 years. In the distribution by gender 50 are girls (47.6%) and 55 are boys (52.4%). Teacher librarians are 47 and 49 years old, with 8 and 11 years of professional experience as a librarian teacher, and have academic and continuing education appropriate to the positions. The perception that students, mediator teachers and librarian teachers have of SL’s contribution to the promotion of reading habits during the last three years and the impact that these reading habits had on school success at the end of the 9th year was collected using a questionnaire survey created and validated for the study. The remaining data analyzed result from the systematization of data from the final internal evaluation guidelines and from the database on book requisitions for home reading.

8.3 Results By triangulating the set of data collected according to the fundamental vectors of this research, it is possible to highlight a set of results regarding the link between reading, SL and school success at the end of the 9th school year: (a) Students’ conceptions about their own reading habits, reading, reading in relation to learning: From the analysis of these data it is possible to draw the following main conclusions: 1. Most students like to read (60% of the total respondents like to read or like to read very much and 40% do not like or do not like it at all to read) but have few reading habits; 2. Most students who read do it to learn (42.9% of the total of subjects who have reasons to read) and to relax (40.5% of the total of subjects who have reasons to read); 3. Most students who do not read are more interested in other activities (44.8% of the total of subjects who have reasons for not reading), lack of time to read (36.2% of the total of subjects who have reasons for not reading) and lack of interesting books (30.5% of the total number of subjects who present reasons for not reading); 4. Most students recognize that reading contributes a lot to learning (95.2% of the total responses in the item) and considers that students who read a lot obtain better school results (50 students, 52, 5% of the total responses in the item) are more creative (69 students, 72.45% of the total responses in the item), write correctly (82 students, 86.3% of the total responses in the item) and have the more developed reasoning (72 students, 75.6% of the total responses in the item).

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(b) Students’ conceptions about the importance of SL in promoting reading and increasing educational success: It is worth highlighting: 1. Almost all students consider that SL is very important in promoting reading (87.6% of the total responses to the item), although only a minority frequently attend it with some regularity (6.7% of the total of respondents in the item visited the school library eleven times or more in the period and 73.3% of the respondents visited the library 10 or less times during the school period), order books for reading at home (62.9% of the total of respondents in the item requested one to three books) or participate in reading promotion activities (76.2% of respondents in this item do not participate in reading promotion activities); 2. Most students do not value the role of SL in achieving educational success (92 respondents, 87.6% of the total sample, consider that the school library did not play an important role in achieving success in the end of the school year). (c) Perception of teacher librarians about the impact of their work on student success: In this item it is verified that: 1. The two librarian teachers value reading habits and their relationship with learning in a positive and identical way; 2. The two librarian professors have different perceptions of the quantity and quality of the work they carry out in favor of the development of reading and writing habits use of SL resources, development of cooperation, autonomy and responsibility of students, development of partnerships and use of digital tools; 3. One of the librarian teachers considers the number of activities developed to help promote reading habits in the 7th, 8th and 9th year of schooling students to be insufficient, but both librarians evaluate the contribution of the activities promoted by the SL with a view to developing reading habits so that students achieve more and better academic success at the end of the 9th year of schooling, which is contradictory because there is at the same time an appreciation and a devaluation of the same assumption. (d) Success obtained: After identifying the students with the best academic performance, the data from the internal evaluation was crossed and analyzed with the basis of requests for reading at home and the conceptions about their reading habits and their perception of SL’s work in the development of same: 1. Twenty-four of the 33 students (22% of the 150 students attending the curricular year in the group) with level four or five (on a five-point scale) in the subjects of Portuguese, History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Physicochemical Sciences are the ones that most requested books from the school library (between 5 and 22 books requested per year as they value reading in various contexts and recognize it as a success factor; 2. Most of these students recognize

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the importance of SL in the development of reading habits but do not consider its action to be decisive in achieving school success. Many of these students are among those who mention that SL’s activities are not enough and among those who make proposals for reading promotion activities to be developed by SL.

8.4 Discussion From the analysis of the questionnaires applied to the students it is proven that their reading habits have low frequency, intensity and quality. Observing the evolution of reading habits, for example, it is verified that it is not very significant since a large part of the students do not feel very motivated to read and in fact read little. The little importance attributed by a large number of students to reading is at the base of the types of reading performed and the little daily time dedicated to this activity but also the admitted reading difficulties and the low adherence to SL activities that promote reading. This attitude of students towards reading is worrying because a “bad reader” is a student who is on the way to school failure because having difficulties in reading is often a cause of discouragement, disinterest and failure and consequent abandonment school [18]. And being a good reader is not just reading well but also enjoying reading and reading for/with pleasure [18], understanding what read. This insufficient relationship of many students with reading does not bring them closer to SL—many admit that they do not participate in the activities developed by this structure because they are infrequent and arouse little interest. In addition many students point out the lack of promotion of reading, on the part of SL, through digital tools, and others mention the little realization of activities that imply projects and partnerships with entities outside the school. It is, above all, a fundamental problem in the formation of readers which begins in the family and deepens at school with social implications [18]. Numerous international studies show the correlation between SL and school success [19]. Silva states that “school libraries are therefore a privileged space for the construction of educational success, providing training, education, information, leisure and culture, thus being considered as “the true centers of knowledge” [20]. And students who attend schools whose libraries have these characteristics seem to score higher on standardized tests, read better, and are more successful in all subjects, regardless of socioeconomic background and parental education levels [20]. That is why Vellosillo considers that SL is “the one that turns the whole curriculum development, the engine of the change and the improvement, in the first place of the educational system and later and as a consequence of the social framework in all cultural, ethical and aesthetic aspects” [21].

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8.5 Conclusions The study aimed to evaluate the reading habits of the surveyed students to reflect critically on the role of SL in their development and to understand the importance of reading habits in the construction of school success. At the same time this research can contribute to a characterization of the profile of school students leaving the 9th year of schooling in terms of habits and perspectives regarding reading. The aforementioned factors of distancing students from SL are in line with the weaknesses pointed out, for example, in the SL Assessment document for 2017–2018 [22]. The investigation carried out constitutes an attempt to partially study a metaphenomenon [23] in which we sought to identify the subject, the object and the phenomenon, in order to understand some of the conditions in which this reality manifests itself. Thus, the phenomenon is school success, the subject is the students and the object is reading habits. In this tripartite relationship, we found that SL has little influence on the phenomenon under study, as it does not arouse sufficient adherence to its program in students. Despite this we found that almost all students with more and better academic success are simultaneously those who cultivate better reading habits and those who most value and take advantage of SL’s action. Based on the results obtained it is concluded therefore, as stated by Neves that reading habits are essential for school success [24]. Given the importance of reading comprehension throughout the teaching-learning process, on which educational success largely depends, and considering the improvements to be implemented by SL to assert itself as a polarizing center of knowledge, in the future this project as a management instrument of functional and institutional value, it should be extended to each teaching cycle, as part of a broader study that characterizes the environment in detail, that verifies the adequacy of guiding documents, such as the Educational and Curricular Projects of Schools and that considering the educational policies it was established as a constructor of a true reading strategy of the school and the community.

References 1. Azevedo, F.: Formar leitores: das teorias às práticas. Lidel, Lisboa (2007) 2. Azevedo, F., Sardinha, G.: Modelos e Práticas em Literacia. Lidel, Lisboa (2009) 3. Cabral, A.: BE: problemas e perspetivas de desenvolvimento. Separata de “Bibliotheca Portucalensis”, 2.ª S, 71–81 (1988) 4. Calixto, J.: A biblioteca escolar e a sociedade da informação. Editorial Caminho, Lisboa (1996) 5. GEPEDUCAÇÃO: Boletim do Gabinete de Estudos e Planeamento do Ministério da Educação. GEPME, Lisboa (1989) 6. Despacho Conjunto n.º 43/ME/MC/95 de 29 de Dezembro. https://www.rbe.mec.pt/np4/94. html. Accessed 24 Mar 2022 7. Veiga, I., et al.: Lançar a Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares: relatório síntese. Ministério da Educação, Lisboa (1996) 8. Ross, T.: O Que Queremos Para o Futuro das Bibliotecas Escolares. RBE, Lisboa (2011) 9. Freire, P.: A importância do Ato de ler. Cortez, S. Paulo (1990)

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10. Silva, L.M.: BEs: um Contributo para a sua Justificação, Organização e Dinamização. Livraria Minho, Braga (2000) 11. IFLA/UNESCO: School Library Manifesto (1999). www.ifla.org/publications/.iflaunesco-sch ool-library-manifesto-1999. Accessed 24 Mar 2022 12. IFLA/UNESCO: Diretrizes da IFLA para a Biblioteca Escolar (2015). https://www.ifla.org/ files/assets/school-libraries-resource-centers/publications/ifla-school-library-guidelines-pt. pdf. Accessed 24 Mar 2022 13. Santos, E.: Hábitos de leitura em crianças e adolescentes. Um estudo em escolas secundárias. Quarteto, Coimbra (2000) 14. Krashen, S.D.: The Power of Reading: insights from the Research, 2nd edn. Libraries Unlimited, Westport, CT (2004) 15. Monteiro, F.R.L.: Redes de Cooperação na Promoção da Leitura e do Sucesso Educativo: Um Estudo de Caso num Concelho do Interior Norte de Portugal. Dissertação de Mestrado. UTAD, Chaves (2012) 16. Martins, M.E.O., Sá, C.M.B.F.: Ser leitor no Século XXI – Importância da compreensão na leitura para o exercício pleno de uma cidadania responsávele activa. http://www.casadaleitura. org/portalbeta/bo/documentos/ot_serleitorsecXXI_a.pdf. Accessed 24 Mar 2022 17. Pedro, C., Freitas, C., Pascoinho, J., Paulo, E., Gonçalves, S.: The school library and the promotion of reading and writing: evaluation of the reading and writing project “Small Readers/Future Writers”. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Carvalho, J.V. (eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 256. Springer, Singapore (2022) 18. Gonçalves, C.M.A.: As competências literácitas no ensino básico: aprendizagens (im)perfeitas em escrita e leitura. Tese de Doutoramento. UBI, Covilhã (2014) 19. Novo, A.: Bibliotecário escolar, biblioteca e sucesso educativo: uma revisão da literatura. In: Calixto, J.A. (eds.). Ter ou não ter bibliotecário escolar: valor e impacto dos recursos humanos nas bibliotecas escolares, pp. 51–70. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa (2007) 20. Silva, L.M.: Bibliotecas escolares e construção do sucesso educativo. Instituto de Educação e Psicologia da Universidade do Minho, Braga (2002) 21. Silva, M.I.P.: A biblioteca escolar e as TIC: modelo para novas aprendizagens: estudo de caso em três escolas secundárias da Região Autónoma da Madeira. Tese de Doutoramento. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid (2008) 22. RBE: Modelo de Avaliação da BE. https://rbe.mec.pt/np4/?newsId=2192&fileName=978_ 989_8795_09_0Print.pdf. Accessed 24 Mar 2022 23. Gil, J.: A imagem-nua e as pequenas perceções. Estética e Metafenomenologia. Relógio D’água, Lisboa (2005) 24. Neves, S.F.S.: Hábitos de leitura e sucesso escolar – um estudo de caso em alunos no final no ensino básico. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique, Porto (2010)

Chapter 9

The Promotion of Playful Reading—Evaluation by the Participants of the “10 Minutes Reading” Project Cristina Ribeiro , César Freitas , João Pascoinho , Estrela Paulo , Rosa Martins , Sofia Gonçalves , Joana Cavalcanti , and Teresa Macedo Abstract The present study aimed to assess the effectiveness of the “10 min Reading” project in promoting a taste for playful reading in the students covered by it at the Basic and Secondary School of Airães, northern Portugal. This case study aimed to: i. evaluate the implementation of the “10 min Reading” project, of the National Reading Plan (NRP), by the School Library, ii. verify the impacts of this project on students’ playful reading habits, before and after its implementation, iii. to assess the perception of the dynamic teachers about the students’ playful reading habits, their importance in the respective school course and the relevance and usefulness of projects aimed at their promotion, v. compare the expectations of the dynamic teachers when joining C. Ribeiro (B) Agrupamento de Escolas de Airães – Felgueiras, Felgueiras, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Freitas · J. Pascoinho · E. Paulo · R. Martins · S. Gonçalves · J. Cavalcanti · T. Macedo Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto Europeu de Estudos Superiores (CIDI-IEES), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Paulo e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] S. Gonçalves e-mail: [email protected] J. Cavalcanti e-mail: [email protected] T. Macedo e-mail: [email protected] C. Freitas Centro de Investigação Transdisciplinar “Cultura, Espaço e Memória” (CITCEM), Porto, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_9

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the project, the results perceived throughout the project and future expectations and vi. demonstrate the importance of the School Library in promoting playful reading. The results of the study based on a questionnaire survey applied to the students and teachers participating in the project, reveal a positive perception of the teachers and students involved about the implementation and impact of the “10 min Reading” project and relevant changes in students’ taste and reading habits.

9.1 Introduction The only way to train competent readers is to integrate them into contexts that promote the taste for books and reading. All activities associated with reading are important: meetings with writers, visits to libraries, bookstores or book fairs, literary competitions, bibliographic exhibitions, literary expressions associated with music, cinema or theater, reading animation projects, reading clubs, among others. To promote reading, and in particular playful, free reading, reading for pleasure, it is important to underline that “Reading is not promoted with extra-reading activities. Reading is promoted by reading. Just like that.” [1, p. 30]. Diversified reading experiences promote the child’s cognitive, affective, and aesthetic development and contribute decisively to increasing comprehension and oral and written expression, as fundamental skills for academic and professional success [2, 3]. It is therefore necessary that those primarily responsible for reading mediation—family and school/school library—design reading activities with care in selecting books appropriate to the motivations and interests of children and young people, organise spaces and times for reading and propose activities and strategies for reading animation to foster the “adventure of reading” [4]. The School Library is instrumental in promoting books and reading. Therefore, it should seek to identify the reading habits and the opinion of young readers and teachers about the activities developed in this space [5]. To promote the taste and habit of reading, the School Library must develop strategic actions and promote initiatives included in the National Reading Plan, such as the “10 min Reading” project.

9.1.1 From Childhood to Adolescence—Playful Reading and the (Dis)Love for Reading Children have contact with books long before they learn to read. In environments that promote the emergence of literacy in preschool [6, 7], but also in family contexts [8], the child hears books purposely written and chosen for them read aloud and explores them freely, acquiring and developing reader behavior. The intonation, rhythm, diction and expressiveness of reading will help the child to immerse himself in a world of dreams, fantasy, creativity and emotion [9]. Even without reading, the

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child listens to read, and listens to read with pleasure, since “the child captures the playful value of the literary work, which arises from the communication process that is proper to it.” [10, p. 5]. Upon entering the Primary Education, the child undertakes the formal learning of reading. This change, which will finally allow her to “read alone” is not always pleasant and “the enthusiasm for learning to read often fades as learning to read takes place.” [11, p.7], often resulting in demotivation, disenchantment and consequent lack of interest in reading, even playful reading [12]. Since the formation of readers is a complex and time-consuming process, requiring great motivation on the part of those who learn and those who teach, playful reading is a fundamental strategy. Naturally, respecting the rhythms of each student, the teacher’s role is particularly important to prevent indifference towards reading and to help students discover the pleasure of reading [4]. Students read a lot either during the academic activities themselves, or when carrying out homework, or in preparation for assessment moments, or in their leisure time, using more and more mobile devices and digital platforms they have available. Paradoxically it is commonly accepted that students have few reading habits, which is reflected in difficulties in terms of written expression and interpretation, argumentation and critical thinking, poor vocabulary and poor general culture. In fact, students’ reading, regardless of their reading skills, is often limited to utilitarian reading, either in the school context or in leisure time, hence the frequent perception that they read little. On the other hand, along with the complexity of the reading acquisition and comprehension process, what is actually read by students voluntarily is questioned. In this context the problem is not limited to the act of reading by itself but also to the choices that are made [13]. However when we talk about reading we also talk about the promotion and training of literary readers and the promotion of a literary education [14]. The way literature is approached in an educational context contributes decisively to the lack of love, we would even say rejection of which it is often the target having identified “a certain set of factors that (not) contribute to the formation of literary readers and for the promotion of a literary education” [13, p. 207]. Effectively in the classroom within the scope of the portuguese subject curriculum, the mandatory reading of the texts of the subject book decontextualized from the works [15], serving only the purpose of an exhaustive analysis, with no other objective than to decompose and dissect the text gauging the author’s hypothetical intentions, discovering and explaining stylistic resources, working on vocabulary and doing grammatical exercises becomes demotivating for students. Reading serves the sole and exclusive purpose of assessment, as a means to an end, be it the resolution of various interpretation exercises, or grammatical work. In the same sense, reading complete works in the classroom, whose selection is imposed on students, serves, once again, as a means to an end: analyzing, interpreting, carrying out exercises of all kinds, learning grammar. In this regard it is understood that it is not “…advisable for the teacher to channel all the student’s readings for analytical control, but to reserve some for open debate

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and free from the burden, often painful, that required readings represent.” [16, p. 87]. Consequently students end up not perceiving what also contributes to the construction of an affective relationship with the book object, namely “its binding, its format, its size, its weight, its smell” [13, p. 208]. Therefore, the possibility for students to read the book in its entirety, in contact with its paratextual elements, is perceived as an important factor in the formation of the literary reader, since the mere analysis of excerpts, schemes and summaries not only reinforces the underlying evaluative character, as it prevents the literary work from being read and apprehended as a single, meaningful whole. Given the extremely busy school schedules of children and young people, plus their homework and test preparation we have to agree that time, space and motivation will hardly be reconciled for quality moments dedicated to literary reading. On the other hand the joy and enthusiasm that result from reading decreases as the students advance in their schooling, observing, parents, teachers and the students themselves that it is in adolescence that many students abandon the habits reading [4, p. 55].

9.1.2 The “10 Minutes Reading” Project of the National Reading Plan In the process of training readers, reading activities cannot be sporadic, marked in the annual planning and implemented on circumstantial dates. On the contrary it is a long, laborious process, often difficult for many and with direct consequences for the personal, academic and professional success of students. Furthermore, reading competence can only be consolidated if the act of reading is pleasurable, because “to become competent readers we have to establish emotional bonds with reading” [17, p. 16]. Alongside the intrinsic motivation for the formation of autonomous, competent and critical readers, “Each one has to discover for himself the pleasure of reading”, led by librarian teachers and other teachers or mediators [17, p. 13]. The projects to promote reading and writing, through activities with a playful dimension organised in the School Library, play a fundamental role in promoting writing and reading skills [18]. Thus, playful reading practices require their own strategies, times and spaces, and the School Library and the Librarian Teacher are also responsible, among other actions to promote the different literacies of the 21st century to promote the dynamization of extensive reading and reading for pleasure that involve the greatest possible number of teachers and students at different levels of education. It is in this strategic framework of acquiring habits and a taste for reading that based on the realization that “We are not born readers. We become readers but the most difficult thing is to remain readers” [19, p. 23], the NRP 2027 highlighting the role of the School Library recommends the “Inclusion in school activities and teaching times of periods for the daily practice of reading, silent and in aloud, by students and teachers” [19, p. 26]. To encourage contact with books and the regular

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practice of reading for pleasure, the project “10 min Reading” was created in 2019, aimed at schools from 5th year to 12th year. In the academic year 2020/2021, the School Library of the Airães School, at Felgueiras boosted the implementation of the “10 min Reading” project, involving students and teachers from 10 curricular subjects, belonging to 4 Curriculum Departments. To this end it was agreed to include 10 min of reading every day in each class, in the classroom, in the discipline and time indicated in a time established for this purpose. The students were asked to bring a book of their choice to read, either at home or requested from the School Library. Thus, daily included in the timetable and in the dynamics of the class, a time interval dedicated to entertainment, rest and leisure was promoted, during which direct contact between the student was stimulated with the act of reading a book of his/her preference, aiming at just the development of a taste for reading for pleasure.

9.2 Method In order to assess the real effectiveness of the “10 min Reading” project in promoting a taste for reading in the students covered from 5th year to 12th year of Airães School, northern Portugal, we thought it appropriate to embark on a case study as a way of approach to the problem under analysis. The starting question that motivated this study is to find out to what extent the implementation of the “10 min Reading” project, as part of the activities organised by the School Library, contributes to the promotion of reading leisurely among students. The study conducted with students and teachers involved in the “10 min Reading” project aimed to understand its true scope and effectiveness in promoting playful reading, translated into the following objectives: i. Evaluate the implementation of the “10 min Reading” project, of the National Reading Plan (NRP) by the Airães School Library, ii. Check the real impacts of this project on students’ playful reading habits, before and after its implementation, iii. To assess the perception of the dynamic teachers about the playful reading habits of students, their importance in the respective school career and the pertinence and usefulness of projects aimed at their promotion, v. Compare the expectations of the dynamic teachers when joining the project, the results perceived throughout the project and future expectations and v. Demonstrate the importance of the School Library in promoting playful reading. Given the fact that the “10 min Reading” project is being implemented in a formal classroom context we established that all students from all classes involved, as well as the respective teachers who agreed to promote this initiative, would constitute the our target population. Thus, 19 teachers participated in the study, 79% of the total of the 24 teachers who are implementing the “10 min Reading” project, and 295 students, 93% of the 317 students covered by the “10 min Reading” project, 154 boys and 141 girls aged between 11 years (90), 12 years (42), 13 years (69), 14 years (64), 15 years (25) and 16 years (5). As for the year of schooling, students are divided into 5th year (49), 6th year (52), 7th year (51), 8th year (75) and 9th year (68).

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Participating faculty and students responded to a questionnaire survey. Students responded to the survey during the synchronous class schedule of their respective classes and teachers through a link to fill in.

9.3 Results and Discussion A. Perceptions of subjects at the beginning of the “10 Minutes Reading” project The answers obtained show that 156 students, more than 50% of the respondents, say they like or like reading a lot and 139 of the respondents (47.2% of the respondents) say they do not like or like reading a little. These data are also perceived by the surveyed teachers because when asked to list the 10 proposed, the 3 main reasons that led them to join the “10 min Reading” project placed the “Creation/consolidation of playful reading habits” at the top of the choices, symptomatic of the widespread perception among the teaching class of this fragility in the training of young people. On the other hand the association of reading habits with the accomplishment of school tasks was quite evident, namely for the quarterly presentation of a book for evaluation in the Portuguese class which constituted for 32.9% of the students, 97 respondents the only book read during this time limit. If we add to this percentage the 47 students (15.9%) that not even the consequences in the assessment could stop them from reading at all we obtain 48.8% of respondents for whom reading was an obligation that a significant part refused to comply. Once again these data are combined with the teachers’ perception of the students’ taste for reading before the beginning of the project, when in a universe of 19 respondents, 7 said they disagreed that students liked to read. In the same sense, when asked about the existence of reading habits, and despite the 6 teachers without opinion, 10 considered that the students had not acquired them. Bearing in mind that 51.2% of the students said they read more than the required book for the respective presentation in the Portuguese course, we could be facing an apparent discrepancy between the teachers’ perception and the students’ reality. However the teachers’ responses are evidently conditioned by their classes and the students they work with on a daily basis. It is in this context that the “10 min Reading” project sees its relevance reinforced, as this imposed reading, associated with the evaluation “was the school that institutionalized it and gave it a mandatory character. It can also be what gives it a character of liberation and pleasure” [20, p. 28]. This departure from reading for pleasure from the school context and, consequently, the weakening and frequent disappearance of the students’ routine is also underlined by Cadório, when he notes that “people learn to read, they have to know how to read; but that does not mean that they read out of habit, for pleasure, for alienation, for relaxation. What the school has instituted is knowing how to read and I rarely like to read” [20, p. 28]. Now, if the learning of reading should be consolidated in these years, it is urgent that the school, driven by the School Library, fulfills its role by implementing projects that allow students to

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associate reading not only with work, with evaluation, with study, but also leisure, pastime, pleasure. Students and teachers also converged with regard to the reaction that the former had when the “10 min Reading” project was presented, given that the majority (79.7%) declared that they considered the initiative interesting, which is consistent with 16 teachers who recognized enthusiasm in the students during their presentation. If we are talking about conquests or reconquests of young readers, we agree with the words of Azevedo, when he asserts that “…reading is a free act and a reader is formed by reading, so if we want to return to reading those who, having the technical-reading skills, they no longer read, we will have to do it through play, through seduction, through the reconstitution of environments of pleasure and enjoyment that make reading a pleasant and comforting activity, gastronomically relevant and/or intellectually stimulating” [21, p. 152]. We emphasize that “reading is a free act and a reader is trained by reading” as the cornerstone of the “10 min Reading” project, given the freedom of the student to choose what he or she wants to read, hoping that it is formed precisely by reading. Although the 79.7% of students who said they considered the proposed project interesting already had a positive outlook, the objective was clearly to wait for them to (re)start or reinforce the association of reading with words such as “pleasure”, “fruition”, “pleasant”, “comforting”, “relevant” and “stimulating” [21]. On the other hand, the teacher who disagreed with the statement “Students were enthusiastic when the project was explained to them” and the 5 with no formed opinion seem to equally reflect the 37 students who did not appreciate what was being proposed to them and the 23 students who declared “10 min Reading” a day too long. Therefore, the 60 students who expressed resistance or even rejection to the project truly constituted the most difficult audience to conquer and for which Azevedo’s words [21, p. 152] are particularly suited. Therefore, the harmony that exists between the teachers’ perception regarding the implementation of the project in their classes and the positive evolution of the students’ opinion about reading is encouraging. In fact, all said that the students easily adapted to the way the project worked, being accompanied by the chosen book, concentrating on reading, fulfilling the “10 min Reading” willingly and considering this time of their classes quite profitable. B. Subjects’ perceptions after participating in the “10 Minutes Reading” project The students’ responses prove that this project has proved to be an asset in creating and consolidating reading habits as the number of students who declared that they still did not like reading dropped from the initial 35 to 26. If these indicators would already be encouraging the 65 students who indicated that they had started to like reading a little are a more than justified reason for satisfaction as they represent 22% of the respondents, frankly below the 104 students (37.6%) who declared they liked it a little to read before the project. To these, we must add the 68 students (23.1%) who already enjoying reading before the beginning of the project, consolidated this feeling and those who 8deepened it, translated into the significant 76 students (25.8%) who stated having started to like reading more and the equally remarkable 60 students

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(20.3%) who declared that they continued to enjoy reading a lot. These results are congruent with the results found in other studies with identical populations [22]. Naturally a reading promotion project with this particularity always has inherent to its purposes that it is rooted in the students’ routine for more than 10 min a day in the classroom context, that is that the pleasure of reading is effectively a reality, in their lives beyond the school walls. As the students were not aware that this project will be implemented in the following years, 95.3% (281 students) said they wanted to continue reading frequently, even though they intended to do so for different reasons: 18.6% because they created this habit, 19% because they consider it important, 23.1% because they started to like it and 22.4% because they like it a lot. If the creation and consolidation of reading habits could already be predicted to be successful thanks to the implementation of this project, its most notable effect is undoubtedly seen among the students who maintain a difficult relationship with it. We cannot fail to notice that 26 students stated that they still do not like to read. However 14 stated that they will not continue reading as they do not like it. Therefore we emphasize again that 12 students are available to read even if they do not like it, which is revealing that, indeed, there is a desire on their part to change their perception of reading, which is why it is crucial that this good intention is not lost. It is, above all, to allow the maintenance of this 10 min daily routine, as reading becomes a “…habit, when, through repeated or prolonged practice, it is installed as an integrated attitude in the person’s own life” [12, p. 69]. The students’ opinion about the “10 min Reading” was frankly positive given that 265 students, 89.3% of the respondents, agreed with the fact that the project is important for the creation of reading habits, with 197 students having (66.7%) opined that they had perceived an increase in reading habits among their peers. The unanimity found among the teachers was equally exhaustive, as they all said that this project creates/consolidates playful reading habits in the students. The promotion of this project in the classroom was considered effective by 89.4% of the teachers, which reinforces the effective possibility and success of promoting playful reading in this context. Bastos mentions that “…the school is, therefore, one of the privileged places where the child’s encounter with the book can take place in a captivating way” advocating the selection of a “…temporal space where recreational reading…” [9, p. 286] in the classroom can be carried out without any evaluation process. Particularly significant of the positive impact of this project is the fact that 240 students (81.3%) considered that it should continue to be implemented in the coming years. This opinion is consistent with all the teachers who considered this project an asset and should therefore be maintained. The binomial reading habits and school success has been widely highlighted, universally emerging the idea that reading and the consolidation of reading habits are important factors for school success [4]. Pocinho shows that “all school learning presupposes the mastery of reading and writing, which constitute ways of acquiring knowledge common to all subjects, as they mobilize a set of cognitive processes that lead to reflection on knowledge and the selection of strategies and techniques. Hence, school success depends, in part, on these strategies and, therefore, they must be the object of a systematized teaching by the school” [2, p. 1–2]. In the case that

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concerns us particularly and following the same line of reasoning, the increase in playful reading habits in the classroom context will positively influence the muchdesired “mastery of reading and writing” and, hopefully, in the attitude with which students face the proposed school tasks. Faced with the statement “The “10 min Reading” increase students’ commitment to carrying out teaching activities”, 14 dynamic teachers (73.6%) agreed and the remaining 5 did not form an opinion so it is undoubtedly more it was worth that this daily habit brought to this level in the classroom. At the same time 78.9% of the teachers indicated improvements in reading and writing skills; 84.2% in critical perceptions and the surrounding reality and 63.1% in increased attention and concentration. The association of reading and writing proficiency levels with students’ academic success is underlined by Lopes when he emphasizes that, without reading fluency and a high level of reading comprehension, no student will be able to succeed in school and acquire significant knowledge in different curricular subjects, irrespective of the intellectual capacities he possesses [3].

9.4 Conclusions The results reveal a positive perception of stakeholders on the implementation and impact of the “10 min Reading” project. The responses of the participants in the study indicate that it is possible to create and deepen habits of playful reading in a school context namely in the classroom and to do it in a pleasant way for the students, so that they not only feel happy and pleased with the initiative, as they recognize the added value of the School Library. In addition let us highlight it, students want these initiatives to continue to be implemented so that they are encouraged to read more. With regard to the students’ responses, this study allows us to conclude that this project to promote recreational reading in the classroom contributes to the creation and consolidation of reading habits, as they recognise the importance of reading for their school career or discover or reinforce the pleasure of reading. In the same sense, the teachers said they perceived an increase in reading habits among students, considering the dynamisation of this project to be an added value for the development of reading skills and levels of textual comprehension. Assuming the School Library as the nerve center for the promotion of reading, it will only be effectively successful “when the School understands this action as its own” [5, p. 4]. Currently being at the forefront of the use of new technologies and the development of activities aimed at promoting different literacies, it leads to a transformation process in which the mastery of reading competence is central, and which can only be achieved by reading for pleasure and with pleasure. In the document “School Libraries in the 21st century: looking for a path” we find a clear definition of this reality: “The school library plays a fundamental role in learning. Articulating within the scope of a project such as “10 min Reading” with the other teachers, regardless of their respective curricular areas is fundamental as this collaborative work is fruitful. To this end it is important to bring reading for pleasure into the

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classroom and make it a daily habit, rooted in the students’ lives with the emphasis that its importance imposes. From the results of this project can be concluded that removing the promotion of playful reading from inside the School Library and from occasional events and delegating it to the entire school, under the guidance of the Librarian Professor and in articulation with the other teachers, contributes to the development and consolidation of reading habits for pleasure, favoring proficiency in reading and writing and, consequently, school success.

References 1. Castro, R.: A intuição leitora, a intenção narrativa. Editora Gatafunho, Oeiras (2012) 2. Pocinho, M.M.: Prevenção da iliteracia: processos cognitivos implicados na lectura. Revista Ibero Americana de Educación/Educação 44(3), 1–14 (2007) 3. Lopes, J.: Problemas de Comportamento, Aprendizagem e Ensinagem. Editora Quarteto, Coimbra (2002) 4. Sobrino, J.G.: A Criança e o Livro - A aventura de ler. Porto Editora, Porto (2000) 5. Bettencourt, S.C.: O livro e a leitura: expectativas dos utilizadores face às atividades da BE (2013). https://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/handle/10400.2/3246. Accessed 19 Apr 2022 6. Sim-Sim, I., et al.: Linguagem e Comunicação no jardim-de-Infância, textos de Apoio para Educadores de Infância. Ministério da Educação, DGIDC, Lisboa (2008) 7. Leal, T., Gamelas, A.M., Peixoto, C., Cadima, J.: Linguagem e literacia emergente. Propostas de intervenção em jardim de infância. In: Viana, Fernanda Leopoldina; Ribeiro, Iolanda; Batista, Adriana. (Coord.). Ler para ser: os caminhos antes, durante e... depois de aprender a ler. Coimbra: Edições Almedina, pp. 175–205 (2014) 8. Mata, L.: Literacia Familiar – Ambiente Familiar e descoberta da linguagem escrita. Porto Editora, Porto (2006) 9. Bastos, G.: Literatura Infantil e Juvenil. Universidade Aberta, Lisboa (1999) 10. Gomez, M.M.: A Criança e a Leitura. Porto Editora, Porto (1988) 11. Sim-Sim, I.: O ensino da leitura: a compreensão dos textos. Ministério da Educação, DGIDC, Lisboa (2007) 12. Santos, E.: Hábitos de leitura em crianças e adolescentes. Um estudo em escolas secundárias. Quarteto, Coimbra (2000) 13. Balça, Â., Costa, P.: Leitura e educação literária: da viagem possível às restrições do mapa. Ensino Em Re-Vista 1(1), 201–220 (2017) 14. Mendoza Fillola, A: La educación literaria. Bases para la formación de la competencia lectoliteraria. Ediciones Aljibe, Malaga (2004) 15. Balça, A., Pires, M. N.: O ensino da leitura literária na escola, em Portugal: do discurso oficial às práticas. Nuances: estudos sobre Educação 22, 95 (2012) 16. Reis, C., Adragão, J.: Didáctica do Português. Universidade Aberta, Lisboa (1990) 17. Araújo, H.: O texto e a leitura literária na biblioteca escolar: fundamentos, estratégias e atividades. Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares, Lisboa (2016) 18. Pedro, C., Freitas, C., Pascoinho, J., Paulo, E., Gonçalves, S.: The school library and the promotion of reading and writing: evaluation of the reading and writing project “small readers/future writers”. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Carvalho, J.V. (eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 256. Springer, Singapore (2022) 19. Quadro Estratégico - Plano Nacional de Leitura 2027 (2017) 20. Cadório, L.: O Gosto Pela Leitura. Livros Horizonte, Lisboa (2001)

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21. Azevedo, F.: Formar leitores: das teorias às práticas. Lidel, Lisboa (2007) 22. Mateus, A.M.A.: promoção da leitura no 3.º ciclo - Um projeto dinamizado pela Biblioteca Escolar (2009). https://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/1365/1/Dis serta%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Ana%20Mateus.pdf. Accessed 19 Apr 2022

Chapter 10

DPO Framework for Canvas GDPR Model Miguel Magalhães , Tiago C. Pereira , Eusébio Costa , Agostinho Sousa Pinto , José Luís Braga , and Isabel Borges

Abstract Regulation (EU) 2016/679, like Law nº 58/2019, brings with it an important innovation under the terms of article 37 of the RGPD, the person responsible and the subcontractor having, in most cases, to appoint a Protection Officer (DPO) internal or external to the Organization. An expert in the practice of privacy and data protection. To consolidate the role of the DPO, we suggest, in this article, a new methodology for implementing GDPR compliance in an organization, where the focus is placed on privacy and security, from conception—“Data Protection by Design”, and by default—“De-sign by Default”, and capable of mitigating the risk of data breach (Data Breach). This new model, called Canvas GDPR model, is a methodological proposal for governance, privacy and protection of personal data

M. Magalhães (B) · T. C. Pereira · E. Costa · J. L. Braga · I. Borges CIDI-IESF, IESF-Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] T. C. Pereira e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] J. L. Braga e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges e-mail: [email protected] T. C. Pereira ALGORITMI Research Center, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal E. Costa · A. S. Pinto CEOS.PP, ISCAP-Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges REMIT-Portucalense University - Infante D. Henrique, Porto, Portugal CEGOT-Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_10

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that will help design the organization’s compliance with the GDPR (Data Protection Impact Assessment), but also guarantees the “accountability” of the organization’s business model with the rights of Data subjects. The model was validated and applied in a social housing organization. In this research work, it was proved that the Canvas GDPR model is a strategic and entrepreneurial tool, very useful for the DPO, nicknamed Chief Privacy Officer (CPI) or Data Protection Officer (DPO), in the translation not very well achieved to Data Protection Officer (EPD).

10.1 Introduction Regulation (EU) 2016/679 [1], like Law nº 58/2019 [2], brings with it an important innovation under the terms of article 37 of the GDPR, the responsible and the subcontractor have, in most cases, to designate a Data Protection Officer (DPO) internal or external to the Organization. An expert in the practice of privacy and data protection. The present problem regarding the protection of personal data will increasingly lead to the desirable proliferation of the DPO function and will itself require an attitude from all those who identify with this new opportunity for individual work [3]. And for those who want to reconvert their activities into a “data protection functional framework”, it will also give rise to the “appearance of various proposals, methodologies, approaches for the implementation of compliance with the Regulation” [4–9]. To establish a “strategic and entrepreneurial” attitude of the DPO, we suggest, in this article, a new methodology for the implementation of GDPR compliance in an organization, where the focus is placed on privacy and security, from conception— “Data Protection by Design”, and by default—“Design by Default”, and capable of mitigating the risk of data breach (Data Breach). This new model, called Canvas GDPR model, is a methodological proposal for governance, privacy and protection of personal data that will help design the organization’s compliance with the GDPR (Data Protection Impact Assessment), but also ensures the “accountability” of the organization’s business model with the rights of Data subjects. The model was validated by one of the largest economic groups at national level and applied in a social housing organization. This work proves that the Canvas GDPR model is a strategic and entrepreneurial tool, very useful for the DPO, nicknamed Chief Privacy Officer (CPI) or Data Protection Officer (DPO), in the translation not very well achieved to Data Protection Officer (EPD) [1], an LNCS chapter [2], a book [3], proceedings without editors [10], as well as a URL [4].

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10.2 Background on the Protection of Personal Data The European history of data protection began shortly after the Second World War, with the creation of the Council of Europe (CoE) [11], founded on 5 May 1949, which brought together 10 European founding countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom) with the aim of promoting the rule of law, democracy and human rights. In 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) [12] was adopted, which entered into force in 1953 in the legal system of all the signatory countries of the CoE. In 1959, with the creation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), all States were guaranteed to fulfill their obligations, with the ECtHR being responsible for examining complaints made by citizens, groups of citizens, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or legal entities alleging violations of that convention. The CoE has legal personality, is recognized by international law and serves around 800 million people in 47 states, including the 28 that make up the European Union. The right to the protection of personal data is part of the rights enshrined in the ECHR, namely in Article 8 [13], which guarantees the right to respect for private and family life, home, and correspondence. The ECtHR, within the scope of its jurisdictional activity, clarified that this article 8 not only obliges States to refrain from performing acts likely to violate the rights enshrined therein, but also imposes a positive attitude of actively guaranteeing the effective respect for private and family life. In a way, precisely what EU legislation sought to develop. Later, in 1981, and as a result of the emergence, in the 60s of the 20th century, of information systems and information technologies and the need, in the following decade, for the existence of a set of resolutions on data protection, based precisely on Article 8 of the ECHR, Convention 108 [14] was established. Convention 108 applies to all processing of personal data carried out by the public or private sector, including the processing carried out by police or judicial authorities, and aims to protect citizens against abuses that may arise from the collection and processing of personal data, also aiming to regulate the cross-border flow of personal data. This Convention, for the first time, considers: i. The need to collect and process personal data fairly and lawfully; ii. That data must be stored for certain legitimate purposes; iii. Use for purposes compatible with the collection and the right to be kept for certain periods; iv. Which must be accurate and rectifiable, proportionate, adequate, and relevant. Also, in Convention 108 there are guarantees regarding sensitive personal data, such as race, political opinion, health, religious convictions, sex life or criminal record. It was ratified in 1999, so that all EU Member States could join, to integrate Control Authorities and cross-border data flows [15]. As far as EU law is concerned, its first legal instrument related to data protection was Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 24 October 1995, on the protection of individuals regarding the processing of personal data and the free movement of such data [16]. The main reason for the approval of this directive was the need to harmonize a set of laws of the Member States that already legislated in this matter and, therefore, resulted from the need, as mentioned by the Court of Justice of the

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European Union (CJEU), to make the level of protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals regarding the processing of personal data equivalent in all Member States. At that time, in 1995, the EU consisted of 15 Member States, which were also contracting parties to Convention 108. Regulation (EC) No. 45/2001 [17] of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2000, came to establish rules for the protection of natural persons regarding the processing of personal data by Community institutions and bodies, since the 1995 Directive only referred to the Member States and not to the EU itself. On December 7, 2000, the EU proclaimed the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CDFUE) [18], the reason for this document being the fact that the EU has never addressed the issue of Human Rights in its treaties. The CDFUE, which later, with the approval of the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, became legally binding as a primary EU law, enshrines, in its article 7, Respect for private and family life: “All persons have the right to respect for your private and family life, for your domicile and for your communications”, and in article 8, enshrines the Protection of personal data in paragraph 1; “Everyone has the right to the protection of personal data concerning them”; in paragraph 2: “These data must be treated fairly, for specific purposes and with the consent of the person concerned or with another legitimate basis provided for by law. All persons have the right to access the collected data concerning them and to obtain the respective rectification; and in “Compliance with these rules is subject to inspection by an independent authority”. The CDFUE thus enshrines, for the first time, the right to the protection of personal data as a fundamental right in the EU. Since May 25, 2018, with the entry into force of the new GDPR—as explained in the previous section—applicable throughout the European Union (EU), the history of Community law has taken another step-in term of protection and privacy of European citizens. It simplifies the rules for organizations that not only repeals the previous directive, but by directly entering the jurisdiction of all Member States, created a uniform and harmonized legislative space on this subject. Although Regulation (EU) 2016/679 [1] will play a fundamental role in the regulatory framework for the protection of individuals regarding the processing of personal data and the free movement of data, it is primarily instead of a dense text, made up of 99 articles and 173 recitals, where it is impossible to understand the meaning of the articles without a previous understanding of the recitals. Second, it is a complex text, where references and references to domestic law abound. As well, vague, and indeterminate concepts abound. Long articles are common, with many paragraphs and many intercalations within each one of them. This drafting technique makes the GDPR an especially complex legal instrument. However, the objectives and principles of Directive 95/46/EC [19] remain valid, but it did not prevent the fragmentation of data protection enforcement at EU level, nor legal uncertainty or widespread sentiment. Public opinion reveals that significant risks remain for the protection of individuals, regarding electronic activities. Differences in the level of protection of rights and individuals, namely the right to protection of personal data in the context of the processing of such data in the Member States, may impede the free movement of personal data within the EU. Such differences can therefore hamper the conduct of economic activities in the EU, distort competition and prevent authorities from fulfilling their obligations under EU law. These differences between

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the levels of protection are due to the existence of disparities in the implementation and application of Directive 95/46/EC, (Recital 9) [19].

10.3 Scope of Application of the General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679 GDPR 2016/679 [1] applies to all natural persons, regardless of their nationality and place of residence, in relation to the processing of their personal data, to all living persons and the processing of personal data: i. Carried out in the context of the activities of an establishment of a controller, or a processor located in the territory of the EU, irrespective of whether the processing takes place inside or outside the EU; ii. From data subjects residing in the EU, carried out by a controller or processor not established in the EU, when the processing activities are related to the provision of goods and services to such data subjects, or when the processing activities are related to the control of your behavior, provided that such behavior takes place in the EU; iii. By a controller established not in the EU, but in a place where the law of a Member State under public international law applies. But also, to the entities of the courts or other judicial authorities regarding the processing of personal data, provided that these are not in the exercise of judicial activity; any processing of personal data in the context of the activity of an establishment (with effective and real exercise) of a controller or processor located in the EU; the processing of personal data of holders in the context of an activity of an establishment (with effective and real exercise) of a controller or a subcontractor located in the EU; the processing of personal data by EU institutions, bodies, offices or agencies; any processing of personal data of holders located in the EU, even if the controller or processor is not established in the EU; and where the law of a Member State is applicable under public international law (e.g., diplomatic missions). GDPR 2016/679 [1] does not apply to issues of defense of fundamental rights and freedoms; the free movement of personal data related to activities outside the scope of EU law, namely national security; activities related to the EU’s common foreign and security policy; the processing of personal data carried out by natural persons in the exercise of personal and domestic activities; the processing of personal data relating to legal persons, namely their name, legal form and their contacts; processing activities for the purpose of protecting natural persons with regard to the prevention, investigation, detection and prosecution of criminal offenses or the execution of criminal sanctions. On the other hand, there is a wide range of legal subjects to whom the regulation applies and who are all in contact with the data subject: i. the controller and the processor, those who collect and process the data; ii. the national authorities, essentially the control authorities, responsible for monitoring compliance with this regulation, but also for making it known, for “evangelizing” it; iii. recipients, those who receive communications of personal data and third parties, all those who are not data subjects, are data controllers or processors and are authorized to process personal data. Finally, within the scope of

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the GDPR, processing is considered “an operation or a set of operations carried out on personal data or on sets of personal data, by automated or non-automated means, such as: collection, registration, organization, structuring, conservation, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, dissemination by transmission, diffusion or any other form of making available, comparison or interconnection, limitation, erasure or destruction”.

10.4 The GDPR and the New Organizational Role: The DPO Pursuant to the GDPR [1], controllers and processors may or may not wish to designate a Data Protection Officer (DPO) and persons or department who help to ensure the protection of individuals regarding processing. of personal data by the competent authorities for the purpose of preventing, investigating, detecting, or prosecuting criminal offenses or enforcing criminal sanctions, and the free movement of such data, and repealing Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA [20], and with national implementing legislation. These guidelines are also relevant for DPOs under Directive (EU) 2016/680, regarding its similar provisions. This is the case for all public authorities and bodies, irrespective of the type of data they process, and for other organizations whose main activity is to monitor individuals on a systematic and large scale, or which process special categories of personal data on a large scale. Even where the GDPR does not specifically require the appointment of a DPO, organizations may, in some cases, find it convenient to appoint a DPO on a voluntary basis. The Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, WG 29, is in favor of these voluntary initiatives [21]. Therefore, the existence of the role of DPO is increasingly desirable, and requires in itself, an entrepreneurial attitude as an opportunity to work individually or collectively, to all who want to reconvert their activities into a functional framework of security, protection and governance of personal data at the level of finding the GDPR’s master algorithm (Fig. 10.1) that guarantees the organization’s accountability and compliance, where three axes are fundamental: i. governance (organizational practices); ii. privacy (respect for private life); and iii. security (protection of personal data). Regarding the DPO, this concept is not new compared to what is recommended in the GDPR, given that Directive 95/46/EC [1] already advised the good practice of appointment, although at that time it was not binding for any organization. Over the years, this good practice has proliferated in several Member States (e.g., Germany, Sweden…). And even before the GDPR came into force, Working Group 29 [21] argued that the figure of the DPO is a “pillar of responsibility” and that its appointment can facilitate compliance and, in addition, provide a competitive advantage to companies [22]. But only since 2015, the role of EPD and data protection, began to draw attention, when organizations finally started to look at this reality in Portugal. Many of the organizations let the vacatius legis period pass without taking any GDPR

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(+) Respectf or Private Life

(+) GOVERNANCE

Master data protection algorithm

(+) Personal Data Protection

SAFETY

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR PRIVACIDADE

© Magalhães, Miguel

Fig. 10.1 Algoritmo mestre do RGPD (UE) 2016/679. Source Magalhães [4]

compliance measures, let alone expressed concern about the appointment of a DPO. Now, they may be faced with “problems of lack of resources”, since they will need a DPO, and there are strong limitations, given that DPOs in Portugal, with years of experience and with this autonomous functional title, cannot there are more than two dozen, as stated by Melo Manuel (APCiber) [23]. The need for these professionals is evident in the following statement: “The GDPR may require many organizations to appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO). The International Association of Privacy Professionals (IAPP) estimates that more than 75,000 DPOs will be needed in the coming months” [24]. This, despite the GDPR, only requires the appointment of a DPO when the requirements of article 37, paragraph 1, are met, namely in three specific situations: i. Whenever the processing is carried out by a public authority or body (except for courts in the exercise of their jurisdictional function in accordance with article 32 of Directive (EU) 2016/680); ii. Where the main activities of the controller or processor consist of processing operations that require regular and systematic monitoring of data subjects on a large scale; iii. Where the main activities of the controller or processor consist of large-scale processing operations of special categories of data (in accordance with Article 9, these categories cover personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, or trade union membership, as well as the processing of genetic data, biometric data to uniquely identify a person, data relating to health or data relating to a person’s sex life or sexual orientation) or of personal data related to criminal convictions and offences. With the exception of cases where it is evident that an organization is not required to designate a DPO, Working Group 29 [21] recommends that controllers and processors document the internal review carried out in order to determine whether or not to a DPO should be appointed in order to be able to demonstrate that the relevant factors have been duly taken into account (Sect. 10.1), general obligations, article 24, liability of the controller, paragraph 1, “taking into account the nature, scope, the context and purposes of data processing,

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as well as the risks to the rights and freedoms of individuals, whose probability and severity may vary, the controller applies the technical and organizational measures that are appropriate to ensure and be able to demonstrate that the processing is carried out in accordance with this Regulation. These measures are reviewed and updated as necessary.” [25]. This analysis forms part of the documentation within the scope of the principle of responsibility, which may be requested by the supervisory authority, in the Portuguese case by the National Data Protection Commission [26] and must be updated whenever necessary, for example, in the case of those responsible for processing or subcontractors who start new activities or provide new services, and which may be covered by article 37, paragraph 1 mentioned above. It should be noted that under the terms of article 37, paragraph 4, the law of the Union or of the Member States may also require the appointment of a DPO in other situations, such as, in cases other than those referred to in paragraph 1, where the person responsible controller or the processor or associations and other bodies representing categories of controllers or processors may, or, if required by Union or Member State law, designate a data protection officer. Therefore, the data protection officer may act on behalf of associations and other bodies representing data controllers or processors. When an organization designates a DPO on a voluntary basis, the requirements of Articles 37–39 apply to their appointment, position, and assignments as if the designation were mandatory. Nothing prevents an organization, which is not required by law to appoint a DPO and does not intend to appoint a DPO on a voluntary basis, from nevertheless resorting to external staff or consultants with functions related to the protection of personal data. In this case, it is important to ensure that there is no confusion as to position, status, position, and attributions. Therefore, it must be made clear, in all communications within the organization and with data protection authorities, data subjects and the public that the position of this employee or consultant does not correspond to the role of data protection officer (DPO). This is also applicable to the directors responsible for privacy or other responsible for the protection of privacy that already exist in some companies, which may not always fulfill the criteria of the GDPR, for example regarding available resources or guarantees of independence. If they do not meet these criteria, they cannot be considered or entitled as a DPO. The DPO, regardless of whether it is appointed on a mandatory or voluntary basis, takes over all processing operations carried out by the controller or processor. In this context, special attention must be paid to the position of the data protection officer within the organization and direct reporting to the highest level, as well as the functions assigned to him by the GDPR [1], whose full performance requires the satisfaction of certain conditions. DPOs are not personally liable in the event of non-compliance with the provisions of the GDPR [1]. The GDPR [1] makes it very clear that the controller or processor is responsible for ensuring and being able to prove that the processing is carried out in accordance with its provisions. It is to be expected that the need for trained and certified professionals in this area will lead to an increase in the offer of training and certification. On the other hand, there are doubts as to whether the DPO can perform full-time or part-time functions. And what budget should an organization allocate to privacy? First, organizations must assess the degree of maturity of their Management System (SG) in light of the GDPR. Only

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after that, they should think about which SG model they will adopt to achieve GDPR compliance, and whether they will need a DPO.

10.5 What is the Data Protection Officer (DPO) Profile? Initially, it was aimed at DPO with a profile related to systems, technologies, or information security. However, it appears that the legal framework of the GDPR [1] goes beyond the protection of computerized data. In addition, there is the potential for conflicts of interest to exist between the exercise of the data protection officer (DPO) and the information systems director (CIO). In this way, this type of profile is set aside. The Regulation [1] itself, in section No. 4, in Article 37, No. 5, explains that the data protection officer is appointed based on their professional qualities and their specialized knowledge in the field of data protection law and practices, as well as its ability to perform the functions referred to in Article 39 of OJ L 119 [27]. This leads, in a second phase, to think about the need for a DPO profile with legal knowledge. One of the hypotheses would be the attribution of these functions to the legal area, that is, in the universe of legal functions, and if these functions are external, there are no conflicts of interest and there are even advantages, similar to what happens with the statutory auditor (ROC). There is, however, a problem related to the lack of mastery of technological knowledge, as normally this profile does not dominate the IS/IT area [28]. The implications that follow from this are a profile that may not be enough. In addition, the DPO or people on his team will also have to interact with third parties. With data subjects, internal or external to the organization, in a dynamic of service and resolution of complaints. Finally, you will also need to have business and business management knowledge. Therefore, your profile should adapt to the needs of the organization. This gives rise to an increased difficulty for companies in finding this type of profile, figure nº 3—Structuring pillars of the GDPR (EU) 2016/679 [1]. Another aspect, of great importance, is whether the DPO should be external to the organization, guaranteeing impartiality and independence in the face of ensuring the organization’s accountability and compliance. Therefore, a DPO, whether internal or external to the organization, must have as basic and fundamental characteristics: specialized legal, technological, business management knowledge and the sector of activity. Studies show that only 15% of people believe they have knowledge about the GDPR [29]. This raises a series of limitations, and requires that public and private institutions, namely the scientific community, in addition to Working Group 29 [21], produce methodologies that help organizations implement the Privacy Regulation and protection of Personal Data.

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10.6 Methodological Proposal Canvas GDPR Model The methodological proposal presented for organizations to achieve legal privacy compliance and data protection with the GDPR (EU) 2016/679 [1], is based on the Business Model Canvas [30] conceptual framework, allowing to help achieve accountability and the compliance of an organization’s management system with the GDPR. The RGPD Canvas Model that is proposed here is made up of 10 blocks (Fig. 10.2), allowing, in this way, to obtain greater efficiency in the Management System of an organization with the RGPD. The result of this methodology will allow the visualization of an organization’s accountability and compliance with the GDPR (Fig. 10.2). Block 1, key activities, would list all “personal data”, whether on physical and/or digital support of the organization. The inventory will allow for the traceability of the record and the processing of personal data captured by the organization, thus answering the questions of the control authority. In block 2, key resources, all existing resources are inventoried, whether internal or external (in the case of services with subcontractors). Physical infrastructures, personal data warehouses on paper, hardware supports and cloud platforms, software and files in digital support will be identified. In this context, the WG29 issued an opinion and recommends that policies be approved and publicized, in which information assets are subdivided into primary and secondary [9]. In block 3, the internal responsibilities are defined in terms of compliance with the GDPR, where the organization defines the governance model and the personal data protection policy. Here, it will be considered whether to have a DPO, and whether this should be internal or external to the organization. Here, it will also be evaluated which key activities and key resources will be outsourced, that is, subcontracted. In block 4, the external responsibilities will be defined, when subcontracting is chosen. It should be noted that, even if the organization contractually requires from other subcontracting entities a declaration of responsibility for the personal data, the person responsible for the treatment, in

Canvas GDPR model 1 Key Activities

2 Key Resources

3 Internal Responsibilities

4 External Responsibilities 5 Value of Personal Data

6 Relationship with the holder of personal data

7 Communication Channels

8 Target of personal data 9 Risk Assessment

10 Continuous Improvement

Fig. 10.2 “Canvas RGPD model”. Source Magalhães [4] ©

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the event of a breach, will always be the organization responsible. Therefore, if the organization chooses to outsource personal data processing operations, it must map and monitor the personal data transmitted. Block 5 is perhaps one of the most important in the model. At this point, the organization will assess the “value of personal data”. Here, an assessment will be made of the value of personal data in physical and digital support for the management of the organization’s business. Once the data is inventoried, the organization will select which personal data are essential or essential for the development of its business. At this point, in a preliminary way, the organization must carry out a pre-assessment of the risk assessment in block 9 and assess the impact of the existence or not of non-compliances at the GDPR level. Continuing, in block 6, the relationship with the holder of personal data is evaluated, namely, the communication process between the responsible entity and the holder, and how the safeguard against a possible violation of personal data will be exercised. In this context, the data protection working group GT29 [21] developed a set of good practices in the scope of the Regulation’s application. In this context, we created a dataflow (Fig. 10.1), which will serve as a roadmap to determine the “dashboard for the processing of personal DATA”. In block 7, the communication channels used by the responsible entity between the holders and the Control Authority are identified, when necessary. At this point, we must revisit block nº 9, regarding the risk management approach, taking into account the level of risk assessment on personal data and define mitigation guidelines referred to in article 32 of the GDPR (security in treatment) [21]. Filled the first 9 blocks of the screen, the 10th block, and the last one, is related to the continuous improvement. This block assesses the improvements in mitigation measures and the monitoring of the master data protection algorithm (presented above).

10.7 Validation and Application—Case Study In this article, for the purpose of the empirical application of the GDPR model Canvas Model, a company created to manage the housing and social heritage of the Municipality of Valongo, whose sole partner is the City Council, was considered. The main objectives of this organization are: to guarantee the maintenance of buildings, equipment available to residents and spaces surrounding the projects; promote patrimonial and social administration by maintaining a register of real estate and a database on tenants and their households; collect housing rents; promote an integrated and shared management by the tenants in the developments through the administration of the common areas; promote the improvement of living conditions in the enterprises; to develop, together with the City Council Services, training and information actions with the resident families; and carry out restoration work on vacant dwellings in order to ensure that they are in good condition for use by a new family to be relocated. The company decided to carry out a diagnosis to assess the degree of compliance with the GDPR and identify consequent adjustment actions by applying the proposed GDPR Canvas Model. This municipal company manages the Valongo Council Housing Park

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in an innovative and integrated way with several stakeholders so that in the process, from service, follow-up to completion, greater tenant satisfaction is achieved. The company has a computer system that allows, in real time, to know the situation in which the process of a given tenant is. All contacts are registered in a service form and in the company’s computer system. Upon handing over the keys, a Tenant Card is distributed containing the name of the enterprise and the tenant, address, rent amount, year of validity and the tenant’s code, which is held by the tenant. Its full responsibility is required for its safekeeping. The tenant code provides a personalized and efficient service, in person or by telephone. The lawfulness of personal data collected by this company is limited to compliance with Law No. 32/2016, Municipal Regulation, and the legislation on public and labor contracting. The company publishes a monthly newsletter, and only the following personal data are collected for this purpose: the name and e-mail of the holder, through the company’s website. Any holder wishing to subscribe to this newsletter must do so freely and spontaneously, giving their explicit contente, see Fig. 10.1.

10.8 Conclusions on the Implementation of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of 25 May 2018 As a result of the application of the RGPD Canvas Model to the municipal company that manages the Valongo Council Housing Park, it allowed to validate this framework, and to help the organization and prepare the accountability to the RGPD management system and to comply with Law nº 58/2019 of the 8th of August. This methodological proposal for privacy and protection of personal data Canvas RGPD model was unanimous by the organization and by the respective City Council, the added value that this framework has contributed allowing to achieve compliance with Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of May 25, 2018, although this document is a dense text, consisting of 99 articles and 173 recitals, where it is impossible to understand the meaning of the articles, without a previous understanding of the recitals. It is a complex text, where references and references to domestic law abound. After applying the model, the company identified a set of improvements in terms of compliance with the requirements of the GDPR and proceeded to redefine the layout of the facilities (Fig. 10.3).

People, Physical Resources and Digital Resources E.M has its Integrated Management System certified by the ISO 9001 standard, since 2009. P1P6-Strategy. Creation of the EPD function (model DF013); Alteration of the organizational chart due to the creation of the EPD figure (model DF013); Update of the quality manual with the creation of the Privacy and Data Protection policy (model ESP 012); P9P9-Hiring. Employee employment contracts (model 102e 103). Addition to the employment contracts of the compliance agreement with the RGPD between the Municipal company and the Employee (model 112). Human Resources. Formation. P10P14-Training management and attendance registration (model 14). P10P18-Employee file—updating the registration form with a statement of knowledge and understanding of the privacy and data protection policy and an agreement to comply with the GDPR (model 52) P3P3-Housing (City Hall). Request for new relocation (model 51). P9P9-Hiring. Declaration of compliance with the GDPR and consequences of non-compliance by the subcontracting entity (model 111) The personal data collected at the conclusion of the lease are limited to compliance with Law 32/2016 and Municipal Regulation 748/2015, namely, name, taxpayer number, credit card number citizen, NISS number, date of birth, academic qualifications, profession; initial address and the reason for the non-income or income, situation of economic dependence, degree of incapacity of the household, and other data necessary for the conclusion of the lease contract and for the proper functioning of the activity after the conclusion of said contract may be collected. The personal data collected for the purpose of concluding the employment contract are those that are required in terms of the labor legislation in force in Portugal, and other data necessary for the fulfillment of the work activity and the personal status of E.M. The personal data collected for the purpose of concluding a provision of a provision of services are the data that make it possible to legitimize a public contract. E.M. only collects strictly necessary cookies that allow browsing the website and using its applications, as well as accessing secure areas of the website. They may also, with due consent, be used in the dissemination of events, products/services, news, information, and informative new letters published by E.M

2. Key resources (KR)

3. Internal responsibilities (IR)

4. External responsibilities (ER)

5. Value of personal data (VPD)

(continued)

P2P19-Service. Call log (model 104). P3P3-Housing. Transfer request (model 15). P4P4-Rents. Request for punctual income change (model 17). Data change form (model 18). Income statement (model 76). P4P7-Invoicing and credit control. Debt letter (model 26). In-person notification (model 27). Debt payment plan (model 87). Termination of the lease (model 74). P5P8-Infrastructures. Requests and complaints (model 22). P6P5-Inspection. Complaint and complaint request (model 22). P7P12-Social activities. Registration form and social activity (model 100)

1. Key activities (KA)

Table 10.1 “Canvas RGPD model: activities”

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A E.M. uses personal data to identify tenants, employees, suppliers, service providers or other types of business partners, within the scope of the contracted services, namely, in the day-to-day management operations of its activity (invoicing). Collection, in carrying out satisfaction surveys, in responding to complaints or suggestions, among others) and in complying with legal and tax obligations to which E.M. be subject. Tenants’ data: name, taxpayer number, citizen card number, NISS number, date of birth, academic qualifications, profession; initial address and the reason for the non-income or income, situation of economic dependence, degree of incapacity of the household, and other data necessary for the conclusion of the lease contract and for the proper functioning of the activity after the conclusion may be collected contract. The personal data collected for the purpose of subscribing to E.M.’s informative new letters are exclusively the name and email of the holder, with the express consent freely and spontaneously of the subscriber

8. Target of personal data

(continued)

Presential, e-mail and Facebook

7. Communication channels

6. Relationship with the holder of personal data A E.M. collects personal data in writing and/or verbally, by virtue of the contractual relationship it establishes with tenants, employees, suppliers, business partners and relevant stakeholders. The data collected are processed in accordance with the requirements of the protection of personal data and are not used for any purpose other than that which was made known to the data subject. The E.M. only collects the data necessary to conclude, monitor and inspect the good performance of the lease contracts, employment contracts and contracts for the provision of services contracted so that the tasks are carried out efficiently and in compliance with the legislation in force. The period of time during which the data is stored and kept varies according to the purpose for which the information is processed. There are legal requirements that oblige you to keep data for a minimum period of time. Therefore, and whenever there is no specific legal requirement, the data will be stored and kept only for the minimum period necessary for the purposes that motivated their collection or subsequent processing or, for the period of time authorized by the National Commission for the Protection of Data, after which they will be deleted. Under the terms of the General Data Protection Regulation, the holder of personal data is entitled to: access, update, rectify, limit the processing or erasure of personal data (only if the legislation in force allows it)

Table 10.1 (continued)

106 M. Magalhães et al.

The E.M. contracted IS/IT security services, with companies specialized in this area, to ensure the commitment to protect the personal data made available by the data subjects, guaranteeing the definition and implementation of security measures, of a technical and organizational nature, in a way that to protect personal data against its dissemination, loss, misuse, alteration, treatment or unauthorized access, as well as against any other form of illicit treatment Training actions to raise awareness of the GDPR

9. Risk assessment

10. Continuous improvement

Table 10.1 (continued)

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Router Copa Servidor

Computador fixo

Atendimento ao público

Arquivo Computador portátil

Câmara de filmar

Armários Servidor Câmara

Ficheiro Arquivo

Economato/ Contabilidade

Cofre Técnico

Estagiário

Presidente Fiscal

Contabilista

Diretor Geral

Fig. 10.3 Redefinition of facilities layout to adapt to GDPR requirements. Source Magalhães [4]

References 1. Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho. Regulamento (UE) 2016/679 de 27 abril. In EURLex.europa.eu. (2016) 2. Assembleia da República. Lei nº 58 de 8 agosto. Execução do Regulamento 2016/679. (2019). 3. Ferreira, P.: A Protecção de Dados Pessoais na Sociedade de Comunicação: Dados de Tráfego, Dados de Localização e Testemunho de Conexão. Lisboa: O Espírito das leis editora, Lda, 455 p (2006). ISBN 978-9020-13-2 4. Magalhães, F.M.: Regulamento Geral de Proteção de Dados – Manual Prático, 3ª Edição Revista e Ampliada, Vida Económica, fevereiro de (2018) 5. Fazendeiro, A.: Regulamento Geral Sobre a Proteção de Dados - Algumas notas sobre o RGPD, Reimpressão da 2ª Edição, Almedina (2018) 6. Saldanha, N.: RGPD - Guia para uma Auditoria de Conformidade, Páginas 192 (2019) 7. ISBN 9789727229055. Editor: FCA 8. Saldanha, N.: RGPD - Novo Regulamento Geral de Proteção de Dados, Páginas 208, Editor, FCA (2018). ISBN 9789727228898 9. Grupo de trabalho de proteção de dados do artigo, 29 (2018) 10. Humphreys, M., Horspool, M.: European Union Law. 8a Edição, Ed. Oxford; Qualquer pessoa tem direito ao respeito da sua vida privada e familiar, do seu domicílio e da sua correspondência 11. COE, https://www.coe.int/pt/web/about-us 12. Convention CHR.: https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_POR.pdf 13. Artigo 8º da Convenção Europeia dos Direitos do Homem (CEDH) 14. PDP.: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ftu/pdf/pt/FTU_4.2.8.pdf 15. CNPD.: https://www.cnpd.pt/bin/rgpd/docs/wp244rev01_annex_pt.pdf. ANEXO II WP244 16. Diretiva de Proteção de Dados, JO L 281 de 23.11.1995, p. 31 17. Regulation (EC) EUR-Lex - 32001R0045 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu) 18. CDFUE.: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_pt.pdf 19. Diretiva 95/46/CE do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho, de 24 de Outubro 20. JO L 119 de 4.5.2016, pp. 89–131 21. Grupo de trabalho de proteção de dados do artigo, 29 (2017)

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22. CORETOPICS.: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/otherdocument/files/2015/20150617_appendix_core_issues_plenary_en.pdf 23. DPO.: http://www.cio.pt/2017/06/07/perfil-de-dpo-e-dificil-encontrar-numa-so-pessoa/ 24. Deloitte Ireland Data Privacy Services team (2017) 25. JOL 119 de 04.05.2016, p. 47 26. Lei 43/2004 de 18 de Agosto.: Lei de organização e funcionamento da Comissão Nacional de Proteção de Dados 27. JOL 119 / 55 de 4.5.2016 28. ASENSIO, Pedro Alberto de Miguel, “Derecho Privado de Internet”, 5ª Edição, Thomson Reuters, Civitas, pp. 291–377 29. Portugal 2020.: https://www.portugal2020.pt/Portal2020/rgpd-ja-e-aplicavel-na-ue-e-agoraos-cidadaos-decidem-sobre-a-sua-privacidade-digital 30. Osterwalder, A.: The business model ontology, a proposition in a design science approach, these présentée à l’ecole des hautes etudes commerciales de l’Université de Lausanne, pour l’obtention du grade de docteur en informatique de gestion (2004)

Chapter 11

The Impact of Remote Teaching in Teachers’ Motivation: In Time Pandemic COVID-19 Joaquim Paulo Lima , Susana Sá , João Pascoinho , Eusébio Costa , Joana Torres , and Manuel Trigueiro da Rocha Abstract When we first heard talking about COVID-19, nobody could foresee a pandemic with such giant proportions. No organization or institution was ready to face the natural effects that result from social distance and isolation schools that in the majority didn’t have the necessary support to provide immediate remote teaching or distance teaching. In the presence of a transition to remote emergency teaching, it is important to understand the impact it had on the motivation of basic and secondary school teachers, considering that there are already studies focusing on the impact it had on education or pupils/youngsters. To that end, a questionnaire was applied to teachers of basic and secondary education between the 3rd and the 31st of January of 2022. The results point to a decrease in the motivation of teachers during the pandemic period. Despite this matter, the interpersonal relationships existing at school, the collective and partnered work developed with teachers at the school regardless of the grade, level of education and formative option; the acknowledgment by their peers; the acknowledgment by the director, are seen as factors for the rise of teacher motivation in that time.

J. P. Lima (B) Agrupamento de Escolas do Monte da Ola, Viana do Castelo, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. P. Lima · S. Sá · J. Pascoinho · E. Costa · J. Torres · M. T. da Rocha Escola Superior de Educação, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto Europeu de Estudos Superiores (CIDI-IEES), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Pascoinho e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] J. Torres e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS.PP, ISCAP-Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_11

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11.1 Introduction Subsequent paragraphs, however, are indented. The closure of schools, for the first time, in March of 2020, came as a surprise to the school community, which did not have time for prior preparation. Suddenly something new happened, more than 1.5 million pupils were confined at home and had remote teaching. As schools were confronted with the need for a quick digital transformation, they searched for, as far as possible and, in most cases, with the help of different partners, to provide an answer not only to the educational needs as well as to social needs arisen by the pandemic. It is in this context that the National Council of Education (NCE) [1] began, in July of 2022, a study whose conclusions would not leave people indifferent and that highlight not only the lack of means as well as problems related to technological qualification. As it presents itself as a complex diverse and broad issue, we will, in this paper, emphasize one of the dimensions of this reality: the motivation of teachers in times of pandemic. We aim at finding possible answers to the following questions: What was the teachers’ motivation in the transition period to remote emergency teaching? What aspects contributed the most to teachers’ motivation in the last two years? What aspects contributed the least to teachers’ motivation in the last two years? To obtain answers to the previous questions, we applied an online questionnaire, the results of which were subjected to statistical analysis. The results of this exploratory study allow us, on a preliminary basis, to point out the drop of motivation of the teachers in the transition period to remote emergency teaching.

11.1.1 From Remote Emergency Teaching (RET) to Distance Education (E@D) The accentuated changes that occurred in society in the last decades have also been felt at School, encouraging the appearance of new teaching, and learning models and scenarios, namely digital [2]. Nevertheless, nobody, not even the teachers who already used digital environments for their practices, would think of such a sudden change, due to COVID-19. This abrupt shift to remote teaching became a reality from one day to the other, even though there was a clear conscience that it would not be accessible to the totality of students. Under the circumstances, in most of the cases, what happened was a transition to remote teaching practices of presential classroom practices that already existed. The main objective of this was to reduce the losses that occurred due to the suspension of presential classes. So, the concept of Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) was created in March of 2020 by Hodges et al. [3], translated into Ensino Remoto de Emergência (ERE). According to the authors, “the term aggregates a group of practices of temporary teaching that try to reproduce presential teaching or teaching mediated by technology, hopefully in a creative way, as a consequence of a particular crisis context” [4].

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To mitigate this sudden transition from presential teaching to ERT, the Ministry of Education developed several initiatives, namely the publication of the document [5] “Roteiro-Princípios Orientadores para a Implementação do Ensino a Distância (E@D) nas Escolas”, on the 27th of March, the broadcast of educational contents on Memória RTP TV channel, #EstudoEmCasa, which started on the 20th of April. In this context [4, p. 319], points out that “in the emergency remote teaching, the creation of a strong system, with specific pedagogical models, organizational structures, pedagogical designs, and dedicated teams are not a priority”, as it happens in Distance Education (E@D). Therefore [6], defines E@D as a method of education in which the pupils do not need presential contact with the teacher, where pupils may study at their own rhythm and at a place of their choice, technology assumes itself as a critical element of (E@D). The matter of ERT and E@D has taken many researchers to question if we ever abandon ERT, calling it “versão 2.0” (version 2.0), as mentioned by Marco Bento, a researcher at the Minho of University, and E@D specialist, in an interview for Diário de Notícias Journal, on the 7th of February 2021: In my point of view, there will not be distance teaching, but version 2.0 of remote emergency teaching. In this case, the teachers master the technology better, which can make them more agile, but the main question remains, this is, the knowledge of pedagogical practices that should be interactive rather than active with the students. I fear that version 2.0 may not be more than a substantial upgrade because most part of the emergency remote teaching plans of the cluster of schools continues to be guided by schedules, and timetables very similar to presential teaching. I foresee the continuity of the replication or digitalization of presential teaching.

The following Table 11.1 presents the comparative study carried out by Godinho [7]. Regardless of the terminological and conceptual issues, we may verify that during this period, the teacher had to adapt to a new reality, in which each lesson or meeting that happened online, turned his/her home into the workplace and invaded his/her privacy. According to [8], there was a major difficulty in adapting since the teacher had to transform his/her home into his/her workplace. However [9, p. 3] says: Instead of giving up, teachers started immediately to discuss solutions on social media. On the 14th of March (2020), the day after the closure of schools, they created on Facebook, on their own initiative, a group called “E-learning – Apoio”, aiming at mutual help between teachers. Three months later, this group had almost 30 thousand members and intense and uninterrupted activity. How many countries can brag that one-third of their teachers, tens of thousands, have self-organized themselves spontaneously in a group of mutual help and that that group transformed itself into a gigantic exercise of self-formation?

Despite the great resilience and capacity to adapt to change, in face of this reality and transformation, it is important to assess to what point this affected the teachers’ motivation, so that they may continue to be the mediators of knowledge, the promotor of the development of pupils.

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Table 11.1 Table captions should be placed above the tables Indicators

Models Distance teaching

Remote emergency teaching

Context of implementation

Structured context backed up by an institution and created based on specific needs of the target group

Context of crisis and/or emergency

Planning of the model

Planning of the model, its contents, and activities

The phase of planning is not considered because of the emergency of its implementation

Learning process

Focused on the active Focused on teaching and the participation of the pupil in the role of the teacher construction of his/her learning

Teacher’s role

Focused on the creation (a priori) of studying materials and assessment adapted to distance learning

Focused on the transmission (synchronous) of knowledge

Pupil’s role

Active role and management of his/her own learning

Passive role

Pupil’s profile

Autonomous, motivated and, mainly, adult. Participative and independent from the teacher. ICT skills

Pupils in compulsory education, university education, and/or adults in the sphere of continuous formation

Use of technological resources For the distribution of learning material and for (bi-directional) communication between teacher and pupils

For the distribution of learning material and for communication between teacher and pupils

Communication tools

Asynchronous and synchronous

Mainly synchronous

Learning process

Assessment adjusted to the features of each pupil, using diversified tools and activities

Based on the same methodologies and tools of the model that is being replaced

Source Adapted from [7]

11.1.2 The Motivation of Teachers in Pandemic Time The challenges that the school must face nowadays are innumerable, we just need to flick through the pages of a newspaper, switch on the TV or the radio, and very quickly we become aware of the problems teachers are going through. According to [10, p. 108] “to achieve the maximum potential of the human resources in order to maximize his/her performance it is essential that the individuals feel motivated”, so the word motivation appears associated with the idea of movement and action that leads a person to the disposition to do certain tasks. There are various definitions

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of motivation [11–15] we may conclude that there is not a consensual definition. Nonetheless, in the panoply of definitions that were found emerges the idea that motivation is an impulse, a feeling that makes us act to achieve certain objectives. Looking back at these two lasts years and understanding the role of the teacher in the organization School, it is important to comprehend the impact that remote teaching had on motivation. In fact, the teachers had to reinvent themselves, adapt, educate, and find themselves in a short period of time… Telecommuting from home associated with the need for social isolation, made the teachers face various changes: they needed to learn how to adapt to the new isolation routines, to conciliate the housework (and frequently helping their children with their schoolwork) with their work as a teacher; to acquire technological skills; to continue to promote the learning process of their pupils in a non-presential format. In the relation work/home, there was clearly no distinction, there was an interconnection and even an interweaving of the two in the same environment, where the relationship with the pupils and the family coexisted in the same space. Establishing a balance between family life, work inside the home and a pandemic was the greatest challenge. In this regard, it is necessary to understand the impact that these two years had on the motivation of the teachers so that they might rapidly feel motivated and confident to achieve the proposed targets and the organizational success.

11.2 Methodology To fulfil the identified objectives, we created a questionnaire, through the platform Google Forms, the questionnaire is divided into two parts; the first, corresponds to a brief characterization of the respondents; the second, focuses on the questions about teachers’ motivation over the last two years. The questionnaire was sent by email to the elements that make up the sample for them to fill it in. It was strictly on a voluntary basis. The elaboration of the questionnaire aimed only at the ongoing problematization of the theme. We emphasize that there is no identification of the respondents. The questionnaire was available between the 3rd and the 31st of January 2022. The questionnaire includes closed questions, subject to statistical analysis of descriptive nature. The data collection instrument was created for the purpose (ad hoc) based on instruments already existing in the literature on teachers’ motivation and well-being since there was not available a questionnaire/scale that could be applied in the context of school and that would meet the objective outlined for this study.

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11.2.1 Characterization of the Participants Eight respondents participated validly in the questionnaire, as shown in Figs. 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 and 11.4 about the characterization of the participants. From the answers gathered in the first part of the questionnaire, we can see that the ages of the participants are between 41 and 66 years of age. The largest number of participants is situated between 51 and 60 years of age (Fig. 11.1). Fig. 11.1 Age of respondents

Fig. 11.2 Gender of respondents

Fig. 11.3 Service of respondents until the 31/8/2021

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Fig. 11.4 Professional situation of respondents

The gender is mostly male (Fig. 11.2). The service time is situated mostly over 20 years of service (Fig. 11.3), followed by those who present 11–15 years of service (37,5%). Regarding the professional situation, 12,5% of the sample were hired for a certain period (Fig. 11.4), not belonging to the permanent staff of the school. The characterization, resulting from the answers given by the respondents, shows us that the teaching profession, as expected, is aging. Nevertheless, the fact that most of the teachers belong to the permanent staff of the school reveals the professionalism and stability of the teaching profession.

11.3 Analysis and Discussion of Results Bearing in mind the objectives of this study, we tried to understand the teachers’ perception of their motivation, after the period of confinement. From the answers gathered, we may observe that most of the respondents (75%) consider being highly motivated, (50%) or very highly motivated (Fig. 11.5). When looking at the answers to the question of how the period during which there was remote teaching had an impact on the teachers, the answers clearly reveal Fig. 11.5 Answers given to question 1

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Fig. 11.6 Answers given to question 2

a difference when compared to the previous question since 50% of the teachers responded that their motivation had diminished during this time (Fig. 11.6). We also tried to understand if, in the period to which the study refers to, there was any factor/aspect that would have contributed to his/her motivation. The respondents were asked to point out three aspects. It was interesting noticing that the results obtained in this study indicated that the aspects that most contributed to teachers’ motivation were the following: (c) the collaborative work developed with the other teachers of the school, independently of the grade, level of education or formative option; (j) acknowledgment by the director (Fig. 11.7). These data are in consonance with other studies, namely with the inquest about the Well-being of Teachers in Sintra realized by project Sintra ES+ (2021), between February and March of 2021, in the cluster of schools of Sintra. It was quoted by [1], in the study about Education in Pandemic Time: problems, answers, challenges of the schools, where teachers considered that their well-being is mainly positively affected by the relationships with the pupils’, other teachers’, and school director. Questioned about the aspect that contributed the least to his/her motivation during the period of remote teaching (Fig. 11.8), the respondents were unanimous in mentioning not only the “overload of administrative work” as well as “the pandemic

Fig. 11.7 Answers given to question 3

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Fig. 11.8 Answers given to question 4

situation”. It is worth pointing out that in the inquiry/study previously referred to, the teachers also consider that their well-being is negatively affected by non-teaching work and by the lack of acknowledgment. The answer referring to “overload of administrative work” stood out among the given answers (87,5%), it has been one of the concerns of the teachers. However, the results also indicate that “pandemic situation” (75%) is one of the aspects that had a great impact on the motivation of the respondents, this is also supported by the study “Education in Times of Pandemic-Problems, answers, and challenges of the schools [1, p. 110]: The experience of remote teaching exposed the weaknesses of teachers’, pupils’, and families’ skills in using digital resources and tools. The lack of knowledge regarding the modality of distance teaching or the use of tools and specific digital pieces of equipment forced them to an extra effort during that period. This was, in addition to the lack of digital equipment, one of the biggest problems the schools had to face during the suspension of presential teaching.

This data is supported by the questionnaire about E@D, promoted by [16, p. 4], titled “Distant Teaching (E@D), The perceptions and the word(s) of teachers”. The burnout of the teachers, who exhibit enormous exhaustion, is due to diverse factors. These factors are, on the one hand, the need to adapt to an unprecedented activity and, on the other hand, the fact that it is more complicated to accompany and satisfy the specific educational needs of each pupil in distance teaching. This burnout is aggravated by the fact that professional activity has overtaken all hours of the day and has invaded the home of each teacher, making it more difficult to separate, in a healthy, way work and family life.

11.4 Final Considerations In society, and especially, in education this moment was unique in modern history. Never were teachers forced to remote work. It was necessary to conciliate the professional setting with homelife. Regarding this very peculiar moment, studies and reports emerged naturally. However, we may observe a great concern with the impact of this pandemic on the economy, education, society in general, and on pupils’ but, in fact, there is little on the impact it had on the teachers. This was the starting point for the following

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three questions: What was the teacher’s motivation for remote emergency teaching? What aspects contributed the most to teachers’ motivation in the last two years? What aspects contributed the least to teachers’ motivation in the last two years? While searching for answers, we could verify that the results of studies show that there was a negative impact on the teachers’ motivation, during the period they worked remotely. It was imperative to establish as soon as possible collaborative work, partnerships between teachers as well as interpersonal relationships within the school. In other words, to establish positive, suitable, and enabling educational practices by the teachers, as they appear to foster the well-being and increase motivation as pointed out in the results of the inquiry. Other studies in the literature and reports also point to the same results, which show the aggravation of teachers’ weaknesses in a period as difficult as was the isolation period during the pandemic situation. The results also show the teachers’ need to reframe, reinvent, and overcome themselves! It was a time of apprenticeship, to deal with what was new, to search for motivation to reframe oneself. It is obvious that these new times will bring huge possibilities for a “new School”-innovative, inclusive, and detached from physical space. For those who had doubts about the introduction of educational technologies may now understand the importance of the change of methodologies used at school. We may also conclude that there are significant differences in teachers’ motivation from the confinement to the post-confinement period. Nevertheless, it is crucial to investigate this impact more deeply, since this was one among many other problems that had been detected. A fast re-establishment of the teachers’ well-being is essential to enable the success of all.

References 1. NCE: O estudo Educação em Tempo de Pandemia: problemas, respostas e desafios das escolas (2021). https://www.cnedu.pt/pt/noticias/cne/1673-educacao-em-tempo-de-pandemiaproblemas-respostas-e-desafios-das-escolas 2. Garrison, D., Anderson, T.: El e-learning en el siglo XXI. Investigación e práctica. Octaedro (2005) 3. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., Bond, A.: The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Rev. 27 (2020). https://er.educause.edu/art icles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning 4. Seabra, F., Aires, L., Teixeira, A.: Transição para o ensino remoto de emergência no ensino superior em Portugal – um estudo exploratório. Dialogia 36, 316–334 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.5585/dialogia.n36.18545 5. Apoio às Escolas.: (2020). https://apoioescolas.dge.mec.pt/ 6. Bates, T.: Re-defining online learning and distance education in 2020. Online Learning and Distance Education Resources (2020). https://www.tonybates.ca/2008/07/07/what-is-distanceeducation/ 7. Godinho, B.: #EstudoEmCasa: Ensino a Distância ou Ensino Remoto de Emergência em tempos de pandemia. Conferência Virtual A Transformação Digital e Tecnologias em Tempo

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10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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de Pandemia. Revista da UI_IP Santarém. Edição Temática: Ciências Exatas e Engenharias 8(4), 194–205 (2020) Modesto, J.G., Sousa, L.M., Rodrigues, T.S.L.: Esgotamento Profissional em tempos de Pandemia. Revista Pegada 21(2) (2020) Figueiredo, A.: Os Equívocos da Educação à Distância. Sinal Aberto. Edição de 20 de junho (2020). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317869028_Leadership_Influence_ in_School_Results_A_influencia_das_Liderancas_nos_Resultados_Escolares Ribeiro, M.F., Passos, C., Pereira, P.: Motivação Organizacional: fatores Precursores da Motivação do Colaborador. Gestão e Desenvolvimento 26, 107–133 (2018). http://z3950.crb.ucp. pt/Biblioteca/GestaoDesenv/GD26/GD26_107.pdf Chiavenato, I.: Recursos Humanos: o capital humano das organizações. 8th edn. Atlas (2006) Fontaine, A.M.: Motivação em contexto escolar. Universidade Aberta (2005) Kondo, Y.: Motivação Humana: Um fator-chave para o gerenciamento. Gente (1994) Maximiano, A.: Teoria geral da administração. 1st edn. Atlas (2011) Pintrich, P.R.: A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. J. Educ. Psychol. 95(4), 667–686 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1037/00220663.95.4.667 FENPROF: O Ensino a distância (E@D): as perceções e a(s) palavra(s)dos professores (2020). Retrieved from: https://www.fenprof.pt/Download/FENPROF/SM_Doc/Mid_ 115/Doc_12667/Anexos/ED_-_a_percecao_dos_professores.pdf

Chapter 12

Digital Training and Satisfaction in Hotel Business in Portugal: The Case of a Hotel in the District of Braga Paulo Cunha , Laurentino Guimarães , Susana Sá , Isabel Borges , and Eusébio Costa Abstract Workplace satisfaction is crucial to organizational success, as satisfied employees translate into motivated employees and commit to working harder, leading to higher productivity and retention rates. The study is guided by the following objective: to explore the contribution of digital training to the job satisfaction of employees in the hotel industry. The methodology is qualitative in nature, where the content of fifteen semi-structured interviews was analysed, carried out in a hotel, in the district of Braga in the North of Portugal, with the webQDA® software. Ethical care was guaranteed. The main result was the emerging category Satisfaction with the “Training” indicator. It is concluded that employees, after training in the digital area, are more motivated and compensated in their day-to-day, which translates into greater job satisfaction, although it does not translate into greater retention in the organization. The hotel business in Portugal has already recognized that successfully facing these challenges is a strategic priority for the country and its start to the process of developing a national digital training plan for the tourism workforce. P. Cunha · L. Guimarães (B) · S. Sá · I. Borges · E. Costa Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto Europeu de Estudos Superiores (CIDI-IEES), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. Sá e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] S. Sá UNESCO, Pós-Doctor, Brasília, Brazil I. Borges CEGOT-Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal REMIT-Portucalense University, Porto, Portugal E. Costa CEOS.PP, ISCAP-Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_12

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12.1 Introduction In July 2020, 1,569 hotel establishments were operating, including hotels, apartment hotels, lodges, Quintas da Madeira, apartments and tourist villages, reflecting an overall decrease of 18.4% compared to July 2019. The hotel industry accounted for 30.3% of the total number of establishments and 76.9% of the sleeping capacity in the context of tourist accommodation establishments. This reality was responsible for generating aggregate revenue close to 1.5 billion euros, corresponding to a 35% reduction compared to the same period of the previous year (2019) [1], as an obvious consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. 19. The information described is more important as it allows us to understand the relevant importance of Hotel trade in the Tourism business, an economic sector responsible for 8% of Portuguese GDP in 2020, about half of the previous year (2019), and 6% of the job. The use of digitalization as a practice within the economy of Hotel trade and Tourism in Portugal is not recent. Many of the tourist units have developed a significant investment in the integration of sales and marketing with online platforms connected to the internet and mobile access, thus using the potential of digital to transform many aspects of customer interactions [2]. As one of the main goals in the daily practice of the hotel, profitability is usually associated with organizational success. However, a goal defined as universally and ideally as this, represents only a generalization of other important organizational factors, which allow the achievement of objectives. One of these factors that significantly influence the desideratum is the employees’ job satisfaction [3]. Despite the progress made in recent years, the digitization of the Hotel area, in particular in Portugal, should be seen as a driving force in the recovery and resilience in the post-COVID-19 era, which presupposes that companies adopt programs of training and development that allow the acquisition of the necessary skills by the respective workforce for the best use of digital systems and tools, thus allowing, in addition to increasing the quality of available human capital, the reinforcement of their levels of motivation and job satisfaction. The main objective of the present work is to explore the contribution of digital training to the job satisfaction of employees in the hotel industry, which in the perspective of Kim and Spears [4] is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. To meet and exceed the objectives of the 2027 Strategy and comply with the defined sustainability goals, and within the scope of the Recovery and Resilience Plan and the Portugal 2030 Strategy, it is approved by Resolution of the Council of Ministers [5], the “Plan to Reactivate Tourism | Build the Future”. This Plan aims to minimize the harmful effects of the pandemic crisis, supporting in a concerted way the recovery of the economy, being based on four pillars of action: Supporting companies, Fostering safety, Generating business and Build the future.

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12.1.1 Training and Development “Employees are the backbone of any organization. The achievements or problems experienced by the organization depend on the performance of its employees” [6, p. 206]. This statement appears to be so obvious that it is considered indisputable since organizations are constituted to, within the scope of the economic and social activities they practice, develop operations and tasks that lead to the production of goods and services that feed the markets in which they operate. Operate, through the different cadres of personnel they are part of, and thus achieve their objectives. To this end, organizations are obliged to retain employees and teams with the knowledge and skills that enable them to respond to the demands of increasingly informed and demanding markets and the surrounding environment. “Employee development is the process of providing experiential learning and growth opportunities” [7, p. 276]. However, the degree to which an individual is considered competent in relation to a given task or set of tasks is contextually defined in terms of different needs, expectations or criteria that dictate what should be considered acceptable, qualified ways or excellent performance, according to institutional and/or socio-organizational guidelines [8], contemplating, the latter, the specific organizational, technical, and normative needs of each organization [9]. This constantly growing and rapidly growing challenge requires organizations to involve their employees in training and development programs that keep them permanently updated in an increasingly digital world. This implies, according to [10], that the level of use of information and communication technologies (ICT) of an organization must correspond to the mission, structure, capacity, and communication needs and organizational objectives. Employee training and development is one of the most significant motivators used to help individuals and organizations achieve short- and long-term goals and objectives. Training not only improves knowledge, skills and attitudes, but also offers other organizational benefits, such as [11]: (1) Increase in employee morale, confidence and motivation levels, (2) reduction of production costs by increase in the efficiency of processes and, as well, because employees become able to reduce waste, (3) it promotes a sense of security which, in turn, reduces turnover and absenteeism, (4) increases employee involvement. employees in the change process, providing the necessary skills to adjust to new and challenging situations, (5) it opens the door to better reward policies such as recognition, higher salaries, and career progression, and (6) it enables the organization to improve the commitment and quality of its staff. Jehanzeb and Bashir [12] also corroborate the perspective by stating that training programs allow employees to obtain or develop the technical, knowledge and behavioral skills necessary for the performance of their duties, with an impact on improving the level of satisfaction at work, as they perceive training and the resulting benefits as an investment in their own future. As individuals’ loyalty, trust and job satisfaction tend to increase substantially, they proactively seek opportunities to acquire innovative skills, assume new roles and responsibilities and tend, in a perspective of further

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personal and professional development, to invest more time and effort so that the organization’s objectives are achieved [12]. Each organization is responsible for improving employee performance by implementing relevant and effective training programs. Assuming that an organization’s workforce is its most important asset, it is crucial to reinforce this notion in practical terms. The organization must optimize the contribution of its employees, ensuring an adequate source of people who are functionally, technically, and socially capable of evolving in their roles [11]. In this sense, Bapna and collaborators [13] conclude by increasing the productivity of the workforce, since the training and development programs improve the aptitudes and capacities of the collaborators. Overall, organizations that proactively implement a culture of training and workforce development achieve positive results from individuals who attend training programs [12]. In Schmidt’s perspective [14] training can be seen by the workforce as a reward.

12.1.2 Digital Competence in Hotel Trade The concept of competence is susceptible to multiple forms of definition according to different disciplinary approaches, which have contributed to different interpretations and references [15]. Page and O’Connell [16] state that the progress of ICT facilitates communication, virtually eliminating the feeling of distance and favoring the reduction of work. These authors also argue that the distribution of products and services has changed to other parts of the world. From the perspective of [17] the hotel and tourism business has adopted ICT to reduce costs, increase operational efficiency and, most importantly, improve service quality and customer experience. Digital competence can be defined as the ability to use digital devices, communication applications and networks to access and manage information. Competencies enable people to create and share digital content, communicate, and collaborate and solve problems for effective and creative self-fulfillment in life, learning, work and social activities in general [18]. The body considers that the rapid growth of Internet access and connectivity has paved the way for the development of a digital economy worldwide, so digital skills have gone from “optional” to “critical” and need to be complemented with “transversal” interpersonal skills, such as the ability to communicate effectively in online and offline media. The globalization of the tourism industry has several significant implications for the hotel business. This framework has increased the complexity of the provision of services and requires the design of innovative products that are exclusively suitable for the various tourist and hotel markets that operate digitally in an environment without limits, forcing professionals in this sector to have the appropriate skills. According to [2], employment and business prospects in tourism in Portugal, as elsewhere, remain uncertain. Available information refers to broad expectations that

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travel and hotel trade customers would turn to more online platforms to obtain information, make reservations and purchases. It was also expected that the meetings and events sectors would increasingly host virtual or hybrid events. Across tourism, stakeholders felt that much needed to be done to build a deeper integration of technology and industry activity in a “digital entrepreneurial attitude” [2, p. 11].

12.1.3 Training and Job Satisfaction in Hotel Trade A study by Costen and Salazar [7] to understand the effect of training and development on employee job satisfaction, loyalty, and intention to stay in the organization in the hotel business in the United States, revealed that job satisfaction, loyalty, and intention of permanence are higher among employees who receive adequate training and development in areas that allow them to develop new skills. Training is one of the areas of greatest impact in people management due to the importance it has in terms of individual employability and organizational development. Training makes it possible to provide employees with the basic knowledge and skills necessary to perform their roles in the employing organization. Costen and Salazar [7] refer, according to several studies, evidence that the feelings of competence resulting from the participation in training programs, increase job satisfaction, not only in the relationship with the employer, but also with the managers, organizational commitment, and the will to remain, as the employee’s emotional bond with the organization is increased. In addition, organizations that invest more in training have a significantly higher level of organizational performance, as measured by the quality of the product or service offered, new product development, ability to attract and retain key employees, and customer satisfaction [7]. A study by Maroofi et al. [19] shows that information technologies have a direct impact on job satisfaction if, for this purpose, the company demonstrates a high level of technological orientation, and investment in information and communication technologies (ICT) positively impacts job satisfaction as these skills are significantly important for effective use of ICT. The results of this study also indicate that administrative skills simplify the effects of ICT on employee satisfaction. In the perspective of Chiang and collaborators [20] training is related to the improvement of job satisfaction and the intention of employees to remain in the employer, as it has been considered as a path to quality customer service and consistency in performance. The authors even consider that, according to several studies in the field of business and hotel area, “(…) specialists perceive a strong correlation between training and many other factors, including increased satisfaction in the workplace. Employees’ work and duration of employment” [20, p. 101]. Wesley and Skip [21] had already associated training with dimensions such as improved selfesteem and attitude towards work, greater guest satisfaction and reduced business costs, the use of new technologies and a greater ability to meet the needs of target market, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction.

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12.2 Methodology This study aims to answer the following research question: How are employees satisfied with technology training? Fifteen employees of a hotel in the North of Portugal were interviewed. The semi-structured interview guide included 12 questions related to leadership and job satisfaction. The audio-recorded interviews lasted, on average, about 53 min and were carried out by a researcher, co-author of this study. The study is of a qualitative nature [22, 23], with characteristics of a case study, carried out on the Portuguese reality, as it reflects the perception of fifteen employees of a hotel in the district of Braga in the North region of Portugal, about job satisfaction in technology training. Data were collected between January 5th and 11th, 2022. The random sample (n = 15) is made up of current employees, without distinction of positions held, all men and aged between 23 and 30 years. Thus, “the construction of the questionnaire and the formulation of the questions constitute, therefore, a crucial phase in the development of the investigation” [24, p. 118]. All ethical standards were safeguarded, namely, guaranteeing the anonymity of participants, data confidentiality and the right to voluntary participation. The request for authorization of the study to the Director of the Hotel Unit and for audio recording to the participants, in writing, were assured. The fifteen interviewees are designated, from now on, from E1 to E15. In this study, data on the issue related to satisfaction in technology training are presented and analyzed. The fifteen audio recordings were inserted into the webQDA® software—Qualitative Data Analysis Software for data analysis [25]. Data analysis performed by webQDA® is like the basic structure of content analysis [26]: (a) pre-analysis, with the organization of the material to be analyzed; (b) exploration of the material, with coding and categorization; and (c) treatment of the results, with inferential interpretations. This stage started “from the meanings that the message provides” [26, p. 135] triangulating with the literature review. It is, therefore, a process of arranging a set of categories of meaning [27, p. 302], which we will call reference units. Content analysis was carried out from the responses of the collaborators, emerging the following category, which are shown in Table 12.1: (i) Satisfaction; and the indicators (a) Hierarchical Superior; (b) Training and (c) Organization. Hierarchical Superior is understood as the employee’s agreement regarding the influence of his hierarchy on job satisfaction. Training is considered as specific training in technologies and its contribution to employee satisfaction at work. Organization is interpreted as the differentiation of tasks that influence the employee’s job satisfaction.

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Category

Indicator

Interviewed reference units (n)

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Hierarchical superior

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Training

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Organization

2

Source Authors

12.3 Analysis and Discussion of Results Triangulation were made between category and literature. We consider the “need to establish some strategies. Among them, we highlight the triangulation of the various sources collected, that is, looking at the same phenomenon from different angles” [28, p. 9] we also chose to privilege data triangulation—as modality that proves whether the information collected is consistent—signed by another (theoretical) source, and we resort to the transparency of the entire process that guarantees the merit, credibility, and reliability of the investigation. We will focus on the Training indicator in this study, as the employees mentioned (n = 31) and this is what may answer the research question. Employees mentioned as examples: “training in technologies provided me with greater training to face this time of pandemic” (E3); “I felt more motivated to work, in the pandemic, after having specific training in the area of ICT” (E10); “with digital training, I was allowed to assume another type of responsibility in my service, providing me with an increase in salary” (E7); “I saw my work made easier after being trained in technologies” (E6); “I always take advantage of the training they provide me, and ICT training is essential for me to grow and if it’s not within this organization, it will be in another” (E2); “I now know more and I can be good in any organization” (E5). Making the triangulation between the responses of the collaborators and the literature, it appears that: (i)

the opinion of the interviewee named (E3) corroborates the study by Costen and Salazar [7], which emphasizes training as an opportunity for the professional development of employees; (ii) the answer by (E10) supports Nassani’s opinion [11], in the sense that training appropriate to the needs of an employee makes him feel motivated and even progress in his career; (iii) the interviewee’s speech (E7) corroborates Nassani’s opinion [11], in the sense that training in the specialized area of ICT increased the opportunity for selfmotivation and, consequently, triggered professional self-recognition, mirrored in the increase of salary; (iv) the answers of the interviewees (E2) and (E5) corroborate the opinion of Jehanzeb and Bashir [12], in the sense that training improves the level of employee satisfaction, but, on the other hand, is at odds with the [2, 7], since the

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high level of satisfaction does not translate into stability within the organization, but into an opportunity for personal growth, which can lead to the mobility of employees between organizations and, even translate into, in organizational instability.

12.4 Final Considerations In response to the research question, in this study, it is concluded that computer skills are described as essential for this area, since the importance that ICTs are increasingly assuming deserve special attention in the dynamism of the sector’s economy, making it more competitive and innovative. Reinforcing this statement, the importance attributed by several researchers to the relevance of technology for the hotel sector is highlighted, highlighting the fact that it has become an indispensable part of the day-to-day life of hotels. Thus, employees are more self-motivated and compensated in their day-to-day, which translates into greater job satisfaction. Increasing digitization must be a resource to meet any changes in business and consumer needs and preferences. Apparently, the pace of digitalization in the sector seems to have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, as some companies realized that this would be the option to take for reasons of survival. However, the digitization of the sector in Portugal seems to have a long way to go and it is necessary for the hotel area and tourism sector to consider digital systems and tools as a driving force for recovery and resilience in the post-COVID-19 era. This includes, more than the adoption of appropriate technologies and adjustment/suitability in business models, the understanding of organizations regarding the need to obtain and retain the skills that allow their workforces to make better use of digital systems and tools. According to [2], Portugal has already recognized that successfully tackling these challenges is a strategic priority for the country and its beginning the process of developing a national plan for digital training of the tourism workforce. It is worth mentioning the Recovery and Resilience Plan and the Portugal 2030 Strategy, approved by [5], “Formação mais Próxima”, a project developed by the Tourism Schools of Portugal in partnership with local municipalities, which aims to decentralize training in tourism and adapt it to local needs, customizing it to the needs of the tourist activity of each territory.

References 1. INE: Instituto de Estatística, Estatísticas de Turismo (2021) 2. OECD: Preparing the tourism workforce in Portugal for the digital future. OECD Tourism Papers, 2021/04. OECD Publishing (2021). https://doi.org/10.1787/bcada146-en 3. Azié, M.L.: The impact of hotel employee satisfaction on hospitability. Tour. Hosp. Manag. 23(1), 105–117 (2017) 4. Kim, Y.H., Spears, D.: Differing career expectations in the hospitality industry: a cross-cultural study. Int. Hosp. Rev. (2021, ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-08-2020-0033

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5. Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 76/2021, Diário da República, 1.ª série. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros (2021) 6. Rodriguez, J., Walters, K.: The importance of training and development in employee performance and evaluation. World Wide J. Multidiscip. Res. Dev. 3(10), 206–212 (2017) 7. Costen, W.M., Salazar, J.: The impact of training and development on employee job satisfaction, loyalty, and intent to stay in the lodging industry. J. Hum. Resour. Hosp. Tour. 10(3), 273–284 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/15332845.2011.555734 8. Guimarães, L.: Contrato psicológico e empregabilidade em contexto militar: o Exército Português em transformação. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Universidade do Minho (2017) 9. Nilsson, S., Ellström, P.E.: Employability and talent management: challenges for HRD practices. Eur. J. Train. Dev. 36(1), 26–45 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1108/03090591211192610 10. Hu, Q., Kapucu, N.: Information communication technology utilization for effective emergency management networks. Public Manag. Rev. 18(3), 323–348 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/147 19037.2014.969762 11. Nassazi, N.: Effects of training on employee performance: evidence from Uganda. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Applied Sciences, Vassa (2013) 12. Jehanzeb, K., Bashir, N.A.: Training and development program and its benefits to employee and organization: a conceptual study. Eur. J. Bus. Manag. 5(2), 243–252 (2013) 13. Bapna, R., Langer, N., Mehra, A., Gopal, R., Gupta, A.: Human capital investments and employee performance: an analysis of IT services industry. Manag. Sci. 59(3), 641–658 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1120.1586 14. Schmidt, S.W.: The relationship between job training and job satisfaction: a review of literature. Int. J. Adult Vocat. Educ. Technol. 1(2), 19–28 (2010) 15. Melo, A., Gonçalves, M.: From training to professional performance in hospitality management: the vision of industry professionals. Adv. High. Educ., 103–115 (2016) 16. Page, J., O’Connell, J.: Tourism: A Modern Syntheses. Cengage Learning (2014) 17. Law, R., Leung, R., Buhalis, D.: Information technology applications in hospitality and tourism: a review of publications from 2005 to 2007. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 265(6), 599–623 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/10548400903163160 18. UNESCO: Digital skills critical for jobs and social inclusion. https://en.unesco.org/news/dig ital-skills-critical-jobs-and-social-inclusion (2018) 19. Maroofi, F., Rastad, S.A., Amjadi, M.: Examining the role of information and communication technology to improve job satisfaction. J. Appl. Sci. 15, 752–762 (2015) 20. Chiang, C.-F., Ki-Joon Back, K.-J., Canter, D.D.: The impact of employee training on job satisfaction and intention to stay in the hotel industry. J. Hum. Resour. Hosp. Tour. 4(2), 99–118 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1300/J171v04n02_06 21. Wesley, S.R., Skip, S.: Training and its impact on organizational commitment among lodging employees. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 23(2), 176–194 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1177/109634809902 300205 22. Bogdan, R., Bilken, S.: Investigação qualitativa em educação. Porto Editora (1994) 23. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso. Planeamento e Métodos. Bookman (2005) 24. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas: teoria e prática, 2nd edn. Almedina (2014) 25. Costa, A.P., Moreira, A., Souza, F.: webQDA (version 3.1)—Qualitative Data Analysis. Aveiro University and MicroIO (2019) 26. Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições Setenta (2010) 27. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica da análise de conteúdo. In: Amado, J. (Coord.) Manual de Investigação Qualitativa em Educação, pp. 301–349. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra (2013) 28. Sá, S., Costa, A.P.: Critérios de Qualidade de um Estudo Qualitativo (Carta Editorial). Rev. Eixo 5(3), 9–12 (2016). https://doi.org/10.19123/eixo.v5i3.384

Chapter 13

Eco-Schools in Higher Education Institutions: Analysing Portuguese Students’ Practices and Perspectives Joana Torres , Rosa Martins , César de Freitas , Ana Camões , and Isilda Rodrigues Abstract Concerning all the challenges that we currently face, it is of the utmost importance to prioritize Education for Sustainable Development as a way to contribute to a more sustainable world. Higher Education Institutions are considered to be fundamental to this process, albeit the slow progress verified in the transition to real sustainable institutions. Eco-Schools programme is concerned with Education for Sustainable Development and may contribute to this transition. In this

J. Torres (B) · R. Martins · C. de Freitas · A. Camões Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] R. Martins e-mail: [email protected] C. de Freitas e-mail: [email protected] A. Camões e-mail: [email protected] J. Torres Instituto de Ciências da Terra (ICT), Polo Porto, Porto, Portugal Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal C. de Freitas CITCEM—Centro de Investigação Transdisciplinar «Cultura, Espaço e Memória» (CITCEM), Porto, Portugal A. Camões Faculdade de Educação e Psicologia da Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Centro de Investigação para o Desenvolvimento Humano (CEDH/FCT), Porto, Portugal I. Rodrigues Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Educativas, Porto, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_13

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study, we analysed Portuguese Higher Education Students’ Practices and Perspectives concerning Sustainable Development, environmental protection, and the relevance of Eco-Schools programme. For this purpose, we applied a questionnaire (Microsoft Forms), which was previously adapted and validated, in two different Portuguese Higher Education Institutions. This study was conducted in 2021/2022 school year with the participation of 288 Higher Education Students. Here we present and discuss the results of three selected questions. Although the majority of students separate waste for recycling, they also reveal some lack of knowledge concerning this process. The bulk of them also considered important the implementation of programmes, such as Eco-schools programme, in Higher Education Institutions. Thus, more research must be carried out in order to better understand the challenges faced when implementing a programme of this nature and what could be improved in order for us to give a better contribution towards a more sustainable world.

13.1 Introduction The concept of Sustainable Development (SD) was firstly introduced in the Brundtland Report (entitled Our Common Future), in 1987, and it is defined as the development “to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [1, p. 24]. However, and besides all the years that have passed, this concept stood the test of time, as there is still too much work to do regarding this issue [2–4]. SD has been discussed in several international conferences [2, 3] and is still a central topic in many conferences’ agendas, namely the Davos Agenda, which took place in January 2021, as well as COP26 (26th Conference of the Parties), which took place in November 2021. Meanwhile, in 2015, under the [5] Agenda for SD, 17 SD goals and 169 targets were defined concerning the challenges we all face in order to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all (a sustainable future that calls for prosperity, justice, peace, success, dignity, well-being, and equality of all people). To reach this sustainable future, it is crucial to promote SD, namely through education (goal 4) [5]. In fact, regarding the environmental degradation and imbalance, social inequality, and the great challenges that we all face nowadays, education for sustainable development (ESD) is essential as it aims to attain a learning that leads to the transformation of the society towards a more sustainable way of living [6–8]. As so, it is fundamental that students develop their action competence [9], being involved in learner-centred, problem solving, and interactive learning activities [6]. Portuguese standard documents (concerning Environmental Education for sustainability) also emphasize the relevance of preparing students to become informed, responsible, and active citizens, capable of solving the problems that they will face. With that purpose, schools should go far beyond the transmission of knowledge, contributing to change the way students, as well as the community, behave in relation to the environment [10].

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Despite the relevance of promoting efficient ESD activities, there are some weaknesses concerning its implementation in Portugal. For example, [11, citing Raposo, 1997] refers that ESD activities are scattered over time and space, and frequently associated with commemorative dates, and that those activities’ objectives are mostly too ambitious or inadequate for students. Furthermore, outdoor schools’ activities are scarce and environmental topics are generally considered to be less relevant than other topics, namely those that are assessed in national exams [11, 12]. In a study conducted with Portuguese teachers, it was also suggested that teachers must improve their environmental literacy [13]. In studies conducted by Schmidt et al. [8, 14], it was verified that ESD activities: (i) do not promote fundamental partnerships and barely involve the community (most of the projects do not even involve the whole school community); (ii) are frequently limited to some restricted topics, forgetting fundamental real topics that are problematic in our country; (iii) are also predominantly directed to younger students, which leads to the development of many ludic activities, when it comes to environment and sustainability; and (iv) are not continuously developed over time. In this way, Schmidt et al. [14] also considered that there is a lack of strategy of ESD, highlighting for the need of a change in methodologies, which may contribute to the development of competencies fundamental for achieving an active citizenship. In fact, Cordeiro et al. [12] also revealed the need to develop the environmental literacy of Portuguese students, being fundamental to develop students’ attitudes and behaviours [15]. As there is no direct translation between knowledge into attitudes and behaviours, we reaffirm the relevance of working beyond knowledge in ESD. “Eco-schools” is an international programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) that precisely intends to promote activities and projects oriented to students’ development of action competences and engagement in sustainability initiatives, under the scope of Environmental Education for Sustainability [16–18]. In the framework of this programme, students become agents of change and work collaboratively through a seven-step process, where they have to critically evaluate, analyse, reflect, and solve problems and propose sustainable solutions [18]. In fact, the programme starts with the formation of an Eco Committee, constituted mainly by students, that is responsible for the whole process. Then, the members of the Committee will perform an Environmental Review to understand the environmental and social issues of the school/community. This review will provide the necessary information to develop an Action Plan that aims to resolve or improve the problems previously identified in the Environmental Review. Throughout this process, students should also Monitor and Evaluate the activities and, eventually, change the Action Plan if needed. Eco-Schools activities should also be linked to the curriculum and actions should be disseminated (Inform and Involve school members and the community). In the end, an Eco code should be produced, that means, a statement that represents the school’s commitment to sustainability [16, 18]. Having this in mind, our research project intended to evaluate Portuguese Higher Education Students’ environmental practices and perspectives of two Higher Education Institutions (HEI), by means of a questionnaire. In this study, we will present and discuss some of the main results.

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13.1.1 Eco-Schools in Higher Education Given the need, identified in the UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, to involve youth in environmental protection and the promotion of economic and social development, Eco-Schools programme has emerged [18]. In Portugal, Eco-schools programme is widely implemented in schools, being implemented since 1996/1997 school year. In recent years, Eco-Schools programme is also gaining relevance in higher education. In fact, in the school year 2008/2009 only one HEI implemented the programme, while in 2020/2021, fifty-four HEIs have already implemented the programme. Although it is referred that action competences regarding SD are not developed in higher education [2], some authors also argued that HEIs may play a central role in the promotion of ESD [19, 20], being undeniable the relevance of these institutions in the transformation of society towards a more sustainable one [21]. In fact, HEIs may contribute to a holistic approach of sustainability education, through the improvement of the institution management, the development of curricula regarding sustainability, SD research, as well as through the promotion of the public participation and social responsibility [21]. Nevertheless, and despite all the progress that has been achieved, Disterheft et al. [22] considered that there is still much work and research to be done to prompt the transition to real sustainable HEIs. Moreover, as referred by Aleixo et al. [23], as there is still a lack of knowledge concerning Higher Education Students’ perspectives and practices concerning SD and environmental protection, this study becomes of the utmost relevance.

13.2 Methodology This study is part of a broader research project that aims to compare Higher Education Students’ environmental practices and perspectives of two Portuguese HEIs, by means of an implemented questionnaire (Appendix 1). As so, in this paper, we will present and discuss the results of two closed questions (concerning students’ practices—questions 3 and 4 of Appendix 1) and of one open question concerning students’ perspectives (“Do you consider important the development of programmes, such as Eco-Schools programme, in a HEI? Why?”—question 28 of Appendix 1). Based on the theoretical and circumstantial foundations described above and on the problems presented, the following objectives were established: (i) to analyse students’ practices concerning the separation of waste; (ii) to identify students’ perspectives concerning Eco-Schools programmes in HEIs. “The construction of the questionnaire and the formulation of the questions constitute, therefore, a crucial phase in the development of the investigation” [24, p. 118]. This questionnaire survey was adapted from the questionnaire proposed by EcoSchool organization team to evaluate students’ environmental practices. Also, two additional open questions were added to analyse students’ perspectives regarding

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the relevance of Environmental Education and of developing programmes, such as Eco-Schools programme, in HEIs. After this step, questionnaire was validated by the research team, which is comprised of 5 education experts. The surveys were applied in two Portuguese HEIs: Higher School of Education of Fafe (Escola Superior de Educação de Fafe—ESEF), which is a private institution and started to implement Eco-School programme in the current school year (2021/2022) and University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), which is a public institution that has been revealing for several years a sustainable commitment, concerning different aspects, such as the campus management, energetic efficiency, air quality, waste and water management, as well as environmental training and participation of the academic community. During our research, all ethical standards were safeguarded, namely the guarantee of participants’ anonymity, data confidentiality, and the right to voluntary participation, as well as concerning previous authorization of the institutions to apply the questionnaire. 109 students from ESEF, from three different courses—35 from the first degree in Primary Education (PE), 38 from the first degree in Social Education (SE), and 36 from the first degree in Sports (Sps)—and 179 students from UTAD, from five different courses—40 from the first degree in Primary Education (PE), 19 from the first degree in Social Services (SS), 109 from the first degree in Sports (Sps), 10 from the first degree in Cultural and Community Animation (CCA), and 1 from Psychomotor Rehabilitation (PR) fill in the digital questionnaire (in the Microsoft Forms). In this study, two closed questions and one open question of the questionnaire are presented and analysed. The answers were compressed in Excel, generated by Microsoft forms. A descriptive analysis of the two closed questions was performed in Excel and the open question was then inserted into the webQDA® —Qualitative Data Analysis Software [25] for qualitative data analysis. Data analysis performed by webQDA® is like the basic structure of content analysis [26]: (a) pre-analysis, with the organization of the material to be analysed; (b) exploration of the material, with coding and categorization; and (c) treatment of the results, with inferential interpretations. This stage started “from the meanings that the message provides” [26, p. 135]. It is, consequently, a process of arranging a set of categories of meaning [27, p. 302], which we will call reference units. Content analysis was carried out with students’ perceptions, emerging the following categories, which are shown in Table 13.1: (i) Development of Activities; (ii) Dissemination and Awareness; (iii) Sustainable Behaviours.

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Table 13.1 Categories and frequency of reference units in ESEF and UTAD students’ answers

Categories

ESEF (frequency of units (n))

UTAD (frequency of units (n))

Development of activities

17

14

Dissemination and awareness

37

65

Sustainable behaviours

21

17

Source Authors

13.3 Results and Discussion 13.3.1 Analysis of Students’ Practices Concerning the Separation of Waste In the first question analysed, students were asked if usually in their homes, waste is separated for recycling—question 3 of Appendix 1. Although the majority of students (69% in ESEF and 51% in UTAD) revealed that they usually separate waste, there is still a percentage of students that assumed not to do it (7% in ESEF and 16% in UTAD) or to do it only from time to time (24% in ESEF and 33% in UTAD)—see Fig. 13.1. On Table 13.2, it is possible to compare those results by courses.

ESEF

Fig. 13.1 Answers of ESEF (left image) and UTAD (right image) students to question 3

UTAD

24%

33%

7%

Yes

69%

No

Sometimes

51%

16%

Yes

No

Sometimes

Table 13.2 ESEF and UTAD students’ answers to question 3 (percentage), by courses ESEF

UTAD

PE (%)

SE (%)

Sps (%)

PE (%)

SS (%)

Sps (%)

Other courses (%)

Yes

65.7

73.7

66.7

57.5

42.1

51.4

45.5

Sometimes

25.7

No

8.6

26.3

19.4

30

42.1

30.3

54.5

0

13.9

12.5

15.8

18.3

0

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These results are in line with those obtained by Aleixo et al. [23], as the vast majority of Higher Education Students also mentioned that they separate waste for recycling. Concerning the second question “If you answered affirmatively (yes/sometimes) to the first question, please indicate the type of waste that you separate for recycling”, the majority of students separate for recycling glass (86.8% of students from UTAD and 91.1% of students from ESEF), followed by plastic (80.1% of students from UTAD and 84.2% of students from ESEF), followed by paper (79.5% of students from UTAD and 74.3% of students from ESEF) and followed by metals/can (52.3% of students from UTAD and 52.5% of students from ESEF). 42.4% of students from UTAD and 34.6% of students from ESEF also separate organic compounds. It is relevant to underline that there is a number of students (5.3% from UTAD and 14.8% from ESEF) that selected the separation of mirrors and others (3.3% from UTAD and 11.9% from ESEF) that selected the separation of kitchen pots. As those compounds cannot be recycled, through these answers, we could observe that these Higher Education Students still revealed some lack of knowledge about the recycling process.

13.3.2 Analysis of Students’ Perceptions Concerning Eco-School Programme in Higher Education Institutions Triangulation matrices were made between categories and literature. We consider the “need to establish some strategies. Among them, we highlight the triangulation of the various sources collected, that is, looking at the same phenomenon from different angles” [28, p. 9], we also chose to privilege data triangulation—as modality that proves whether the information collected is consistent—signed by another (theoretical) source, and we resorted to the transparency of the entire process which guarantees the merit, credibility, and reliability of the investigation. From the answers given by ESEF students, only 75 were considered, as 20 students only referred that they considered important the development of programmes, such as Eco-Schools, in a HEI, without presenting a justification; 7 students did not answer and 6 did not consider the development of those programmes relevant. From the responses given by UTAD students, only 96 were considered, as 12 students did not consider the development of those programmes relevant, 19 students did not answer, and 52 students only agreed with the relevance of those programmes, without presenting a justification. In this regard, in a study conducted by Aleixo et al. [23], the majority of Higher Education Students also considered that HEIs and their courses should prompt the development of SD activities, while revealing interest in learning more about SD.

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From the results observed in Table 13.1, 17 ESEF students and 14 UTAD students considered important the development of programmes like Eco-Schools in HEIs for the Development of Activities. For example, one ESEF student stated: Yes, as it encourages the development of activities, aiming the improvement of environmental performance of schools, contributing to the changing of behaviours, and of the impact of the environmental concerns in different generations, recognizing and rewarding their work.

In UTAD, one student stated: Yes, as there are still many people that do not care about the environment. If someone stars to implement more projects of this nature it might be possible to change mentalities.

In fact, in a study conducted by Ribeiro et al. [29], Higher Education Students considered that HEIs conduct few activities related to SD. In fact, as mentioned by those authors and according to our results, it is fundamental to conduct activities where students have a central role, for them to change opinions, to take actions, and to become proactive concerning SD issues. 37 students from ESEF and 65 from UTAD also considered it important to implement programmes like Eco-Schools in HEIs for Dissemination and Awareness purposes. In this regard, one ESEF student stated: Yes, as it is not only important to develop a higher awareness concerning the real state of our world, but also to pay attention and to take action, even those that we considered to be insignificant (recycle, reutilize and reduce the use of resources from our daily life).

One UTAD student also indicated: Yes, as it is a way of raising awareness of the generation that will be the future, providing means to change their habitats and also for those closest to them.

According to Dagiliute et al. [21], HEIs should invest in a curriculum that prompts sustainability, as it may contribute to students’ awareness and responsibility and, consequently, may influence environmental behaviour. 21 students from ESEF and 17 from UTAD also considered it important to implement programmes like Eco-Schools in HEIs for the promotion of Sustainable Behaviours. Concerning this aspect, one ESEF student stated: Yes, as it is in educational context that children and youth are provided with knowledge, attitudes and values that help them to make options and to make adequate decisions to preserve the environment, contributing to Planet Earth Sustainability.

One UTAD student also mentioned: Yes. To create habits of participation and citizenship, with the main objective of finding solutions to improve the quality of life at school.

As referred by Velazquez et al. [30], to accomplish the mission of a sustainable HIE it is fundamental that its members start to behave according to sustainable development principles.

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13.4 Final Remarks It is undeniable that HEIs play a crucial role in accomplishing ESD goals. However, as previously mentioned, there is still much work to be done in the transition process for HEIs to become sustainable institutions. Having this in mind, it is important to understand Higher Education Students’ practices and perspectives concerning SD, environmental protection, and the relevance of Eco-Schools programme. In this study, the vast majority of students referred that they separate waste for recycling, albeit some revealed some lack of knowledge concerning the recycling process. Moreover, Higher Education Students also considered important the development of programmes, such as Eco-schools, in HEIs. In general terms, these students justify the relevance of promoting those programmes in HEIs for dissemination and awareness purposes, the promotion of sustainable behaviours, and the development of activities. In fact, given their transformative potential, HEIs should promote different activities for students and all the community for them to become aware and to take more sustainable actions. Concerning these students’ perspectives, Eco-Schools may have a key role in HEIs transformation to become more sustainable. However, more studies are needed to understand the full potential of these programmes in HEIs, to evaluate how they are being implemented, providing clues concerning what should be done to improve the implementation of those programmes and to contribute to a more sustainable world.

Appendix 1: Questionnaire 1.

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

I declare that I have been duly informed concerning the objectives and procedures of this study and I accept to complete the questionnaire voluntarily. □ Please indicate your course: ___ Primary Education/ ___ Social Education/ ___ Sports/ ___ Social Services/ ___ Other: _____ In your home, is it usual to separate waste for recycling? ___ yes/ ___ No/ ___ Sometimes If you answered affirmatively (yes/sometimes) to the previous question, please indicate which type of waste you separate for recycling. ___ Paper/ ___ Metals/Can/ ___ Glass/ ___ Plastic/ ___ Kitchen Pots/ ___ Mirrors/ ___ Organic Compounds/ ___ Other: _____ Please indicate the meaning of the “3 RS policy” concerning waste, by the correct order. While you brush your teeth, do you keep the faucet open? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always Please indicate the name of a river or stream that you know and that you have already visited near your Higher Education Institution

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8.

9.

10.

11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

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When you are the last person to leave a room in your house that will remain for a long time with no one, do you turn off the light? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always In your home, do you switch off the TV with the remote control and the TV remains in stand-by mode? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always In general, how do you travel to your Higher Education Institution? ___ By foot, bicycle, or public transport/ ___ By private car/ ___ Other: ________ If for the same route you had to travel you had to choose either to take a train or a bus ride which one would you choose? ___ Train/ ___ Bus Do you often listen to music loudly? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always Would you take part in an initiative taken by your Higher Education Institution with the purpose of cleaning or enhancing the institutions’ outdoor spaces? ___ Yes/ ___ No What actions would you suggest to enhance institutions’ outdoor spaces? Please mention 2 examples of native plants. Please mention 2 examples of exotic and/or invasive plants. In your home, is it usual to buy biological products? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always Please mention two advantages of biological products. How often do you eat soup during the lunch/dinner? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you eat vegetables during the lunch/dinner? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you consume soft drinks during the lunch/dinner? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you eat candies during the lunch/dinner? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you drink milk/yogurt at breakfast? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you eat pastries at breakfast? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you eat bread/cereals at breakfast? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always How often do you eat fruit at breakfast? ___ Never/ ___ Occasionally/ ___ Frequently/ ___ Always For you, what is the relevance of Environmental Education? Do you consider important the development of programmes, such as EcoSchools programme, in a Higher Education Institution? Why?

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References 1. World Commission on Environment and Development: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/139811 (1987). Last accessed 04 Apr 2022 2. Cincera, J., Krajhanzl, J.: Eco-schools: what factors influence pupils’ action competence for pro-environmental behaviour? J. Clean. Prod. 61, 117–121 (2013) 3. Vasconcelos, C., Costa, J., Vasconcelos, L., Torres, J.: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Portuguese citizens literacy and emerging questions for research. In: ICERI2016 Proceedings—9th Annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation, pp. 8040–8048. IATED, Seville, Spain (2016) 4. García-González, J.A., Palencia, S.G., Ondoño, I.S.: Characterization of environmental education in Spanish geography textbooks. Sustainability 13, 1159 (2021) 5. United Nations: Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E (2015). Last accessed 31 Mar 2022 6. Elster, D.: Eco-schools movement in Germany in the light of educational reforms. In: Gough, A., Lee, J.C., Tsang, E.P.K. (eds.) Green Schools Globally—Stories of Impact on Education for Sustainable Development, pp. 169–188. Springer, Cham, Switzerland (2020) 7. Rauch, F., Pfaffenwimmer, G.: The Austrian ECOLOG-schools programme—networking for environmental and sustainability education. In: Gough, A., Lee, J.C., Tsang, E.P.K. (eds.) Green Schools Globally—Stories of Impact on Education for Sustainable Development, pp. 85–102. Springer, Cham, Switzerland (2020) 8. Schmidt, L., Nave, J.G., Guerra, J.: Educação Ambiental: Balanço e perspetivas para uma agenda mais sustentável. ICS, Imprensa de Ciências Sociais, Lisboa (2010) 9. Jensen, B.B., Schnack, K.: The action competence approach in environmental education. Environ. Educ. Res. 3(2), 163–178 (1997) 10. Direção Geral da Educação: Referencial de Educação Ambiental para a Sustentabilidade para a Educação Pré-Escolar, o Ensino Básico e o Ensino Secundário. http://dge.mec.pt/sites/ default/files/ECidadania/Educacao_Ambiental/documentos/referencial_ambiente.pdf (2018). Last accessed 6 Apr 2022 11. Almeida, A.: Educação Ambiental: A importância da dimensão ética. Livros Horizonte, Lisboa (2007) 12. Cordeiro, F.B., Pedro, A.D., Moura, A.P., Santos, P.T., Azeiteiro, U.M.: Literacia Ambiental no Ensino Secundário. CAPTAR 4(1), 27–56 (2013) 13. Marques, L.M.B., Azeiteiro, U.M., Santos, P.T.: A Literacia Ambiental em Professores da Escola Secundária com 3ºciclo de Gondomar. CAPTAR 5(1), 70–82 (2014) 14. Schmidt, L., Nave, J., O’Riordan, T., Guerra, J.: Trends and dilemmas facing environmental education in Portugal: from environmental problem assessment to citizenship involvement. J. Environ. Plan. Policy Manag. 13(2), 159–177 (2011) 15. Spínola, H.: Literacia ambiental: um desafio à didática e à matética. In: Gouveia, F., Pereira, G. (orgs.) Didática e matética, pp. 289–298. CIE-Uma—Centro de Investigação em Educação, Madeira (2016) 16. EcoEscolas Homepage. https://ecoescolas.abae.pt. Last accessed 6 Apr 2022 17. Vilaça, T.: Dinâmicas das relações entre a educação para a saúde, educação ambiental e educação para a sustentabilidade nas escolas promotoras de saúde. In: Leão, A.M.C., Muzzeti, R.L. (orgs.) Abordagem panorâmica educacional: da educação infantil ao ensino superior, pp. 35–60. Cultura Acadêmica Editora, Araraquara (2016) 18. Andreou, N.: Towards a generation of sustainability leaders: eco-schools as a global green schools movement for transformative education. In: Gough, A., Lee, J.C., Tsang, E.P.K. (eds.) Green Schools Globally—Stories of Impact on Education for Sustainable Development, pp. 31– 45. Springer, Cham, Switzerland (2020)

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19. Vasconcelos, C., Silva, J., Calheiros, C.S.C., Mikusinski, G., Iwinska, K., Skaltsa, I.G., Krakowska, K.: Teaching sustainable development goals to university students: a cross-country case-based study. Sustainability 14, 1593 (2022) 20. Finlay, J., Massey, J.: Eco-campus: applying the ecocity model to develop green university and college campuses. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 13(2), 150–165 (2012) 21. Dagiliute, R., Liobikien, G., Minelgaite, A.: Sustainability at universities: students’ perceptions from green and non-green universities. J. Clean. Prod. 181, 473–482 (2018) 22. Disterheft, A., Caeiro, S.S., Filho, W.L., Azeiteiro, U.M.: The INDICARE-model—measuring and caring about participation in higher education’s sustainability assessment. Ecol. Ind. 63, 172–186 (2016) 23. Aleixo, A.M., Leal, S., Azeiteiro, U.M.: Higher education students’ perceptions of sustainable development in Portugal. J. Clean. Prod. 327, 129429 (2021) 24. Coutinho, C.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas: teoria e prática, 2nd edn. Almedina (2014) 25. Costa, A.P., Moreira, A., Souza, F.: webQDA (version 3.1)—Qualitative Data Analysis. Aveiro University and MicroIO (2019) 26. Bardin, L.: Análise de Conteúdo. Edições Setenta (2010) 27. Amado, J., Costa, A., Crusoé, N.: A técnica da análise de conteúdo. In: Amado, J. (Coord.) Manual de Investigação Qualitativa em Educação, pp. 301–349. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra (2013) 28. Sá, S.O., Costa, A.P.: Critérios de Qualidade de um Estudo Qualitativo (Carta Editorial). Rev. Eixo 5(3), 9–12 (2016) 29. Ribeiro, J.M.P., Hoeckesfeld, L., Dal Magro, C.B., Favretto, J., Barichello, R., Lenzi, F.C., Secchi, L., de Lima, C.R.M., Guerra, J.B.: Green Campus Initiatives as sustainable development dissemination at higher education institutions: students’ perceptions. J. Clean. Prod. 312, 127671 (2021) 30. Velazquez, L., Munguia, N., Platt, A., Taddei, J.: Sustainable university: what can be the matter? J. Clean. Prod. 14, 810–819 (2006)

Chapter 14

The Technological Impact on Local Tourism: The Case of Fafe Catarina Freitas Da Mota , Isabel Borges , José Luís Braga , Sandra Brás , Américo Silva , and Sónia Leite

Abstract The impact of technologies on the growth of local tourism has been significant throughout this era of technological evolution. As such, we find it pertinent to study this same impact in a specific city: the city of Fafe. Fafe is located in the North of Portugal, in the Minho region, Braga district, and, in turn, in the “Porto and North” tourism region. Fafe also has a strategic location in geographical terms, as it is surrounded by several cities of tourist interest, including Guimarães, Braga, and Porto. Fafe’s proximity to these urban centers makes it a must-see for tourists, either for its natural and cultural wealth, or for the international and national events that take place there, or, not least, for the hospitality and authenticity of the residents. The “Porto and Northern” tourism region has been increasingly asserting itself, thanks C. F. Da Mota (B) · I. Borges · J. L. Braga · S. Brás · A. Silva · S. Leite CIDI-IESF-Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges e-mail: [email protected] J. L. Braga e-mail: [email protected] S. Brás e-mail: [email protected] A. Silva e-mail: [email protected] S. Leite e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges REMIT-Portucalense University—Infante D. Henrique, Porto, Portugal CEGOT-Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal J. L. Braga CITUR-Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal S. Leite CeiED, Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_14

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to the tourist development carried out by public and private sector agents in the promotion, dissemination, and marketing. In an introductory part, the importance of the need to reinvent ourselves and bet on technologies was explained, after these two long years of pandemic. The methodology addressed consists of a case study, supported by a qualitative research approach, through the interview. It should also be noted that the study has two main starting questions and five secondary research questions. With regard to the results of the present study, the use of technologies has had a positive impact so that such disclosure is possible, which led, during the periods under study, to both an increase in visitors and an increase in overnight stays. Thus, and with regard to the conclusions of the present study, it is considered urgent to invest in technologies to develop tourism in small towns.

14.1 Introduction After these two pandemic years, the country and the world had to reinvent themselves in all sectors. With regard to tourism, in particular, in Portugal, it felt an abrupt drop, since it regressed to values as in 2013, for resident tourists and, as in 1984, for non-resident tourists [1]. However, with the focus on technologies, local tourism agents in the public and private sector have been implementing projects to attract a greater number of visitors and, consequently, more stays in their locations [2]. This factor gives rise to the interest in approaching this topic, since technologies are increasingly associated with windows of opportunity in all sectors and, more than ever, in tourism. The main objective of this article is to present the evolution of tourism in Fafe, comparing two periods, namely: between 2008 and 2015, and between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter). Consequently, there are two starting questions that seem to us to be relevant for the present study, namely: (1) “How is the dissemination about the City carried out?”; (2) “Nowadays, what is the impact of technologies on the growth of tourism in Fafe?”. In addition to these two main questions, we will also address five secondary research questions, namely: (1) “In the city of Fafe, is tourism considered a strategy for economic development?”; (2) “What are the seasonality peaks in Fafe?”; (3) “What do tourists look for in Fafe?”; (4) “What was the number of overnight stays recorded in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?”; (5) “What was the number of visitors registered in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?”. The methodology applied in this article was a case study that included the collection of data related to tourism in Fafe. The data collection instruments used were direct observations resulting from a semi-structured interview. This article is organized as follows: the Sect. 14.2 presents a brief review of the existing literature, regarding the impact of technologies on tourism, the recovery and resilience plan for tourism in Portugal, taking into account the marketing strategy for the “Porto and Northern” tourism region, and, finally, authenticity as a driving force for local tourism. In turn, Sect. 14.3 describes the methods used in the current

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research, while Sect. 14.4 reveals the research results. Finally, Sect. 14.5 of this article address the study’s conclusions and limitations and proposal for future studies.

14.2 Literature Review 14.2.1 The Impact of Technologies on Tourism The economic growth of a country translates into an increase, in the long term, in the capacity to increasingly provide different economic goods to the population, and this growing capacity is based on advanced technology and the necessary institutional and ideological adjustments [3]. For the author, the three components of the definition are central, and the use of technology plays an important role in achieving this objective. We also witnessed the high competitiveness that has been revealed in the tourism sector, which constitutes a huge challenge for managers in this area in order to develop new theoretical and analytical models different from the traditional ones [4]. The implementation of technologies has caused radical changes in the tourism sector. The adoption of technology has, in fact, brought great implications, not only in the way the trip is planned (pre-tourist experience) and shared (post-tourist experience), but also in the way the tourist product is created and consumed (on-site experience) [5]. It is thus possible to mention that research in tourism technology for years has examined the impact of technologies on the way tourists buy, select, evaluate, pay, share, and experience their own tourist experiences. In other words, those already called and researched by numerous authors of “advanced technologies” [6, 7], such as artificial intelligence, industrial web, big data, smart devices, robots, drones, sensors, virtual reality, and augmented, among others, have a great impact on consumer behavior, decision-making processes, design, and consumption of tourist experiences [8, 9]. So, it is possible to mention that the role of technology in tourism can be understood as a form of “individual” expression, as for example when tourism brands communicate and form their image, leading the tourist to share experiences and training for the self-construction of their image and social identity. It can be seen that the use of technologies in tourism translates into a decision support tool for companies and tourists, a source of market intelligence to store, analyze, share, visualize, and interpret big data, a e-learning tool, an automation tool, which allows new business models, such as cyber-intermediaries, multilateral markets, shared economy, and new management practices, such as open innovation, crowdsourcing, crowdfunding, or even gamification. Thus, technology in tourism has been considered a regenerator of tourist experiences, such as virtual tours and mediated or augmented experiential tourism technologies. Finally, it can be seen as a co-creation platform, a fact that can already be observed in review sites, in tourism based on wiki guides, and in peer-to-peer

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markets, enabling and providing space, functionality, and connectivity—ability for all tourism agents to be involved in participating in the co-creation of value, through the use of technologies in the tourism sector [10, 11].

14.2.2 Recovery and Resilience Plan for Tourism in Portugal—The Marketing Strategy for the Porto and Northern Tourism Region The vision of the Tourism Strategy 2027, the benchmark for Tourism, aims to “affirm tourism as a hub for economic, social, and environmental development throughout the territory, positioning Portugal as one of the most competitive and sustainable tourist destinations of the world” [12]. With the aim of leading the tourism of the future, essentially focused on People, it is based on five priority axes: valuing the territory, boosting the economy, enhancing knowledge, generating networks and connectivity, and projecting Portugal. In this context, there is also a commitment to implement economic, social, and environmental sustainability goals [12]. Due to the devastating impact of COVID-19 on the Tourism sector, both due to the measures implemented at the time and the mobility restrictions, it was necessary to create a recovery plan in order to place the destination Portugal in the competitive position of 2019, the best tourist year ever. The Portugal 2030 Strategy, approved by the Resolution of the Council of Ministers nr 98/2020 of 13th November, constitutes an element framing and structuring of the great modernization programs that will be implemented in the coming years using European Union (EU) funds—the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP). In global terms, this will be the biggest stimulus package ever funded from the EU budget to help rebuild the Europe in the post-COVID-19, creating a greener, more digital, and more resilient Europe [13]. The Portugal 2030 Strategy is structured around four central thematic agendas for the development of the economy, society, and the territory of Portugal in the horizon of 2030: (i) People First: a better demographic balance, greater inclusion, less inequality; (ii) Digitization, Innovation, and Qualifications as engines of development; (iii) Climate transition and resource sustainability; A country that is competitive externally and cohesive internally. As tourism is considered a priority sector for the country’s development strategy, and having as a priority to allow for overcoming the objectives and targets defined in the 2027 Tourism Strategy, it is approved by Resolution of the Council of Ministers No. 76/2021, the Reactivate Tourism Plan | Build the Future. With the ambition to promote national recovery, it works as a guide for the public and private sector with actions integrated with the objectives of the RRP and the Portugal 2030 Strategy. It is based on four pillars: supporting companies, promoting security, generating business, and building the future—and it is composed of specific actions that, in the

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short, medium, and long term, will enable to activate and enhance opportunities for the tourism sector [14]. The pandemic has accelerated the digital transition in the most diverse areas and sectors, including tourism. Thus, it is worth noting the specific measures contemplated in the Resolution of the Council of Ministers No. 76/2021, referring to “P4.3.1—Tourism + Digital Program (Digital Companies and Digital Territories)”, supporting the digital transformation of companies in the sector [14]. The Tourism Marketing Strategy for Porto and Northern Portugal (PNP) and the respective Action Plan, corresponding to the characteristics of the territory and the wishes of its stakeholders, are based on the premise that the PNP can assert itself with its history and tradition, with a diversity of natural and heritage resources of world reference, to be connoted as a cosmopolitan and glamorous destination, with a unique enogastronomic offer, which can be experienced in an environment of absolute escape, or consequent fun. The strategic objectives to be achieved with the implementation of the PNP’s tourism marketing strategy stand out, namely: increasing the attractiveness of the destination and raising its levels of notoriety; harmonizing and transversally consolidating the quality of the offer; improving tourism indicators and reducing asymmetries between sub-destinations; encouraging a collaborative spirit among stakeholders to adopt an approach aligned to the development and promotion of the destination. In order to achieve these objectives, the PNP strategy culminates in the implementation of three action programs to be implemented within a period of six years: (P1) Harmonization and consolidation of the tourist offer; (P2) Communication and awareness of the destination; (P3) Monitoring of the destination and markets [15]. Thus, based on the strategy of the PNP, it appears that the objective of programming is to present itself as a process of involvement of the actors and stakeholders of the destination, in favor of the balanced and harmonious development of tourism in the region.

14.2.3 Authenticity as a Driving Force for Local Tourism The concept of the authenticity of tourists’ motivations and experiences was introduced more than four decades ago in the sociology of tourism by MacCannell [16, 17]. This notion knows its detractors, who question its usefulness and validity, since innumerable tourist motivations and experiences are not likely to be explained taking into account the conventional concept of authenticity. Authenticity in tourism now concerns, among other things, traditional culture and its origin, in the sense of being genuine, real, and unique. However, there are gradations of authenticity. Authenticity can be conceptualized within a personal true/false continuum of perception, ranging from completely true or authentic, through various stages of partial authenticity, to complete falsehood. What is perceived as inauthentic or authenticity staged by experts, intellectuals, or the elite can be experienced as authentic and real from a participant perspective (of the

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cultural phenomenon under study)—and this may be how mass tourists experience authenticity. Furthermore, authenticity is a polysemic notion, thus distinguishing four meanings: (1) Historical verisimilitude of representation. It is an authentic reproduction that resembles the original and thus appears credible and convincing; (2) Authenticity means genuineness, historical accuracy, and immaculate simulation. In both the first and second senses, it comprises the nature of a copy or reproduction, rather than the original. Museologists apply authenticity eminently in the first sense, but also in the second; (3) Authenticity means originals as opposed to copies. In this sense, no reproduction can be authentic, by definition; (4) The term refers to the authority or power that legally consents, certifies, and validates authenticity [18]. It should also be noted that the idea of authenticity implies a vocabulary that assumes that the original is better than its antithesis, the copy. In the context of cultural tourism—and wherever the production of authenticity is subject to some act of (re)production—it is generally accepted that the past holds the model for the original. In fact, from this point of view, authenticity in the present must pay tribute to a peculiar conception of origins [19]. Finally, it is also important to point out that the tourism literature places authenticity within the scope of three approaches: objectivism, constructivism, and existentialism. The first two perspectives focus on the object, the third one focuses on the personal search, which seems to suggest an objectivist-subjectivist orientation dichotomy in the authenticity discourse conveyed in the tourism literature [20].

14.3 Method and Data Collection: Case Study Based on Interview Research supported by case studies has been fostered and gained a greater reputation. This growing notoriety is largely due to authors such as Yin and Stake, who, although not completely coincidental, have sought to deepen, systematize, and give credibility to the case study within the scope of the research methodology. The case study as a research strategy is approached by several authors [21–24], for whom, “a case can be something well defined or concrete, such as an individual, a group, or an organization, but it can also be something less defined or defined at a more abstract level, such as decisions, programs, implementation processes, or organizational changes”. In the present study, we intend to approach a well-defined case, supported by a qualitative research approach, since it aims to present the impact of technologies on tourism for the city of Fafe. To this end, a semi-structured interview was used, which consists of a data collection instrument. Hence, the structuring of the two starting questions, which are (1) “How is the dissemination about the City carried out?”; (2) “Nowadays, what is the impact of technologies on the growth of tourism in Fafe?”.

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The interview is one of the most important and essential sources of information in case studies [22]. Also, according to Fontana and Frey [25], “interviewing is one of the most common and powerful ways of trying to understand other human beings”. The interview is still considered an excellent instrument to obtain the diversity of descriptions and interpretations that people have about reality, hence we find it pertinent to choose this instrument for the elaboration of the present study. The use of the semi-structured interview aimed to provide an understanding of tourist behavior by public agencies, in the context of technologies, following an interview script, with seven questions. This type of data collection instrument was the most suitable for our purposes, as we had the opportunity to interview the Councilor for Tourism of the Municipality of Fafe. As the interview was conducted by e-mail, there was no space for surveys on topics of interest voiced by the interviewee. The interview gave rise to five more secondary research questions, which are (1) “In the city of Fafe, is tourism considered a strategy for economic development?”; (2) “What are the seasonality peaks in Fafe?”; (3) “What do tourists look for in Fafe?”; (4) “What was the number of overnight stays recorded in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?”; (5) “What was the number of visitors registered in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?”. The main objective of the present study was to understand the impact of the use of technologies for the dissemination of tourism in Fafe, having as comparative terms the periods between 2008 and 2015 and between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter), thus presenting the data related to the number of visitors and, consequently, the number of overnight stays, in the periods under study.

14.4 Results The interview was initiated in view of a study carried out previously, and with the intention of following it up [26]. In 2016, after an interview with the former Councilor for Tourism of the Municipality of Fafe, for the question (1) “In the city of Fafe, is tourism considered a strategy for economic development?”, the answer had been positive. However, having already passed a period of 5 years, we think it is good to confirm that this situation remains, even after this pandemic. In fact, what we were told by the current Councilor for Tourism is that there are “characteristic aspects of local identity that can be largely enhanced by a strategy that respects what is differentiating in Fafe and that attracts visitors and tourists, from the angle of this peculiarity”. The picturesque rural environment, the natural environment, the landscape that is offered to the exploration, constitute integrated aspects of a visit experience that can effectively leverage tourism and, consequently, the local economy, and in a sustainable way. Still with regard to this first question, there are axes or areas that are deserving the attention of the City Council, as is the case of environmental tourism and nature sports tourism, since the trend of looking for less popular destinations, more peaceful, and

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that provides an experience in a restricted group or family context perfectly matches what Fafe can offer in terms of tourism. It is also known that “there is an excellent network of accommodation in rural areas and good ideas and projects have already been implemented. Tourism is a sector of local economic activity that is attracting the attention of the Municipality. A Strategic Plan for Tourism is being prepared in line with a territorial marketing plan which, together, will constitute fundamental working instruments for a good orientation of the policies to be implemented”. Regarding the second and third questions (2) “How is the disclosure about the City carried out?”; (3) “Today, what is the impact of technologies on the growth of tourism in Fafe?” “Fafe has international and world projection due to the passage of one of the “Rally de Portugal” events, part of the World Rally Championship (WRC). The mythical «Salt of the Seated Stone» is located in our municipality, considered worldwide the best «spot» of the competition, due to its spectacularity. This sporting event effectively attracts thousands of visitors and tourists, it has a considerable impact”. Likewise, the “Volta a Portugal” bike ride reflects another important impact on the municipality, with the mobilization that affects its passage through Fafe. These two events have been two prestigious showcases for the dissemination of Fafe in the country, Europe, and the world, and Fafe City Council uses all available resources and means to position the “Fafe” brand in these two showcases of media excellence. Alongside publicity at events, presence at tourism fairs, especially at the Lisbon Tourism Exchange (BTL), position in the media, Fafe City Council has been investing heavily in interaction in the digital environment and on social networks, trying to follow the communication trend and trying to meet the public in different media and environments. The Councilor for Tourism stated that they are, “within the scope of the digital transition strategy, preparing the implementation of projects that will have an impact on the way in which the visitor or tourist can live their experience in Fafe, using mobile applications, platforms of georeferencing, interfaces, which are some of the possibilities under development”. These digital tools, capable of providing the user with all the information and services they need, constitute a bet and an added value for the positioning of the local tourism sector. Regarding the fourth question (4) “What are the seasonality peaks in Fafe?” and despite the events mentioned above, since the “WRC” does not take place during these events, the months with the highest demand continue to be the months of July and August. The fifth question refers to tourist demand in Fafe (5) “What are tourists looking for in Fafe?”. To this question, we were told that the points of interest most sought after by tourists in Fafe are the walking trails in the middle of nature, the “Arquitetura dos Brasileiros”, the “Casa do Penedo”, and the “Barragem da Queimadela”. Finally, with regard to the sixth and seventh questions, about the number of overnight stays and the number of visitors in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter), we will portray the data graphically, taking the opportunity to compare with

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25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

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Fig. 14.1 Number of overnight stays in Fafe between 2008 and 2015

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Fig. 14.2 Number of overnight stays in Fafe between 2016 and 2022

the data obtained between 2008 and 2015. Thus, the questions were as follows: (6) “What was the number of overnight stays recorded in Fafe, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?”; (7) “What was the number of visitors registered in Fafe between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter)?” (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2). With regard to graphs 1 and 2, it can be seen that there were large fluctuations in the number of overnight stays in Fafe, over the periods under study. The years with the highest number of overnight stays, between 2008 and 2015, were 2008, with 22,867 overnight stays, and 2010, with 23,954 overnight stays. Regarding the period between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter), it appears that the years in which the highest number of overnight stays were recorded were the years 2017 and 2019 (pre-pandemic year), in which, in 2017, they were recorded 20,732 overnight stays in Fafe and, in 2019, 19,866 overnight stays. It is also worth noting that in this period under study, there was a historical decline throughout all of these, with only 3907 overnight stays. Regarding the period of the pandemic, there was a slight increase between 2020 and 2021. Finally, in this first quarter of 2022, 253 overnight stays have already been registered in Fafe, namely that the municipality is confident with the evolution of overnight stays this year, despite the aftereffects of the war between Ukraine and Russia (Figs. 14.3 and 14.4). Regarding the number of visits to Fafe, recorded through the number of visits made to the Fafe Tourist Office, it appears that between 2008 and 2015, the year that registered a significant number of visits was precisely the year 2015, with 2133. However, there were some fluctuations between 2008 and 2013 that were not very significant, since the number of visits registered through the Tourist Office was never very significant over the years.

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2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Fig. 14.3 Number of visits in Fafe between 2008 and 2015

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Fig. 14.4 Number of visits in Fafe between 2016 and 2022

Regarding the period under study, between 2016 and 2022 (first quarter), it appears that the years 2017 and 2018 were the years with the highest number of visits in Fafe, since 2008, with 4625 and 4542 visits, respectively. Between 2018 and 2020, there was a very insignificant number of visits, in which, in the midst of a pandemic, in 2020, only 65 visits were registered. However, in 2021, this figure rose to 950. Finally, in 2022, during the first quarter, only 13 visits were registered.

14.5 Conclusions After carrying out this study, we realized that it is indeed urgent to invest in technologies to develop tourism in small towns, since, nowadays, everything revolves around digital transformation. It is well known that technology has completely transformed the tourism industry as a whole, and one of the main impacts is the “power” of the traveler to be much more informed and thus be able to organize his own trip. It is therefore in the interest of local tourist agents, public and private, to promote the destination “Fafe”, with all its natural splendor and cultural richness, in order to transform the City “into a living room” and not just keep the dynamics of a simple “living room”. This statement follows on from Fafe being known as the “Visiting Room of Minho”, in terms of tourism.

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Tourists are increasingly demanding, because with the bet on digital transformation, they are no longer mere travelers and are now considered a generator of content that they share with other travelers. Therefore, it is important that Fafe follows these changes, so that the number of overnight stays and visits in Fafe increase significantly and so that the months of greatest demand are no longer just the months of July and August. In addition to creating “mobile applications, georeferencing platforms, interfaces” [2], it is important to meet with local private agents and tourism professionals, so that everyone can participate in the discussion of ideas and in the creation of the best solutions of digital measures for tourism success in Fafe. Finally, what we can conclude from this study is that despite having already invested a lot in tourism in Fafe, it is important to continue and that, without a doubt, excellent work is already being carried out in this area. The limitations encountered during the course of this study were in the collection of data, since there are more hotels in Fafe and data from only three units were provided to us during the interview. Regarding the number of visits to Fafe, in the periods under study, these data refer to the number of visitors to the Fafe Tourism Office, which ends up not corresponding to the true number of visitors, since not all of them seek the Tourist Office, due to digital transformation. As a future proposal, we propose to carry out a study in which we can count on the testimony of public and private bodies of the City, in order to analyze the contribution of all of them in tourism and verify what has again been done as a technological bet to increase of tourism in Fafe.

References 1. Magalhães, P.J.: A pandemia e os trágicos números da economia portuguesa. Diário de Notícias (2021). https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/a-pandemia-e-os-tragicos-numeros-da-eco nomia-nacional-13480491.html. Last accessed 15 Apr 2022 2. Nogueira, P.: Entrevista à Vereadora do Turismo da Câmara Municipal de Fafe. Fafe (2022) 3. Kuznets, S.: Modern economic growth: findings and reflections. Am. Econ. Rev. 63(3), 247–258 (1973) 4. Wu, J., Wang, X., Pan, B.: Agent-based simulations of China inbound tourism network. Sci. Rep. (2019) 5. Neuhofer, B., Buhalis, D., Ladkin, A.: Smart technologies for personalized experiences: a case study in the hospitality domain. Electron. Mark. 25(3), 243–254 (2015) 6. Cantino, V., Giacosa, E., Alfiero, S., Shams, R., Ferraris, A.: Introduction: smart tourism businesses (sustainability, measurability, awareness, recognition, & technology). Tour. Anal. 24(3), 261–263 (2019) 7. Femenia-Serra, F., Perles-Ribes, J.F., Ivars-Baidal, J.A.: Smart destinations and tech-savvy millennial tourists: hype versus reality. Tour. Rev. 74(1), 63–81 (2019) 8. Gretzel, U., Sigala, M., Xiang, Z., Koo, C.: Smart tourism: foundations and developments. Electron. Mark. 25(3), 179–188 (2015) 9. Neuhofer, B., Buhalis, D., Ladkin, A.: J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 1, 36–46 (2012)

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10. Ponsignona, F., Derbaix, M.: The impact of interactive technologies on the social experience: an empirical study in a cultural tourism context. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 35 (2020) 11. Sigala, M.: New technologies in tourism: from multi-disciplinary to anti-disciplinary advances and trajectories. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 25(1), 151–155 (2018) 12. Turismo de Portugal I.P.: Estratégia Turismo 2027. http://www.turismodeportugal.pt/SiteColle ctionDocuments/estrategia/estrategia-turismo-2027.pdf (2017). Last accessed 13 Apr 2022 13. Resolução do Conselho de Ministros nº 98/2020, de 13 de novembro. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros (2020) 14. Resolução do Conselho de Ministros nº 76/2021, Diário da República, 1.ª série. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros (2021) 15. Plano Estratégico do Turismo Porto e Norte de Portugal. http://www.portoenorte.pt/fotos/gca/ plano_estrategico_10327505915894b4d3a978b.pdf (2015). Last accessed 13 Apr 2022 16. MacCannell, D.: Staged authenticity: arrangements of social space in tourist settings. Am. J. Sociol. 79(3), 589–603 (1973) 17. MacCannell, D.: The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. Schocken Books, New York (1976) 18. Wang, N.: Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological Analysis. Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK (2000) 19. Braga, J.L.: Refuncionalizando a Casa Solarenga: uma Grounded Theory. Doctoral dissertation. https://minerva.usc.es/xmlui/handle/10347/14805 (2016). Last accessed 14 Apr 2022 20. Zhu, Y.: Performing heritage: rethinking authenticity in tourism. Ann. Tour. Res. 39(3), 1495– 1513 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.04.003. Last accessed 14 Apr 2022 21. Yin, R.: Applications of Case Study Research. Sage Publishing, Beverly Hills, CA (1993) 22. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso. Planejamento e Métodos. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2005) 23. Stake, R.E.: Investigación con estudio de casos. Morata, Madrid (1999) 24. Rodríguez, G.G., Flores, J.G., Jiménez, E.G.: Metodología de la investigación cualitativa. Ediciones Aljibe, Málaga (1999) 25. Fontana, A., Frey, J.H.: Interviewing: the art of science. In: Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y. (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp. 361–376. Sage, Newsbury Park (1994) 26. Mota, C.: Le système touristique comme um facteur de développement local dans les moyennes villes à travers des attractifs: Le cas de Fafe au Portugal (Doctoral Dissertation), pp. 194–195. Universitat de Girona, Girona (2016)

Chapter 15

Understanding the Adoption of Certified Electronic Signature in Portugal Agostinho Sousa Pinto , António Abreu , Eusébio Costa , and Jerónimo Paiva

Abstract The imposition of travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 has led to growth in the popularity of digital signatures. However, few studies have sought to inquire into the adoption of these new technologies. By combining UTAUT3 and TTF into a new conceptual model, we seek to test several hypotheses and understand the behavior of adopters of digital signatures. To test this model, SEM-PLS analysis was applied to data obtained from a survey with 114 respondents. The results are mostly in line with the UTAUT and TTF models and have shown that Habit is the most relevant predictor of e-signature adoption.

15.1 Introduction The goal of this paper is to analyze the adoption of certified digital signature systems in Portugal by combining the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 3 (UTAUT 3) with task-technology fit (TTF). As a viable alternative to handwritten signatures, digital signature technologies offer many advantages: greater convenience and efficiency, lower costs, greater environmental sustainability, and more security and confidentiality of information [1]. The pandemic and ensuing travel restrictions lead to an increase in the use of digital signature technologies [2]. Thus, the motivation behind this study is to gain insight into the adoption of this technology. In terms of structure, we will start with a review of the literature. Then, we will present the theoretical background and the key concepts of our study. Based on the A. S. Pinto (B) · A. Abreu · J. Paiva Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto IPP/ISCAP/CEOS.PP, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa Escola Superior de Tecnologias de Fafe, Fafe, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_15

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existing literature, we will propose a research model and set of measures based on UTAUT3 and TTF that we will test empirically. Then, the methodology and results of the study will be presented. Finally, these results will be the subject of discussion and conclusions will be drawn.

15.2 Literature Review We searched for relevant literature based on the methodology from Brocke et al. [3]. First, in July of 2021, we considered articles published in proceedings of renowned conferences on information systems.1 We only considered works published since 2010, as the ones published before are likely to be outdated. Second, we used the broad term “Digital signature” as a keyword for the search. We found a total of 15,600 articles. Third, we excluded articles that did not contain “Digital signature”, “Electronic signature”, or “E-signature” in the title, abstract, or keywords. This procedure is designed to exclude articles that use the term but do not focus on the topic. Finally, we obtained only 2 articles. Considering the growing use of digital signature systems, the research on this topic has remained scarce, and calls for more research have been made [4, 5]. It is worth mentioning a few studies that analyzed the adoption of this technology [6, 7].

15.3 Theoretical Background 15.3.1 Certified Electronic Signature We can define two types of electronic signatures: simple and advanced/qualified [8]. A simple electronic signature is, for example, a scanned wet signature that can be inserted into a document without using any encryption method. They have no legal power and consequences. Using asymmetric cryptography technology and public key infrastructure, the digital signatures ensure authentication, integrity, security, and non-repudiation. These schemes allow us to know if the signed document was altered and use 2-factor authentication to verify the identity of the user before the document can be signed. Thus, this form of electronic signature has similar legal value to a wet signature on paper in the EU [9]. The imposition of travel restrictions affecting 90% of the world population leads many people to sign professional and personal documents digitally instead [2]. The terms “electronic signature”, “E-signature”, and “digital signature” are similar in nature and will be used interchangeably.

1

Google Scholar search terms: (“Digital signature” OR “Electronic Signature” OR “E-signature”) AND (UTAUT OR TTF).

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Fig. 15.1 Research model proposal [12, 13]

15.3.2 TTF and UTAUT3 Venkatesh developed the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to predict the adoption of new technologies [10]. The original model was based on 4 key constructs: performance expectancy (PE), effort expectancy (EE), social influence (SI), and facilitating conditions (FC). Additionally, this theory is a consolidation of 8 earlier models used to explain the use of technology. Nearly a decade later, the original model was later expanded by adding 3 additional constructs to overcome the limitations of the original model: hedonic motivation (HM), price value (PV), and habit (HB) [11]. These key constructs are moderated by gender, age, and/or experience. Farooq added a new variable, personal innovativeness in IT (PI). The TTF model states that the adoption of new technologies by individuals hinges on the fit between the characteristics of technologies (TC) and tasks (TKC) [12]. Thus, individuals will not adopt a technology that does not improve their performance.

15.4 Research Model and Hypothesis The research model we proposed is based on the key constructs of UTAUT3 and TTF (Fig. 15.1). We give theoretical support for the model and hypothesis in Table 15.1.

15.5 Discussion of Results We ran an anonymous web survey with the voluntary participation of Portuguese residents. All items were measured with a 5-point Likert scale. To ensure the questions

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Table 15.1 Key concepts and hypothesis to be tested Conceptual model [10–13]

Hypotheses

Task characteristics (TC) relate to actions carried out to turn inputs into outputs Technology characteristics (TKC) relate to the tools used by individuals to carry out a task Task-technology fit (TTF) is the extent to which a technology helps an individual perform a task

H1: Task characteristics will have a positive and direct influence on TTF [12, 14] H2: Technology characteristics will have a positive and direct influence on TTF [12, 14] H3: TTF will have a positive and direct influence on PE [12, 14] H4: TTF will have a positive and direct influence on BI [12, 14, 15] H5: TTF will have a positive and direct influence on use [12, 14] H6a: Technology characteristics will have a positive effect on EE [12, 14]

Performance expectancy (PE) relates to the perception of how useful E-signature can be Effort expectancy (EE) relates to the perceived ease of using E-signature technology Social influence (SI) is the degree to which an individual perceives that important people believe one should use E-signature Hedonic motivation (HM) relates to the fun or pleasure derived from E-signatures Price value (PV) asserts that “users” consider the costs and benefits associated with using E-signatures as they want “good value for money” Habit (HB) is the result of the previous experiences of E-signature users Facilitating conditions (FC) is related to the existence of a technical and organizational infrastructure and resources that support the use of E-signatures Personal innovativeness (PI) in IT is a personality trait that leads people to experiment with new technologies Behavioral intention (BI) is essentially the commitment of an individual to use E-signatures

H6b: Performance expectancy will have a positive effect on EE [11, 16] H7: Performance expectancy will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [10, 11, 17–19] H8: Effort expectancy will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [10, 11, 20–22] H9: Social influence will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [10, 11, 20, 22] H10: Hedonic motivation will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [11] H11: Price value will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [11] H12a: Habit will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [11, 23] H12b: Habit will have a positive effect on the use E-signatures [11, 23] H13a: Facilitating conditions will have a positive effect on BI to use E-signatures [10, 11, 17, 19, 24] H13b: Facilitating conditions will have a positive effect on use of E-signatures [10, 11, 17, 19, 24] H14a: Personal innovativeness will have a positive effect on BI to adopt E-signatures [13] H14b: Personal innovativeness will have a positive effect on use of E-signature [13] H15: Behavioral intention to adopt E-signature influences actual use [7, 10, 11, 22]

were understood, the questions were translated into Portuguese. With 25 answers, we ran a pilot test, and based on their feedback, adjustments were made. We obtained 114 responses. Regarding the composition of the sample, the male-to-female ratio is 0.86— similar to the actual ratio of the population of Portugal in 2020 according to the CIA World Factbook (0.9) [25]. The average age of the respondents is 42.26 years old.

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Table 15.2 Normalized pattern loadings (λ) for each individual item Item

λ

Item

λ

Item

λ

Item

λ

Item

λ

Item

λ

BI1

0.92

PE1

0.95

HM1

0.93

PI1

0.96

PV1

0.93

U1

0.59

BI2

0.93

PE2

0.87

HM2

0.86

PI2

0.96

PV2

0.97

U2

0.74

BI3

0.70

PE3

0.86

HM3

0.89

PI3

0.83

PV3

0.95

U3

0.71

BI4

0.35

PE4

0.99

HB1

0.98

SI1

0.86

FC1

0.88

U4

0.91

EE1

0.94

TKC1

0.70

HB2

0.90

SI2

0.87

FC2

0.68

U5

0.65

EE2

0.65

TKC2

0.80

HB3

0.93

SI3

0.54

FC3

0.81

U6

0.72

EE3

0.89

TKC3

0.95

TTF1

0.96

TTF3

0.97

FC4

0.65

TC1

0.98

EE4

0.94

TKC4

0.94

TTF2

0.95

FC5

0.67

TC2

0.98

In terms of experience, around 65.8% of respondents have never used e-signature technologies. To analyze the data, we used partial least squares (PLS) regression, a form of structural equation modeling (SEM), in WarpPLS 7.0. Several items were adapted from previous publications to ensure content and face validity. Table 15.6 provides the questions and their respective sources used in the survey. The first test we ran focused on the individual reliability of each item. We estimated normalized pattern loadings (λ) whose values should be at least 0.7 [26]. The items that failed to meet this criterion were eliminated (BI4, EE2, SI3, FC2, FC4, FC5, U1, and U5) (Table 15.2). For applied research, Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR) should be, at least, 0.8 to ensure internal reliability [27, 28]. All the key constructs have a Cronbach’s Alpha and CR above 0.8 (Table 15.3). To examine convergent and divergent validity, we calculated the average variance extracted (AVE). Since no individual construct has an AVE below 0.5, convergent validity is assured [29]. Divergent validity is also assured since the positive square root of the AVE for all factors is higher than the highest correlation with any other factor [29]. The Q2 values for all latent endogenous values are above 0 which shows that the predictive relevance of the model is acceptable [30] (Table 15.4). We can also see that all latent endogenous variables have an explained variance (R2 ) over 0.1 which also shows these constructs have a reasonable predictive power [31]. We estimated the student’s t values, p-values, and coefficients for all hypotheses. For a one-sided Student’s t distribution with 113 degrees of freedom, the critical t values are t(90%) = 1.29*, t(95%) = 1.66**, t(99%) = 2.326***. It is also worth mentioning that their coefficients are below 0.2 which leads us to conclude there are not significant [32]. Finally, the Standardized Residual of the Root Mean Square (SRMR) of the estimated model is 0.094 (below 0.1) which indicates an acceptable level of adjustment. Regarding the TTF model variables, the latent variable Technology-task fit has no significant impact on the use or intention to use e-signatures. Only task characteristics have a small and almost negligible impact on the use of e-signatures through EE

0.96

0.94

0.98

0.92

0.92

0.96

TC

TKC

TTF

0.92

0.90

0.87

0.86

BI

0.94

0.94

U

0.90

PI

0.96

0.94

0.90

PV

HB

0.92

0.87

HM

0.96

0.90

0.92

0.78

SI

0.94

0.95

0.91

0.93

PE

EE

FC

CR

ρT

0.93

0.80

0.93

0.71

0.80

0.83

0.84

0.89

0.80

0.82

0.93

0.87

0.80

AVE

0.43

0.69

0.25

0.47

0.69

0.63

0.48

0.27

0.47

0.47

0.32

0.74

0.90

PE

0.60

0.70

0.34

0.49

0.77

0.65

0.56

0.31

0.39

0.69

0.28

0.94

EE

0.31

0.34

0.33

0.41

0.34

0.34

0.31

0.22

0.41

0.10

0.96

SI

0.47

0.47

0.29

0.22

0.55

0.44

0.35

0.25

0.22

0.90

FC

Table 15.3 Measures of reliability, convergent and divergent validity

0.26

0.34

0.36

0.28

0.49

0.48

0.36

0.29

0.89

HM

0.33

0.34

0.01

0.11

0.36

0.32

0.34

0.94

PV

0.51

0.46

0.62

0.47

0.67

0.25

0.92

HB

0.40

0.60

0.19

0.45

0.57

0.91

PI

0.57

0.66

0.51

0.52

0.89

BI

0.41

0.44

0.35

0.84

U

0.40

0.39

0.96

TC

0.69

0.89

TkC

0.96

TtF

162 A. S. Pinto et al.

15 Understanding the Adoption of Certified Electronic Signature in Portugal Table 15.4 Predictive power: explained variance and Stone–Geisser test values

163

Latent endogenous variables

R2

Q2

Performance expectancy (PE)

0.489

0.596

Effort expectancy (EE)

0.307

0.294

Task-technology fit (TTF)

0.600

0.584

Behavior intention (BI)

0.733

0.739

Use (U)

0.351

0.363

and, in turn, BI. Task characteristics also have a direct and positive impact on effort expectancy, and effort expectancy, in turn, has a direct and positive impact on performance expectancy. Regarding the UTAUT variables, the only significant independent variables in determining the actual use of e-signatures directly and/or indirectly with at least 90% confidence are habit, hedonic motivation, effort expectancy, and performance expectancy (Table 15.5). Facilitating conditions have no impact (direct or indirect) on the use of e-signatures. Unlike what was initially hypothesized, there is no evidence to support that the variables (PI, FC, PV, SI, and TTF) have a direct impact on BI. Personal innovativeness has no indirect effect on use (through BI) but has a positive direct impact on the actual use of e-signature. Finally, H15 is supported only with 90% confidence which shows that people who intend to use e-signatures end up using them [17]. H12a, H8, H2, and H6a–b have very high coefficients and very low p-values which show the relationship between these variables is quite strong (Fig. 15.2).

15.6 Conclusion In this paper, we empirically tested a combination of the UTAUT3 and TTF models to analyze the adoption of E-signatures in Portugal. In contrast to the initial premises, there is no evidence to support that FC, PV, SI, and TTF have an impact on BI and U. Thus, people seem not to be very sensitive to prices, the opinions of others (family, friends, place of work/study), and the necessary resources required to adopt this technology. A possible explanation may lie in the fact that the Portuguese state offers an e-signature system free of charge to all citizens that only requires a Wi-Fi connection and a tablet/smartphone and PC to use. The relevant variables that have an impact on the actual use of e-signature (directly or indirectly) are PE, EE, TC, HM, HB, and PI. Habit is the most important determinant of the use of e-signature (βH15 ∗ βH12a + βH12b = 0.2848), hence the people who have become used to signing documents remotely are the most likely to carry on doing so. Interestingly, personal innovativeness has a direct effect on use, but no

164 Table 15.5 Results of the SEM-PLS model2

A. S. Pinto et al. Hypothesis

β

T

p-value

H1 TC → TTF

0.22

2.468***

OIBT

−0.058

0.033

1.767

0.077

No

(H3b) WIQ ->OIBT

−0.010

0.028

0.346

0.730

No

(H3c) WA ->OIBT

−0.104

0.028

3.668

0.000

No

to obey conventional rules, norms, and standards, and their behavior is planned [23, 50]. Some research reports that conscientiousness may be negatively associated with impulse buying behavior, playing a relevant role in expenditure planning [15, 24]. Extraversion has a positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency (β = 0.168, p < 0.01), supporting hypothesis 1c. According to some studies, extraversion presupposes more impulsive beings with less self-regulation ability, having a positive and significant effect on impulse buying behavior [13, 15, 21, 27]. It is possible for extroverts to contact the sales team, consequently making more impulse purchases, in contrast to introverts. Neuroticism has a negative impact on the online impulse buying tendency, accepting hypothesis 1d (β = −0.180, p < 0.01). There are positive [28] and negative links [21] in the literature between neuroticism and the impulse buying tendency. Neuroticism is associated with impulsivity, involving stress reactivity, lack of impulse control, and inability to delay gratification [15, 51]. According to the study by Olsen et al. [15], emotional states experienced daily by individuals, such as anxiety and depressed mood, can lead them to impulse purchases as a way of alleviating negative emotional states or, at least, providing some relief. Agreeableness has a negative impact on the online impulse buying tendency, rejecting hypothesis 1e (β = −0.063, p < 0.01). Thus, the results of this investigation

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do not support the positive effect of agreeableness on the online impulse buying tendency. Turkyilmaz, Erdem, and Uslu [21] found that agreeableness has a positive effect on online impulse buying. According to studies [15, 20, 29], kind individuals are more likely to restrict their impulses and needs in order to avoid possible damage in social relationships, which can curb online impulse buying tendency. At the same time, the “unlovable” place their interests above others (Olsen et al. [15]), possibly leading to a greater online impulse buying tendency. From Table 33.2, it seems that subjective well-being has a negative impact on the online impulse buying tendency (β = −0.116, p < 0.01), supporting hypothesis 1f. Šeinauskien˙e et al. [30] tried to uncover the links between subjective wellbeing and impulse buying tendency, reporting that the former indirectly affects the latter, through materialism, that is, lower levels of subjective well-being increase materialism, which, in turn, raises the impulse buying tendency. Regarding the social dimension, parasocial interactions with digital influencers have a positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency (Table 33.1), supporting hypothesis 2 (β = 0.188, p < 0.01). It was found that Internet users may have a pseudointimacy or pseudo-friendship with a personality that uses various conversational techniques of attraction and persuasion [32], which may have an impact on the online impulse buying tendency. As for the technological dimension, website usability has no positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency, rejecting hypothesis 3a (β = −0.058, p = 0.077). According to some researchers, usability/ease of navigation could play an important role in online consumers’ buying decisions, namely, impulse buying [52, 53]. Furthermore, website information quality does not positively affect the online impulse buying tendency, rejecting hypothesis 3b (β = −0.010, p = 0.730). According to Chen, Su, and Widjaja [36], the quality of information could be fundamental for retailers to advertise their goods and for the impulse buying decisions of potential consumers. Finally, the website attractiveness has a negative impact on the online impulse buying tendency, rejecting hypothesis 3c (β = −0.104, p < 0.01). It is suggested in the scientific research that when potential consumers stay on a commercial website longer than usual, their exposure time to advertisement-stimulants can increase, reinforcing the likelihood of them making impulse buying [37, 38].

33.5 Final Remarks This study considered the impact of psychological (personality and subjective wellbeing), social (parasocial interactions with digital influencers), and technological factors (websites’ usability, information quality, and attractiveness) on the online impulse buying tendency. In the personality construct, it is concluded that: openness to experience and extraversion have a positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency; conscientiousness and neuroticism have a negative effect on the online impulse buying

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tendency. On the other hand, the hypothesis that agreeableness has a positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency is rejected. It is supported that subjective well-being has a negative impact on the online impulse buying tendency. Regarding the social dimension, the hypothesis that parasocial interactions with digital influencers have an effect on the online impulse buying tendency is supported. As for the technological dimension, the results of this study report that (a) website usability does not have a significant impact on the online impulse buying tendency; (b) website information quality has no significant positive effect on the online impulse buying tendency; (c) website attractiveness does not have a positive impact on the online impulse buying tendency. As the main limitation of this study, it should be noted the sampling process is non-probabilistic, given logistical imperatives, and that data collection took place during the COVID-19 pandemic. As future developments, replication of the study is suggested to validate the links found in this investigation.

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Chapter 34

Vital Signs Monitoring Platform to Promote Sports and Wellness Tourism Sandro Carvalho , Dinis Pereira, Joana Santos, and João Vidal Carvalho

Abstract Physical activity contributes to a healthy life. To take better advantage of these benefits it is important to monitor and control the practitioner’s physical and mental parameters, in order to improve their performance and health/quality of life. This paper presents a platform, with a web and mobile applications, whose common goal is the monitoring of training data by the practitioner. Both applications are interoperable, and if the web application makes it easy to view the results of the activities carried out and their progress, the mobile application allows the user to easily handle and monitor training data in real time. The platform pretends to encourage citizens to practice sport in the community, promoting sports and wellness tourism through events. These events consist of physical activities and the subsequent contact with health professionals, who will be able to analyze and explain to the participants the results obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible problems found.

34.1 Introduction Physical activity contributes to a healthy life, both physically and mentally. Therefore, it is important to monitor and control the practitioner’s parameters with a view to improving performance and/or health/quality of life. Several studies show the benefits of physical activity, in particular for mental health [1], as well as in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis [2], among others. Therefore, a significant increase in the number of people practicing sporting activities has been observed over time, in all age groups and in the most varied sports [3]. S. Carvalho (B) · D. Pereira · J. Santos Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. V. Carvalho Polytechnic Institute of Porto, CEOS.PP, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_34

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This paper presents a platform, with a web and a mobile applications, whose common goal is the monitoring of training data by the practitioner. Both applications are interoperable, so that all data entered and collected is stored in a common repository. The web application makes it easy to view the results of the activities carried out and their progress, as well as the user’s personal information. The mobile application allows the user to easily handle and monitor training data in real time. This way, the user can perform various activities and view the evolution of their performance on their personal mobile phone. This platform is intended to facilitate communication and interaction between citizens and encourage them to practice sport in the community, promoting tourism through events. These events consist of physical activities that promote the improvement of people’s health and well-being, as well as the promotion of activities related to health and well-being. In fact, apart from the real-time monitoring, it will allow, later, the contact of the practitioners with health professionals, who will be able to analyze and explain to them the results obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible problems found. This approach will enable the promotion of a type of tourism based on people’s health and quality of life, driving forward a shared economy.

34.2 The Evolution of ICT and Its Benefit for the Citizens 34.2.1 Physical Activity Monitoring Devices and Sensors Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have evolved a lot in the last few years, becoming important in areas like health [4, 5], well-being [6], or tourism [7, 8]. Smart sports and lifestyle devices have been gaining more and more fans due to their usefulness in everyday life, helping the practice of sports and the monitoring of vital parameters. These devices are directly connected to the user and are built in such a way that they are as unnoticeable as possible, like extensions of their own body. Among the most commonly used devices are smartwatches, which work like a wrist mobile phone where, among other features, it is possible to make and receive calls, access GPS and monitor vital signs. Another example is heart bands, which are heart rate monitors based on cardiac electrical activity. There are also the smart waistcoats, widely used in football, which contain a GPS device, being able to measure effort, distance covered and acceleration, among other variables. Intelligent bicycles (or smart trainers) are also becoming very popular among cyclists, because they simulate a ride or a cycling competition without leaving the home, no matter the weather conditions. These bicycles are capable of creating a realistic dynamic by

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varying factors such as the force necessary to the movement and the angle of inclination, for example. Finally, there are cycling performance computers, which allow the athlete to monitor numerous performance dynamics and ride world famous segments via GPS. Each type of device is described in more detail below. Smartwatches The smartwatches industry has been growing exponentially over the years, registering a 24% growth by 2021 with a sale of 40 million units in the 4th half of the year alone [9]. A smartwatch is a digital watch that features several functionalities besides seeing the time and scheduling an alarm. It supports several applications and most models have a touchscreen, making the device more convenient. The features vary according to each model and brand, however, most smartwatches have features such as step counting and vital signs monitoring, like heart rate, blood pressure, or blood oxygen volume. In addition, it is also possible to send and receive messages and even make payments. The Fenix series of smartwatches [10], created by Garmin, is a flagship line of solar-powered multisport GPS devices designed with the best features to help athletes and adventurers to achieve maximum performance. The most advanced smartwatch in the series, the Fénix 7, measures several parameters, including Stamina, which allows athletes to monitor and control their effort levels during a running or cycling activity; Visual Race Predictor, which takes into account an individual’s running history and overall fitness to provide race estimates and insights into their training progress; a recovery time advisor, where once the physical activity is over, this feature takes into account the training intensity and other factors such as stress, daily activity, and sleep, to estimate the number of hours of rest needed to recover before another training session of the same nature; daily training suggestions, providing recommendations for the next running or cycling training session based on current training load, training status and general fitness level, among other features. Other examples of smartwatches are the Amazfit GTS [11], Apple Watch [12], or Samsung Galaxy Watch [13]. Cardiac bands Heart bands or cardiac bands measure the intensity of an athlete’s effort in a simple way. Heart rate is the best indicator for managing an athlete’s training and assessing their fitness, making it possible to determine the right intensity for a goal, the optimization of fat burning, the managing of effort during a race, recovery, fatigue, and prevention of overtraining. The HRM-Pro [14], from Garmin, is a heart band capable of transmitting realtime heart rate data through ANT+ and Bluetooth. It captures running dynamics, including metrics such as vertical oscillation, ground contact time, and stride length. The device stores heart rate data during activities and sends that data to the watch once the activity is complete. It also saves steps, calories, and intensity minutes.

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Other examples of cardiac bands are Wahoo Heart Rate Monitors [15], Polar H10 [16], or Bontrager ANT+ Cardiac Band [17]. Smart Vests Currently, in any elite team, it is usual to see footballers wearing a smart waistcoat with GPS that allows fitness coaches to measure, through an application, several variables to analyze and improve players’ performance. The waistcoat with GPS allows for quantifying the volume and intensity of effort developed during a game or a training session. The data is sent to the application and studied daily by the technical team. From a physiological point of view, it allows to know the heart rate, distance covered, sprints and recovery periods, as well as the number of impacts and changes of direction. The prevention of injuries is also a primary function of this device, through the evaluation of muscular overloads, which can decrease the possibility of physical problems. Among the most prestigious brands is Catapult [18], which equips the main football teams. Smart Trainers A smart bike makes indoor cycling amazingly realistic and fun, being able to create dynamics as close as possible to outdoor cycling, without leaving home. They can simulate a ride or a cycling competition no matter the weather conditions. The TACX Neo Bike Smart is one of the most complete smart bikes, being able to control the mass moment of inertia and compensate for weight, speed, and lean angle to make it possible to pedal as realistically as possible. Using software such as Tacx or Zwift, it is possible to experience features that offer a feeling of road travel and allow the bike to vibrate and simulate the sensation of riding on different road surfaces, such as pavement or gravel. The shift feel even mimics the movement of a chain jumping into the next gear. In addition to this, the downhill simulation accurately simulates downhill training. It is also possible to view all the training statistics, such as pedal stroke analysis and power generated. Other examples of smart trainers are Wahoo Kickr [19], Elite Suito [20], or Saris H3 [21]. GPS Computers GPS cycling computers provide turn-by-turn navigation, cycling-specific routes, cycling-related warnings, such as indication to eat or drink, and detailed performance data on individual athletes. Garmin Edge 530 [22] is a high-performance GPS cycling computer. It offers accurate data not only of the map and the route to follow, but also of how the body behaves in different environments, taking into account temperature, movement, altitude, and other variables. In addition to collecting this data, the user can receive notifications during the journey, for example, when it’s time to hydrate or eat. It is also possible to check if the last workout was balanced in terms of endurance, thresholds, and high-intensity efforts. When connected to compatible sensors, the Edge shows the power curve, which compares the effort with that of previous weeks

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and months. More features include the detection of incidents, as well as an alarm, which notifies the smartphone if the bike moves when the owner is not around. Other examples of GPS computers are Wahoo ELEMNT [23], IGPSport [24], or Sigma Pure GPS [25].

34.2.2 Sports and Wellness Applications One of the most intuitive ways of analyzing the data collected by the devices described in the previous section is through applications dedicated to this purpose. These applications include those for analyzing data resulting from an activity and those for augmented reality. Data Analysis Applications Data Analysis Applications are becoming more and more popular among athletes. If in the beginning they were used mainly by coaches, or professional athletes, to improve their performance, they are now becoming important for a regular person who practices a physical activity. This importance comes from the panoply of features available, which can be used not only to improve performance but also to analyze health parameters. Within these applications stands out Garmin Connect [26], which is both a mobile and web application that monitors, analyzes, and shares health and fitness activities recorded by a Garmin device. It not only processes the data but also provides useful tips and suggestions personalized for each person, based on the information collected. For example, for a run, Garmin devices are capable of recording parameters like elevation, pace, heart rate, oxygen volume, performance, stride length, running cadence, vertical ratio, ground contact time ratio, and temperature. In addition to recording data during physical activities, these devices also record statistics related to health and well-being throughout the day and night (while sleeping), such as the number of steps, sleep time, stress level, calorie input and output, and heart rate. With Garmin Connect, all this data is transformed into intuitive graphs and reports, which allows the user to easily see the variations of the different parameters throughout the day, and the evolution of their body during physical activities, over time. Other examples of Data Analysis Applications are ZEPP [27], Google Fit [28], or Go My fit [29]. Augmented Reality Applications Augmented reality applications are becoming very popular in recent years. Their evolution allows users to simulate real scenarios in a controlled environment, with the addition to new forms of data analysis. There are several augmented reality applications, with Zwift [30] and Rouvy [31] being two of the most widely used among cycling and running athletes. They simulate

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a cycling workout or race in an indoor scenario, working as a kind of video game, with the possibility of competing with other users. To make it more interactive and real, they combine features such as wind, inclination, and vacuum factors. Depending on the quality of the smart trainer, it is possible to have a cycling experience very close to the street reality. For example, on an ascent, the user will feel the effort increase and on a descent, decrease. The wind can also affect the effort needed to keep a certain speed. It is possible to choose from countless available routes, races, training sessions, and group rides that take place 24 h a day, allowing an immersive experience. Most events are divided into categories according to the physical preparation of the athlete. Other examples of Augmented Reality Applications are Wahoo SYSTM [32], TrainerRoad [33], or BKool [34].

34.3 Platform to Promote Sports and Wellness Tourism 34.3.1 Platform Based Approach The proposed approach for sports and wellness tourism is based on the development of a platform that will make available two applications, web, and mobile. It is intended to facilitate communication and interaction between citizens and encourage them to practice sport in the community. The promotion of tourism will occur through events, that consist of physical activities that promote the improvement of people’s health and well-being, as well as the promotion of activities related to health and well-being. Actually, these events will be closely followed by a panoply of sensors and applications, made available by the proposed platform, which will analyze data in real time, providing very relevant information to users on their health indicators. Later, activities to promote health and well-being will also be proposed, with contact with health professionals, who will be able to analyze and explain to the participants the results obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible problems found. This sports and wellness tourism, with the help of the applications, could be carried out in two ways: directly or indirectly. Directly, would be to visit a country or a village and to participate directly in the activities proposed. Indirectly, any user of the applications would participate in this new paradigm of tourism through the accompaniment of direct participants (family and/or friends), institutions providing care (such as rehabilitation clinics, health institutions, among others), or educational institutions.

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34.3.2 Architecture Regarding the architecture of the system, two situations may occur: Data is collected directly by a device, such as a smartwatch; data is collected by several sensors, which centralize the information in another device. Figure 34.1 represents the first situation. As shown in Fig. 34.1, a smartwatch collects the various parameters of the individual, sending this information to the mobile application (on the mobile device) for analysis in real time. Subsequently, this information is sent to the web application (on the computer) for more detailed analysis. Figure 34.2 shows the situation in which several sensors collect the individual’s information, which can then be centralized in a device such as a GPS Computer, or directly on the mobile device. It should be noted that the first collection in the GPS Computer is especially useful for modalities such as cycling, in which the attention to the road does not allow a very detailed analysis of the data in real time, being more important the use of the web application for further analysis. On the other hand, in recreational running users

Fig. 34.1 Data collected directly by a device

Fig. 34.2 Data collected by several sensors

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can analyze data in the mobile application in real time, because the speed is not too high and it gives time to explore the data.

34.4 Conclusions The practice of physical activity has increased substantially in recent years, largely due to the widespread notion of its importance for citizens’ health. In fact, physical activity reduces the risk of certain diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and mental health, in addition to the aesthetic component of the person. In this sense, this article proposes a platform, with a web and a mobile applications, whose common goal is the monitoring of training data by the practitioner of physical activities. While the web application makes it easy to view the results of the activities carried out and their progress, the mobile application allows the user to easily handle and monitor training data in real time. This platform is intended to facilitate communication and interaction between citizens and encourage them to practice sport in the community, promoting tourism through events. Apart from the real-time monitoring, the platform will allow the contact of the practitioners with health professionals, who will be able to analyze and explain to them the results obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible problems found. This approach will also enable the promotion of a type of tourism based on people’s health and quality of life, driving forward a shared economy. With the contact with several athletes and occasional practitioners, it was possible to understand the importance that this platform can have for them, either to improve their performance or to promote a healthy lifestyle. Equally important is the tourism component, since the proposed events attract a wide range of people to the locations where they take place, thus promoting that region. The platform is currently being developed and these are the initial results obtained. Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

References 1. Nazaré Oliveira, E., Aguiar, R.C., Oliveira de Almeida, M.T., Cordeiro Eloia, S., Queiroz Lira, T.: Benefícios da Atividade Física para Saúde Mental. In: Saúde Coletiva, vol. 8, núm.50, pp. 126–130. Editorial Bolina. São Paulo, Brasil (2011) 2. Warburton, D., Nicol, C, Bredin, S.: Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ 174(6), 801–809 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051351 3. Instituto Nacional de Estatística I.P.: Desporto em Números 2020, Edição 2021 (2021). ISBN 978-989-25-0587-9

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4. Carvalho, S., Pavão, J., Queirós, A., Rocha, N.: Platform of services to the support and development of applications for care activities. Procedia Comput. Sci. 64, 659–665 (2015) 5. Carvalho, S., Pavão, J., Queirós, A., Dias, A.: A platform for the gathering, agregation and integration of social information. In: 7th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, CISTI 2012, Madrid, Spain (2012) 6. Queirós, A.; Da Rocha, N.P.; Carvalho, S.; Pavão, J. Integrated care of the elderly and the continuous development and adaptation of information systems. In: 12th IEEE International Conference on e-Health Networking, Application and Services, Healthcom (2010) 7. Carvalho, S., Carvalho, J.V.: The implications of digital marketing and e-commerce in the tourism sector growth. Smart Innov. Syst. Technol. 171, 161–170 (2020) 8. Figueiredo, B., Carvalho, S., Silva, J.C., Carvalho, J.V.: Freecycle applied to community tourism: an approach. In: International Conference on Tourism, Technology & Systems— ICOTTS2021. Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Proceedings ICOTTS2021. Homepage (2022). https://www.icotts.org/ 9. Counterpoint Research Homepage. https://www.counterpointresearch.com/global-smartw atch-market-2021/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 10. Garmin Homepage. https://www.garmin.com/pt-PT/p/735520/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 11. Amazefit Homepage. https://www.amazfit.com/en/gts. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 12. Apple Homepage. https://www.apple.com/watch/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 13. Samsung Homepage. https://www.samsung.com/pt/watches/galaxy-watch/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 14. Garmin Homepage. https://www.garmin.com/en-US/p/682155. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 15. Wahoo Homepage. https://eu.wahoofitness.com/devices/heart-rate-monitors. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 16. Polar Homepage. https://www.polar.com/pt/sensors/h10-heart-rate-sensor/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 17. Bontrager Homepage. https://www.trekbikes.com/pt/pt_PT/equipamentos/acess%C3%B3r ios-para-bicicletas/ciclocomputadores-e-sensores/sensores-e-acess%C3%B3rios-para-cicloc omputadores/cinta-suave-de-monitor-de-frequ%C3%AAncia-card%C3%ADaca-bontragerant/ble/p/14602/?colorCode=black. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 18. Catapult Homepage. https://us-store.catapultsports.com/products/catapult-one-vest. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 19. Wahoo Homepage. https://www.eu.wahoofitness.com/devices/indoor-cycling/bike-trainers/ kickr-buy. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 20. Elite Homepage. https://www.elite-it.com/en/products/home-trainers/interactive-trainers/sui to-t. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 21. Saris Homepage. https://saris.com/products/h3-direct-drive-smart-trainer. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 22. Garmin Homepage. https://www.garmin.com/en-US/p/621224. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 23. Wahoo Homepage. https://eu.wahoofitness.com/devices/bike-computers. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 24. IGPSport Homepage. https://www.igpsport.com/bikecomputer. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 25. Sigmasport Homepage. https://www.sigmasport.com/en/produkte/fahrrad-computer/gps/pure/ pure-gps. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 26. Garmin Homepage. https://www.garmin.com/pt-PT/p/125677#overview. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 27. ZEPP Homepage. https://www.zepp.com/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 28. Google Fit Homepage. https://www.google.com/fit/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 29. Go My fit Homepage. https://go-fit.pt/a-sua-app-my-go-fit/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 30. Zwift Homepage. https://eu.zwift.com/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 31. Rouvy Homepage. https://rouvy.com/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 32. Wahoo Homepage. https://eu.wahoofitness.com/systm. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 33. Trainer Road Homepage. https://www.trainerroad.com/pt-pt/. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022 34. Bkool Homepage. https://www.bkool.com/en. Last Accessed 15 Aug 2022

Chapter 35

Market Segmentation and Relationship Management of Fashion Tourism: An Exploratory Perspective Bruno Sousa , Annaelise Machado , Márcia Gonçalves , Lara Santos , and André Catarino Abstract This study aims to understand some of the main trends in tourist segmentation in the context of fashion tourism, with an emphasis on relationship marketing. The research study brings together a proposed conceptual model to understand some of the main determinants of tourist demand in fashion tourism environments and their behavioral intentions (i.e., satisfaction and loyalty). Fashion tourism is a niche market segment that evolved out of three major sectors: creative tourism, cultural tourism, and shopping tourism. Fashion tourism can be defined as the interaction between Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs), trade associations, tourism suppliers, and host communities, with people traveling to and visiting a particular place for business or leisure to enjoy, experiment, discover, study, trade, communicate about and consume fashion. The present study represents an important contribution in relation to the management of tourist destinations and the development of the relationship with the consumer. This manuscript is an aid to marketing and management in specific contexts of fashion tourism. The present study has as its main limitation its embryonic stage, not including collection of primary data or development of an empirical study.

B. Sousa (B) · A. Machado Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] B. Sousa CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Leiria, Portugal M. Gonçalves ISAG—European Business School, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Santos Universidade Lusófona do Porto and TRIE, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Catarino 2c2t—Center of Textile Science and Technology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_35

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35.1 Introduction Tourism, as an area of study, has expanded its scope, reflecting a growing recognition in the academic community, parallel to the application of interdisciplinary concepts and methods. In fact, tourism research has studied its various implications from a multitude of perspectives and with interdisciplinary perceptions. In this context, niche tourism can be considered an alternative, almost the antithesis of modern mass tourism (for example, fashion tourism services). In this context, Lazzeretti et al. [1] argue that fashion tourism is a niche market segment that evolved out of three major sectors: creative tourism, cultural tourism, and shopping tourism. Fashion tourism can be defined as the interaction between destination marketing organizations (DMOs), trade associations, tourism suppliers, and host communities, with people traveling to and visiting a particular place for business or leisure to enjoy, experiment, discover, study, trade, communicate about and consume fashion. International cities are increasingly using the cultural industries for the development of tourism and other industries to boost their economic fortune and to position themselves in the global market [2]. There is often no need for cities to specialize in any new activity but rather to diversify their economy and it is in this context that fashion tourism has been adopted and promoted in cities such as Antwerp, London, and Tokyo [3]. According to Liberato et al. [4] fashion events have the particularity of adding recognition and value to host cities, which is reflected in a competitive advantage over competing destinations. However, the tourism of fashion events is not properly valued by the tourism industry, and therefore, this research aims to deepen scientific knowledge about this tourism segment. This manuscript develops the existing research, since it discusses the growing phenomena of fashion tourism and the perspective of relationship marketing. Based on the literature review, we propose a model that connects the dimensions of relationship marketing (that is, commitment, trust, and cooperation) with the consequent satisfaction with the fashion tourist and the behavioral intention to repeat the experience or reinforce the experience with a marketing focused on tourist motivation (and, cumulatively, leisure).

35.2 Tourism Trends and Segmentation Tourism is a phenomenon that moves millions of people around the world, taking as a major driver of the global economy. Every year, much due to the frequent changes in the tourism environment, fosters competition between and within tourist destinations [5]. It is a multifaceted and geographically complex activity, where different services are ordered and delivered in different stages, from origin to destination [6]. To set Special Interest Tourism (SIT) in a broader overall tourism context, Trauer [7] suggests a “Tourism Interest Continuum”. As a psychological phenomenon, a tourist trip is preceded by a specific need that generates a reason to travel and sets a goal for

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the trip, which follows the search for information [8]. Like other emerging sectors in a modern economy, tourism is a dynamic and ever-changing industry. Consequently, SIT, both as a product or sector and as a distinct entity within the overall tourism spectrum, has been largely ignored as an important area of study within the tourism field in general [5]. Some Special Forms of Tourism (SFT) are the result of technological developments (e.g., virtual tourism, e-tourism, or emotional intelligence) or using highly developed specialist systems that can provide a greater variety of tourism products and tourism services (e.g., fashion tourism, dark tourism, pilgrimage, agritourism, military tourism, safari tourism, wedding tourism, wine tourism, accessible tourism, cruise tourism, film tourism, voluntourism, youth tourism, red-tape tourism, luxury tourism, wellness tourism) [9]. Trends in global tourism demand suggest the emergence of sophisticated consumers looking for new, different, and specific tourist experiences. In such context, niche marketing seems a relevant response to market dynamics. Although niche marketing has been successfully applied to a high number and many types of businesses, there is a shortage of research addressing the way niche marketing may be applied to (fashion) tourism [5]. While mass tourism is homogeneous in nature (a standardized and uniform product for a large market segment), niche tourism is defined by its heterogeneous nature (greater demand for a more distinct and unique product). This section, therefore, addresses the clarification of the concepts “fashion tourism”. Fashion is a global industry and many capital cities have press-grabbing trade activity at least twice a year, e.g., London through its London Fashion Week, and this is often the starting point for many DMOs to take fashion seriously as a new anchor for their tourism industry and visitor economy [10]. They are consciously pushing fashion week trade events into the public eye to raise their city’s fashionable credentials and encourage visitors to consider traveling to their city.

35.3 Fashion Tourism and New Trends Lazzeretti et al. [1] argue that fashion tourism is a niche market segment that evolved out of three major sectors: creative tourism, cultural tourism, and shopping tourism. Fashion tourism can be defined as the interaction between destination marketing organizations (DMOs), trade associations, tourism suppliers, and host communities, with people traveling to and visiting a particular place for business or leisure to enjoy, experiment, discover, study, trade, communicate about and consume fashion. International cities are increasingly using the cultural industries for the development of tourism and other industries to boost their economic fortune and to position themselves in the global market [2]. According to [4], fashion events have as their main objective to celebrate fashion and design and are held in the most emblematic cities, in a global circuit that is repeated annually [11, 12]. They allow the contact between different actors of the sector [4, 13], distinct cultures, attract economic investment, and promote the image of the destinations where they are held [4, 14]. Although home tailoring had existed for several decades, the fashion industry emerged in the

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sixties. The presence of imaginative foreigners, the existence of a workforce made up of seamstresses, and, finally, a touristic clientele with non-conformist tastes ensured the success of the first initiatives [15]. Fashion weeks incorporate in their agenda several events of diversified nature, thus going far beyond the parades, showcases, and exhibitions. After the promotional events, participants have not only the opportunity to visit the most emblematic places of the destination and its shops, museums, park, cafes, and restaurants, among other relevant spaces of the city [4, 16], as well as participate in parties, cocktails, and dinners. During a fashion week, the whole host city eradicates an atmosphere of creativity and authenticity related to fashion. Such phenomenon is due to the presence of the participants of the various events who, by wearing bold and original outfits, transform the city streets into an open-air parade, both day and night [3]. According to Liberato et al. [4], fashion cities are the places where new trends are developed and presented to society and, therefore, the most emblematic companies of the fashion industry consider that these cities are the ideal places for the realization of fashion events [17–19], as well as for the implementation of their physical stores since they are considered as authentic business centers, recognized by their unique identity. Therefore, the meetings, incentives, conventions, and exhibitions (MICE) industry has proven to be very lucrative to many economies, which is why many countries have targeted this industry for the purposes of growth and development [19]. Fashion forms a significant portion of the creative industries, the value of which to urban development and promotion has been increasingly recognized [20]. Although lacking sufficient research, fashion tourism is becoming seen as a potential focus for urban economic development owing to the sector’s economic and image value [19]. In this context, emotional experience as an inseparable component of global human functioning reflects the attributes of past and current experiences that influence the quality of a person’s performance. In the fashion context, there are three types dependent on experiences associated with the performance: state experiences, trait experiences, and meta-experiences [29]. The experiences-state or emotional states represent the aspects of the situational and dynamic manifestations of human functioning. With regard to trace experiences, these are relatively stable patterns of emotion, for example, emotionality, dispositions, and qualities that result from the repeated nature of fashion activity. The consumer behavior is a key to explaining and understanding all marketing activities applied to develop, promote and sell tourism ideas, products, or services. Involvement and emotions are crucial concepts of the research on consumer behavior in specific contexts of the fashion tourism industry. Some examples: London (via the Mayor of London’s office) and New York (via the New York City Economic Development Corporation) government offices have been leading the way internationally to use their fashion credentials to attract visitors to their cities and wider. Other cities also following suit having seen the economic impact which London and New York’s fashion credentials can bring. Seoul now has two fashion weeks, and riding on the reputation of these, the city now has a vast complex of shopping malls and wholesale retailers which attract more than two million visitors per year, including just about half of all the tourists who come to Seoul. Singapore

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also has a fashion week and the Singapore Tourism Board includes fashion as one of the high-profile components for enhancing the city’s destination attractiveness. Even a city as obscure as Lagos, Nigeria, (in terms of fashion credentials) has recently commissioned the Central University of Applied Sciences to prepare a report titled “The Emerging Role of Fashion Tourism and The Need for a Development Strategy”. On the other hand, according to the tourism statistical data of the U.S. Office of Travel and Tourism Industries on tourism performance, shopping ranked as the top participation activity for Asians (90%), Western Europeans (86%), and Eastern European tourists (85%). Detailed profiles for countries of origin show that shopping is at the top among all other tourist activities for the European countries of Ireland (93%), Spain (82%), and Italy (79%). Asian shopping participation percentages are particularly high in Taiwan (93%) and Japan (92%).

35.4 Conceptual Model Proposed Preliminary research was conducted to develop the research instrument. Details of the preliminary research are given below. After the collection of the preliminary data, empirical data would be collected through fieldwork. This study discusses the growing phenomenon of fashion tourism and the perspective of relationship marketing [5]. Based on the literature review, we propose a model that relates the dimensions of relationship marketing (i.e., commitment, trust, quality of service, perceived value, and cooperation) with the consequent satisfaction with the fashion tourist and the behavioral intention of recommendation or revisit. Several studies in marketing and tourism contexts have discussed relationship marketing from association to destination and consumer buying behavior, including the study of satisfaction, loyalty, or quality of service. An extensive review of the current literature reveals that there is no integrated theoretical framework for the holistic study of the fashion tourism industry. The proposed research model not only has implications for future research but also provides useful information for fashion tourism professionals. Based on the service marketing literature [21, 22] it is proposed that the perception of the quality of fashion events service will have a direct effect on loyalty and will have an effect indirect through perceived value and tourist satisfaction. Service quality can be understood as the result of comparing consumers’ expectations with their perceptions of the service received [21]. The SERVQUAL scale has been systematically used to measure the quality of service, which integrates five dimensions (tangibility; reliability; security; responsiveness, and empathy) with adjustments that allow the assessment of service standards in fashion tourism [23]. Several studies have shown that more commitment and trust with the brand leads to a more positive satisfaction behavior, e.g., Belaid and Temessek Behi [24]. In this sense, the SERVQUAL model is an instrument applied to measure the quality perceived by customers in services, including (fashion) tourism and accommodation units. The SERVQUAL model is still considered a useful research instrument for measuring quality in service companies and through

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its application, the institution and administration can control the level of perceptions and expectations of services [23]. According to Bloemer and Kasper [25], commitment is the necessary condition for loyalty. Investigations into the brand engagement relationship have found that commitment plays a central role in predicting brand loyalty. Other studies report that more commitment leads to positive loyalty behavior. The correlation between trust, commitment, cooperation, and satisfaction is also a well-studied area, supported by the literature [26]. The credibility and integrity components of trust in the brand appear to be a harbinger of brand loyalty. To claim loyalty and achieve success, companies must pay more attention to consumer relations and thus gain trust. The marketing literature highlights the important role of perceived value in a patient’s intention to refer a service to other people through the recommendation. Han and Hwang [27] found that the perceived value was significantly related to the perceived benefits of a fashion events and that the perceived value positively affected behavioral intentions. The literature highlights that satisfaction tends to favor the development of behavioral loyalty. These results are particularly evident in tourist contexts, such as the importance of satisfaction in revisiting or recommending family members or friends [4, 28]. This aspect was corroborated in our empirical study. Based on this discussion, the conceptual model presented in Fig. 35.1 is proposed, which describes that, in the context of fashion tourism, the increase in the quality of service, trust, cooperation, perceived value, and commitment facilitates the development of behavioral satisfaction and loyalty. Thus, the following research hypotheses were formulated: H1: quality of service, trust, commitment, perceived value, and cooperation have a positive effect on the satisfaction of fashion tourism contexts; H2: the quality of service has a positive effect on the value perceived by the fashion tourist and H3: the quality of service, the perceived value and satisfaction have a positive effect on the loyalty of the fashion

Fig. 35.1 Conceptual model proposed for fashion tourism contexts. Source Authors’ own study

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tourist. The hypotheses postulated above will allow us to understand some of the determinants associated with the specific segment of fashion tourism, namely, with regard to behavioral intentions toward tourists and visitors. Quality is considered the ability to meet stated and implied needs as well as customer requirements. It plays a key role in the (fashion) tourism industry and is crucial to ensure that the tourist returns to the same destination or to the hotel unit under analysis. In this sense, it is essential to analyze the role that service quality plays in the competitiveness and sustainability of niche tourism development [31], such as the case of fashion tourism.

35.5 Final Considerations and Next Steps This study discusses the growing phenomena of fashion tourism and the perspective of relationship marketing. Based on the literature review, we propose a model that connects the dimensions of relationship marketing (that is, commitment, trust, and cooperation) with the consequent satisfaction with the fashion tourist and the behavioral intention to repeat the experience or reinforce it with a marketing focused on “fashion” motivation. Several studies in marketing and tourism contexts have discussed the association of relationship marketing with destination and consumer buying behavior, including the study of satisfaction, loyalty, or quality of service. Future studies can explore more deeply the understanding of the complex process of decision-making for couples travel, in a post-pandemic scenario (i.e., covid-19), such as destination choice and risk assessment. Tourism has undergone many changes in terms of habits and trends. Fashion tourism is a notorious example of being affected by the pandemic and the acceleration of technology. Several changes have appeared in the consumption of this type of tourism (e.g., videomapping, online visits, digital access). As such, the present study aims to understand how relational marketing can be an important competitive factor for tourist destinations and tourist fashion events. In future studies, it will be essential to carry out in-depth interviews with specialists in the phenomenon studied and to develop an empirical (quantitative) study through questionnaires to tourist consumers (from the “fashion tourism” market niche). Considering the current (post) pandemic context, it is essential for tourist destinations to assert themselves in order to recover the tourist transactions of the fashion market in recent years. Most importantly, fashion weeks incorporate in their agenda several events of diversified nature, thus going far beyond the parades, showcases, and exhibitions. After the promotional events, participants have not only the opportunity to visit the most emblematic places of the destination and its shops, museums, park, cafes, and restaurants, among other relevant spaces of the city, as well as participate in parties, cocktails, and dinners. The importance of fashion tourism cannot be underestimated for sure. Every passing year it seems like shopping cities are making it to the top preferred holiday destinations. Individual luxury fashion brands also play a major part in a city’s marketing on fashion tourism. Cultural tourism is the subset of fashion tourism concerned with a country’s culture.

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Specifically, the lifestyle of the inhabitants is the experience that tourists want to live [30]. In an interdisciplinary perspective, the present manuscript represents an important contribution in relation to the management of tourist destinations and market segmentation in the contexts of fashion tourism. This manuscript is an aid to marketing and management in specific contexts of information technology and documentation. Future studies may lead to a greater generalization of the results.

References 1. Lazzeretti, L., Capone, F., Casadei, P.: The role of fashion for tourism: an analysis of Florence as a manufacturing fashion city and beyond. In: Tourism in the City, pp. 207–220. Springer, Cham (2017) 2. Budnarowska, C., Marciniak, R. (2016). Fashion, tourism and the creative industries. In: Tourism and the Creative Industries, pp. 69–87. Routledge 3. Kalbaska, N., Ramírez, E.A., Cantoni, L.: The role of tourism destinations within the online presence of fashion weeks. Almatourism-J. Tour. Cult. Territ. Dev. 9(9), 87–114 (2018) 4. Liberato, D., Liberato, P., Alén, E.: The role of fashion events in tourism destinations: DMOs perspective. In: Culture and Tourism in a Smart, Globalized, and Sustainable World, pp. 463– 475. Springer, Cham (2021) 5. Sánchez, M., Sousa, B., Veloso, C., Lubowiecki-Vikuk, A.: Trends and segmentation of medical tourism: an approach to reproductive tourism. In: Abreu, A., Liberato, D., Garcia Ojeda, J.C. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 293. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-10401_19 6. Brotherton, B., Himmetoglu, B.: Beyond destinations—special interest tourism. Anatolia 8(3), 11–30 (1997) 7. Trauer, B.: Conceptualizing special interest tourism—frameworks for analysis. Tour. Manag. 27(2), 183–200 (2006) 8. Robinson, M., Novelli, M. (2005). Niche tourism: an introduction. In: Niche Tourism: Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases, pp. 1–11 9. Sousa, B., Santos, V., Ramos, P.: Special forms of touism. In: Buhalis, D. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing. Edward Elgar Publishing (2022). https://doi.org/10. 4337/9781800377486.special.forms 10. Entwistle, J., Rocamora, A.: The field of fashion materialized: a study of London Fashion Week. Sociology 40(4), 735–751 (2006) 11. Power, D., Jansson, J.: Cyclical clusters in global circuits: overlapping spaces in furniture trade fairs. Econ. Geogr. 84(4), 423–448 (2008) 12. Ruiz-Alba, J.L., Mediano, J.M., Ayestarán, R., López-Tenorio, P.J.: Fashion events and eWOM. Event Manag. 26(2), 405–417 (2022) 13. Aiello, G., Donvito, R., Grazzini, L., Petrucci, E.: The relationship between the territory and fashion events: the case of Florence and Pitti Immagine fashion fairs. J. Glob. Fash. Mark. 7(3), 150–165 (2016) 14. do Valle, P. O., Mendes, J., Guerreiro, M.: Residents’ participation in events, events image, and destination image: a correspondence analysis. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 29(7), 647–664 (2012) 15. Ramón-Cardona, J., Sánchez-Fernández, M.D., Durán-Sánchez, A., Álvarez-García, J.: Entrepreneurship, local fashion, tourism development, and the hippie movement: the case of Adlib Fashion (Ibiza, Spain). Sustainability 14(7), 3890 (2022) 16. Pinchera, V., Rinallo, D.: The emergence of Italy as a fashion country: Nation branding and collective meaning creation at Florence’s fashion shows (1951–1965). Bus. Hist. (2017)

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17. Demirovi´c, D., Pivac, T.: Belgrade (Serbia) as an alternative site or city of fashion tourism. Eur. Researcher. Series A 12–2, 2882–2891 (2013) 18. Ye, M., Yim, E.: Roles of a fashion museum in fashion tourism. J. Fashion Bus. 23(2), 34–47 (2019) 19. Adinolfi, M.C., Tchaawa, T.M., Banda, G.: The importance of the fashion industry in the South African tourism context. EuroEconomica 37(2) (2018) 20. Bellini, N., Pasquinelli, C.: Urban brandscape as value ecosystem: the cultural destination strategy of fashion brands. Place Brand. Public Dipl. 12(1), 5–16 (2016) 21. Zeithaml, V.A.: Consumer perceptions of price, quality and value: a means-end model and synthesis of evidence. J. Mark. 52(3), 2–22 (1988) 22. Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L., Parasuraman, A.: The nature and determinants of customer expectations of service. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 21(1), 1–12 (1993) 23. Debata, B.R., Patnaik, B., Mahapatra, S.S., Sree, K.: Interrelations of service quality and service loyalty dimensions in medical tourism: a structural equation modelling approach. Benchmark: Int. J. 22(1), 18–55 (2015) 24. Belaid, S., Temessek Behi, A.: The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships: an empirical investigation in the utilitarian consumption context. J. Product Brand Manag. 20(1), 37–47 (2011) 25. Bloemer, J.M., Kasper, H.D.P.: The complex relationship between consumer satisfaction and brand loyalty. J. Econ. Psychol. 16(2), 311–329 (1995) 26. Lin, H.-H., Wang, Y.-S.: An examination of the determinants of customer loyalty in mobile commerce contexts. Inf. Manag. 43(3), 271–282 (2006) 27. Han, H., Hwang, J.: Multi-dimensions of the perceived benefits in a medical hotel and their roles in international travelers’ decision-making process. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 35, 100–108 (2013) 28. Bigné, J., Andreu, L., Gnoth, J.: The theme park experience: an analysis of pleasure, arousal and satisfaction. Tour. Manag. 26, 833–844 (2005) 29. Peixoto A.J., Sousa B.B.: Sports and emotions in tourism marketing management: a preliminary study in football in Portugal. In: de Carvalho, J.V., Rocha, Á., Liberato, P., Peña, A. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. ICOTTS 2020. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 208. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-334256-9_33 30. Rabbiosi, C.: Renewing a historical legacy: tourism, leisure shopping and urban branding in Paris. Cities 42, 195–203 (2015) 31. Igreja, C.M., Sousa, B.B., Silva, T., Veloso, C.M.: Assessment of the quality of the service perceived in specific contexts of management of a family business. J. Family Bus. Manag. (2021)

Chapter 36

Promotion of Tourism Through the Digital Dissemination of Innovation Research João Almeida, Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, and Ana Paula Camarinha

Abstract This manuscript talks about a relatively new phenomenon called Science Tourism. In this context, it presents, in 1st place, the development of a usable website for the promotion of the XX AECA International Meeting. The methodology design thinking adopted to build the website was proposed by Lynch and Horton in 2016. In addition, using a validated scale, a questionnaire was carried out to measure the website’s user experience. As a result, in addition to the website development, we found that the Reliability, Efficiency, and Perspicuity constructs obtained significantly higher scores when compared to Attractiveness, Stimulation, and Novelty, not differing from each other in a statistically significant way.

36.1 Introduction According to STN [1] “Scientific tourism is an activity where visitors participate in the generation and dissemination of scientific knowledge, carried out by research and development centers”. The dissemination of scientific knowledge is a fundamental and indispensable step in scientific research. The dissemination of scientific knowledge is a fundamental and indispensable step in scientific research. It narrows the gap between science, technology, innovation, and society by increasing citizens’ confidence in scientific and technological advance [2]. On the other hand, scientific dissemination increases the visibility of the work carried out and reveals how the results obtained can contribute to solving society’s problems. The dissemination of science also has an essential function in transmitting and updating knowledge for students, teachers, and researchers.

J. Almeida Porto Accounting and Business School, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal M. J. A. Gonçalves (B) · A. P. Camarinha CEOS.P, Porto Accounting and Business School, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_36

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In this context, conferences play an important role in the scientific communication process as the transmission of new ideas and facts reaches the scientific community. In the same geographical space, or by videoconference, they bring together academics, students, senior and junior researchers, and participants from the professional sector. Another fundamental characteristic is that conferences are usually organized by one or several higher education institutions, research centers, as well as associations, societies, networks, and research groups. The main objective of this study was to develop a usable website for the XX AECA International Meeting. The methodology adopted to build the website was proposed by Lynch and Horton [3]. In addition, using a validated scale, the efficient measurement of user experience on the website was carried out. After this brief introduction, the next section presents the literature review, with a brief reference to scientific research, communication, and dissemination, followed by strategies used for the development of websites, and ends by presenting the concept of usability. The third section presents the development of the website for the promotion of the XX edition of the AECA, the methodology used to measure the user experience, and the data collection process, and ends by presenting the results obtained with the data collection and the analysis of the questionnaires. Finally, the fourth section presents the conclusions of the study and its limitations, as well as the expectation for future work.

36.2 Theoretical Background 36.2.1 Scientific Research Tourism Scientific tourism is a segment with great supply potential as it combines the availability of a wide diversity of natural and socio-cultural assets for the production of knowledge and scientific dissemination with a vast supply of cultural knowledge of the country and locality promoting the event [4]. Mao and Bourlon [5] characterize scientific tourism in different forms presented in Fig. 36.1. Analyzed the different forms, the proposed manuscript fits in the upper quadrant of the right side—Scientific Research Tourism, more exactly communication and dissemination of scientific research. Usually, the researcher combines his research interests with the interest of visiting a particular tourist region, bringing the two objectives together. For Lima [6], one of the personal rewards of participating in scientific events is to get out of the routine, share the results of their studies as well as achieve recognition of the production. This last point is sometimes crucial for participation in a given event, as it combines scientific sharing with leisure and the extension of cultural knowledge.

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Fig. 36.1 Segments for scientific tourism [5]

36.2.2 Communication and Dissemination of Scientific Research Scientific dissemination practices change the way society has access to information. The participation of researchers in congresses in which key questions, comments, hypotheses, and results are presented, is based on the visibility of the research object through the sharing of information in the scientific field [7]. The use of digital media for scientific communication has numerous advantages in the dissemination of knowledge, as it is possible to reach an international community through the internet. In practical terms of the dissemination of knowledge, the great advantage of digital media is flexibility and ease of interaction between organizers and speakers throughout the organizational process. Digital platforms allow greater reach, as they overcome physical and personal constraints [8].

36.2.3 Digital Communication and Marketing Marketing deals with a constantly changing market, which follows the technological evolution in the world and society. The internet, one of the main responsible for this progress, opened doors to new sources of communication and interactivity. Due to the continuous progress of the internet, new forms of online communication and information gathering have emerged [9]. Digital Marketing is the evolution encompassing the use of technologies as a resource to acquire and retain target audiences. The impact of digital technology has also markedly affected institutions. The way of acting is changing with technological

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development. Digital Marketing is the evolution encompassing the use of technologies as a resource to acquire and retain target audiences. The proximity factor ceases to exist because now, the user is at the same distance from all the information [10]. Digital communication gains strength through the constant exchange of information. To improve the performance of organizations, the main objectives of digital marketing communication are related to easy access to information, with the consequent creation of a relationship between the customer and consumption, aiming to increase sales [11]. Actively involve the public by increasing visibility and notoriety [12]. Using digital presence to systemize organizational communication and achieve a strategic position suited to target audiences [13].

36.2.4 Development of Digital Applications for Dissemination of Scientific Events Digital tools such as websites, social media, blogs, wikis, apps, and virtual worlds are increasingly used to build digital connections. Digital channels are increasingly relevant in people’s lives, both professionally and personally, being an advantage for users and institutions [14]. The appearance of the World Wide Web has revolutionized the way of communicating and accessing information, all the tools that have been made available on the internet contribute to diversifying the offer of scientific dissemination. As one of the main sources of value in digital marketing, the website will be the face of the online organization, and the entire digital presence will be traced around it. The construction of a website must be focused on the institution’s objectives, focusing on the message that one wants to convey and meeting the needs of the target audience [15]. It is imperative to appeal to interactivity and usability, captivating the target audience to spend more time on the website. The appealing look is a key point in the creation of a website as it makes the user experience easier and more pleasant. In order to provide dynamism, the website must be able to quickly interact with the user, either through plugins or a forum [16]. The phenomenon of social media has contributed to the exponential growth of information, allowing the creation, and updating whenever necessary, making possible daily exposure to a huge amount of information [17]. It is possible to verify that social media are attractive to be used as a form of dissemination due to collaborative content, allowing interaction with the target audience. The use of social media becomes more captivating and appropriate because it influences a greater number of people, as everyone has a network of contacts in which they are able to influence others to have the same influence in their community, creating a viral effect [17]. Technological devices were introduced and are entering the market, becoming part of our day-to-day. In this way, the use of mobile applications has increased,

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mostly in specific tasks such as the search for information. Applications are tools with a lot of potentials that support the dissemination of information. The human being spends more and more time on mobile devices, smartphones, and tablets, thus allowing a natural insertion of applications in the user’s life. Therefore, the growth of apps in social media has been a valence for communication [18].

36.2.5 Website Development For the development of a website, it is possible to use free and open-source software. A software based on free creation that allows individual and collective control of software, promoting universal control for situations such as studies, creation, enrichment, and modifications. This evolution derives from users and programmers through their contributions to software development. This freedom of access is an important aspect of society because it promotes participation throughout the world [19]. Considering the target audience, and the freedom to use templates and tools that allow the customization of all content to be placed on the website, I chose to use WordPress. In this way, WordPress is a Content Management System that allows you to create, organize, publish, and/or delete content from a website, a tool for creating, managing, and updating content and information in a digital way [20]. It is a platform with easy data import, with a wide range of communication tools between blogs, which prove to be useful in connecting with other blogs. It provides spam protection, keyword message protection, generated workflow, XML-RPC interface, and smart text formatting. The expandability and flexibility of the platform are done through themes, plugins, scripts, and customizable features through HTML [21].

36.2.6 Websites Usability All websites with academic content aim to provide relevant information with easy access to users. The usability of a website should inform the stakeholder how much information should be passed on to website users and how much of that information can satisfy the user’s goals. As one of the main features of a website, usability makes the website user-friendly. Thus, the design of a website must always meet the user’s needs [22]. Nielsen’s heuristics are well-known principles due to their validation and applicability in creating websites. These are visibility of system status, correspondence between the system and the real world, freedom of control for the user, consistency and patterns, error prevention, recognition instead of memorization, flexibility and efficiency of use, aesthetics, and minimalist design [23].

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36.3 Materials and Methods In the scope of this article, a methodological approach was used to build the website. The article began with a literature review as a way of presenting the most current trends based on this article. It was necessary to develop a usable website, as a way of providing the website’s eligibility and reach, a website usability assessment questionnaire was prepared. A survey by questionnaire to measure the usability of the website, with a random sample presented on Google Forms and disclosed on social media.

36.3.1 Study Context The AECA (Spanish Association of Accounting and Business Administration) has the main function of sponsoring studies in the field of business sciences, to improve management and information techniques. Focused on establishing contacts with educational institutions, AECA maintains a partnership with ISCAP to promote management and accounting knowledge through the “XX AECA International Meeting”. Within the scope of the XX AECA International Meeting, with a view to the technological innovation that this entity seeks to improve in each edition of the congress, a website was developed to improve its digital presence and with a mindset to increase the dynamism and notoriety of the event, and consequently of this organization.

36.3.2 Methodology A usable website was developed using design thinking methodology [3] to promote the XX International Meeting of the AECA because style guides are more generic and lead to creativity. Since web style guides are applicable to a large set of guidelines, design thinking methodology provides assistance in designing usable websites. A questionnaire, adapted from Cota [24], was then launched to evaluate the user experience of the website. The questionnaire was implemented in google Forms and disseminated on social networks between May and July 2022. It was important to use this questionnaire because the scales are designed to cover comprehensive user experience feedback, supported by an immediate response to express feelings, impressions, and attitudes that arise when using the website. To have more answers and to aim for the perspective of different people, a random sample was used in the study.

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Fig. 36.2 Home page of XX AECA

36.3.3 Website Development AECA, within the scope of this international meeting, wanted a dynamic and easily accessible website, where it was possible to disseminate all relevant information regarding the event, as well as all the information necessary to access the event, accommodation, and transports. Following this ideology, the website was intended to be able to present necessary information, in a dynamic, quick, and simple way, maintaining the identity of the event and the character of the organizing institutions. The website was structured according to the ISO 9241-11 [25] standard mentioned above, according to Nielsen’s heuristics with the validation of usability and user experience. It is possible to consult the website through the link: https://www.iscap. pt/aeca/. During the development of the site SEO (search engine optimization) strategies were applied, using WordPress plugins and tools for webmasters, to rank the site in search engines. Currently, the analysis of the use of the website is powered by Google Analytics. The Fig. 3 presents the website homepage (see Fig. 2).

36.3.4 Measurement of User Experience User Experience The concept of user experience extends to the concept of usability. The ISO 9241-11 [25] standard defines usability as the extent to which the product can be used by

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Fig. 36.3 Box and line diagrams for the distribution of scores obtained in each construct

specific users to achieve specific goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specific context. In this way, it became relevant to study the aspects that manage usability that fit the user experience. The User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ) used in this analysis, i.e. assessment of our ability and user experience was adapted from Cota [24]. According to the authors, the scales of the questionnaire were designed to cover comprehensive feedback on the user experience, supported by an immediate repetition to express the feelings, impressions, and attitudes that arise from the use of the website. Being a succinct questionnaire, it can be completed online, making it easy for all users to complete [24]. The questionnaire was implemented in google forms and made available on social networks for 3 months, from May to July 2022. The sample used was random. The final version of the questionnaire contains 6 scales with 15 items in total. • Attractiveness. Items: inferior/exceptional, unpleasant/pleasant. • Perspicuity. Items: not understandable/understandable, hard to learn/easy to learn, tedious/playful. • Efficiency. Items: slow/fast, complicated/simple, disorganized/organized. • Dependability. Items: not safe/safe, does not meet expectations/meets expectations. • Stimulation. Items: boring/attractive, uninteresting/interesting, demotivating/motivating. • Novelty. Items: monotonous/creative, conventional/innovative.

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According to Cota [24], scales have a theoretical scale structure where attractiveness controls both pragmatic and hedonic quality. The pragmatic quality counts on perspicuity, efficiency, and reliability, while the hedonic quality has stimulation and novelty. The scale used, adapted from Cota [24], starts at −2 and goes up to +2, with the most negative response representing −2, 0 a neutral response, and 2 the most positive response. According to the original scale, the calculations are made taking into account the average of the responses, to avoid the known response effect to avoid extremes, placing the interval between −2 and +2, so results close to +2 represent a very positive impression by users.

36.3.5 Statistical Procedures Data analysis was performed using the R program, version 4.1.2 [26]. For the descriptive analyses, means (M) and standard deviations (SD) were calculated in continuous variables, absolute frequencies (n), and percentages (%) in categorical variables. The evaluation of the psychometric properties of the instrument under study was performed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha, considering acceptable values greater than 0.70 and item-total correlation greater than 0.30 [27]. The mean scores of the Attractiveness, Perspicuity, Efficiency, Dependability, Stimulation, and Novelty constructs were compared using repeated measures ANOVA. In the first instance, an unfit model was considered. Then, a model adjusted for the covariates sex and age, potential confounders, was built. The global statistical significance of the models was evaluated with the F test, with degrees of freedom of the model k−1 and (k−1) x (n−1), where k corresponds to the number of constructs and n to the sample size. The Bonferroni correction was used in paired comparisons between the various constructs of the instrument. The covariate effect on each of the instrument’s constructs was assessed using non-standardized coefficients (β). The significance level used to reject the null hypothesis was 5%.

36.3.6 Results A total of 147 participants were included in this study, 101 (68.7%) were female and 46 (31.3%) were male, aged between 17 and 72 years, mean of 34.79 years (SD = 14.10). Table 36.1 presents the instrument’s psychometric properties. Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.73 (Attractiveness), 0.76 (Perspicuity), 0.73 (Efficiency), 0.65 (Dependability), 0.89 (Stimulation), and 0.81 (Novelty) (Table 36.1). The correlations were more significant than 0.30 for all items of each construct. Item-total correlations were greater than 0.30 for all items of each construct.

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Table 36.1 Assessment of the instrument’s psychometric properties Constructs and variables

Correlation item-total

Attractiveness (α = 0.73)

M

SD

4.01

0.76

Inferior/exceptional

0.58

3.78

0.84

Unpleasant/pleasant

0.58

4.24

0.86

4.29

0.66

Perspicuity (α = 0.76) Not understandable/understandable

0.64

4.39

0.81

Tedious/playful

0.58

4.15

0.74

Hard to learn/easy to learn

0.55

4.31

0.85

4.29

0.65

Slow/fast

0.52

4.26

0.77

Complicated/simple

0.52

4.31

0.82

Disorganized/organized

0.61

Efficiency (α = 0.73)

Dependability (α = 0.65) Not safe/safe

0.48

Does not meet expectations/meets expectations

0.48

Stimulation (α = 0.89) Boring/attractive

0.79

4.30

0.84

4.21

0.77

4.24

0.88

4.18

0.91

3.95

0.85

3.88

0.94

Uninteresting/interesting

0.79

4.01

0.91

Demotivating/motivating

0.77

3.95

0.96

3.81

0.98

Novelty (α = 0.81) Monotonous/creative

0.68

3.86

1.04

Conventional/innovative

0.68

3.76

1.10

These results confirm the good psychometric properties of the instrument and allowed us to proceed with the calculation of constructs as observed variables, whose averages are shown in Table 36.1. Table 36.2 shows the results of repeated measures ANOVA for each of the constructs compared with each other. In the unadjusted model, statistically significant differences were found, F(5, 730) = 30.84 (p < 0.001), with a high effect size, η2 p = 0.17. In the model adjusted for sex and age, the statistical significance associated with the comparison between the constructs was maintained, F(5, 715) = 16.68 (p < 0.001), with a moderate effect size, η2 p = 0.12. Figure 36.1 shows the distribution of scores obtained in each construct, where the constructs of Dependability, Efficiency, and Perspicuity stand out, with the highest scores. Table 36.2 shows the paired comparisons between the constructs, with the level of significance corrected by the Bonferroni method. The results obtained were similar in the adjusted and unadjusted models. The Dependability, Efficiency, and Perspicuity constructs obtained significantly higher scores (p < 0.001), when compared to Attractiveness, Stimulation, and Novelty, not being statistically significantly different from each other (Fig. 36.3).

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Table 36.2 Repeated Measures ANOVA for comparing construct scores ANOVA MR Construct

M

PD

Not adjusted

Set to age and sex

Attractiveness

4.01

0.76

Perspicuity

4.29

0.66

Efficiency

4.29

0.65

F(5, 730) = 30.84 p < 0.001 η2 p = 0.17

F(5, 715) = 16.68 p < 0.001 η2 p = 0.12

Dependability

4.21

0.77

Stimulation

3.95

0.85

Novelty

3.81

0.98

Vertically, it shows the punctuation, while horizontally, it verifies the 6 constructs that are being analyzed in the graphic (Fig. 36.2). Finally, Table 36.4 presents the estimated effects of sex and age on each of the evaluated constructs. Gender had no statistically significant effects on any of the constructs. Age was positively associated with attractiveness (β = 0.01, p = 0.002), Perspicuity (β = 0.01, p = 0.049), Efficiency (β = 0.01, p = 0.049), Dependability (β = 0.01, p = 0.043), Stimulation (β = 0.02, p = 0.001), and Novelty (β = 0.02, p < 0.001). Thus, age has a positive effect on each of the constructs, suggesting that the usability assessment of the website https://www.iscap.pt/aeca/ increases with age.

36.4 Conclusion Scientific dissemination has an important effect on tourism regarding the city’s promotion through knowledge and conferences. The main objective of this study was to develop a usable website for the XX AECA International Meeting and to measure the usability of the site in terms of user experience. The methodology adopted was a questionnaire adapted from Cota [24]. After the analysis of the results, it was possible to conclude the good psychometric properties of the instrument which allowed us to proceed with the calculation of constructs as observed variables. It is possible to see that Dependability, Efficiency, and Perspicuity constructs obtained significantly higher scores (p < 0.001), when compared to Attractiveness, Stimulation, and Novelty, not being statistically significantly different from each other. Age has a positive effect on each of the constructs, while gender had no statistical effect on any of the constructs. There were some limitations during the elaboration of this work. AECA had some restricted communication policies, and the information despaired, making it challenging to build the website and gain feedback about the design and content post. In addition, the sample used is not representative of the population, it was used as a random sample.

Attractiveness

–

– –

***

n.aj

Aj

n.aj –

***

Aj

–

ns

***

n.aj

Efficiency

–

ns

***

Aj

ns –

–

ns

***

Aj

ns

ns

***

n.aj

Dependability

n.aj = not adjusted, Aj = adjustable, ns = not significant, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

Novelty

Stimulation

Dependability

Efficiency

Perspicuity

Perspicuity

Attractiveness

Table 36.3 Multiple comparison tests

–

***

***

***

ns

n.aj

–

***

***

***

ns

Aj

Stimulation

* –

–

***

***

***

**

Aj

*

***

***

***

**

n.aj

Novelty

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Table 36.4 Estimated effects on constructs Male Attractiveness

B ≈ 0.00

Age p = 0.998

β = 0.01

p = 0.002

Perspicuity

β = −0.07

p = 0.537

β = 0.01

p = 0.049

Efficiency

β = −0.05

p = 0.666

β = 0.01

p = 0.049

Dependability

β = −0.02

p = 0.875

β = 0.01

p = 0.043

Stimulation

β = −0.02

p = 0.879

β = 0.02

p = 0.001

Novelty

β = o.12

p = 0.493

β = 0.02

p < 0.001

With this manuscript, it is possible to do some future scientific work in this area, namely in promoting future conferences or other scientific events. The social aspect of the events could also be explored. Within the scope of scientific tourism, other forms of scientific events can also be explored.

References 1. Turismo Científico—International Scientific Tourism Network. https://scientific-tourism.org/ turismo-cientifico/. Accessed 19 Aug 2022 2. Marín-González, E., Malmusi, D., Camprubí, L., Borrell, C.: The role of dissemination as a fundamental part of a research project: lessons learned from SOPHIE. Int. J. Health Serv. 47(2), 258–276 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0020731416676227 3. Lynch, P.J., Horton, S.: Web Style Guide: Foundations of User Experience Design. Yale University Press (2016) 4. Leandro, G., Trevisan, G.V.: Turismo Científico: A Pesquisa Como Oferta TurísticA, Anais da Feira de Ensino, Pesquisa e Extensão do Campus São Francisco do Sul 1(9). Art. no. 9 (2021). https://publicacoes.ifc.edu.br/index.php/fepexsfs/article/view/2357. Accessed 19 Aug 2022 5. Bourlon, F., Mao, P.: Las Formas Del Turismo Científico En Aysén, ChilE. Gestión Turística 15, Art. no. 15 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4206/gest.tur.2011.n15-04 6. Lima, G.D.S., Giordan, M.: Características do Discurso de Divulgação Científica: Implicações da Dialogia em uma Interação Assíncrona. IENCI 22(2), 83 (2017). https://doi.org/10.22600/ 1518-8795.ienci2017v22n2p83 7. Romero, L.-M.: Scientific dissemination of research: Communications at conferences and congresses. Comunicar. School of Authors, May 03, 2021. https://www.revistacomunicar.com/ wp/school-of-authors/scientific-dissemination-of-research-communications-at-conferencesand-congresses/. Accessed 05 Aug 2022 8. Slater, B.J., et al.: Global dissemination of knowledge through virtual platforms: reflections and recommendations from APSA/IPEG. J. Pediatr. Surg. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpe dsurg.2022.01.006 9. de Oliveira, M.F.S., Pereira de Souza, M.B., Da Silva, G.J., Ferreira, R.J.: Marketing de Relacionamento: como o webmarketing atrai clientes em agências do ramo turístico. Principia 1(35), 80 (2017). https://doi.org/10.18265/1517-03062015v1n35p80-89 10. Kannan, P.K., Alice Li, H.: Digital marketing: a framework, review and research agenda. Int. J. Res. Market. 34(1), 22–45 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2016.11.006 11. Duffett, R.G.: Influence of social media marketing communications on young consumers’ attitudes. Young Consum. 18(1), 19–39 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-07-2016-00622

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12. Coll-Rubio, P., Micó, J.L.: Relações públicas em estratégias de growth hacking na comunicação digital: os estudos de caso da Wallapop, Westwing e Fotocasa. Comunicação e sociedade no. Special Issue, Art. no. Special Issue, Jul (2020) 13. Marx, D.V.: A influência dos meios de comunicação digital no crescimento das empresas (2018). http://www.monografias.ufop.br/handle/35400000/1183. Accessed 20 Apr 2022 14. Correia, S.A.: Projeto de conceito e estrutura de um website para a Biblioteca Municipal do Barreiro. MasterThesis, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Escola Superior de Comunicação Social (2018). https://repositorio.ipl.pt/handle/10400.21/9560. Accessed 27 Jun 2022 15. da Silva, A.M.R.: A Utilização das Ferramentas de Marketing Digital nas empresas B2B no Setor das Tecnologias de Informação em Portugal (2015). https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/han dle/10216/81876. Accessed 29 Mar 2022 16. Marques, C.L., das N. Silva, M., de Souza, A.M.: A construção de um website e suas implicações na pesquisa científica. Revista Eixo 6(1), Art. no. 1 (2017). https://doi.org/10.19123/eixo.v6i 1.359 17. da S. Julio, I., de F. Rosa, M., Sigrist, V.C.: O marketing digital nas redes sociais e seus impactos em pequenas empresas. Digital marketing on social media and its impact on small businesses (2019). http://ric.cps.sp.gov.br/handle/123456789/4387. Accessed 29 Jun 2022 18. Flaherty, S.J., McCarthy, M., Collins, A.M., McCafferty, C., McAuliffe, F.M.: Exploring engagement with health apps: the emerging importance of situational involvement and individual characteristics. Eur. J. Mark. 55(13), 122–147 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-062019-0531 19. Badjie, M.: The Impact of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) on Developers’ Productivity (2022). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-478693. Accessed 05 Jul 2022 20. Pereira, J.A.M.: Model-driven development approach for content management systems based applications (2015). https://www.academia.edu/69928693/Model_Driven_Development_App roach_for_Content_Management_Systems_based_Applications. Accessed 19 Aug 2022 21. dos Santos, A.M.L.: Benefícios e Desafios do Wordpress no desenvolvimento de sítios Web (2015). https://run.unl.pt/handle/10362/15274. Accessed 10 Jun 2022 22. Ganiyu, A.A., Mishra A., Elijah, J., Gana, U.M.: The Importance of Usability of a Website— ProQuest 13 (2017). https://www.proquest.com/openview/ab8e3afc32cd45822a736eac9ea 1723d/1?cbl=2029987&parentSessionId=15%2F4H0%2BM%2BT5RHjrAgj0GSpAOp1GR 5mkIa5Ueq6BJGko%3D&pq-origsite=gscholar&parentSessionId=EJETDPHL8D%2BZSme PcinopM2MqihiBh8fQJqxJojovy4%3D. Accessed 13 Jul 2022 23. Jimenez, C., Lozada, P., Rosas, P.: Usability heuristics: a systematic review. In: 2016 IEEE 11th Colombian Computing Conference (CCC), September 2016, pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10. 1109/ColumbianCC.2016.7750805 24. Cota, M.P., Thomaschewski, J., Schrepp, M., Gonçalves, R.: Efficient measurement of the user experience. A portuguese version. Procedia Comput. Sci. 27, 491–498 (2014). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.procs.2014.02.053 25. ISO 9241-11:2018(en). Ergonomics of human-system interaction—Part 11: Usability: Definitions and concepts. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9241:-11:ed-2:v1:en. Accessed 19 Aug 2022 26. R Core Team (2020). https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/oxygen-consum ing-substances-in-rivers/r-development-core-team-2006. Accessed 19 Aug 2022 27. Nunnally, J.C.: An overview of psychological measurement. In: Wolman, B.B. (ed.) Clinical Diagnosis of Mental Disorders: A Handbook, pp. 97–146. Springer US, Boston, MA (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2490-4_4

Chapter 37

The Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal—The Current State of Health and Wellness Tourism Maria Carlos Lopes , Dália Liberato , and Elisa Alén

Abstract In Portugal, as in other European countries, thermal activity was developed under the influence of the Roman people. In the fifteenth century, the first thermal hospital in the world was established in Portugal. In the centuries that followed, the practice of going to the baths to cure illness developed across the continent. In 1928, the first legislation was passed that gave thermal activity the same importance as other economic activities. However, the Second World War dictated the closure of many spas. Other factors, such as drug development and the tendency to go to beaches, led to a decrease in thermal frequency. Several strategic plans to boost tourism in Portugal followed and legislation was created (DL n. º 142/2004, of 11 June) aimed at the development of thermal tourism. In turn, the National Strategic Plan for Tourism2007 [1] advocated the consolidation and development of health and well-being tourism, which naturally includes spas. From that moment on, the conditions were in place to increase investments in the spa sector, aiming at the modernization and offer of new products and services, in the scope of relaxation, beauty, and antistress treatments, among many others, with which intended to attract new audiences and markets. This work intends to elucidate the evolution of thermal frequency and demand in general, verified over the years. It is also intended to understand the current state of classic thermalism and wellness thermalism in Portugal and to assess the profile of tourists who seek this type of tourism. In this sense, we resorted to the compilation and analysis of statistical data existing in the General Directorate of Energy and Geology (DGEG), the General Directorate of Mines and Geological M. C. Lopes (B) Instituto Politécnico de Portalegre, Portalegre, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation—CiTUR, Algarve, Portugal D. Liberato School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] E. Alén Faculty of Business Sciences and Tourism, University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_37

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Services (DGMSG), and the Geological and Mining Institute (IGM), from 1979 to the year 2021. As conclusions of this study, we emphasize that there is a growing propensity to frequent thermal springs, caused, mostly, by users seeking wellness treatments and services. This finding has an effect on the annual seasonality of the demand for thermal springs, which now reaches lower levels, since the frequency of wellness users has become constant throughout the year, giving rise, this time, to a weekend seasonality that is the period in which wellness users can enjoy leisure time.

37.1 Introduction The use of mineromedicinal waters for bathing and health care is a millenary tradition and has had undeniable importance not only as a treatment and healing, but also as an element of purification in religious rites somewhat by all ancient civilizations [2]. Thermalism is a method of treatment and relaxation with water that has roots in the past of humanity. European thermal culture is influenced by a past that dates back to antiquity and which is strongly linked to the cult of water. Based on the Greco-Roman experience, water progressively becomes one of the main references with regard to the increase in the health and well- being of citizens. Also in Portugal, the Romans had a strong influence with regard to the development of the activity of thermalism. Grácio [3] states that: “In Portugal, the first traces of use of thermal waters, although they are inaccurate, were by the Celts and Iberos. However, the Romans, as in other empty regions, were the true drivers of the portuguese baths” (p. 43). The historical course of the Portuguese baths left a vast heritage legacy that goes from the archaeological finds of roman times, through the infrastructure built at the beginning of the nation, to the construction of the first thermal hospital in the world, inaugurated in the fifteenth century. Denominated the Hospital of Nossa Senhora do Pópulo, it was built by Queen Leonor, and opened in 1485, in Caldas da Rainha. It only had the ground floor and the first floor, where seven infirmaries operated, and was essentially intended to serve people from the most disadvantaged classes of society, leaving only one of the infirmaries for patients from the more affluent classes [4]. According to [5], the Thermal Hospital of Caldas da Rainha underwent major renovations at the end of the nineteenth century, in order to achieve a modern structure similar to its counterparts that prevailed in the rest of Europe and to print quality to the services provided there. It was intended, therefore, that patients, from the most disadvantaged social classes and who needed hospitalization, should not cross paths with the so-called external patients who, in turn, were looking for the sumptuousness and luxury of amenities, and for a personal treatment that was different to their social condition, and similar to that they had already experienced in other spas abroad.

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37.2 Methodology The methodological procedures are presented in the form of a literature review. We use the compilation and analysis of existing statistical data at the General Directorate of Energy and Geology (DGEG), the General Directorate of Mines and Geological Services (DGMSG), and the Geological and Mining Institute (IGM), from 1979 to 2021. From the statistical data obtained, it was possible to proceed with the elaboration of the graphs and tables presented.

37.3 Literature Review 37.3.1 The Decline and Rise of Thermalism in Portugal Over the centuries, thermalism in Portugal has undergone positive evolutions and declines, and according to [3] “The great legacy of Portuguese thermalism dates back to the 19th and 20th centuries” (p. 44). Also, [6] recognizes that the historical heritage existing today in Portugal is largely the result of the importance that has been given to this sector during these centuries. According to [7], the nineteenth century marks the boom of thermalism in Portugal. In the nineteenth century, the architecture of the thermal springs began to contemplate the complementarity between the bathing area, the accommodation, and the living areas. Also, there began to be an adaptation of the spaces to existing functions and specializations: separation of users by gender and classes; different places for bathing and showering, steam and sauna, and spraying and inhalation. The entrance halls were also highlighted, which began to have conditions more conducive to conviviality, and so they were now large and elegantly decorated places, in order to allow the proper reception of the aquistas and the distribution of these to the treatment areas. For reasons related to hygiene, the paintings were no longer used and marble was used as a coating for the walls; also the wood once used on the floor was replaced by mosaics and cement [6]. Continuing through the nineteenth century, in 1892, an important contribution came to benefit the Portuguese thermalism sector. In that year, the first regulation of the sector was approved—Government Gazette, no. 225, of 5 October 1892— which contained the “Provisions regulating the use of mineral substances” and which provided for some changes in the administrative scope and that the other considerations about the practical procedures affecting the activity were already contemplated in the previous regulation, the “Quarrying Regulation” of 1852 (Government Gazette, no. 225 of 5 October 1892) [8]. In the twentieth century, a series of state investments began, and the activity of thermalism largely benefited from this measure. For its part, thermalism has become an activity with great representation within society, either by contributing to the health and rebalancing of those who have started to include this activity in their routines, or because thermalism has contributed to the economic and social development of

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some localities, even doing, many of them would come out of the underdevelopment they were in. Therefore, the thermal springs began to understand not only the specific area of the spa where the treatments were carried out, but also a set of buildings that met the needs of users [6]. These clusters consisted of: hotels of different categories in order to adapt to the budget of different families and according to the stay imposed by the treatment; casinos; ballrooms; billiard rooms; churches and chapels that were justified by the need for some users to have moments of retreat and spirituality that served as a complement to treatments through water; and outdoor spaces, such as walkways [9]. In the same vein, [3] comments: “Already at the beginning of the 20th century, new infrastructures began to be built in Portuguese spas; in addition to the bathing buildings, there are now other buildings essential to the thermal practice”(p. 44). The thermal springs were larger or smaller depending on their importance [6] and, representative of the degree of economic and social development of the place or region where the resort was located. However, all wanted maximum splendor and to collect absolute recognition on the part of users of a pleasant stay, determining in the context of the primary reason for travel—the search for cure and the replacement of physical and mental balance—and at the same time providing varied distractions in the periods of treatment intervals, or for the moments after dinner, where users were provided with very exquisite moments of socialization and conviviality. At the end of World War I, echoes were heard that European thermal springs serving an elite of magnates of industry, finance, and commerce were clothed in extravagant luxuries and served as the stage for grand balls, tertulias, and various games, where large sums of money were wasted daily, in an environment of great elegance and sumptuousness. All these surroundings had sharpened the imagination of those responsible for the thermal springs in Portugal, and it did not take long for the resorts of Vidago, Pedras Salgadas, Luso, and Curia to be at the same level of prestige as the other counterparts in the rest of Europe and to receive many foreign tourists. Although for different reasons, but taking advantage of the hitchof the turnout to the thermal springs previously mentioned, they emerged in Portugal, in the period that measures between the two great European wars, two points of tourist attraction, and which are still today holders of great European and even worldwide recognition: Estoril and Fatima [10]. There is also the year 1928, because it is a historical landmark for Portuguese since it was in that year that several diplomas were legislated that gave the activity of the thermalism a very significant importance as a sector of activity relevant to the economy of the country. That year, Decree No. 15401 of April 20 was legislated, the content of which remained in force until the year 2004, when a new matter was legislated in Decree-Law no. 142/2004. The golden age of thermalism in Europe, and therefore, in Portugal hadfaded by the deadliest conflict in human history—World War II. This war involved many countries in Europe (and not only) causing many of the termes to be closed or abandoned. Although Portugal did not enter directly into the conflict, by the way of economic and social relations with the countries directly involved, it had been, moreover, harmed by the event. Most Portuguese thermal springs saw their frequency decrease, with exceptions, albeit for a reason not at all

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gratifying, from the thermal springs of Caldas da Rainha and Ericeira, which during this period served as a refuge for many refugees and displaced people from the war [5]. In the period following the end of the conflict, there was the closure of many thermal springs in Portugal, either because they could not resist the decrease in customers during the years in which the conflict lasted or because they were not equipped and prepared to withstand the competition of those who, at a good time, modernized and invested in the loyalty of their customers [11]. From 1960, the situation deteriorated. Thus, factors such as the development of drugs that made them more accessible in the face of thermal treatments, the derogatory image that young people had of the spas due to their frequency composed mostly of older people, and the beginning of the trend to frequent beaches whose public was consensual age and its free use, continued to influence the low affluence to the spas. In the 1970s, when in many other European countries, there was already a very reasonable thermal frequency—in Italy, 2.5% and in the USSR, 6.4% of the population—in Portugal, there were still very frequent percentages of thermal frequency. below those observed in these countries—0.7% of the population [11]. Much contributed to this: the low co-payment in thermal treatments by the Social Security compared to the higher co-payment seen in other European countries; the low popularity of medical hydrotherapy in Portugal; the industrial progress that allowed the bottling of the thermal waters, making it unnecessary for users to travel to the thermal springs; the fact that most of the thermal springs are located inland and the inherent lack of means of communication, which made it difficult for people to move around; and as mentioned before, the lower cost of drugs in relation to most thermal treatments [12]. Since the beginning of the 1970s, there has been a very slight increase in the use of thermal springs. However, in January 1976, the young democratic state provided financial support and subsidized the use of thermal springs for all those benefiting from Social Security. This measure also aimed at sharing the expenses inherent to thermal treatments such as transport, accommodation, and food [2, 12]. These incentives then gave rise to the so-called—social thermalism—increasing the growth rate of thermal users in the seventies. This time, the use of thermal baths reached a historic maximum in 1981. However, this state of grace ended the following year, when the government decided to stop these financial measures to support thermalism. In 1985, the first National Tourism Plan—PNT (1985–1988) was created. This document aimed to elucidate the existing perspectives on rural and rural tourism, which are both products promoted to visitors, in order to promote the reconfiguration of the territory. It was intended, therefore, that the PNT (1985–1988) was the advocate of changing the strategy that had been in force until then, increasing the regional area of promotion and development of the tourist offer, as well as promoting other tourist products beyond the sun and sea. In this orientation, the PNT defined a set of key areas of activity, where thermalism was an integral element. Years later, the PNT (1989–1992) emerges, whose focus was on local resources that should be catalysts for tourism development. This plan, in addition to continuing

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with the promotion and development of spa terms, among others, adds an important contribution to the development of this sector. It is within the scope of this plan that Resolution 43/86 of the Council of Ministers is drawn up, which creates the National Thermalism Commission and defines the guidelines for the relaunch of thermalism. The Government considers that it is imperative to have an intersectoral body that considers and proposes the adoption of the measures necessary for the recovery and modernization of Portuguese thermal resorts and the relaunch of thermalism and monitor so that all entities or departments are called to implement the proposals or projects that may be approved [13].

37.3.2 The Sustained Growth of Thermalism in Portugal Over the years, it has been possible to record moments of great euphoria in terms of the frequency and image of the thermal springs, as well as periods of stagnation and even decreased demand for them. However, in Portugal, Decree-Law no. 142/2004 of June 11, published in Diário da República No. 132, I Série-A, establishes new fundamental rules due to the introduction of wellness, concerning licensing, organization, mode of operation, and its supervision of the activity of the thermal springs. From this new legal imposition, there will be changes in the frequency of thermal resorts, which are denoted, both in the number of users and in the profile of those same users: Innovative and stimulating regulations are introduced in all these aspects, seeking to respond to the demands relating to the provision of health care, as well as those of the market and to improve competitiveness, promoting access to the activity and the improvement of the offer in new establishments and in the hot springs already in operation, seeking the modernization and requalification of infrastructure and equipment in spas and spas in the country. (…) In this way, the essential vocation of thermal establishments as units providing health care is maintained, while also adapting their existence to the new trends in this sector, especially with regard to access to their activity [14].

In summary, the provisions of Decree-Law 142/2004 legally recognize other beneficial factors that are related to well-being and that can be used in thermal springs, with these having a crucial role in terms of contributing to tourism, insofar as they should, through their diversified offer, appeal and be a reason for tourists to travel. Additionally, this law will have marked a turning point in relation to the way in which the Portuguese population began to look at the practice of thermalism and how it could be used for the health and well-being of all and not only of those who lack therapeutic treatments to obtain a cure or attenuation of some health-related symptom. This paradigm shift led the thermal springs to make an effort to modernize themselves in terms of supply, in order to meet the growing and varied demands of their users, whose demand is gradually shaped within the scope of health spa products and services. welfare. Corroborating the growing trend in the tourism and wellness segment, which includes the thermal springs, data from the Associação de Termas de Portugal appear, where it was possible to verify that in 2006, the percentage of users of classic thermalism was 78% and of health and wellness spa users was 22% [15]. The same

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association found that, in 2009, the percentages were 69% and 31%, respectively [15]. At the end of the PNT era, strategies for the development of Portuguese tourism are now included in the National Strategic Plan for Tourism (PENT). Thus, in 2007, the first plan appeared—PENT 2007—highlighting the importance and concern with the development and diversification of the tourist offer. This plan advocated the consolidation and development of 10 strategic tourism products, comprising the following tourism segments: Sun and Sea Tourism, Cultural and Landscape Touring Tourism, City Break Tourism, Business Tourism, Nature Tourism, Nautical Tourism, Health and Wellness Tourism, Golf Tourism, Integrated Resorts and Residential Tourism, and Gastronomy and Wine Tourism [1]. Health and Wellness Tourism becomes, then, one of the strategic products prioritized in the PENT with the maximum purpose of its activity being developed and consolidated, which allows us to assess, once again, the importance and relevance that this segment has for tourism, and in particular, for our country’s economy. The termal springs segment, supported by the quality of the water, is a product that, properly designed and structured, can aim to create offers with high levels of differentiation. For this, it is necessary to change the business model based on treatments to a greater association with well- being, particularly in Porto and North and in the Center. It is also essential to capitalize on the conditions of Madeira, which in the past was a recognized destination in this area, and the Azores, which have exotic conditions of great natural beauty [1].

PENT analyzes the development of the ten strategic products by region and outlines the lines of action for the development and consolidation of each of these products. In Table 37.1, it is possible to observe, in a summarized way and specifically for the Health and Wellness product, which includes the spa, the guidelines contained in the PENT 2013–2015, according to the region, in the sense that this product reaches the desired level of development.

37.3.3 Important Data on the Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal In the 1950s, the Portuguese State was forced to intervene in the maintenance of thermal springs due to the decrease in thermal frequency and the consequent abandonment of many thermal springs [5]. In the year 1960, the thermal frequency still registered very low-frequency values, standing below 60 thousand annual users. During the 1970s, growth was tenuous, even decreasing, in the period between 1974 and 1975, due to the uncertainty that was experienced, resulting from the Revolution of 25 April 1974 that overthrew the dictatorial regime. This number would rise significantly from 1976 onwards, due to the social thermalism that, as we have already mentioned, allowed thermal practitioners to benefit from state subsidies for therapeutic thermal treatments with medical prescription [11].

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Table 37.1 Guidelines of PENT 2013–2015 for health and wellness tourism Health tourism supported by thermal demand

At the level of well-being

In terms of medical tourism

North

Requalify surrounding areas, develop specialized services, create content to be made available on internal and external channels and reposition the thermal product on the market

Develop content for its availability on specific channels, as well as focus on the diversity of spa and thalassotherapy experiences

Elaborate a global diagnosis of the articulation between medical and tourism services, as well as proceed to the analysis of the national competitive situation and definition of the business model that best enhances the tourism services

Center

Requalify surrounding areas, develop specialized services, create content to be made available on internal and external channels and reposition the thermal product on the market

Develop content for its availability on specific channels, as well as focus on the diversity of spa and thalassotherapy experiences

Elaborate a global diagnosis of the articulation between medical and tourism services, as well as proceed to the analysis of the national competitive situation and definition of the business model that best enhances the tourism services

Lisbon

Develop content and ensure its availability in channels

Betting on the diversity of spa and thalassotherapy experiences

Elaborate a global diagnosis of the articulation between medical and tourism services, as well as proceed to the analysis of the national competitive situation and definition of the business model that best enhances the tourism services

Alentejo Without expression

Without expression

Without expression

Algarve Without expression

In terms of well-being (spa and thalassotherapy), there is a need to develop content to be made available on channels and to densify the diversity of experiences made available to customers

Develop and reinforce the structuring of medical service offers integrated into tourist services and promote their placement on the market

Azores

Without expression

Without expression

Without expression

(continued)

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Table 37.1 (continued) Health tourism supported by thermal demand

At the level of well-being

In terms of medical tourism

Madeira In health tourism, there is a Develop the diversity of need to develop content spa and thalassotherapy and make it available on experiences complementing the regional offer Source PENT 2013–2015, Adapted

Graphic 37.1 shows the oscillations related to the frequency of users in Portuguese thermalism, noting, however, a constant growth between 1984 and 1992, with 102,399 users being the highest recorded in the twentieth century in the latter. However, as we can see in the analysis in Table 37.2, in the 1980s, growth rates were getting smaller and smaller, due to the decrease in reimbursements in thermal treatments by the State [16], and in the 1990s to that rate even had negative values, −14.2%. In 1982, the Portuguese thermalism sector was institutionalized due to the emergence of hygienist movements, and specific legislation began to exist to regulate the activity of concessionaires and the exercise of thermal medicine—medical hydrology. As a result, bodily practices began to be controlled by medicine and water began to be controlled by the State [7]. Table 37.3 shows that, in 1992, the number of thermal users increased considerably, but this sudden rise faded, since, in 1993, there was a decrease of 5.36%. In the following two years, there was an increase again, but the trend was decreasing, from 1995 onwards. 105000 100000 95000 90000 85000 80000 75000 70000 65000 1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

60000

Graphic 37.1 Evolution of classical thermal frequency in Portugal, from 1979 to 1999 Source [11], Adapted

432 Table 37.2 Evolution of thermal frequency growth rates, in Portugal, from 1960 to 1999

M. C. Lopes et al. Period

Growth rate (%)

1960–1969

20.3

1970–1979

32.2

1980–1989

12.2

1990–1999

−14.2

Source Associação das Termas de Portugal (2003), Adapted

Table 37.3 Evolution of the number of registrations and the rate of thermal growth, in Portugal, from 1990 to 1999

Year

No. of registrations

Variation (%)

1990

97 427

s/ dados

1991

100 149

2.79%

1992

102 399

2.25%

1993

96 911

−5.36%

1994

98 552

1.69%

1995

98 819

0.27%

1996

97 072

−1.77%

1997

93 767

−3.40%

1998

87 058

−7.15%

1999

83 548

-4,03%

Source DGEG [17]

At the beginning of the 2000s, it was still possible to witness an increase in growth rates, but as early as 2003 and until 2009, the frequency of thermal springs was decreasing, reaching, that year, levels that were never seen before, since there records (Table 37.4). Table 37.4 Evolution of the number of inscriptions and the thermal growth rate, in Portugal, from 2000 to 2009

Year

No. of registrations

Variation (%)

2000

85 226

–

2001

93 186

9.3%

2002

95 586

2.6%

2003

91 757

−4.0%

2004

89 827

−2.1%

2005

85 841

−4.4%

2006

81 434

−5.1%

2007

80 018

−1.7%

2008

74 074

−7.4%

2009

69 735

−5.9%

Source IGM [18]; DGEG/DSRHG

37 The Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal—The Current State of Health … Table 37.5 Evolution of the number of registrations and the thermal growth rate, in Portugal, from 2010 to 2021

Ano

N.º inscrições

Variação (%)

2010

73 454

–

2011

100 642

37.01

2012

96 927

−3.69

2013

90 621

−6.51

2014

105 739

16.68

2015

110 168

4.19

2016

138 981

26.15

2017

117 090

−15.75

2018

133 762

14.24

2019

135 259

1.12

2020

45 722

−66.20

2021

66 516

45.48

433

Fonte DGEG [19]

The fact that many thermal springs, namely those with a higher frequency, may have contributed to this decrease, having closed for long periods to carry out refurbishment works. Such justification comes from the consultation carried out on the official page of most of the thermal springs. For the growth recorded between 2010 and 2018, with the exception of 2017 (Table 37.5) contributes the increase in the frequency of wellness thermalism, which, after 2011, has even been included in the data ON the registration of the thermal frequency [17], thus increasing the number of subscribers who started attending the thermal springs, even in search of services and products offered in the context of the wellness thermalism. This growing demand for well-being spa treatments is closely related to the introduction of Decree-Law nº 142/2004, of 11 June, published in Diário da República nº 132, Series I-A, which regulates licensing, organization, operation, and supervision of thermal establishments. With this regulation, the health and wellness activity in Portugal became closely linked to the thermal and wellness activity. Frasquilho [20] argues that this new legislation contributed a lot to the increase in investments in the sector and, essentially, promoted the renewal of the offer by creating services— relaxation, anti-stress, and beauty—which were understood to be crucial to attract new targets—public young—and new markets—foreign market.

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Another factor that triggered a growing demand for thermal springs and wellness activities was that this became one of the tourism segments included in the PENT [1] highlighted as a strategic product to be developed—Health and Wellness Tourism— which gave him a notoriety never before pronounced. Since then, health and wellness tourism has become a widespread concept, becoming sought after by those who, in addition to treatments of the most varied types, required an environment that simultaneously provides a sense of relaxation, relaxation and comfort, all with the objective of obtaining maximum satisfaction during the experience. Finally, the renovations to which the thermal resorts were submitted contributed a lot, in order to modernize and accompany this global trend of growth in health and wellness tourism. Table 37.5 reflects the growing trend in demand for wellness activities, with a maximum of 138 981 users registered in 2016. More and more the thermal springs are sought after by individuals looking for wellness activities, the so-called wellness spa users who take advantage of weekends, bridges or short vacation periods to enjoy, often with family, moments of relaxation provided by the body and mind treatments offered by these establishments. This growing propensity to use thermal springs, which highlights the diversification of users and the increasing demand on the part of wellness spa users (Graph 2) and the different period of use by them, determines new seasonality indices, that is, in annual terms, seasonality decreases, as it changes from an influx of greater impact in the summer months to a weekly influx—more specifically, at the weekend—throughout the year. However, in terms of weekly seasonality, this will see its values increase, since most individuals choose the weekend to enjoy the facilities of the thermal springs. This growing propensity to use thermal springs, which highlights the diversification of users and the increasing demand on the part of wellness spa users (Graphic 37.2) and the different period of use by them, determines new seasonality indices, that is, in annual terms, seasonality decreases, as it changes from an influx of greater impact in the summer months to a weekly influx—more specifically, at the weekend—throughout the year. However, in terms of weekly seasonality, this will see its values increase, since most individuals choose the weekend to enjoy the facilities of the thermal springs. It can be read in [21] that: “Our country is rich in natural mineral waters, with about 400 classified hydrothermal springs and about 50 thermal springs that are concentrated mainly in the North and Center of the country” (p. 13). Table 37.6 shows the 20 thermal springs that are operating in 2020 in the north of Portugal, as well as the characteristics of the waters and their therapeutic indications.

37 The Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal—The Current State of Health … 100%

97

90%

4 215

80% 70%

2 409

50%

6 437

9 499

9 167 1 545

40%

8 072

30%

0%

324 =85

Wellness Thermalism

Graphic. 37.2 Distribution of classic thermalism and wellness thermalism—by age groups in 2021. Source DGEG/DSRHG

37.4 Conclusions The thermal springs in Portugal have been renovated and modernized, which makes them increasingly appealing, both for those who need the treatments provided by the mineral-medicinal qualities of their waters and for an increasingly wider public that takes advantage of the increase in equipment, products, and services related to wellness spas with which the thermal springs have been equipped so that they can enjoy relaxation, prevention, and regeneration treatments, that is, take the opportunity to increase their well-being and their quality of life [22]. This growing trend in the frequency of thermal springs by wellness users has contributed directly to the reduction of the annual seasonality rate of the demand for thermal springs and to an improvement in the quality of life of users and, indirectly, has contributed to those which were the initial objectives of the development of thermal springs, and which were related to the development of the interior regions, and with the increase of direct and indirect employment, just to mention the most important ones.

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Table 37.6 Thermal springs in operation, in the north of Portugal, in 2020 Thermal springs

Water characteristics

Therapeutic indications

Balneário Pedagógico de Vidago

Hypersaline, gasocarbonic, bicarbonated, sodium

Nervous system Respiratory system digestive system skin Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Caldas de S. Lourenço

Hypersaline, sodium chloride. Respiratory system 34.4 °C Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Chaves Termas & SPA

Hypersaline, gasocarbonic, sodium bicarbonate, hyperthermal 73 °C

Respiratory system digestive system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Centro Tesal—Termas de Monção

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, bicarbonated, sodium

Respiratory system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Empresa Thermal de Caldas de Carlão, Lda

Sulfúrea sódica, bicarbonatada e fluoretada. 29° C

Skin Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Taipas Thermal

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, bicarbonated, sodium

Respiratory system skin Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas das Caldas da Saúde

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, chlorinated, sodium

Respiratory system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Spa Thermal de Pedras Salgadas

Hypersaline, gasocarbonic, bicarbonated, sodium

Endocrine metabolic respiratory system digestive system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas das Caldas de Aregos

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, bicarbonated, sodium

Respiratory system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas de Caldelas

Hyposaline, calcium bicarbonate

Endocrine metabolic nervous system circulatory system digestive system skin Reumáticas e músculo-esqueléticas

Termas de Carvalhelhos

Weakly mineralized, bicarbonated sodium

Circulatory system Digestive System Skin

Termas de Melgaço

Medium mineralization, gasocarbonic, calcium/magnesium bicarbonate and ferruginous

Endocrine metabolic respiratory system digestive system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas de Moimenta

Sulfuric, bicarbonated, sodium, fluoridated, chlorinated and silicate

Respiratory System Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas de São Jorge

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, chlorinated, sodium

Respiratory system skin Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas de São Vicente

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, bicarbonated, sodium

Respiratory system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal (continued)

37 The Evolution of Thermalism in Portugal—The Current State of Health …

437

Table 37.6 (continued) Thermal springs

Water characteristics

Therapeutic indications

Termas de Vimioso/Terronha

Sulphurous, Bicarbonated, Sodium

Respiratory system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas de Vizela—Spa Thermal

Sodium sulfur, hyperthermal. 61 °C

Respiratory System Skin Rheumatic and ‘musculoskeletal

Termas do Gerês

Weakly mineralized, thiosulfated, sodium bicarbonate

Endocrine metabolic circulatory system Digestive system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Termas INATEL de Entre-os-Rios

Weakly mineralized, sulfuric, sodium bicarbonate

Respiratory System Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Caldas de Amarante

Sulfur/alkaline

Respiratory system skin Digestive system Rheumatic and musculoskeletal

Source https://termasdeportugal.pt/

References 1. PENT.: Plano Estratégico Nacional do Turismo (2007) 2. Alpoim, M.: Análise à procura termal. [master thesis in the internet] Aveiro: Universidade de Aveiro, Departamento de Economia, Gestão e Engenharia (2010). https://repositorioaberto. up.pt/bitstream/10216/57180/2/Proposta%20Final%20%20DissertaoAnlise%20%20Oferta% 20Termal%20Nacional.pdf. Accessed 4 Aug 2022 3. Grácio, A.: Turismo Termal em São Pedro do Sul. [master thesis in the internet] Coimbra, Faculdade de Letras de Coimbra (2016). https://eg.uc.pt/bitstream/10316/32527/1/Disserta% C3%A7%C3%A3o.pdf. Accessed 9 Aug 2022 4. Rézio, M.: A cidade termal das Caldas Da Rainha: construção do primeiro hospital termal: fundação da cidade, função social e expansão territorial. In Mundos sociais: saberes e practices (Internet), 101 (2008). Accessed 11 May 2022 5. Mangorrinha, J.: O Lugar das Termas. Lisboa, Portugal: Livros Horizonte (2000) 6. Pinto, S.: Empresas de Hotelaria: Uma análise económica e financeira. [master thesis in the internet] Lisboa, Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa (2008). https://repositorio.iscteiul.pt/bitstream/10071/1500/1/Empresas_de_Hotelaria_uma_ an%C3%A1lise_economica_e_financeira.pdf 7. Quintela, M.: Cura Termal: entre as práticas «populares» e os saberes científicos, in VIII Congresso Luso-Afro-Brasileiro de Ciências Sociais. Coimbra, 16 a 18 de setembro (2004). https://www.ces.uc.pt/lab2004/inscricao/pdfs/painel37/MariaManuelQuin tela.pdf. Accessed July 2022 8. DGMSG.: Apontamentos sobre a Evolução Regulamentar na Exploração de Massas Minerais: 1434–2010. Boletim de Minas [Internet], pp. 89–98 (2010). Accessed 08 Jul 2022 9. Franco, A.C.: De núcleos de cura a destinos turísticos: A origem do termalismo e o desenvolvimento das estâncias hidrominerais na europa. Cadernos de Naturologia e Terapias Complementares 3(5), 17–28 (2014). https://portaldeperiodicos.animaeducacao.com.br/index. php/CNTC/article/view/3289. Accessed 11 May 2022 10. Cunha, L., Abrantes, A.: Introdução ao Turismo. 5.a ed. Lisboa, Portugal: Lidel (2013) 11. Ramos, A.: O Termalismo em Portugal: dos factores de obstrução à revitalização pela dimensão turística [Tesis doctoral] Universidade de Aveiro (2005). https://ria.ua.pt/bitstream/10773/ 4955/1/196979.pdf. Accessed 04 Aug 2022

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12. Ferreira, C.: Estilos de Vida, Práticas e Representações Sociais dos Termalistas: o caso das Termas da Curia. Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais [Internet] (43) (1995). https://estudogeral.uc.pt/bitstream/10316/10893/1/Estilos%20de%20Vida%2C%20P raticas%20e%20Representacoes%20Sociais%20dos%20Termalistas.pdf. Accessed 2 July 2022 13. Resolução do Conselho de Ministros 43/86. Diário da República. I Série, n.º 121/1986, 198605-27 14. Decreto-Lei n.º 142/2004, de 11de junho de 2004. Diário da República, Série A, Nº 136, pp. 3632–3640 15. ATP.: Associação de Terma de Portugal. https://termasdeportugal.pt/ (2007, 2010) 16. Antunes, J.G.: Turismo de Saúde e Bem-estar em Portugal: estratégias para o seu desenvolvimento. In: Proceedings do 14. º Congresso da Associação Portuguesa para o Desenvolvimento Regional, Instituto Politécnico de Tomar (2008). https://www.academia.edu/44069762/Tur ismo_de_Sa%C3%BAde_e_Bem_Estar_Para_uma_estrat%C3%A9gia_de_desenvolvime nto_local_O_caso_das_Caldas_da_Cavaca. Accessed 08 Jul 10 17. DGEG.: Direção Geral de Energia e Geologia. http://www.dgeg.gov.pt/ (1999, 2007, 2013) 18. IGM.: Instituo de Gestão de Minas https://www.dgeg.gov.pt/pt/estatistica/geologia/dados-glo bais-da-industria-extractiva/producao/ (2007, 2010) 19. Direção Geral de Energia e Geologia (DGEG).: Termas em atividade [Internet] (2021). https://www.dgeg.gov.pt/pt/areas-setoriais/geologia/recursos-hidrogeologicos/explor acao-de-aguas-minerais-naturais/termalismo/termas-em-atividade/. Accessed 10 Jun 2022 20. Frasquilho, M.: Spa Termal - Oportunidades de investimento e de negócio. Espírito Santo Research Sectorial. [Internet] 34 (2007). Accessed 3 March 2022 21. Teixeira, S.: O termalismo Clássico na Atualidade: O Caso das Termas de Vizela. [master thesis in the internet] Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra (2013). https://estudogeral.sib.uc.pt/bitstr eam/10316/36090/1/O%20Termalismo%20Classico%20na%20Atualidade.pdf. Accessed 02 Aug 2022 22. PIMBIS: Cimeira Internacional de Negócios e Investimentos em Mineração de Portugal, SUMMIT [Internet] (2016). Accessed 31 May 2022 23. https://termasdeportugal.pt/ 24. https://www.dgeg.gov.pt/ 25. Ferreira, M.O., Costa, P.C., Bahia, M.F.: Effect of São Pedro do Sul thermal water on skin irritation. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 32(3), 205–210 (2010)

Chapter 38

The Role of Football Clubs as a Driver of Tourism Marketing Management and Local Development: A Preliminary Study in Minho (Portugal) Cláudia Rodrigues, Bruno Sousa , Laurentina Vareiro , and Victor Figueira Abstract The concept of sport-related tourism has become more prominent in the last decades both as an academic field of study and an increasingly popular tourism product and as a niche tourism example. The main objective of the present research is to analyze the contribution of sports tourism and football tourism to the development of territories, evaluate the relationship between local entities and football clubs, and identify the marketing strategies of clubs and local entities responsible for tourism. The Quadrilátero do Minho (Minho Quadrangle), corresponding to the cities of Barcelos, Braga, Guimarães, and V.N. Famalicão, hosting the football clubs, was the main focus of the study. Data collection was carried out through four interviews with those responsible for local tourism, in the Quadrilátero do Minho, with the aim of studying whether there is a joint concern to enhance sports tourism and contribute to promoting tourism and the local economy. Results will make it possible to identify the cities that present a stronger connection between clubs and local entities and if this connection translates into greater growth in tourism and economic development of cities. In addition to the interviews, a focus group was held, bringing together twelve football fans from the clubs in the Minho Quadrangle. Results will allow C. Rodrigues · B. Sousa (B) · L. Vareiro Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Rodrigues e-mail: [email protected] L. Vareiro e-mail: [email protected] B. Sousa · V. Figueira CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Algarve, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Vareiro UNIAG, Porto, Portugal V. Figueira Polytechnic Institute of Beja (IPB), Beja, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_38

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informing the municipalities of the direction that the future commitment to sports tourism, and especially football, should take. The manuscript intended to analyze the views of managers/professionals and consumers.

38.1 Introduction Sports marketing is a dynamic subject area linking academic research, marketing practitioners, and public policy planners. Sports marketing and tourism are dynamic because of their active nature as it generates multiple effective means for consumers based on spectator behavior and receives a high degree of attention due to the involvement of consumers [1]. In this context, football is a phenomenon that has great importance all over the world. Its power of influence is increasing which makes it a reference not only in the social and cultural sector, but also in economic and touristic issues [2]. In Portugal, no other sport attracts as many fans as football, having a great social impact that no other sport produces, managing to create intense and lasting bonds, linked to a strong emotional component where many consider football as the “king sport”, demonstrating the strong connection between the Portuguese and this modality [1]. Marketing concepts and practices are applied to products/services related to sports and it may also be products/services sold in sports, which may or may not be related to sports [2]. The tourism sector presents itself as one of the fastest-growing sectors and of high global socioeconomic importance, given its ability to generate employment and income [4, 5]. Its enormous capacity to create jobs, companies, and infrastructures highlight its importance for sustainable development and for combating economic and social inequalities. Tourism acts as a tool for creating economic value, which generates very positive impacts for the local community under the right conditions. Tourists are the most important part of this industry and when they visit any attraction, whether sporting or not, they expect to receive good and fast service [6]. In Portugal, tourism is also of great importance in the national social and economic context, mainly due to its value in creating new jobs and its contribution to the country’s global exports. Tourism is the largest industry in the world and trips undertaken to practice sports or participate in sporting activities are the fastest-growing segment. One of the most essential branches in the field of tourism is sports tourism [7, 8]. Sports tourism has shown evidence of being accessible and understandable to all people, regardless of their professions, social, and economic origins. Sports tourism also has the capacity to create new products or even new tourist destinations [3]. Sport has long been valued in the promotion of tourist destinations, building bridges between communities and generations [9]. Sports tourism is an important tourist segment. This segment can attract many tourists due to the value that sport has for societies today. Sports tourism has been conceptualized as a phenomenon that arises through the involvement of places, people, and activities. More and more

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communities are interacting with sporting events to ensure an attractive image to potential tourists [3]. Sporting events can support the image of a destination after redevelopment and realization [10]. Events held within the area of sports tourism create great economic impact through the associative masses that consume tourist products [11]. Many economic benefits can be derived from sports tourism. Sporting events create, in local communities, a sense of character that must be used to affect the change in the social agenda of a community [12]. The creation of new jobs, increased tourist flow, new tax revenues, and investments in sports and event infrastructures are examples of these advantages for the destination [13]. Advantages such as media attention and the elaboration and improvement of the destination image should be highlighted, making it more competitive and appealing to tourists. Sports tourism, from a supply point of view, incorporates many stakeholders and promotes local economic development, sociocultural change, and interactions [3]. This tourist segment represents many modalities, one of which is the football aspect that stands out and is what we intend to study. The present research is structured in five parts. After the introduction, a literature review is presented. In the third part, the municipalities and football clubs that incorporate the Minho Quadrangle and that, in turn, contributed to the study are presented and described. Then, the preliminary results are presented and analyzed. Finally, in the sixth part, we present the conclusions and recommendations.

38.2 Theoretical Background: Sports Tourism and Marketing Tourism is a phenomenon that moves millions of people around the world, taking as a major driver of the global economy. Every year, tourist destinations face new challenges and social, economic and even political changes [3]. It is a multifaceted and geographically complex activity, where different services are ordered and delivered in different stages, from origin to destination [8]. Before analyzing and reviewing the concept of sports marketing, it is relevant to contextualize it with the concept of sports. Sá and Sá [14] argue that sport reflects certain situations in our daily lives, such as the form of relationship between people and the implications that may arise, and [15] describe sport as a phenomenon that crosses all social barriers and it is a way of escaping daily life that pleases the great masses. Pedersen and Thibault [16] argue that sport implies fun, but it can also be a job, a form of employment, or a business, and it can take many forms, from teams, individually and competing directly with others or focusing on their own performance. Sports can stimulate an emotional response in consumers that other sectors/products cannot and, accordingly, marketing is applied differently and adapted to the audience [1]. In sports, the brand is getting the interest of more and more researchers, being considered the most important asset of sports institutions

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[3]. For instance, these are the defining characteristics of all services as described in the services marketing literature [13]. Many of these service characteristics are also referred to in the sports marketing literature [1; 2]. Sports tourism is understood as all forms of active and passive participation in sporting activity in which people need to travel away from their home and work locations, and in addition, sports tourism is portrayed as related leisure travel with sport [3]. Liberato et al. [2] mentions that this type of tourism is the set of activities of tourists who travel primarily to practice one or more sports. Andrade and Antão [17] distinguish these two subtypes of tourism as tourists who travel intending to practice a sport or also tourists who travel to be spectators in a sporting event. Likewise, [18] clarifies that this theme has been studied from two perspectives, the active and the passive. The passive is designated by people as “casual observers or by experts in sporting events or museums” (p. 25) and, at the same time that the active one is mentioned by the participation “of people in a sport, either in an organized way or independently and this sport can be collective or individual”. Football is the biggest sporting competition on the planet, and for many, it is considered the king sport. The evolution of football has turned it into a space for individuality, branding, advertising, image, economy, and power. Football has become a reference for sport and leisure, an element of social, cultural, economic, and educational identification [14]. The history that football clubs present is one of the great reasons for visitors to travel from other cities or even other countries to follow the games, visit stadiums, and even for cultural enrichment [3]. In addition, sports activities are to some extent linked to the local identity of the residents of that destination. Sport serves as a link for the formation of identity and consolidation of the region or place [3, 16]. According to [19], sports clubs concentrated their best performance on the field, however, they have been betting on their performance off the field. Off-field performance refers to the relationships they establish in the social and economic environment of the place where they perform. This performance aims to develop new and closer relationships with local stakeholders such as the community and local public authorities and non-profit organizations, among others. Creating a correct relationship between sports organizations, the local community, and other potentially interested parties contributes to an increased probability of success for organizations [3, 20]. These relationships can become important partnerships for the creation of social and economic values that will play a role in promoting sports and culture. A major challenge for the management of sport is the strengthening of relations with the local socioeconomic environment [19]. Football, in addition to being considered an activity with a lot of focus on entertainment and the great affinity of fans toward their favorite club, is also considered a great company. Football can function as a company, being responsible for revealing players considered as future promises in the football world, training young players, valuing its current athletes, and creating products that improve the club’s brand [21]. The entire sports industry has a significant share of revenue, moving billions annually. A large number of fans, visitors who travel to watch football matches, generate millions for the economy of a city or country [22]. Sports marketing represents an essential

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part to maintain communication with the public and, consequently, stimulates the increase of sports organizations and products [23].

38.3 Context: Minho Quadrangle [Quadrilátero do Minho] The Minho Quadrangle is made up of four contiguous municipalities—Barcelos, Braga, Guimarães, and Vila Nova de Famalicão. The objective of the study is to understand the relationship between football clubs and the entities responsible for the development of tourism, in this case, the municipal councils. This theme will be based on the four cities and, consequently, the football clubs, Gil Vicente FC, SC Braga, Vitória SC, and FC Famalicão, associated. These four football clubs are part of the Premier League in Portugal and have a great history. The clubs of the Quadrilátero minhoto are quite popular in the country, with emphasis on SC Braga and Vitória SC, which can attract the attention of other European fans due to their practically annual presence in European competitions. The 2022–23 season stands out for three clubs being studied in the Quadrilátero do Minho compete in the much-desired European Leagues, thus joining Gil Vicente FC. In the first Portuguese League, these clubs aim to fight for places in the first half of the league table, which increases their attractiveness. It should be noted the presence of eleven clubs from the North of Portugal of the eighteen that make up the Portuguese Primeira Liga. In Table 38.1, it can be seen that the market value of the clubs in the Minho Quadrangle is not very high when compared to the biggest clubs in Portugal. However, the deserved highlight goes to SC Braga, which has the most significant value of all the clubs under study. Vitória SC and FC Famalicão present very similar values, on the other hand, the club from Barcelos shows the lowest value. Regarding the capacity of the stadiums and the average number of spectators per game, SC Braga and Vitória SC stand out again with much higher values. Only FC Famalicão has a significantly low seating capacity when compared to the other clubs under study. The union between the entities responsible for the development of cities and those responsible for football clubs allows for better management in the way of receiving football and sports lovers, contributing to the capitalization of the brand of clubs and cities [24]. Making football and tourism allies can become a huge economic Table 38.1 Data from the clubs in the Quadrilátero do Minho Football club

Market value

Stadium capacity (seating)

Gil Vicente FC

26,73 M e

12.046

Average spectators per game in 2021/22 3.540

SC Braga

120, 50 M e

30.286

7.898

Vitória SC

47,00 M e

29.865

10.768

FC Famalicão

47, 95 M e

5.186

3.208

Source Based on [1; 35]

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advantage. Destination management is considered an advanced form of cooperation between tourism stakeholders that are associated with Destination Management Organizations—DMOs. These entities must be able to allow a better relationship between the local community and all public and private actors such as tourist enterprises, catering establishments, entertainment companies, travel agencies, and transport companies, among others.

38.4 Methodology and Preliminary Results The methodology used for the development of the preliminary research is presented. It describes the steps and procedures that have been taken to achieve the intended objectives and to answer the starting question. This chapter is based on exploratory research based on scientific articles. This research allowed the elaboration of a literature review, in the exploration of the subject under analysis that the main themes under study [3]. The present research was disseminated, via electronic contact and Zoom, to technicians and councilors of municipal councils. The semi-structured interviews, based on the literature review [9, 19, 25–33], took place between the months of May and July 2022. The interviews, which were carried out individually, required recording, in addition to the notes made during them, to improve the quality of data analysis and interpretation. The target of this investigation is the entities responsible for the development of tourism in the cities under study that are located in the Minho Quadrangle. Therefore, an interview was carried out by the city to know the present reality of tourism and sport in each local destination. In this sense, the sampling technique used in the investigation is theoretical sampling, as it consisted of choosing and identifying the actors with the greatest capacity to help meet the intended objectives. Indeed, the interviews are intended for councilors and technicians in the areas of tourism and sport in municipal councils, as they are the most knowledgeable stakeholders to address the issues necessary for the study to be carried out. The participants are mostly male, except for the participant from the Vila Nova de Famalicão city council. The educational qualifications of the participants are at the level of higher education and their professional occupation in the organization is related to positions with higher hierarchies. The questions asked in the interview sought to obtain knowledge, firstly, at the level of the relationship between the city and the local club and the importance that municipalities would consider clubs to have for the economy and the improvement of the city’s image. The following questions sought to discover the willingness of municipalities to create greater links with the clubs. Subsequently, it was carried out in a focus group with the participation of twelve supporters of football clubs and cities under study. For this, three supporters corresponding to each club were invited to participate in this group. The objectives of the focus group were to understand if the distance to the stadiums and sporting events influences their decision to visit and to know the expenses, as well as the participation in tourist activities in the city they visit. Initially, the focus group’s questions

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sought to better understand the type of supporter through the frequency they attend the club’s games, the opinion that supporters themselves have about the response capacity of their city, and the growth capacity for football tourism. The following questions were aimed at finding out the supporters’ willingness to adhere to possible initiatives created by the municipalities together with the clubs. The initial (embryonic) results seem to demonstrate that football can play an important role in tourism and regional and local development. Travel by fans and club supporters is sometimes between different countries or intercontinental. In terms of the national territory (i.e. Portugal), Minho seems to be a particularly competent geographical region in the field of football. The four cities are represented by clubs in the professional football championship (1st division) and this encourages the constant travel of fans of the different clubs (with transport, food, visits, and local accommodation). Some testimonies show that a visit to a territory for sporting reasons (i.e. football) may develop other motivations (e.g. cultural, gastronomic, health, photography, sun and sea) and develop recommendations and revisit actions (with family members) in the future. Football can thus be an important trigger for (complementary) future tourism initiatives with family and friends.

38.5 Final Considerations According to [3], it is indisputable that the emotions on which the study is focused are important for both supporters and tourists (national or international), reinforcing the role of sport intervention in an attempt to raise awareness among individuals to reconcile the practice of tourism and the search for leisure with his passion and loyalty for the football club and feelings of affection toward the brands. Nowadays, brands are increasingly characterized by their ability to relate to consumers, and football is not different [3]. The main objective of the present research was to analyze the contribution of sports tourism and football tourism to the development of territories, evaluate the relationship between local entities and football clubs, and identify the marketing strategies of clubs and local entities responsible for tourism. The Minho Quadrangle is made up of four contiguous municipalities—Barcelos, Braga, Guimarães, and Vila Nova de Famalicão. The objective of the study is to understand the relationship between football clubs and the entities responsible for the development of tourism, in this case, the municipal councils. This theme will be based on the four cities and, consequently, the football clubs, Gil Vicente FC, SC Braga, Vitória SC, and FC Famalicão, associated. These four football clubs are part of the Premier League in Portugal and have a great history. The initial (embryonic) results seem to demonstrate that football can play an important role in tourism and regional and local development. Travel by fans and club supporters is sometimes between different countries or intercontinental. In terms of the national territory (i.e. Portugal), Minho seems to be a particularly competent geographical region in the field of football. The four cities are represented by clubs in the professional football championship (1st division) and this encourages the constant

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travel of fans of the different clubs (with transport, food, visits, and local accommodation). Some testimonies show that a visit to a territory for sporting reasons (i.e. football) may develop other motivations (e.g. cultural, gastronomic, wines, photography, sun and sea) and develop recommendations and revisit actions (with family members) in the future. Football can thus be an important trigger for (complementary) future tourism initiatives with family and friends. With the insights from this study, it is expected that future work can contribute to the development of empirical studies to address the developed propositions in different countries. In particular, it is expected that future research explores the relationship between attachment, satisfaction, and loyalty of football supporters in qualitative and quantitative studies. Studies could further develop a questionnaire to be applied to football fans to capture a cross-sectional view of the relationships among the constructs gauging their impact. In future research, we intend to develop how these valid questions can be answered by introducing causal modeling and discussing one approach to it, structural equation modeling (SEM). From an interdisciplinary perspective, the present study presents contributions to niche tourism (i.e. sports tourism) and to consumer behavior in tourism marketing management contexts. Acknowledgements This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project UIDB/04470/2020.

References 1. Sousa, B., Vieira, C.: Um Estudo Sobre a Afetividade Aplicada ao Fenómeno do Futebol: Abordagem na Ótica dos Consumidores. PODIUM Sport, Leisure and Tourism Review 7(2), 293–312 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5585//podium.v7i2.282 2. Liberato D., Moreira, C., Liberato P.: Sports Tourism in Oporto as a destination: the influence of FC Porto Football Club. In: Proceedings of the 33rd International Business Information Management Association Conference, IBIMA 2019—Vision 2020: Sustainable Economic Development and Application of Innovation Management from Regional expansion to Global Growth, pp. 6007–6021 (2019) 3. Peixoto A.J., Sousa, B.B.: Sports and emotions in tourism marketing management: a preliminary study in football in portugal. In: de Carvalho J.V., Rocha Á., Liberato P., Peña A. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. ICOTTS 2020. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 208. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-334256-9_33. 4. Santos, V., Dias, A., Ramos, P., Madeira, A., Sousa, B.: Mapping the wine visit experience for tourist excitement and cultural experience. Ann. Leisure Res. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 11745398.2021.2010225

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5. Sánchez, M., Sousa, B., Veloso, C., Lubowiecki-Vikuk, A.: Trends and segmentation of medical tourism: an approach to reproductive tourism. In: Abreu, A., Liberato, D., Garcia Ojeda, J.C. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 293. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-10401_19. 6. Liberato, P., Sargo, S., Liberato, D.: Specificities of the public of literary festivals in the segment of cultural events. In: Proceedings of the 32nd International Business Information Management Association Conference, IBIMA 2018-Vision 2020: Sustainable Economic Development and Application of Innovation Management from Regional expansion to Global Growth, pp. 2650– 2662 (2018). ISBN: 978-0-9998551-1-9. 7. Veloso, C.M., Walter, C.E., Sousa, B., Au-Yong-Oliveira, M., Santos, V., Valeri, M.: Academic tourism and transport services: student perceptions from a social responsibility perspective. Sustainability 13, 8794 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13168794 8. Machado, A., Vareiro, L., Sousa, B., Figueira, V., Lavandoski, J.: Green marketing trends in specific contexts of tourism and music festivals: preliminary insights. In: Carvalho, J.V.d., Liberato, P., Peña, A. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 284. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978981-16-9701-2_8. 9. Fallatah, B.A.: An overview of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports industry: causes, implications, and options. J. Hum. Sport Exer. 16, 1094–1103 (2021) 10. González-García, R.J., Mártínez-Rico, G., Bañuls-Lapuerta, F., Calabuig, F.: Residents’ perception of the impact of sports tourism on sustainable social development. Sustainability 14(3), 1232 (2022) 11. Liberato P., Liberato D., Sousa B., Malheiro A.: Sports tourism and sports events as a Niche market in Oporto as a tourism destination. In: Abreu A., Liberato D., González E.A., & Garcia Ojeda J.C. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. ICOTTS 2020. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 209. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-981-33-4260-6_52. 12. Martins, R., Pereira, E., Rosado, A., Maroco, J., McCullough, B., Mascarenhas, M.: Understanding spectator sustainable transportation intentions in international sport tourism events. J. Sustain. Tour. 30(8), 1972–1991 (2022) 13. Mousavi, R., Najafabadi, M.O., Mirdamadi, S.M., Hosseini, S.J.F.: Rural sports and local games: missing link between sports tourism development and sustainability. J.Sport Tour. 1–23 (2022) 14. Sá, D., Sá, D.: Marketing Para Desporto - Um Jogo Empresarial, 3a edn. Edições I.P.A.M, Porto (2009) 15. Fetchko, M.J., Roy, D.P., Clow, K.E.: Sports Marketing. Routledge (2018) 16. Pedersen, P. M., Thibault, L.: Contemporary Sport Management, 6ª Edn. Human Kinetics (2018) 17. Andrade, F., Antão, M.: Turismo de golfe em Portugal: bases para a realização de um plano estratégico. Lusíada. Economia & Empresa 20, 81–97 (2016) 18. Higham, J.: Sport Tourism Development. Channel view publications (2018) 19. Bof, F.: Stakeholders and team management for sport and social development: the Barcelona FC Case. Paper Presented to the 14th EASM Congress (2006) 20. Zeren, D., Erkan, I., Acikgoz, F.: Sport marketing and social media strategies: A literature review and research agenda. In: Crabtree, R., Zhang, J. (eds.) Sport Marketing in a Global Environment, pp. 126–141. Routledge (2022) 21. da Silva Dantas, M.G., Boente, D.R.: A eficiência financeira e esportiva dos maiores clubes de futebol europeus utilizando a análise envoltória de dados. Revista de Contabilidade e Organizações 5(13), 75–90 (2011) 22. Iangngap, E.K., Raizada, S.: Football as a Boon for Global tourism. Ann. Trop. Med. Public Health 23, 231–719 (2020) 23. Mendes, J.G.: Os antecedentes e os impactos das Comunidades de Marca nos consumidores. Caso do futebol português, Tese de Mestrado, Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal (2016)

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24. Senaux, B.: A stakeholder approach to football club governance. Int. J. Sport Manag. Mark. 4(1), 4–17 (2008) 25. Faulkner, B.: Progress in tourism and hospitality research. J. Travel Res. 37(1), 76–80 (1998) 26. Florek, M., Breitbarth, T., Conejo, F.: Mega event = Mega Impact? Travelling fans’ experience and perceptions of the 2006 FIFA World Cup host nation. J. Sport Tour. 13(3), 199–219 (2008) 27. Fredline, E.: Host and guest relations and sport tourism. Sport Soc.: Cult., Commer., Media Polit. 8(2), 263–279 (2005) 28. Gibson, H.: Active sport tourism: who participates? Leis. Stud. 17, 155–170 (1998) 29. Godbey, G., Graefe, A.: Repeat tourism, play, and monetary spending. Ann. Tour. Res. 18(2), 213–225 (1991) 30. Hinch, T., Higham, J.: Sport, tourism and authenticity. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 5(3), 243–256 (2005) 31. Koch, N.: Introduction: Critical geographies of sport in global perspective. In Critical geographies of sport, pp. 17–28. Routledge (2016) 32. Mohan, L.J.: Effect of destination image on attendance at team sporting events. Tour. Hosp. Res. 10(3), 157–170 (2010) 33. Smith, A.: Tourists’ consumption and interpretation of sport event imagery. J. Sport Tour. 11(1), 77–100 (2006)

Chapter 39

Tourism as an Indicator of Integration with the World Economy: The Case of the World’s 93 Smallest Economies Generating 1% of Global GDP Aneta Teperek and Luís Lima Santos Abstract The world’s smallest economies are a group of 93 countries with the smallest gross domestic product, which together generated only 1% of the global gross domestic product in 2019. The purpose of the article is to measure the economic integration of this group with the global economy using inbound tourism and its measuring indicators, such as tourism receipts per capita, the share of tourism receipts to the gross domestic product as well as tourism employment relative to total employment. The survey covered the entire group of the world’s smallest economies, as well as individual 93 countries, and covered the base year of 2019, the results of which were compared with those of 2000. The use of comparative indicators from the area of inbound tourism made it possible to identify the countries with the most developed inbound tourism. They, in turn, were the most economically integrated with the world economy. This integration brought both benefits and threats to their economies, which they had to deal with varying degrees of success.

39.1 Introduction The degree to which all countries in the world are integrated with the global economy varies widely. Among the 193 countries of the world that are full members of the UN in 2019, some are more integrated, and some less so. This mainly depends on their economic potential, expressed in the gross domestic product, which ranged from US$ 45 million to US$ 20 trillion in 2019. In general, the world’s largest economies constituting the core of the global economy were the most integrated. Therefore, the question arises, to what extent were the world’s smallest economies, which as a group generated only 1% of global GDP and were the periphery of the world economy, A. Teperek · L. Lima Santos (B) CiTUR - Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic University of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Teperek e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_39

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integrated? The answer to this question is important because it involves 93 countries, almost half of the world’s countries. Their individual economic potential ranged from US$ 45 million to US$ 29 billion (see Table 39.1). In total, they generated a GDP of US$ 877.3 billion, i.e., similar to the Netherlands. The world’s smallest economies, generating a total of one-hundredth of global GDP, are very different. In addition to the common trait of small economic potential, they vary widely in other factors, such as: . Level of economic development—from US$ 93 per capita (Somalia) to US$ 209,241 per capita (Monaco) in 2019. . Socioeconomic development level, expressed in HDI (Human Development Index)—from 0.384 (Somalia) to 0.997 (Cyprus) in 2019. . Population—from 11 thousand (Tuvalu) to almost 38 million (Afghanistan) inhabitants. . Occupied area—from 2 km2 (Monaco) to 1.5 million km2 (Mongolia). . Climate—from polar climate (Iceland) to equatorial climate (i.e., Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Kiribati, and Maldives). . History—from centuries-old statehood (San Marino) to countries with newly established independence (i.e., East Timor, Eritrea, and South Sudan). . Culture—from African (i.e., Benin, Botswana, Madagascar, and Sierra Leone), Latin American (i.e., Dominica, Honduras, Santa Lucia), Islamic (i.e., Brunei, Djibouti, Gambia, Kirgiz, Somalia), Pacific (i.e., Fiji, Nauru, Tonga), SlavicOrthodox (i.e., Albania, Armenia, Georgia, and North Macedonia), and Western European culture (i.e., Andorra, Malta, Monaco, and San Marino), to Buddhist (i.e., Bhutan, Cambodia, and Lao) and Hindu (Nepal) culture. . Religion—from Christian (40.4% of population of the group) to Islamic (37.7%), Hindu (4.9%), Buddhist (4.5%), and tribal religions (4.7%) in 2019. . Political system—from monarchy (i.e., Grenada, Lesotho, and Samoa), to the republican system (i.e., Estonia, Liberia, and Vanuatu). Most of the world’s smallest economies offer tourist attractions, such as unique and original cultural heritage, as well as favorable geographic conditions, which in many of them have become the basis for tourism development. Among environmental values was the climate. The land area of the 54 countries, out of 93 analyzed, was within the warmest and most favorable equatorial and sub-equatorial climates (i.e., Antigua and Barbuda, Fiji, Jamaica, the Maldives, Mauritius, Santa Lucia, Seychelles). The location of these countries in relation to the sea also played an important role. The 67 of the world’s smallest economies have access to the sea, 35 of which are island countries (i.e., Cyprus, East Timor, Iceland, Kiribati, Madagascar, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Samoa, and Tonga) and the other 32 are continental countries with sea access (i.e., Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia, Gambia, Georgia, Mozambique, and Senegal, Suriname). The location of the world’s smallest economies, combined with the geographic proximity to the world’s largest economies, resulted in a greater influx of tourists and the collection of more income from the tourism sector. Tourists from the world’s wealthiest and largest economies traveled more frequently and spent more money on travel. These

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Table 39.1 The world’s smallest economies in 2019 (GDP, constant 2010 US$) No

Countries

GDP

No

Countries

Million US$

GDP Million US$

1

Tuvalu

45.9

48

Malawi

2

Nauru

103.5

49

Moldova

9 887.0

3

Marshall Islands

185.6

50

Tajikistan

10 450.1

4

Kiribati

210.6

51

Bahamas

11 259.4

5

Palau

217.5

52

Rwanda

11 380.7

6

Sao Tome and Principe

277.2

53

Nicaragua

11 541.0

7

Micronesia

307.4

54

Congo, Rep

11 654.7

8

Tonga

455.1

55

North Macedonia

11 719.7

9

Dominica

496.7

56

Guinea

11 760.8

10

St. Vincent and the Grenadines

759.0

57

Equatorial Guinea

12 526.2

11

Samoa

762.6

58

Chad

12 976.3

12

Vanuatu

865.9

59

Niger

13 127.4

13

St. Kitts and Nevis

913.7

60

Lao

13 195.4

14

Grenada

1 032.7

61

Madagascar

13 495.5

15

Solomon Islands

1 171.8

62

Mauritius

13 786.8

16

Comoros

1 190.7

63

Armenia

13 996.2

17

Guinea-Bissau

1 220.8

64

Brunei Darussalam

14 007.0

18

Timor-Leste

1 264.3

65

Haiti

14 022.7

19

Somalia

1 432.4

66

Mongolia

14 038.0

20

Seychelles

1 469.1

67

Jamaica

14 349.2

21

Antigua and Barbuda

1 525.2

68

Namibia

14 383.5

22

Belize

1 619.9

69

South Sudan

14 405.7

23

San Marino

1 708.6

70

Malta

14 564.7

24

St. Lucia

1 709.2

71

Benin

14 867.2

25

Central African Republic

1 822.8

72

Albania

14 872.3

26

Gambia

1 913.9

73

Korea, Dem. People’s Rep

15 102.2

27

Cape Verde

2 149.0

74

Mali

15 562.2

28

Burundi

2 399.2

75

Burkina Faso

16 708.3

29

Bhutan

2 489.4

76

Zimbabwe

17 327.0

30

Liberia

2 548.9

77

Mozambique

17 875.8

31

Lesotho

2 874.6

78

Yemen, Rep

18 415.4

9 754.1

(continued)

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Table 39.1 (continued) No

Countries

GDP

No

Countries

Million US$

GDP Million US$

32

Eritrea

3 301.1

79

Georgia

18 521.9

33

Andorra

3 539.8

80

Iceland

18 547.0

34

Sierra Leone

3 816.4

81

Botswana

18 643.7

35

Fiji

4 217.2

82

Gabon

19 938.9

36

Maldives

4 500.7

83

Bosnia and Herzegovina

20 808.5

37

Barbados

4 621.1

84

Cambodia

20 921.0

38

Suriname

4 678.2

85

Trinidad and Tobago

21 071.1

39

Djibouti

4 774.5

86

Afghanistan

21 808.9

40

Guyana

4 780.6

87

Honduras

21 843.4

41

Montenegro

5 344.0

88

Papua New Guinea

21 852.5

42

Eswatini

5 531.9

89

El Salvador

23 054.4

43

Togo

5 625.9

90

Nepal

24 575.6

44

Liechtenstein

6 755.9

91

Senegal

25 821.1

45

Kyrgyz Republic

7 208.2

92

Estonia

27 667.4

46

Mauritania

7 947.7

93

Cyprus

28 678.4

47

Monaco

8 152.9

The group of the world’s smallest economies in total

877 322.9

phenomena, combined with globalization accelerated in the recent decades, bringing technological advances, and falling prices in international transport, have consequently increased demand for tourism services. This, in turn, has spurred many of the world’s smallest economies to develop tourism. As a result, the world’s smallest economies began investing in the development of tourist infrastructure. For this purpose, many of them used foreign capital, as most lacked their own. Their level of economic development was very low, as evidenced by very low GDP per capita not exceeding US$ 2500 in 2019 in most of the world’s smallest economies. Foreign capital contributed to the development of tourism infrastructure, which enabled them to develop tourism, which in turn has become an important source of income for the economies of many of the world’s smallest economies. Achieving greater financial profits from tourism was also a reflection of greater global economic integration. Unfortunately, this was applied only to some of the countries surveyed. The purpose of this article is to examine the degree of economic integration concerning both the group of the world’s smallest economies, as well as the countries studied individually, with the world economy. For this purpose, inbound tourism was used as a measure. The study includes the base year of 2019 and 2000 for comparison, so as to examine integration over time.

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39.2 Literature Review In the literature, there can be found many criteria for grouping the world’s countries, such as occupied area, population or location on particular continents or in specific regions of the world [1]. Many international organizations often use countries’ level of development as a typology. The World Bank uses GNI per capita [2]. United Nations categorizes countries according to the Human Development Index, HDI [3], which is a composed index of the following indicators: life expectancy, education, and GDP per capita. United Nations divides countries into regional groups [4], also distinguishing least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states [4]. On the other hand, American economic historian and sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, the founder of the world systems theory, distinguishes the world’s largest economies, which constitute the core of the world economy, and the remaining countries, which are semi-peripheries and peripheries [5, 6]. German geographer Wolfgang Hoeschele divides countries based on their industrialization into the world’s largest economies and smaller economies [7]. However, no organizations or researchers have ever detailed the group of the world’s smallest economies that generated 1% of global GDP [8]. Nor has anyone yet measured this group’s integration with the world economy, for example, using tourism as a measure. Specialist literature includes only studies on individual countries and their tourism development, such as Albania [9], the Bahamas [10], Cambodia [11], Cape Verde [12], Gambia [13], Iceland [14], Jamaica [15], Maldives [16], Nepal [17], and Seychelles [18]. Before studying the group’s integration with the global economy, the determinants of the world’s smallest economies were analyzed. This included demographic, economic [8], geographic and historical [19, 20], cultural [21], and political [22] conditions. Particular attention was given to environmental values since it was a natural environment that was the base and, at the same time, the condition for the development of the tourism sector in many analyzed countries [23]. Cultural heritage also played an important role [24]. On the other hand, their economic condition determined whether or not they were able to invest and were investing in tourist infrastructure on their own. While the richer part of the world’s smallest economies did so, the poorer ones were condemned to external financing usually in the form of foreign direct investments [25] or foreign loans from other countries or international organizations. The study of the degree of economic integration of the world’s smallest economies with the global economy was based on tourist arrivals and tourism receipts [26]. Statistics show that 123.5 million tourists visited the group in 2019 (up from 52.9 million in 2000), spending a total of US$ 56.1 billion in these 93 countries (up from US$ 15.7 billion in 2000). Due to uneven development of the tourism sector, only some of the world’s smallest economies generated significant tourist arrivals and tourism receipts. In both 2019 and 2000, nearly 90% of the group’s tourist arrivals and more than 90% of its tourism revenue came only from 35 of the 93 countries

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surveyed. Cambodia generated the most tourism revenue in 2019, although it overtook Kyrgyzstan in terms of tourist arrivals. Cambodian tourism receipts accounted for 9% of the group’s total income, although almost two decades earlier, it was only 4% (up from US$ 345 million to US$ 5312 million between 2000 and 2019). In turn, aforementioned Kyrgyzstan received nearly 7% of the number of tourists who visited the entire group in 2019, an almost 50-fold increase over the beginning of the millennium. Other former Soviet Union’s smallest economies of the world also topped the list. In 2019, Albania, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia, Georgia, and Montenegro generated a total of 22% of the group’s tourism receipts as well as tourist arrivals, and this was a twofold increase in tourism receipts and a fivefold increase in terms of tourist arrivals since 2000. Island countries in Latin America (i.e., Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, and Jamaica), as well as popular tourist monocultures located in the Indian Ocean (i.e., Maldives, Mauritius, and Seychelles), Mediterranean islands (i.e., Cyprus and Malta), and Pacific islands (i.e., Fiji and Palau) also held high positions in terms of tourism sector revenues.

39.3 Methodology The study consists of analyzing the context, establishing a methodological framework, and conducting an empirical study of the world’s smallest economies involving the collection and analysis of data on tourism indicators. Supported by analogous studies [27], the methodology uses an exploratory approach and is based on the collection of information on tourism in these countries, namely on GDP, the contribution of tourism to employment, tourist arrivals, and revenues generated by tourism. The study includes, in addition to the review of specialized literature [28, 29], the analysis of documents on tourism in the 93 smallest economies in the world and the collection of primary data, mainly from the World Bank, the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the World Travel and Tourism Council on key aspects in the countries, such as population; occupied area; climate and geographical conditions; tourist attractions; history, culture and religion; political system; level of economic development; level of socioeconomic development, expressed in human development index (HDI). Secondary data collection and its analysis and interpretation were also used. Thus, statistical data were obtained for the 93 countries under study, namely, tourist arrivals, tourism receipts, gross domestic product, employment in the tourism sector and total employment. The following comparative indicators were calculated with these data: tourism receipts per capita, share of tourism receipts in GDP (as a percentage) and share of tourism employment in total employment (in percent). After calculating the indicators, for the years 2000 and 2019, quantitative and comparative methods were used. This allowed us to establish the comparison of the indicators of the group of the world’s smallest economies with the global indicators, as well as to distinguish among the 93 countries those that have benefited most

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economically from tourism making it possible to validate their greater or lesser integration with the global economy in this important activity sector. The knowledge gathered from publications and journals about the geographic, demographic, economic, historical, and cultural conditions of the countries analyzed was significant. The specialized literature review provided the basis for interpreting the results of the study and formulating the final conclusions.

39.4 Results Studies on tourist arrivals and tourism receipts show that the growth rate of both tourist arrivals (2.5-fold increase) and tourism receipts (fourfold increase) between 2000 and 2019 was significantly higher for the group of the world’s smallest economies than for the world. Thus, the group’s share of world tourism increased, both in terms of tourist arrivals (from 4.19% to 5.41%) and revenue generated from the tourism sector (from 2.70% to 3.09%) between 2000 and 2019 [30, 31]. This indicates the increasing integration of this group with the world economy during this period. However, the indicators in the area of inbound tourism that more accurately measure the degree of integration with the world economy are tourism receipts per capita and tourism’s contribution to GDP and employment. Considering the group’s relatively large population of 561.8 million (7.5% of the world’s population), and the relatively low income collected from the tourism sector of US$ 56,047 million (3.1% of global tourism receipts) in 2019, tourism receipts to the population amounted to just US$ 99 per capita (compared to the global rate of US$ 237 per capita). Nevertheless, this was an increase compared to 2000, when it was US$ 42 per capita. Taking the second indicator from tourism, i.e., the share of tourism receipts in GDP, in 2019, the group of the world’s smallest economies recorded a share of 6.4% of GDP (for comparison, the world indicator was 10.4% of GDP) and this was a very slight increase compared to 2000 when the share was 5.6% of GDP. Employment in the tourism sector accounted for a similar share of 5.8% in 2000 and 6.6% in 2019 of total employment in the group (see Table 39.2). The growth in all three indicators in the period from 2000 to 2019 was indicative of the group’s growing integration with the global economy. An analysis of each of the world’s smallest economies highlighted the countries with the highest tourism receipts per capita, also with the largest share of tourism receipts to GDP and tourism employment to total employment. It was noticed that just over a third of 93 analyzed countries recorded rates higher than the world’s rate. The country-by-country analysis also showed that the world’s smallest economies with the highest tourism receipts per capita, the highest share of tourism receipts to GDP, and tourism employment in total employment (see Table 39.2) mostly overlapped (26 out of 35), which confirmed the correctness of the indicators used. With a few exceptions, almost all of the world’s 26 smallest economies were island countries, located in Latin America (9 countries, i.e., Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Saint

0

2 928

Antigua and Barbuda

Bahamas

Palau

Seychelles

Maldives

1

2

3

4

5

2019

1 874

2 265

Barbados

Malta

Cyprus

6

7

8

2 773

3 298

5 882

3 828

2 707

3 531

4 672

5 972

6 330

7 108

9 258

9 730

US$ per capita

2000

Tourism receipts per capita

The world’s smallest economies

No

Palau

St Vincent and Grenadines

Cape Verde

Vanuatu

Grenada

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Seychelles

Maldives

The world’s smallest economies

31.1

52.7

17.3

59.3

46.5

44.1

54.6

44.8

%

2000

45.8

46.2

46.2

48.2

55.8

62.6

65.8

66.1

2019

Tourism receipts to GDP

Cambodia

Santa Lucia

Cape Verde

Grenada

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Palau

Seychelles

Bahamas

The world’s smallest economies

5.8

15.8

6.7

14.9

15.2

19.5

20.5

32.6

%

2000

(continued)

15.3

16.0

17.0

17.8

19.0

21.0

26.7

26.9

2019

Employment in tourism to total employment

Table 39.2 The world’s smallest economies with the highest tourism receipts per capita, tourism’s contribution to GDP and tourism employment to total employment in 2019 compared to 2000

456 A. Teperek and L. Lima Santos

Vanuatu

20

Fiji

17

Iceland

Belize

16

Grenada

Mauritius

15

18

359

Dominica

14

19

449

Estonia

13

438

373

904

1 373

617

689

470

1 793

Montenegro

1 316

761

Santa Lucia

Saint Kitts and Nevis

10

2019

1 084

1 375

1 456

1 511

1 548

1 599

1 727

1 745

1 964

2 051

2 271

2 360

US$ per capita

11

St Vincent and Grenadines

9

2000

Tourism receipts per capita

12

The world’s smallest economies

No

Table 39.2 (continued)

Sao Tome and Principe

Cambodia

Georgia

Iceland

Jamaica

Barbados

Dominica

Fiji

Bahamas

Santa Lucia

Belize

Antigua and Barbuda

The world’s smallest economies

18.5

14.9

15.0

18.3

26.0

34.4

35.4

28.2

34.6

42.7

22.5

52.7

%

2000

27.4

32.7

33.5

33.8

34.7

36.2

38.0

40.0

40.3

43.0

44.7

44.7

2019

Tourism receipts to GDP

Jamaica

Dominica

Malta

Barbados

Antigua and Barbuda

Samoa

Sao Tome and Principe

St Vincent and Grenadines

Fiji

Belize

Maldives

Vanuatu

The world’s smallest economies

7.7

10.3

4.7

11.8

17.3

11.0

8.0

15.7

9.4

7.3

17.1

21.1

%

2000

(continued)

9.7

11.3

11.7

12.2

12.3

12.5

12.6

12.9

13.0

13.0

13.2

14.4

2019

Employment in tourism to total employment

39 Tourism as an Indicator of Integration with the World Economy: The … 457

293

158

Trinidad and Tobago

Micronesia

Sao Tome and Principe

30

31

32

70

66

465

Brunei

Bosnia and Herzegovina

17

0

129

28

Armenia

27

26

594

334

343

347

371

439

525

546

861

880

954

1 031

1 051

US$ per capita

29

Albania

Tonga

25

26

Georgia

Jamaica

23

149

Cape Verde

22

24

434

Samoa

21

2000

2019

Tourism receipts per capita

The world’s smallest economies

No

Table 39.2 (continued)

Rwanda

Estonia

Madagascar

Lesotho

Kiribati

Tonga

Gambia

Montenegro

Cyprus

Mauritius

Samoa

Albania

The world’s smallest economies

4.7

17.8

6.0

12.7

13.8

10.3

12.1

10.2

31.1

24.5

15.2

17.3

%

2000

15.1

15.7

16.1

16.2

19.0

20.6

20.8

21.7

22.7

23.9

24.3

27.0

2019

Tourism receipts to GDP

Rwanda

Cyprus

Kiribati

Gambia

Lesotho

Montenegro

Nepal

Mauritius

Tonga

Iceland

Albania

Georgia

The world’s smallest economies

3.6

5.5

6.1

5.3

5.3

8.1

7.1

3.0

3.4

4.9

1.8

11.5

%

2000

(continued)

5.5

6.3

6.5

6.5

6.6

6.6

6.7

7.3

7.7

7.9

8.0

8.6

2019

Employment in tourism to total employment

458 A. Teperek and L. Lima Santos

28

138

19

42

Cambodia

Botswana

Moldova

Group

33

34

35

US$ per capita

2000

99

200

248

322

2019

Tourism receipts per capita

The world’s smallest economies

No

Table 39.2 (continued)

Group

Botswana

Armenia

Honduras

The world’s smallest economies

5.6

6.3

4.2

9.6

%

2000

6.4

13.1

14.1

14.7

2019

Tourism receipts to GDP

Group

Honduras

Namibia

Marshal Islands

The world’s smallest economies

5.8

3.3

1.7

N/D

%

2000

6.6

4.6

5.3

5.5

2019

Employment in tourism to total employment

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Vincent and Grenadines), the Pacific (5 countries, i.e., Fiji, Palau, Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu), and Africa (4 countries, i.e., Cape Verde, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Sao Tome and Principe), mainly in sub-equatorial and equatorial climates. Only 5 of them were continental countries with see access (i.e., Albania, Belize, Cambodia, Georgia, and Montenegro). All but Cambodia had small populations of less than 4 million, although a population of more than two-thirds of them did not even exceed 1 million. It can be concluded that their economies were strongly integrated with the world economy, as they were heavily dependent on tourism receipts from foreign tourists. This was evidenced, for example, by comparing tourism receipts per person with the GDP per capita of these economies. Antigua and Barbuda accounted for nearly two-thirds of GDP per capita (tourism receipts of US$ 9,730 per capita; GDP of US$ 15,704 per capita in 2019), similarly in Palau (tourism receipts of US$ 7,108 per capita; GDP of US$ 12,078 per capita in 2019), in the Maldives (tourism receipts of US $ 5,972 per capita; GDP of US $ 8,477 per capita in 2019), less because a third of GDP per capita in the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cape Verde, Fiji, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, and Vanuatu (see Table 39.2). There were several reasons for such heavy dependence on tourism. In addition to favorable environmental advantages for the development of leisure tourism, such as the equatorial year-round warm climate, island, coastal location, and beautiful landscapes, the primary reason was the lack of raw materials, preventing the development of the mining industry (with the exception of a few countries namely gold-exporting Fiji and bauxite-exporting Jamaica). The development of agriculture is determined by the soil. While fertile volcanic soils, e.g., in Saint Kitts and Nevis, Seychelles, and Vanuatu, were conducive to the development of plantation agriculture, the poor and highly saline sandy soils covering the atolls of the Bahamas, Maldives, and Palau were not suitable for cultivation, which consequently made these countries, not even food self-sufficient. In contrast, the flourishing of tourism in the Caribbean countries (e.g., Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and St. Kitts and Nevis), which were monoculture agricultural plantations in colonial times, was linked to political and economic decisions. The goal of the neighboring superpower of the United States since the 1960s was to control, subjugate, and make the entire Caribbean region dependent on the US market. Thus, the countries there, with no choice in terms of economic specialization, succumbed to the development of tourism and the reception of American tourists, thereby making their economies dependent on this sector. Highly developed European countries such as Cyprus and Iceland also had some of the highest indicators of tourism receipts per capita among a group of the world’s smallest economies, amounting to US$ 2,707 per capita in the case of Cyprus and US$ 1,456 per capita in the case of Iceland. However, given their very high GDP per capita (Cyprus—US$ 28,976 per capita; Iceland—US$ 51,332 per capita), tourism receipts per capita accounted for a relatively small share. This was due in part to the high GDP and small population of these countries, and also to the advanced development of other sectors, making tourism just one of many others in their welldeveloped economies. Of these two countries, with a highly developed tourism sector, Iceland is worth noting. While Cyprus’ warm Mediterranean climate is conducive to

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tourism development, attracting crowds of tourists over the years (increasing from 2.9 million to 4.1 million tourists between 2000 and 2019), Iceland’s polar climate with strong winds, heavy rainfall, and poor vegetation is very unfavorable for the development of that sector. Added to this is Iceland’s isolated geographic location, incomparably more difficult to access compared to Cyprus, located on an important route connecting Middle Eastern countries with Europe and North Africa. That is why greater influx of tourists to Iceland (from 328,000 to 2.2 million, almost 7 times more) in the first two decades of the new millennium is astonishing. Well, the development of tourism was possible, thanks to the skillful use of the peculiarities of Icelandic nature (including volcanoes, geysers, glaciers, lakes, waterfalls) and offering tourists unique tourist attractions such as whale watching, rafting on glacial rivers, trips beyond the Arctic Circle, glaciers, viewing the aurora borealis, volcanoes, bathing in hot springs–geysers. In addition to the world’s smallest economies with the highest tourism receipts per capita in 2019, the countries that achieved their highest growth rates over the 2000 and 2019 periods were also examined. The greatest growth of all was noted by the former Soviet Union’s smallest economies. Georgia showed a 36-fold increase in tourism revenue per capita (from US$ 26 per capita to US$ 954 per capita), and Armenia showed a 31-fold increase (from US$ 17 per capita to US$ 525 per capita). Such a large growth was a consequence of the dynamic development of tourism after the fall of communism in 1990 and the decade of political and economic changes associated with opening up these economies to the world. The negative birth rate in many countries of the former USSR also had a significant impact, affecting the reduction in population (by 9% in Georgia, 9% in Moldova, 5% in Estonia, and 4% in Armenia between 2000 and 2019). This, in turn, contributed to the growing rate of tourism receipts per capita in countries with a socialist past. However, the increase in integration with the global economy was evident not only from this indicator, but also from the share of tourism receipts to GDP (i.e., in Albania from 17.3% to 27%, in Armenia from 4.2% to 14.1%, in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 7.4% to 10.5%, in Georgia from 15% to 33.5%, in Kyrgystan from 1.5% to 8.4%, and in Montenegro 10.2% to 21.7%). The growth in the share of tourism receipts to GDP followed the increase in the number of tourists visiting these countries (i.e., in Albania from 0.3 million to 6.4 million; in Armenia from 45 thousand to 1.8 million; in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 171 thousand to 1.2 million; in Georgia from 387 thousand to 7.7 million; in Kyrgystan from 173 thousand to 8.5 million; in Montenegro from 888 thousand to 2.5 million tourists), which have developed various types of tourism, ranging from leisure tourism, including beach holidays (e.g., Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Georgia), cultural and sightseeing tourism (e.g., Armenia and Mongolia), pilgrimage tourism (e.g., the religious center—Medjugorje in Bosnia and Herzegovina, visited annually by about 2.5 million Christian pilgrims), to ecotourism, consisting of visiting vineyards, tasting and selling local wines (e.g., Georgia and Moldova). In contrast to the world’s smallest economies with strongly developing tourism, there were countries where it was not developed at all or almost not at all, indicating their lack of economic integration with the world economy, in the area of

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tourism. These included three types of economies. The first one was the group of countries extracting mineral resources (i.e., Brunei, Congo, Gabon, Guyana, Equatorial Guinea, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Trinidad and Tobago, and Zimbabwe) that derived income from their export. The second type was the socalled closed countries, which include the world’s smallest economies Bhutan and North Korea. Bhutan’s long-standing isolationism stemmed from the Himalayan monarchy’s policy of economic and cultural closure. This is because its goal is to preserve the country’s cultural heritage, traditions, customs, and distinctiveness, which a massive influx of tourists would make impossible. North Korea’s isolationism, on the other hand, is related to its communist regime, including the imposition of all restrictions and prohibitions on the interaction between the local population and foreign tourists. The last third type of the world’s smallest economies not developed for tourism was the poorest countries (i.e., Afghanistan, Chad, East Timor, Eritrea, Niger, Somalia, and Yemen), which paradoxically had favorable geographical conditions, including favorable climate, and some even had a coastal location. The primary reasons were the lack of tourism infrastructure due to the lack of capital. And the capital did not flow in due to the unstable political and economic situation. Constant conflicts, wars, terrorist attacks, and high crime rates also deterred the tourists themselves, who were looking for safe places for their trips. Another barrier to the development of reception tourism in few of the world’s smallest economies was the high incidence of HIV/AIDS among the local population. In Eswatini, for example, more than 1/4 of the population (27.1% in 2019) was infected with the virus, putting Eswatini at the top of the world statistics.

39.5 Conclusion Considering only tourism to measure the degree of integration of the world’s smallest economies as a group with the world economy, it was rather modest. However, looking at the longer period from 2000 to 2019, economic integration has been growing. This was evidenced by the increase in the indicators of tourism receipts per capita, the share of tourism receipts in GDP, and tourism employment in total employment over almost the first two decades of the new millennium. It was also indicated by the growing share of the group’s tourism receipts globally (from 2.7% to 3.1%). However, the group’s analysis showed only general results. A detailed examination of 93 individual countries revealed that among them were countries with highly developed tourism, i.e., highly economically integrated with the world’s economy (see Table 39.2). However, the strong development of tourism, resulting in greater integration with the global economy, has often heavily meant dependence on the tourism sector, which usually was the only or main source of income. Taking advantage of favorable natural conditions, the world’s smallest economies condemned themselves to develop the tourism sector, becoming part of international tourism at the same time. This, in turn, exposed them to fluctuations in the global economy, the source of which included crises, natural disasters, and terrorist attacks (e.g., the

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terrorist attacks in the U.S. on September 11, 2001; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami; the 2008–2009 global financial crisis; the Ebola epidemic in Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone in 2013–2016; or the 2015 Nepal earthquake). These events affected worldwide tourists’ behavior and the demand for international travel services fell, which automatically affected the economies of host countries. Thus, the stronger the integration of the world’s smallest economies was, the more they were affected by the risk of declining revenues, and therefore, potential economic losses. On the other hand, integration was also bringing them many benefits. Greater tourism development has translated into greater economic growth and development. It had a positive impact on the balance of payments of the world’s smallest economies. The development of tourism has usually been associated with an influx of foreign capital, and foreign investors tend to invest their capital not only in hotel infrastructure, but also in local or regional infrastructure. Tourism has usually entailed the development of other sectors, i.e., agriculture, construction, and many other services, and positively impacts the labor market. Thanks to the creation of new jobs not only in hospitality, catering, and transportation services, but also in services related to tourism (e.g., IT, translation, commercial services, involving the sale of souvenirs, clothing, and sports equipment), the local population found employment, thereby raising their standard of living. Thus, tourism was not only an internal driving force for economies, but it also integrated them with the world, through international tourist traffic and capital flows. The main limitation of the research was the difficulty in obtaining studies related to these countries by relating them to the world economy. However, with this research, lines are opened for future research, namely more in-depth studies on the impact of tourism in each of the countries.

References 1. The World Bank.: The World by Income and Region. https://datatopics.worldbank.org/worlddevelopment-indicators/the-world-by-income-and-region.html. Last Accessed 10 Dec 2021 2. The World Bank.: GNI per capita. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD. Last Accessed 12 June 2021 3. United Nations: Human Development Report 2019. http://report2019.archive.s3-website-useast-1.amazonaws.com. Last Accessed 02 July 2021 4. United Nations.: The least developed countries in the post-Covid world: learning from 50 years of experience. The least Developed Countries Report 2021. New York (2021) 5. Chase-Dunn, C., Smith, J., Manning, P., Grubacic, A.: Remembering Immanuel Wallerstein. J. World-Syst. Res. 26(1), 4–8 (2020) 6. Wallerstein, I.: World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Duke University Press, Durham, London (2004) 7. Hoeschele, W.: The wealth of nations at the turn of the millennium: a classification system based on the international division of labor. Econ. Geogr. 78(2), 221–244 (2002) 8. The World Bank GDP (constant 2015 US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP. MKTP.KD. Last Accessed 11 Nov 2021 9. Kruja, D., Lufi, I., Kruja, I.: The role of tourism in developing countries. The case of Albania. Eur. Sci. J. 8 (19), 129–141 (2012)

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10. Rolle, S., Minnis, J., Bethell-Bennett, I.: Tourism Development, Governance and Sustainability in the Bahamas (Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility), 1st edn. Routledge, New York (2020) 11. Carter, R.W., Thok, S., O’Rourke, V., Pearce, T.: Sustainable tourism and its use as a development strategy in Cambodia: a systematic literature review. J. Sustain. Tour. 23(5), 797–818 (2013) 12. Lopez-Guzman, T., Borgest, O., Hernanez-Merino, M., Cerezo, J.M.: Tourism in Cape Verde: an analysis from the perspective of demand. Tour. Econ. 19(3), 675–688 (2013) 13. Sharpley, R.: Tourism and Development Challenges in the Least Developed Countries: The Case of the Gambia. Tourism and the Millennium Development Goals. Routledge, London (2013) 14. Johannesson, G.T., Hiujbens, E.H., Sharpley, R.: Icelandic tourism: past directions—Future challenge. Int. J. Tour. Space, Place Environ. 12(2), 278–301 (2010) 15. Ajagunna, I., Crick, A.P.: Managing interactions in the tourism industry—a strategic tool for success: Perspectives on Jamaica tourism industry. Worldw. Hosp. Tour. Themes 6(2), 179–190 (2014) 16. Henderson, J.C.: The politics of tourism: a perspective from the Maldives. Tourismos: Int. Multidiscip. Refereed J. Tour. 3(1), 99–115 (2008) 17. Bhandari, K.: Tourism and Nationalism in Nepal: A Developing Country Perspective, 1st edn. Routledge, London (2018) 18. Giampiccolia, A., Mtapuri, O., Nauright, J.: Tourism development in the Seychelles: a proposal for a unique community-based tourism alternative. J. Tour. Cult. Chang. 19(4), 444–457 (2020) ´ 19. Frydrych, M., Kobojek, S., Rdzany, Z.: Geografia Swiata. 1st edn. SBM, Warsaw (2016) 20. The World Bank Land area. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2. Last Accessed 02 July 2019 21. Wormald, B.: Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050. Pew Research Center. https:// www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/. Last Accessed 12 April 2020 22. CIA Government type—The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/ government-type/. Last Accessed 12 July 2020 23. Buckley, R.C.: Tourism and environment. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 36(1), 397–416 (2011) 24. OECD.: The impact of culture on tourism 2009. https://www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/naratouri smstatisticsweek/statistical/pdf/2009_The_Impact.pdf. Last Accessed 12 July 2022 25. Ilie, G.: Foreign direct investment in tourism sector, knowledge horizons—Economics. Faculty of Finance, Banking and Accountancy Bucharest, Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University Bucharest 7(3), 9–13 (2015) 26. World Travel & Tourism Council, Economic Impact Reports. https://wttc.org/Research/Eco nomic-Impact. Last Accessed 12 Sep 2022 27. Teperek, A., Lima Santos, L.: The economic impact of tourism in the equatorial countries. In: 13th International Tourism Congress. Proceedings Book of the Conference Reinventing Tourism for Upcoming Challenges, pp. 297–316 (2021) 28. Snyder, H.: Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res. 109, 333–339 (2019) 29. Paul, J., Criado, A.R.: The art of writing literature review: what do we know and what do we need to know? Int. Bus. Rev. 29 (4), Article 101717 (2020) 30. The World Bank: International tourism, number of arrivals. http://data.worldbank.org/indica tor/ST.INT.ARVL. Last Accessed 22 July 2022 31. The World Bank International tourism, receipts. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT. RCPT.CD. Last Accessed 22 July 2022

Chapter 40

Residents’ Attitudes and Visitors’ Motivations for War-Related Tourism: An Exploratory Perspective Bruno Sousa , Mary Sánchez, Francisco Gonçalves , Luzia Amorim, and Vítor Silva Abstract In recent years, discussion on residents’ place attachment connection with places has started to increase in tourism research. Besides tourists’ recognition and attraction of war-related tourism, local people are important stakeholders that generate self-attachment to the place of living, thereby greater tendency to engage in pro-environmental behavior. War is one of the great tragedies of humankind, but it is evident that the history and social outcomes of the event itself as well as the indirect outcomes of warfare serve as resources that can be positioned to stimulate tourism in formerly war-torn regions. Memorials and war-related products are an important part of the world’s tourist attractions. This study aims to understand some of the main trends in tourist segmentation in the context of war-related tourism. In specific, it seeks to understand the residents’ attitudes and visitors’ motivations for war-related tourism (in a preliminary approach). This manuscript is an aid to marketing and management in specific contexts of war-related tourism. The present study has as its main limitation its embryonic stage, not including a collection of primary data or B. Sousa (B) · F. Gonçalves · V. Silva Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Vila Frescainha, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Gonçalves e-mail: [email protected] V. Silva e-mail: [email protected] B. Sousa CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Leiria, Portugal M. Sánchez Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo (IPVC), Viana Do Castelo, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Gonçalves GOVCOPP, Aveiro, Portugal L. Amorim University of Minho, Braga, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_40

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development of an empirical study. Final considerations and future research paths are discussed.

40.1 Introduction Tourism is an important way for humans to perceive and understand the environment, as a relationship between itself and the place [1]. In this sense, place attachment has attracted considerable attention within tourism, with critical importance to destination competitiveness and sustainability [2–4]. According to [5], human attachment to place generally refers to the affective and psychologic relationships between individuals and places. Place attachment has been well established in the tourism-related literature [5]. According to [6], war is one of the great tragedies of humankind, but it is evident that the history and social outcomes of the event itself as well as the indirect outcomes of warfare—artifacts, nostalgia, reunions, and physical sites with broader historical or environmental significance—serve as resources that can be positioned to stimulate tourism in formerly war-torn regions. According to [7], the role of emotion in tourism has received increasing recognition in the field of tourism and marketing, affirming itself as a good predictor of some types of behavior. To address the research gap in the literature, the current study aims to take a deeper look at residents’ place attachment and their association with specific war-related tourism. In this sense, this study develops the existing research, since it discusses the growing phenomena of war-related tourism and the perspective of pro-environmental behavior.

40.2 Theoretical Base of Place Attachment: Concepts and Dimensions Some people feel attached to a place because of social factors: close ties with the neighborhood, generational rootedness, or religious symbolism of the place, while others may feel attached to the physical assets of places, such as nature, the possibility of recreation, or physically stimulating environment [5, 8]. As stated by [9], space acquires value and significance through memories, symbols, ideas, and experiences lived and felt on site. Consequently, sustaining the meanings and identity of places is important because they contribute to understanding the level and form of attachment and meanings associated with the places to unravel place significance [10]. Therefore, the concept of place implies the association of the physical environment with human experiences [5]. According to [5], previous literature has evidenced various conceptualizations and measurements of place attachment. The theoretical principles underpinning place attachment, originating from attachment theory, have been discussed since

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the late-1970s, when attempts were made to incorporate human perceptions into the geographical inquiry of place [11]. Also, various types of relations associated with the concept of attachment were identified: Physical, Positive, Social, Emotional, Affective, and Cognitive [5]. Therefore, space turns into a place when a person develops diverse types of bonds or relations (such as emotions, feelings, beliefs, or cognitions) with it [12]. Place attachment is usually measured by several approaches [5]. Different dimensions of place attachment have been identified and adopted in previous literature, ranging from unidimensional [13] to more complex multi-dimensional approaches; comprising two, three or even four dimensions [5]. However, the number and type of dimensions being used are inconsistent and inconclusive, varying across contexts and samples of the study. According to a review of 40 years of research on place attachment, [5, 8] noted that bi-dimensional operationalization is prevalent in the literature, namely place identity and place dependence. This two-dimensional approach allows for distinguishing between affective (place identity) and functional (place dependence) bonds individuals have with a place [5]. More recently, another two dimensions have been introduced, thus, operationalizing place attachments as a four-dimensional construct, encompassing place identity, place dependence, place affect, and place social bonding. Place identity has been described as a component of self-identity and refers to a cognitive link between the personal self and a place [5, 14, 15]. Place attachment has been a widely addressed concept in tourism-related literature [5]. Tourism plays an important role in the understanding of human relations with the environment [1]. Given the complexity of experiences and relationships within tourism products and services, several researchers suggested that place attachment is an effective construct in explaining tourists’ and local residents’ psychology and behaviors, as well as tourism destination management and development (e.g., [5, 16]). In recent years, tourism researchers are increasingly interested in examining the role of place attachment to evaluate local residents’ attitudes toward tourism management and development [5]. This increased interest, on the one hand, is due to the decisive attitude of local residents toward tourism in determining tourism development (e.g., war-related tourism). A growing number of studies has enhanced our knowledge of residents’ bonds with places concerning the tourism industry’s management and sustainable development [5]. Thus, this study attempts to examine some of the main trends in tourist segmentation in the context of war-related tourism. In specific, it seeks to understand the residents’ attitudes and visitors’ motivations for war-related tourism (in a preliminary approach).

40.3 Tourism Segmentation and War-Related Tourism Tourism is a sector of activity strongly characterized by the movement of people. Every year, frequent changes in the tourism environment foster competition between and within tourist destinations [17]. It is a multifaceted and geographically complex

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activity, where different services are ordered and delivered in different stages, from origin to destination [18]. To set Special Interest Tourism (SIT) in a broader overall tourism context, Trauer [19] suggest a “Tourism Interest Continuum”. As a psychological phenomenon, a tourist trip is preceded by a specific need that generates a reason to travel and sets a goal for the trip, which follows the search for information [20]. Like other emerging sectors in a modern economy, tourism is a dynamic and ever-changing industry. Consequently, SIT, both as a product or sector and as a distinct entity within the overall tourism spectrum, has been largely ignored as an important area of study within the tourism field in general. Trends in global tourism demand suggest the emergence of sophisticated consumers looking for new, different, and specific tourist experiences [17]. In such context, niche marketing seems a relevant response to market dynamics. Although niche marketing has been successfully applied to a high number and many types of businesses, there is a shortage of research addressing the way niche marketing may be applied to tourism [17, 21]. In this context, and according to [6], war is one of the great tragedies of humankind, but it is evident that the history and social outcomes of the event itself as well as the indirect outcomes of warfare—artifacts, nostalgia, reunions, and physical sites with broader historical or environmental significance—serve as resources that can be positioned to stimulate tourism in formerly war-torn regions. Of interest to this research are the motivations of international tourists for visitation at war-related destinations or attractions that have had profound geopolitical postconflict impacts on national and global populations [6]. In recent years, tourism research has focused on an increasing range of extreme tourism experiences such as dark tourism, and this type of tourism as one of the most popular forms of niche tourism has attracted increasing attention in scientific circles [22–26]. According to [22], the phenomenon of war tourism has engendered a body of literature that exhibits a variety of study perspectives and approaches. As a result, observations are provided regarding a number of topics including the characteristics of war tourism as a phenomenon, its utility in rebuilding or enhancing regional and national economies, and a variety of resource management practices [6]. Wilson [27] declared that war tourism has been referred to as visitor activities, revolving around a particular type of site, attraction or exhibition that is related to death and tragedy, and has been coined as a distinctive form of tourism called ‘dark tourism’ [28]. This niche allows individuals to have more contact, in a safe environment, with death, bringing past events into the present, by sharing information and causing emotions [35]. Podoshen [36] present the idea that Dark Tourism favors the visual and experiential over the historical (usually found in heritage sites). War tourism is a type of dark tourism in which museums are founded for tourists in places where battles took place [22]. Visitors to such places regard them as heritage sites and attribute new meanings that they have acquired as a result of the historical events that took place there [22, 29].

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40.4 Development of a Conceptual Framework Based on the existing body of knowledge, we developed a conceptual model that connects the four dimensions of place attachment (Place identity, Place dependence, Place affect, and Place social bonding) with the pro-environmental behaviors of residents (Fig. 40.1) in specific contexts of war-related tourism. We follow some researchers [2, 5] who have used the four sub-constructs to operationalize place attachment. Although a growing body of tourism research has made efforts to study the formation of human attachment to a place, few studies have attempted to discuss how local residents at war-related tourism influence place attachment and, in turn, influence their sustainable behaviors. Hence, we propose that: H1: Place identity positively influences pro-environmental behaviors of local residents; H2: Place dependence positively influences pro-environmental behaviors of local residents; H3: Place affect positively influences pro-environmental behaviors of local residents; H4: Place social bonding positively influences pro-environmental behaviors of local residents. For the purpose of operationalizing place attachment and pro-environmental behavior, the measurement items can be adopted from well-established previous literature [5]. In particular, to measure place attachment construct the existing scales of [5, 30] will be adapted. Pro-environmental behavior will be measured based on [31]. A 7-point Likert scale will be used to measure the multiple items of the theoretical constructs. In order to test the proposed model, a quantitative approach using surveys will proceed in future steps of the present research. Fig. 40.1 Conceptual model proposed, based on [5]

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40.5 Final Considerations and Future Research Memorials and war-related products are an important part of the world’s tourist attractions. Of course, such attractions include not only battlefields, memorials, and cemeteries, but also museums and other places that keep the war alive [22]. According to [22], one of the best examples of war tourism is the location of the Battle of Waterloo that took place in 1815. The field where the battle took place is regarded as the most important example of battlefield tourism; it continued to be a popular destination until the outbreak of WWI in 1914 and even today is considered the second most important place in terms of its tourism potential. War tourism, and in particular battlefields tourism, has grown in popularity, especially since WWI, with increased visits following the establishment of monuments and museums in places where battles took place [22, 32]. After any catastrophe is over, it is normal to raise a park or memorial area, statue or building that represents the horrifying stories that happened in that area. New York is famous for Ground Zero, built after 9/11 [37]. According to [37], the long history associated with this type of tourism and its various aspects is evidenced not only by the current cult sites, but also by the many destinations in this market around the world that have existed for many years, among others that are emerging as new catastrophes and dark events occur on the planet. There are numerous and diverse motivations on the part of tourists to visit these places [38], and despite the many ethical and moral issues that it raises, this type of tourism attracts more and more followers every day, who seek exciting and out of the box experiences, which leads interested parties to find ways to promote this niche more and more and in the best possible way. In parallel, in recent years, the discussion on residents’ place attachment connection with places has started to increase in tourism research. Given the complexity of experiences and relationships within tourism products and services, several researchers suggested that place attachment is an effective construct in explaining tourists’ and local residents’ psychology and behaviors, as well as tourism destination management and development (e.g., [5, 16, 33, 34]). This manuscript was an aid to marketing and management in specific contexts of war-related tourism. The main limitation of the present study is its embryonic stage, not including a collection of primary data or development of an empirical study. From an exploratory perspective, the authors developed a conceptual model that connects the four dimensions of place attachment (Place identity; Place dependence, Place affect, and Place social bonding) with the pro-environmental behaviors of residents in specific contexts of war-related tourism. This study has already identified the importance of places designated as warrelated tourism destinations in attracting tourists and visitors to a destination, and further contributing to the development of the local economy and residents’ quality of life. However, the increase in visitors may threaten their preservation for future generations as these places are characterized by being sensitive and embracing an unmatched value [5]. Therefore, destination managers could promote a form of

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tourism that considers residents’ psychological and emotional bonds to the physical places. This research not only provides useful information for practitioners, but also contributes positively to the advancement of theory in relationship residents’ place attachment and pro-environmental behaviors in war-related tourism context. In the future, some research could be done to find out which places directly related to the COVID-19 pandemic were transformed into dark tourism (in specific, warrelated tourism) attractions. It could also be done in the form of a survey within the dark tourist community to find out how they feel that the Coronavirus changed the niche and how they see its future. For future research, the ethnographic experience of the researchers allowed them to understand the phenomena of brand attachment to the dark tourism and the consequent effect on satisfaction and loyalty.

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Chapter 41

A Preliminary Study on Internet of Things (IoT) in Collaborative Tourism Consumption Vasco Ribeiro Santos , Rui Carvalho , Rita Peres , and Bruno Barbosa Sousa Abstract Collaborative consumption in tourism is more prevalent and more important to travel than ever, taking into account the new paradigms and dilemmas across cultures and society. The touristic business revolves around the tourist requirements across the cutting-edge technology trends, through the multifold Internet of Things (IoT) that have a strong role and impact within the tourism and hospitality sectors. Methodologically, the systematic mapping study (SMS) is adopted as the selected research approach, focusing on the papers published in the three most reliable and renowned academic databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct, to gather dominant literature sources on collaborative consumption and IoT into tourism industry, properly based in-depth theoretical, conceptual, and content analysis. From a preliminary perspective, this study discusses the increasing phenomena V. R. Santos · R. Carvalho ISLA Santarém, Santarém, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] R. Carvalho e-mail: [email protected] V. R. Santos CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal R. Carvalho University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal GOVCOPP, Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, Aveiro, Portugal R. Peres Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation—CiTUR Estoril, Leiria, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Estoril, Portugal B. B. Sousa (B) Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Vila Frescainha, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Leiria, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_41

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of collaborative consumption in tourism resulting in the development of a Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption, as the main outcome of this research. This preliminary research points out key remarks, practical suggestions, recommendations and contributions for managers, stakeholders, players, and marketers, as well as a strategic agenda for future actions.

41.1 Introduction More tourists are traveling frequently based on collaborative tourism consumption, and there is a greater need to travel using the emerging digital technology widely recognized as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT-enabled tourism is an IoT-enabled system that applies various information and communication technologies to interconnect all the five elements of tourism: tourists, generating regions, transit routes, destination regions, and the tourist industry and makes all these tourism elements smart by the interconnection of IoT devices in the tourism. The new challenges brought by the collaborative tourism consumption models [1] have influenced IoT technologies widely, redesigning and improving the performance of all the main business processes in hospitality prove to be very useful in the tourism sector [2]. According to Gretze and Koo [3], smart tourism is a new tourism industry that applies technologies such as the Internet of Things, cloud computing, next-generation communication networks, high-performance information processing, and intelligent data mining to modern tourism services and tourism industry management, so that tourism physical and information resources can be highly systematically integrated and deeply developed and serve tourists, tourism enterprises [4], and government management departments in a future-oriented way. From a preliminary perspective, this paper consists of three sections, namely: literature review covering the main concepts of the Internet of Things and Collaborative Tourism Consumption, the methodology approach developing the Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption, and conclusion with closing remarks, implications to management and future actions. From a preliminary perspective, this study discusses the increasing phenomena of collaborative consumption in tourism, resulting in the development of a Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption as the main outcome of this research. This preliminary research points out key remarks, practical suggestions, recommendations, and contributions for managers, stakeholders, players, and marketers, as well as a strategic agenda for future actions.

41.2 Theoretical Background The ubiquity of the IoT is marked by a major innovation stream giving rise to a multitude of opportunities for new services, interconnecting both the online and offline worlds with a huge number of electronic devices present in houses, vehicles,

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buildings, streets, public spaces [2], mobile devices, roads, and even cities [5]. Its key value chain is segmented into devices, connectivity, data, apps, and services [6]. IoT is considered to be a new wave of the information industry following Computer, Internet, and Mobile Communication Network. Defining IoT has become complex. While some authors simply recognize IoT as an interconnected technological system constituted of many devices affecting every aspect of our public/private/professional lives, others postulate that all the ecosystem of the IoT must be considered to fully understand it and should not be recognized as a stand-alone environment due to its significant diversity [7], for example, green IoT [8]. According to [9], the changing consumers’ attitude toward consumption is a motivational factor that drives the sharing economy. Consumers are willing to try out new brands and are more open to new ways of accessing what they need [10–12]. The collaborative consumption economy or the participative economy, as well as the sharing economy, are concepts that illustrate the increased use of a business model that is characterized by offering services or the right of using resources on peer-topeer (P2P) basis without acquiring property [13] with a market value of million US dollars [12, 14] in last years. Networks are considered highly important in the tourism context [15]. Toward this direction, in the context of tourism destination cooperation, when entrepreneurs are socially rooted, it is proven that business and personal relationships overlap, enabling the achievement of successful collaboration [16]. Several studies in the field of tourism highlight the following determinants of successful collaboration: economic, socio-cultural, demographic, legal, political, and spatial factors [17–19]. There are several factors that impact the process of collaborative consumption development connected to the IoT. Among them are technological factors such as mobile applications, social media, and the internet, but also economic (e.g., global recession); social, and cultural (increased density of population in particular places, consumers’ high IT literacy). On the other hand, environmental factors in terms of stimulating this process, are not very highly evaluated [13, 20]. Therefore, the growth of the new generation of information and data is an opportunity for the tourism industry and hospitality. Some of the IoT technologies can be used extensively for the promotion of tourism, like used for ticket management, information collection or security monitoring. IoT has potential also for medical tourism as smart health sensors are already used to monitor post-operatory and collect comprehensive physiological information. By using IoT technologies, patients’ health conditions can be monitored remotely and continuously as they enjoy a vacation while recuperating from a medical procedure [21–24]. Using IoT, tourism destinations can be quantified through direct measurement and social network interactions that increase the attractiveness of a particular destination. E-tour guides for personalized travel guide services can be developed to enrich the travel experience and ensure tourists’ safety and security throughout the journey [2]. According to [2], in retail tourism services, the interaction between tourists’ mobile devices and digital signages serves as a tool to dynamize, promote, and sell, in addition to generating loyalty among tourists. And at airports, communication terminals can be linked by IoT devices, facilitating the customs and immigration terminals for tourists, this means a smoother and faster verification

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process at the lanes, which results in fewer cases of missed flights, and shorter transit periods at the airport. Several authors (e.g., [13]): Transport: Lift, Uber, Sidecar, Carpooling, BlaBlaCar, Zimride, RelayRides, Getaround, Flightcar. Accommodation: Airbnb, Homeaway, Vrbo, Flipkay, Roomorama, Wimdu, 9flats, Onefinestay, Housetrip, Homestay, Couchsurfing, HomeExchange, Lovehomeswap, Guesttoguest. Eating: Eatwith, Feastly, Cookening, Cookisto, Kitchensurfing, VizEat, EatWith, BonAppetour. Entertainment: Vayble, TouristByLocals, Sidetour, Incredible, Getyourgide, Boatbound, Getmyboat, Dopios. Tourist by Locals.

41.3 Methodology of Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption A systematic mapping study (SMS) will be adopted as the selected research method approach, focusing on the papers published in the three most reliable renowned academic databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct, to gather dominant literature sources on collaborative consumption and IoT into tourism industry, properly based in-depth theoretical, conceptual, and content analysis. The literature review is necessary and may assume different perspectives, for example, a bibliographic search can be conducted across different databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, SciELO, B-On, and Google Scholar [25]. Updated secondary data sources are used to describe and characterize the two main themes of relevance for this chapter. There was a concern to obtain the most recent sources that could already give a picture of the current situation of both. This methodology integrated a set of studies in terms of themes, we are in a better position to describe current knowledge and practice, evaluate theoretical progress, identify gaps and weak points that remain, and plot a course for future research. The literature review has long been described as a vital and popular technique in the consumer researcher’s toolkit [26]. The examination of theoretical and practical implications of this framework methodology contributes to the development of scientific knowledge about clarification and application of the concepts [27–30] of the mentioned framework for the Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption. Updated secondary data sources are used to describe and characterize the two main themes of relevance for this chapter. There was a concern to obtain the most recent sources that could already give a picture of the current situation of both. Preliminary research was conducted in order to develop the research instrument. This study is based on a theoretical, conceptual, and content analysis and an in-depth literature review. This study discusses the increasing phenomena of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Collaborative Tourism Consumption, as well as the sum up of the framework for the Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption.

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The model consists of an innovative conceptual Smart Map applied to IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption as an innovative theoretical framework addressing and managing the future challenges related to the collaborative tourism consumption paradigm and dilemma in the field of IoT in tourism field. It is characterized as a hybrid and systematic map, that simultaneously correlates the four components (Governance Support Ecosystem; IoT Architecture for Collaborative Tourism Consumption; Key Collaborative Stakeholders; and Collaborative Tourism Consumption) that constitute it, due to its conceptual, strategic, tactical, and operational gearing. This novel taxonomy serves as a useful tool for systematic, integrative, and synergic best benchmarking practices underlying the Smart Map of IoT applied in Collaborative Tourism Consumption in addition to its boundaries, features, and key components. The examination of theoretical and practical implications of this smart map methodology contributes to the development of scientific knowledge about the clarification and application of the concepts of the below-mentioned Smart Map of IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption through the development of an assessment framework [27–29]. In general, in collaborative tourism consumption, tourists send their requests relating to destinations, travel, reservation facilities, real-time news, food, transport, rental of cars, purchasing of plane, bus, or train tickets, and booking of hotels (among others), based and connected on IoT platforms, systems, applications, and devices totally integrated. In spite of this, the marketplace for collaborative tourism consumption IoTenabled applications for versatility still stays at the early adoption stage. The manageability of IoT devices, applications, and platforms is also important. In an IoT-based collaborative tourism consumption environment, an outsized and oversized variety of sensors and smart devices can be positioned geographically at wide distances between products and destinations of collaborative tourism consumption. IoT platforms should integrate new means that allow the management of those devices remotely. This can include remote distribution of software updates, analysis and evaluation of tourist profiles, and parametrization of key statistical data management.

41.4 Final Considerations and Next Steps There is great potential for IoT applications in the collaborative tourism consumption industry. Therefore, based on the critical analysis of the challenges and opportunities explained in this study, its future is expected to be largely promising. In fact, it can be inferred that the Internet of Things-based Collaborative Tourism Consumption is the twenty-first century new and continuous buzzword, common in both emerging and over/underdeveloped economies, territories, and cultures due to powerful smarter digital technology. IoT is increasingly emerging in new tourism markets, products, and destinations, from companies (e.g., travel agencies, operators, commercial aviation, cruises,

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and hotels, among many others) to tourists, as it makes the whole process smarter through devices, and is increasingly associated with practices of collaborative tourism consumption. This preliminary research approach largely extends the scope in the IoT and Collaborative Tourism Consumption fields because the combination of these four components (Governance Support Ecosystem; IoT Architecture for Collaborative Tourism Consumption; Key Collaborative Stakeholders; and Collaborative Tourism Consumption) has never been made in the context mentioned above. This novel conceptual smart map addresses the associated IoT and the competitive value added to collaborative tourism consumption. Collaborative tourism consumption as a niche of tourism may make great theoretical and practical contributions to this emerging industry, and to the development of new IoT experiential paradigms, knowledge management, trends, approaches, methods, and challenges. In order to mitigate the identified barriers and problems, this study adds value to the scientific community, through the development of a Smart Map of the IoT in Collaborative Tourism Consumption, as the major output derived from this study. From an interdisciplinary perspective, this preliminary study presents inputs, drivers, and outcomes in the IoT applications area and collaborative tourism consumption promotion and management. Hence, an empirical study will not only test any propositions, but also bring a quantitative and qualitative perspective. These are generators of new advances associated with IoT features and the assumptions of the collaborative tourism consumption organization. This study is primarily theoretical and reflective, and thereby is expected to give rise to future research bringing greater robustness to support the combined use of four components. The smart map still needs to be empirically applied in IoT and collaborative tourism consumption settings to enrich tourists’ robustness in cross-cultural experiences, covering a wider spread of abroad IoT in collaborative tourism consumption. Acknowledgements This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project UIDB/04470/2020.

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Chapter 42

Paradoxes in Tourism and Hospitality Sectors: From Work-Life Balance to Work-Life Conflict in Shift Work Dora Martins and Susana Silva

Abstract In the present research, we examine the relationship between shift work and work-to-family balance in the tourism and hospitality sectors. To answer this, the main research objective is to understand the implications of shift work on the workto-family balance, specifically (1) to explore how the work and family life of shift workers are reconciled between both, (2) to know the shift workers perception about work-to-family balance, and (3) to identify work-to-family balance practices which are promoted by tourism and hospitality organizations. We use a mixed methodology approach through a quantitative approach and a semi-structured interview for the qualitative approach. It applied a questionnaire for 100 human resources professionals from hotels in the north of Portugal and made 20 semi-structured interviews with employees, who are working in tourism and hospitality organizations. The results reveal a certain association between shift work and work-to-family balance, with different results for parents or no parents, as well as results indicate that there is a relative concern of organizations on promoting work-to-family balance practices. From the results obtained, we will contribute to the literature on shift work by showing that conciliation practices help mitigate this work-to-family conflict, especially in the tourism and hospitality sectors.

D. Martins CEOS.PP, CITUR, ESHT, Polytechnic of Porto, Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. Silva (B) Institute Polytechnic of Porto, School of Hospitality and Tourism, CEOS.PP; CITUR, Rua D. Sancho I, N. º 981, 4480-876 Vila Do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_42

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42.1 Introduction Shift work is a continuous work modality capable of responding to the business needs for the total period of the day and may include weekends and holidays [1, 2]. More and more professions are covered by this work mode, especially those that provide customer services 24 h a day [3–6]. The literature is consensual in suggesting that shift workers have the greatest difficulties in work-to-family reconciliation [3, 7, 8]. Previous studies tend to underline that these shift workers are more permeable to social isolation [2, 7, 8] and problems in reconciling work-life roles, considering the increasing changes in jobs, the growth of flexibility in workplaces, and job insecurity in some industries [9]. Previous studies tend to underline that the difficulty of work-to-family reconciliation among shift workers impacts well-being [6, 10, 11], absenteeism, job satisfaction, and turnover [12–14]. This difficulty in reconciling tends to be particularly high among shift workers in the tourism and hospitality sectors considering the need for increased labor flexibility and cost reduction in the sector [15, 16]. This research has as its main objective to examine the relationship between shift work and work-to-family reconciliation in the tourism and hospitality sectors, and more specifically to know the work-life balance practices implemented by tourism and hospitality organizations as well as to characterize the employees’ perception of their work-life balance. To answer these objectives, two complementary empirical studies were conducted, involving the collection of data from employees and human resource managers of organizations linked to the tourism and hospitality sectors. This research contributes to the literature review, considering the empirical reality of the Portuguese context, especially by helping to rethink the need to implement work-to-family reconciliation practices as well as to expand the work-to-family practices known in the literature, specifically in periods of greater organizational vulnerability. Another major theoretical contribution is to discuss how work-to-family practices implementation could be reinforcing the attraction to work in shift work modality during crisis periods. This research also shows some practical implications, such as the need to make changes in the management of shift workers, promoting greater engagement of these employees [17–19], and ensuring that shift workers achieve greater work-life reconciliation [20–23]. In addition, this work helps to understand how Human Resources Management (HRM) practices can reduce workfamily conflict while providing clues on how organizations can make shift work an equally or more effective work organization modality in work-life reconciliation and employee well-being. The following section presents the existing literature on shift work, followed by a description of work-to-family reconciliation practices. Section three outlines the methodological approach and section four presents the main findings of the study. Finally, we present the discussion and conclusion sections and underline some suggestions for future research in this field.

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42.2 Literature Review 42.2.1 Conflict of Work and Family Roles Work-family conflict theory goes back to the study conducted by Kahn and colleagues [24]. According to these authors [24], role conflict is the stress resulting from the difficulty experienced by a person to adapt to another role following adaptation to a role or in other words, from the pressure of assuming two or more roles at the same time [9, 25]. Work-to-family conflict (WFC) is defined as the incompatibility between the demands of professional and family roles [26]. Thus, work-family conflict can be bidirectional [23, 26, 27]. On the one hand, WFC arises when demands at work have a negative effect on family life, that is, the interference of work in family life arises when work activities prevent the performance of family responsibilities. On the other hand, family-to-work conflict (FWC) arises when demands at the family level conflict with professional life, that is, the interference of family life at work occurs when family responsibilities hinder work performance. In this sense, the conflict between both spheres of an employee’s life can originate either in the professional or family sphere [27], creating problems for individuals as a direct result of incompatible pressures between the two roles [23]. On the contrary, when this conflict does not exist, we can talk about reconciling professional and family roles [9]. Several personal and professional factors act as antecedents to the existence of the aforementioned WFC/FWC, such as long working hours, professional demands, family expectations, number of children, or marital status [9, 23]. Greenhaus and Beutell [26] suggest that individuals with more active roles in both spheres of their lives are more susceptible to WFC, as they are more sensitive to the pressures produced by one sphere on the other, i.e., “for these employees, role responsibilities are obligatory activities or chores since the roles are not highly valued. Since neither domain is more appealing, employees would be less decisive when they face competing demands from work and family roles, resulting in experiences of work-family conflict” [27]. The empirical studies that have investigated the associations between sociodemographic characteristics and WFC/FWC [28–31] show that men tend to be more committed to work and more tolerant of work encroaching on family while women tend to put more concern and commitment to family obligations, trying to avoid work interfering with their family life. In line with this evidence, recent research on the relationship between fatherhood and WFC/FWC [27, 32] shows that men when more involved in family responsibilities experience less work-family conflict. In turn, there is a positive relationship between having a wife and children and a decrease in WFC, while women who are more professionally fulfilled are those who experience less WFC even though they must take care of children. When the analysis focuses on gender [33], it is women who experience more family responsibilities compared to men while men experience more work pressure. This situation tends to fade as children grow older and become more independent from maternal supervision [34]. Wöhrmann and colleagues [35] explored the WFC/FWC and conclude that

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both dimensions influence each other by finding that family obligations negatively impact work responsibilities just as these negatively influence family obligations. It is especially women with children who tend to be less satisfied with reconciling both spheres of life, the greatest difficulty being when they are single mothers or without help from their spouses in supporting family life, with women assuming full responsibility for family care and administration [6, 25]. When extrapolating these results to shift workers, we find that the type of shift (fixed or rotating) or the shift schedule does not seem to influence WFC as much as gender issues, which can be explained by the more active role that women still assume in the administration of family life compared to men. This trend tends to reverse when we explore roles in working life, with men taking a more active role in the responsibility of working and earning money and therefore more susceptible to the existence of WFC [25, 36]. Both WFC and FWC increase significantly as workers move into the parenthood phase, being highest when their youngest children are aged 6–12 years (for WFC) and 2–5 years (for FWC), respectively [28, 37]. Home life and work life are two important fields affecting one another [25]. On the one hand, the number of household members and the age of children affect work life at the same time as family life is affected by the demands of work, and the WFC/FWC theory tends to find support in the mutual relationship between the two spheres of the individual’s life. In other words, work disrupts family life (work-tofamily conflict) while the family may impede work life (family-to-work conflict), with both conflicts generating negative results in satisfaction with the family situation and with the work situation, respectively [25]. This situation tends to vary between countries, depending on national reconciliation policies [9] and on social and cultural norms associated with women’s role in work and family. These authors [9] find a WFC rate in Portuguese mothers of 23% while in fathers the WFC rate is 15%, especially when children are under 12 years old. However, the values of this WFC rate tend to increase when the work is done full-time, and it becomes even more accentuated when the distribution of household chores tends to be unequal between spouses. In a positive perspective of the work-family relationship, the concept of work-life balance (WLB) emerges, defined as “an overall assessment of the extent to which individuals’ effectiveness and satisfaction in work and family roles are consistent with their life values at a given moment” [26]. This concept is thus theoretically and psychometrically distinct from the concept of WFC [21, 35, 38]. However, both concepts are associated with shift work, which is considered to be the driving force behind the improvement of WLB [28, 39] by providing more time for the family and, in particular, for the care of young children and domestic activities. However, other researchers [6, 7, 35, 40, 41] gather evidence that work-life balance is not always achieved among employees in the shift work mode or this is not the main motivation for deciding to work shift work. Williams [6] obtains evidence suggesting that shift workers’ satisfaction is higher when fewer hours are worked, i.e., when shift work is done on a part-time basis, considering these workers to be those with the lowest WFC. More recently, Wöhrmann and colleagues [35] found evidence suggesting higher WFC, especially among shift workers working at night or at weekends.

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Thus, when WFC occurs, employees’ WLB is affected [25, 26]. Erdamar and Demirel [25] tend to associate WFC with job dissatisfaction, marriage, dissatisfaction with life, and greater health problems. As a consequence, these workers accuse greater fatigue, and worse performance and feel less competent at work, feel greater dissatisfaction, and reveal a greater desire for turnover. In turn, FWC affects the employee’s health and well-being, especially when there is a lack of support from the spouse or when there is a greater number of domestic responsibilities, presence of children, or a greater number of members in the employee’s household [25], leading to lower performance, absenteeism, and job dissatisfaction. In particular, the literature [6, 39, 41] highlights that excessive weekly workload and role overload affect shift workers’ work-life balance. The study of Hu et al. [42] suggests the importance of the work-family enrichment theory [43] as an explanation of the influence that positive experiences at the workplace have on family life. From this work-family enrichment theory, the authors [42] propose the importance of considering interpersonal skills as important resources to explain that work experiences can benefit the family domain and can be facilitators of WLB. This balance can be achieved by changing attitudes to managing interpersonal relationships in the work context having a positive effect on the family context. More recent studies [20, 26, 35, 39] lead shift work researchers to believe that work-life balance may be in jeopardy bringing more benefits to the employer and less to shift workers. Lu and colleagues [42] confirm that shift work increases the pressure of work on family life, as employers tend to demand more from their employees, not only in the number of working hours but also by demanding more ambitious goals.

42.2.2 HR Practices Conciliation and WLB’ Outcomes HRM is defined in the literature as “the process of attracting, developing, and maintaining a talented and energetic workforce to support organizational mission, objectives, and strategies” [44]. Recent literature [45–48] has been highlighting the need for more agile HRM practices to be promoted to better help meet the challenges arising from the need for greater reconciliation between work and family spheres. As the adoption of shift work is associated with greater job insecurity [35, 39, 49], employees tend to feel more vulnerable in crisis contexts that may jeopardize their job security. These fears may lead to the development of negative emotions, such as fear, worry, anxiety, and stress [48]. On the other hand, another of the main outcomes of shift work is directly related to the fears that employees have of seeing their career development could be compromised since HRM practices are still very much oriented toward valuing and recognizing employees in the traditional work regime [2, 7, 8, 39, 49]. In a labor environment where uncertainty and turbulence tend to predominate, it is desirable that HRM promotes the implementation of measures to prevent possible disruptions in the workplace [48] and avoid the adoption of talent management and retention practices, namely training and skills development, performance assessment

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and management, reward package updates, and organizational career development plans are affected by organizational cost-cutting strategies [48]. Diverse literature [2, 38, 50] suggests that organizations play a crucial role in combating shift workers’ demotivation and exhaustion. To this end, it becomes crucial to promote work-to-family reconciliation practices that benefit workers in managing their work and family life. One of these practices involves improving the frequency and quality of communication with employees and avoiding rumors that may negatively affect their work performance and well-being at work [46, 48]. Furthermore, Adamovic and colleagues [45] and Dirani et al. [46] emphasize the importance of communicating with transparency and honesty in order to help employees feel safe and healthy, assigning HRM a central role in guiding employees’ needs and offering suggestions for improving employees’ well-being in order to reduce emotional and mental malaise caused by feelings of anxiety and stress. According to some researchers [51], the geographical separation of work and private life may also contribute to the employee’s mental well-being, as it implies the separation of both life expectancies. To avoid the development of less desirable behaviors, such as employee absenteeism or turnover, organizations have strived to promote a healthy work environment by developing work-life balance practices centered on the possibility of balanced dedication between the time devoted to work and family life [44, 51]. The implementation of WLB policies has been shown to positively impact the reduction of WFC [44, 52–56], so they should not be neglected. In addition to these work-to-family reconciliation practices, the literature [2, 7, 27, 40, 44] suggests that organizations promote HRM practices supporting WLB or WFC management understood as spontaneous social benefits, and therefore perceived by employees as an organizational concern for their personal well-being and family situation. However, when the company neglects the concern with maintaining a balance between work and family, the stress of the pressure and demand for roles in both dimensions tends to increase and situations of work-family conflict occur. Some authors [25, 26, 42] suggest that organizations should avoid encouraging overtime work so that these overtime hours do not negatively impact family obligations or compromise the quality of the shift workers’ family and personal life since it reduces the time available for the family as well as increases fatigue [25, 57, 58]. Some authors [2, 6, 7, 20, 58] suggest offering canteen services, medical services, the possibility of buying meals at the company, financing the hiring of domestic workers, and encouraging the application for state support. The possibility of greater flexibility in shift schedules can be another important practice to improve the balance between work and family time management, as well as other aspects of the shift worker’s personal life [25, 40, 49].

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42.3 Methodology 42.3.1 Design This study uses a mixed methodology having a cross-sectional and descriptive nature to answer the research question “How does the tourism and hospitality sector promote work-life balance for their shift workers? and What is the shift workers’ perception of their work-life balance?” Therefore, this paper aims to characterize the employees’ work-life balance perception and to know the work-life balance implemented in tourism and hospitality organizations.

42.3.2 Instruments In our study, it was used a questionnaire for the quantitative approach and a semistructured interview for the qualitative approach. The questionnaire had 40 questions organized in two sections: sociodemographic characterization and work-life balance practices implemented by the organization. Sociodemographic characterization includes questions related to the respondent and open and dichotomous questions in order to characterize the organization. The second section aims to characterize the work-life balance practices implemented by the organization with a set of dichotomous questions.

42.3.3 Sample The quantitative sample was a convenience sample with 100 human resources professionals from hotels in the north of Portugal. Regarding the respondents’ characterization, 70% (n = 70) of the respondents were women and 30% (n = 30) were men. The average age was 45.4 years (SD = 9,7), and 72% (n = 72) were, at least, undergraduate. According to their training area, 48% (n = 48) studied management, 28% (n = 28) in tourism, and 24% (n = 24) were from several areas such as economy, sciences, and international relations among others. Consequently, 64% (n = 64) of the participants had management functions in the organization. They were in this function, at 5.3 years (SD = 7). The qualitative sample was a theoretical sample with 20 employees working in tourism and hospitality organizations. Their mean age was 37 years old, 12 were female and eight were male. All the participants had undergraduate degrees.

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42.3.4 Procedure and Data Analysis The quantitative study was disseminated by e-mail where the study goals were explained. This e-mail was sent by national associations in the hospitality business. For the organizations interested in participating in the study, the dissemination e-mail had a link to fulfill the questionnaire. Data collection was conducted between 2020 and 2021. For data analysis, we use IBM SPSS Statistics 27.0. Regarding the exploratory and descriptive nature of the study, descriptive analysis was conducted on all the variables. For the qualitative data, an e-mail was sent explaining the study objectives and asking them to answer the e-mail if were interested in participating. All the interviews were performed in-person, audiotaped, and verbatim transcript. Data were analyzed according to the content analysis procedure [59].

42.4 Results 42.4.1 Quantitative Data Our study aimed to know the work-life balance practices implemented by tourism and hospitality organizations. Therefore, a set of dichotomous questions were made in order to characterize these practices namely new forms of work organization, direct benefits to employees, and direct benefits to family, motherhood, and fatherhood protection. Regarding the new forms of work organization, 70% (n = 70) of the participants referred to having schedule flexibility, 76% (n = 76) consider balance needs for the sift schedule, and 56% permit partial work time. Although, for 64% (n = 64) work at home, and telecommuting (72%, n = 72) is not an option. In the direct benefits to employees, 60% (n = 60) did not have specific measures to support workers with special familiar conditions, and 44% (n = 44) did not provide medical services nor had health insurance (41%, n = 41). Additionally, 85% (n = 85) did not refer to the existence of sports activities for employees nor had special agreements for services in health or culture. In the same way, 70% (n = 70) did not promote activities related to health and wellness. In direct benefits to family, 84% (n = 84) did not have specific equipment to support employees’ sons, 81% (n = 81) did not have agreements with services supporting familiars, and 83% (n = 83) did not have to facilitate agreements for this support. Additionally, they did not provide financial support for the kind garden (86%, n = 86), educational costs (84%, n = 84), or health costs (79%, n = 79). For motherhood and fatherhood protection, 91% (n = 91) of the hotels consider that men and women had the same rights, respecting their legal orientation. Although 79% (n = 79) did not have any additional financial support, 72% (n = 72) did not

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allow a longer period of license than the one defined by law, and 65% (n = 65) of the hotels hire substitutes for employees in motherhood or fatherhood license.

42.4.2 Qualitative Data On the other hand, we aimed to characterize the employees’ perception of their worklife balance. To achieve this objective qualitative data from tourism and hospitality employees were collected and analyzed according to the content analysis procedure [59]. Our data were organized in the main category—Challenges. Challenges highlight the main questions that the participants encounter in the balance between their professional and familiar needs. Although there are differences in terms of family structures, several challenges were found to be common to the participants who demonstrate knowledge not only of their own challenges but of challenges common to employees in this activity sector. This category, challenges, was identified by categorizing the subcodes: difficulty, family, and responsibilities. In the specific case of challenges in family and socialization challenges, the participants believe that this is the biggest challenge that women who aspire to leadership positions in our country face: As it is an area that absolves us a lot and that doesn’t stop, of course, the issue of family and children and everything else, it’s always going to be a challenge and it has no end. It is for life. Not having children, I can only imagine what it will be like to try to reconcile vacations in this vacations in this area with school vacations, for example. It is not impossible, but it is a much more difficult path because this obstacle obviously exists. (Interview 9)

The subcategory difficulties relate to the path of the participants, as well as the difficulties they faced up to the positions they occupy. When asked about difficulties they encountered in their current position, all the participants believe that they face the same difficulties that other professionals would face in the same position: I don’t think I’ve ever felt that. There are the normal difficulties of any job, but I don’t think they are exclusive because I am a woman, if I were a man performing all my functions I would encounter problems and difficulties in the same difficulties in the same proportion that I do…they are the normal difficulties of any job. (Interview 4)

The subcategory family refers to the personal relationships of the participants and the conciliation that they manage to do between their personal life and professional life. This balance is essential for the quality of their professional performances since the participants refer to family and friends as family and friends as major pillars in their lives. Aware that the profession requires absences, the participants emphasize the importance of understanding and the need for acceptance of this absence by those closest to them. Some participants also mention that they have postponed the decision to start a family since they believe they do not have the availability desired to accompany

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their children. This scenario is seen as an obstacle for women to accept leadership positions in our country: It is not easy to miss birthdays, family gatherings, dinners with friends…while everybody is having fun, we are working…or sleeping to go to work. It is hard to reconcile social life outside of work, that’s a fact. But I do not think it is impossible. Instead of going out to dinner on Saturday, we try going out on Tuesday…with flexible and understanding people in our lives, anything is possible. (…) I have been married for some time and I am constantly postponing the decision to have children. My biggest fear is not having time for them. I know that sooner or later it will happen, but I feel that I still have a lot to achieve, to climb up the hierarchy until I make the decision to have children, career always comes first. (Interview 2)

The subcategory responsibilities make reference to the responsibilities of their professional position. Although the participants emphasize that more responsibility, more availability is required. The people that I work with every day know that there are times when we can all joke around play and more serious moments. The same is true when you take responsibility home. Family evenings can also be affected. I think it’s all about the family and the absence that responsibility can bring. (Interview 19)

42.5 Discussion and Conclusions This study yielded four main conclusions which will be discussed theoretically. As a first conclusion, the results suggest that family challenges increase especially when shift workers have higher career development aspirations. Work-family reconciliation challenges tend to be greater when there are young children to care for, among both fathers and mothers, provided that they value work and family life equally. However, if we scrutinize for which gender there are more challenges, participants easily perceive them to be for women. This result is in line with some literature [25, 36, 37] that attributes women with greater involvement in family matters and the upbringing of children, especially in cultures where gender inequality is still quite evident in the management of family responsibilities, as seems to be the case in the Portuguese culture [6, 21, 35, 42]. Second, shift workers recognize that the fact that they have greater professional ambition tends to lead them to make decisions that are harmful to the conciliation between family and work, namely the postponement of starting family life, specifically the decision to become parents. The lack of time to reconcile both spheres of their lives seems to be the main reason [38, 42], perceiving great difficulties in reconciling other spheres of their lives outside the workplace. Then, the participants in the study emphasize that the increase in responsibilities, both in professional and family life, requires greater time availability, thus affecting each other. In other words, when participants perceive that they have greater professional responsibilities, they recognize that they have less time for their family life and vice versa [27, 35, 39]. Finally, at the level of work-family conciliation practices, the organizations involved have already revealed some concerns, especially with the implementation of more flexible forms of work organization (hourly, work, and

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space flexibility). However, family-work conciliation practices are totally inexistent, namely the absence of support measures for shift workers with special family conditions, health and welfare services, financial support, or availability of social benefits for the occupation of minor children or even incentives for parenthood. These results are contrary to the recommendations in the literature [2, 6, 7, 20, 35, 58] which underline the importance of social benefits to support the family-work reconciliation and just not the work-family reconciliation. In this paper, a focus has been placed on the association between conflicts in the reconciliation of employment and family roles. However, no consideration has been given to work-family enrichment and work-family balance as Borgmann et al. [9] recommended. For future research, we suggest extending this study to other sample profiles that could be interesting. For example, analyzing couples with children, couples without children, and even employees without active family responsibilities and understanding if the family issue is really impacting the conflict or if sociodemographic issues such as gender or age or professional level may be more impacting characteristics on work-to-family reconciliation or if, on the contrary, professional demands such as responsibility, innovation, and creativity may be work factors that impact on disconnection when away from work. The case study methodology may also be relevant in future studies to verify whether concerns with conciliation practices help mitigate this work-to-family conflict, namely regarding working conditions, and relationships with superiors. Acknowledgements This work is funded by national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under project reference no. UID/BP/04470/2020.

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Chapter 43

The Intangibility and Tangibility in Hospitality Management: The Customer Perspective Mónica Oliveira

and Filipa Brandão

Abstract All companies that directly or indirectly work in Tourism and Hospitality provide tangible and intangible products and services that are completed and that are perceived by the customer and the guest as a whole felt experience of their stay. These products and services that have their own unique characteristics, when combined, can allow the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the final consumer. In this work, we combine and categorize the products in view of their intangibility and tangibility in order to understand which are the most influential in the final satisfaction. The main objective of this study is to identify which intangible and tangible aspects customers value most when they use the services of a hotel unit and that lead them to satisfaction and loyalty. To achieve this objective, a questionnaire survey was applied for the collection of primary data, aimed at guests of Portuguese hotel establishments, where 310 valid answers were obtained. The results obtained reveal that the tangible parameters are more valued by consumers, and the intangibles that obtain the greatest concern by customers are those related to human resources.

43.1 Introduction This study is research in social sciences, more specifically in Tourism and Hospitality. The theme studied in the present article is the quality of hotel service from the perspective of the intangibility and tangibility of services and products from the consumer’s point of view of the different services, available in a unit. The general M. Oliveira (B) CITUR, ESHT, Polytechnic of Porto, rua D. Sancho I, Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Brandão GOVCOPP-Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_43

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objective of this study is the classification of management information that allows hotel managers to make strategic decisions at the level of the provision of services that ensure their excellence with a view to customer satisfaction and loyalty and, consequently, the economic sustainability of the business. The introduction of new philosophies of action, through the new concepts of quality, loyalty, and satisfaction, forced a new adaptation of the Tourist Establishments. It is aspired to collect information regarding the perspective of the client and guest regarding their new requirements, desires, vision, and expectations. The questionnaires were supported on the six factors defined: (1) Accessibility and location, (2) Food and drink, (3) Tangible elements, (4) Cleaning, (5) Sympathy and empathy of employees, and (6) Safety, which will serve as the basis for the construction of the questions. The intangible and tangible attributes were categorized in order to ensure the construction of the questionnaire from the perspective of evaluating the experience and satisfaction of the guest in the hotel unit. To achieve this perception, and after analyzing the data collected, it was concluded that tangible attributes are more valued by the client with an average of 3.91 and intangible attributes with an average of 3.78.

43.2 Literature Review 43.2.1 Tourism and Hospitality In the attempt to define the concept of Tourism and all its parameters, it is usually associated with the hospitality industry, travel agencies, and national and international travel, in the incoming and outgoing movements. It is not difficult to recognize the strength of Tourism in all facets, and how enormous is the economic impact generated by this industry. Tourism generates indirect economic results in other businesses and industries, such as the food industry, leisure services, and transport, and this generates economic flows. In addition, it can develop numerous economic activities that are indirectly affected by tourism, such as the agricultural sector, banking entities, the arts, and others that are part of the tourism value chain. For [1], tourism benefits include export earnings, job opportunities, and tax revenue generation. For this author, this is why governments spend significant parts of their budgets on destination marketing and infrastructure for potential tourists. [2] argue that the tourism industry is a relevant business and that all countries strive to develop, as researchers recognize the economic growth and local economic development produced by Tourism. Tourism is one of the most important industries that creates significant growth and contribution to the economies of many countries, increasing global revenue, taxes, and employment. It is undoubtedly that Tourism is a crucial sector in the world economy, providing development and increasing all global economies. In addition, the human being awakens in himself the desire to travel and meet new cultures. According to [3], Tourism is the industry with the most marked development in the last 50 years. To ensure that people can travel and know new destinations, it is

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essential to have a place where they can accommodate, where they feel comfortable and in addition to meeting the basic needs of eating and sleeping, they can have an increased service. For [4] there is difficulty in setting the limits of hospitality: is it a product, a process, an experience, or the three parameters all aggregated? There are several studies with an attempt to define hospitality as a whole. According to [5] the focus on experience and performance suggests an interesting analogy with the theater, focusing on the management of services and not on financial management. If we explore hospitality as an experience, new perspectives can emerge with a great financial influence. Thus, five dimensions of hospitality are easily identified—(1) the relationship between the hotelier and the client, (2) generosity, (3) theater and performance, (4) many surprises, and (5) security. According to [4], this theme of generosity and sympathy ensures that strangers feel welcome, and this process is based on parameters that are neither clear nor precise. In conclusion, the hospitality business must focus on the guest experience and ensure memorable experiences that stimulate the 5 senses [5]. For [6] the current situation in the hotel sector is characterized by increased competition and, consequently, requires effective operational decision-making processes based on sufficient performance information. As a result, all the different services that play a crucial role in hotel organizations should be analyzed and their performance measured. The success or failure of the customer experience depends entirely on the moment of truth that occurs between the employee and the customer. Managers must ensure that every moment of truth guarantees the customer an exceptional experience [7]. The hotel industry undergoes permanent and profound changes, and it should be clear that the focus of the management strategy should be service excellence; for this, we need strong leadership, employees involved, and captivated customers [8].

43.2.2 Quality of Service in Tourism and Hospitality In recent years there has been a rise in the growth of all service companies, which has led to the growth of the entire world economy. The concern for the effective management of customer-oriented services has grown in order to make the most of them. In this area, we find tourist companies, with strong growth potential. Currently, all sectors of activity channel to their customers services and offers to attract and retain them in such a competitive and constantly changing market. According to [9], hotel managers should be concerned about understanding which service innovations can have the greatest impact on the choices of potential guests. This understanding will enhance and define the offers to be made and the development of the hotel service. On the other hand, it will focus on the services and innovations that are most important to guests and customers and critical to strategic decision-making. The customers are increasingly demanding, looking for new options and new services. This differentiation from competitors should be so exciting and attractive that it meets customer expectations and, on the other hand, be economically sustainable for the company. According to [10], the hotel industry is a perfect example where people

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directly benefit from service innovations. For [11] nowadays, the technology allows information related to customers’ desires to circulate quickly and instantly. According to [12], in Hospitality, quality is intrinsically linked to customer service and the basis of hotel business management is the desire to practice customer service. We can only talk about the quality of service if the company is predisposed to customer service, has a vocation to serve, and like to do so. Hotel Companies cannot rely on customer loyalty blindly, but they can use technology to learn more about their customers and thus satisfy their needs and desires. Technology alone is not enough. It is necessary to have qualified employees who can use the technology to add value to the customer’s stay experience. Hotel Managers should review the different services offered and their created value. For [13], when we study customer satisfaction we should consider the psychological environment, subjective personal aspects, and feelings. When a customer buys a paid experience to enjoy a series of memorable events that a company can provide you. Victorino et al. [9] defend that when we understand the compensations of the innovation of services made for customers, a service concept can be designed more effectively, leading to a much more profitable and sustainable operational strategy for the company. The new trends in hospitality include the existence of different types of hotels that satisfy the various market segments, customization of the service, the intensification of technology in the distribution channels, and the training of employees in the service and in the area of technologies. The quality in Hospitality and Tourism involves the provision of a consistent and sustainable service with quality products and according to the expectations of the client. This is the great challenge of tourism and hospitality: to provide a quality service that allows the success and sustainability of the business, considering the market extremely competitive.

43.2.3 The Intangibility and Tangibility in Tourism and Hospitality The combination between intangibility and tangibility in hotel products and services is essential to be able to provide a quality service to the customer. It is inevitable that we think that a meal can be very well prepared, but if the waiter is rude, unsympathetic, and without any dedication and empathy with the client, we can hardly be pleased with the service. Authors [14–16] define tangibility as the physical components that make up the provision of service (equipment, material, amenities), and intangibility as the absence of physical elements that affect the performance of the service. Intangibility is always associated with the inability to view, touch, exchange, or store and therefore is associated with the provision of service and the employee who provides it. Intangible appears as contrary to tangible and therefore is inaccessible to the touch, it is immaterial. For [15], we can then summarize intangibility as (1) the absence of material substance and (2) a growing difficulty in clearly and accurately defining, formulating,

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and understanding this concept. In the same perspective [16] argue that intangibility is strongly associated with the impact of consumer decision and that most authors reiterate that tangibility is associated with products and intangibility to services. According to [17], customers are sharing their experiences and the digital world more quickly spreads their opinion. For these authors, it is important to understand how the customer experience allows you to maintain your satisfaction and loyalty and what are the attributes that customers value most. In the study by [17], the authors analyzed the tangible and intangible factors but found that intangible goods are more valued than tangible goods. According to [19], Tourism companies generally offer intangible and tangible products to their customers that are complementary and perceived as integral parts of the entire travel experience. Although intangible and tangible products are different in characteristics, they can be distinguished by their effects on customer satisfaction or combined to improve their satisfaction. According to [19], the term tangibility generally refers to the elements that complement the service such as decoration, equipment, the image of employees, advertising material, and other physical characteristics used for the provision of services. The various authors consulted refer to the tangibility of the hotel business as the external appearance of the hotel facilities, the accommodation, and the restaurant. Albayrak et al. [19] argue that the tangible elements of hotel products are more influential in overall satisfaction, as they can be more easily modified or renewed compared to the intangible. The science presents gaps regarding the treatment of intangible resources with the integration of tangible resources [18]. For [22] by improving the provision of service, through the intangible component, the perception of the quality of this service is increased. Based on the literature review, we can affirm that the hotel product results from the combination of both elements.

43.3 Methodology Tourism includes hotels that aim to provide customers with food and drinks, accommodation, entertainment, travel, and complementary activities. Considering the scarcity of research in the hospitality area, particularly in the provision of services in Hospitality and from the client’s perspective, it was considered essential to deepen knowledge about this sector. The main objective of this study is to identify the intangible and tangible aspects that customers value most when using the services of a hotel unit and that contribute to their satisfaction and loyalty. It is intended to systematize management information that allows hotel managers to make strategic decisions in terms of the provision of services that ensure their excellence with a view to satisfaction and customer loyalty and, consequently, the economic sustainability of the business. In order to support this study and since there are no secondary data to answer the questions requested, primary data were collected through the questionnaire survey. The construction of the questionnaire was based on the studies by [17, 19], aiming at

502 Table 43.1 The different attributes under analysis

M. Oliveira and F. Brandão Ban et al. [17]

Mari´c et al. [22]

Oliveira and Brandão (2021)

Accessibility (1)

Localization (2)

Accessibility and localization (1)

Food and drink (2)

Food and Drink (2)

Motivation (3) Tangible elements (4)

Tangible elements (3) Cleaning (1)

Empathy (5)

Cleaning (4) Friendliness and empathy of employees (5)

Cost (3) Safety (4)

Safety (6)

Brand (5) Quality of service (6) Source Compiled by the authors

improving and adding information, through the definition of 6 fundamental parameters for the study, materialized in Table 43.1. A quantitative approach was considered appropriate for the research methodology and a survey was applied based on the six parameters: (1) accessibility and localization; (2) Food and drink; (3) Tangible elements; (4) Cleaning; (5) Friendliness and empathy of employees; (6) Safety. The questionnaire was applied, and 310 valid responses were obtained. Regarding the profile of the sample and considering the gender, 67.10% of the respondents were female and 32.90% were male. Concerning the age, 11.94% of respondents are between 18 and 25 years old, 28.06% between 26 and 35, 34.52% between 36 and 45, 19.03% between 46 and 55, and only 6.45% of respondents were older than 55 years, with the dominant age group being 36–45 years (Table 43.2). Regarding marital status, 37.1% of respondents (115 people) are married, 35.5% are single (110 people), 23.9% are in civil union (74 people), and 3.5% are separated (11 people). The dominant marital status in this sample is 37.1%—married. Considering the level of education, the majority (43.5%) have an undergraduate degree, followed by the group that has a Technical Course (19.4%) and finally the Master’s degree (19%). For the Ph.D., only 8.4% holds this title. Regarding 9th grade training, only 2 respondents have this training (0.6%), and high school has a representation of 9% (28 respondents). The majority of respondents were Portuguese (97.10%), followed by Brazilian nationality (1.94%). We found a Canadian representation (0.32%), a French (0.32%), and a Romanian representation (0.32%). Regarding the net monthly income of the respondents, the majority (99) have incomes between 636 and 1000 euros (31.9%), 79 show incomes between 1001 and 1500 euros (25.5%),

43 The Intangibility and Tangibility in Hospitality Management: The … Table 43.2 Sample individual profile

Gender

Frequency

503 Percentage (%)

Male

102

32.9

Female

208

67.1

Age 18–25

37

11.9

26–35

87

28.1

36–45

107

34.5

46–55

59

19.0

+55

20

6.5

Civil status Married Civil union Single Separated

115

37.1

74

23.9

110

35.5

11

3.5

Education level 9th grade

2

0.6

Vocational/Technical programs

60

19.4

High school

28

9.0

Undergraduate degree

135

43.5

Master degree

59

19.0

Ph.D

26

8.4

301

97.10

6

1.94

Country of origin Portugal Brazil Canada

1

0.32

France

1

0.32

Roménia

1

0.32

Income level 2000 e

54

17.4

Source Compiled by the authors

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54 have incomes higher than 2000 euros (17.4%), 45 respondents yield between 1501 and 2000 euros (14.5%), and finally 33 people have incomes below 635 euros (10.6%).

43.4 Results As previously mentioned, and according to [14–16], tangibility is the physical components that include the provision of services such as equipment and material and intangibility is the absence of physical elements that relate to the performance of the service. The intangible always appears as contrary to the tangible and, therefore, is inaccessible to the touch, it is immaterial. Since intangibility is always associated with the inability to visualize, touch, exchange, or store the present investigation, it categorized the different parameters present in the questionnaire as intangible and tangible. According to the data collected in the survey, each of the items were classified with reference to a scale of 1—nothing important to 5—very important (Table 43.3). The average of intangible items was lower than the items in the tangible domain. The only item, belonging to the intangible domain, which obtained an evaluation of less than 3 (average value) was the service 24 h a day with a valuation of 2.87. We can conclude that this service is not valued by guests. It is possible to verify that the items least valued by the clients belong one to the group of intangible items— health services (3.19) and the other to the group of tangibles—the existence of a safe in the room and in the Hotel (3.27). Regarding the unit’s food and beverage service, a diversified menu and affordable prices at meals are also not considered as important by respondents, with a value of 3.35 and 3.46, respectively. Tangible goods such as work equipment have an evaluation of 3.45 and were also not valued. From the point of view of intangibility, the respondents also did not consider as important the existence of employees at the entrance of the Hotel to support checkin (3.40). Having as reference the items to which the respondents attribute more importance 6 belong to the domain of the intangible and 8 to the domain of the tangible. Information on intangible items whose average was lower than the items in the tangible domain was also eliminated from the table. For the F&B department, this table tops the item of quality of food and drink served with 3.96. Then the available parking item shows a rating of 3.91. At the lower threshold is the exterior design with 3.55 and the possibility to customize services/characteristics of the room with 3.63. Considering that 83.2% of the respondents stayed for leisure one would expect that the item equipment and leisure spaces, e.g. swimming pool, spa, and gym presented values higher than those observed—3.83. It should be noted that the number of items that has a value greater than 4 is dominated by tangible elements (10) as opposed to only 4 elements of the intangible domain. At the top of the evaluation are 2 items with the same score—4.38, feeling safe and cleaning and sanitation of the room. Also, in the field of tangible comes the cleaning, presentation, and hygiene of employees with 4.35, cleaning and hygiene of common areas with 4.33, and cleaning

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Table 43.3 Evaluation of each item tangible/intangible Tangible Good outdoor environment

4.10

Equipment and leisure spaces, e.g. swimming pool, spa, and gym

3.83

Parking available

3.91

Equipment of the workspaces, e.g.desktop 3.45

Information on all services in the vicinity of the Hotel

3.62

Air conditioning

4.09

Breakfast included

4.13

Technological means (e.g. wi-fi)

4.20

Diversified menu

3.35

Cleaning and sanitation of the rooms

4.38

Affordable prices of meals and drinks

3.46

Cleaning and hygiene of common areas

4.33

Quality of food and drink served

3.96

Cleaning, presentation, and hygiene of employees

4.35

Exterior design

3.55

Cleaning and sanitizing of all material and 4.32 equipment

Interior design

3.87

Ways of controlling cleaning and sanitizing by hotel management

4.18

Comfort of the furniture in public areas

3.75

Existence of safe in the Room and hotel

3.27

Comfort of furniture in the rooms

4.25

Use of sustainable practices in the Hotel, e.g. reuse of towels, disposal of plastics

3.77

Ease in finding the Hotel

3.87

Employees very attentive to detail

3.92

Employees at the hotel entrance for customer support

3.40

Anticipation of customer wishes

3.66

Service 24 h a day

2.87

24-h customer support service

3.78

Readiness and friendliness of employees

4.27

Feel safe

4.38

Professionalism and speed in solving problems

4.26

Feel at home and welcome

4.13

Possibility to customize services/features of my room

3.63

Existence of a 24-h security service

3.78

Health services

3.19

Intangible

Source Compiled by the authors

and hygiene of all material and equipment with 4.32. The values presented in the field of intangibles that reinforce the importance given to human resources are the readiness and friendliness of the employees who obtained a score of 4.27 and the professionalism and speed in solving the problems that obtained 4.26.

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43.5 Conclusion With the ambition of presenting operational information that allows the hotel manager to make decisions that ensure customer loyalty and the inherent increase in revenue and further reinforcing what is advocated by [22] who claim that total customer satisfaction increases loyalty, positive comments, and consequently the increase in hotel revenues, the conclusions of this research are then presented. Operatives need to understand how satisfaction is achieved and how it can be influenced. It is necessary to understand which attributes must be improved in order to increase satisfaction and those with which we should not value because they do not influence customer satisfaction to the same extent. It was necessary, therefore, to analyze which intangible and tangible products that customers and guests value most. In order to meet the overall objective of identifying the intangible and tangible aspects that customers value most when using the services of a hotel unit and that contribute to their satisfaction and loyalty, a questionnaire survey was applied and it was concluded that tangible attributes are more valued by the client with an average of 3.91 and intangible attributes with an average of 3.78. These results validate the conclusions of [19] where the authors stated that tangible elements had a greater influence on overall customer satisfaction than intangible elements. The 5 attributes of the tangible most valued by the respondents are the attributes related to the cleaning (rooms, employees, common areas, material, and equipment) and the comfort of the room. The 5 attributes of the intangible most valued by the client are to feel safe, at home, welcome and friendly, efficient, and attentive to detail. The items related to cleaning were the most valued by the respondents and only the fact that they felt safe obtained a similar score. Albayrak et al. [19] Tangible items are those that can easily be changed by managers and therefore contribute more easily to the positive evaluation of the service. The research presented reinforces what was advocated by [19] and as the authors affirm the results they obtained from their study; it emphasized that tangible elements had a greater influence on overall customer satisfaction than intangible elements. This is also defended by [20] in their study where the results indicate that customers focus some significant interest on the tangibles assets. [20] also affirm that tangibles play an important role in influencing customer satisfaction such as for example hotel equipment and facilities. This contradicts what is supported by [21] that concluded in their studies that the intangible elements have the strongest influence on customer satisfaction. On the other hand [21] also defend that to improve customer satisfaction is necessary to increase tangible elements. In alternative, the items “Readiness and friendliness of employees” and “Professionalism and speed in solving problems” obtained the highest score in the field of intangible. Le et al. [21] defend that the managers should focus on the enhancement of human resources with training programs providing a best relationship with the clients. It aspires to create information that allows hotel managers to know what intangible factors that customers and guests value most in hotel service and accurately define strategic actions in terms of the provision of services that ensure service excellence, customer loyalty, and maintenance and improvement of the unit’s economic results. We conclude,

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therefore, that the tangible elements are more appreciated by the guest and client, especially the cleaning of the various departments and the presentation and hygiene of employees and intangible elements are less valued. It should be noted, however, that the most valued intangible elements are the feeling safe, welcome, and at home and the promptness, friendliness, and professionalism of the employees, and attentive to the detail. Managers should therefore recognize the importance of presenting tangible factors such as the cleanliness and comfort of the rooms and worrying about the feeling of security, and with human resources formed and specialized that ensure the quality of service, loyalty, and customer return. According to [18], Tourism is an intangible product marketed through images and the combination of the hotel and the destination determines the purchase decision.

43.6 Contributions and Limitations As contributions this research ensures the compiling of information on hospitality as a whole and an analysis of products and services in all its aspects. This study also presented a perspective of intangibility and tangibility in the view of the final consumer and an analysis of the importance of the role of human resources in the provision of the service. Through the empirical study, it was possible to measure the parameters that are most valued by consumers and those least considered as essential or fundamental. This research contributes to the discussion and creation of knowledge and help, intending to constitute a guiding tool for hotel managers. According to [19] and the results of this study, the tangible elements influence more the customer satisfaction, so all the managers should concern more about these aspects especially the security of the place and cleaning and sanitation of the room. Although the customers value more the tangible aspects, also the readiness and friendliness of employees and professionalism and speed in solving problems achieve a remarkable importance to the customers. Limitations should be emphasized as the lack of literature and research regarding the analysis of the parameters of the domain of intangible and tangible, specifically applied to Hospitality and Tourism. Several studies present an analysis from the perspective of consumer behavior, but few are specific to the theme mentioned. Some constraints are also verified in the categorization of tangible versus intangible attributes, with the differentiation presented by different authors. Despite the various publications, there is a notorious difficulty in the objectivity of the classification. We chose to base this research on two specific studies, in order to ensure greater objectivity and coherence in the delimitation of parameters between intangible and tangible. Another limitation of the study is that the majority of respondents traveled for leisure (258 respondents) with a rate of 83.2% compared to the total sample. The fact that they traveled for leisure can misrepresent the results in relation to items that valued workspaces. In future studies, the motivation of the trip should be conditioning and by itself selective in the choice of the sample, so that results can be compared in specific situations of stay. The comparison with the evaluation of attributes should allow for increased information on customer satisfaction. The level

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of customer perception, expectations, and satisfaction may vary depending on the characteristics of the client, and therefore, in future studies, the characteristics of the tourist product can be related, for example, the Hotel with specific characteristics of the consumer group.

References 1. Pratt, S.: Economic linkages and impacts across the talc. Ann. Tour. Res. 38(2), 630–650 (2011) 2. Hsieh, H., Kung, S.: The linkage analysis of environmental impact of tourism industry. Procedia Environ. Sci. 17, 658–665 (2013) 3. Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., Papatheodorou, A.: Economics of tourism. Contemp. Tour. Rev. 1–29 (2011) 4. Brotherton, B.: Towards a definitive view of the nature of hospitality and hospitality management. Int. J. Contemp. Hospit. Manag. 11(4), 165–173 (1999) 5. Hemmington, N.: From service to experience: understanding and defining the hospitality business. Serv. Ind. J. 27(6), 747–755 (2007) 6. Zigan, K., Zeglat, D.: Intangible resources in performance measurement systems of the hotel industry. Facilities 28, 597–610 (2010) 7. Ford, R., Sturman, M., Heaton, C.: Managing Quality Service in Hospitality: how organizations achieve excellence in the guest experience. Delmar Cengage Learning (2012) 8. Larkin, E.: How to run a great hotel. Editions How to Content (2009) 9. Victorino, L., Verma, R., Plaschka, G., Dev, C.: Service innovation and customer choices in the hospitality industry. Manag. Serv. Qual. 15(6), 555–576 (2005) 10. Khedkar, E.: Impact of service innovations in hospitality industry. Int. J. Manag. Sci. Bus. Res. 4(11), 19–23 (2015) 11. Olsem, M., Connolly, D.: Experience-based travel: how technology is changing the hospitality industry. Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q. 41, 30–40 (2010) 12. Tesone, D.: Principles of Management for the Hospitality Industry. Elsevier (2010) 13. Brunner-Sperdin, A., Peters, M.: What influences guests’ emotions? The case of high-quality hotels. Int. J. Tour. Res. 11(2), 171–183 (2009) 14. Brasil, V., Sampaio, C., Perin, M: A relação entre a intangibilidade, o risco percebido e o conhecimento. Revista das Ciências da Administração 10(21), 31–53 (2008) 15. Bielen, F., Sempels, C.: The dimensionality of the concept of intangibility: a critical analysis. IAG working papers, pp. 2–31 (2003) 16. Laroche, M., Bergeron, J., Goutaland, C.: A three-dimensional scale of intangibility. J. Serv. Res. 4(1), 26–38 (2001) 17. Ban, H., Choi, H., Choi, E., Lee, S., Kim, H.: Investigating key attributes in experience and satisfaction of hotel customer using online review data. Sustainability 11, 1–13 (2019) 18. Miranda, D.D., Garcia, R.C.P.: Image Management of the hotel: a complementary approach between intangi-ble and tangible resource. Int. Acad. J. Bus. Manag. 4(1), 50–62 (2017) 19. Albayrak, T., Caber, M., Aksoy, S.: Relationships of the tangible and intangible elements of tourism products with overall customer satisfaction. Int. J. Trade Econ. Financ. 1(2), 140–143 (2010) 20. Yeong, S.N., Knox, D., Prabhakar, G.: Customer satisfaction and loyalty in Malaysian resort hotels: the role of empathy, reliability and tangible dimensions of service quality. Int. J. Serv. Oper. Manag. 41(4), 444–462 (2022) 21. Le, Q.H., Nguyen, T.X.T., Le, T.T.T.: Customer satisfaction in hotel services: a case study of Thanh Hoa province Vietnam. J. Asian Finance, Econ. Bus. 7(10), 919–927 (2020) 22. Mari´c, D., Marinkovi´c, V., Mari´c, R., Dimitrovsk, D.: Analysis of tangible and intangible hotel service quality components. Industrija 44(1), 7–25 (2016)

Chapter 44

Impacts of City Brand Personality (CBP) and City Image on City-Related Media Engagement and Resident Satisfaction Ana Isabel Moniz , Osvaldo Silva , and Tânia Rego

Abstract This study examines resident engagement with the city-related media during COVID-19 pandemic and resident satisfaction in relation to city image and city brand personality (CBP). Using Aaker’s brand personality scale (BPS), the model was developed based on data collected from a questionnaire, addressed to a sample of 456 residents in Ponta Delgada, the largest city and municipality of São Miguel (Azores, Portugal). It can be affirmed that CBP and city image reveal significant impacts on media engagement and on resident overall satisfaction. With regard to the moderating effect of COVID-19 on CBP, city image, and resident satisfaction, it should be noted that only the hypotheses that relate CBP to media engagement and city image with media engagement are validated.

44.1 Introduction In the last 25 years, the topic of brand personality has been highly discussed by marketing scholars [1], which implies that there is a need to pay special attention to brand personality, per se, as this is not irrational, since empirical evidence reveals that consumers have a greater preference for brands that they understand to have a personality that reflects their self-identity. This preference is due to the fact that the personality traits associated with the brand facilitate the expression of consumers about their current or ideal dimensions [33]. Additionally, the brand personality has a great influence on consumers’ choice, as it represents a reflection and extension of their own personality [31]. A. I. Moniz (B) CEEAplA, Universidade dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] O. Silva CICS.UAc/CICS.NOVA.UAc, Universidade dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal T. Rego Universidade dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_44

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The literature on the subject contains numerous examples on the extension of the use of the concept of brand personality, namely the Big Five model, by [1], in measuring the image of different categories of places, such as tourist destinations (e.g., [14]), cities (e.g. [4, 23, 34]) and regions (e.g., [27]). Globalization, the increasing mobility of people, capital, and goods, and the competition to attract tourists, residents, and investors have brought new challenges to cities [17]. Cities’ decision-making agents need to be aware of the dimensions that affect the city, in order to prepare an adequate strategic planning. To create thriving communities and understand the costs and benefits of development, it is important to carry out a proper diagnosis of the current brand image and the dimensions of the current city brand personality (CBP) and then project the intended brand image, defining policies and actions for improvement. At the same time, they should consider the influence of this image and this CBP on the satisfaction of residents, this satisfaction being a fundamental condition for the involvement and recommendation of the city by the people who live there. The study focuses on the case of Ponta Delgada, the largest city and municipality on the island of São Miguel and the Azores, with around 70,000 inhabitants. With five centuries of history, Ponta Delgada is the largest economic, social, and political center in the Autonomous Region of the Azores (Portugal). The originality of this study is to examine resident engagement with the cityrelated media during COVID-19 pandemic and resident satisfaction in relation to city image and city brand personality (CBP). Finally, to take into account the impact of COVID-19 on the lives of residents of Ponta Delgada, it is intended to evaluate its potential moderating effect, in order to verify if there are significant differences between those who agree and those who disagree with regard to this impact with regard to latent variables, namely, CBP, city image, resident satisfaction, and city-related media engagement (social media and traditional communication channels). With the present study, we intend to answer the following research hypotheses: H1: CBP has a positive effect on media engagement. H2: CBP has a positive effect on resident satisfaction. H3: City image has a positive effect on media engagement. H4: City image has a positive effect on resident satisfaction. H5: Resident satisfaction has a positive effect on media engagement. H6: Resident satisfaction has a moderating effect on city image’s relationship with media engagement. H7: Resident satisfaction has a moderating effect on the CBP’s relationship with media engagement.

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44.2 Theoretical Framework 44.2.1 Applying the Brand Concept to Branding Places There is a great diversity of approaches to the brand concept in the literature. Wood ([35]: 666) proposed an integrated definition: “a brand is a mechanism for obtaining a competitive advantage for companies, through differentiation (purpose). The attributes that differentiate a brand provide the customer with satisfaction and benefits for which the customer is willing to pay (mechanism)”. Since 1990, branding terminology has been applied in the marketing of services or places [8], in which, in most cases, the development of a country’s brand is carried out as a way to attract more tourists. Therefore, a country that is properly promoted allows its domestic products to be sold faster and at higher prices. All sensations provoked by the brand of a place are dependent on the means of communication used. These can range from billboards and brochures to word of mouth [32]. More recently, strategic place brand management requires a multi-channel approach and embraces digital place branding.

44.2.2 Brand Personality and City Brand Personality (CBP) According to ([1]: 347), brand personality corresponds to “the set of human characteristics associated with a brand”. This definition highlights the fact that BP is understood by external entities (e.g., consumers), through the attribution of various traits, as opposed to a construction that already exists in the entity that owns the brand. Another definition refers that this can be described as personality traits, generally associated with humans, that consumers understand about the brand they intend to own [1]. Inevitably, BP has a direct relationship with the concepts of brand identity and brand image. Aaker [1] developed a theoretical framework for building brand personality, determining the number and nature of its dimensions, namely sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness, better known in the literature as the Big Five model. The first three are similar to human personality dimensions, while the last two are based on the five-factor model of human personality. These findings reveal that human personality is similar, but not equal, to brand personality, which led the author to create a valid and generalized instrument in relation to a product category, the Brand Personality Scale (BPS). Different studies have investigated the concept of destination brand personality (DBP), using the Aaker brand personality scale (BPS). All studies show that the concept of brand personality is related to specific attitudes and feelings toward the destination. In addition, existing studies have found three, four, and/or five dimensions representing tourist destination brand personality (TDBP) [12].

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The relevance of knowing the personality characteristics of the destination brand is revealed at different levels, namely because it will allow the development of communication strategies more focused on the critical success factors and will facilitate the management of the brand’s strengths and weaknesses with impacts on the image level.

44.2.3 Brand Image Brand image is a multidimensional structure in which brand personality is an important feature. According to Ekinci and Hosany [14], the destination image is a multidimensional structure, which is composed of two main dimensions (cognitive evaluation and affective evaluation of a destination), and which constitutes a complete image of a place [5]. Cognitive assessment consists of the set of beliefs and knowledge about the destination [5]. By contrast, affective evaluation refers to feelings toward him/her [30]. In this assessment, the tourist evaluates a place according to its attributes and objectives, in order to improve their knowledge. As such, the more information visitors have about the positive attributes of the place, the more reliable the cognitive assessment will be. On the other hand, in the affective evaluation, they evaluate the destination by the emotional quality corresponding to the set of attributes of the destination [16]. Therefore, the more attractive the destination attributes are to individual tourists, the better the affective evaluation. According to Beerli and Martin [7], there is a theoretical consensus in the literature that cognitive images correspond to the antecedents of affective images. According to Aaker [2, p. 68], the identity of a brand consists of “a unique set of associations that the brand strategist aspires to create or maintain”. On the other hand, brand image refers to the meaning associated with the product, based on the consumer’s experience, impression, and perception of the brand’s functions, emotions, and symbolic benefits, on the receiver’s side [13]. In this context, defining the brand of a destination means applying appropriate marketing practices, in order to distinguish cities and countries from the competition in terms of economic, social, political, and cultural aspects. The notion of place branding can be traced back to efforts to promote a place, which operated as the main element of place marketing, particularly in a tourist context [6]. In short, every city wants to have a strong identity and brand image. The identity is created by the marketer, while the image is based on the association made by the consumer. This association to create the image is based on cognitive and affective assessments, which makes these assessments a result of consumers’ perceptions and the destination’s goals, which provides conditions for the development of the brand personality concept.

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44.2.4 Media Engagement and City Branding The Internet has become the preferred means of searching for information; therefore, both companies and public and private institutions and bodies are increasingly using social networks, blogs, online information notes, videos, photographs, and other digital content, to attract, communicate, and interact directly with their audiences. Although without forgetting the traditional means of communication, in a wellplanned communication, digital communication is continually gaining ground. Social networks are increasingly important in terms of promoting a city, with unprecedented potential to rebrand a city [9, 25, 38], as they have shown a huge impact on the marketing of cities, through communication and co-creation [11]. Communication through social networks promotes and facilitates direct interaction between users, such as municipalities, residents, or visitors [25, 26], these being cocreators of the city’s brand campaign [28]. Finally, it is very important to mention how residents form not only the most important target audience for the city’s brand, but also become its most significant marketers [24]. Empirical studies (e.g., [11, 19]) have shown that the social networks most used by cities are Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, although there are obvious differences between the respective popularity of social networks for each city.

44.2.5 Resident Satisfaction The relevance of resident satisfaction with the city where they live has been repeatedly highlighted in the literature (e.g., [22, 21, 36, 37]). Citizens who are satisfied with the place where they live develop a strong and positive identity about the place [21], cited by [28]. With the development of a Citizen Satisfaction Index (CSI), [37] demonstrated that general satisfaction with a place can be explained through four distinct basic factors: “urbanism and diversity”, “nature and recreation”, “employment opportunities”, and “cost efficiency”. The authors conclude by noting that citizen satisfaction can be an adequate measure of success that gives place marketers a practical solution for evaluating the impact of their work. Furthermore, the CSI can be used as a benchmark for cities to fulfill their main function—improving the city for its citizens. Thus, it can be seen not only as a measure of success for the marketing activities of the place, but also for the development of the place as a whole. Implementing CSI for different cities on a regular basis could, ideally, help to identify changes and problems in site development from the resident’s point of view.

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44.2.6 The Moderating Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic, which emerged in 2020, imposing the confinement and social distancing of people, may have had an impact on most activities and actions carried out by citizens, in the most varied situations, so it is of all convenience that these consequences are properly assessed. The sudden changes in the way of life, individual and community, resulting from the measures implemented in this period, may have effects on the perception of citizens. In the present investigation, we intend to investigate the moderating effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, that is, to understand the extent to which this pandemic affected the direction and/or strength of the relationship between two other variables under study. From a statistical perspective, a variable is considered a moderator if it affects (either in magnitude or in sign) the correlation between the dependent variable and the independent variable.

44.3 Method The questionnaire carried out to the residents covers several sets of questions, related to sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, and educational qualifications), with the CBP, which is divided into five dimensions, in which all of them have a set of characteristics with which respondents may or may not agree (42 items on the Aaker scale, [1], were evaluated using a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1Strongly Disagree to 7-Strongly Agree), with the image of city brand (this comprises four sub-themes, namely, services provided by the municipality, services, accessibility and tourist and cultural equipment and services, and environment and prosperity (adapted from [28], with the respective questions evaluated using a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1-Strongly Disagree to 5-Strongly Agree), with the residents’ level of satisfaction, which allows knowing in what measure residents are satisfied with the city where they live (based on [28], being evaluated on a 5point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1-Strongly Disagree to 5-Totally Agree) and media engagement, which makes it possible to determine which media channels— both social networks (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn) and traditional communication channels (television, newspapers, radio, and brochures)—are used by residents to stay informed about the city of Ponta Delgada (based on [28], being evaluated on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1-Never to 6-Every day). The impact of COVID-19 was also assessed based on the following statements: “The COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on my perception of infrastructure and services in the city of Ponta Delgada”; “The COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on my personal daily routine”, which aim to understand to what extent the pandemic had an influence on the lives of respondents, being evaluated based on a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1-Strongly Disagree to 7-Strongly Agree. The sample used in the present study includes 456 valid questionnaires for residents in Ponta Delgada, with data collection taking place from January to April 2021.

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This sample is divided relatively homogeneously between the two sexes, with 235 female (51.5%) and 221 male (48.5%) respondents. It was found that the ages of the respondents vary between 18 and 73 years, with an average age of 45 years. Half (50%) of the respondents have higher education qualifications, around 39.69% have the 12th grade, and around 10.31% have the 3rd cycle or less. The statistical treatment of the data was performed using the IBM SPSS statistics 27, using various analyzes within the scope of descriptive and inferential statistics, and the SmartPLS 3.0 was used to test the PLS-SEM, with the purpose of estimating inter-relationships that involve a variety of constructs and items, and to ascertain the type of relationships that can be established between these constructs.

44.4 Results and Discussion In order to evaluate the research hypotheses, the SmartPLS 3.0 software was used for this purpose [29]. To test the reliability of the data, we evaluated the values of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (α), composite reliability (CR), and convergent and discriminant validities of the measurement model to guarantee the general validity of the data. The results presented in Table 44.1 show that all values of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient were greater than 0.7, the composite reliability scores were greater than 0.7 [20], and the convergent validity evaluated by the average variation extracted (AVE) for each construct was greater than 0.5, indicating that all reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity values are satisfactory [10, 18]. Analyzing Table 44.1, with regard to the Fornell-Larcker criterion [15], it appears that all pairs of constructs present values lower than 0.9, which indicates an adequate discriminant validity of the constructs. In summary, all criteria for evaluating reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity were met, supporting the measurement model. Figure 44.1 presents the results referring to the final model using PLS-SEM. Table 44.1 Measurement model evaluation results

CBP—City Brand Personality

Cronbach’s Alpha (α)

Composite Reliability (CR)

Average Variance Extracted (AVE)

Fornell-Larcker Criterion CBP

0.968

0.971

0.561

0.749

CI

ME

City image

0.821

0.857

0.500

0.810

0.653

ME—Media Engagement

0.867

0.937

0.882

0.707

0.720

0.939

RS—Resident’s Satisfaction

0.844

0.895

0.681

0.664

0.643

0.530

RS

0.825

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Fig. 44.1 PLS-SEM model

The explained variation (R2 ) between the constructs that varies between 0.473 and 0.563 (see the gray/bold circles in Fig. 44.1) supports the predictive power of the research model. The results of this structural model allow us to conclude that CBP has the greatest effect on resident satisfaction (0.415). CBP has the second strongest effect on media engagement (0.348). Regarding city image, it has a greater effect on media engagement (0.419). This has the second biggest effect on resident satisfaction (0.307). Using the Bootstrapping procedure, existing in PLS-SEM, the relative significance of all the hypotheses under investigation was tested, and the respective results are presented in Table 44.2. The results obtained show that the CBP (β = 0.635, p < 0.01) has a significant positive effect on media engagement, thus supporting the H1 research hypothesis. According to this result, we validate our research hypothesis H1. Concerning H2, it appears that CBP (β = 0.828, p < 0.01) has a strong (positive and significant) impact on residents’ satisfaction. Regarding H3, the image of the city (β = 0.842, p < 0.01) has a strong effect on media engagement. This way hypotheses 2 and 3 are considered valid. Regarding H4, the image of the city (β = 0.618, p < 0.01) has a strong impact on residents’ satisfaction. Regarding the other three hypotheses, since they all have a p-value above 0.05, they are not considered statistically significant. Hypotheses H1 to H4 are supported by the PLS-SEM model, while hypotheses H5 to H7 are not supported by the model. Taking into account the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, and in order to moderate its causal effect between endogenous and exogenous constructs [3], that is, in the latent variables CBP, brand image, resident satisfaction, and media engagement, a multigroup analysis (PLS-MGA) was used. Table 44.3 presents the results of the multigroup analysis containing the difference between the coefficients and the significance of this difference. The use of multigroup

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Table 44.2 Research hypotheses significance testing Coefficient (β)

t-test statistics

p-value

H1: CBP -> media engagement

0.635

5.037

0.000

H2: CBP -> resident satisfaction

0.828

5.165

0.000

H3: city image -> media engagement

0.842

7.262

0.000

H4: city image -> resident satisfaction

0.618

4.027

0.000

H5: resident satisfaction -> media engagement

0.056

0.609

0.543

H6: city image ->resident satisfaction -> media engagement

0.017

0.578

0.563

H7: CBP -> resident satisfaction -> media engagement

0.023

0.595

0.552

Table 44.3 Multigroup analysis on residents about the impact of COVID-19 Difference between coefficients

p-value

−0.338

0.046

H2: CBP -> resident satisfaction

0.151

0.341

H3: city image -> media engagement

0.310

0.031

H1: CBP -> media engagement

H4: city image -> resident satisfaction

−0.182

0.239

H5: resident satisfaction -> media engagement

−0.014

0.913

analysis is intended to verify whether there are significant differences between the path coefficients between residents of Ponta Delgada. Based on the p-values presented in Table 44.3, it is possible to validate hypotheses 1 and 3, given that they are all statistically significant (p-value < 0.05). In this way, there are significant differences between the effect of the CBP on media engagement, taking into account the perception of the infrastructures and services of the city of Ponta Delgada by the residents in relation to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among those who disagree and those who agree. The same situation is observed in relation to hypothesis 3 (p-value < 0.031). It should also be noted that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of indirect effects regarding the path coefficients (CBP -> media engagement) and (CBP -> resident satisfaction -> media engagement) between the residents of Ponta Delgada.

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44.5 Conclusions and Implications The main contribution of this research is in the development of a model that explains the relationship between CBP, city image, media engagement, and resident satisfaction and takes into account the moderating effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on residents’ perceptions of city image. Based on the model developed, it was found that only CBP and city image reveal significant impacts on media engagement and on resident satisfaction. In terms of statistically significant effects, CBP was found to have the largest effect on resident satisfaction and the second strongest effect on media engagement. Regarding city image, it has a greater effect on media engagement and has a second greater effect on resident satisfaction. On the other hand, although there is a positive relationship between resident satisfaction and media engagement, this influence is not significant. There is also no significant relationship between city image in conjunction with media engagement and the level of satisfaction of the residents; nor is there a significant relationship between CBP in conjunction with media engagement and resident satisfaction. The existing literature on these themes only partially examines the issues addressed in this research model, which makes it difficult to discuss the results. However, we can consider that the work developed by [28], for the city of Thessaloniki, in Greece, has some dimensions that can be compared with this investigation. By comparing the effects of city image, overall resident satisfaction, and CBP on the involvement of Generation Z residents with the media (media engagement), during the economic crisis felt in that country, these authors found that CBP and image of the city have statistically significant effects on media engagement, similar to the present investigation, although the greatest effect is that of CBP on media engagement. In the case of residents’ overall satisfaction, the opposite happens, that is, the effect on media engagement is significant, but with a negative sign, while in the present study, the relationship is positive, but not significant. Finally, regarding the impact of COVID-19 on CBP, city image, and resident satisfaction, and based on the results obtained, only the hypotheses that relate the CBP to media engagement and city image media engagement were supported as valid. The conclusions of this study reinforce the importance of brand and brand image in place branding and in the differentiation of cities as tourist destinations, in a global and increasingly competitive world. The empirical data it provides are essential to inform decision-making and for the development of adequate strategic planning for cities. It is important to carry out a proper diagnosis of the current brand image and the dimensions of the city’s current brand personality and then project the desired brand image, defining policies and actions for improvement. At the same time, decisionmakers should consider the influence of this image and CBP on the satisfaction of residents, this satisfaction being a fundamental condition for the involvement and recommendation of the city by the people who live there.

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This research exhibits certain limitations. Only one major city in the archipelago was surveyed and future studies should cover other cities and cross-country studies should be developed. The questionnaire survey was carried out in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, which implied the obligation to be carried out online, and not in person, which would eventually allow other types of answers and perhaps greater adherence by the population that is not used to dealing with new technologies, despite the sample obtained having been relatively wide. Forthcoming studies should also embrace other interesting constructs relating place branding and resident’s social media interactions.

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Chapter 45

Evoli System in Portugal: Experience Reports Adriana Oliveira , Paulino Silva , and Anabela Mesquita

Abstract Digital transformation has shown Higher Education Institutions the need to work with more active methodologies in the learning context. Students want to have a greater say in what they learn and teachers are starting to take a broader role in sharing knowledge. Therefore, the adoption of methodologies such as the flipped classroom makes more and more sense in the classroom context. Presently, there are international projects that offer the possibility of accessing tools capable of providing more active and motivating learning methodologies for teachers and students. One of these tools is called the Evoli system, a tool created in the scope of the international project ELSE—Eco/logical Learning and Simulation Environments in Higher Education. This paper presents experiences of using the Evoli system, together with Moodle, through flipped classroom educational methodology. The activity was implemented in the subject of “Research Methodology”, of the master’s degree Management of Organizations, in a Higher Education Institution. For this purpose, four simultaneous implementations of the system were conducted on different topics: Scientific Method I; Scientific Method II; Research Question; and Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Results obtained by the interactions with instructional videos are presented and discussed, together with an evaluation of the proposed novel system.

A. Oliveira (B) · P. Silva · A. Mesquita CEOS.PP, ISCAP Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] P. Silva e-mail: [email protected] A. Mesquita e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_45

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45.1 Introduction New approaches to teaching and learning have been made possible by the digital transformation and the fourth industrial revolution. Given this situation, higher education institutions (HEIs) must work to offer training using cutting-edge approaches that can give the thousands of students that enroll in HEIs each year with fresh, cuttingedge skills. When choosing the mechanism to be used for knowledge exchange, this scenario puts additional pressure on both students and teachers. The methodology used should take into account the fact that learners can be proactive, independent, and active participants in their own education, that teachers play a less monopolistic role in information transfer, and that learning environments are more dynamic. These affirmations have led to the identification of the flipped classroom methodology as a crucial teaching strategy that can raise student engagement and motivation. This paper presents experiences on the use of the Evoli system, a tool created in the framework of the international project ELSE—Eco/logical Learning and Simulation Environments in Higher Education. ELSE project establishes and disseminates a plan for achieving the overall European goal of redesigning higher education and promoting Bologna principles’ implementation across Europe. The experiences took place in a synchronous and asynchronous context and in a flipped classroom approach.

45.2 Background 45.3 Flipped Classroom Higher education is increasingly utilizing the flipped classroom pedagogical approach, which has allowed teachers to extend their presence outside of the classroom, even if virtually, on the assumption that any required homework and outside work that remains learning activities benefit from enriched content and assistance/feedback [1]. Flipped classroom allows a free and articulated exposition of content through a set of tools, such as the viewing of a video. In the classroom, one can watch the development of the main concepts or ideas through an interaction between peers and the teacher. The sharing in the classroom can be used by students to continue after class, either developing content acquisition or reviewing the concepts they found most difficult or interesting [2]. In addition, it encourages students to use their own study time to build the hard skills needed to participate in in-class activities like project development and problem-solving. Although the emphasis is on the development of soft skills, such as critical thinking, evaluation and analysis aptitudes, creativity, ability to work in groups, etc., or any other higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, the flipped classroom still enables students to devote their own study time to the development of the necessary hard skills to apply to in-class problem solving and project development activities. The flipped classroom

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has thus been recognized as a crucial educational strategy since it raises students’ levels of motivation and involvement. Although it is not a new educational approach, flipped learning places a high value on the traditional classroom setting. This method uses active, group-based problem solving or project-based activities in the classroom, together with asynchronous video lectures and practice problems as homework [4] and is occasionally linked to a variant of the teaching environments of b-learning [5]. It should be noted that videos, regardless of the subjects and content being taught, have become an actively used teaching tool for many teachers [2]. We think that the need to engage and accommodate the learning preferences of today’s students, particularly the millennials, who, in contrast to earlier generations, show a decreased tolerance for the lecture-style delivery of course material, is a major factor in the development of such methodology [6]. Despite being relatively new, a growing body of research has been devoted to how the methodology promotes student engagement, leading to better learning outcomes [8–10], as well as to how it helps students learn at their own pace, spending more time on preparation work and participating more actively during classroom activities [11–13].

45.4 ELSE—Eco/Logical Learning and Simulation Environments in Higher Education International research projects play an essential role in preparing students for the workforce. ELSE—Eco/logical Learning and Simulation Environments in Higher Education is one such initiative. The ELSE project was initiated with the intention of improving and innovating education tools and methods, particularly in higher education. In addition, the project intends to develop and disseminate a strategy to achieve the fundamental European goal of redesigning higher education, thereby facilitating the application of the Bologna Process principles throughout Europe. This goal is accomplished through the design of an integrated curriculum in which the teaching process presupposes the simultaneous acquisition of soft skills suitable for the digital age. Partners in this project include institutions of higher education and a company specializing in the development of serious games. Portugal, Italy, Spain, Poland, the United Kingdom, North Macedonia, Cyprus, and Romania are represented in this project. The ELSE international project, accessible at http://www.elseproject.eu, was created to implement some of the Bologna Process’s principles in all European nations. Among the intellectual outputs of this project was the EVOLI web application, accessible at https://evoli.altervista.org/. This application permits students to tag YouTube videos. This process allows students to provide feedback on specific portions of the provided content. Teacher feedback regarding the student’s level of comprehension can be crucial. In this case, the instructor can provide additional instruction on the topics where the students have the most difficulty. The process of

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video tagging can be completed at home by students, which is an example of the flipped classroom.

45.5 Methodology/Pedagogical Experience Since the Evoli system was designed to improve the flipped learning experience at large, the activity was implemented in the subject “Research Methodology”, of the master’s degree in Management of Organizations, in a Higher Education Institution. For this, four concurrent implementations of the system were conducted in different matters: Scientific Method I; Scientific Method II; Research Question; and Quantitative and Qualitative Research. The activity was implemented in the subject “Research Methodology”, of the master’s degree in Management of Organizations. The teaching/learning process combined flipped classroom and active learning supported by the development of projects. The pedagogical experiment developed as follows: the teacher defines the subject content; (1) the teacher records the video with the subject; (2) after recording, the video is made available on Moodle to students; (3) teachers share/report the video statistics obtained through Evoli, along with pedagogical and technological considerations, limitations, and suggestions for improvement—see Fig. 45.1. In this context, we opted for a qualitative analysis allowing for a clearer understanding of the behavior and the process of construction of meanings [2], taking into account that the “analysis of the words and situations expressed by personalized informants does not remain in the individual meanings, but in the shared meanings. Thus, by understanding the language of a social group, one can predict the responses of this group” [3]. As already mentioned, the technology used was the tool developed by the European project ELSE, called Evoli. The tool is integrated into the Moodle and allows students to view the video at the time they deem most appropriate—see Fig. 45.1. Students can comment on their understanding of the material as they watch the video. While watching the video, they can also post comments (questions or ideas). The instructor created a film about the subject of “research design” and made it accessible on the Moodle platform in order to facilitate the activity. The students had to be able to choose the best research design after the visualization, taking into account the research issue of their dissertation project. Four phases made up this exercise, two of which were done outside of class and two of which were done in class, as follows:

Teacher records the video with the subject

Video is made available on moodle to students

Fig. 45.1 Phases of the pedagogical experiment

Teachers share/report the video statistics obtained through Evoli

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Phase 1: The instructor made the video and provided the access code. The pupils entered the password, selected the video, and accessed the platform before watching the video. The learner made use of the Evoli tool to watch the video. This work was completed when the student thought it would be most suitable and outside of the classroom. Phase 2: In class, the students and teacher addressed how to use the contents that were visualized in the individual research projects (in class). Phase 3 of the project involved students conducting independent bibliographical research. Students started composing their own research projects, an exercise done outside of the classroom (out class). Phase 4: Presentation, discussion, and evaluation (in class). In the next section, the results are presented.

45.6 Results In this section, we will present the results from the experiences previously mentioned. The results from the evidence collected are both in qualitative and quantitative terms. Firstly, we will present the results from the flipped classroom experiences through the use of the EVOLI, a tool created under the ELSE project. At the end of the visualization, the students will be able to select the adequate research design taking into consideration the research question of their dissertation project. The activity was implemented in the subject “Research Methodology”, of the master’s degree in Management of Organizations, with different matters: Scientific Method I; Scientific Method II; Research Question; Quantitative and Qualitative Research. This exercise was conducted in four phases, two of them performed outside the class and another two in class, as shown below. The phases were described in the previous section on methodology. The teaching/learning process combined flipped classroom and active learning supported by the development of projects. The results are presented below. About the topic Scientific Method I The link to the video about Scientific Method I is this: https://youtu.be/b4zRyq EV0Fk. The results regarding the students’ interactions with the video about Scientific Method I in the Evoli system are presented in Fig. 45.2. The video has a duration of 25 min and was scored 4 times. The video has been scored 10 times. The average understanding is 99 and the average appreciation is 96. The video collected 9 reactions: 8 I GET IT, 0 I DO NOT GET IT. The students in the comments section shared some questions, such as Teacher, Shall we say then that theoretical research, is based on something existing and empirical inv. based on new data? With positivist research data being obtained by observation and interpretivist research data being obtained by sampling what we intend to investigate? The questions were subsequently answered in class.

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Fig. 45.2 Recap of the video about the topic Scientific Method I

About the topic Scientific Method II The link to the video about Scientific Method II is this: https://youtu.be/4swkEz KHfXs. The results regarding the students’ interactions with the video about Scientific Method II in the Evoli system are presented in Fig. 45.3. The video has been scored 4 times. The average understanding is 92 and the average appreciation is 89. The video collected 4 reactions: 3 I GET IT, 0 I DO NOT GET IT. One of the comments shared can be understood as a conclusion made by the student: “That is, just as other researchers have tried to detail their research, we should further narrow the ‘topic’”. And again, the sharing was discussed in class.

Fig. 45.3 Recap of the video about the topic Scientific Method II

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Fig. 45.4 Recap of the video about the topic Research Question

About the topic Research Question The link to the video about Research Question is this: https://youtu.be/JYgfbA HxBfw. The results regarding the students’ interactions with the video about Research Question in the Evoli system are presented in Fig. 45.4. The video has a duration of 19 min. The video has been scored 3 times. The average understanding is 91 and the average appreciation is 96. Your video collected 4 reactions: 4 I GET IT, 0 I DO NOT GET IT and no comments. About the topic Quantitative and Qualitative Research The link to the video about Quantitative and Qualitative Research is this: https:// youtu.be/2ImWYrl9VxE. The results regarding the students’ interactions with the video about Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Evoli system are presented in Fig. 45.5. The video has a duration of 26 min. The video has been scored 6 times. The average understanding is 93 and the average appreciation is 94. Your video collected 2 reactions: 2 I GET IT, 0 I DO NOT GET IT and 0 comments.

45.7 Discussion and Conclusion This paper presented an evaluation of the Evoli system in the course “Research Methodology” of the Master’s Degree in Management of Organizations, with different topics: Scientific Method I; Scientific Method II; Research Question; Quantitative and Qualitative Research. The technologies used in this context consisted of the LMS Moodle and an innovative tool, developed by a European project (ELSE— http://www.elseproject.eu/else/), called Evoli (http://hoc12.elet.polimi.it/else/). The major goal of the application, which can be connected with Moodle, is to give students the chance to express their degree of understanding and comments in relation to the

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Fig. 45.5 Recap of the video about the topic Quantitative and Qualitative Research

ideas and inquiries presented in the flipped video moments. There were four phases to this exercise, two of which took place outside of class and two of which took place in class. The program enables the teacher to obtain a feel of how the kids are growing in their learning and acquiring abilities, according to the teachers’ reports on its use. In other words, it consists of a two-level input that allows evaluating both the quality of the educational multimedia content, such as instructional videos, and the quality of the cognitive processes generated around that same content. It also allows identifying which aspects of the content are most difficult for students to grasp and understand. Because it allows for a quick reply, the Evoli approach also offers good accessibility in relating inquiries to specific contents or parts of subjects and subsequent clarification of any uncertainties. The information that needs to be remembered relates to the student interactions. The majority of interactions, per the data, occur when students affirm their comprehension of the explanations made in the last section of the video. There is evidence here of the relevance of the use of video in learning [2]. The video’s excessive length and lack of rhythmic variety may be one of the causes for the low number of interactions with this content. Having said that, one of the issues with this research’s limitations is the small number of reports, which prevents generalizations from being made. Therefore, it is suggested that additional work be done in order to gather more reports. It is also suggested the development of further research in the area with interdisciplinary content, in order to bring together different contexts and subjects and thus make the research more complete.

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References 1. Akçayır, G., Akçayır, M.: The flipped classroom: a review of its advantages and challenges. Comput. Educ. 126, 334–345 (2018) 2. Bergmann, J., Sams, A.: Flip your Classroom: reach every student in every class every day. In: International Society for Technology in Education (2012) 3. Vilelas, J.: O processo de construção do conhecimento, Lisboa: Edições Sílabo 107–108 (2009) 4. Bishop, J.L., Verleger, M.A.: The flipped classroom: a survey of the research. In: ASEE National Conference Proceedings. Atlanta, GA (2013) 5. Thai, N.T.T., De Wever, B., Valcke, M.: The impact of a flipped classroom design on learning performance in higher education: looking for the best “blend” of lectures and guiding questions with feedback. Comput. Educ. 107, 113–126 (2017) 6. Roehl, A., Reddy, S.L., Shannon, G.J.: The flipped classroom: an opportunity to engage millennial students through active learning. J. Fam. Consum. Sci. 105(2), 44 (2013) 7. Freeman, S., et al.: Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111(23), 8410–8415 (2014) 8. Gilboy, M.B., Heinerichs, S., Pazzaglia, G.: Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 47(1), 109–114 (2015) 9. Tune, J.D., Sturek, M., Basile, D.P.: Flipped classroom model improves graduate student performance in cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal physiology. Adv. Physiol. Educ. 37(4), 316–320 (2013) 10. Johnson, G.B.: Student Perceptions of the Flipped Classroom. University of British Columbia (2013) 11. Kong, S.C.: Developing information literacy and critical thinking skills through domain knowledge learning in digital classrooms: an experience of practicing flipped classroom strategy. Comput. Educ. 78, 160–173 (2014) 12. Roach, T.: Student perceptions toward flipped learning: new methods to increase interaction and active learning in economics. Int. Rev. Econ. Educ. 17, 74–84 (2014) 13. Mesquita, A., Silva, P., Oliveira, L., Sequeira, A., Oliveira, A.: Cross-disciplinary experiences with EVOLI system in Portugal. In: ICERI 2020—13th Annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation [Internet]. Online Conference; 2020 [cited 2021 May 21]. pp. 8288–95. Available from: http://library.iated.org/view/MESQUITA2020CRO

Chapter 46

Multiplicative Networks and Slates: Mathematical Learning with Meaning Dárida Fernandes, Maria Inês Pinho, and Luísa Alves

Abstract With this research project, it is intended to study the implications of the cultural context in mathematical learning. It seeks to analyze how children appropriate the new concept of a multiplicative network and mobilize it in an open cultural environment for problem solving, exploring an economic and cultural element of the region: the “slate”. The research question focused on the influence of this cultural element in solving mathematics problems, specifically, in the construction of multiplicative networks. The case study carried out indicates that the child was more motivated and mathematical learning was more meaningful.

46.1 Introduction This study is part of a broader one on algebraic learning and concerns with an interdisciplinary context in basic education. The mathematics learning was situated in an open environment, and the focus of the investigation was the influence of the cultural and economic elements of the region of Valongo. To evaluate that influence consider what may have significant value: in the community and in children’s families, in mathematics knowledge, especially in multiplicative networks. In this work, the investigation team was expanded. In other words, besides integrating a lecture and investigator of the School of Education and the primary teacher D. Fernandes (B) Institutional Supervisor Teacher in Mathematics and Integrated Researcher at INED, School of Education of Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. I. Pinho Cultural and Social Sciences Department at School of Education of Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Alves 3EB1 Vallis Longus – Valongo, Valongo, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_46

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of the case study school, was also invited to integrate it a lecture and investigator from the Heritage Management’s bachelor. And with this new concept, the numerical and operational domains were approached to promote the development of algebraic thinking, with the application of the properties of multiplication. To arrive at the final conclusions, a qualitative and interpretive research approach was adopted as a methodology to follow. Besides this, and having the multiplicative networks as an innovative support of mathematical learning, the following research questions were formulated: How do children explore and build multiplicative networks in mathematics classes? To what extent does the existence of a cultural element of the region (in this case the slate) facilitate the resolution of problems in context? In this sequence, the following research objectives were identified: To analyze how children react to the learning of multiplicative networks, establishing numerical relationships. To investigate the educational importance of the “slate” element and its cultural context in problem solving, making the mathematical learning meaningful for the child.

46.2 Revision of Literature 46.2.1 Problematization According to [14], mathematical science should be available to everyone, just by changing strategies, raising students’ expectations, developing strong beliefs, and raising self-esteem and motivation. On the other hand, interdisciplinary tasks emerge as opportunities to develop “meaningful support for all students” [14, p. 13]. From another perspective, it is recognized that when the child actively participates in the construction of their knowledge, in an environment favorable to research and questioning, a meaningful and simultaneously integrative learning takes place. Both these factors are determinants for the acquisition and mobilization of perennial knowledge. Now, based on these assumptions, it is important to continue to invest in new tasks and intervention processes to find positive answers to the social challenge of promoting mathematical competence among all children. At the same time, [14] argues that only the result of a lot of research with students can help to better understand how they build mathematical knowledge. So, the research question was: what is the influence of the cultural and economic element of a region: the “slate”, in solving math problems, specifically, in the construction of multiplicative networks? Although this study is programmatically situated in the domain of Numbers and Operations, it extends to the domain of Algebra or, as some authors call it, pre-algebra

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[1, 12], since children develop the ability to analyze numerical relationships, explain them in everyday language, and represent them through different processes, including the use of symbols, which are skills close to the domain of Algebra. Ameron [1] also argues that pre-algebra involves a continuous gradual process of formalization, namely of notations, and that the nature of the strategy used in the discovery of the solution is decisive in the development of algebraic thinking. This route is of the utmost importance [15]. In another study, Ponte says “whoever does not have a reasonable ability to work with numbers and their operations and to understand the abstract language of Algebra is seriously limited in his/her professional school options and in his/her exercise of democratic citizenship” [16].

46.2.2 Multiplicative Network Concept In a multiplicative network, proportionality relations, additive or subtractive linear connections, and properties of multiplication arise, making it possible to determine new numerical values based on prior knowledge of a relation. In this multiplicative conceptual field [15, 16], the child learns to observe expressions, analyze them, establish relationships, and based on a known value, draw conclusions, and determine new values. On the other hand, “a concept is simultaneously a set of situations, operative invariants and linguistic and symbolic representations” [15, p. 94]. As shown in Fig. 46.1, based on the known central value—the product of 11∗12 = 132—it is possible to determine all other products resulting from it, based on the establishment and recognition of numerical relationships. For example, to obtain 22 ∗ 12 it is enough to multiply 132 by 2 and to calculate 12 ∗ 12 add 12 to the known product, since 12 = 11 + 1; (11 + 1) ∗ 12 = (11 ∗ 12) + (1 ∗ 12). Kieran [9] point out that the concept of a multiplicative network poses new challenges for children. On the other hand, scholars of Algebra [8, 10], or pre-algebra [1], Fig. 46.1 Example of a multiplicative network built with children. Source Own systematization

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concerned with school learning in this domain, refer to the need to develop numerical proposals from an early age with the establishment of relationships, using properties of operations in an understood, structural, and procedural perspective of knowledge. Multiplicative networks are important examples, since they allow the child to develop skills that appear to be fundamental for future structuring learning such as observation and relational analysis. For [21, p. 79] “the task of giving meaning to received stimuli depends on previous knowledge”. Wolfe [19] also emphasizes that one of the objectives of cognitive sciences has been to try to discover how knowledge is presented and organized in the mind, arguing that an active and relational role must be played in its construction. On the other hand, for [23], complex concepts, such as to gain meaning and operationality, need to be contextualized and exemplified in concrete situations and alert to the fact that the school values symbols too much and reality too little.

46.2.3 Meaningful Learning of Mathematics in Context For [5], a learning environment is one in which an individual is subject to learning opportunities. According to these authors, the characterization of such an environment can be carried out from a continuous line in which the greater the systematization and the lower the autonomy, the greater the formal character of learning (Fig. 46.2). In formal or non-formal learning environments, the teacher has a fundamental role, as he is responsible for planning and exploring the environments and for evaluating and certifying the learning process [12, 13]. Therefore, teacher participation is a relevant indicator in the classification of the learning environment, and, in its organization, it should promote education for citizenship as an interdisciplinary perspective as suggested by [4]. On the other hand, [17] refers that “the educational dialogue between knowledge and disciplinary areas in the school and outside it must stimulate the transformation of the school itself, in the sense of making it a place of incessant search and affirmation of an active, demanding and responsible citizenship”. Canavarro [6] also advocates the need to create connections between Mathematics and reality, as they represent an opportunity to build “bridges” between. (a) the school and the life that happens beyond its borders; Fig. 46.2 Classification of a learning environment. Source Adapted from [5]

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(b) the different areas of knowledge, valuing their complementarity; (c) the mathematics teacher and their peers. Reference [20] also considers that “solving real-life problems is another way to heighten emotional and motivational interest”. He adds that “often teachers, without knowing the neurological basis of the effect that emotion has on learning, use and, very well, intuitively, methodologies that make what students are studying more meaningful and emotional” [21, p. 105]. She also mentions that “the content (the text in which the left hemisphere stands out) is important, but text without context (the specialty of the right hemisphere) is often meaningless” [21, p. 105]. It is necessary to teach content within a context that is meaningful and makes sense to children, creating a connection with their own lives and experience, as it is about teaching the two halves of the brain that always work together. “If the curriculum is not related to the student experience, a lot of information is lost and time is wasted by having students engaged in meaningless memorization rituals” [21, p. 52]. Kieran [9] also reiterates this need to provide students with learning experiences to solve concrete problems of their day-to-day, seeking to develop the useful character of Mathematics, in the interpretation and intervention [22]. As [7] points out, “The foundations of Mathematics dive, as much as those of any other branch of Science, in real life; both share the same mother”. On the other hand, the teacher must assume himself as a facilitator of rich learning environments and enhancers of competence development [18]. Despite being a particularly difficult and complex role, according to [2], “Our role as teachers, by establishing with students an environment in the classroom that encourages them to express their thoughts and at the same time allows them to ask each other questions, creates a learning environment for teachers too. It is not just an environment that encourages higher-order thinking and reflective activities in our students, but also in ourselves” [20], On the other hand, for a meaningful learning, the teacher must, when approaching new information, start from the students’ previous knowledge and provide a class where the investigation is present, allowing the student to expose their thinking in front of the tasks to be performed [2].

46.2.4 Cultural and Architectural Element of the Region: The Slate Slates are thin tiles (about 5 mm) made of slate that are a way of survival for many of Valongo’s families. In fact, since 1843 (date of the first records of the discovery of slate mines in the municipality) the demand for that mineral has become a source of employment for some of its inhabitants. With this, many factories appeared and together with the mines became an important economic resource for the region. Associated with it many traditions and cultural expressions emerged. This is so clear that it can be recognized as an industrial heritage.

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In this paper, there is a concern to connect the math’s aspects (namely, multiplicative networks as a strategy for mathematical learning) with the school local context (namely, Industrial Heritage in the context surrounding the school and the child). At the same time, it was possible to articulate Math’s with Middle Study. When developing the topic of slate, it is important to start explaining its different applications. And they vary a lot. In other words, slate can be used both in tiles, in roof tiles, or in billiard stones. Widely used in decoration, both indoors (for example, in the entrance hall or in the living and dining room) and outdoors (for example, in gardens and gourmet areas), it can be seen on walls, floors, partitions, facades, or countertops. The work with tiles was not always so easy to develop and like this ran to several routines that nowadays are identified with an industrial heritage. The child that now is attending a primary school in Valongo´s region or other slate-producing regions has family members who worked with slate and who know these cultural traditions. So besides being a teaching topic, slate can also become a source of inter-generational dialogue with all its positive aspects. This is an innovative study and so there isn´t still any research on the influence of the cultural element (the “slate”) in the learning of mathematics and specifically in the construction of multiplicative networks.

46.3 Methodology 46.3.1 Methodological Plan In view of the study’s questions, a qualitative and interpretive research approach was adopted, because, as [3] argues, the natural situation constitutes the source of the data, being necessary, at first, to describe, then to analyze the data, valuing the process, as well as the product and the result. The unit of analysis was a classroom, and the tasks related to multiplicative networks and problem resolution had the “slate” as the problematic topic. In procedural terms, the multidisciplinary team with the head teacher of the class, defined objectives, planned and prepared the classes, exploring mathematical and cultural content, to be developed over a period of one and a half months. During this period, the primary teacher and the classroom students studied concepts, visited the slate mines, the “slates” design factory, and the Lousa Museum, and photographed houses and streets that use this material in the district. Sessions were held with the collective and individual exploration of multiplicative networks. Also, an expert was invited to come and talk to the children about the “slate” and the children had the opportunity to photograph streets and houses which included the slate in their construction. Subsequently, in the classroom, the children built their own slates which constituted a very rich and significant mathematical learning experience at the same time they were brainstorming on this cultural element (Fig. 46.3).

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Fig. 46.3 Panel and research of the slates built by the children

Finally, it was proposed to solve several problems related to the use of slates in the cladding of walls of houses or roofs, some of which are exposed throughout the article. The planned tasks were solved individually or in a pedagogical pair, their resolution was discussed, and, in the end, reflections were made on the themes produced. In the end, all the children’s productions, videos, and logbooks constructed by the researchers and the class teacher were collected, which were reflected by all the elements of the team and target of a content analysis guided by recursively defined categories, based on the research questions to which it was intended to answer. The characterization of the tasks was as follows: (i) cultural context, related to the value of the spell in the region, with interpretation, communication, and debate of images; (ii) conceptual scope, related to the definition of a multiplicative network; (iii) interdisciplinary context, with the resolution of concrete problems related to slate and multiplicative networks, aborting various mathematics contents.

46.3.2 Characterization of the Educational Context The classroom in the study has its place in the municipality of Valongo, district of Porto, in a semi-urban context. It consisted of 25 students, 10 females and 15 males, aged between 8 and 9 years. Of these 25 students under analysis, 21 belonged to the 3rd year, 3 belonged to the 2nd year, and one child missed some of the sessions. All these students belong to a medium socioeconomic level and the parents were mostly represented by mothers. In the analysis of the student’s context, it was noted that most of the parents are diverse in their profession and their professional situation is permanent. These parents were classified as guardians since they showed a very participatory presence

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in their kids’ education. In fact, they went to the school whenever called upon or on their own initiative.

46.4 Results and Comments In the recording of results, it is important to highlight several moments. The first approach was cultural. The research team went to visit the mines, the factory, and the slate museum and worked with the children on the importance of this material in the community and in the children’s families. The second approach was about the concept of the multiplicative network and the children’s reaction to this new knowledge. After this, the research team integrates the cultural element in contextualized problematic situations. And, finally, the children’s attitude toward the teacher’s new challenge in calculating the quotient of an exact integer division by a divisor formed by a two-digit number. These moments will be summarized next. 1st moment—Introduction of the concept of multiplicative network In the first moment, the origin of spellings and their importance in people’s lives was explained and multiplicative networks were presented as a mathematical content in which numerical values are all related. In this presentation, in constant dialogue with the children, a link was made between the cultural context and the new mathematics content to be learned. After, when building the multiplicative network, the children actively participated, asked questions, and found it relatively easy to observe, compare, establish relationships, and arrive at the correct results (Figs. 46.4 and 46.5). In calculating the base value of the multiplicative network structure, the children used different strategies and showed, with pleasure, the different resolutions. They seemed to show a supplementary enthusiasm in working with numbers, as shown by some resolutions (Fig. 46.6, 46.7 and 46.8).

Figs. 46.4 and 46.5 Determining the branches of a multiplicative network. Source Own systematization

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Figs. 46.6, 46.7 and 46.8 Determining the base value of the structure. Source Own systematization

In solving the multiplicative network, the children basically used two types of solutions: (I) with the application of linear operators: additive and subtractive (7 children in 21 answered, some of which presented one, two, or three incorrect results); (ii) with the application of the four operators, with the particularity of the division by two being replaced by the product ½ (14 children answered ok with only one of them having a branch with an incorrect result). It should also be noted that, in cases where one of the factors was a multiple or submultiple of a previous expression, it became more accessible to the child than in the branches where this was not the case. Also, the distributive property of multiplication regarding addition or subtraction should be implemented. For example, in the case portrayed in Figs. 46.4 and 46.5, as they knew the value of the center (11 ∗ 12 = 132), it was more accessible to determine 11 ∗ 24 than 11 ∗ 13 or 11 ∗ 11 because, in the 1st case, as the teacher said to a child: “you can really see how to do it: just multiply by 2, because 11 is also there and 24 is double 12… As I know, the result is just multiplied by 2”. In the case of 11 ∗ 13 = 11 ∗ (12 + 1) or 11 ∗ 11 = 11 ∗ (12 − 1), they recognize, respectively, that it is necessary to add or subtract, but initially they think that it is only necessary to add (or subtract) a unit and do not relate it to the expression, using the distributive property of multiplication over addition or subtraction.

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Fig. 46.9 Brainstorming produced. Source Own systematization

Despite these relationships having been worked on collectively in the construction/exploration of the first multiplicative network, there were still some hesitations, but overall, in the individual resolution of tasks, the results were frankly positive. The children showed understanding in the construction and collective exploration of multiplicative networks and in their application in solving individual tasks. Regarding the question: “In your opinion, what is a multiplicative network?”, the children wrote (Fig. 46.9), basically, four types of answers, relating to: (i)

previous results to perform new operations or discover new one’s results (13 responses); (ii) a set of accounts that are related to each other (5); (iii) solving a problem to solve an operation (1); (iv) a multiplication network (1) or a multiplication channel (1). 2nd moment—Problem solving in context. The “slate” was worked on by a specialist, who was very well received by the children. By identifying different types of heritage (artistic, architectural, ethnographic, natural, or industrial) they related them to the various occupations of the family members. After the visit to the Museum of Lousa, during which the photographic record was carried out, the children built “slates” and brainstormed on this theme, as shown in Fig. 46.9. Then, the children solved the proposed problematic situations related to the number of “slates” existing on a roof and their price. Thus, in the first question related to the counting of “slate” on a roof, the children used several strategies (Figs. 46.10, 46.11 and 46.12), among which the use of (i) numerical expressions organized by parts (11 children); (ii) numerical expressions (3), one of them explaining the multiplicative network; (iii) linear expression, using only addition (3); (iv) additive and multiplicative expression with the 7 + 8 group

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Figs. 46.10 and 46.11 “Slates” counting strategies. Source Own systematization

Fig. 46.12 “Slates” counting strategies. Source Own systematization

(2); (v) additive expression, forming sets and using distributive property (1); and (vi) partial expressions using multiplication and subtraction (1). Of the various questions related to the covering of a house, the question was “if the slates covered half of the wall, how many slates would it take to cover the whole wall? What if it represented the tenth part? Explain your reasoning” “And if Mr. Joaquim wants to cover a wall with 120 slates and has already covered ¾ of the wall. How many slates has he already placed?”. The children used several strategies, from the additive operator to the inverse operator, and in the last question the children basically used the meaning of operator (9 answers); others the additive process, applying the meaning of part of a whole (4). In solving the question: “If each single cost e2.50, how much will 60 cost? And 120? And 180?” most children answer correctly and use the additive or multiplicative operator, developing, in the latter case, proportional reasoning. Only one child mentioned that he did not use the multiplicative network, but all the others wrote that they used this notion, because the initial values are the basis for calculating the following. Two children even said: “It is very easy, teacher, because 120 is double 60 and so just multiply by two and like 180 = 120 + 60, so just add the values I calculated for 120 and 60… this is like in the multiplicative network, isn’t it a teacher?…

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I always use the values I already know and not I need to do a lot of calculations.” It should be added that most of the children tried to do the calculations with these connections. Also, there were children who asked the teacher if they were thinking correctly. 3rd moment—a new proposal As the teacher noticed all the children’s enthusiasm and the different relationships they established, she launched a new challenge without any further clarification: perform an integer division in which the divisor consisted of a number formed by two digits (264: 12). The teacher was highly surprised because practically all the children solved the division by decomposing the divisor, having evoked the knowledge of multiplicative networks. It should be noted that the communicational attitude in the exploration of mathematical knowledge was always very present in these activities. See the following dialogue: Student A—“because she’s a teacher, it’s the same way as in the networks… Since I don’t know how to do it, I’ll think of an easier division: first I divide by 2 and then by 6. Maybe, can’t I, teacher?”. Prof.—“And why are you saying that these numbers can be used and not others?”. Student A—“Because 12 is equal to 2 times 6… it’s easy after all!”. Student B—“But I thought otherwise teacher… I’m going to do the multiplication by 12 to get to 264”. These and other observations amazed the teacher responsible for the class, because despite having several years of experience at this level of education, the children had never made such associations. As it was the first time that she explored multiplicative networks, she attributes these discoveries to this fact, mentioning that she had become “a fan of this subject”.

46.5 Final Reflections In this investigation, it was sought to develop relational reasoning, with multiplicative networks, within the domain of Mathematics. Besides this, it was a particular concern to integrate those topics into the local context of the child. Since the case study school selected is in the region of Valongo, the industrial heritage of the “slates” was the practical framework used. As children develop greater motivation when mathematics is contextualized [8], it was important to integrate a cultural element of the region for the child to learn, with pleasure, new mathematical content. On the other hand, as the slate has a physical structure and is a cultural element that has existed in the region for several generations, it gave children extra motivation and meaning in the process of mathematics learning. The dialogue and the communication with children with great passion indicate that this attitude interferes with mathematics learning.

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It appears that, although there is still little information on the learning of this subject, it presents itself in a structural and procedural way in the child’s mathematical learning, especially in the field of pre-algebra [9, 10]. It is recognized that the construction of multiplicative networks was accessible and made sense for the children, having mobilized the knowledge built in problem solving in context and transferred this knowledge to the calculation of exact integer division. The revision of literature indicated that these mental constructions and productions of students are inducing the passage from their own informal schemes to the formal processes in which “make sense” is the keyword when exploring math tasks. It also emphasized the necessity to change teaching practices, leaving behind a “traditionalist” teaching that promotes routine and, consequently, the “isolated” learning of contents. In other words, it develops meaningful learning in students. In fact, by valuing the receptivity of "mathematics-reality" supported by a cultural element of the region, directly related to the child’s day-to-day situations, new intellectual stimuli arise, related to the memory of a region, of a family and the child promotes meaningful learning. Also recognize that the sources of “insight” regulated by automatisms only develop an instinctive and “perfect” resolution and rarely provoke understanding and consequently raise awareness. One of the limitations of the study was that there were no references to (i) the use of slates in mathematical learning; (ii) the exploration of this new content—the multiplicative networks; (iii) the relationship between the two. In this order, the paper shows that it is necessary to dedicate more time to explore the continuous process of learning algebra, implementing a good sequence of problems, and creating the need to let the formalization flow naturally, intrinsically, through the “insights” and not just in a procedural way. Thanks This research was supported by the Research and Innovation and Education Center of the Escola Superior de Educação do Instituto Politécnico do Porto (ESE/IPP)— inED.

References 1. Ameron, B.: Reinvention of early algebra. Developmental research on the transition from arithmetic to álgebra. Institut Freudenthal, Utrecht (2002) 2. Ausubel, D.: The psychology of meaningful learning. Grune & Stratton, New York (1963) 3. Bogdan R, Biklen S (1994) Investigação qualitativa em educação. Uma Introdução à teoria e aos métodos. Porto Editora, Porto 4. Botelho CT (2020) As potencialidades da abordagem STEAM na construção articulada do conhecimento em artes e ciências [Dissertação de doutoramento]. Instituto Politécnico de Santarém, Santarém 5. Bragança B, Ferreira L, Pontelo I (2007) Práticas educativas e ambientes de aprendizagem escolar: relato de três experiências 6. Canavarro AP (2003) Práticas de ensino da Matemática: Duas professoras, dois currículos: APM, Coleção Teses, Lisboa

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7. Caraça BJ (1989) Conceitos fundamentais da matemática. Livraria Sá da Costa Editora. e Gradiva, edições de 1951, 1984 e 1998, Lisboa 8. Fernandes, D.: Aprendizagens algébricas em contexto interdisciplinar no ensino básico. Universidade de Aveiro, Tese de Doutoramento (2006) 9. Fernandes D, Mariz B, Duque A (2011) Nova Matemática – 3.º ano e 4.º ano. Guias para professores da nova matemática – 3.º ano e 4.º ano. Porto Editora, Porto 10. Kieran C (1992) The learning and teaching of school Algebra. In: Grows DA (ed) Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 11. Kieran C, Chalouh L (1993) Prealgebra: the transition from arithmetic to algebra. In: Douglas TO (ed) Research ideas for the classroom. Middle grades mathematics. NCTM. Research Interpretation Project. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 12. Ministério da Educação Aprendizagens Essenciais da Matemática, Lisboa (2018) 13. Ministério da Educação Novas Aprendizagens Essenciais da Matemática, Lisboa (2021) 14. NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) (2000) Principles and standards for school mathematics. NCTM, Reston 15. Ponte J (2006) Números e Álgebra no currículo escolar. In: Vale I, Pimentel T, Barbosa A, Fonseca L, Santos e P. Canavarro L (Org.), Números e Álgebra na aprendizagem da matemática e na formação de professors. Lisboa: Secção de Educação Matemática da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação, pp 5–27 16. Praia M (1999) Educação para a cidadania. Teoria e práticas. Cadernos Correio Pedagógico. ASA, Porto 17. Sousa, H.: O ambiente de aprendizagem e a matemática. Educação Matemática 83, 35–40 (2005) 18. Thompson P (1996) Imagery, and the development of mathematical reasoning. In: Steffe L et al (ed) Theories of mathematical learning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Nova Jersey, pp 267–283 19. Wood et al (1996) Criar um ambiente na aula para falar sobre matemática. Educação e Matemática, vol 40, pp 39–43 20. Wolfe P (2004) Compreender o funcionamento do cérebro. E a sua importância no processo de aprendizagem. Porto Editora, Porto 21. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000, 2007, 2014) Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. NCTM 22. Vasconcelos, Y.L., Manzi, S.M.S.: Processo ensino-aprendizagem e o paradigma construtivista. EDUCAÇÃO 5(3), 65–74 (2017) 23. Vergnaud, G.: The theory of conceptual fields. Hum Dev 52, 83–94 (2009)

Chapter 47

Communication as a Means of Boosting Tourism: Case Study Santa Maria Da Feira Ana Paula Camarinha , António Abreu , Adriana Sousa, Ivone Cardoso , and António Vieira de Castro Abstract Communication in the tourism sector has progressively acquired special relevance with the use of digital means, as this reality represents a great opportunity for any business, and as tourism is a highly dynamic area, it is no exception. Communication with tourists is imperative to captivate, motivate, and retain them in touristic places and events. This article focuses on how communication influences the tourist in annual events held in the Municipality of Santa Maria da Feira. It was based on a case study carried out in this municipality, in which a questionnaire was disseminated to the general public through social networks and interviews with the Tourism Office and Division of Communication, Public and International Relations of the Municipality, in addition to the review of existing literature on this topic. Based on the results obtained, it seems possible to say that the use of different types of communication will act as a means of boosting tourism, facilitating the promotion of this sector, as well as improving communication between the tourist entity and the respective tourists in the municipality of Santa Maria da Feira. It is hoped that this work will serve as a basis for future investigations related to the subject, but also A. P. Camarinha (B) CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto; SIIS - Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu · I. Cardoso CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Cardoso e-mail: [email protected] A. Sousa Porto Accounting and Business School, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. V. de Castro SIIS - Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, IPolytechnic of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_47

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as a guideline for the Municipality, in order to take measures to improve tourism communication.

47.1 Introduction The choice of the theme for this article arises due to its enormous relevance and actuality of the same, as well as the undeniable impact of the Communication and Tourism sectors in today’s society. The preference for the Municipality of Santa Maria da Feira (MSMF) is due to the fact that it is not only the place of residence but essentially due to the wealth of its diversity and opportunities in the tourism sector, facilitating the acquisition of a varied set of perspectives and consequently a greater diversity in the results. However, it is not enough to have a range of tourist opportunities, as there will only be a good use in the sector, if it is sustained by effective communication since tourism depends on this, either to disseminate a certain product or for communication between the offer and the tourist/visitor [1]. By reading this article, it will be possible to understand strategies, identify challenges, and envision the future of the use of communication in Santa Maria da Feira (SMF) tourism, since, over time, the way of conveying information has been changing significantly, once again, by the advancement of technologies. Taking this reality into account, it became relevant to understand how communication drives tourism, assessing the adequacy of the dissemination and promotion of SMF tourism, tracing the profile of tourists who visit this locality, realizing which are the practices of communication by the municipality, and understanding the influence of the image as a driver for a possible visit.

47.2 Theoretical Framework 47.2.1 Tourism Communication Tourism communication can be understood as the development of the science of communication in the tourism sector, given its great potential as a means of communication [2]. By taking advantage of natural attractions or tourist events, regions can increase their popularity by publicizing the region, but only if there is efficient and effective communication through the visiting media [3]. Thus, communication can take place in three main modes: through interpersonal interactions; communication by mediators; and also digital communication [1]. Tourist communication builds loyalty and arouses the interest of customers, but also influences them in the choice process, keeping the memory of lived experiences

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alive, in order to provoke the potential impulse to want to return to the destination [4]. Tourism communication, therefore, needs to be aware of new technologies, looking for ways to keep up to date with the market and tourist expectations [5].

47.2.2 The Evolution of Tourism Communication The connection between Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and the tourism sector has been a subject of study since the beginning of the nineties. Over time, the way of communicating has changed, once again, due to the advancement of technologies, and the area of tourism was no exception [4]. In the 1980s, traditional tourism communication emerged, also known as “tourism communication 1.0” [4], with static content sites, without any interactivity between Internet users, with access to a computer and visibility of a website on the net. This panorama, mostly informative, extends throughout the 1990s, allowing consumers to change their behavior and wanting to know about leisure alternatives [6]. Still, in the 1990s, the first virtual social networks began to appear, and from 2004 onwards, people started talking about Web 2.0, a concept created by Tim O’Reilly to designate a second generation of communities and services, with the definition “web as a platform”. Users no longer only look for information on search engines and tourism portals, but also on communities of social sites, blogs, photos, and geolocation systems. With social networks, companies have the opportunity to generate content and influence their audience, which was previously exclusive to large corporations [7]. In 2001, the concept of “web 3.0” is mentioned for the first time, also known as the “semantic web”, with the purpose of allowing the organization of the available information by specific subjects, in order to help the human being in the answer to questions with a concrete, personalized, and ideal solution. This information must be understood by humans, but also by machines, through the use of specific programs. It is the paradigm shift from the use of an infinity of documents, characteristic of the World Wide Web (worldwide network) to the World Wide Database (worldwide database); a new way of doing and providing touristic services is created, where the protagonist is, more than ever, the tourist, whether seen in an individual sense or massified, as a result of this change [6]. To the evolution of Web 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0, mobility and ubiquity are added today to mark the birth of Web 4.0 The main difference between the previous ones lies in the type of work developed, which becomes automatic based on a complex artificial intelligence system [8]. In this era, also known as the post-digital era, the real and the virtual world come together and in tourism, this synergy is also verified. We have seen the use of Artificial Intelligence, the Internet, Big Data, Cloud Computing, and Robotics.

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Investment in digital is a decisive factor in competitiveness, with new opportunities for renewal and sustainable evolution of the sector, empowering players with tools and strategies that spread destinations within and across borders [9]. However, if it is possible to “personalize” interactions to create experiences that excite users, Web 5.0 will undoubtedly be more affable and manipulative than its predecessors. Although we live in an increasingly digital world, there is a growing importance of the so-called “consumer experience”. And this is reflected in the requirement assigned to the provision of services, such as tourism and all related activities [6]. In fact, the emergence of a new era is perceived as new technologies that will intensify tourist experiences from home. The author even adds that “personalized, interactive, real-time tours, or PIRTs (5G real-time streaming, where 360-degree cameras, webcams, drones and with the right hardware, software, and infrastructure are used) will change the way we consume tourist experiences” [10].

47.2.3 The Importance of Dissemination and Communication in Tourism Communication in the tourism sector is becoming increasingly more relevant, given that the tourist product lives on the image it creates and the truth is that, sometimes, it is far from consumers who have been increasingly strict, and independent in the choice of tourist destinations, which, as a consequence, makes them more active in researching and disseminating information through the “World Wide Web” [11]. Turismo de Portugal [16] considers “Online communication as a privileged means of promotion, with a decrease in investment in traditional offline media and the implementation of specific promotional campaigns contributes, in a decisive way, to the visibility of Portugal and to increase its notoriety in international markets.” Communication is present at all stages, from the decision-making process to the intention to visit a particular destination. For this same reason the destiny “should have the ability to provoke the feeling of being involved in itself, during and after the experience”. In order to attract the visitors/tourists, communication will meet their motivations, desires, and emotions; therefore, effective information transmission strategies must be defined to captivate them [12]. In this context, the entire sector must invest in the creation of brand images associated with the existing tourist offer, transmitting a message of unique experiences, with high standards of quality and always in accordance with the expectations of the tourist/visitor, contributing, so, to your satisfaction. The creation of this brand image will fulfill two central marketing objectives applied to the sector in question: differentiation and sustainability [12].

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47.2.4 Case Study: Santa Maria Da Feira The city of Santa Maria da Feira is located in the “Center/North coast of the country and sub-region of Entre Douro e Vouga, at the intersection of the North/South and Coast/Interior axes, thus having a strategic geographic position which makes the region, since the first civilizations residing in the territory, a place of meeting and passage for many and varied peoples” [13]. This city is simultaneously located in the Municipality of Santa Maria da Feira, district of Aveiro and strategically located south of the Douro River, at the convergence of important and varied communication routes, which end up guaranteeing accessibility to the main urban centers, such as Aveiro, Porto, and Coimbra—Fig. 47.1 [14].

Fig. 47.1 Map of the location of Santa Maria da Feira

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The municipality of SMF stands out not only for its location but also for the historical strength of its millenary past and the vigor with which it defies modern times. It occupies a vast territory with a total area of 216 km2 and a population of around 136,715 inhabitants, which are spread over 21 parishes [15]. In terms of tourism, SMF offers a wide range of opportunities to those who visit it. From routes and choices that range from natural landscapes to built heritage, to modern reception infrastructures that proliferate and expand both in the city and throughout the county [14]. The municipality of SMF is very present in the culture, never leaving aside the customs and people since the promotion of all tourist attractions is governed by historical-cultural themes, as is the example of the secular Festa das Fogaceiras, Imaginarius, Perlim, and Viagem Medieval, all of which take place in the historic center of the city [14].

47.3 Methodology Based on the literature review, the questionnaire, and the interviews, the present article aims to answer the question: “In what way is communication the driving force of tourism in SMF?”. For this reason, an attempt was made to articulate general objectives that were in line with theoretical assumptions, which are not always consensual, and to delimit them with the empirical reality of the municipality. In order to respond to the problem presented above, the objective is to determine the effectiveness of the use of communication in tourism, based on the practice of the MSMF. Regarding the specific objectives, it was intended to (i) assess the adequacy of the dissemination and promotion of SMF tourism; (ii) understand the influence of the image as a driver for a possible visit; (iii) provide guidelines for the municipality of SMF in order to take measures to improve the area of tourism communication; (iv) understand the communication practices on the part of the municipality of SMF; (v) analyze the synergies between the Tourism Department and the Communication, Public, and International Relations Division. A unique exploratory case study was employed, as it used semi-structured interviews and questionnaire surveys as data collection, to deepen a reality in a single region. The present investigation, in addition to being based on and seeking to deepen concepts anchored in the literature review, also sought to collect opinion data either through a questionnaire survey disseminated through social networks and personal knowledge (i.e. spread the word), as well as through semi-structured interviews with the Tourism Office and Communication, Public, and International Relations Division of the Municipality. The survey carried out was a closed survey with multiple-choice or classificationchoice questions, using a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 points, making a total of 59 questions, divided into three sections: (i) personal information; (ii) questions about

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events with the greatest impact on SMF; (iii) opinion on communication in the area of SMF tourism. After obtaining the desired data, these were collected from Google Forms and analyzed in Microsoft Excel. The interviews were carried out between July 4th and 20th, 2022, lasting approximately 20 min. One was held face-to-face at the SMF Tourism Office. As it was not possible to record them, all responses were transcribed into a document. The other interview was done autonomously by the interviewee due to the impossibility of doing it any other way. As these are different areas, questions of common scope and other specific ones were asked, according to the areas in question.

47.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results Taking into account the answers obtained, the Communication Division of the Municipality favors communication as a means of disseminating the tourism sector, both in its digital and traditional forms. However, the well-known “pass the word” is the way of communicating that has the greatest impact, both in the acknowledgment of the different events, as in sharing them, being possible to understand the influence of the image as a driver for a potential visit. Even so, social networks, namely Facebook and Instagram, are also heavily used as a means of promoting sharing and acquiring knowledge, even if the first one always appears at the forefront due to the predominance of the age group of the respondent community. The most important events in the Municipality which were the subject of study in this article are as follows: 1. Viagem Medieval—the largest medieval historical recreation event in the country. It has been held annually since 1996, for ten consecutive days, in the historic center of the city of Santa Maria da Feira, attracting 50,000 visitors daily. With unique characteristics in the country, this project stands out for its historical rigor, dimension (spatial and temporal), and involvement of the population and local associations, strengthening a vast team of more than a thousand people from different areas, of which 250 are volunteers [17]. 2. Perlim—Perlim is the largest and most unique Christmas theme park in the country. It was born in 2008 from the desire to extend the celebrations of the Christmas season to the entire city of Santa Maria da Feira [18]. 3. Imaginarius—Santa Maria da Feira International Street Theatre Festival, held since 2001, is the largest Street Arts event held in Portugal and an international reference [19]. 4. Festa das Fogaceiras—it is the oldest, it has been held for more than five centuries, it’s a symbolic religious festival in the municipality of Santa Maria da Feira, being also celebrated across borders—in Brazil, Venezuela, and South Africa—by the Portuguese communities [20].

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Observing the results related to the knowledge of the events, it was verified that Viagem Medieval is the best-known event (93%), followed by Festa das Fogaceiras (82%), Perlim (81%), and Imaginarius (81%). When it comes to visits, once again, we find Viagem Medieval first (90%), followed by Festa das Fogaceiras (78%) and, unlike the previous point, Imaginarius (77%) and Perlim, last (66%). It should be noted that Perlim has the lowest percentage of visits, possibly because it is an event more geared toward children, as the main motivation for visiting the event is to accompany children. Not forgetting that it is an event held in the coldest season, winter, and can also be a decisive factor for having this lower number of visits. While Imaginarius is more appealing for its shows and the social environment inherent to it, covering all age groups. Considering that the percentage of visits to all events is remarkably high, this can be explained by the origin of the respondents, who mostly come from the district of Aveiro, to which the municipality of SMF belongs. If, on one hand, the surveyed tourists are satisfied with the different events, which leads to a visible presence throughout their successive editions, on the other hand, regardless of the event, the probability of returning is a reality with a positive sign, and as such the availability of a possible recommendation is equally high. Based on the responses obtained, both through the questionnaires, as well as the interviews, it seems to be possible to affirm that the use of different types of communication will act as a means of boosting tourism, facilitating the promotion of this sector, as well as an improvement in communication between the touristic entity and respective tourists.

47.5 Conclusion Communication within the tourism sector has acquired special relevance, due to the simple fact that each and every tourist product lives from the image that is created, mainly in the eyes of the consumer [11]. Thus, it is important that communication is present at all stages of the tourist decision process, in order to be able to provoke a feeling of involvement with the destination in question, whether before, during, or after the experience. The attraction felt by the tourist will be the responsibility of successful communication, which will have to meet the motivations, desires, and emotions of the interested parties, thus defining the necessary strategies to captivate them [12]. In this context, communication can be an excellent booster for the tourism sector. From the analysis of data collected, relevant and enriching conclusions were presented, taking into account the objectives and research questions that we set ourselves. The results obtained show that, even without being aware of the different means of communication for the dissemination of SMF tourism, tourists consider that its use is of vital importance for the creation, implementation, and dissemination of improved communication.

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However, it is equally important to understand that in a municipality with so much tourism to offer, there is the presence of a diversified tourism offer that must be taken into account when defining communication strategies and practices by the municipality. It was also possible to verify that the entire communication of the implementation process in the tourism area is carried out by the Communication Division, which coordinates and provides all its attention to the different services of the municipality, which can be seen by part of the tourism area as something to improve. However, the communication already implemented is still a great way to inform the best SMF has to offer, since “word of mouth” dissemination continues to be the preponderant and excellent way for tourists who visit this region.

47.6 Recommendations for Future Works One of the recommendations to be implemented in the future would be the expansion of the scope of this work, contemplating another aspect besides the events, such as the physical attraction points (natural landscapes and built heritage, among others) existing in the MSMF. Additionally, it is also suggested the possibility of continuing the study, bringing together a focus group with participants, in order to discuss the investigation, namely, in terms of future strategies, in the medium and long term, but also the new trends that can be seen beyond the assessment of challenges and weaknesses of the municipality, with the association of strategies that aim to minimize the less positive impacts found in this work. Another approach, for the future, would be to apply a similar case study, in other destinations with various events, to perceive the reality of communication and confront it with the reality studied, which may pass through international destinations. Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

References 1. Razzaq, M., Fitriyah, N., Faisal, M., Destinasi, S.P., Wisata, K.S.: Fungsi Komunikasi Pariwisata Pada Kelompok Bahari Manggar Baru 7(3), 140154 (2019) 2. Law, R., Buhalis, D., Cobanoglu, C.: Progress on information and communication technologies in hospitality and tourism. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 26(5), 727–750 (2014). https://doi. org/10.1108/IJCHM-08-2013-0367 3. Soemardiono, B., Hartono, Y.: Community-based tourism in Kresek village madiun East java 5(1), 22–31 (2021) 4. Wichels, S.: Comunicação Turística: Desafios e tendências na contemporaneidade. Estudo de Caso: Tenerife (2014). https://estudogeral.sib.uc.pt/handle/10316/26209

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5. Sanches, C.: O Instagram como estratégia de comunicação turística: análise comparativa entre VisitPortugal e VisitBrasil. Universidade do Porto (2020) 6. Mateus, A., Caldevilla-Domínguez, D., Barrientos Báez, A.: Redes Sociais, Comunicação Digital e turismo. RISTI - Revista Iberica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informacao, No E36, 10/2020, pp. 577–595 (2020) 7. Holm, C.C., Cardozo, P.F.: Promoção turística em mídias digitais: a imagem cultural de Foz do Iguaçu nos canais oficiais do Youtube. TURYDES Revista Turismo y Desarrollo local sostenible 12(26), 1–11 (2019) 8. Lobo, B.: Sabe mais sobre o conceito web 4.0. (2019). https://blog.iotech.pt 9. Mateus, A.F.: A comunicação em serviços na era da globalização. A comunicação digital e o serviço personalizado. Vivat Academia. Revista de Comunicación 122, 1–22 (2013). https:// doi.org/10.15178/va.2013.122.1-22 10. Teixeira, S. et al.: A longitudinal study About mobile applications in the tourism sector. In: International conference on tourism, technology and systems. Springer, Singapore (2020) 11. Pato, L.: A importância das certificações ecológicas e das TIC na promoção do turismo sustentável: Estudo de caso de uma unidade de turismo rural. Millenium 5 especial, 369–377. https:// doi.org/10.29352/mill0205e.37.00242 (2020) 12. Peres, R., Rita, P.: Marketing e comunicação dos destinos. Planeamento e desenvolvimento turístico 173–182 (2017) 13. N Invest Portugal. https://www.n-investportugal.pt/pt/municipio-santa-maria-da-feira/. Last accessed 20 Aug 2022 14. Câmara Municipal de Santa Maria da Feira, https://cm-feira.pt/municipio. Last accessed 20 Aug 2022 15. Pordata. https://www.pordata.pt/Municipios. Last accessed 20 Aug 2022 16. Turismo de Portugal, https://www.turismodeportugal.pt/pt/o-que-fazemos/promover-destinoportugal/Paginas/default.aspx. Last accessed 23 Aug 2022 17. Viagem Medieval. https://www.viagemmedieval.com. Last accessed 23 Aug 2022 18. Perlim. https://www.perlim.pt/sobre-perlim/. Last accessed 23 Aug 2022 19. Imaginarius. https://www.imaginarius.pt/. Last accessed 23 Aug 2022 20. Festa das Fogaceiras. https://cm-feira.pt/-/festa-das-fogaceir-2/. Last accessed 23 Aug 2022

Chapter 48

The Binary System of Higher Education—The Case of Portugal in the Light of the Current Reality Olímpio Castilho

and Maria de Lourdes Machado-Taylor

Abstract The article aims to discuss the issue related to the higher desirable education system for Portugal (binary or unitary?) in the light of the Portuguese reality. A brief review of the literature will be based on the important contribution of several authors, namely James S. Taylor • José Brites Ferreira, Maria de Lourdes Machado, and Rui Santiago (Non-University higher Education in Europe, Springer, 2008). The reality of the higher education system in Portugal will be shown, the results from the analysis carried out on the institutional evaluation reports carried out by A3ES (Agency for the Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education in Portugal), as well as the thinking of fifteen current or former top leaders of HEIs, resulting from the interviews that were carried out to them, following the methodology adopted in 2021 to prepare the questions of the questionnaire. Finally, preliminary conclusions of the study that is currently being developed and that supported the completion of the interview questionnaire will be presented.

48.1 Introduction The question regarding the model to be adopted for higher education continues to be debated in Portugal, despite the binary system being in force for decades. In fact, some have insisted on this issue, insisting on a redefinition of the Portuguese model, based on the existence of universities and polytechnics, that is, on the existence of a university subsystem alongside a polytechnic subsystem. Although the legislation seeks to ensure equal dignity and parity for both subsystems, the truth is that, over the years, at least in some circles, the idea was created that polytechnic higher education was second class, clearly subordinated to university higher education. O. Castilho (B) Polytechnic of Porto/ISCAP, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. de L. Machado-Taylor Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisboa & CIPES, 4450-227 Matosinhos, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_48

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This question and, even more, an investigation of the current state of the higher education system in Portugal, led to the elaboration of an extensive study that allowed to draw conclusions about the true “state of the art” of the higher education system in Portugal, which coincides with the start of some legislative procedures taking place in the Portuguese parliament on the initiative of a group of citizens and two of the political parties represented in it. Thus, in this article, after a brief review of the literature, considering one of the most important existing publications on the subject that, although dating from 2008, remains fully current in general [17], we will an analysis of the institutional evaluation reports carried out by A3ES, revealing the reality of the higher education system in Portugal, as well as the thinking of fifteen current or former top leaders of HEI, resulting from the interviews that were carried out to them, following the methodology adopted in 2021 to prepare the questionnaire questions. Finally, the conclusions to be drawn and the model defended.

48.2 The Higher Education Models Let us see, then, what can be drawn from the doctrine that has been published for several decades, which is vast and confirms the global and permanent nature of the questions that can be asked about higher education systems. We should start by pointing out that the doctrine has been recognized by more than two systems, that is, we cannot speak only of the binary and the unitary systems as if none else were recognized. Effectively, Scott[13], cited by Kyvik [9], made a distinction between five main models (or systems): (1) university-dominated systems; (2) dual systems; (3) binary systems; (4) unified systems; and (5) stratified systems. Earlier, Clark [1] cited by Jungblut & Maassen[8] said that the structure of a higher education system is, above all, formed by the higher education institutions that constitute it and their relationships with each other, so that, in this sense, the different types of institutions reflect in many ways the multiple activities and services that the higher education system is expected to provide to its society. As a result, the order of the system is the result of a division of work between the universities and schools that form the main components of the system, so when a system needs to fulfil an increasing number of tasks, one way to deal with this is to increase differentiation between institutions. In the former case, institutions fulfilling different functions, but are considered as “different but equal” components of the system, while in the latter case differences in functions are also linked to some sort of vertical hierarchy between institutions. For Croxford & Raffe [3] institutional differentiation and, in particular, the extent to which institutions are hierarchically differentiated is important for several reasons: (1) First, it is at the centre of long-running debates about the goals of higher education and whether these are best achieved through a division of functions between institutions. The benefits of such a division of functions can be undermined if

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it is hierarchical, and especially if the hierarchy is informal; if some functions and the institutions that perform them have higher status than others, the system as a whole will be vulnerable to mission deviations (mission drift); (2) Second, market policies, such as those adopted in England, can have unintended consequences if institutions are differentiated in a hierarchy linked to status and positional advantage; (3) Third, institutional differentiation is central to the role of social reproduction of higher education and to efforts to broaden its participation, as many countries have expanded participation in higher education and increased enrolment of the lower classes in specific institutional sectors. In a diverse system, some institutions may prioritize attracting students from underrepresented groups and design their programs and structures accordingly. However, while institutional diversity can broaden access to higher education as a whole, it also results in disadvantaged groups being underrepresented in institutions with higher status and positional value, whose graduates enjoy higher returns in the labour market. Another sociological perspective uses concepts of cultural capital and “habitus” to analyse the role of institutional differentiation in social reproduction. Summarizing, Croxford & Raffe [3] consider that these and other sociological perspectives suggest not only that institutional differentiation in higher education is hierarchical, but also that institutional hierarchies are rigid and self-perpetuating. The cultural perspective predicts that institutions attract the types of students most likely to sustain their institutional “habitu”. It is also worth remembering that the generalized trend towards the expansion of higher education began in the 1960s and was, in many countries, accompanied by the creation of professional HEIs, adding to existing universities and resulting in a so-called “binary system” [9]. Great Britain and Australia were among the first countries (during the 1950 and 1960s) to implement this model [10, 18], which was later adopted by others, and, interestingly, they were also the first to leave it. While some binary systems managed to thrive while maintaining clear dividing lines, others degenerated into fuzzy boundaries [7, 12] because of the so-called academic drift, leading to a convergence between professional HEIs and HEIs based on research [7, 20], cited by [14]. But one cannot speak only of “academic drift”. We should also talk about what can be called “vocational drift”, as Codling & Meek [2] do, or “polytechnic drift of universities”, as some others do [19]. Those, cited by Mourato [11], p. 52, say that «we are witnessing a vocational drift on the part of traditional universities and an academic drift on the part of the new universities», adding that there are also other intermediate institutions that change behaviours, at a time betting on an approximation to traditional universities, which is considered an academic drift, at a second time betting on new universities (or universities of technology or applied sciences, as it has been mentioned that they are called), which is considered a vocational drift. Despite everything, Soares[16], p. 21 considers that «drifts, academic and professional, are natural and expected phenomena».

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And if many thought that with the British polytechnics being transformed into universities in 1992 and the so-called “academic drift” would eventually come the natural death of the two-type structure and the transformation of non-university HEIs into universities, in reality, however, this transformation took place only in a few countries, while at the same time a significant number of other European countries, on the contrary, shifted during the 1990s to a two-type structure, as is the case, for example, of Austria, Finland, and Switzerland. And in many other European countries, one can observe the consolidation of alternatives to universities, an example of which is the Polytechnic Institutes in Portugal [18]. And, in fact, in Europe, the binary system became predominant. However, in the more complex general scheme of European higher education, questions can arise. What are the missions of university and non-university institutions? Does the structure of the binary higher education system, with universities and non-university institutions, provide an adequate response to the mission and needs of higher education? [4].

48.3 The Institutional Assessment of A3ES: Comparative Analysis The study was developed from a qualitative investigation composed of qualitative data that were collected through a content analysis involving the latest A3ES reports on institutional evaluation and the internal quality assurance system, carried out in all HEI. Therefore, the summary of the results of the institutional evaluations of the HEIs, carried out by A3ES between 2018 and the present date, is presented below (and which are published on this Agency’s website on 2021/09/30). It should also be noted, from now on, that there are discrepancies between the information made available on the A3ES website regarding the accreditation period and that contained in the decision of the Board of Directors (BD) of the same. It was decided to consider the information contained in the BD’s decision. Likewise, it was decided to compare the initial proposals of the External Evaluation Committees (EEC) and the later decisions of the BD, given the volume of divergences detected (Tables 48.1, 48.2 and 48.3). Thus, the following results were obtained (Immediately—Im; Y—year). It includes accreditation that contains obligations to be fulfilled; it also includes HEIs that have been accredited for six, three, or one year, but with an obligation to immediately comply with certain conditions:

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Table 48.1 Comparability between the EEC recommendations and the BD decisions EEC final recommendation (accreditation)

BD accreditation

Without conditions

Without conditions

With conditions

With conditions

Im

1Y

3Y

Im

1Y

3Y

Universities

4

9

4

3

8

8

4

4

Polytechnics

1

10

15

17

1

11

13

17

By subsystem, we get the following results: Table 48.2 Comparability, by university education institution, between the recommendations of the EEC and the decisions of the BD Final recommendation (accreditation) Without conditions

With conditions Im

1Y

ISCTE

X

–

–

IUM

–

X

UABERTA

X

–

UAÇORES

–

UALGARVE UAVEIRO

BD accreditation

Without conditions

With conditions Im

1Y

3Y

–

X

–

–

–

–

–

X

–

–

–

–

–

–

X

X

–

X

–

–

–

X

–

X

–

X

–

X

–

X

–

X

–

–

X

–

–

X

X

UBI

X

–

–

–

–

–

X

–

UCOIMBRA

–

X

–

X

X

–

–

–

UÉVORA

X

–

–

–

X

–

–

–

ULISBOA

–

X

–

–

X

–

–

–

UMADEIRA

–

X

–

–

–

X

–

X

UMINHO

–

X

X

–

X

X

–

–

UNLISBOA

–

-

X

X

–

X

X

–

UPORTO

–

X

X

–

X

X

–

–

UTAD

–

X

–

–

X

X

–

–

3Y

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Table 48.3 Comparability, by polytechnic institution, between the recommendations of the EEC and the decisions of the BD Final recommendation (accreditation) without conditions

Im

ESENFCOIMBRA

X

–

ESENFLISBOA

–

BD accreditation

With conditions 1Y

3Y

Without conditions

With conditions Im

1Y

3Y

–

–

X

–

–

–

X

X

–

–

X

–

ESENFPORTO

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

ESHTE

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

ESNIDH

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPBEJA

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPBRAGANÇA

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPCASBRANCO

–

–

X

X

–

–

X

X

IPCAVAVE

–

–

X

–

–

–

X

X

IPCOIMBRA

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPGUARDA

–

–

–

X

–

–

–

X

IPLEIRIA

–

–

X

X

–

–

–

X

IPLISBOA

–

–

X

X

–

–

X

X

IPPORTALEGRE

–

X

–

X

–

X

–

X

IPSANTAREM

–

X

–

X

–

X

X

X

IPSETÚBAL

–

–

X

X

–

X

–

X

IPTOMAR

–

–

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPVCASTELO

–

X

X

X

–

X

X

X

IPVISEU

–

X

X

X

–

–

–

X

Analysing, altogether, the A3ES reports regarding the items evaluated Student Recruitment (STUDENTS REC), Promotion of school success and student integration (PSSSI), Students’ Link to Applied Research (SLAR), Employability and Student Integration (ESI), Scientific Research (SR), Provision of Services to the Community (PSC), Capturing Own Revenue (CRP), Cooperation, Internationalization, Quality (advertizing and Faculty), it is obtained, in terms of universities, the results of the following graph (YES, when it meets the assessment criteria; NO, when it does not meet the criteria; PARTLY, when it only partially meets the criteria), we obtain the university evaluation results of Fig. 48.1.

48 The Binary System of Higher Education—The Case of Portugal …

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

561

Results of the evaluation of universities in the referenced items

YES

NO

PARTIALY

Fig. 48.1 University evaluation results (15 HEIs)

Now, with regard to polytechnics, was obtained the result of Fig. 48.2.

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Results of the evaluation of the polytechnics in the referenced items

YES

NO

PARTIALY

Fig. 48.2 Results of the evaluation of polytechnics (19 HEIs)

We can conclude that the polytechnic HEIs, in general, present a lower evaluation than the university subsystem. For example, while eight (in fifteen) HEIs of the university subsystem obtained an accreditation without conditions from the A3ES BD, in the polytechnic subsystem only one (in nineteen) achieved it. Figures 48.1 and 48.2 also reveal the lower performance of polytechnic HEIs in relation to the items evaluated.

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48.4 Interviews with Current or Former Top Leaders of HEIs But the content analysis involving the latest A3ES reports on institutional assessment and the internal quality assurance system, carried out in all HEIs, was not the only method used. In fact, within the framework of qualitative research methodology, several approaches can be applied. So, and even because realities exist as a social product of human interaction, various methods of data collection were used even to overcome the limitations of using a single method and to complement the strengths of each of the individual methods used [18–15]. Thus, fifteen interviews were carried out in order to understand the thinking of some of the main (former and current) heads of HEIs, university (five interviews), and non-university or polytechnic (five), with the remaining five with heads of foreign HEIs, looking for a possible counterpoint with the heads of national HEIs. It should be noted that the interviews were conducted with some highly respected people in the field of higher education. In fact, we had interviewed two former polytechnic presidents, two former university Vice-rectors, one former university administrator and Pro-rector, three polytechnic presidents, one university rector, one university vice-rector, and, from foreigner HEI, three rectors (two from Spanish universities, one from Brazil, this one from a Federal Institute), and two university vice-rectors (from Greece and Macao) (Tables 48.4 and 48.5). From these interviews, due to their importance for this study, the perspective of the perceptions and responses given by the top leaders of the HEIs interviewed (rectors/vice-rectors/pro-rectors and presidents) stand out. They are the following: Table 48.4 Answers from the top leaders of the HEIs regarding the model Polytechnics top leaders

Universities top leaders

Foreign HEIs top leaders

Total

Binary

4

4

2

10

Unitary

1

1

3

5

Regarding the limits of each subsystem, specifically whether they are well defined, the answers obtained were as follows: Table 48.5 Answers on whether the boundaries of the binary system are well defined Polytechnics top leaders

University top leaders

Foreign HEIs top leaders

Yes

0

0

0

Total 0

No

4

4

2

10

Defend unitary system

1

1

3

5

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As we can see, the totality of the answers is negative, noting that those who do not answer “no” is because they defend the unitary system, so they did not even truly address the question of whether, at the moment, there is a clear limit between the two subsystems. On the other hand, regarding the question of whether they consider that HEIs have the “critical mass” necessary for the consolidation (improvement) of teaching, research, and knowledge transfer, the following results were obtained: Table 48.6 Answers about the existence of “critical mass” necessary for the consolidation (improvement) of teaching Polytechnics top leaders

Universities top leaders

Foreign HEIs top leaders

Total

“exist”

3

1

2

6

“does not exist”

0

2

1

3

“In general, exist”

2

2

2

6

Table 48.7 Answers on the existence of “critical mass” necessary for the consolidation of research at the level of coordination between research groups and HEIs Polytechnicians top leaders

Universities top leaders

Foreign HEIs top leaders

Total

Coordination between groups and HEIs

Coordination between groups and HEIs

Coordination between groups and HEIs

–

“exist”

1

1

0

2

“does not exist”

2

1

0

3

“In general, exist”

2

3

5

10

Table 48.8 Answers on the existence of “critical mass” necessary for the consolidation of knowledge transfer, taking into account the territorial scope Polytechnics top leaders

Universities top leaders

Foreign HEIs top leaders

Total

Territorial scope

Territorial scope

Territorial scope

–

“exist”

3

1

5

9

“does not exist”

1

3

0

4

“In general, exist”

1

1

0

2

From all the above, it appears that the vast majority of top leaders prefer the binary system (ten out of fifteen), and of the five who prefer the unitary system,

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three are foreigners. And all those who defend the binary system understand that the boundaries of subsystems are not well defined. Regarding the existence or not, in the HEIs, of critical mass for the consolidation (improvement) of teaching, research, and knowledge transfer, only the latter presents minimally satisfactory results as shown in Tables 48.6, 48.7, and 48.8

48.5 Conclusions From the analysis of the literature, namely that resulting from the publication by Taylor et al. [17], there is a clear demonstration of the existence of a diversity of higher education models and of the clear importance of HEIs of a vocational nature. On the other hand, from the evaluation carried out by A3ES, from the answers to the questions posed in the context of the interviews carried out, it seems to us that it cannot be said that Portugal has a functional binary system, transparent in its dual mission and in line with individual and collective needs. However, the diversity detected in the scope of the A3ES evaluation regarding the results, which are clearly inferior in the polytechnic institutions, does not, itself, recommend the change to a unitary system, under penalty of obtaining what is intended to end, that is, the downgrading of polytechnic HEIs, then transformed into “second class” universities. In fact, the evaluation results are clearly inferior in the case of polytechnics when compared to universities. In the interviews with the top leaders of the HEIs, there is clearly a preference for the binary system and the need to establish clearly defined limits that can allow the distinction between university and polytechnic institutions, putting an end to the current confusion. The answers are enlightening, as all of them were negative regarding the question of whether the limits between each subsystem are well defined. These conclusions, in our opinion, are not hampered by the number of interviews, which could be seen as a limitation of the study. For us, it is clear that the hypotheses we initially put are correct, that is as follows: (1) Portuguese legal norms (legislation) do not clearly enshrine the legal nature to be attributed to HEIs, but enshrine the advisable model for Portugal, that is, the binarity of the higher education system, with no clearly established limits for defining the mission of HEIs, parts of each subsystem, so it is necessary to introduce the necessary clarification in the law. (2) HEIs should have a minimum structural dimension and an adequate organizational dimension to improve their competitiveness at an international level, so the Portuguese higher education legislation must be amended to allow them to achieve this objective. Future studies should help to define the boundaries of each subsystem, university and polytechnic, which are not well defined, as we can see from answers in Table 48.5.

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References 1. Clark, B.R.: The higher education system: Academic organization in cross international perspective (1983). Accessed from https://books.google.pt/books?id=j_-YKg7DuqAC&pri ntsec=frontcover&dq=The+higher+education+system:+Academic+organization+in+crossnational+perspective,+by+Burton+R.+Clark.&hl=pt-PT&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwif0rHns6 blAhVK8uAKHcCXClYQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Thehighere 2. Codling, A., Meek, L.V.: Twelve propositions on diversity in higher education. Higher Educ Manage Policy 18(3), 1–24 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1787/hemp-v18-art17-enaccessedon12/ 29/2020 3. Croxford, L., Raffe, D.: The iron law of hierarchy? Institutional differentiation in UK higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 40(9), 1625–1640 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079. 2014.899342accessedonlineon06/30/2021 4. de Lourdes Machado, M., Ferreira, J.B., Santiago, R., Taylor, J.S.: Reframing the non-university sector in Europe: convergence or diversity? In: Taylor, J.S., Ferreira, J.B., de Lourdes Machado, M., Santiago, R. (eds.) Non-University Higher Education in Europe, pp. 245–260 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8335-8_12. Accessed online on 9/16/2019 5. Fetterman, D. M.: Ethnography Step by Step by David M. Fetterman (For educational purpose only). 3, 41–72 (1998) Retrieved from http://isaacleung.com/culs/5412/readings/R4_Fetter man_gearing_up.pdf Accessed online on 10/08/2021 6. Hess, G. F.: Qualitative research on legal education: studying outstanding law teachers. Alberta Law Rev. 51(4), 925 (2014) https://doi.org/10.29173/alr45 Accessed online on 09/08/2021 7. Huisman, J., Kaiser, F.: Fixed and Fuzzy Boundaries in Higher Education: a comparative study of (binary) structures in n ine countries (2001). Accessed from https://www.researchgate. net/publication/254858253_Fixed_and_Fuzzy_Boundaries_in_Higher_Education_a_comp arative_study_of_binary_structures_in_nine_countries. Accessed online 10/12/2020 8. Jungblut, J., Maassen, P.: Higher education systems, types of. In: Shin, J.C., Teixeira, P. (eds.) Encyclopedia of International Higher Education Systems and Institutions, pp. 1–9 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_21-1. Accessed online on 10/14/2020 9. Kyvik, S.: Structural changes in higher education systems in Western Europe. High. Educ. Eur. 29(3), 393–409 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1080/0379772042000331679accessedonlineon12/ 12/2020 10. Mahony, D.: A comparison of the Australian and British post binary higher education systems. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 13(1), 71–84 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436940130107acces sedonlineon10/12/2020 11. Mourato, J.: 40 Anos Ensino Superior Politécnico - Caminhos percorridos e a percorrer. (L. RVJ - Editores, ed.). Castelo Branco (2019) 12. Schubert, T., Bonaccorsi, A., Brandt, T., De Filippo, D., Lepori, B., Niederl, A.: Is there a European university model? New evidence on national path dependence and structural convergence. In: Knowledge, Diversity and Performance in European Higher Education, pp. 47–83 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4337/9781783472000.00008 13. Scott, P.: Unified and binary systems of higher education in Europe. In: Burgen, A. (ed.) Goals and Purposes of Higher Education in the 21st Century, pp. 37–54 (1996). Accessed from https://books.google.pt/books?id=0Mpe9cgeU9EC&printsec=frontcover&hl=pt-PT#v= onepage&q&f=false. Accessed online on 12/12/2020 14. Silva, J.S., Peixoto, P., Freitas, A.: Nonsense faculty perspectives on system changes in higher education. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 37(3), 593–606 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360. 2017.1411338 15. Simion, K.: Qualitative and quantitative approaches to rule of law research. SSRN Electron. J. (July) (2016) https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2817565 Accessed online on 09/08/2021 16. Soares, L.: Parecer do CCISP sobre as alterações a introduzir na legislação do ensino superior. Lisboa (2003)

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17. Taylor, J.S., Ferreira, J.B., De Lourdes Machado, M., Santiago, R., Brites Ferreira, J., de Lourdes Machado, M., Santiago, R.: In: Taylor, J.S., Ferreira, J.B., de L. Machado, M., Santiago, R. (eds.) Non-University Higher Education in Europe, vol. 23 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-1-4020-8335-8. Accessed online on 9/16/2019 18. Teichler U.: The End of Alternatives to Universities or New Opportunities? In: Taylor, J.S., Ferreira, J.B., de L. Machado, M., Santiago, R. (eds.) Non-University Higher Education in Europe, vol. 23, pp. 1–13 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8335-8. Accessed online on 9/16/2019 19. Urbano, C.: A (ID)entidade do ensino superior politécnico em Portugal: Da Lei de bases do sistema educativo à Declaração de Bolonha. Sociol. Probl. Pract. 66(Id), 95–115 (2011) 20. Witte, J., van der Wende, M., Huisman, J.: Blurring boundaries: how the Bologna process changes the relationship between university and non-university higher education in Germany, the Netherlands and France. Stud. High. Educ. 33(3), 217–231 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03075070802049129accessedonlineon10/12/2020

Chapter 49

Place Marketing and Destination Management: A Study in the “Quadrilátero do Minho” Júlio Silva, Bruno Sousa, and João Abreu

Abstract Territorial Marketing is a set of strategic actions planned, aiming to improve the competitiveness of a territory and consequently contributing to its development, promoting the satisfaction of the residents ‘needs in each territory. Although there are many studies in the field of Marketing, the literature has shown that they are mainly focused on tourism, with little research on residents in cities, so we found the opportunity to fulfil this gap. For this research, whose target population were the four municipalities of the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho, we used the Residents’ Perception Assessment Questionnaire of each municipality, to check the citizens’ perception of the practices applied by their public institutions. We conducted also semi-structured interviews directed to members of the Municipal Councils of the municipalities, to check the actual territorial marketing strategies and their goals. Our sample used 306 participants, recruited from the four municipalities. The results showed the representatives of the municipalities present different views about the design of the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho and that the residents, although loyal to the territories, do not always feel close to their local representatives.

49.1 Introduction Territorial Marketing has proved to be a fundamental strategy in the promotion of several coastal cities. However, the interior councils have been facing greater difficulties in attracting and maintaining their inhabitants and for that reason they have been promoting the establishment of companies, attracting investments, improvements in J. Silva Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal B. Sousa (B) IPCA, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), and CiTUR, Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Abreu Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Portugal and ISCET, Barcelos, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_49

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housing conditions, namely the reduction of taxes, creating a more ecological and sustainable image and also fostering the connection between citizens and the regions they inhabit [1]. The Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho brings together four municipalities with great expression in the national business fabric. This Quadrangle is made up of the municipalities of Barcelos, Braga, Guimarães and Vila Nova de Famalicão. Authors in [2] compare these four municipalities, defining Guimarães and Vila Nova de Famalicão as the municipalities with the highest industrial profile, Braga as a more qualified and technologically advanced business reality, and finally, Barcelos as a municipality with more rural features. The research used an exploratory methodology, of a quantitative and qualitative nature to achieve its objectives. The objectives of the present investigation were: (i) Identification of the main differentiating attributes of each municipality, as well as the main Territorial Marketing strategies used; (ii) Assessment of the perception of the citizens of each municipality on the practices applied by their public institutions; (iii) Analysis of variables that are related to greater identification by citizens with their territories.

49.2 Place Marketing and Destination Management Countries, regions or cities must differentiate themselves from the others by creating a competitive advantage, which allows them to communicate and offer a unique image of the territory in question. Thus, it is crucial to be attentive to all opportunities with a view to establishing strategies that lead to the differentiation of geography and increased competitiveness [3]. Currently, territories are increasingly equated with products, with the former achieving differentiation through the construction of territorial brands, with their own characteristics and attributes. Therefore, numerous countries, regions and cities, like many companies, have created marketing plans, thus becoming strong brands, managing to promote themselves to various target audiences [4]. According to Abreu [5], the development of a brand for a country, a city or a region is beneficial for the organizations present in that space, namely for companies. The territorial brand will be accompanied by useful competitive advantages for local businesses and products. Furthermore, it will add value to existing attributes, stimulate competitiveness and, consequently, attract people and investments. The aforementioned advantages will also be felt, as a consequence, by the residents, so the management of the territories must be carried out in a rigorous and delicate way with them, regularly communicating projects, cultural and artistic activities and, at the same time, seeking to develop a positive environment among residents, namely by extolling values, such as friendship, solidarity, security, respect, so that this results in an increase in affective commitment. This high affective commitment can be observed through the involvement of residents in city events, such as environmental projects or through volunteering in community spaces, which will culminate in the sustainable development of a city [6].

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For [7], through territorial marketing it is possible to identify the competitive opportunity of a city, develop a strategy capable of meeting this opportunity, promote the necessary steps for the execution of the defined strategy and communicate with the city’s public (current and potentials). Through this concept, local governments will feel obliged to create policies focused on attracting these different target audiences. These practices have been widely used with a view to increasing global competitiveness, as well as with the aim of positioning their cities as they wish [8]. Place marketing is a strategic tool with an increasingly significant influence on the management of cities, and it is essential to develop a marketing strategy that is capable of positioning the city and giving it something differentiating [6]. According to Ancarani [9], Territorial Marketing is segmented into two types of audiences: internal customers (resident citizens, workers and established organizations), whose loyalty is important, and external customers (non-resident citizens, organizations with potential to settle in the area, business visitors and tourists), as there is an interest in attracting them to the region [9]. And in this sense, the main responsibilities in the management of cities pass through the Municipal Councils and other public institutions, taking into account that they are the main decision-makers in the creation of infrastructure, fiscal and monetary policies, as well as investment policies, among others. All these measures are always subject to the scrutiny of the various target audiences [10]. Due to the growing interaction between people in the tourism activity, the support of residents has proved to be fundamental in tourism marketing, namely with regard to tourism planning and development, as well as their participation and involvement in it [11, 12]. The importance of residents’ behaviors is also mentioned by Litvin et al. [13], as they influence tourists’ travel experiences at all levels, from information seeking to consumption of tourist products [14]. Correia and Brito [15] add that due to the range of choices available today, places need to effectively develop something different that stands out in the tourist reference, so that it is possible to differentiate themselves from the rest of the offer. To achieve this differentiation, several authors believe that factors that are difficult to replicate in other destinations should be prioritized [15–19].

49.3 Characterization of the Municipalities of the Urban Quadrangle Through documents made available on the website of the National Institute of Statistics, from the Census for the year 2021, and through information provided by leading members of the Municipal Councils of each municipality, it was possible to characterize the municipalities under analysis. These members were contacted via e-mail, as they had a deep knowledge of the territorial marketing strategies used. In addition, we sought to explain the objectives of its creation with these municipal figures.

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49.3.1 Barcelos This municipality is located in the sub-region NUT III—Cávado. As of 2021, Barcelos is a municipality made up of 116,766 people, of which 14,716 are under 15 years of age and 23,020 are 65 or over. According to data provided by the Census, the population of Barcelos registered a significant increase between 1960 and 2001, and in this period it grew by around 38,825 inhabitants. In the last two decades, this growth trend has been reversed, since in 2011 it already had a decrease of 1705 inhabitants compared to 2001. In 2021 it again showed a decrease compared to 2011 of 3625 inhabitants. There is also an aging population, given that in 2011 there were 20,002 young people under the age of 15 and in 2021 there was a significant decrease to 14,716. On the other hand, aged 65 or over, in 2011 there were 16,547 inhabitants and in 2021 there were 23,020. In terms of births, the number of live births has fluctuated since 2017, when there were 843 births. In 2018 this number increased slightly, reaching 922, which decreased in 2019, with 867 live births. The downward trend continued in 2020, with 853 births. Regarding the number of deaths, they show an upward trend over the years, with 907 in 2017, 951 in 2018, 838 in 2019, and finally in 2020 of 1028 deaths. Regarding the licensing and completion of works in 2020, it appears that 366 works were licensed, which represents 29.2% of the NUT III subdivision. Of these, 348 are new constructions, while 18 are rehabilitations. With regard to completed works, in 2020, there were a total of 228, representing 26.3% of the NUT III subdivision, of which 15 were rehabilitations while 213 were new constructions. As far as tourism is concerned, in 2020, the municipality had 18 hotel establishments, of which only 2 were hotels. There were 10,602 guests in a total of 20,479 overnight stays, which translated into e1,343,000 of revenue, representing 5.6% of the revenue of the NUT III subdivision. With regard to municipal expenditure on culture and sport, in 2020, a total of e2,319,000 was spent on cultural and creative activities, such as heritage, libraries and archives, performing arts and interdisciplinary activities. This investment represented 29% of the expenses of the NUT III subdivision. Finally, with regard to economic and business activity, there has been a growth in the last decade, both in the number of companies and in the volume of business.

49.3.2 Braga This municipality is located in the sub-region NUT III—Cávado. As of 2021, Braga is a municipality made up of 193,349 people, of which 26,756 are under 15 and 35,179 are 65 or over. Census data indicate that the municipality of Braga has shown a growth trend for more than 60 years, taking into account that the population in 1960 had a total of 92,938 inhabitants, and 20 years later, there were 125,472. Recent data from 2021 confirm the growth trend, compared to 2011, with a growth of 11,855

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inhabitants. The number of young people under the age of 15 has entered a declining phase in the last 20 years, while those aged 65 and over have seen a significant increase. In terms of births, the number of live births has changed very little. In 2017 there were 1672 births, in 2018 there were 1735, in 2019 it decreased slightly to 1677 and in 2020 there is a total of 1699 live births. With regard to mortality values, their growth trend over the years stands out. In 2017 there were a total of 1264 deaths, in 2018 there were 1275, in 2019 there were 1326 and finally in 2020 there were 1555. Regarding the licensing and completion of works in 2020, it appears that 534 works were licensed, which represents 42.7% of the NUT III subdivision. Of these, 491 are new constructions, while 43 are rehabilitations. With regard to completed works, in 2020, there were a total of 301, representing 34.7% of the NUT III subdivision, of which 9 were rehabilitations while 292 were new constructions. As far as tourism is concerned, in 2020, the municipality had 42 hotel establishments, of which only 25 were hotels. There were 168,403 guests in a total of 263,609 overnight stays, which translated into e11,298.00 of revenue, representing 47.4% of the revenue of the NUT III subdivision. With regard to municipal expenditure on culture and sport, in 2020 there was a total of e3,192.00 of expenditure on cultural and creative activities, such as heritage, libraries and archives, performing arts and interdisciplinary activities. This investment represented 39.9% of the expenses of the NUT III subdivision. Regarding economic and business activity in the municipality of Braga, there has been an increase in the number of companies and in turnover since 2009. The increase in turnover is significant, having been registered an increase of e2,460.641 over a period of 10 years.

49.3.3 Guimarães This municipality is located in the sub-region NUT III—Ave. As of 2021, Guimarães is a municipality made up of 156,849 people, of which 19,587 are under 15 years of age and 31,329 are 65 years of age or older. Census data show that between 1940 and 2001, the number of inhabitants grew by around 43,304, however, since then, there has been a slight decrease of only 2,727 inhabitants until 2021. With regard to the number of young people, also shows a very significant downward trend, in the same way that the elderly increased from 21,568 to 31,329 in the last 10 years alone. Regarding birth rates, the values recorded do not show major fluctuations. In 2017, there were 1251 births, followed by 1262 in 2018, followed by the year 2019 with 1255 registered live births and in 2020 there is the highest value with 1280 births. With regard to the number of deaths, these have been experiencing exponential growth over the years. In 2017, there is the lowest value with 1165 deaths, in 2018 it increases slightly to 1200, in 2019 there is an increase again to 1268 and finally in 2020 the highest value is reached with 1418 deaths.

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Regarding the licensing and completion of works in 2020, it appears that 410 works were licensed, which represents 34.5% of the NUT III subdivision. Of these, 342 are new constructions, while 68 are rehabilitations. With regard to completed works, in 2020 there were a total of 249, representing 29% of the NUT III subdivision, of which 27 were renovations and 222 were new constructions. As far as tourism is concerned, in 2020, the municipality had 41 hotel establishments, of which only 16 were hotels. There were 85,200 guests in a total of 143,684 overnight stays, which translated into e6,032.00 of revenue, representing 46% of the revenue of the NUT III subdivision. With regard to municipal expenditure on culture and sport, a total of e6,452.00 was recorded in 2020 on cultural and creative activities, such as heritage, libraries and archives, performing arts and interdisciplinary activities. This investment represented 38.5% of the expenses of the NUT III subdivision. With regard to economic and business activity, Guimarães, despite not having increased the number of companies with 250 or more employees, nevertheless increased the total number of companies by around 2337. Highlights turnover, which in the last decade grew by 33.3%.

49.3.4 Vila Nova De Famalicão This municipality is located in the sub-region NUT III—Ave. As of 2021, Vila Nova de Famalicão is a municipality made up of 133,574 people, of which 17,116 are under 15 years of age and 26,293 are 65 or over. Also according to Census data, the population of Famalicão grew until 2011, reaching a maximum of 133,832 inhabitants, however in the last 10 years there has been practically a stagnation, presenting in 2021 only 258 inhabitants less than in 2011. Regarding the values of young people, there has been a decrease since 2001, while the number of elderly people is growing, having registered about 7849 more than in 2011. As far as birth rates are concerned, the number of live births has fluctuated slightly over the years. In 2017 there were 1069 births, in 2018 there were 1038, in 2019 it increased slightly to 1107 and in 2020 there is a decrease again to 1059. Regarding mortality values, there is a variation in deaths, with the year 2020 being the one with the highest number of the last four years (1232), while previous years recorded values of 1085, 1000 and 1099. in the years 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively. Regarding the licensing and completion of works in 2020, it appears that 377 works were licensed, which represents 31.7% of the NUT III subdivision. Of these, 308 are new constructions, while 69 are rehabilitations. With regard to works completed in 2020, there were a total of 322, representing 37.4% of the NUT III subdivision, of which 25 were renovations while 297 were new constructions. Regarding tourism in this municipality, in 2020 there were 9 hotel establishments, of which only 2 were hotels. There were 7,920 guests in a total of 20,013 overnight stays, which translated into e1,228.00 of revenue, representing 9.4% of the revenue of the NUT III subdivision. In terms of municipal expenditure on culture and sport, in 2020 a total of e6,087.00 was recorded in cultural and creative activities, such as

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heritage, libraries and archives, performing arts and interdisciplinary activities. This investment represented 36.3% of the expenses of the NUT III subdivision.

49.4 Methodology The present manuscript presents, as previously mentioned, the following objectives: (i) Identification of the main differentiating attributes of each municipality, as well as the main Territorial Marketing strategies used; (ii) Assessment of the perception of the citizens of each municipality on the practices applied by their public institutions; (iii) Analysis of issues that are related to greater identification by citizens with their territories. For the present research, participants were selected according to a non-probabilistic sampling method, with a view to ascertaining the opinions, perceptions and feelings of the residents of the municipalities under study [16]. However, some considerations are important to bear in mind when considering applying a questionnaire to certain audiences, for example its adaptation in terms of language and understanding, as well as the level of complexity. It is important to safeguard these precautions, recognizing that respondents may have a lower level of training and culture, which makes it difficult to fill out the instrument. The data collection process took place between March 1, 2022 and April 1, 2022, with a total of 306 participants. The questionnaire was carried out online, having been placed in different groups through the social network Facebook. In this way, it was possible to reach all the intended audiences and reach the desired number of participants. In addition to the application of questionnaires to residents of the different municipalities under analysis, an interview guide was prepared based on a previously published study. This guide was used in interviews with representatives of the four municipalities (Barcelos, Braga, Guimarães and Vila Nova de Famalicão). The interviews were carried out in person (Municipality of Braga) and online (Municipalities of Barcelos, Guimarães and Vila Nova de Famalicão) and took place between March and June 2022. The interviewees perform important functions in the respective Municipal Councils.

49.5 Preliminary Results and Discussion The sample of inhabitants is composed of 306 respondents, distributed as follows: 69 from the municipality of Barcelos, 93 from the municipality of Braga, 53 from the municipality of Vila Nova de Famalicão and 91 from the municipality of Guimarães. In general, respondents residing in the municipalities of the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho demonstrate a high degree of loyalty. The statement “Suggest a visit to friends/relatives” is the statement with the highest average of responses, with a value of 4.31. On the other hand, respondents from the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho do not show a high degree of participation in municipal initiatives, with only 3.25 on

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average. In addition, they are very connected to their municipalities of residence, with an average of 4.16, and they consider themselves captivated by the lifestyle provided by each one, respectively, with an average value of 3.93. Regarding territorial marketing, the statement with the highest average (3.64) refers to the fact that respondents consider that their municipalities have attractive companies. They also believe that their municipalities develop good Territorial Marketing, with an average of 3.41. In general, residents of Barcelos claim to be loyal to their municipality and are happy to live there. As for the territorial marketing practiced by your municipality, the average responses reveal some dissatisfaction. On the other hand, they agree with the fact that there are attractive companies in Barcelos. Respondents residing in the municipality of Braga show a strong degree of loyalty to their city, highlighting the propensity to suggest a visit to friends and family with an average value of 4.30. The group of questions related to Satisfaction is the one with the highest average values, showing a high level of Satisfaction with values close to 4, corresponding to “I agree”. Respondents residing in Guimarães show a high level of loyalty to the city and satisfaction with their county. They consider the work carried out in terms of territorial marketing to be satisfactory. Finally, the inhabitants of Vila Nova de Famalicão are more loyal than satisfied, with high averages of loyalty and intermediate averages of satisfaction. In general, respondents residing in the municipalities of the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho demonstrate a high degree of loyalty, with emphasis on Guimarães in first place, soon followed by Braga. The statement “Saying positive things to other people” is the statement with the highest average of responses, with a value of 4.25. On the other hand, respondents from the Quadrilátero Urbano do Minho do not show a high degree of participation in municipal initiatives, with only 3.25 on average. In addition, they are very connected to their municipalities of residence, with an average of 4.16, and they consider themselves captivated by the lifestyle provided by each one, respectively, with an average value of 3.93. Regarding territorialmMarketing, the statement with the highest average (3.64) refers to the fact that respondents consider that their municipalities have attractive companies. They also believe that their municipalities develop a satisfactory Territorial Marketing, with an average of 3.41. The Spearman correlation coefficient is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation that yields a number ranging from −1 to + 1. The closer this value is to the extremes (−1 or 1), the greater the strength of the correlation. In contrast, values close to 0 mean weaker or non-existent correlations. Through the analysis of Spearman’s correlation coefficient, it is verified that all correlations are positive and, therefore, statistically significant. The lowest value found is in the correlation between the variables loyalty and territorial marketing. On the other hand, the highest correlation value, with a very significant value, is between the satisfaction and loyalty variables. The content analysis of the interviews in which five main categories were used, namely: Security, Geography, Activity, Identity and Competitiveness, made it possible to verify that three of the representatives of the municipalities assume a common strategy for Territorial Marketing as an advantage, with the exception of the

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representative of the Municipality of Vila Nova de Famalicão. Despite this convergence, none of the mayors mentioned examples of specific initiatives. Through the interviews, it is possible to verify how each representative of the municipalities seeks to value their municipality, as well as the vision they intend to convey. It is also verified that there is no unanimity regarding the process of dynamizing the Quadrilátero, since the idea of individual competitiveness is still reinforced by an interviewee, in view of the opinion of his colleagues, who have a higher degree of conviction of the advantages of the existence of a common strategy.

49.6 Final Considerations Regarding the objectives proposed for the elaboration of this study, it is now possible to conclude that the objective “identification of the main differentiating attributes of each municipality as well as the main Territorial Marketing strategies used” was fully achieved through interviews with the mayors, having obtained all this information. With regard to the objective “assessment of the perception of the citizens of each municipality on the practices applied by their public institutions” was also achieved through the application of questionnaires to residents. The third and final objective was to analyze the variables that are related to a greater identification of residents with their territories. This objective was also achieved and is present in the answers to the interviews in the “Identity” category. In addition to having answered the previously established objectives, it was also possible to answer the research questions initially proposed. Regarding the question “What is the importance of Territorial Marketing in the development of territories?” it was possible to conclude that residents are still not aware of the necessary initiatives that will formalize the concept to attract investment and wealth creation possibilities, with more affective manifestations than opinions based on a more in-depth analysis and of a conceptual nature. As for the question “Have those responsible for the municipalities already conceived the brand image?” it was also possible to verify that there is still a lot to be done for the creation of the Quadrilátero do Minho brand, since the answers obtained point more to a vision that considers, in the first place, the promotion of each municipality individually. The joint vision is still very little developed, as each municipal representative sought to highlight their particular municipality and it was not possible to verify the existence of a consolidated strategy. Finally, with regard to the question “Do the citizens residing in these municipalities recognize the components of the brand?” it was not possible to go further than verifying positive emotions about each one’s territories. It was not possible to verify a clear and unequivocal identification that the inhabitants are interested in the consequences of municipal management in terms of verifying whether there are initiatives that can consolidate the management of the brand/territory. The research aimed to address the importance of the brand/city from the perspective of mayors and residents of the municipalities of the Quadrilátero do Minho. A limitation identified in this investigation refers to the time that was used in carrying

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out the surveys. Although this was short, the sample proved to be representative for a first study, which should be continued and deepened. Another limitation identified refers to the opinions expressed by the mayors, the first issue is that not all interviewees occupy the same area of responsibility in the organizational structure of the respective Municipalities and, eventually, their testimonies could be more consistent if all respondents were from the area of Economic Development, which was not possible to achieve. As research suggestions, it is thought that there should be more studies that focus on the equitable representation of citizens from all social strata of the respective municipalities, since in this research there was a greater representation of graduates and employees. Another suggestion is to carry out a study in a broader context, namely applied to the Euroregion of Galicia—Northern Portugal. In addition to the attachment that residents may have to their territory, other variables will have to be included in the model, particularly those that unequivocally demonstrate the existence of quality of life and that are very important for the consolidation of the brand. The participants’ responses showed an affective connection to the place, but it would be important to know their opinion about their identification with the municipal initiatives, as well as their availability to participate in campaigns led by the respective municipalities. Since the scope of the manuscript was not intended to address the issue of external evaluation by tourists, but the perception of residents, it will be necessary for their testimonies to confirm their opinion about the components of quality of life, in terms of housing, school infrastructure, economic activities, commerce and services, in a perspective of sustainable growth. Acknowledgements This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, IP, within the scope of the reference project UIDB/04470/2020.

References 1. Keller, K.L.: Building strong brands in a modern marketing communications environment. J. Market. Commun. 15(2–3), 139–155 (2009). Acessível em https://doi.org/10.1080/135272609 02757530 2. Bastos, N., Ribeiro, J.: O Quadrilátero Urbano do Baixo Minho para a Competitividade e a Inovação. In: pp. 309–319 (2011). Acessível em https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.3433.4406 3. Eichinger, I., Schreier, M., van Osselaer, S.M.: Connecting to place, people, and past: How products make us feel grounded. J. Mark. 86(4), 1–16 (2022) 4. Sorokina, E., Wang, Y., Fyall, A., Lugosi, P., Torres, E., Jung, T.: Constructing a smart destination framework: a destination marketing organization perspective. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 23, 100688 (2022)

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5. Abreu, J.: Inteligência Territorial–Governança, Sustentabilidade e Transparência. Almedina (2018) 6. Sousa, B., Rocha, A.T.: The role of attachment in public management and place marketing contexts: a case study applied to Vila de Montalegre (Portugal). Int. J. Public Sect Perform Manag 5(2), 189–205 (2019) 7. Caroli, M.: Il marketing territoriale. Lineamenti teorici e strumenti d’intervento. Ed. Franco Angeli, Milano (1999) 8. Ma, W., Jong, W.M., Hoppe, T., Bruijne, M.: From city promotion via city marketing to city branding: examining urban strategies in 23 Chinese cities. Cities 116, 103269 (2021). Acessível em https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103269 9. Ancarani, F.: Marketing places. a resource-based approach and empirical evidence from the European experience. SDA Bocconi, Research Division Working Paper (01/55) (2021) 10. Sousa, B., Simões, C.: An approach on place attachment, involvement and behavioural intentions in Iberian marketing contexts: the case of Galicia-North Portugal Euroregion: an abstract. In: Academy of Marketing Science World Marketing Congress, pp. 617–617. Springer, Cham (2018) 11. Cheung, L.T.O., Hui, D.L.H.: Influence of residents’ place attachment on heritage forest conservation awareness in a peri-urban area of Guangzhou. China Urban Forestry Urban Greening 33(May), 37–45 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.05.004 12. Chen, N., Dwyer, L.: Residents’ place satisfaction and place attachment on destination brandbuilding behaviors: conceptual and empirical differentiation. J Travel Res 57(8), 1026–1041. 004728751772976 (2017). Acessível em https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517729760 13. Litvin, S.W., Goldsmith, R.E., Pan, B.: Electronic word-of-mouth in hospitality and tourism management. Tour. Manage. 29(3), 458–468 (2008) 14. Sautter, E.T., Leisen, B.: Managing stakeholders a tourism planning model. Ann. Tour. Res. 26(2), 312–328 (1999) 15. Correia, R., Brito, C.: A importância do Marketing para o desenvolvimento turístico: O caso de Montalegre. Revista Turismo Desenvolvimento 16, 127–143 (2011) 16. Reis, E., Melo, P., Andrade, R., Calapez, T.: Estatística aplicada. Lisboa: Edições Sílabo (1999) 17. Chen, N (Chris)., Dwyer, L., Firth, T.: Residents’ place attachment and word-of-mouth behaviours: A tale of two cities. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 36(August 2017), 1–11 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2018.05.001 18. Liberato, D., Costa, E., Liberato, P., Ribeiro, J.: The role of events and music festivals in urban tourism: case study. In: Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems, pp. 537–549. Springer, Singapore (2020) 19. Sousa B., Malheiro A., Liberato D., Liberato P.: Movie tourism and attracting new tourists in the post-pandemic period: a niche marketing perspective. In: de Carvalho J.V., Rocha Á., Liberato P., Peña A. (eds) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. ICOTTS 2020. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 208. Springer, Singapore (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4256-9_34

Chapter 50

Event Planning as a Sustainable Development Strategy for Tourism Destinations Dália Liberato , Teresa Dieguez , Leonor Jesus, Pedro Liberato , and Teresa Mendes Abstract In recent decades, events have become a new typology and alternative tourist attraction for both mature and emerging destinations. The events industry has witnessed significant growth that has highlighted the issue of its contribution to the economic development of the host territory. Festivals and events have become, in some ways, a more affordable formula for escape and entertainment. As unique tourist attractions, festivals have become a strategy of planned culture, sport, and political and business occasions: from mega-events to community festivals; from small meetings to huge conventions and competitions [1]. From this perspective, this research intends to analyze São João, a specific event that takes place in Porto, to identify the motivations of participants and visitors (tourists and residents). It also intends to understand its tradition and evolution, elements that make it unique, characteristic of the city of Porto, and already visible abroad. For data collection, a quantitative methodology was chosen, with the application of questionnaire surveys to participants in “São João”. The results highlight its crucial role as a popular D. Liberato (B) · P. Liberato School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), and CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] P. Liberato e-mail: [email protected] T. Dieguez · T. Mendes Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Professional and Technical Higher School, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, and CiTUR Researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Braga, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] T. Mendes e-mail: [email protected] L. Jesus School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_50

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event in the city of Porto, fitting the six characteristics needed to be designated as a unique and rare event; they also emphasize that the organizers need to consider the feedback provided by the participants after the event. Suggestions are made for the creation of tourist packages allusive to the festivity, with the possibility of customization according to the tastes and complementary motivations when visiting the destination: Religious Tourism, Wine Tourism, Gastronomy Tourism, Cultural and Landscape Tourism, and Literary Tourism.

50.1 Introduction Events have become a new typology and alternative tourist attraction for both mature and emerging destinations. They can be considered as tools to promote places and attract revenue, creating attractive destinations able to compete on a global scale. As key elements, they contribute to the provision of infrastructure such as transportation, accommodation, gastronomy, attractions, and other ancillary services. These infrastructures improve the destination’s offer, thus increasing the destination’s tourism potential and capacity, in addition to the limited attention on leisurebased tourism. In this logic, events can be used as a solution to address the seasonal decline in tourism demand by offering various forms of substitute events to increase demand in the off-season [2]. This study seeks to contribute to the enrichment of empirical evidence about the notoriety of São João in Porto as a tourism event, emphasizing the importance of planning events of this nature in tourist destinations positioned differently in their life cycle. The choice of the object is related to the decisive role that this segment represents in strengthening the tourism and economic competitiveness of cities and regions. Additionally, this study seeks to identify and understand people’s motivations to participate in the São João festivities in Porto, taking advantage of the event to visit the city (tourists and residents), and assess how they perceive their experience, what could contribute to its enrichment and how they imagine the event’s short-term future. The article is structured in three parts. In the first part a theoretical framework is presented, through a literature review. The second part presents the methodology, referring to the research questions, the methodology used, analysis and discussion of results. The last part presents the conclusions and recommendations for future lines of research.

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50.2 Literature Review As with all forms of special interest travel, event tourism should be analyzed from both the demand and supply sides. On the demand side, the analysis from the consumer’s perspective aims to determine who travels to events and what their motivation is, as well as who attends events during their stay in another country. Another important point is to understand what these types of tourists who choose to participate in various events do, and where they spend their money. Included in this on the demand side, there is the assessment of the value of events in promoting a positive image of the destination, local marketing, and co-branding with destinations [3–15]. According to [16], on the supply side destinations develop, facilitate and promote various events to meet different objectives, such as: . attract tourists, especially in the low seasons. . serve as a catalyst, for urban renewal and strengthen the infrastructure as well as the tourism capacity of the destination. . create a positive image of the destination and contribute to the overall marketing of the location, including contributions to promote a better place to live, work and invest. . animate specific attractions or areas. Events are seen as attractions, space traders and significant image creators from the point of view of the tourism industry, the specialized event agencies and a DMO. Conventions are considered business travel, while attendance at sporting events or festivals are part of leisure travel. Existing events can be seen as resources to be exploited, something that can be problematic from a social and cultural perspective. Adopting a comprehensive portfolio approach leads to a greater emphasis on creating new events and attracting them through bidding. The portfolio approach is goaldriven and value-based. It is also similar to how a company strategically evaluates and develops both its product and service lines. Destinations must decide the benefits they wish to derive from events and how they will measure their value [3, 10, 12]. Local and regional events are problematic when viewed from a tourism perspective. While some have a tourism potential that can be developed with the help of investments, others even feel threatened by tourism and show no interest in it. If local events are primarily community or culturally oriented, there is a plausible argument why they should not be exploited. Certainly, the issue of preserving cultural authenticity and local control arises whenever tourism objectives are tied to both local and regional events [3]. When contemplating generic event development strategies, some destinations seem to exhaustively emphasize mega-events to the detriment of a more balanced portfolio. On the other hand, other destinations seek to promote one or more events as destination landmarks, aiming to symbolize quality and other brand values. A related strategy is to deliberately seek to elevate existing events to those with a higher position in the pyramid. One strategy used by DMOs and event development agencies is to create and use their own more popular events to elevate less popular ones, so it can be called a sophisticated branding strategy. However, to be most effective, the DMO

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or event agency must establish relationships with the event industry and individual events, thus becoming a useful network of contacts [3, 14]. While most of the elements of this model (Fig. 50.1) within the framework of event tourism planning have been discussed, the idea of experience packages deserves some additional comments. Most events have emerged without taking into consideration the competitive position, or the existence of events and other tourist attractions provided by host countries. The mega-events and recurring events are the ones with the best characteristics to be included in the packages, and the real challenge is to make the most of all these events and develop an interesting package. There are factors to consider, namely the season and tourist demand. In this context, [18] advocates six basic packages with events and ideas, which any tourist destination can suggest attracting tourists: . . . . . .

the theme (for example, a tour through various music and food festivals). the destination and theme (for example, Scottish country craftsmanship). the season of the year (for example, summer or spring festivals). the circuits (e.g. tourist routes); the gateways (e.g., events at a country’s main entry points, and resorts). piggybacking (adding less popular events to very popular events).

Fig. 50.1 Event tourism planning. Source [18] (Adapted)

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Another way to examine the event tourism planning process can be through the links between the five perspectives, as illustrated in Fig. 50.1. Each of the linkages represents a planning or management task or is otherwise subject to some control at the planning stage, such as: Targeted Marketing, Tangible Product Consumption, Resident-Tourist Relationship, Host Community Support and Participation, Host Community Relations, Event Production, and Organizer Assistance. Targeted Marketing, or effective Target Marketing, depends on a complete understanding of the reasons and benefits of travel. Every event has a general appeal, but it is its specific characteristics that attract a suitable target audience for a particular festivity. Market research must be conducted by the event organizers to ensure the success of the event. On a higher level, tourism organizations must consider all products associated with that event, and all related markets. A planning issue will be the development of experience packages that include these events and that will have to cover various target audiences. Consumption of the tangible product, or Participation in entertainment and other events, is the mechanism used in the creation of experiences. The visitor wants to enjoy experiences that can be, in the end, considered advantageous. While enjoying these experiences, the visitor also engages in activities that contribute to economic growth and community development, thus becoming multidimensional activities in meaning and impact. Events can lead to an increase in the number of tourists during their period of realization. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt the spaces so that it is possible to meet the needs associated with their realization. In this way, it will be possible to provide the best experience to the tourist and, consequently, create a good image of the destination from the visitor’s perspective. For [13] events emerged to improve the image of cities, adding life to the streets, and providing a new pride to local citizens. In this sense, urban regeneration appears as the set of changes made in a part of the city, such as landscapes, buildings and urban spaces used by citizens, among others. Also, the cocreation of customer service experiences ensures a paradigm shift in the way the tourism industry provides and delivers experiences [13–15]. The way tourism companies deliver experiences has integrated notions of commercial intent and artificial concerns. Thus, customers seek new complements to enhance their service experiences (Binkhorst and Dekker 2009). In this context, product and service co-creation emerges as a means of engaging customers and companies. In this way, it helps to raise revenues, as an increase in the customer’s predisposition to pay for services arises [17]. However, if this engagement is mismanaged, it can destroy value and result in dissatisfied consumers who will never purchase services again [4, 5, 13]. Furthermore, negative experiences can harm tourism businesses, as customers can denigrate their reputation through word-of-mouth and negative comments.

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50.3 Methodology The main goal of this study is to contribute to enrich the empirical evidence about the notoriety of São João in Porto as a tourist event. It starts by understanding what notoriety it has and how it is perceived by residents and visitors. It is intended to identify the impact of the event and the offer of the city of Porto and to identify the promotion tools and short-term expectations. As specific objectives we also intend to understand the impact of the São João event on the host community; understand if the event participants are interested in the city’s tourism offer; identify and evaluate the means of dissemination of the event; identify the factors that contribute to the enrichment of the experience of the participants in the event; and envision the demand for the event in the medium term. For each of the specific objectives, hypotheses have been formulated to which an answer will be sought, namely: H1: São João has social and economic impacts for the host community. In his research, [18] reached a set of conclusions that were the basis for the creation of a model. This model considers aspects such as "Consumption of the tangible product or Participation in entertainment and other events", and "The resident-tourist relationship". These two aspects are important in the sense that they benefit both the stakeholders and the participants of the event. In the consumption of the tangible product or the participation in entertainment and other events, the focus is on the visitor, who by participating in the festivities seeks to enjoy an experience that he or she will consider beneficial in the end. By enjoying these experiences, the visitor is contributing to the economic growth and development of the local community. The resident-tourist relationship is the way visitors and stakeholders relate to each other during the event. The stakeholders enjoy this relationship as soon as the final revenue exceeds the expenses necessary to hold the event. In the perspective of [10, 17], festivities are the cause of some negative social impacts, such as: noise and crowds; alcohol and drug use; conflicts among participants; environmental damage and littering. These antisocial behaviors can threaten the local community’s positive attitude towards the event, thus leading to less support from the community, and a detriment to the destination’s image. [10] emphasizes in his research two conclusions: events have a large affluence in the various tourist flows; and hotels and other means of accommodation are essential allies for events, since they arise as a response to the need to provide accommodation to tourists [17–19]. H2: The participants from other cities that stay in the city show interest in enjoying a diversified tourist package, because of Porto’s supply. Authors in [18] state that there are no tourism products unless they are inserted in tour packages, and that these are properly promoted to attract tourists. In other words, there is a difference between tourists visiting a city just for the festival itself, and tourists visiting a city both for the festival and for the tourist offer that the host city has. Like [19–24] also mentions another conclusion in his research, highlighting that events can interfere with the prolongation of a tourist’s stay. This extension is

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due to the tourist’s desire to enjoy as much time as possible, and thus be able to visit several tourist sites of the destination. H3: Social networks are more effective than word-of-mouth in publicizing the event. According to [22], in the year 2014, 4.2 million people were using social media on their smartphones. Consequently, as it became possible to publish content related to their travels in order to provide feedback to future tourists, applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Google + became extremely important tools for the tourism industry. Nowadays social networks such as Instagram (through reels, insta stories, and posts), Facebook (through photo and/or video posts, and stories), TikTok (through video posts), and other online social services (such as Booking.com, Tripadvisor.com, Stay.tui.com, among others), have allowed people from all over the world to establish a virtual connection. These publications with content about the various trips of each person are analyzed by those interested in the destination, and in the end will help make a final decision, whether on the destination, accommodation, the restaurants, and the tourist spaces to be frequented. H4: The purchase of local products, tourist visits, and local gastronomy are factors that contribute to enhance the experience of the participants in the event. According to [16], nowadays all events have a brand image or a mascot to stand out from all other events. These mascots or images can be turned into souvenirs if they are printed on t-shirts, hoodies, sweatshirts, hats, or else on key rings, mugs, pins, transformed into small statues, among others. In the case of São João, the most popular souvenirs are leeks, plastic hammers, and basil pots with popular phrases. According to [25] people may go to a specific destination with the main objective of doing some shopping, either of local products in the typical streets of the city, or in the shopping centers. Those who go to Porto to celebrate São João may do so if they wish to buy some local products and/or souvenirs during their stay. In addition, you may also want to visit a store that does not exist in the municipality where you live. In his research, [26] separated the 70 museums that the city of Porto has available for visitors, these being the city museums—the Serralves Foundation and its contemporary art museum, the Soares dos Reis National Museum, the Tram Museum, and the Porto Wine Museum—and the art galleries that can be found on Miguel Bombarda Street. The city’s museums are the ones that most contribute to the tourism development of the North region and Porto city, through their high economic revenues. In addition to the museums, Porto still has 8913 tourist entertainment companies, which are mostly divided into activities on the Douro River/maritime leisure travel, public transportation provided by the city, and the tour and travel organizations [26] further concluded that in the year 2018, a total of 43.8% of the restaurants in Porto were concentrated in Cedofeita, São Nicolau, and Santo Ildefonso for their privileged positioning in the tourist center of the city. Consequently, those who wish to try the gastronomy of the festivity will be able to do it.

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50.4 Results According to the above literature review, to start the questionnaire a script was designed, which was validated by two academic experts and two potential respondents. The questionnaires, addressed to stakeholders and citizens from other Portuguese cities, were applied only in Portuguese. The questionnaire consists of five parts: the respondent’s sociodemographic profile, the respondent’s knowledge about the city of Porto, the respondent’s knowledge, and way of celebrating São João do Porto, the respondent’s appreciation about their participation in the event, and their expectations for future years in a Covid-19 related perspective. This questionnaire was based on [26] research, having been adapted to the case study of this dissertation and topics addressed in the literature review. The sample consists of a total of 217 responses, of which 211 accepted the rules of the RGPD, and 6 did not, thereby terminating their participation in the data collection. A total of 147 people has celebrated São João in Porto at least once, thus completing all the necessary requirements indicated in the informed consent. H1: São João has social and economic impacts for the host community. Since respondents could select more than one option, the number of answers adds up to a total of 211, since some travelled by public transport, consequently selecting options such as "Train", "Plane", "Bus" and/or "Metro". Thus, 78 respondents traveled by car, 45 by subway, 27 by train, 22 by plane, 22 on foot, and 17 by bus. When presented with an opportunity to stay overnight outside their place of residence, the options are a hotel, the house of a relative or friend, or local accommodation in the vicinity of some places they wish to visit the next day. On the other hand, they can return home the same night. In the case of respondents who celebrated São João in Porto, 90 stayed overnight in the city, while 121 decided to return home, or even spend the night on the streets celebrating until the end of the event. Of those 90 respondents who stayed overnight, 55 chose a family member’s house, 11 a friend’s houses, 13 their own house (room rented to students, or in the case of stakeholders, in their own homes), 6 a hotel, and 5 local accommodation (Fig. 50.2). The length of stay can vary depending on a person’s desire to visit and enjoy the various services that a city has to offer. In this study, 53 respondents answered that they spent 1–2 nights in Oporto, 16 spent 3–4 nights, and 21 stayed more than 4 nights. One way to support the local community is by choosing products produced by it and/or local tourism services, which represent the city well. During their stay, 46 respondents claim to have enjoyed local products/services, while the remaining 44 sought other types of tourist services. The experience that a participant has at an event must be as pleasant as possible, because only then will it convey a good message. Influence through word-of-mouth is extremely relevant, since people tend to trust the opinions of those close to them until they have experienced it, and thus have a contrary opinion. Of the 147 respondents who celebrated São João, 143 said they enjoyed the experience, meaning, that they had a positive experience, and will more easily recommend future editions of São João to their acquaintances who will appreciate the conviviality that the festivity

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Fig. 50.2 Where the participants stay overnight

has to offer. However, not all those who enjoy the festivities end up recommending them, since, like the value of a product/service, tastes are totally subjective. Thus, although the respondent enjoys the St. John festivities, these may not be the type of socializing and event that his or her acquaintances would choose to experience. Thus, 140 respondents recommend attending the event. Event planning is something that both stakeholders and citizens from other cities can participate in. The festivity has a limited duration, but planning begins long before to think about the mandatory elements to be included so that the final product is as unique and complete as possible. In total, 100 respondents participated in the programming activities of the event. Through this conviviality and during the festival itself, there is a contact between stakeholders and other citizens, which is crucial. While the participants are looking for experiences that in the end are beneficial to themselves, the stakeholders expect the participants to spend money at the event, and thus end up helping the local economy. Of the respondents, 131 said they got to know the local community better, while 16 stayed more in touch with their own travel groups. When asked what they would add to São João to make it more unique and appealing, many respondents answered, “More security”, “Nothing”, “More organization”, “More music”, among others. The word “event” has been used to describe a set of events, these being: rituals, performances, and specific celebrations. These all share the same goal, which is to celebrate special occasions and/or achieve desired social, cultural, and corporate goals. For several authors, an event is a gathering involving many people, in a public or private place, with the aim of celebrating a special moment. Thus, planning, timing, management, content, location, and participation are crucial when analyzing and studying an event from a general perspective, and when observing aspects such as its effectiveness, impact, experiences, and participants’ motivations. Events are also characterized by the changes, transitions, and transformations they undergo with each edition. Consequently, the results from events may differ depending on the application of these three factors. This idea emerged after [10, 16–19], first related event results with business, economic, social, and environmental aspects.

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The social impacts of São João are negative and positive. The main problem with the celebration of the event is the confusion, derived from the excessive consumption of alcohol, the large concentration of participants in the same parts of the city, and the blocking of the roads necessary for the circulation of vehicles on a rescue mission. However, there are also good moments where the participants socialize, dance, eat the typical dishes of the festivity, take pictures, hammer, and sing, among others. In addition, the preparation for the feast is also important, since the participants from other cities socialize with each other and get to know the local communities, as well as the different customs. São João attracts participants from several Portuguese cities, who travel in different ways to get to the host city. These participants are willing to spend money on transportation, meals, souvenirs, lodging and entertainment. When compared to everyday life, on this night several establishments have a very high turnover. In his research, Getz [18] reached a set of conclusions that were the basis for the creation of a model. In this model, themes such as “Consumption of the tangible product or Participation in entertainment and other events”, and “The resident-tourist relationship” are considered. These two aspects are important in the sense that they benefit both the stakeholders and the participants of the event. In the consumption of the tangible product or the participation in entertainment and other events, the focus is on the visitor, who by participating in the festivities seeks to enjoy an experience that he or she will find beneficial in the end. By enjoying these experiences, the visitor is contributing to the economic growth and development of the local community. The resident-tourist relationship is the way visitors and stakeholders relate to each other during the event. The stakeholders enjoy this relationship from the moment the final revenue exceeds the expenses necessary to hold the event. According to [27] the definition of tourist customer experience is related to the subjective personal reactions, and feelings associated with the activities performed at the destination. According to [10, 18, 19], festivities are the cause of some negative social impacts, such as: noise and crowds; alcohol and drug use; conflicts among participants; environmental damage and littering. These antisocial behaviors can lead the host community and the local agents offering the event to be against holding the event. Since the São João is a major influx to various tourist spots, without community support it would cease to be beneficial to entities related to catering, lodging, and shopping [28]. H2: The participants from other cities that stay overnight in Oporto, show interest in enjoying a diversified tourist package, because of the offer that the host city has to offer. Through the question it is possible to conclude if the respondent knows and/or has visited Oporto, and in what context he/she has done so. Although São João is celebrated in Oporto, 2 respondents confirm not having visited the city other than to go to the festival, while the remaining 209 respondents have visited and/or are used to Oporto. There are several reasons why a person may visit a city, and thus get to know a little about it. In the case of these 209 respondents, 95 know the city for reasons related to Tourism and Leisure, 55 because they live in the city, 25 for reasons related

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Fig. 50.3 Reasons for the respondent to know Porto

to visiting family and friends, 20 because they want to do business, and 16 because they are students from their hometowns studying in the city of Oporto, thus benefiting from academic accommodation (Fig. 50.3). Man seeks in events an experience different from the one he lives in everyday life. In addition, this experience is even more memorable when it is shared with other individuals who are close to us. Thus, Saint John’s becomes an event with the ideal environment for all its participants to relax and have fun, with their families or friends. 67 respondents celebrated with friends, 48 with family members, and 32 alone. The idea of creating tour packages with the objective of enjoying a prolonged stay, was supported by 87 respondents. Being Porto the biggest city in the north of Portugal, it would be possible to create customizable packaging’s to please different age groups and personal tastes. What the respondents suggest for tourism packages are hotel stays followed by museum or monument visits, thematic tours, meals in the most popular restaurants with traditional food, trips in transportation, among others. The second hypothesis, related to São João tourism packages, had positive feedback from the participants. For [29, 30], co-creation is the creation of products or services, by the customers of a particular brand, using resources, such as their time and effort. As [29, 30] suggest, active customer participation in co-creation can help facilitate their value outcomes, and thus lead to positive associations with the brand. Co-creation is advantageous for companies, since customers themselves can help in the creation of products and/or services, and consequently increase their predisposition to pay for services. However, according [30], this involvement, when mismanaged, can destroy value and result in dissatisfied consumers who will never purchase services from that brand again. [18, 28] state that without the creation of tour packages with the appropriate tourist attractions of a destination, the event participant will not be able to enjoy a prolonged and complete stay, since he or she will not have the possibility to visit and get to know the host city.

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H3: Social networks are more effective than word-of-mouth in publicizing the event. Of the 211 respondents, 206 know or have heard of the festival. The way they heard about it varies between 6 options: through their habitual residence, i.e., they are stakeholders (53 answers); through their participation in the event (52 answers); word-of-mouth from acquaintances (52 answers); through visits to the host city (21 answers); through advertising such as billboards, digital mupis and leaflets available in supermarkets with discounts allusive to the Popular Saints (18 answers); and through the internet such as publications allusive to the event on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter (18 answers). Whether on a trip abroad, or a trip within one’s own country, the act of photographing memorable moments is essential in the tourist experience. In the case of São João, the collection of photos may occur in the marches, the stalls, the people with whom they are celebrating, among others. With the evolution of technology, photographs are no longer something that was only and exclusively developed at photographers, with the purpose of being displayed in frames and in albums, to be published in multiple online platforms, and thus become a digital memory. Of the 67 respondents who took photos and/or filmed, only 50 published those photos and/or videos, while the remaining 40 kept them for themselves. This exposure of the photos can be done through publications (where they remain exposed until the person so wishes), or in stories (which are exposed for only 24 h, and then are deleted from the application, but remain in an archive that only the user has access). In this case, 32 respondents published their photos on Instagram, 26 on Facebook, 21 on TikTok, 17 on Twitter, 13 on SnapChat and 11 on WhatsApp. Although social networks have been growing over the past few years, they have not replaced the most effective means of event promotion, the word-of-mouth. The opinion of an event is like the opinion of a product or a service, totally subjective since each person reasons and feels differently. However, when traveling to foreign countries, social networks play an essential role, since they facilitate, through online publications, the search for accommodations, restaurants, and the most popular tourist spots near the accommodation. Nowadays social networks such as Instagram (through reels, insta stories, and posts), Facebook (through photo and/or video posts, and stories), TikTok (through video posts), and other online social services (such as Booking.com, Tripadvisor.com, Stay.tui.com, among others), have allowed people from all over the world to establish a virtual connection. These publications with content about each person’s various trips are analyzed by those interested in the destination, and in the end will help them to make a final decision, whether on the destination, accommodation, restaurants, and tourist spaces to attend. [31] states that the trip is divided into three phases, namely: the preparation phase, the trip, and after the trip. In the case of São João it is possible to apply word-of-mouth in the first, and third phase. Before the event, man lets himself be influenced by the experiences of others and ends up attending the festivities. After having experienced it, he forms his opinion and passes it on to others. H4: The purchase of local products, tourist visits, and local gastronomy are factors that contribute to enhance the experience of the participants in the event.

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Of the 90 respondents who stayed overnight in Porto, 60 took the opportunity to visit tourist sites, monuments and/or some place they were interested in visiting the next day. During the feast participants can choose from the traditional local gastronomy, which are: grilled sardines, grilled peppers, boiled potatoes, salads, and caldo verde. Besides this dish, it is also customary to eat barbecued spareribs or steaks on bread. In this study 140 respondents said they had tried the local gastronomy, while the remaining 7 chose to dine on something not related to tradition. Photos and videos are ways to prolong and eternalize the memories of a special moment, and in the case of São João, it is still possible to buy a manjerico or a plastic hammer in any corner of the city. Whether it is because they want to buy local products, visit Porto and/or its tourist sites, take pictures during and/or after the festivity or try the local cuisine, the motivations for participants to go to Porto are varied. Most respondents show that they took these four actions on June 23rd, 24 and 25th during the time they celebrated São João. This shows that the motivations of the participants besides socializing and eternalizing that moment through photographs, is also to have the most complete and advantageous experience possible, since they can count on a set of unique services offered by the host city. According to [32], the subject of events and psychology are interconnected. Initially, the motivations that led an individual to participate in an event were studied in the field of psychology, where the goal was to understand the behaviors of these individuals during the event. To ensure the success of the following editions of the events, their organizers were faced with the need to understand the motivations of the participants, since they would only be able to organize the events in such a way as to satisfy the needs of their participants. However, as the years went by, the organizers found themselves confronted with a growing and competitive market. As new events emerged, existing events were forced to invest more, both financially and creatively, to keep their attendees and target audiences interested. According to [16], nowadays all events have a brand image or a mascot to stand out from all other events. These mascots or images can be turned into souvenirs if they are printed on t-shirts, hoodies, sweatshirts, hats, or else on key rings, mugs, pins, transformed into small statues, among others. In the case of São João, the most popular souvenirs are leeks, plastic hammers, and basil pots with popular phrases. According to [25], one of the main reasons that can encourage individuals to travel is the desire to acquire specific products of the region. In the case of people who travel to Porto to celebrate São João, that during their visit they may acquire some local products and/or souvenirs. H5: The near future will enhance the increase in participant flow since the event was not celebrated during 2020 and 2021 due to Covid-19. Of the 206 respondents who have heard and know about the event, in the year 2021, 123 celebrated São João and the remaining 83 did not. The celebration options varied between own home where they received guests, such as family or friends (49 responses), at family members’ homes (34 responses), friends’ homes (20 responses) and at public events (20 responses) (Fig. 50.4).

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Fig. 50.4 Where did the respondents celebrate

Since the pandemic has prohibited people from experiencing St. John’s as it was experienced in years past, the expectation of the respondents is that the next St. John’s festivities will be the same as the years when there was no Covid, or else even busier and more chaotic. After the years 2020 and 2021, citizens who were counting on participating again, and those who were going to participate for the first time, saw the festivity canceled due to the pandemic. During those two years there were several confinements, which led to the closure of establishments that were not considered mandatory for man’s daily life. In addition, people who used to frequent nightspots frequently found themselves deprived, which increased their desire to do so again as soon as the rules were lifted, and they could return to “normality”. The desire to celebrate it again is even greater than in previous years, which could be an opportunity to design strategies to personalize experiences.

50.5 Conclusions According to [33], in recent decades events have become a new means to attract tourists to both mature and emerging destinations. Consequently, events play a great role in contributing to the economic development of the host territories. After analyzing the questionnaire responses, it is possible to conclude that São João, a regional event [23, 24], plays a crucial role as a popular event in the city of Porto, fitting the six characteristics needed to be designated as a unique and rare event [34]. With the revenues from restaurants, lodging, transportation and commerce, Porto City Hall is presented with the possibility of investing in the improvement of the city’s infrastructure and equipment, as well as its services. Consequently, the stakeholders’ pride in the city and their satisfaction with the services used in their daily lives will be increased [2, 27, 35]. However, as in all events, a part of the Porto population does not appreciate seeing their city occupied and used by tourists and other national citizens, as they consider that spaces are not respected [19, 29, 30]. In general, the

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desired outcome for residents is strong profitability, expecting organizers to support the holding of events, either through their participation in the planning or celebration of events. The voluntary participation of customers is considered as a sign of value cocreation. [27, 28, 30, 35] state that by retaining customers, companies save high costs in acquiring new consumers, such as in marketing and product rebranding. Through the planning of the event by stakeholders and other displaced volunteers, organizers can make the event as cost-effective as possible for their economy by the information obtained regarding the motivations and experiences that participants would like to experience during the festivity. In this way, they will be able to secure the maximum number of participants, and consequently, the greatest possible profit [18]. Organizers also need to consider the feedbacks provided by the participants after the event. This way, they can be aware of the negative comments, and work on possible strategies to mitigate the causes of those comments in the next editions. In this perspective, both stakeholders and visitors will be able to appreciate the event, ensuring, for the destination, its recommendation to their acquaintances and relatives [32]. Co-creation is becoming an increasingly significant source of differentiation for tourism [17, 25, 33, 35]. A strategy to be adopted in future editions would be, from the perspective of dissemination of services and tourist sites of Porto, the creation of tourist packaging’s allusive to São João, ensuring the possibility to customize them according to personal preferences, particularly in four categories: Religious Tourism, Wine Tourism and Gastronomic Tourism, Cultural and Landscape Tourism, and Literary Tourism. The goal would be to satisfy the customer’s need and desire to get to know the host destination better. In this way, events would end up attracting not only more residents from other regions, but also tourists [18], in the perspective of prolonging the stay with a complementary offer provided by the destination. After these last two years without celebrating São João, it would be interesting to establish partnerships between entities, to attract the maximum number of visitors to the city at the time of the São João celebration. They could create a two-day itinerary, different and customizable, and include it in a tourist package that would be advertised in common points for all residents of the different Portuguese cities. All the information about the products and services they could enjoy during their visit to Porto would be presented. It would also be advantageous to have a partnership with CP (Portuguese Railways), to create attractive prices for those visitors travelling from Lisbon and other cities with a similar distance. Authors in [36] used the term “network value” to encompass social value outcomes that derive from customer membership in social media. Although social media is present in today’s marketing mediums, St. John’s festivity has been celebrated since 1384. Thus, it evolved with both the city and the population, eventually becoming popular through the medium most used before technologies existed, word-of-mouth.

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17. Tuan, L.T., Rajendran, D., Rowley, C., Khai, D.C.: Customer value co-creation in the businessto-business tourism context: The roles of corporate social responsibility and customer empowering behaviors. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 39, 137–149 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm. 2019.04.002 18. Getz, D.: Special events: defining the product. Tour. Manag. 10(2), 125–137 (1989). https:// doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(89)90053-8 19. Arcodia, C., Whitford, M.: Festival attendance and the development of social capital. J. Conv. Event Tour. 8(2), 1–18 (2007) 20. Liberato, D., Limbado, B., Sousa, B., Liberato, P.: Northern portugal tourism experiences management for the post-covid period: facing demand changes in tourism products and services. In: Abreu, A., Liberato, D., Garcia Ojeda, J.C. (eds) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 293, pp. 625–643. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1040-1_52 21. Liberato, D., Limbado, B., Sousa, B., Liberato, P.: Perspectives in the strategic management of destinations in the post-COVID period. In: Sharma, A., Hassan, A., Mohanty, A. (eds.) COVID-19 and the Tourism Industry Sustainability, Resilience and New Directions, 1st edn., pp. 267–287. Routledge (2022). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003207467 22. Chung, N., Koo, C.: The use of social media in travel information search. Telematics Inform. 32(2), 215–229 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2014.08.005 23. Getz, D.: The nature and scope of festival studies. Int. J. Event Manag. Res. (IJEMR) 5(1), 1–47 (2010) 24. Getz, D.: Event Studies: Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events, 2nd edn. Routledge (2013) 25. Timothy, D.J., Butler, R.W.: Cross-border shopping: a North American perspective. Ann. Tour. Res. 22, 16–34 (1995) 26. Carvalho, A.E.B.: Inovação em turismo através da cocriação em eventos populares: O caso de São João do Porto. Master Thesis, University of Aveiro (2018). https://ria.ua.pt/handle/10773/ 24487 27. Cohen, S.A., Prayag, G., Moital, M.: Consumer behaviour in tourism: concepts, influences and opportunities. Curr. Issue Tour. 17(10), 872–909 (2014) 28. Kolb, B.M.: Tourism Marketing for Cities and Towns. Elsevier, Oxford (2006) 29. Pavlukovi´c, V., Armenski, T., Alcántara-Pilar, J.M.: Social impacts of music festivals: does culture impact locals’ attitude toward events in Serbia and Hungary? Tour. Manag. 63, 42–53 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.06.006 30. Prahalad, C., Ramaswamy, V.: Co-creation experiences: the next practice in value creation. J. Interact. Mark. 18(3), 5–14 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1002/dir.20015 31. Carvalho, B.: Os canais de feedback no departamento de Acolhimento e Comercialização da Associação de Turismo do Porto e Norte: O perfil do cliente do back office. [Master Thesis]. Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal (2019). https://recipp.ipp.pt/handle/10400.22/14772 32. Colombo, A., Marques, L.: Motivation and experience in symbiotic events: An illustrative example grounded in culture and business events. J. Policy Res. Tour., Leis. Events 12(2), 222–238 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2019.1657437 33. Mainolfi, G., Marino, V.: Destination beliefs, event satisfaction and post-visit product receptivity in event marketing. Results from a tourism experience. J. Bus. Res. 116, 699–710 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.03.001 34. Jago, L., Shaw, R.N.: Special events: a conceptual and definitional framework. Festiv. Manag. Event Tour. 5, 21–32 (1998) 35. Gursoy, D., Kim, K., Uysal, M.: Perceived impacts of festivals and special events by organizers: an extension and validation. Tour. Manag. 25(2), 171–181 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0261-5177(03)00092-X 36. Loane, S., Webster, C.: Consumer-to-consumer value within social networks. Mark. Rev. 14(4), 444–459 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1362/146934714X14185702841442

Chapter 51

The Potential of Responsible Nature Tourism as a Driver of Sustainable Development in Northern Portugal A. I. Correia

and I. Sousa

Abstract The exponential growth of tourism has brought new challenges to the sector, to which the segment of nature tourism is no different. As a result, responsible tourism, along with sustainable tourism, has become a beacon for the tourism industry as a tool for sustainable development. There are several challenges inherent in the practical application of the principles of responsible tourism at an operational level. These include the very environment in which nature tourism takes place, and the diverse, often conflicting, interests held by a broad range of stakeholders in a context where demand forces a paradigm shift by the tourism industry. Contributing to the sustainable development of Northern Portugal through the stimulation of nature tourism under these conditions is a great challenge, as well as the implementation of responsible tourism practices within the tourism industry. Based on eight semistructured interviews, this study seeks the analysis of nature tourism in Northern Portugal, focused on the activity of tourism leisure-related companies, as well as the analysis of responsible tourism in the region, to verify its potential as a driving force for sustainable development. The study shows that Nature tourism in protected areas in Northern Portugal is not yet widely developed in the context of leisure-related tourism companies. The lack of specialization, deficient regulation, and supervision, and competition from non-profit and public entities are some aspects that condition the development of nature tourism in the region.

A. I. Correia (B) Instituto Politécnico de Viana Do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial Nun’Alvares, nº 34, 4900-347 Viana Do Castelo, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] CiTUR - Research Center for Tourism, Innovation and Development, Coimbra, Portugal I. Sousa UNIAG - Unidade de Investigação Aplicada Em Gestão, Viana Do Castelo, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_51

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51.1 Introduction The contribution of tourism to the global economy is undeniable, as one of the most relevant industries since the end of the twentieth century. However, although the sector generates relevant social, economic, and environmental impacts [1], at the environmental and social level, the less positive impact of tourism is also unquestionable. Thus, there is the need to minimize its adverse effects and maximize the positive effects. With increased public awareness of overtourism [2], environmental issues, human rights [3], working conditions, COVID-19 pandemic crisis [4], several relevant stakeholders, such as tourism businesses, governments, non-governmental organizations, institutions, and tourists, have a responsibility to seek to reduce the negative and enhance the positive environmental, socio-cultural, and economic impacts of tourism [5, 6]. Despite existing examples of tourism companies adopting different approaches to be more sustainable in the long term, creating a positive impact on local communities, and communicating and involving their customers [7], more research is needed, mainly focusing on awareness, practices, and instruments for achieving the goals of more responsible tourism [6]. In addition, such context requires a better understanding of the linkages between responsibility [2], sustainability, and tourism impacts [8]. Portugal’s popularity as a destination has brought new challenges, including its protected natural areas from north to south. However, as there are no official records of the number and profile of visitors to these natural spaces, nor official monitoring tools, it is currently unknown what impacts tourism activity may have on these areas and its contribution to the more responsible and sustainable development of the region. Moreover, although there are data on the number of tourist leisure-related companies operating in these areas, supply perceptions of the existing products and services adopt responsible practices, and the level of commitment to responsible tourism and sustainable development of the territory remains unknown. The research questions of this study are: what is the potential of responsible Nature Tourism as a driver for sustainable tourism development? How can leisure tourism-related companies contribute to responsible tourism? Based on eight exploratory semi-structured interviews conducted with companies operating in nature tourism in territories with a European Charter for Sustainable Tourism (ECST) in Northern Portugal, the aim of this study is twofold. First, it aims to analyze nature tourism in the North of Portugal from the perspective of supply, namely, tourism and leisure-related companies. Second, this study aims to identify and reflect on the set of actions, principles, and resources used by companies in the region to evaluate the potential of responsible tourism as a driver of sustainable tourism development. This study is structured in five sections: introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis, and conclusions, including the implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research.

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51.2 Literature Review Since the late 1980s, research in the field of tourism has given substantial focus to the issue of sustainability [9]. Since then, there has been growing concern about the sustainability of the tourism sector and the limits to its growth [10]. Sustainable Tourism is generally regarded as aiming to reduce the adverse effects of tourism activities on the environment, society, and economy [11] while striking a balance between the economic, environmental, and social needs of all stakeholders, including tourists and host communities in considering the impacts of tourism [10]. However, despite the attractiveness and interest in sustainable tourism, its complexity and ambiguity in the face of irresponsible tourism or irresponsible tourism behavior is still a significant concern [6, 10], and a detailed understanding of knowledge and management is required to understand better the needed actions for sustainable tourism [12]. Sustainability in tourism can only be achieved if the various tourism stakeholders take “responsibility” [13]. Making tourism sustainable remains a constant theme in the literature and implementation, which, at least in part, has led to the emergence of responsible tourism as a separate field of tourism research and philosophy that complements the discourse on sustainable tourism [14]. In the literature, sustainable tourism studies often appear accompanied by the notion of responsible tourism, leading, on some occasions, to the misunderstanding that they are the same concept. The concept of responsible tourism came to the fore in 1999 with the approval by the World Tourism Organization of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism [15], where a set of guidelines were established, and the role of the different stakeholders in promoting more responsible forms of tourism was highlighted. Later in 2002, following the International Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations, the Cape Town Declaration was drafted, recognizing that responsible tourism takes many forms, that destinations and stakeholders have different priorities, and that local policies and strategies should be developed through the process of involvement of different stakeholders. Responsible tourism is not a form of tourism or a niche product but rather a set of principles applicable to all forms of tourism [13]. There is an ambiguous conceptual separation between responsible and sustainable tourism [16]. The frequent mixing of concepts can be explained by the fact that these concepts generically encompass ethics and respectful behavior, contribute to implementing actions that promote sustainability goals [8], and promote sustainable development. Nevertheless, according to [14], responsible tourism implements sustainability and its triggers. More specifically, Responsible Tourism consists of engaging in actual behavior to achieve sustainability aims, taking actions in line with all three pillars of the sustainability concept [6]. Therefore, Responsible Tourism might be considered sustainable tourism in practice. Within a strategy for the sustainability of tourist destinations, Responsible Tourism maintains and, where possible, enhances the characteristics of the destination’s tourism resources, sustaining and safeguarding them for future generations, receiving communities, travelers, and entrepreneurs [8].

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Responsible tourism is seen as a response to the challenge of sustainability and refers to taking responsibility to make tourism consumption and work more sustainable, based on three aspects: commitment, ability to act, and capacity to respond. Consumers, communities, entrepreneurs, and public authorities have a critical role, and this is the core of responsible tourism, to act, to play a role, and to take action against the impacts of tourism [13]. Responsible tourism should thus reflect ethical behaviors, actions, and the commitment of public entities, destinations, and businesses, with the involvement of communities in tourism decision-making [8]. Considering tourists’ role, the responsible elements of a tourism product are only a part of the motivation to purchase, as consumer choices are constrained by price and availability. Although consumers expect the suppliers to provide responsible products, they will not be prepared to pay for them [7]. However, there is also the recognition that responsible tourism elements make for a superior product and will attract consumers predisposed to purchase, aware of the difference in their experience [7]. Regardless of the motivation and the involvement of all actors for more responsible tourism, an interconnected chain of influences and demands is needed. Be it with operators and public entities, acting in response to travelers’ interests, or being influencers of more responsible attitudes [5]. Responsible tourism uses tourism for sustainable development and focuses on what people, businesses, and governments do to maximize tourism’s positive economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts [14]. Moreover, responsible tourism has been flagged as a solution to the problem of overtourism in destinations such as Barcelona, Prague, or Venice, that are affected by large numbers of tourists damaging the social, natural, and built environments of destinations [16]. The successful implementation of Sustainable Tourism and Responsible Tourism represents two significant challenges for the sector [14] and addresses several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [16]. The United Nations 2030 agenda [17] promotes sustainable development by monitoring and controlling the use of natural resources and, encouraging conservation efforts, creating employment opportunities for local communities while promoting local culture and products. Therefore, the guidelines and management practices of sustainable tourism development apply to all forms of tourism. It requires the informed participation of all stakeholders and strong political leadership to ensure broad participation and consensus building [18]. Nature tourism encompasses different forms of tourism (e.g., adventure tourism, low-impact tourism, ecotourism), with natural resources in natural areas as the primary motivation for visiting [19]. Thus, National Parks and other protected areas are one of the primary resources of the great potential of nature tourism [20]. In the tourism legislation in Portugal, the definition of nature tourism [21] is strongly related to protected areas. It is presented as a tourism product composed of establishments, activities, and accommodation services, and tourist and environmental animation carried out and provided in areas integrated into the national network of protected areas. However, considering the various existing definitions, one can say that nature tourism may not only be carried out in classified or protected areas. However, it will

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be in these natural territories that this tourist experience may have more remarkable uniqueness. Nature tourism encompasses as its main motivations the practice of activities, interpretation, or knowledge of nature in natural environments. With different degrees of physical intensity, with a greater or lesser interest in interpretation, they use natural resources in a specific way without degrading or depleting them [22]. In essence, nature tourism incorporates activities and experiences of interaction with natural spaces. Responsible nature tourism should then be adopted to offer products and services to enjoy protected natural areas while including concerns or developing direct actions of conservation that promote or provide direct benefits to local communities and that develop actions to minimize negative impacts on the territory.

51.3 Methodology Portugal has a total of 25,578,864 hectares (ha) of territory classified as Protected Areas, 251,947 ha of which are in the northern region (Fig. 51.1), with five Protected Areas in the North. These features determine the northern region’s diversity and distinctive natural heritage [23]. Furthermore, the areas available for nature-based tourism have characteristics and infrastructures that support activities such as hiking, trekking, and mountaineering. These features set this region as a strategy for tourism in Portugal, which presented nature-based tourism as a priority segment in the Tourism Strategic Plan [24], with the valorization of the territory and protection of its natural resources. The Portuguese Tourism Strategy 2027 identifies the sea, nature, biodiversity, and inland waters as critical differentiating tourism destination assets among well-established assets [25]. Qualitative data was collected based on eight semi-structured interviews to identify the perceptions of owners/managers of tourism leisure-related companies with activity in protected areas integrated into the European Charter for Sustainable

Fig. 51.1 Geographic context of the study

602 Table 51.1 Respondents’ profile

A. I. Correia and I. Sousa Code

Position

ECST location

C1

Owner/Guide

Peneda Gerês National Park

C2

Managing Partner/Guide

International Douro National Park

C3

Managing Partner/Guide

Peneda Gerês National Park

C4

Managing Partner/Guide

Alto Minho

C5

Manager

Peneda Gerês National Park

C6

Managing Partner/Guide

Peneda Gerês National Park

C7

Managing Partner/Guide

Alvão Natural Park

C8

Owner/Guide

International Douro Natural Park

Tourism (ECST) in the North of Portugal. Interviewees were selected purposively based on the authors’ knowledge and experience with Nature Tourism. The option to use ECST territories relates to the fact that the groundwork carried out in the certification process with various stakeholders is a step towards sustainable tourism development. The interviews were conducted to explore different aspects [16], namely respondents’ views on nature tourism supply in the North of Portugal and on responsible tourism practices, impacts, and customer appreciation. The interviews were conducted face to face between March and April 2019. They lasted an average of 50 min each and were transcribed and analyzed manually based on the three main categories, resulting from the previously identified aspects. Thus, the themes addressed concerned the research question mentioned previously and the interview guide. Codification was used to ensure participants’ anonymity (e.g., C1 standing for company 1). The respondents’ profile is presented in Table 51.1. The analysis of the results presented in the following section is then organized according to the identified themes.

51.4 Data Analysis and Discussion 51.4.1 Nature Tourism: The Company and the Environment The companies in the sample are still recent (2–7 years of activity) and provide mainly the following activities: walking, cycling, kayaking, rafting, 4 × 4 tours, rafting, canyoning, birdwatching, fauna, flora and geology observation/interpretation, ethnographic activities, and experiences, and photographic tours. Walking is the only

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activity transversal to all the companies, promoting fauna, flora, geology observation/interpretation activities, ethnographic activities, and experiences. Other activities should also be highlighted, such as the Bioblitz programs and an inventory of flora and fauna species in a specific area in the Peneda-Gerês National Park (C6). Moreover, programs provide interpretation of nature and its communication (C7). Respondents’ opinions differ when questioned about the nature tourism sector in the North of Portugal. Half of the interviewees consider it a developed sector (C1, C4, C5, and C8), while another half consider it not developed (C2, C3, C6, and C7). One of the main reasons for the sector’s non-development is the perceived unfair competition from public bodies and non-profit entities that promote free or low-cost activities, with calendars of various nature tourism activities open to large groups. Another reason relates to the investment of public entities, preferably in applications and technologies that facilitate the autonomous visitation of the territories instead of expert tourism agents in the region (C2). Another company considers that despite its growth, this is an underdeveloped sector due to inadequate and inappropriate regulations (E7). Given the legal designation of tourism, this is a developed sector, as several companies are operating in the territory. Mainly in active tourism or landscape touring offer. However, nature tourism involves interdependence with the territory and its values and relationships, the interpretation of the landscape, and the dissemination, understanding, contemplation, and experience in a way that cannot be replicated elsewhere (E6).

51.4.2 Responsible Tourism from Supply’s Perspective Responsible tourism is developed considering sustainability and social responsibility (C1), based on local culture, social and environmental values, and fair trade, adding more value to the territory where it takes place (C3). Furthermore, it promotes a fair interaction between tourists and the local community, sharing benefits and minimizing negative impacts (C4). Its practice should aim for the sustainability of the territory by preserving its natural values. Also, it should always act within the resilience of habitats and take an active stance in combating and monitoring threats, preserving cultural values, maintaining the landscape, and generating more significant income through the development of traditional activities (C6). Furthermore, the perceptions are unanimous that a tourism company should apply responsible practices in developing its activity. Tourism must always have this premise in mind more than any other sector since it interacts with natural, cultural, and social resources (C2). Responsible tourism is essential for the acceptance of local communities. The symbiosis between companies, communities, and tourists should be equitable and fair (C7). Moreover, any company with a long-term strategy should assume responsible practices, as companies in the tourism sector (C6). All the interviewees responded positively when asked whether responsible tourism is present in the company’s philosophy. They also mentioned the importance of prioritizing networking and cooperation among local

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partners, always bearing in mind respect for and preservation of natural and cultural resources (C5 and C6). Opinions are divided when asked about the incorporation of responsible tourism practices by other companies, with some companies answering negatively (C1 and C3). Respondents consider that only some companies incorporate this practice (C4, C7, and C8). Thus, they choose to establish partnerships only with those that, on a professional level, match their values 100% (C7). Others consider that some companies use responsible tourism practices as a means of marketing to be well seen by customers or potential customers. However, in practice, they do not have responsible behaviors and even conflict with nature conservation (C2 and C6). With the current market trends and in response to the growing demand for environmentally and socially responsible products and services, companies will increasingly adopt responsible tourism practices (C5).

51.4.3 Operationalization, Management, and Promotion of Responsible Tourism The recognition of Nature Tourism activities attributed by the Nature and Forest Conservation Institute (NFCI) is the primary reference when asked about the existence of any certification of responsible or sustainable tourism in the company (C1, C2, C7, and C8), and all the interviewed companies have this certification. However, what exists is not consolidated in the tourism leisure-related area (C6). Therefore, the second reference is made to the brand Natural.PT, also from (NFCI) (C2 and C8), followed by the certificate of the Meseta Ibérica Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (C2), and by an Interreg Europe distinction in the Good Practices in Sustainable Tourism (C7). The incorporation of Responsible Tourism Practices starts in designing the activity (C1, C5, C7, and C8) by carefully selecting partners, always giving preference to local producers and locally managed accommodation, and that somehow include/participate in projects or activities that contribute to resources sustainability (C5). Furthermore, the interpretation of endogenous resources considers local communities’ openness, making them feel they have an essential role, contributing to differentiation (C7). Limiting the number of people per group is another relevant practice (C6). In the briefings that usually precede the activity, companies try to make customers aware, especially about environmental issues and nature conservation (C8), by communicating rules and standards of conduct. Good practices, especially environmental ones, are mandatory and well accepted (C7), such as encouraging garbage collection throughout the activities (C2 and C6). Another practice related to the promotion of waste reduction involves offering reusable bottles or local products (C6).

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During the activities, there is a concern about communicating and interpreting natural and cultural values and traditions (C6, C7 and C8), which encourages the consumption of local products (C5). In activities that include fauna observation, there is careful not to interfere with the environment (C4). Moreover, the care for the maintenance of endogenous resources is also a concern. Cleaning old rural paths where no one has passed for decades can be an example. Alternatively, other examples are warning about the spread of invasive plants (C7) and promoting sustainable management of resources with minimal waste and environmental impact (C8). The forwarding of part of the revenue to conservation actions and projects was also mentioned by the companies (C5 and C6), with the involvement of customers in conservation actions (C6) and the active collaboration in environmental education projects (C3). Responsible Tourism practices are used by most companies in their communication (C1, C2, C5, C6, C7 and C8). Highlighting these practices differentiates and can be a competitive advantage (C1). Companies communicate a great diversity of content on their website and social networks (Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn) (C2, C6, C7, and C8), through the organization of their events (C6) and the promotion of the conservation fund (C5), for example. Only two companies report not using Responsible Tourism practices in their communication strategy (C3 and C4). Opinions are divided regarding the increase in costs associated with adopting Responsible Tourism practices. Half of the respondents say these actions do not impact the costs (C2, C3, C4, and C5). Responsible tourism should be a rule across all tourism companies and not a cost-differentiating factor (C2). However, others state that these practices have increased the trip’s total cost (C1, C6, C7, and C8). For customers aware of the need to adopt Responsible Tourism practices, it makes sense to assume this cost (C8). The preference for local products is reflected in the cost of the trip, with restrictions in groups, implying a higher cost per client (C6). However, providing activities without damaging the region’s resources impact customer satisfaction (C7).

51.4.4 Responsible Tourism: Impact and Perceived Value from a Demand Perspective All the respondents answered affirmatively when asked whether they share with clients the commitments made by the company in terms of Responsible Tourism. Clients know the type of activity they want and intend to do (C7). All respondents claim that the customer appreciates that the company adopts Responsible Tourism practices. However, some clients/visitors show indifference at the beginning of the activities, but as the activities unfold, they become very aware and value the environmental sensitivity and responsibility of the way of acting (C2). After explaining the reasons for certain practices, customers are happy to be part of something made with care and affection (C7). Informed and aware customers prefer companies that adopt

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these practices (C8), somehow targeted by prior communication and the company’s positioning (C6 and C5). Finally, only two respondents responded negatively when asked if, after the trip, they sought feedback from customers on aspects related to Responsible Tourism (C3 and C8). Even without seeking, customers respond very positively to this aspect, which takes a significant dimension in their evaluations of the experience, more than initially expected (C6).

51.5 Conclusions, Implications, Limitations, and Further Research Nature tourism in protected areas in Northern Portugal is not yet widely developed in the context of leisure-related tourism companies. The lack of specialization, deficient regulation, and supervision, and competition from non-profit and public entities are some aspects that condition the development of nature tourism in the region. The study also shows that companies try to implement and contribute to sustainable tourism development through the implementation of practices according to the principles of responsible tourism, such as the valorization of resources, the involvement of local communities in product development, the interpretation of natural and cultural values, the inclusion of km 0 consumption, the contribution to environmental education and scientific research, the promotion of tourist-destination involvement, the adoption of procedures to reduce environmental impact, the financial support to local projects. However, it is still far from being a work philosophy adopted by all the companies that develop their activity in protected areas. In addition, the absence of specific and globally recognized brands and quality certifications contributes to the challenges of defining standard parameters and benchmarks to implement responsible tourism practices at different stages of tourism activity. The appreciation of these actions by the tourism demand reinforces and validates the role that tourism leisure-related companies can have in sustainable development, exploring the potential of Responsible Nature Tourism. Some limitations of this study must be addressed. First, there was some difficulty in obtaining current statistical data on Nature Tourism in Portugal, both on the demand and supply side. Also, the analysis is based on a limited number of tourism leisure-related companies, representing only a part of the tourism ecosystem, recognizing the need for further and more in-depth research. Despite these limitations, the main contribution of this exploratory study is to provide an overview of Responsible Nature Tourism in Northern Portugal, focusing on the supply view and its potential influence on sustainable development. These results not only reinforce the existing recognition of the complexity of sustainable tourism and its inherent challenges but also contributes to the literature by identifying what practices companies are implementing in the context of Responsible Tourism. These insights are useful for the identification of the guidelines and management practices for sustainable tourism development. In the future, other perspectives would

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need to be considered to obtain a more comprehensive view of responsible tourism, particularly the views of the community and local governmental organizations. Acknowledgements This work is funded by national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under project reference no. UID/B/04470/2020.

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Chapter 52

The Role of Social Media in the Regrowth of Formula 1 in Portugal Ana Paula Camarinha , António Abreu , Luís Miguel Martins, Ivone Cardoso , and António Vieira de Castro

Abstract The resurgence of Formula 1 has been undeniable. Since 2017, its new focus on reaching new media platforms to increase its presence among new audiences has become key to the success of the sport. In this process, Portugal has also shown signs of recovery. Due to the lack of studies on this topic, this paper focuses on the role of social media in the rebirth of Formula 1 in Portugal, seeking to identify the crucial points of this rise through the content of the social networks most used contents by Formula 1 fans. To this end, a qualitative content analysis methodology was used to analyse Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, identified as the most used by Formula 1 fans. The collection was made of posts made between 2015 and June 2022 by researching the questions through the associated keywords, during that time lapsus. The data were then explored using WebQDA software in order to understand how the published content has been changing over time, the impact of TV channels’ presence on social networks and the influence social networks had on Formula 1 fans in Portugal. Results seem to show that they were an enhancing tool for the new communication strategy of Formula 1 and the channels that hold the broadcasting rights in Portugal, hence making a difference for this specific niche of motorsport. A. P. Camarinha (B) CEOS.PP, SIIS - Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, IPolytechnic of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu · I. Cardoso CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Cardoso e-mail: [email protected] L. M. Martins Porto Accounting and Business School, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. V. de Castro SIIS - Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, IPolytechnic of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_52

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52.1 Introduction Over the years, the definition and role of social media have been changing, following the technological evolution and the motivation in their wide use, being in recent years more focused on the creation and sharing of content, becoming a tool that allows companies and other interest groups to reach the masses [1]. For that reason, lately, a change has been noticed in the communication strategies of several organizations, such as sports associations, which started to include social media as a priority in the way they connect with fans [3]. Many sports organizations have begun then to look to the use of channels such as social networks to craft narratives that bring benefit to their fan community and strategic benefit to the organization itself [4, p. 31], as Formula 1 was no exception. In early 2017, the Liberty Media Group acquired enough of a share to run Formula 1, which turned out to be an extremely important milestone for what Formula 1 has become today [5]. From the outset, Liberty’s ideas for the sport were clear: more human resources for the teams, more races, attracting new markets and new audiences with a view to accelerating Formula One’s presence around the world. From the launch of F1TV, the Netflix series called Drive to Survive, to the search for increased fan engagement through social media, to the launch of online Esports leagues, F1 was revolutionized [5, 6]. In Portugal, through the broadcasting channels as of the 2019 season, the new Formula 1 management aimed to take its content up to a new level, in the quest to bring the sport to new audiences [7] with a clear new strategy attributing value to new audiences and social media platforms [8]. In such a context, due to the lack of studies on this topic, this paper focuses on the role of social media in the rise of Formula 1 in Portugal, seeking to identify the crucial points of this rise through the content of the social networks most used by Formula 1 fans. To this end, a qualitative content analysis methodology was used to analyse Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, identified as the most used by Formula 1 fans. The data collected consisted of posts made between 2015 and June 2022 by researching the questions through the associated keywords, during that time lapsus. The data were then explored using webQDA software to understand how the published content has changed over those above-mentioned years, the impact of TV channels’ presence on social networks and the influence social networks had on Formula 1 fans in Portugal. This study is organized into five sections: the introduction, a theoretical framework, and then the methodology used. Further, the results are presented and analysed. Finally, the last section presents the conclusions, future perspectives and outcomes.

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52.2 Theoretical Background 52.2.1 Social Media According to Sajithra & Patil, social media is defined as “an extension and explosion of traditional oral communication media, transposing to the virtual world one of the most effective and trusted tools for information dissemination—the word of mouth” [9]. However, in the search for the basis for a definition of social media and the interest they have become in the daily lives of individuals, Vermelho, Velho & Bertoncello refer that despite all the economic context surrounding them, they were created at a time when society was highly verticalized and structured on power relations, and these platforms began to allow any individual some experiences of horizontalized social relationships [10]. Duong debates the fact that there is still no single definition, noting that even nowadays several authors attribute a different meaning to social media, considering their vision on their use: Content creation and dissemination, as users can create and share content; Interactivity, as users can react, comment, and share posts; Convergence, as the media type of post includes text, photo, video, link; Speed, as uploaded content can be accessed instantly; Costs are non-existent, as most social media platforms are free to use; and Reach, as they are global [11]. Thus, far beyond understanding their meaning through a single definition, it is important to know the range of formats and uses that social media platforms can have. For Osório, “social media is essentially a group of applications founded on Web 2.0 that allow the creation and exchange of content created by different users”, and these applications can be, for example, blogs (i.e. Blogger), micro-blogs (i.e. Twitter), collaborative projects (i.e. Wikipedia), content communities (i.e. Instagram and YouTube) or social interaction (i.e. Facebook, LinkedIn, Reddit), [12, 13]. A study carried out by Marktest’s Bareme Internet concluded that around 5 million 863,000 Portuguese use to access social networks, a number that corresponds to 68.5% of mainland Portugal residents aged 15 and over [2]. In this study, it is possible to check the constant rise and the increasingly tenuous ratio between the use of the Internet and the use of social networks, with the number of users of these networks quadrupling since 2008. The study also reveals interesting data regarding the 15–24 age group since they represent a 98.3% usage rate, i.e. almost all young people using the Internet access some social network in Portugal [2]. In the case of sports organizations, social media is becoming increasingly important. Studies show that the more a user identifies with a particular organization, the more intensive is their use of social media, thus serving to satisfy their need in the consumption of content associated with sports while externalizing their behaviours [14]. In short, sports organizations demonstrate somewhat different factors in relation to other kinds of organizations, in the sense that interaction focuses essentially on characteristics such as the constant search for information, their emotional connection and the need to opine about it [15]. Something also considered by Næss and Tickell, who also suggest that sports institutions should essentially look at the social media platforms to meet the needs that fans demonstrate, so they should seek other

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ways of thinking and analyse how they will integrate fan engagement in their strategy [4].

52.2.2 Formula One in Portugal Formula One is a competition founded and organized by the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile), the world’s highest governing body of motorsport. Its origin goes back to the 1920 and 1930s, when the first European motorsports grand prix was held, the so-called European Championship of Grand Prix [16, 17], which, after a revamp in 1950, became the Formula One World Championship [41]. Formula One transforms human, technological and financial resources into a highly relevant global environment, viewed on average by about 500 million enthusiasts worldwide [5]. Therefore, to understand the dimension of the Formula 1 world, it is necessary to go back in time again to contextualize its evolution as an organization and as a brand. For over 40 years, Bernie Ecclestone was the leading and crucial part of the sport [6]. After being appointed president of FOCA (Formula One Constructors’ Association) in the early 1980s, Ecclestone was drawn into the centre of the business decisions discussed between the teams and the management of F1, becoming a central figure in all business decisions affecting competition, with his own leadership style and oriented towards the health of F1 from an economic perspective [16]. However, over time, his leadership and vision became stale as he begun to be known for excessive control, ignoring the potential of F1 [16] and growing importance of several aspects such as the increasing importance of digitalization and social media and the changing habits of the new generations [5, 6]. In early 2017, the Liberty Media Group acquired a sufficient percentage to control the destinies of it, an extremely important milestone for what Formula 1 has become today, bringing to the decision-making table important personalities connected to the sport and entertainment [5]. From the outset, Liberty’s ideas for the sport were clear: more human resources for the teams, more races, attracting new markets and new audiences with a view to accelerating Formula One’s presence around the world, something that had already been requested by the competition’s commercial partners. The new management thus brought about changes in the sports management, promotion and business model through more transparent management, paying attention to many new aspects, such as the spirit of cooperation between teams, creating less combative relationships and seeking a climate in which everyone would seek the common good [5, 6]. Another crucial change was that more attention was being paid to communication and marketing. The new management saw it as a priority to extend the sport to new audiences, recognizing their methods of consumption and their digital presence [5]. Formula 1 then revamped its visual identity which included a new logo, typography and standardization of brand behaviours to position itself as a global entertainment and media brand, [18], recognizing today’s digital world that offers a unique opportunity to interact with the public, providing a huge variety of media [6]. From here on, communication and

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marketing actions started to be seen as a priority for brand positioning. From the launch of F1TV, the Netflix series Drive to Survive, to the search for increased fan engagement through social media, and to the launch of online Esports leagues, F1 was revolutionized [5, 6]. One of the basic pillars of the new F1 strategy is Engage which is subdivided into four crucial points. Firstly, the events, referring to the importance of turning live events into spectacles, and to expand the E-Sports championships in order to interact with a new generation of fans. Next, they highlight the viewing experience, where they convey the importance of reaching a wide audience on the platforms, as well as developing language coverage for major markets. Thirdly, content creation, looking at the importance of producing original content with the purpose of deepening fan engagement and the increase of interactions on social networks through content made available there. Finally, marketing, which clarifies the goal of creating targeted campaigns with recognized partners that reinforce not only the perception of F1 as the true racing and entertainment spectacle but also the goal of tapping into popular culture to ignite passion for F1 through partnerships with influencers [19]. In this clear way, Formula One has positioned itself to become one of the world’s greatest sporting powers. According to the 2021 report that shows the results of a survey of Formula One fans worldwide [20], it reveals an increase of about 50% in the amount of positive fan feedback towards the brand compared to the survey done in 2017. Regarding social media, this study revealed that Twitter remains the most used platform by Formula One fans showing a 9% growth over 2017, closely followed by Instagram which is the most used network by the 16–24 age group and has seen a 20% increase since 2017, in contrast to Facebook which comes in third place and shows a 20% decrease in fan usage. This survey also shows a decrease in the use of traditional media, namely print newspapers and magazines, free radio and television channels, by sports enthusiasts. There is also [20] a decline in the use of general sports websites. In Portugal, the popularity of this sport has been somewhat fluctuating, starting by highlighting that, after the exit of the grand prix of the Autódromo do Estoril and with events such as the death of Ayrton Senna in 1994, a driver who had a large fan base in Portugal, F1 slowly fell into apathy and disinterest [21]. Observing the broadcasting rights, in 2007, RTP, which until that moment was broadcasting the races in open signal, saw the rights handed over to Sport TV, which would have made a higher bid for the rights [22], something that may have also contributed to the fall in popularity due to the fact that, from that moment on, the Portuguese would have to pay in order to watch the live broadcasts of these F1 races [21, 23]. Sport TV kept the rights from 2007 until 2015, when it lost to Eurosport [24]. These rights would be recovered by Sport TV for the 2017 season after giving up by Eurosport, which at the time had even created a premium channel for F1 broadcasts, Eurosport 2 Xtra [25]. In 2018, Eleven Sports, a newly created channel at the time, negotiated with F1 the broadcasting rights as of the 2019 season, successfully closing a deal that, in addition to television rights, aimed to take production in Portugal to a new level, in the quest to bring the sport to new audiences [7]. The offer that Eleven Sports started to provide at the time brought something unique to Portugal, with a channel dedicated exclusively to motorsport

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to be able to follow F1 and other competitions live or on demand, seeking to give Portuguese fans more hours of broadcast and content, both through traditional television channels, but also in streaming on its website through a paid subscription [26]. Thus, Eleven Sports’ strategy regarding social media was to look at them as having a “prominent role in broadcasting, sharing and publishing the channel’s content” and “as a facilitating medium in the communication between company, customers and fans” [8], since in addition to its strategy at content distribution level, Eleven Sports has shown a very strong presence at the level of interaction and involvement with fans, being present in 8 social networks and seeking to constantly interact with fans through their constant and planned posts, using hashtags to interact with them, being “#F1Eleven” one of its highlights [27]. After 3 years of exclusive broadcasting by Eleven Sports, Sport TV got back in the game and regained the broadcasting rights for the triennium 2022–2024 [28], committing to the continuity of the work developed until that moment, referring to the importance of “making access possible for all Portuguese (…) and continue to make the F1 team’s global strategy a success” [29]. This promised continuity was presented with a paid package which was similar to Eleven Sports’ offer in terms of content and platforms [28].

52.3 Methodology Defining the methodological option is one of the most important steps for the researcher, given that this option will define the expected results and limit their clarity and precision [30]. Considering the research question of the present study—What is the role of social media in the rebirth of Formula 1 in Portugal?—which comprises the previous sections where it was possible to obtain a context of the current state of the sport and its evolution over time worldwide and in Portugal, and also looking at the paradigm shift that has occurred in recent years, this study will focus on trying to find out and to ground the role that Social Media had in the process of regrowth of F1 in Portugal, through the analysis of posts taken from Twitter, Facebook and Instagram, already described as being the social networks most used by Formula 1 fans. For increased accuracy and precision in the study, three guiding questions were defined: (1) “How have the contents of the posts associated with Formula 1 in Portugal changed over time?”; (2) “What was the impact of social media on the television channels that hold the broadcasting rights of Formula 1 in Portugal?”; (3) “What was the role of social media for Formula 1 fans in Portugal?”. The study was conducted through a qualitative approach since this type of approach allows the researcher to position himself from an interpretative perspective [31]. Qualitative analysis means a commitment by the researcher to understanding specific aspects of the sociocultural contexts of the study [32], seeking to produce clarified and contextualized conclusions based on rich and detailed data [31]. The method chosen to develop the study was content analysis. For Krippendorff, the qualitative approach through content analysis can also involve the interpretation of texts into new narratives within interpretive circles in which the researchers’ own

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social and cultural understandings actively participate [33]. Content analysis is also described as the scientific study of the content of communication, as it represents the study of content with reference to the meanings, contexts and intentions contained in messages [34], resting on the assumption that texts are a rich source of data with great potential to reveal valuable information about phenomena [35]. The choice of this methodology is, thus, grounded in the absence of previous studies on the subject, which led to the need to select a method that would allow the scientific analysis of the content of communication [34], in this case, through social media platforms, which translates into the process of considering both the analyst and the context when classifying text into groups of related categories to identify similarities and differences, patterns and associations both on the surface and implicit [35], therefore enabling the construction of new narratives [33]. To ensure accuracy in content analysis, the model proposed by Krippendorff (ib; id) was adapted in order to “serve the purposes of guiding the conceptualization and practical structuring of the analysis (…)” [33]. To simplify the chronological organization of the elements proposed by Krippendorff (ib; id), Bardin’s proposed organization of analysis was applied to this model, which divides research into three phases—“(i) pre-analysis, which is the initial phase of organization after the formulation of the research question, with the objective of systematizing the initial ideas by reading and selecting the documentation to be analysed, (ii) exploration of material which is the phase of analytical construction, in which the researcher codifies, decomposes or enumerates the selected documentation according to previously defined rules and (iii) treatment of results, inference, and interpretation which is the processing of the results in such a way that they become meaningful and valid, which when obtained allow the introduction of inferences and interpretations by the researcher” [36]. Execution of the analysis phases To enable a more rigorous and accurate content analysis, the study was conducted using webQDA, which is a support software for qualitative data analysis, as it handles non-numerical and unstructured data such as text, images, videos or audios, allowing the researcher to explore and organize documents [37]. The available tools on the software thus allow for an automation of the analysis phases proposed by Bardin, since it provides a wealth of functions that help the researcher from the pre-analysis phase to answering to the research question [36]. The documents used in this research were obtained from Facebook, Twitter and Instagram. After some exploration, it was possible to find out that both Facebook and Twitter have an advanced search tool, which provides options such as combining keywords for the same post and selecting a time interval. In the case of Instagram, the search box is somewhat limited, since the search box only allows reaching posts made by searching with hashtags. So, we concluded that the search on Twitter and Facebook would be through keywords and the year of the post so that they can be organized by date from their search and facilitate later in coding the data. In the case of Instagram, the most appropriate way would be through hashtags. Considering that hashtags are a “keyword (or combination of keywords) regarding a certain topic or subject, which allow the dissemination of posts and allow users to follow their

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subjects of interest more easily” [38], there is the possibility of searching in the same way, except for the year of post. Consequently, due to the characteristics that the study requires, it was concluded that the rules of homogeneity and exhaustiveness would be the most appropriate for the selection of the corpus since the latter implies documents that meet precise criteria of choice and do not present too much uniqueness outside those, and the former implies an exhaustive selection of results, leaving no element aside after the search, even if it gives impressions of no interest [36]. Thus, to begin the search, floating analysis and selection of the corpus, the keywords were then defined, as well as the time span to be analysed, in order to comply with the rule of homogeneity. Considering the framework presented in the theoretical background, we decided to analyse posts between 2015 and June 2022. Regarding the keywords defined for this research, the terms “F1” OR “Formula 1” AND “Portugal” combined were selected, used in a first phase in an exploratory way in the three social networks to be analysed, showing relevant preliminary results. In the specific case of Instagram, the keywords were combined in the hashtags “#F1Portugal”, “#PortugalF1”, “#Formula1Portugal”, “#PortugalFormula1” and “#F1PT”. The following posts were selected: 229 from Twitter; 455 from Instagram; and 140 from Facebook. After selecting the posts, it was necessary to treat and explore the material. This exploration was characterized by a coding and categorization phase in webQDA. The software allows two types of coding, descriptive and interpretive. On the one hand, the first one allows classifying the documents through classifications or descriptors that “facilitate the filtering of the sources from attribute values”, with the example of gender or age group descriptors. On the other hand, the second one allows the assignment of free codes or tree codes that allow texts or part of them to be highlighted through codes that facilitate the grouping and interpretation of the material, and they can be free or tree codes [39]. In this research, the corpus was then classified using the two types of coding. The descriptive coding which included the year of post, the social network, the page/profile (whether personal fan page, news page, TV channel and others) and hashtags. Interpretive coding was performed using tree codes, grouping the categories in Fig. 52.1: The tree codes presented in Fig. 52.1 were previously defined, allowing a subdivision of the content of the posts into various categories, themes and dimensions and Fig. 52.1 Tree codes

Content Type Subject Post subject Interactions / Comments

Tree Codes TV Channels

Fan activities

Innovations

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following one of the processes proposed by Bardin in which “the system of categories is provided, and the elements are broken down as best as possible as they are found” [36]. This system of categories was defined according to the questions subdivided from the research question, thus interconnecting the context exposed in the previous chapter with the research and subsequently its results. The units chosen to be allocated in each category are contextualized by Bardin as they can be units of record or units of context [36]. For the present study, the units were cut according to record, units which can usually be words, themes, events, characters or objects [36]. Throughout the exploration of the corpus, the clipping of the units of record and data coding, the rule of relevance [36] was considered for all posts to ensure the validity of the results on which inferences would later be applied [40], which sometimes led to the exclusion of posts previously selected with the rules of completeness and homogeneity used in the first phase of data collection.

52.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results After exploring the material and filtering the posts, the following were coded and categorized: 229 from Twitter; 117 from Instagram and 134 from Facebook. The last phase of the procedure proposed by Bardin is presented in the next sections with the presentation of the results obtained and their interpretation.

52.4.1 Analysis of the Corpus This first part of the analysis included the descriptive classifications assigned in the coding process of the posts, namely the year of post, the social network, the page/profile (whether personal, fan page, news page, TV channel and others) and hashtags. Observing the distribution of the analysed posts by year, in 2015, 25 posts were analysed, followed by 40 posts in 2016 and 30 posts in 2017, with an exponential increase from the year 2018 when 35 posts were analysed, to 2019 with 62 posts, reaching a peak with greater prominence in 2020 where 122 posts were analysed. The year 2021 resulted in 100 posts analysed and the year 2022 in 65 posts (Fig. 52.2). Regarding the social network of each of the posts under analysis, Twitter was the network with the most representation (48%), followed by Facebook with 28% and Instagram with less representation (24%), as can be seen in Fig. 52.3. Regarding the type of page/profile of the posts, the numbers are distributed by personal pages, i.e. profiles whose users keep the posts accessible to the public, corresponding to 127 posts. The Portuguese Formula 1 or motorsports fan pages in general stand out, representing 145 posts. Regarding television channels, 125 posts were analysed, and 77 from newspapers or news pages. It also analysed six posts belonging to other pages of miscellaneous types (Fig. 52.4).

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ANALYSED POSTS BY YEAR 122 25

40

30

35

2015

2016

2017

2018

100

62 2019

2020

2021

65 2022

Fig. 52.2 Posts by year

PERCENTAGE OF POSTS BY PLATFORM

Fig. 52.3 Percentage of posts by platform

Twitter

Instagram

Facebook

28% 48% 24%

NUMBER OF POSTS BY TYPE OF PAGE 200

127

145

125 77

100

6 0

Personal

Fan pages

Newspaper / News pages

TV Channels

Other

Fig. 52.4 Number of posts by type of page

The identification of the most frequent and therefore most relevant words is important, to help the researcher, understand the most frequent theme of the corpus [30]. Considering that the hashtags correspond to words or a set of keywords that identify posts and allow following subjects of interest on social networks [38], the highlight regarding the posts under analysis in this study goes to the hashtags “#F1”, “#F1Eleven”, “#Formula1”, “#F1Portugal”, “#F1NaSportTv”, “#PortugueseGP” and #ForTheFans” (Fig. 52.5).

52.4.2 Answers to Guiding Questions (1) How have the contents of the posts associated with Formula 1 in Portugal changed over time?

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Fig. 52.5 Most frequent hashtags

Analysing the results, it is possible to see that the most common type of content over the years analysed is the one, being in all of them the most published content type, something that can be associated with the consumption function of social networks for news in Portugal. The remaining content types were all fluctuating over time. In total, the informative content type represented 42% of the analysed posts, followed by posts associated with emotions and feelings with 14%, opinion content with 11% and posts shared through external websites with 10%. Posts associated with advertisements represented 9%, associated with entertainment 10%, references to historical content 4% and, finally, humour contents 3%. In addition, until the year 2017, content sharing with link support stands out, which in most cases would be news or articles published on an external website and only shared on social networks, redirecting the user to that website, indicating that many posts until that date were not yet customized for each social network and its audience. We also analysed some posts with advertising content usually in the sharing of schedules and channels of the broadcasting of Formula 1 events, seeking to lead users to subscribe to the services of the channel in question. From 2018 on, there is a greater variation in the type of content beyond the informative content that has remained constant, especially opinion content, sharing of emotions and feelings, sharing of entertainment and humour content, which, if we associate with the increase of posts analysed from this stage already presented in the previous section, show that in addition to having started to talk much more about Formula 1 in Portugal, the variety of content published and its personalization also increased. Also noteworthy is the drop in posts from external platforms using links, which is also an indicator of that variety and personalization. (2) What was the impact of social media cover by the television channels that hold the broadcasting rights of Formula 1 in Portugal?

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According to the analysed posts, since 2015 the television channels with broadcasting rights, already used social media for contents associated with Formula 1. In 2015, Sport TV essentially shared informative content and advertising, prior to the race weekend events, informing the race schedule, the channel where they would broadcast and some reference to the current state of the competition, without going much beyond that. The use of hashtags was already noticeable; however, it was very inconsistent and not personalized, with some posts containing the hashtags “#F1” and “#SportTV”. In terms of interaction with other users, these were practically non-existent at the time. The interactions about the Sport TV channel in 2015 were essentially present in posts of news pages and mostly appeared when the news of the loss of broadcasting rights to Eurosport, from 2016, revealing positive feelings about this exchange and consequently negative feelings towards Sport TV, criticizing the coverage offered, the commentators during the broadcasts and the fact that it had to be paid. As of 2016, Eurosport took over the broadcast of Formula 1 in Portugal, and according to the posts analysed, the behaviour on social networks was not very different from what had previously been done by Sport TV. The posts were also made before the events on grand prix weekends with informative purposes about the current state of the sport, also advertising the times and channels where they would be broadcast. Regarding the hashtags used, their appearance in the posts was also inconsistent, however, sometimes the personalized hashtag “#EurosportF1” was already associated with the posts. Regarding interactions, at the beginning of the season, they were essentially positive, with users in general praising the fact that it was not necessary to pay to watch F1. Throughout the season, users changed their tone, initially criticizing the fact that Formula 1 was not broadcast in high definition by being placed on the secondary channel Eurosport 2. As seen in the previous chapter, after a few races, Formula 1 was moved to a paid premium channel, Eurosport 2 Xtra, something that users did not like and criticized effusively the fact that they had to pay again to watch their sport. For the years 2017 and 2018, Sport TV then regained broadcasting rights, assuming a very similar posture to the one it had in 2015. However, as of the 2018 season, a small innovation is noted with the increased use of sharing content during the races, sometimes posting replays of the starts and various moments during the races, as well as promotional videos of the races. Still, in terms of interactions, little has changed, since they remained essentially negative with respect to the coverage offered. As of 2019, there is a clear change in approach to social media. With Eleven Sports taking over the broadcast rights, far beyond advertising the schedules and their channel, Eleven Sports sought to interact directly with social media users by not only posting videos throughout the weekend of the races and what was happening but also by including the customized hashtag “#F1Eleven” as an integral part of their broadcasts, engaging and interacting with fans during the broadcasts. By posting about crucial live moments, Eleven Sports was able to get users and sports fans to interact with each other about the issues of the moment of the drivers and the grand prix in general, thus leading to most interactions being about Formula 1 itself and not so much about the channel, commentaries, or broadcasts. From the analysed posts, it was also possible to verify that this trend was maintained throughout the three years

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in which Eleven Sports held the transmission rights, with emphasis on the high point in which Portugal received the Grand Prix again in 2020 and 2021, dates in which there were peaks of interactions that, in general, were positive about the coverage offered by the channel over those weekends. All the work over the 3 years and this positive engagement that led fans to talk about and discuss Formula 1 on social media are summed up in the posts made by personal pages and fan pages at the end of 2021 of opinion-type content and emotions or feelings, after the announcement of the return of Formula 1 on Sport TV, which reveal the gratitude to Eleven Sports for the work done, for what they did for the rise and value of Formula 1 in Portugal, for the coverage done, for the creation of a community around the hashtag “#F1Eleven” and for the nostalgia that this work done would leave the fans. In 2022, the broadcasts then returned to Sport TV, which from the beginning assumed a very similar posture to that of Eleven Sports in previous years, thus seeking to solidify and take advantage of the fan community left, through an involvement with the customized hashtag “#F1NaSportTv”, as demonstrated by the analysed posts. The interactions with users initially showed some reticence and scepticism about what could be done by the channel, with some refusing right away, and it was possible through some comments to notice some references to F1TV that would be where those users would prefer to watch Formula 1. However, over time positive interactions were emerging, thus revealing some consolidation of the work done in previous years by Eleven Sports, with fans not only starting to discuss and interact about the sport itself but also praising the coverage made by the channel and the involvement with the fans. (3) What was the role of social media for Formula 1 fans in Portugal? Considering the descriptive analysis regarding the posts made by the type of page over the years in the analysed posts, the posts made by personal pages or profiles and by fan pages only appear expressively from 2019 on, being that between 2015 and 2018 fans manifested themselves mainly through interactions and comments on posts made by news pages or television channels. Thus, looking at the content shared by personal profiles and fan pages between 2015 and 2018, only 16 posts appear in total, being mainly about sharing news content, content about broadcasting rights, historical content about the Portuguese Grand Prix, as well as speculations about its return. From 2019 is when we notice a greater revolution in the level of content published and discussed by Formula 1 fans in Portugal. With the consolidation and emergence of the community on the social media platforms in Portugal, the content shared by users also began to be more varied. Much beyond the content that was already being published in terms of news, Formula 1 fans began to create their own humour or entertainment content and share their own opinion, creating circumstances favourable to interaction among them and consequently increasing their level of engagement towards Formula 1 in the country. A 2019 post made by a personal profile, also demonstrates the topics of the moment on July 28, 2019, on Twitter in Portugal, in which 10 of the most talked about topics, 8 of them were related to Formula 1.

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The year 2019 was also an outstanding year in terms of the exponential increase of Formula 1 fan pages in Portugal. With the increase of fan pages and consequent increase of posts of the same, a new dimension of discussion and interaction arises for Formula 1 fans, not only through their own posts and interactions but also through some innovations such as the creation of podcasts or virtual E-Sports leagues among them, thus transposing their activity on social networks to other platforms. Following the bet on Formula 1 by Eleven Sports, the posts made by personal pages and fan pages were following the same rising trend and solidifying their presence on social networks as well as their podcasts. Between 2019 and 2021 the hashtag “#F1Eleven” appeared very frequently in their own posts, even in those not directly related to the broadcasts, such as sharing photos after a particular Grand Prix, humour contents, discussion about what happened in races and even sometimes in the posts promoting their own podcasts, which indicates that the use of the hashtag ended up being widespread and where fans were more easily following their Formula 1 community in Portugal. The analysis also revealed that Eleven Sports itself made a point of interacting with the fan pages, having the commentators of their broadcasts sometimes participating in the fans’ podcasts as guests. This importance of Eleven Sports for the creation of a solid Formula 1 community in Portugal is shown through the posts by personal pages and fan pages at the end of 2021, being mostly through opinions and sentiments showing the deep gratitude for the work done over the three years, referring that Portugal is no longer a soccer-only country, saying that Eleven Sports gave life to the Formula 1 community in Portugal highlighting its role during this time and also praising the broadcasts, the contents and its ability to interact with viewers and fans of the sport. In addition to the role of Eleven Sports, analysing the opinions of the personal pages and fan pages, they also highlight the appearance of the series “Drive to Survive” on the Netflix platform and the return of the Portuguese in 2020 and 2021 as crucial factors for the regrowth of Formula 1 in Portugal. In 2022, with the transfer of the broadcasting rights to Sport TV, although the interactions at the time of the announcement were a little neutral as already mentioned in the answer to the previous question, after the beginning of the season the posts have shown a very similar behaviour to previous years, this time through the hashtag “#F1NaSportTV” that ended up somehow giving a way of continuity for Formula 1 fans in Portugal. It should also be noted that some of the analysed posts date back to the day of the announcement of the team and Sport TV’s plans for Formula 1 and reveal that some fan pages were invited to be present at the press conference, bringing them closer and increasing the level of interaction outside the social media environment.

52.5 Conclusions and Future Work The resurgence of Formula 1 worldwide since Liberty Media took control of the sport has been undeniable. Since 2017, the new focus on reaching new media platforms to increase its presence among new audiences has become key to the success of the

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sport [5, 6]. In this process, Portugal has also shown growth of rise with a notable influx of new fans. This paper focuses on the role of social media in the rise of Formula 1 in Portugal, seeking to identify the crucial points of this rise through the content of the social networks most used by Formula 1 fans. Due to the absence of studies on this topic, the purpose was to bring new knowledge and to record this phase of Formula 1 in Portugal as well as the growing role and power of social media in various aspects of daily life. To this end, a qualitative content analysis methodology was used as it allows the researcher to position oneself in an interpretative approach [31] and to understand sociocultural contexts of the study [32]. The social networks under analysis were Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, identified as the most used by formula 1 fans [20]. The collection was made of posts made between 2015 and June 2022 by researching the questions through the associated keywords, during that time lapsus. The data were then explored using webQDA software to understand how the published has been changing over time, the impact of TV channel presence on social networks and the influence social networks had on Formula 1 fans in Portugal. In line with the evolution in the use of social networks already demonstrated [1– 4], the content published over the years on subjects related to Formula 1 in Portugal has also changed, evolving from unidirectional situations such as consultation of informative content in general to a greater variety of content published and interaction and involvement among users. Thus, it is clear that this evolution regarding the content published, connected with Liberty Media’s new vision for the sport [5, 6] connects directly with the change in the approach to social networks by the television channels that hold the broadcasting rights, which from 2019 began to integrate social networks as a focal point of their broadcasts and their daily work, in order to engage viewers and create a community around them, thus managing to solidify at the local level, the work done by the new management of Formula 1 worldwide. Regarding Formula 1 fans in Portugal, it is also shown that during the analysed timeline, social networks were a fundamental tool and a space to discuss ideas, share their own content and new ways to expose their voice about their favourite sport, grouping themselves in opinion and content creation pages, exposing it in the form of podcasts and socializing among themselves through virtual E-Sports leagues and other platforms, demonstrating again the solidification of the community around the work developed by TV channels and Formula 1. This paper therefore demonstrates that social media played a key role in the regrowth of Formula 1 in Portugal in several dimensions, being an enhancing tool for its new communication strategy and the channels that hold the broadcasting rights in Portugal, hence making the difference for this specific niche of motorsport. These data allow us to contribute not only to new knowledge about the subject but also to the opening of a new research topic that allows us to understand the various dimensions of this phenomenon. New studies should focus on the same interpretative perspective, trying to analyse the role of Netflix’s series Drive to Survive in Portugal, to investigate specifically Eleven Sports’ strategy between 2019 and 2021 and to investigate the

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impact of the return of the Portuguese Grand Prix in the reappearance of fans of this sport in Portugal.

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Chapter 53

The Role of “Age of Society” Games in Cultural Heritage Learning Paula Maria Flores, Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Maria Fernandes, Bruno Gavaia, and Catarina Ribeiro

Abstract After Covid-19 is clear that the way of teaching should be different from the medieval methods. This is easier to understand when you are speaking about subjects such as History or Cultural Heritage, since those topics resort to expository methods and where the student is invited to memorize. Also, technologies must be used daily as a learning strategy, namely the gamification ones. To do so in primary school one can use several brands of games. In this paper and since the research work will be implemented at the initial teacher training of the Master’s in Teaching at the 1st CEB and Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the 2nd CEB it will be used the “Age of Society” game. Besides this, the case study and simulation will be the methodologies implemented during the investigation work together with qualitative technics. At the end, there will be a conclusion proving that returning to the old teaching system will no longer be adequate.

P. M. Flores (B) Supervision in Education Department, Escola Superior de Educação, Instituto Politécnico do Porto (ESEPP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. I. Pinho Cultural and Social Studies Department, Escola Superior de Educação, Instituto Politécnico do Porto (ESEPP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] D. M. Fernandes Mathematics, Science and Technology Department, Escola Superior de Educação do Instituto Politécnico do Porto (ESEPP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] B. Gavaia · C. Ribeiro Master’s Student in Teaching at the 1st CEB and Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the 2nd CEB, Escola Superior de Educação do Instituto Politécnico do Porto (ESEPP), Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 602, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Ribeiro e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_53

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53.1 Introduction Understanding the role of games in the processes of building knowledge and promoting social culture is now an opportunity given to the digital generation which is attracted to digital technologies. Also, the gamification encourages the desire to achieve goals. What potentialities does the game “Age of Society” offers in learning about heritage culture? Within the scope of initial teacher training, namely the Master’s in Teaching at the 1st CEB and Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the 2nd CEB, a simulation methodology was implemented with children in a 1st year class of schooling. This simulation was highlighted as a pedagogical methodology approach based on challenging learning in problem solving. It is intended to know the potential of a video game (Age of Mythology) in the construction of society. This is a case study of a qualitative nature whose data collection highlights the participant observation of two trainee teachers, since the action-research is valued as a strategy to improve educational practice and the construction of teaching professionalism. From the analysis of the content of their reflective notes, four categories were constructed that correspond to important moments of learning: Teach-acting, Story Telling, Role Analysis, Role Playing. At the end was found that the simulation involves the child in learning situations and that the four moments in the game motivates the child and enhances the construction of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, which allows to conclude that it is a didactic resource that responds to the current curriculum.

53.2 Contextualization 53.2.1 New Technologies Implementation at Cultural Heritage Level Today’s children and youth were born into the Internet age. Therefore, trying to make them distinguish face-to-face system from virtual ones can become confusing. This utilitarian and complementary character of the virtual is also a powerful tool for institutions of the most varied purposes and proportions. In the area of cultural heritage, for example, it is used both for museums and other visitation spaces and for cultural routes. And, since cultural heritage is still very much linked to material goods, the context of historic buildings is used to analyze the evolution of the incorporation of computing in architecture and technologies. The starting point of this paper relates to the technological development and correspondent consequences on Cultural Heritage management. Like this this paper seeks to respond to a triad consisting of three aspects: inform-educate-entertain. By happy coincidence, these 3 concepts are also directly related to the dissemination in cultural heritage, namely, to its research, recording, and conservation work. Besides this, if until the 2000s, some of the main technological applications disseminated

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among institutions in the area had to do with electronic libraries (for example, in the creation of their basic procedures such as creating online indexes, searching for full texts, retrieving and storage of records; storage, retrieval, and availability of information; digitization of books, among others), later it evolves to digital libraries (which concentrate existing information only in digital format) and to virtual libraries (which virtually reproduce the physical environment, in two or three dimensions) [3]. If someone starts with the example of libraries, He/she quickly realizes that other cultural facilities, in potential, can also use these technological instruments to enhance their dissemination. This is how, for example, virtual museum spaces have been increasingly common since the 2000s, as a way of expanding the population’s access to the collections of such institutions [12]. From the 2010s onward, due to advances in computer development, involving 3D technologies, many museum spaces introduced Augmented Reality in their heritage education actions. In the same period, with the objective of promoting greater involvement and interest on the part of the public in the heritage, museum or tourist scope, educational games, serious games, or even gamified processes began to be used, that is, to use game elements in contexts that, in principle, have no relation to this universe. Also, from a Gmail account it is possible to create a map. According to [19] the visual understanding of the distribution of assets on these maps is also useful for urban and regional planning actions in cultural heritage, such as the creation of itineraries and the estimation of tourism funds to be allocated to each location. In addition, the empty areas of the map encourage surveys and inventories of cultural assets existing in these regions. Photogrammetry is a widespread technology in the cultural heritage sector for recording and disseminating historical urban elements. It is a technique to extract from metric photographs, containing the shape, features, dimensions, and position of the objects contained therein. The photographic surveys must surround the chosen element and, if possible, the photographs must be taken on different days, around midday with the sun at high point, with cloudy or sunny skies. Such technologies allow the user to have a remote experience of the cultural heritage and virtual models can be used in other technologies, such as virtual environments with objects from museum collections, printing models of objects through 3D printers (including for people with visual problems), production of augmented reality applications or virtual games (gamification). The Augmented Reality (AR) technology also allows for the construction of more immersive experiences. In the case of visits to institutions or historical sites, AR allows the user to “superimpose”, in real time, the virtual environment on the physical space where he is, using a technological device, being able to use the interface of the real environment to handle the real and virtual objects [18] silva. The specific benefits for cultural heritage derive from the management of information linked to AR, which allows storing and managing large amounts of data, beneficial for the preservation of cultural heritage and the sustainable monitoring of its conservation throughout its life cycle. In addition, these initiatives can promote cultural heritage ontologies with AR characteristics, allowing citizens and visitors to readily access

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to a large volume of information that make available for an understanding of their historical value in the broader context of a set of assets. To increase the involvement and motivation of visitors, you can still use Gamification. This tool consists of the inclusion of elements characteristic of the universe of games in areas such as Cultural Heritage or Tourism. In the same vein, there are also “Serious Games”, which, unlike gamification, have their own game structure, but prioritize educational purposes, and, unlike common games, do not have the primary objective of entertaining. In other words, both gamification and “Serious Games” connect the game universe with the real world; what changes is that while the first ones intend to entertain, the second ones have pedagogical purposes. By way of summary, it should be noted that the younger generations already think digitally and are able to self-inform, self-communicate, and self-organize through the Internet. From the perspective of [4] their learning is divided between school (which they attend to obtain a diploma) and the Internet (where they meet with informal groups to learn).

53.2.2 New Teaching and Learning Process of Cultural Heritage Issues at Primary Teaching Level The ubiquity of digital technologies is changing the world, demanding that the teaching and learning process undergo pedagogical changes, which include differentiated resources and partnerships, also different, more open. Since we live in a hybrid world, if the future passes through hybrid education, having served the pandemic as a “DEMO” that allowed a preview of an educational reality to be adopted, it is urgent to educate for digital literacy so that current citizens feel more comfortable in life and in decision-making. This scenario outlines a school paradigm that favors transdisciplinary and a holistic education that fosters opportunities to bring the school closer to the world, namely to the specialist encouraging the child/specialist dialogue and curriculum/technology and children’s interests. This change in learning flows requires the technical mastery of digital tools and a teacher profile with key skills for the twenty-first century [11]. In this sense, it is urgent: – in the student: to develop information and communication skills, thinking and problem-solving competences, collective responsibility and social commitment, autonomy, resilience and openness to innovation skills, forming a critical, reflective, and creative individual for a participatory and responsible citizen [13]; – in the teacher: to develop digital and pedagogical skills (Fig. 53.1) so that they can take advantage of the potential of digital technologies to improve and innovate education, to teach and learn how to use digital technologies in a conscious, critical, and creative way [11] Lucas. To do this, it is necessary to know how to plan, design pedagogical strategies, and select teaching resources in harmony with the purpose of the class and its evaluation.

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Fig. 53.1 Competencies of educators and students. Source [17, p. 15]

In this context, focusing pedagogical strategies on the learner and offering opportunities for holistic development facilitates the active and natural involvement in the promotion of knowing, knowing how to do, knowing how to be and being [7]. Learning in a playful environment captivates children and influences their well-being [15]. Computer engineers realized this potential, particularly considering the current characteristics of “digital natives” [16], and quickly diversified Games with a strong multidisciplinary focus. Those games and video games start then to assume a potential learning resource. For example, [10], in his book “Building Games for the Teaching of History” mentions that children can experience historical moments by playing games that can teach fundamental characteristics within the scope of human activity and informative content related to historical periods, namely: the Age of Empires (Microsoft 1997), the Sid Meier’s Civilization (Microprose 1991), or Portugal 1111: The Conquest of Soure (Cyberbit 2004) [5]. However, they all have in common that they are carried out by specialists for children, that is, children are the purpose of the process and the final product. In this context, the material and immaterial heritage is important as a historical source to know and understand the past as the heritage of a people, to understand what makes them different or equal to others. Understanding oneself and others in each time and space develops personal and social identity, the historical identity that favors the capacity for acceptance, alterity, and respect, developing important values for life, knowing the cultural heritage has decisive consequences in the concerns of individuals about the values of a people’s culture and how to preserve them, in the sense also of reflection about the world in which we want to live. According to [2], remembrance is an image with representations that provoke current awareness, so the interpretation of Cultural Heritage is reconstructed with each generation. For [14], the human being makes an intellectual interpretation of the world to understand how to live in it, because culture allows people to live with meaning, so knowing the cultural heritage is also to drive the future.

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Through critical reflection on the class, the purpose of this investigation was to understand the potential of the games “Age of Mythology” in the construction of knowledge of Cultural Heritage.

53.3 Methodology Methodologically, this is a qualitative case study because of the need to understand natural phenomena [20] Yin and a social situation study to improve the quality of action within it [8] Elliot, thus action-research aimed at transforming educational practice [6]. Thus, the active participation of the researchers was important, which allowed interpreting the events, namely the children’s behaviors at different moments of the class, and this research presents the investigators’ voice in relation to the reality of the educational practice. For data analysis, were used content analysis techniques [1] and considered four categories drawn from the reflective examination of the class design (Teach-acting; Story Telling; Role Analysis; and Role Playing) in connection with the pillars of education (knowing, knowing how to do, knowing how to be) and competencies of the student’s profile, namely critical and creative thinking, reasoning, and problem solving, aesthetic and artistic sensitivity, autonomy, and interpersonal relationships.

53.4 Implementation The class involved four different moments that were based on a learning based on the challenge of discovery. It focused on the child, which allowed the development of skills, attitudes, and values, highlighting, in the learning process, the playful as a lever for involvement and stimulation in the task. A table is presented that with the previously mentioned moments, associated with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills developed and the respective curricular areas worked in each of these moments (Table 53.1).

53.5 Description of the Lesson Moments and Discussion of Results The class involved four different moments that were based on learning based on a challenge for discovery. It focused on the child, thus allowing the development of skills, attitudes, and values, highlighting, in the learning process, the playfulness as a lever for involvement and stimulation in the task.

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Table 53.1 Class moments, knowledge, competencies, attitudes, values, and curriculum areas Class moments

Knowledge, Competencies, Attitudes, and Values

Curriculum areas involved

Teach-acting Mobilization of prior knowledge and preparation for the game

• Oral expression, reading; • Ability to immerse yourself in a fabled story (critical and creative reflection, expression of ways of being and acting) • Contact with different media

Portuguese Dramatic expression Plastic expression Middle study

Story Telling Viewing enigmatic videos/Framing reality/immersion in the simulation adventure

• Languages and texts, interpretation • Understanding a narrative video • Historical framework associated with the romanization processes • Information and Communication • Curiosity and Reflection

Portuguese Middle study

Role Analysis Discovery of the game’s characters and their functions; Understanding of reality in the construction of scenarios

• Descriptive text analysis • Professions • Roles and tasks of members of a society • Ability to put yourself in the other’s shoes (empathy) • Interpretation of a character • Reasoning and Problem Solving • Aesthetic and subsistence sensitivity • Citizenship and participation

Portuguese Citizenship Dramatic expression Middle study

Role Playing video game/problem solving/conflict/story and game construction

• Creativity • Ability to make a conscious and consistent decision • Critical reflection in group discussion • Conflict management • Collaborative work • Rules and functioning of a society parallel to the current reality • Sensitization of individual and collective opinion/democracy • Rules and obligations, responsibility • Argumentative ability associated with justifying one’s own choices • Geometric shapes • Perimeter, area, and geometric shapes • Autonomy

Portuguese Math Citizenship Plastic expression

Source Own systematization

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Fig. 53.2 The USB flash drive, decision-making, and the challenge to action. Source Own systematization

(1) Teach-acting—Simulating a dialogue with a puppet provided an atmosphere of satisfaction, highlighting the playfulness as a strategy to promote the mobilization of curricular and contextual knowledge that facilitates the understanding of reality. Thus, taking on a character, the puppet brought a message from the past. This was read and interpreted to transport the fabulous of time travel to the classroom, which was reinforced with the delivery of a USB flash drive (Fig. 53.2) which had a folder with different resources relating to the distant past, and a handwritten papyrus whose message asked for the children’s help to rebuild a fragile empire. This challenge, sustained in a learning by discovery and problem solving, imposes the understanding of the theme and stimulates the development of skills and attitudes related to the profile of the student in this new era [13], as can be inferred in the sentences of some children: C1[We really need to help the empire.]; C2[Ze Nando (puppet) has asked for our help, we must do something, he has helped us too]; C5 [But we are only children, how can we help an empire?]; C7[There are always ways to help, and teachers should also explain what we can do]. C8 [his was the revenge of the Aegis, as the saying goes revenge is never full It kills soul and poisons]; C11 [Everything was at peace, but then the others started fighting and then the others started creating weapons and building everything]; C15 [It was so funny when one lost his tooth!]. C18 [But we can also go somewhere else, there is more than one way.]; C9 [Teacher, we all have different roles, but does everyone vote equally in any decision?]; C16 [Yes, we are all important in society, you are not going to decide alone that will then be bad for everyone else.]

(2) Story Telling—Framed in the fictionalized past, the children got involved with the gameplay of the video game. Video was used to facilitate the understanding of the problem and the type of help required and to provoke immersion in the adventure. Thus, a Story Telling was built, integrating images of the actual history of the Aegean Empire (a formulated empire, extremely like the Roman Empire, sharing the same customs and traditions) and used Age of Empires trailer. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKoB7XQJwlo), an animation without dialogue with a great dynamic and quality. The involvement of the children was natural.

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It was found that, faced with the challenge of building the wall, the children, when making their decisions about the site, were based on survival arguments: a place with natural resources that meets the need for food and protection. Therefore, they indicated that the best place to build the wall was near the forest and water, but away from the volcano and glacier. As for the materials used, several were mentioned, from gold, an expensive and dangerous material because it is coveted by others, to stone, an abundant material on earth and which provides security. The square shape was chosen, but the discussion allowed the mobilization of knowledge in Geometry. Arguments: C2[Oh, no one chose by the volcano because it was dangerous!]; C3 [We all have to vote.]; C6 [I think the wall should be in the shape of a half-moon, because then we spend less resources and it’s more resistant because of its shape, so it doesn’t fall into dominoes because it has a straight wall.]; C4[We might as well build a circular wall, because the perimeter of the square is bigger than the perimeter of the circumference protecting our empire); C8 ["For that we need... G. (child), he’s the one who can help us with that!]; C11[Gold is very resistant, but it’s very rare and valuable, if we made a wall out of that then they would rob our wall and it wouldn’t protect us].

(3) Role Analysis—At this stage, the children took on characters (Fig. 53.3), reflected on the professions and the way society is organized, so they understood the value of each profession in everyday life and the interactions between them. Thus, the following characters were part of the game: Education Council, Health and Safety Council, Construction Council, Commerce Council—with the characters, People. It should be noted that, when assigning characters, the interests and potential of each child were considered. The game instructions were on the tablet, which were written in the “Character sheet” application from DayDream Software, and the children could also customize the physical appearance of their character and provide them with objects that fit with their

Fig. 53.3 Action in the game: the characters and the specific case of the woodcutter. Source Own systematization

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profession/role in society. This tool, allied with the video game, resembling an RPG “Character Sheet”, allowed for greater immersion in the activity, since the children, also molders of the characters, were encouraged to help combat the flaws of the specific video game used. (4) Role Playing—This moment consisted of a gameplay of the video game “Age of Mythology”. The strategy game turned into a creative open world where children had the opportunity to consciously develop a society by managing dilemmas that arose and/or were presented to them. The game allowed for tasks of gathering, building construction, habitat organization, animal management, trade activities, population movement, wall construction, and various developments associated with the social life of an empire of Roman times.

53.6 Conclusion Cultural heritage must be integrated into games, namely “Age of Mythology”, as children need to know the history and culture of the world and immersion in a construction environment gives meaning to learning. In this sense, games are interesting didactic resources in the learning process and the school can offer its students the opportunity to build intellectual, social, and emotional knowledge and skills, and to recognize the richness of the cultural heritage that helps them to build their own identity as local and world citizens. The analysis of the intervention plan showed that the theme deserved a didactic unit of several sessions and not just one session. The Teach-acting moment is relevant for the development of the language, in this case Portuguese, as a Portuguese cultural heritage. It is relevant for the mobilization of cultural heritage knowledge and the definition of broader objectives of cultural interest, so it also requires an educated or properly prepared teacher. Within the scope of Role Analysis, the promotion of research on cultural heritage is important, so the game should encourage the possibility of allowing the introduction of cultural objects from local or world heritage, which would also encourage the ability to select, because learning is also choosing and promoting historical inferences that stimulate critical thinking and the construction of knowledge mobilized for other contexts. You learn from what you know. This picture escapes the memorization of facts that the school has become accustomed to in recent times and the isolation of the curricular area in history as a subject. The Role-Playing moment is important in immersion. Simulating reality makes it possible to understand it. Based on social constructivism (…) the child develops concepts and builds deep representations of social reality, or as [9], refers, builds learning as an interpretive and recursive process in interaction with others and the world. As the game is a gamified tool, it makes classes more interactive and dynamic. It was noted at this point the importance of situated and contextual knowledge that supported the way children think in each specific challenge. The narration of constructed knowledge shows that historical and cultural heritage was taught and learned as knowledge that prepares students for the uncertain, digital, and changing

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world. The conclusions point out that learning in the construction of the game allows making strong decisions in interaction with the group, favors the understanding of the structure of a society, and develops the ability to solve problems in interaction with others. It should be noted that the game “Age of Mythology” favored inclusion, involving all students with pleasure because it adjusts to the abilities and knowledge of each one, as well as responds to the interests of children and the curriculum in general, so it also shows potential for to develop knowledge of cultural heritage. During the game construction process, through articulation with the computer engineer, games can become richer by including objects of interest to children, but also possibilities and opportunities as new windows that enhance growth and creativity in transformation. The conclusions point out that learning in the construction of the game allows to make strong decisions in interaction with the group, favors the understanding of the structure of a society, and develops the ability to solve problems in interaction with others. The integration of video games in education requires a critical reflection on potentialities and weaknesses. In this study, it was analyzed the potential of the game and realized that children in the 1st Cycle of Basic Education can learn in the process of constructing the game and the game itself. To do so, they need to have access to elements of the game design that promote the players’ interest, so the proximity to the computer engineer is important. The importance of the teacher’s role should be emphasized, not only as a facilitator of learning, but above all as the pedagogical architect of strategies that allow the construction of knowledge and the development of citizens’ skills, attitudes, and values. The integration of the video game in the classroom stimulates pedagogical and evaluation changes in the learning process. But the process is complex: it requires a transdisciplinary plan based on learning by challenge in a collaborative way and technical and pedagogical knowledge to integrate digital resources that complement learning. It also requires a creative professional, because play for its own sake does not guarantee learning, nor even the motivation of the child. Acknowledgements This work is funded by national funds through the FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under project UIDB/05198/2020 (Center for Research and Innovation in Education, INED).

References 1. Bardin, L.: Análise de conteúdo. 4th edn. Edições, 70, Lisboa (2008) 2. Bosi, E.T.A.: Memória e sociedade: lembranças de velhos, Queiroz Editor (1979) 3. Camargo, A.P.L.D., Santos, I.P.D.: Bibliotecas virtuais e multimídia. Mídias digitais: convergência tecnológica e inclusão social. Paulinas, S. Paulo, pp. 339–357 (2005) 4. Castells, M.: Escola e internet: o mundo da aprendizagem dos jovens. Fronteiras do Pensamento 12 (2015) 5. Ciberbit, Portugal 1111: A Conquista de Soure. Revista Visão (2004)

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6. Coutinho, C.P., Sousa, A., Dias, A., Bessa, F., Ferreira, M.J.R.C., Vieira, S.R. Investigaçãoacção: metodologia preferencial nas práticas educativas (2009) 7. Delors, J., Nanzhao, Z.: Educação Um Tesouro a Descobrir (1998) 8. Elliott, J.: La investigación-acción en educación. Ediciones Morata (1990) 9. Fosnot, C.: Construtivismo: uma teoria psicológica da aprendizagem. Construtivismo e educação: teoria, perspetiva e prática, pp. 23–58. Instituto Piaget (1999) 10. Giacomoni, M.P., Pereira, N.M.: Jogos e ensino de história (2018) 11. Lucas, M., Moreira, A.: Quadro Europeu de Competência Digital para Educadores. Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro (2018) 12. MacDonald, L.: Digital heritage. Routledge (2006) 13. Martins G.D.O., Gomes, C.A.S., Brocardo, J., Pedroso, J.V., Camilo, J.L.A., Silva, L. M.U., Rodrigues, S.M.C.V.: Perfil dos alunos à saída da escolaridade obrigatória (2017) 14. Ortega, J., Gasset,: Missión de la Universidad. El Libro de las Missiones, Madrid, Espasa-Calpe (10.ª ed.), 1984 (Tradução portuguesa de Filipe Nogueira, Missão da Universidade, Coimbra, Angelus Novus (2003) 15. Piaget, J.A.: formação do símbolo na criança, imitação, jogo, sonho, imagem e representação de jogo (1971) 16. Prensky, M.: Digital natives digital immigrants. Gifted (135), 29–31 (2005) 17. Redecker, C.: European framework for the digital competence of educators: DigCompEdu. In: Punie, Y. (ed) EUR 28775 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2017) 18. Silva, A.S.D.S.D.: Uso de Recurso Educacional com Mídias Interativas e Integradas On-Line em Ensino e Aprendizagem (2013) 19. Soster, S.S., Gonçalves, P.H., Borges, A.M.: Tecnologias Digitais aplicadas ao Patrimônio Cultural e ao Turismo. Caderno Virtual de Turismo 21(2), 127–139 (2021) 20. Yin, R.K.: Estudo de Caso-: Planejamento e métodos. Bookman editora (2015)

Chapter 54

An Approach to Revenue Management Strategies in the Hospitality Industry Dália Liberato , Mónica Oliveira , Rui Cardoso, and Pedro Liberato

Abstract YM is characterized as integrating the techniques, formulas, and strategies used to manage inventory, pricing, and sales policies. When linked to the hotel and tourism sector, YM manages availability, accommodation control, and discounts applied to overnight stays. RM is the evolution of YM, where using the full potentiality of the elements allows for maximizing revenue in periods of high demand and maximizing demand in periods of low revenue. RM is based on demand forecasting, price and inventory management, distribution channels, and revenue management performance. The world of hotel distribution is very complex and there is no way to control it. The Revenue Manager must be vigilant for the large price disparities in the various distribution channels. The distribution channels allow the hotel to reach a wider market share and an increase its competitive range. The Crowne Plaza Porto has a wide network of distribution channels represented by direct bookings and contracted distributors: Direct reservations come from four sources: Central Reservations Office (CRO), direct contact with the reservations department, the IHG brand website, and the mobile app. This research presents a qualitative methodology, applied to the Hotel Crowne Plaza Porto, whose purpose is to identify the segmentation introduced by two main segments: Individuals and Groups. The results of this research suggest that each of these segments is divided into several subgroups according to the specificity of D. Liberato (B) · M. Oliveira · P. Liberato School of Hospitality and Tourism, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR researcher (Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. Oliveira e-mail: [email protected] P. Liberato e-mail: [email protected] R. Cardoso School of Hospitality and Tourism, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_54

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their characteristics, and adequately identified, allowing the hotel’s Revenue Manager to apply different strategies to the different customer groups, equally justified.

54.1 Introduction This price management technique had its beginnings in the airline industry and was later, adapted for the hospitality industry because of the perishability of inventory. According to [1], Yield Management (YM) is a practice that emerged in the late 1970s because of deregulation in the aviation industry. Airlines decided to present discounted fares on sale to fill the seats left over on flights that were already confirmed. So, knowing that on a flight the costs are mostly fixed, it is better to sell at a lower price than not to sell at all, because the seat on the flight is perishable inventory, so once the flight takes off it is impossible to sell it. In this perspective, the first YM techniques appear, which, according to [2] are intended to predict and influence customer demand and thus generate benefits for the company. Since unsold seats would not generate any kind of profit, discounts were applied to make them profitable, maximizing the total revenue obtained. With the adoption of this practice, companies have achieved a significant growth in profits, being recurrent in the industry, going from a static and simple market to a dynamic and diversified one. In the 1990s, with the migration of large hotel chains to computer systems, the expansion of these techniques to the hotel industry took place. In this sector, still according to [2] YM is more related to the use of supply and demand to maximize profits from the sale of products and services, considering existing availability, control of stays and discounts on lodging. The visionary CEO of Marriott International, when analyzing the impact that all techniques had in the previous decade, decided to create a Revenue Management (RM) department to be able to control schedules, prices, and those services that should be maintained. He created the "One Yield" system that is still used today and allowed them to have their own reservation centers and create their own distribution channels [3]. It was this adaptation and investment in RM that allowed Marriott to be one step ahead of its competition, with a daily demand forecasting system, establishing guest reservation patterns, to optimize the availability of its inventory dependent on that demand and on reservations already made. The article is structured in three parts. In the first part a theoretical framework is presented, through a literature review. The second part presents the methodology, analysis, and discussion of results. The last part presents the conclusions and recommendations for future lines of research.

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54.2 Literature Review Based on YM techniques, thus RM was born. Both are linked to increasing revenues and maximizing profits, but they are not totally identical concepts. According to [4], YM is characterized as the techniques, formulas, and strategies that are used to manage inventory, pricing, and sales policies. When linked to the hospitality and tourism sector, YM manages availability, stay control, and discounts applied to lodging. In the first stage, [2, 5] defined YM as RM. However, with the refinement of the concepts it was defined that RM is the evolution of YM, whereby using the full potentiality of the elements it allows maximizing revenue in periods of high demand and maximizing demand in periods of low revenue. The most common way to represent RM is to characterize it as a commercial management technique that helps sell the right product, at the right time, to the right customer, at the right price, and through the most appropriate distribution channel [5]. For [6], RM is “the selective use of pricing and other techniques to influence customer demand for a firm’s products and services in order to increase total revenue and profits generated.” On the other hand, [7] based RM on demand forecasting, price and inventory management, distribution channels, and revenue management performance. According to Weatherford and [4, 8] the RM is associated with the hotel industry, rental cars, airlines, conference centers, and other companies in various areas of activity, and the authors, after analyzing all these industries, have defined five basic points: . Fixed inventory: The maximum capacity is maintained, regardless of existing demand, because increasing it requires too high costs. . Perishable inventory: All inventory that is not sold represents a loss for the entity, since all capacity that can be sold and is not used is not accumulated for later use. . Market segmentation: Adapt the offer, planning for the different target audiences that we want to reach; not all customers are looking for the same product/service, and not all have the same expectations. . Advance booking method: There is the possibility not only to make bookings on the same day, but also to make them months or even years in advance. In this method, the key point is to ensure that the inventory price is adjusted for all times, because the Revenue Manager (RMr) must be able to adapt the price so that the marginal price covers the fixed costs and make a profit. . Demand fluctuation: RM strategies are used in order to match occupancy to demand, i.e. maximize demand in periods of low revenue and in periods of high demand. . For any RM strategy to work, it is necessary to understand and know on what basis it can be applied. Although each author defends a different perspective on the subject, they end up converging and, even though there is no concrete definition to address the pillars of

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RM, those that are referenced are: Segmentation, Forecast, Pricing, and Distribution Channels. This research will focus on segmentation. . Segmentation refers to the customer and the target audience that we want to capture, because each one is different and has its own expectations. After defining the market and the target audience, hotels need to divide it into different segments that have similar characteristics. It is through segmentation that the marketing strategy (Marketing Mix) is defined, to attract the desired customers and to be able to enter the target market [9]. In order to do segmentation correctly, a number of parameters need to be considered, such as measurability (demographic and geographic characteristics), relevance (potential market profit), accessibility (how the target audience will access knowledge of the services), differentiation (variation of the offer taking into account the characteristics of each group), and feasibility (adapting a Marketing strategy for each market in order to be as profitable as possible) [9]. . Forecast: According to [10], forecasting is the process of estimating, calculating, or predicting future conditions. The accuracy of this forecast is crucial, both for RM systems to make the best optimization recommendations, and for RMr to be able to apply the best strategies. . Pricing: As it directly affects the profitability of the business, from a company’s point of view price is the most relevant component and is one of the most effective denominators that RMr can use to increase or decrease the demand for hotel rooms, which consequently influences positively or negatively the revenue obtained for each reservation made. . Distribution channels: Distribution channels are the ways used by hotels to make their products or services available, and which can be used by consumers to make reservations [10–13]. After an analysis, by RMr, about the distribution channels where the hotel should be placed, it is always necessary to take into consideration the costs associated with each channel and if the one used is in fact the best one to capture the customer segmentation previously defined.

54.3 Methodology According to the approach in the literature review, distribution channels allow hotel units to achieve a wider market share and an increase in competitive reach. The Crowne Plaza Porto has a vast network of distribution channels represented by both direct bookings and contracted distributors: . Direct bookings come from four sources: Central Reservations Office (CRO), direct contact with the own reservations department, IHG brand website, and the mobile app.

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Fig. 54.1 Distribution channels of the Hotel Crowne Plaza Porto

Table 54.1 IHG Mobile app features

Check-in/out

Digital key

In-app chat

Digital TV command

Make reservations

IHG Rewards Club

Room upgrade

Digital concierge

. The contracted distributors come from two main sources: the OTAs that work on a commission basis and the GDS that are used by Business Travel Agencies (BTA) and travel agencies. Figure 54.1 shows the available distribution channels at the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel. Reservations made through IHG’s website (www.ihg.com) are submitted to the brand’s reward programs and a 5.75% fee is charged. The mobile app is available for both Android and iOs under the name “IHGTM: Offers and Prizes” and allows guests to make a reservation for the next two days with 10% off the Best Flex rate with breakfast included (Table 54.1). The CRO can be contacted through the contact number on IHG’s website (800 450 076), has its offices located in Lisbon and has dozens of staff ready to provide assistance, in several languages, 24 h a day. All bookings are eligible for IHG Rewards Club and those made through this channel have a 5.75% fee. Guests can make their reservations with the hotel’s reservations department, which has one employee for individual reservations and three employees for group reservations, events, and tour series. The correspondence must be done through e-mail and/or telephone contact.

54.4 Results Currently, a large part of the guests make their individual reservations online, knowing this, the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel is present in all OTA, however, due to the strong presence in the market, we analyze Booking and Expedia. These OTA’s work on a

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commissionable basis and Booking receives 14.9% of the base for each reservation made (an amount that can be changed according to the positioning strategy of the hotel in the platform ranking); Expedia has two commission percentages, one for reservations made during the week and another at the weekend, both adjustable, according to market demand and receives between 21 and 23% of each reservation made. The rates that these OTAs practice are always associated with the Best Flex rate. The reservations made through the GDS arrive at the hotel through the four main systems (Amadeus, Sabre, Galileo, and Worldspan) and are made by BTAs and travel agencies, and the rates they charge are either based on the contracted price (when they work with companies with special rates agreed with the hotel), or are associated with Best Flex, and a 10% commission is charged for each reservation that is made through this route. The contracted companies that work with special rates represent a very important source of revenue for the Hotel Crowne Plaza Porto and, the rates are negotiated between an employee responsible for performing this analysis by means of the frequency of the stays and the profit that will be generated from them, and a responsible person in each company, and, the rates, are not known by the guests. In summary, the distribution channels of the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel are twofold: commission-based and based on contracted prices. The commission-based approach is very dependent on the hotel’s occupancy and RMr strategy, this can be applied to stop sales to OTAs and thus the hotel’s presence on the platforms becomes non-existent, which leads to the impossibility of marketing its services. On the other hand, on the contracted rates side, the Local Negotiated Rates (LNR) and the Key Negotiated Rates (KNR) should be noted. These are ondemand bookings and are a good source of revenue for the hotel by guaranteeing a considerable volume of reservations on a regular basis, despite their low contribution. The segmentation in Hotel Crowne Plaza Porto is introduced by two main segments: Individuals and Groups. Each of these segments is divided into several subgroups according to their characteristics. Table 54.2 presents the detailed segmentation of the hotel. Dividing segmentation into different subgroups allows the hotel RMr to apply different strategies for different types of guests. The advantages are: . Each segment has functionalities that facilitate the application of different strategies to offer specific products. The Crowne Plaza Porto has several collaborators, each one with its own responsibility (individual reservations, group reservations, events, tour series, agencies), and this way, they make contact directly with the clients of the correct segment. . A separate segment of IHG is its rewards programs (P&P Discount and Airline Delay) and these cover many customers, which makes this program of great importance to the brand and makes it one of the most successful in the world. This program allows many benefits to its members in all the brand’s hotels, and with a large flow of customers participating in it, the directors are looking to develop new programs and incentives to keep the participants loyal to the brand.

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Table 54.2 Segmentation of the Crowne Plaza Hotel Description

Example

D—Discount

Reservations made for rooms with discount rates only, but always with several fences to compensate the discount for the hotel

Advance Saver Fare (RO) Opaque, package rates

Y—Long-Term Stay

Special rate reservations for guests who stay for a longer period

Rates lower than LNR for periods of, for example, 2 months

G—Corporate Regular (International)

Reservations made at the lowest room rate available—aimed at the corporate segment

Best Flex tariff with discount for companies with an international dimension

P—Corporate Preferred

Bookings made by regular travel agents/consortia with contracted BTA rates

Carlson Wagonlit

B—Business Products/Promotions

Reservations made by people who opt for flexible reservations with or without breakfast

Best Flex RO and Best Flex BB (BAR Rate)

L—Corporate Local Negotiated

Reservations made at rates All LNR and KNR agreed upon between the hotel and the different companies

M—Government/Diplomat/Military

Reservations made at special rates for individuals with government, army, or diplomatic agency affiliations who are traveling for leisure or business

Reservations of a local, regional, or national nature where no prior agreement is required

Individual reservations made by wholesalers

Hotelbeds; Voyage Privé; TravelZoo …

K—Leisure Package

Bookings made at non-refundable rates and with various increments in order to create value

Advance Saver Fare with BB; HB/FB; or Park included

S—Leisure Package Seasonal

Bookings made during festive seasons, with promotional packages of dinner included, to generate incremental revenue in low season periods

Christmas Dinner

Segment Name Individuals Transient (Non-contracted)

Corporate

Wholesale W—Wholesale Package

(continued)

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Table 54.2 (continued) Segment Name

Description

Example

Bookings made on P&P discounted rates; flight delay discount; IHG employee discount

Employee rates; Friends & Family; IHG Points

P&P Discount & Airline Delay V—P&P Discount & Airline Delay

Groups Meetings and Groups (More than 9 rooms) C—Corporate Meeting

Reservations made as part of a corporate event or group booking of one of the hotel rooms

I—Encourage

Bookings made by a group organized as part of an event/leisure for its participants

A—Association Meeting

Bookings made as part of an international, national, regional, or local association event

F—Trade Fair/Exhibition

Reservation made by a group Exhibitions or Fairs that attending a convention or take place at Exponor trade show (may not be held at the hotel)

Annual Events

Leisure Groups (More than 9 rooms) T—Tour Series

Reservations made by a number of tour groups with contracted rates and defined dates

Tourist Groups

U—Ad hoc

Reservations made by a group Wedding groups; soccer typically associated with a clubs leisure/social aspect without a contract and pre-established dates (on request)

Other Airline crew O—Airline

Reservations associated with long-term contract airlines

TAP; TAAG

Reservations made for free

Guests

Complimentary N—Complimentary House Use H—House Use

Reservations made for the On Duty purpose of being used by staff

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Although different segments generate different revenues, they usually occupy a similar percentage of the business from year to year. Some segments are connected and interdependent with the corporate segment, these are: 1. The Business Products/Promotions rate, created in January 2022, separating from the Corporate Regular, although both are based on the Best Flex rate, the purpose of the two is different, because the IHG management, when analyzing it, concluded that it was necessary to separate the corporate side from the other guests. 2. The Discount and Long-Term Stay segments present the best deals available, however these require at least one fence to be filled in order to be available. The higher the discount, the more fences have to be reached. In the case of the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel, all guests staying longer than 4 nights are eligible for the Long-Term Stay segment and they get a discount between 15 and 20% if they choose the BB rate. 3. Another segment that is linked to the Best Flex rate is the Leisure Package, which is calculated through the Discount segment with the supplement of the breakfast value. If breakfast is included, the rate will always be considered as a package (except those included in KNR/LNR and Long-Term Stay) 4. The Leisure Package Seasonal is applied during festive periods and is associated with the Best Flex rate, with the addition of other extras such as dinner. 5. The Corporate Preferred segment represents the BTA and is associated with Best Flex with the addition of extras. 6. The remaining individual segments (Corporate Local Negotiated, Government/Diplomat/Military, Wholesale, and P&P Discount and Airline Delay) have no connection to the Best Flex tariff, but rather to a tariff negotiated between both parties depending on the volume of business. The group segment is introduced by Meetings, which is essentially the hotel’s core business (subdivided into Corporate Meeting, Incentive, Association Meeting, and Trade Fair/Exhibition) and Leisure Groups (subdivided into Tour Series that have a block of rooms available for the whole year, under a contract between the hotel and the companies that conduct these tours; and Ad hoc that are groups on request that make reservations for specific dates, without the need for repetition). At the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel, the “group” segment is responsible for the largest revenue volume due, essentially, to meeting and event room reservations, F&B consumptions, and stays resulting from these meetings, which represent between 50 and 60% of the hotel’s business mix (Table 54.3). Based on the Crowne Plaza Hotel’s internal reports, in 2019 (standard year of tourism analysis), the main feeder markets were: The role of the RMr is to understand what the possible feeder markets are and performs this analysis using the political and macroeconomic terms of each of these and in which segments they fit, to subsequently define the strategy and indicate the guidelines to the commercial department.

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Table 54.3 Top feeder markets in the top three segments (2019) Tour Series

MICE

Leisure

Portugal

23,22%

USA

37,67%

Greece

17,29%

Spain

20,80%

Japan

20,51%

Brazil

12,04%

Germany

10,26%

Brazil

10,37%

Portugal

10,08%

France

7,99%

Portugal

9,22%

China

7,49%

United Kingdom

6,57%

Greece

6,82%

Malaysia

5,92%

Source Crowne Plaza Porto, adapted

54.5 Conclusions The relevance of the present study is associated with the existing gap regarding the topic of distribution channels and rate optimization, in hotel RM, in operational terms. Through a careful analysis of this study, one can understand how the reservations and RM department of the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel are structured, as well as the distribution channels where it is present, segmentation, defined competition, and pricing principles for rate optimization. In summary, the segmentation of the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel has two major segments: the individuals that have a standard procedure and the groups that require more time and attention because they can be accepted or rejected according to the displacement analysis. The displacement analysis happens when the hotel may overbook on purpose, the RMr after performing an analysis of the revenue that will be generated by accepting a new group, comes across too many guests compared to the rooms it has available in the inventory. In this situation, it needs to relocate them to other hotels, which may or may not belong to the same group. Regarding the topics covered throughout the research, both distribution channels and rate optimization were analyzed, to make it easier to understand the inherent concepts and their impact on hotel units. Finally, the current study contributes to the area of RM, both with the exposure of one of the city’s iconic MICE hotels, the Crowne Plaza Porto (in the Northern Region of Portugal), but also with a more recent view of the world of distribution channels and the way RMr optimizes rates, in a hotel unit. The main limitations, felt during the development of this research, are essentially related to the little literature available and accessible on the subject, to the few permissions given within the organization. RM itself is an area with several articles and studies conducted throughout its history, however, it is a very diverse area and is constantly updated and evolving, so there are articles whose information is already too outdated. Besides, with few RMr currently in activity, it becomes complicated to have recent articles that keep up with the development of the area.

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In this sense, there is clearly a scarcity of articles on topics such as distribution channels and price optimization, thus preventing a more in-depth knowledge, in both areas of RM, from being transmitted to professionals in the area as well as trainees. The use of these platforms is determinant, not only for a more realistic contact with how RM is practiced, but also for a reliable analysis of RMr’s positioning in the market. Some of these methods involved the use of other platforms where the hotel is presented for marketing, and making associations, assumptions, and hypotheses. This study is intended to enrich the field of RM and to provide an updated view of the theme and the work method practiced at the Crowne Plaza Porto Hotel. Furthermore, for future research, it is recommended to explore the impact that rate optimization and restrictions may have on distribution channels. As a complement, it is also recommended to conduct interviews with OTA Account Managers and hotel RM Directors, as it would be interesting to understand their perspective on the subject. We acknowledge the possibility that this study may serve as a base material for hypothetical investigations that may be carried out. The field of RM is a large unfinished work, whose pages are constantly changing and evolving, therefore, the focus on approaching new perspectives and conducting new studies will be useful, if conducted by professionals in the field or researchers. In the hotel business, the competition is fierce and is defined by details that determine the choice of the guests. Competition, as it plays a key role for the hotel, requires the study of its competitors, as well as the monitoring of movements and updates to maintain a competitive positioning.

References 1. El Haddad, R., Roper, A., & Jones, P.: The impact of revenue management decisions on customers’ attitudes and behaviours: a case study of a leading UK budget hotel chain. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 27(8) (2008). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-08-2013-0390 2. Donaghy, K., McMahon, U., McDowell, D.: Yield management: an overview. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 14(2), 139–150 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4319(95)00013-3 3. Hormby, S., Morrison, J., Dave, P., Meyers, M., Tenca, T.: Marriott international increases revenue by implementing a group pricing optimizer. Interfaces 40(1), 47–57 (2010). https:// doi.org/10.1287/inte.1090.0482 4. Belobaba, P.: Fundamentals of Pricing and Revenue Management. Em The Global Airline Industry, pp. 73–111. Wiley, New York (2009). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470744734.ch4 5. Kimes, S.: Yield management: a tool for capacity-considered service firms. J. Oper. Manag. 8(4), 348–363 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-6963(89)90035-1 6. Huefner, R.J.: An introduction to revenue management. exploring common techniques and the CPA’s role. CPA J. 84(6), 16–21 (2014) 7. Hayes, D.K., Miller, A.A.: Revenue Management for the Hospitality Industry. Wiley, New York (2011) 8. Kimes, S.: Hotel revenue management: today and tomorrow. Cornell Hosp. Rep. 8(14), 6–15 (2008) 9. Khan, Y.H., Hakeem, S.M.A., Naumov, N.: The use of branding and market segmentation in hotel marketing: a conceptual review. J. Tour. Intell. Smartness 1(2), 12–23 (2018) 10. Boyd, E., Bilegan, I.: Revenue management and E-commerce. Manag Sci 49, 1363–1386 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.49.10.1363.17316

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11. Liberato, D., Carvalho, B., Liberato, P.: The feedback channels in a DMO: Case study in Porto and North tourism association. In: Rocha, A., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J.V., Liberato, D., Alén González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems, vol. 171, pp 118–129. Springer, Berlin (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_11 12. Liberato, D., Bernardo, V., Liberato, P., Alén, E.: Visit motivation influenced by distribution channels: the case of Paiva walkways. In: Rocha, A., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J.V., Liberato, D., Alén González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems, vol. 171, pp. 659–680. Springer, Berlin (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_57 13. Liberato, P., Alén, E., Liberato, D.: Digital technology in a smart tourist destination: the case of Porto. J. Urban Technol. 25(1), 75–97 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2017.141 3228 14. Buhalis, D.: Relationships in the distribution channel of tourism: conflicts between hoteliers and tour operators in the mediterranean region. Int. J. Hosp. Tour. Adm. 1(1), 113–139 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1300/J149v01n01_07

Chapter 55

Tourism Safety and Security with a Sustainability Vision, Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) Manuel Ramón González Herrera

Abstract The research aim is to understand the meaning of empirical experiences on tourism safety and security in Ciudad Juárez and favor the emergence of knowledge from empirical data. Applied research with a diagnostic-propositional projection was implemented using qualitative, interdisciplinary, and deductive/inductive approaches based on a pilot case study using focus groups. The research outcomes were participatory systematization of statements about the perception of tourism safety and security in Ciudad Juárez, a theoretical framework of tourism safety, and a causal explanatory model. It concludes by corroborating the high potential of different stakeholders’ empirical knowledge for theorizing and promoting better safety practices in tourism.

55.1 Introduction Understanding the problem of safety and security is crucial in evaluating the various methods to regulate and provide an improvement about these issues [1], particularly in tourism destinations because safety concerns hurt inbound tourism in the host communities. Therefore, it is a significant constraint to tourists’ travel plans [28, 7]. Many studies have explored issues related to this problem, specially focalized on the destination as an aggregate to the detriment of understanding safety issues at the level of individual attractions [21] and specific aspects of a tourist destination related to sustainability as an indicator of integrated tourism management. The scientific research on tourism safety and security with a sustainability approach can provide scientific information at the service of integrated decisionmaking [18, 31]. Under this premise, the safety and security perception of tourism in Ciudad Juárez is assumed as an object of investigation. The research approach starts with formulating these questions: What is the residents’ perception of Ciudad Juárez regarding tourism safety and security? Are these perceptions valid to derive scientific knowledge that serves as value judgments in decision-making processes? M. R. G. Herrera (B) Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Juarez, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_55

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The problem that characterizes the research context is complex and multiconditioned; at the same time, there is a lack of scientific information to promote knowledge and capacities to act in the face of a safety crisis. In response to this situation, the present study aims to understand the meaning of the empirical experiences related to tourism safety and security in Ciudad Juárez and favors the emergence of theoretical knowledge based on empirical data. The structure of this report is organized as follows: case study presentation; analysis and interpretation of safety perception; perception of unsafeness as a triggering factor for risks and crises; and theoretical vision of the study object supported by empirical experience. The principal research outcomes are specific statements about the perception of tourism safety and security in Juárez, a theoretical-explanatory framework, and an explanatory model. This study’s findings add to the literature by offering further information on host community perceptions of safety and security. The study’s limitations were the small size of the sample, the lack of updated databases or tourism safety observatory in the city, and poor scientific production on the subject at the local level. The implications for the future involve the disclosure of the results and their delivery to the competent authorities; it is recommended to extend the sample and apply other qualitative research methods, carry out a sociodemographic stratification of the city to find out geospatial differences, and promote compared studies with binational other towns on the Mexico–US border. In the scientific order, this problem has been positioned as research needs to generate information to solve the problems that tourism development faces in multipurpose urban spaces. It should be a priority for different scientific-technical and social development programs so that any contribution to knowledge will become viable alternatives based on scientific positions that support its practical introduction in more reliable terms.

55.2 Literature Review There is a close relationship between tourism and safety [28] since safety is an essential requirement for tourism sustainability [12, 23], it is a right of visitors and residents, an obligation of the State and a responsibility of all stakeholders [13]. Tourism security guarantees the protection of life, health, physical, psychological, and economic integrity of visitors, service providers, and the host community, which constitutes an added value that contributes to the differentiation between quality destinations [10]. The sustainable management of tourism safety must be assumed under a comprehensive approach of compliance with rights and guarantee of freedoms for all people, based on the enjoyment of the tourist space by visitors and residents, in actions respectful of diversity and compliance with human rights, crime prevention, dialogue and permanent help between civil authorities, police and citizens, and responsibility for handling information [13: 51–52].

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The Global Sustainable Tourism Council recognizes safety as an indicator for measuring sustainability. It is established that the destination must have strategies to prevent, inform and respond to crime and insecurity risks. As part of Section “A” specifies that it is necessary to demonstrate sustainable management of the destination, setting out strategies for the sustainability, safety, and protection of destinations in an integrated way in the indicators “A1” and “A12”. Various authors agree that tourism safety is a problem in which social perception plays an important role [3] and that tourists have different characteristics that lead to perceiving the risks and difficulties they face differently. Among the factors with the most significant impact on the appreciation of the destination’s safety is the perception of the local inhabitants [20], which is transmitted to the visitor, and the exaggerated alerts that some countries make, which further deteriorates the tourist image. Should note that the US Department of State reported that the countries with the highest risk for US citizens in Latin America are Mexico and Colombia, which is why many decide not to visit those countries. The mentioned department warns about the risks of traveling to specific destinations in Mexico due to the threat posed by organized criminal groups. Regarding the State of Chihuahua, it recommends taking precautions in business and shopping areas in Ciudad Juárez. This website suggests not visiting other regions of the state and traveling between cities only on the highways and during the daytime, specifying that crime and violence continue to be a severe problem in Chihuahua, especially in the southern part of the state and in the mountains. According to Parametría Report, 95% of Mexicans consider that the country is not safe and 44% believe that the government cannot guarantee the integrity of tourists. Still, despite that, seven out of ten would recommend Mexico as a vacation destination. Regarding the government’s capacity to guarantee the safety of tourists, 45% believe that Mexico has the capacity to protect visitors; on the other hand, if they resided in another country, seven out of ten would recommend traveling to Mexican destinations, while 26% would do so only when national safety problems are resolved. The provision of comprehensive safety measures guidelines is recommended according to the principles established in the Tourism Destination Safety Framework of the UNWTO [21], it is also necessary to recognize the influence of safety guarantees on the decision to visit a site [27]. At the same time, it is essential to realize that a piece greater knowledge about the destination reduces the negative effect of security threats on inbound tourism [7], a reason that justifies the importance of studies and investigations that contribute to generating information and knowledge to manage problems of safety and security.

55.3 Methodology Framework The research design corresponds to an applied diagnostic-propositional study that implemented a qualitative, interdisciplinary, and deductive/inductive approach. The

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study was carried out through focus groups using a participatory rapid assessment procedure [29]. Empirical methods such as observation, documentary analysis, review of secondary data, in-depth interviews, informal dialogues, and theoretical methods such as inductive–deductive, abstraction–concretion, triangulation, and modeling were used, as well as the interpretive hermeneutical method. Four empirical entities (n = 10–12 subjects) were established as the unit of analysis, which correspond to entrepreneurs and tourism workers, the hotel sector; decision-makers; and the community. The script for working with the focus groups included the factors of negative impact on the perception of tourism safety and the management of the unsafeness-related effects. The analysis and interpretation of empirical data were carried out using the theoretical postulates of the Driving Forces-Pressures-State-Exposures-Effects-Actions (DPSEEA) model of the WHO, the Pressure-Estate-Impact-Response (PEIR) model used by the UNEP, and the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) models. An instrument was developed for the focus groups to collect qualitative data based on the participants’ perceptions, attitudes, experiences, and expectations regarding the tourist enhancement of the Public Use Zone of the Samalayuca Dunes. The purpose was to generate information and knowledge that serve as a basis for the Tourist Functional Zoning proposal and the strategies for the sustainable use and management of the territory. The constructed instrument was validated by ten specialists and improved with their contributions. The management of the focus groups was based on the design and development of work sessions; analysis and interpretation of data based on reports and transcripts of recordings; preparation of preliminary conclusions and information gaps; in-depth interviews; feedback workshops; final results, and conclusions. Based on the study of the reports, the text was codified and categorized to form categories (group of conceptual variables) using a process of comparison according to similarities or differences; this research dynamic was based on the principles of grounded theory [6]. The data processing was carried out through modeling and semantic analysis of perceptions through OWL Ontologies, for which it was necessary to develop an Extended Lexicon of Domain Knowledge from the reports of the speech of each focus group. Subsequently, a comparative interpretation was made among the ontologies corresponding to each empirical unit, concluding with the proposal of a synthesis of theoretical information in a conceptual model. The criteria for tourism safety policy management were based on the COSO Model [16].

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Fig. 55.1 Location of the study area

55.4 Findings 55.4.1 Presentation of the Study Area Ciudad Juárez is part of a binational urban space that forms the border between Mexico–US (Fig. 55.1), configuring one of the most important, complex, heterogeneous, and controversial conglomerates in northern Mexico, which is conditioned by different factors. It is an industrial, commercial, and even tourist city, offering itself to visitors as a gateway to Mexico and Latin America. It treasures a rich history and cultural heritage represented by monuments, markets, squares, and nightlife, as well as consular services, medical services, and maquiladoras.1 According to the Blog of the Municipal Presidency [2], the city experienced accelerated population growth during the last decades of the twentieth century, which was not accompanied by an investment in public services. Tens of thousands of people came in search of employment, creating new neighborhoods where there were no convenient water, electricity, paving, health, or education services. For this reason, various city areas do not have the essential benefits [15], becoming a cause of addictions, violence, and crimes. 1

Manufacturing plants in Mexico with the parent company’s administration facility in the US.

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The city has felt the aftermath of a safety crisis between 2008 and 2011. It was a period when, according to the ranking of the most violent cities in the world, it was ranked second in 2008 and 2011, 1st place in 2009 and 2010, 19th place in 2012, 21st place in 2013 [24], and 27th place in 2014 [8]. The city returned to second place in 2019, the year in which Mexico became the world epicenter of violence with the first five places [25]. This situation shows its position for an extended time among the least safe cities and one of the least peaceful places in the world [14]. The strategic problem for tourism safety management in Juárez is associated with the non-existence of a single and appropriate management plan for risk, crisis, and emergencies due to unsafeness and insecurity, which residents know, visitors, and businesses. At the same time, there are no sufficient procedures, resources, and advanced training. So far, the city has not implemented a multi-year strategy that reflects the problem with a more proactive approach. For this reason, it does not meet the safety indicators proposed by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council.

55.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation of the Safety and Security Perception The participants in the four focus groups could identify safety and security factors related to the economic, social, and territorial–environmental dimensions of local development. The patterns of similarities and differentials between the ontologies of each empirical unit reflect the differentiated way in which they legitimize their social role, presenting the most significant contradictions of interests between decisionmakers and the host community. Table 55.1 contains the categories of analysis and the factors that have harmed the perception of safety. Among the patterns of unsafeness, distrust stands out, related which one participant refers to “(…) the antros [nightclubs] perceive members of Public Security as collectors.” It was mentioned the fear towards the police and traffic personnel, which in the opinion of a local “(…) are responsible for extortion and undue fines,” as well as the lack of culture, indicating a participant “(…) the culture of service in the city was annihilated.” Fear has negatively impacted the city’s social fabric, expressing a participant “(…) we are all scared, nobody wants to give their name, and many of us transmit that unsafeness.” Table 55.2 shows the categories of analysis of policies, actions, and instruments for the control of tourism safety. The learning derived from the crisis experienced and the insufficiency of an integrated management policy is noted, as well as infrastructural and service failures to support safety and security. One participant stated, “(…) the bad things that happened to us years ago helped us to unite to look for alternatives such as corridors,” highlighting the experience of several organized tourist corridors who share and benefit from collaborative work, recovery of space, improvement of coexistence and preventive work with the police, attracting businesses and customers.

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Table 55.1 Categories of analysis for perceived safety/security concerns factors Category

Negative factors on the perception of safety/security

Governance

Lack of government interest and neglect; insufficient public–private coordination; limited inter-institutional relationships; poor coordination between tourism entities; lack of continuity of projects due to changes in administration

Communication

Inadequate tourist advertising (red notes, negative aspects); lack of dissemination and significance of the positive results achieved; no news tracking to build trust

Education

Deficient tourist culture; insufficient training to offer safe tourism; loss of values and education for the love of the city; loss of identity and sense of belonging

Social cohesion

Lack of a sense of community, belonging, citizen and business commitment; lack of empathy between residents and visitors

Inclusion

Lack of mechanisms for citizen participation, disinterest in involvement, and fear of retaliation

Infrastructure and Equipment Neglect of maintenance; road problems, lack of secure parking and parking meters; deterioration of important public spaces Inversion

Fear on the part of entrepreneurs; loss of credibility and confidence in tourism; insufficient investment in public security

Migration

The continued arrival of immigrants at the border causes uncontrolled immigration

Urbanization

Poor connectivity among corridors and tourist areas; inadequate road spaces for pedestrians; insufficient public lighting; and the proliferation of marginal and unsanitary settlements

Poverty

The population with low income, educational backwardness, insufficient food, health services, and decent housing increase

Table 55.2 Categories of analysis for perceived responses to safety/security concerns Category

Perception of implemented policies, actions, and instruments

Politics

Placing posters on patrols to report abuse; alliances between the direction of traffic and tourism to be better communicated and in collaboration

Strategic Plan

Strategy “We are all Juarez; Let’s rebuild the city”; Urban Center Development Plan (IMIP); State Government investment plan

Programs

Certification of safe hotels; Taxi Amigo; parking lot certification; Paisano Program for attention to visitors residing in the US; Vehicle watchdog program

Projects

Project “Let’s clean the image of Ciudad Juárez”

Territory

Tourist corridors; improvement of urban mobility

Facilities

Security Observatories (UACJ); surveillance cameras in public areas

Know-how

Social learning derived from the situation of violence and unsafety experienced

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A recurring theme was vehicular traffic; a participant pointed out the need to incorporate it into local agendas “(…) to give a sense of order and delimit lanes to end road anarchy” The Taxi Amigo program was among the most positive; according to one participant “(…) its drivers are well informed, they give suggestions, they are trained in history, first aid” The conditioning of this problem is framed in a context in which one in three inhabitants is an immigrant, 90% of the economy is represented by micro-businesses, and paved roads only reach 76.3% [15], all of which makes the destination more vulnerable to a safety security crisis. Based on the analysis of the participants’ discourse, appreciated a subtle difference between the first violence crisis (2008–2011), in which there was no prior preparation, tools, or time to respond proactively, and the new unsafe scenarios, which could be related to resilience to face problems, overcoming the obstacles that this entails. This assumption responds to the contrast made with the findings of other research and experiences developed in the international arena by academics [17, 26] and tourism practitioners [5], who conclude by highlighting the resilience capacity of destinations and enterprises exposed to a safety crisis. A significant contribution was the perception of the city as an unsafe tourist destination, identifying the principal safety and security concerns that impact the attraction of visitors and their stay in the city and the factors perceived as causal (Table 55.3). The participants of the four groups recognized the relationship of tourism with safety; one participant narrated, “(…) I remember that in the 80 and 90 s young people from El Paso, Texas came to have a good time here in Juárez.” Emphasis was placed on the need for visitors to feel safe again and on the search for strategies to project actions that help change the city’s image. Table 55.3 Impacts of perceived safety concerns of tourism in Ciudad Juárez Unsafety problems

Causal factors

Fear of border residents coming from the US being approached/robbed when crossing into the city Visitor abuse (extortion, excessive fines) High rates of incidents and reports of theft Bad recommendation of the city by the residents themselves Informal tourism activities Effect multiplied of bad visitor experiences Cutting hours for nightlife (crisis 2008–2011)

Non-existence of tourist police Lack of instruments in legislation and standardization Few centers and visitors help points in case of emergencies Unreliable tour guides Insufficient tourist signage The poor state of infrastructure Lack of spaces for safe parking Insufficient federal budget and resources for specific tourism safety and security programs

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Fig. 55.2 Theoretical-explanatory framework based on the meaning of empirical experience

55.4.3 Theoretical Vision of the Study Object Supported by Empirical Experiences In this section, the general statements of the case study are presented based on the acceptance of the particular pieces of evidence as valid. In correspondence with them, the resulting theoretical model is presented (Fig. 55.2). The theoretical-inductive statement derived from the empirical research was formulated as follows: a participatory study of tourism safety in the context of sustainability should be based on an explanatory causal model that allows understanding the relationships among risk-event-crisis-effect-receptor-response as a conceptual basis for the design of tourism policies with a strategic approach. This statement will provide new knowledge and tools to the decision-making process to transform the current problem and contribute to an image of a safe tourist destination. According to the elaborated model, the following chain was constructed: a risk situation can lead to the appearance of an unsafe event that triggers a safety crisis which effects or impacts will manifest themselves in correspondence with the characteristics of the recipient and their exposure to the event, which will require response actions to the crisis (Fig. 55.2).

55.5 Conclusion The epistemological-qualitative study of the empirical entities corresponding to each focus group facilitated the interpretive construction of knowledge about the realities of tourism and safety in Juárez, allowing us to conclude concerning the first research question that stakeholders perceive high levels of safety and security concerns and the required management actions are not materialized. Regarding the second question,

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the validity of perceptions on tourism safety was corroborated to derive knowledge that serves as value judgments, which is set in the construction of the theoreticalexplanatory framework of tourism safety and the causal explanatory model RECERR. The meaning of the empirical experiences allowed us to make a generalization based on the common and differential patterns of each finding, which facilitated the elaboration of specific statements about the perception of tourism safety and the inference of a growing resilience to events of this type according to the attitudes and experiences show by participants. In subsequent researchers, it is recommended to carry out studies on the resilience capacity of local tourism in the face of a safety crisis to corroborate the new hypothesis derived from this study. Coinciding with the findings of other researchers, the value of the focus group method for collecting data on tourism safety was evidenced since it allowed the compilation of experiences contributed by stakeholders. It was agreed with Castillo’s research by accepting phenomenology as the study of lived experience before being conceptualized. This approach confers more excellent value to the outcomes since they are the product of the exchange between the empirical and theoretical, as was also demonstrated in the research developed by Ponce [22]. The replicability of the theoretical model built in this research will require a previous study of extrapolation and contextualization through which the particular realities of each tourist destination are identified to establish the necessary adjustments to achieve a higher level of certainty. At the same time, it is essential to recognize this study’s limitation: the conclusions are considered only for the study group. Using this information should help promote new researchers at the time that can guide the tourist management of the studied destination.

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9. Global Sustainable Tourism Council 2013 Homepage, http://www.gstcouncil.org/en/gstc-cri teria/criteria-for-destinations.html. Last accessed 16 May 2022 10. Grünewald, L.: Municipio, turismo and seguridad. Universidad Nacional de Quilmes-OEA (2010) 11. Hamui-Sutton, A., Varela-Ruiz, M.: La técnica de grupos focales. Investigación en Educación Médica 2(5), 55–60 (2013) 12. Hossein-Rahdari, A., Anvary-Rostamy, A.: Designing a general set of sustainability indicators at the corporate level. J. Clean. Prod. 108(A), 757–771 (2015) 13. IDT. PRIMER ENCUENTRO INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SEGURIDAD TURÍSTICA, Bogotá (2010) 14. IEP.: Índice de Paz México 2020. Homepage, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5eaa39 0ddf0dcb548e9dd5da/t/5eb16bec8506ae2eba951b1d/1588686074573/ESP+MPI+2020+% 28web%292.pdf. Last accessed 16 May 2022 15. IMIP.: Radiografía Socioeconómica del municipio de Juárez 2019, así comenzó 2020. Editorial IMIP, Ciudad Juárez (2020) 16. Krsti´c, J., Ðorñevi´c, M.: Internal control and enterprise risk management–from traditional to revised coso model. Econ. Themes 50(2), 151–166 (2012) 17. Liu, A., Pratt, S.: Tourism’s vulnerability and resilience to terrorism. Tour. Manage. 60, 404–417 (2017) 18. Mansfeld, Y., Pizam, A.: Tourism, security, and safety. From Theory to Practice. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2006) 19. Parametría.: México inseguro, pero recomendable para turistas. Carta Paramétrica. Homepage, http://www.parametria.com.mx/estudios/mexico-inseguro-pero-recomendable-para-tur istas/. Last accessed 15 Aug 2022 20. Pennington-Gray, L., Schroeder, A.: International tourist’s perceptions of safety and security. Matkailututkimus 9(1), 7–23 (2012) 21. Poku, G., Kwaku, A.: Insights into the safety and security expressions of visitors to the Kakum National Park: implications for management. Tour. Manage. Perspect. 32, 100562 (2019) 22. Ponce-Andrade, A.: El Estudio de Caso Múltiple. Una estrategia de Investigación en el ámbito de la Administración. Revista Publicando 15(2) (2018) 23. Purwaningsih, R., Santoso, H., Khasanah, U.: Rap-tourism method to assess tourism objects sustainability. In: 3rd International Conference on Engineering Technology for Sustainable Development, vol. 722, Indonesia (2020) 24. Seguridad, Justicia y Paz 2013 -SJP.: San Pedro Sula otra vez la ciudad más violenta del mundo. Homepage, http://www.seguridadjusticiaypaz.org.mx/sala-de-prensa/759-san-pedrosula-otra-vez-la-ciudad-mas-violenta-del-mundo-acapulco-la-segunda. Last accessed 15 May 2022 25. Seguridad, Justicia y Paz 2020-SJP.: Ranking 2019 de las 50 ciudades más violentas del mundo. Homepage, http://www.seguridadjusticiaypaz.org.mx/sala-de-prensa/1590-bol etin-ranking-2019-de-las-50-ciudades-mas-violentas-del-mundo. Last accessed 16 May 2022 26. Shipway, R.: Building resilience and managing crises and disasters in sport tourism. J. Sport Tour. 22(3), 265–270 (2018) 27. Sudigdo, A., Khalifa, G., Abuelhassan, A.: Driving Islamic attributes, destination security guarantee & destination image to predict tourists’ decision to visit Jakarta. Int. J. Recent Trends Bus. Tour. 3(1) (2019) 28. Sumb, A.: New Zealand travelers’ perceptions of safety and security in Papua New Guinea. DWU Res. J. 27 (2017) 29. Tritter, J.-Q., Landstad, B.-J.: Focus groups. In: Catherine, P., Nicholas, M. (eds.) Qualitative Research in Health Care. Fourth Edition. Wiley Online Library (2019) 30. US Department of State.: Mexico Travel Warming. Homepage, http://travel.state.gov/content/ passports/english/alertswarnings/mexico-travel-warning.html. Last accessed 16 May 2022 31. Yang, E., Sharif, S., Khoo-Lattimore, C.: Tourists’ risk perception of risky destinations: the case of Sabah’s eastern coast. Tour. Hosp. Res. 15(3), 206–221 (2015)

Chapter 56

The Economic Impacts of the Tourism Sector Within the Residents’ Valuation Perspective Pedro Liberato , Dália Liberato , and Ricardo Cerqueira

Abstract Residents play a key role in enhancing the tourist experience and in the sustainable development of the destination. From this perspective, residents’ perceptions and actions can significantly affect tourists’ feedback and the long-term development of destinations. Thematic research on the process of destination development and management tends to focus on the tourists’ perspective and excludes that of residents, yet residents are stakeholders of the destination and play a key role in its promotion and attractiveness. The research focuses on the characteristics of residents in two cities in the North of Portugal, as well as their perception of the tourism impacts. Two research hypotheses are presented: the income earned by residents influences their perception about the economic impacts of tourism in the region, and the length of residence influences residents’ perception about the economic impacts of tourism in the region. A quantitative methodology was applied, using a questionnaire survey, to 810 residents, in the cities of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. The results identify that there is an increase in agreement with the valorization of the sector and the increase in gross monthly income, observing additionally the valorization of the sector in most of the length scales of residence in the region.

P. Liberato · D. Liberato (B) School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] P. Liberato e-mail: [email protected] R. Cerqueira School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_56

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56.1 Introduction Scientific research has shown that residents’ attitudes and intentions to support tourism development, may vary depending on their perception of the impacts of tourism activity [1]. Residents tend to support tourism development when they anticipate that such development may generate benefits such as employment opportunities, improved quality of life, infrastructure development, and the promotion and preservation of local culture [2]. It becomes crucial to ascertain the perceptions of residents in order to understand how their support can be obtained in the development of tourism destinations. The use of Social Exchange Theory (SET) can help explain the importance of residents’ support, and SET has been widely used in tourism literature to explore residents’ perceptions and attitudes toward tourism, i.e. the effects that tourism impacts have on residents’ support for tourism [1, 3, 4]. When applied to tourism, SET is considered as a process of exchanges between residents and tourism industry stakeholders. This theory grants a conceptual basis for how to observe the interrelationships between the positive and negative impacts of tourism development. Thus, SET has made an important contribution to the literature on residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts and development [5–7]. Residents’ attitudes about tourism, should be examined and taken into consideration in all planning and policy development in order for tourism development to be successful, as should the development of future developments [7]. Studies show that residents’ attitudes toward tourism development are influenced by perceived positive or negative impacts of the activity, including economic, social, cultural, and environmental impacts [8, 9]. Resident satisfaction with tourism development is essential in planning and developing the tourism community [10]. Tourism sustainability requires that the local community be at the center of the tourism planning process [11]. Residents’ attitudes toward tourism are affected by the impacts of tourism on the region, which can be diverse, and classified as either positive or negative, with the positive including factors such as local employment and business development opportunities [12]. According to [13], sustainable tourism development emerges as a need to ensure the efficiency of tourism activity, considering three components: environmental interest, sociocultural and economic needs of local communities of the destination. There is a need to balance the positive and negative impacts that these components may generate. Sustainable tourism development takes into consideration current and future economic, sociocultural, and environmental impacts, meeting the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and residents [14]. Sustainable tourism is seen as a paradigm with a focus on residents and their participation is the foundation of success for sustainable tourism development. By balancing the concerns of tourism businesses and residents, sustainable tourism can be achieved [15, 16]. The concept of sustainable tourism places the community as the central and vital element of the development process because sustainable tourism development relies on ensuring the continuous renewal of the economic, social, and cultural benefits of the local community along with its environment [17]. However, tourism development plans have focused primarily on economic interests and increasing visitor numbers

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and satisfaction, rather than on resident satisfaction, quality of life, and sustainable development [18]. The research results of [19], indicate that interactions between tourists and residents, are interrelated with tourists’ interest in actively participating in food tourism experiences. According to the authors, tourists are more willing to participate in gastronomic experiences when they involve members of the destination’s local community. One of the examples mentioned in the research, incorporates the organization of events such as festivals or traditional markets, which involve local businesses and include the presence of residents, to publicize the local cuisine, its traditions, and the products of local farmers. Traditional gastronomic experiences such as wine tastings, may not be sufficient to meet the needs of the demand, because they can be interpreted by tourists as standard experiences, something that previously would be recognized as a local experience, nowadays is interpreted as a generic experience [9]. The general objective of this research is to evaluate residents’ perception about the tourism economic impacts in the cities of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. A quantitative methodology was applied in this research, using a questionnaire survey, to 810 residents.

56.2 Literature Review The impacts of tourism activity can be related to factors that cause stress, which makes it possible that certain tourism impacts can have consequences that go beyond residents’ perspectives and attitudes, due to stress causing various health problems and influencing residents’ well-being and quality of life [20, 21]. According to the research of [21], residents’ emotional solidarity with tourists can help to understand how they support tourism. Perceptions of tourism impacts can directly affect residents’ emotional solidarity through changes in the individual’s well-being. However, the results of this study indicate that the positive effect of tourism impacts on residents’ emotional solidarity are more important than the negative ones. From this perspective, residents’ decision to support tourism may depend on how tourism impacts affect the individual’s well-being, and if they are positive, they may trigger a positive attitude toward tourism and tourists. This research confirms that the prospect of changes in the individual’s well-being due to increased tourism and emotional solidarity toward tourists play a key role in the relationship between the perception of tourism impacts and residents’ support for tourism. Destination managers and policymakers should promote activities, festivals, and events so that residents can develop greater emotional solidarity with tourists, which will contribute to residents’ support of tourism activity in their destinations. Tourism planners should provide opportunities for residents to share their views on tourism, either through surveys distributed by the destination or through residents’ participation in planning meetings, so that their ideas and concerns can be integrated into the planning strategy, enabling the sustainability of tourism in the destination [22, 23]. Zheng et al. [24]

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report that Hangzhou residents can exhibit various emotional responses, such as affection, happiness, or anger, an approach that differs from the traditional level of resident satisfaction toward tourism development. The results of the research, show that interest and affection are the most common emotions surrounding initiatives called “tourism performing arts” (TPA), a variant of creative tourism, revealing that these are not only a product for tourists, but also an attractive resource for residents. Emotions such as pride and gratitude indicate that Hangzhou residents place a high value on their culture, with TPA presenting local history, music, art, and traditions to tourists. Residents believe that the development of these initiatives can contribute to the promotion and preservation of their culture. The authors consider it essential that tourism developers ensure that tourism makes a positive contribution to the local community to eliminate or reduce negative emotions. Events could attract attention to a destination, temporarily increasing the value of the local market where the event takes place, giving rise to new development opportunities. The promotion and development of events, festivities, and recreational activities by tourism authorities are examples of how to develop emotional ties between residents and tourists, which can contribute to local communities’ support for the tourism industry [22, 25]. Residents who have positive perceptions of tourism development tend to be proud of their destination, have a greater connection with their community (emotional factor), are more social and have positive attitudes toward their community [22]. The results of [26] indicate that when residents have a positive perception of tourism development through the creation of economic, cultural, and environmental benefits to the community, they increase their intention to support tourism development. The authors emphasize the importance of governments and tourism operators highlighting the additional value that tourism development generates and the related promotion of tangible and intangible benefits. One measure that could be applied is the creation of a cultural museum in a residential area, maintaining the concept of tourism development, preserving the local culture, and at the same time providing a way for tourists to learn about the culture of the community. To maximize the positive prospects of tourism development, the creation of seminars or conferences that focus on how tourism development can bring economic, cultural, and environmental benefits to communities can be a successful strategy. Using platforms (television, social media, radio, newspapers) as channels for distributing information about the potentials of tourism activity can encourage residents to have a positive attitude toward tourism and create a bond of trust between residents and tourism officials [26–28] show that the recognized benefits by residents resulting from tourism development are important for trust in politics in general, but not in the specific context of tourism. The development of residents’ trust in local governments through the tourism context is an effective strategy to increase their trust in the generality. According to this research, one factor that can negatively influence residents’ trust levels is the unequal distribution of benefits, and local governments should ensure that these benefits are not targeted to certain segments of the population but are distributed evenly among residents from different social classes. Tourism managers should encourage and develop the creation of regular meetings between

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stakeholders, such as Destination Management Organizations (DMOs), tourism organizations, tourism-related educational institutions, local community leaders, urban development agencies, and other entities with decision-making capacity to address community issues as they impact the quality of life of the community. Adding the residents’ perspective is key, as are meetings held on neutral ground to reduce inequities among the various stakeholders and potential conflicts of interest. Destination managers should develop protocols for informing and educating residents on a regular basis about the short- and long-term goals of destination tourism planning [27]. Destinations that do not include the active involvement of residents and their support for the tourism sector will have great difficulty in attracting visitors in the short and long term and will be less competitive given the diversity of supply in today’s tourism market [29, 30]. According to [31], the absence of local participation in tourism development and the exclusion of local communities from tourism planning is an issue that requires attention. This exclusion of residents from tourism development may be a consequence of foreign private investment in project implementation, especially in developing countries [32, 33]. The participation of residents in decision-making in tourism planning can contribute to the development of positive attitudes toward tourism [34]. Involving and perceiving residents in matters about tourism activity may lead to the development of a participatory and empowered community, something fundamental in terms of the sustainability and promotion of tourism [35]. Additionally, [17] conclude that residents are not involved in the decision-making process of tourism development, highlighting the lack of communication and interaction between residents and the entities that govern tourism. The benefits of tourism activity such as employment opportunities and improved quality of life in the community do not occur, something that the authors relate to the lack of involvement of residents in the activities implemented by the entities responsible for tourism. All these factors can lead residents to develop negative attitudes toward tourists.

56.3 Methodology This research aims to understand the perceptions of residents regarding the impacts of tourism activity in the municipality of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. Four research hypotheses were associated with this objective, and their validation is subsequently verified in this document. H1: The income earned by residents influences their perception of tourism economic impacts in the region. Residents’ attitudes and intentions to support tourism development vary according to their perception of the impacts generated by tourism activity [1]. According to [36] destinations whose residents perceive they are going through an economic crisis, their perception becomes more positive toward tourism, which consequently gives rise to a greater predisposition on the part of residents to support the development of the tourism sector. For [37], the economic benefits of tourism are one of the

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possible factors that may influence residents’ intention to support the development of the sector. According to [12] residents’ attitudes toward tourism are influenced by tourism impacts, which can be of various types and classified as positive or negative. The authors note that positive impacts positively influence employment supply and business development opportunities [38]. Nguyen et al. [39] indicate that casino tourism can be used as an example of how to boost the economic benefits of local communities, through the development of jobs and increased budget income for parish/municipal councils through tax revenue, which can lead to residents’ intention to support tourism development in the short term. However, the long-term negative impacts associated with this activity, such as increased cost of living and real estate market inflation, may cause the long-term negative impacts to outweigh the shortterm positive impacts, decreasing residents’ intention to support this type of tourism. In general, the positive impacts resulting from tourism activity are highly valued by residents, such as the creation of job opportunities, improved infrastructure, a more active business environment, improved quality of life for residents, and increased income [40, 41]. However, the negative impacts of tourism can have a significant influence on residents’ attitudes about tourism, such as inflation of rents and real estate prices, seasonal and low-paid work opportunities, increased prices of goods and services, and higher costs of living in general [42, 43]. Obradovi´c et al. [17] note that in addition to benefits such as job opportunities and increased budgets for destination communities, those responsible for tourism in the region must ensure that residents realize how tourism development can improve their level of quality of life and provide them with access to better amenities. Despite all the literature presented on residents and the benefits that come from tourism activity, [44] argue that tourism development plans primarily focus on economic interests and increasing the number of visitors and their satisfaction, putting residents’ satisfaction, their quality-of-life level, and the sustainable development of the destination in the background. In addition to the focus of tourism development plans, one of the priorities of sustainable tourism presented by [45] is to ensure long-term viable activities that provide socio-economic benefits and their fair distribution, including stable employment and income opportunities, something that is not found in the research of [28, 46] where the unequal distribution of benefits gave rise to dissatisfaction on the part of residents after they found that the distribution of benefits had been directed at certain segments of the population. According to several authors consulted, we can say that the income earned by residents can influence their perception of the impacts of tourism [8, 44, 47]. H2: Length of residence influences residents’ perceptions of tourism economic impacts in the region. The length of residence in the county has an influence on the connection between the resident and their place of residence [35]. Liang et al. [48] report that satisfaction can arise through the comparison between positive and negative perceptions resulting from tourism impacts and the balance between benefits and costs perceived by residents, something that differs depending on each resident’s experience. Residents with a longer time of residence will have a more complete experience, compared to

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a resident with a shorter time of residence. According to [22], residents with positive perceptions of tourism development tend to exhibit a sense of pride in their destination and develop a deeper connection with the community, but for this it is necessary to experience the impacts of tourism activity, regardless of their sociocultural, economic, or environmental typology, or whether they are positive or negative. These factors are the ones that condition and formulate their experience, which can lead to the development of a link with the community as the authors state, however, to develop such a link it is necessary to take into consideration the length of residence. Length of residence plays an important role in emotional attachment to place [49]. The research of [50] reveals that length of residence has an influence on how a resident associates with the place and has a moderating effect on resident attitudes toward tourism, which leads destination managers to take into consideration possible discrepancies in the perception of tourism impacts among the diversity of residents in the region. In the context of a tourism destination, the relationship with the location influences residents’ perceptions of tourism and their intention to support the sector [35]. Taking these factors into consideration, we can say that length of residence influences residents’ perceptions of the economic impacts of tourism on the region.

56.4 Results Following this framework, 814 questionnaires were applied to residents of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. The sample of residents of the Oporto and Vila Nova de Gaia municipalities consists of 810 participants. For a sample size consisting of 810 individuals, and using a confidence level of 95%, for a population tending to be infinite and a sample of n = 810, we obtain Error (B) = 3.44% (Table 56.1). Cronbach’s alpha is indicated to assess the internal consistency of the scales used. It is mostly influenced by the homogeneity of the scale items and the number of items present. Thus, the higher the correlations between items, the greater the homogeneity of items. Regarding the reference values for interpreting the coefficient, consistency is considered acceptable when α is at least 0.70, however, an α of 0.60 may be considered acceptable if the results obtained are interpreted with caution, and an α higher than 0.80 is considered the most adequate [51] (Table 56.2). Cronbach’s Alpha value is higher than 0.80 for all three dimensions, so it is possible to construct a variable to measure each dimension adequately. To test the hypotheses defined above, the following statistical methods were used: Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s Correlation, Kruskall-Wallis Test, and ANOVA tests. Table 56.3 presents the results of the Kruskall–Wallis tests in the relationship between question 10 “Concerning your opinion on the economic impacts of tourism you can say that” and question 4 “Gross monthly income (individual)”. Regarding the answer option “DK/NA”, these data will not be considered, being aware of the impossibility to analyze the data from this answer, we decided to include this option to obtain reliable data, reducing the probability of participants opting for random income values. Statistically significant differences between gross monthly income

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Table 56.1 Sample Age (years)

Frequency

Percentage (%)

18–24

133

16,4

25–34

255

31,5

35–44

182

22,2

45–54

145

17,9

55–64

73

9

+ 65

22

2,7

Total

810

100

Qualifications

Frequency

Elementary Education High School Medium Course

Percentage

58

7,2

327

40,4

36

4,4

Degree or equivalent

389

48

Total

810

100

Gross monthly income (Individual)

Frequency

Percentage

Up to e1000

412

50,9

Between e1001 and e2000

220

27,2

Between e2001 and e3000

47

5,8

Over e3000

23

2,8

Don’t know/No answer

108

13,3

Total

810

100

Table 56.2 Internal consistency statistics: Dimensions under study Cronbach’s Alpha No. of items Regarding your opinion about the economic impacts of tourism you could say that:

0,921

11

Regarding your opinion about the sociocultural impacts of tourism you could say that:

0,87

11

Concerning your opinion about the environmental impacts of 0,864 tourism you could say that:

9

are found in the following statements “There is a significant improvement in the living conditions of the population due to tourism”, “There is a growth in the number of businesses”, “Tourism activity has contributed to an increase in employment in the city”, and “The economic benefits of tourism activity for the region and residents are visible”. We can see that with gross monthly income up to 3000e there is an increase of agreement in the questions “There is a significant improvement in the living conditions of the population, due to tourism” and “Tourism activity has contributed to the increase of employment in the city” and this decreases from 3001e. In the

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questions “There is a growth in the number of businesses” and “The economic benefits of tourism activity for the region and for residents are visible”, there is an increase in agreement according to the increase in income earned by residents. The proof value is greater than 5% in the questions “The cost of living has increased significantly (inflation of rents/real estate prices)”, “Tourism has led to an increase in the price of products and services”, “Tourism contributes to an increase in the income of the town and parish councils, which is used in the improvement and preservation of infrastructures and heritage”, “Jobs arising from tourism activity are seasonal or low wage”, “The tourism sector constitutes the most important economic activity for the region, by attracting investment and increasing consumption”, “Tourism generates more benefits than costs”, and “COVID-19 caused economic stagnation due to the decrease in tourism activity in the region”, shows that there are no statistically significant differences between gross monthly income (individual). In summary, the “Hypothesis H1—The income earned by residents influences their perception of the economic impacts of tourism in the region” is verified, considering the significant relationships found. We can see that, in general, there is an increase in agreement with the increase of the gross monthly income (individual) up to 3000e. Regarding residents with incomes over 3001e, the level of agreement follows the previously observed upward trend, except for the questions where an increase in the number of businesses is observed and where the economic benefits of tourism activity for residents and for the region are visible, where there is a decrease in agreement compared to those with lower incomes. It is important to mention that the four questions where there were significant statistical differences relate to positive economic impacts. This may indicate a predisposition of residents to overvalue the benefits of the economic impacts of tourism compared to its negative impacts, and one of the possible explanations is to take into account the pandemic context present in the period of application of the questionnaire, which may lead residents to have the perception of being in an economic crisis, which may result in an overvaluation of the economic benefits of tourism, in line with the research developed by [36]. It is possible to conclude that Hypothesis H1 is valid. Hypothesis H1: The income earned by residents influences their perception regarding the economic impacts of tourism in the region. In Table 56.4, the results of the ANOVA tests are presented, for the relationship between question 10 “Regarding your opinion about the economic impacts of tourism you could say that” and question 7 “How long have you lived in Oporto/Vila Nova de Gaia”. We can verify statistically significant differences between the length of residence in the municipality and the statements “The cost of living has increased significantly (rent/real estate price inflation)”, “Tourism has led to an increase in the price of products and services”, “There is an increase in the number of businesses”, and “Tourism generates more benefits than costs”. In relation to the question “The cost of living has increased significantly (rent/real estate price inflation)” there is a decrease in the negative perception according to the increase in the length of residence in the municipality of origin, except for the period of 25–34 years of residence where there is an increase in the negative perception. The question “Has tourism led to an increase in the price of products and services?” shows a decrease in the negative

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P. Liberato et al.

Table 56.3 Descriptive statistics and Kruskall–Wallis tests N There is a significant improvement in the living conditions of the population, due to tourism The cost of living has increased significantly (rent/real estate price inflation)

Tourism has led to an increase in the price of products and services

A growth in the number of businesses is observed

Tourism contributes to an increase in the income of the town and parish councils, which is used to improve and preserve the infrastructure and heritage Tourist activity contributed to the increase of employment in the city

Average

Standard deviation

KW

p

14,734

0,005**

Up to 1000 e

412

2,42

0,979

1001–2000 e

220

2,64

1,078

2001–3000 e

47

2,91

1,139

≥3001 e

23

2,78

1,313

DK/NANSWER

108

2,44

1,097

Up to 1000 e

412

3,46

1,250

1001–2000 e

220

3,74

1,167

2001–3000 e

47

3,45

1,212

≥3001 e

23

3,57

1,199

DK/NO ANSWER

108

3,46

1,187

Up to 1000 e

412

3,17

1,218

1001–2000 e

220

3,42

1,189

2001–3000 e

47

3,19

1,245

≥3001 e

23

3,09

1,164

DK/NO ANSWER

108

3,18

1,198

Up to 1000 e

412

2,99

1,142

1001–2000 e

220

3,26

1,104

2001–3000 e

47

3,36

1,169

≥3001 e

23

3,57

1,121

DK/NO ANSWER

108

3,10

1,230

Up to 1000 e

412

2,76

1,086

1001–2000 e

220

2,95

1,149

2001–3000 e

47

3,09

1,139

≥3001 e

23

2,83

1,193

DK/NO ANSWER

108

2,87

1,193

Up to 1000 e

412

2,94

1,140

1001–2000 e

220

3,24

1,135

2001–3000 e

47

3,40

1,077

≥3001 e

23

3,26

1,176

DK/NO ANSWER

108

3,07

1,302

8,419

0,077

6,774

0,148

13,683

5,66

14,443

0,008**

0,226

0,006**

(continued)

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673

Table 56.3 (continued) N Jobs resulting from Up to 1000 e tourism activity are 1001–2000 e seasonal or low 2001–3000 e wage ≥3001 e DK/NO ANSWER The tourism sector is the most important economic activity for the region, by attracting investment and increasing consumption Tourism generates more benefits than costs

The economic benefits of tourism activity are visible for the region and for the residents

COVID-19 caused economic stagnation due to the decrease of tourism activity in the region *

Average

Standard deviation

412

2,92

1,118

220

2,99

1,178

47

3,02

1,132

23

2,91

1,125

108

2,79

1,068

Up to 1000 e

412

2,71

1,082

1001–2000 e

220

2,65

1,134

2001–3000 e

47

2,49

1,300

≥3001 e

23

2,57

1,161

DK/NO ANSWER

108

2,88

1,205

Up to 1000 e

412

2,59

1,064

1001–2000 e

220

2,69

1,062

2001–3000 e

47

3,02

1,310

≥3001 e

23

3,09

1,276

DK/NO ANSWER

108

2,68

1,159

Up to 1000 e

412

2,57

1,041

1001–2000 e

220

2,75

1,055

2001–3000 e

47

2,94

1,241

≥ 3001 e

23

3,09

1,345

DK/NO ANSWER

108

2,80

1,229

Up to 1000 e

412

3,28

1,264

1001–2000 e

220

3,37

1,223

2001–3000 e

47

3,45

1,332

≥ 3001 e

23

3,65

1,152

DK/NO ANSWER

108

3,33

1,311

KW

p

2,807

0,591

4,550

0,337

8,795

0,066

11,110

0,025*

2,864

0,581

p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS outputs

perception up to 24 years of residence, while between 25 and 34 years of residence the negative perception increases, from 35 to 44 years of residence the negative perception decreases slightly, between 45 and 54 years of residence the negative perception increases slightly again and from 55 to 64 years of residence there is a decrease in the negative perception, as well as for those aged 65 and over. Regarding the question “There is an increase in the number of businesses”, there is a decrease

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in the positive perception as the length of residence in the municipality increases, apart from the period between 45 and 54 years where there is an increase in the positive perception. In relation to the question “Tourism generates more benefits than costs”, we can verify a decrease of the positive perception according to the length of residence in the council, except for the period between 45 and 54 years of residence where there is an increase of the positive perception. The proof value is greater than 5% in “There is a significant improvement in the living conditions of the population, due to tourism”, “Tourism contributes to the increase in the income of the city council and parish councils, which is used in the improvement and preservation of infrastructure and heritage”, “Tourism activity has contributed to the increase of employment in the city”, “Jobs from tourism activity are seasonal or low wage”, “The tourism sector constitutes the most important economic activity for the region, by attracting investment and increasing consumption”, “The economic benefits of tourism activity for the region and residents are visible”, and “COVID-19 caused economic stagnation due to the decrease of tourism activity in the region”, there are no statistically significant differences between the perception of the economic impacts of tourism and length of residence. To sum up, in general it is possible to conclude that the “Hypothesis H2—Residence length influences residents’ perception of tourism economic impacts in the region”, for the significant relationships found. Considering the results obtained, we can verify several variations in the perception of the economic impacts of tourism according to the length of residence of the participants, however, we can state that there is a tendency for a decrease in their positive/negative perception according to the increase in the length of residence, with some exceptions. In the four questions where statistically significant relationships were found, two correspond to positive economic impacts and the rest correspond to negative economic impacts. Another significant piece of data is that of the period of residence between 45 and 54 years old where in the questions “Tourism has led to an increase in the price of products and services”, “An increase in the number of businesses is observed”, and “Tourism generates more benefits than costs” stands out as being contrary to the trend of the other periods of residence. Hypothesis H2: Length of residence influences residents’ perceptions of tourism economic impacts in the region. The period of residence between 25 and 34 years old also stands out in the questions “The cost of living has increased significantly (rent/real estate price inflation)” and “Tourism has led to an increase in the price of products and services” where in the previous periods there is a trend in the decrease of the negative perception of these negative economic impacts, being interrupted by the period between 25 and 34 years old, where there is an increase of the negative perception. This indicates that participants between 25 and 34 years of residence in the municipality show a decrease in positive perception and an increase in negative perception, respectively, something that does not occur in any other period of residence. It is possible to conclude that Hypothesis H2 is valid.

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Table 56.4 Descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests N A significant improvement in the population’s living conditions is observed due to tourism

The cost of living has increased significantly (rent/real estate price inflation)

Tourism has led to increased prices of products and services

A growth in the number of businesses is observed

Tourism contributes to increased income for the chamber and parish councils, which is used in the improvement and preservation of infrastructure and heritage

−10 years

Average Standard Deviation F

75 2,48

1,178

11–24 years old 193 2,68

1,051

25–34 years old 229 2,45

1,032

35–44 years old 160 2,39

1,010

45–54 years old

93 2,62

0,977

55–64 years old

44 2,57

1,189

65 + years old

16 2,31

0,946

−10 years

75 3,67

1,119

11–24 years old 193 3,58

1,206

25–34 years old 229 3,79

1,184

35–44 years old 160 3,33

1,268

45–54 years old

93 3,31

1,189

55–64 years old

44 3,23

1,327

65 + years old

16 3,00

0,966

−10 years

75 3,36

1,170

11–24 years old 193 3,30

1,177

25–34 years old 229 3,44

1,200

35–44 years old 160 3,02

1,251

45–54 years old

1,160

93 3,04

55–64 years old

44 3,02

1,303

65 + years old

16 2,88

1,025

−10 years

75 3,35

1,145

11–24 years old 193 3,32

1,194

25–34 years old 229 3,18

1,140

35–44 years old 160 2,80

1,148

45–54 years old

93 3,05

1,015

55–64 years old

44 2,91

1,117

65 + years old

16 2,69

1,014

−10 years

75 3,00

1,078

11–24 years old 193 2,99

1,033

25–34 years old 229 2,85

1,177

35–44 years old 160 2,71

1,174

45–54 years old

93 2,83

1,090

55–64 years old

44 2,64

1,163

p

1,587 0,148

4,255 0,000**

3,072 0,006*

4,362 0,000**

1,828 0,091

(continued)

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Table 56.4 (continued) N The tourism activity has contributed to the increase of employment in the city

Jobs resulting from tourism activity are seasonal or low wage

The tourism sector is the most important economic activity for the region, attracting investment and increasing consumption Tourism generates more benefits than costs

The economic benefits of tourism activity for the region and residents are visible

*

Average Standard Deviation F

65 + years old

16 2,44

−10 years

75 3,19

1,111

11–24 years old 193 3,20

1,169

25–34 years old 229 3,10

1,193

35–44 years old 160 2,88

1,159

45–54 years old

93 3,14

1,099

55–64 years old

44 2,82

1,244

65 + years old

16 3,00

1,095

−10 years

75 3,00

1,174

11–24 years old 193 2,89

1,117

25–34 years old 229 3,04

1,085

35–44 years old 160 2,83

1,172

45–54 years old

1,084

93 2,90

55–64 years old

44 2,84

1,200

65 + years old

16 2,88

1,310

−10 years

75 2,77

1,047

11–24 years old 193 2,78

1,097

25–34 years old 229 2,75

1,171

35–44 years old 160 2,58

1,141

45–54 years old

93 2,74

1,062

55–64 years old

44 2,45

1,229

65 + years old

16 2,19

1,167

−10 years

75 2,89

1,158

11–24 years old 193 2,78

1,064

25–34 years old 229 2,63

1,095

35–44 years old 160 2,48

1,104

45–54 years old

93 2,81

1,056

55–64 years old

44 2,57

1,228

65 + years old

16 2,19

0,981

−10 years

75 2,85

1,123

11–24 years old 193 2,75

1,066

25–34 years old 229 2,63

1,091

35–44 years old 160 2,55

1,027

45–54 years old

1,197

93 2,82

p

1,094

55–64 years old

44 2,52

1,191

65 + years old

16 2,69

1,250

p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 Source: Own elaboration based on SPSS outputs

1,689 0,121

0,718 0,635

1,518 0,169

2,532 0,020*

1,285 0,262

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56.5 Conclusion The goal initially proposed was to understand the perceptions of residents regarding the impacts of tourism activity in the municipality of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. To answer the research objective, two hypotheses were formulated: H1: The income earned by residents influences their perception regarding the economic impacts of tourism in the region. It was found that the income earned by residents has a greater influence on the positive economic impacts perceived, and that there is an increase in agreement that tourism generates a significant improvement in the living conditions of the population and leads to increased employment in the municipality according to the increase in residents’ income up to 3000e, followed by a decrease in agreement from 3001e. Regarding the question where an increase in the number of businesses is observed and where the benefits of tourism activity are visible for residents and for the region, the level of agreement increases with the increase in income received by residents. We can say that there is an increase in the positive perception of the economic impacts of tourism according to the increase in income up to 3000e, while those with income over 3001e have a less positive perception of the economic impacts of tourism, particularly in relation to tourism leading to an increase in employment in the city and an improvement in the living conditions of the population. As mentioned before, income had more influence on the perception of positive economic impacts. Regarding the existing inequality between the perception of positive and negative economic impacts of tourism activity, in which there is an appreciation of the positive impacts compared to the negative ones, one of the possible explanations may be in line with the study of [36]. Taking into consideration the pandemic context and the perception of an economic crisis originated by this phenomenon, this may contribute to the overvaluation of economic benefits to the detriment of negative impacts. The results of this research are in line with the results of [44], where the authors verify the influence of income in the perception of economic impacts, especially in the positive economic impacts. However, it is also found that income has an influence on the perception of negative economic impacts, although this is less relevant. This is not the case in this research. In comparison with [8] research, in which the higher the income the higher the agreement concerning the positive impacts of tourism, this research shows an increase in agreement up to 3000e of income, while incomes above this value show a decrease in agreement in some positive economic impacts. Thus, H1 was accepted. H2: Residence length influences residents’ perception of tourism economic impacts in the region. With hypothesis 2 it is possible to verify that the length of residence has an influence on the residents’ perception of the economic impacts of tourism in the region. There is a diversity in the residents’ perception of the economic impacts of tourism depending on the length of residence, however it is possible to see a tendency for a decrease in their positive/negative perceptions with increasing length of residence, except for some periods of residence. It is important to note that the perception focuses on both positive and negative economic impacts. Regarding the periods of residence mentioned above as exceptions, those ranging from 45 to

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54 years and 25–34 years of residence time are highlighted. As far as the 45–54 years period of residence is concerned, this appears as a period in which the perception of positive impacts breaks the trend of decreasing positive perceptions with increasing positive perceptions. The perception of negative impacts continues the existing trend of decreasing negative perceptions. This shows that residents with a residence period between 45 and 54 years old are those who have the most positive perception of the economic impacts of tourism in the region. However, residents with residence time between 25 and 34 years appear as those who have a more negative perception of the economic impacts of tourism in the region. The results obtained show similarities with those of [50], where the length of residence is shown to have an influence on how residents associate with their place of residence, which may subsequently have a moderating effect on residents’ attitudes toward tourism. In this research, residence time emerges as a variable of possible influence on the perception of the economic impacts of tourism according to the increasing length of residence, which is verified in the results presented. Considering that residence time influences residents’ attitudes toward tourism [50] this research adds that length of residence influences residents’ perceptions of the economic impacts of tourism in the region. However, the results of this research differ from the research of [52] where the authors state that region of origin and length of residence have no influence on residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts. Several authors emphasize the importance of residence time and the connection between residents and the place [35, 49, 53–60] and how these can generate feelings such as pride and a stronger bond between members of the local community [22], fitting with the results obtained in this research. Thus, H2 was accepted. It will be important to understand the emotional factor of residents, namely the connection with their place of residence and whether residents’ emotions toward the perception of tourism impacts coincide with the results of this research. In addition to these factors, the analysis of residents’ involvement with the tourism industry is something that should be investigated in the future. To understand how it affects the attitude of residents toward the development of the industry, and to compare the results of future research with this research to see if the level of resident involvement has increased and what impact it has on the industry. The development of these regions should also be investigated to identify the presence of the principles of sustainable development and the concept of sustainability in the regions, which may be complex to ascertain.

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59. Liberato, D., Peixoto, A., Liberato, P., Alén, E.: Sustainable tourism planning and development in a cross-border destination: the Eurocity Chaves Verín. In: Abreu, A., Liberato, D., Garcia Ojeda, J.C. (eds.) Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 293, pp. 575–593. Springer, Singapore (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-981-19-1040-1_49 60. Liberato, P., Cerqueira, I., Liberato, D.: Conscious tourism’s dimension in the historical villages of Portugal. Eur. J. Sustain. Dev. 10(1), 1–22 (2021). https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2021.v10 n1p1

Chapter 57

Sustainable Destination Development Based on Gamification and Storytelling: Empowering the Douro Region Through Wine and Gastronomy Dália Liberato , Pedro Liberato , Marta Nunes, and Ana Ferreira Abstract The world of the vineyard is a world of stories. Just as we taste the wine, the gastronomy, and the landscape, we taste stories and each story, each one with its plot has its personalities, with which we identify, surprise, or learn. Peso da Régua and the Douro Region are a narrative that can be told through the game. One of the most innovative and interesting ways to transform the phases of a trip into unforgettable life experiences is through gamification. In an additional perspective to gamification, the theme of storytelling emerges. Destination storytelling is seen as a strategy to enhance the reputation of regions, the way in which municipalities and cultural organizations understand storytelling can have a significant impact on the success of a region. This research has as its main goal to analyze how gamification associated with storytelling can promote and enhance the tourism supply in a particular region, in this case, the city of Peso da Régua. A qualitative methodology was applied, through semi-structured interviews with representatives of four wine-producing farms, the representative of the Douro Museum, and the grandson of João de Araújo Correia, a well-known personality in Peso da Régua. The results are intended to be an important contribution to the valuation of the tourism resources of the region, determinant in an international promotion process, highlighting that gamification associated with storytelling can be a key element to involve the player, telling the story, and promoting the destination. D. Liberato (B) · P. Liberato · A. Ferreira School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] P. Liberato e-mail: [email protected] A. Ferreira e-mail: [email protected] M. Nunes School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_57

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57.1 Introduction What the river started, man completed: both working together, they made the region [1]. Xu et al. [2] refer that games, in recent times, are used by some tourism sectors as a marketing tool to promote tourism destinations, offering an opportunity to create informative and entertaining environments for successful brand awareness, interaction and communication. The same authors point out that games offer benefits in several areas, such as entertainment, education (interpretation), and co-creation of tourism experiences, allowing to increase tourists’ interest in the destination, provide experiences and knowledge that are not otherwise available, and provide a personal experience during the visit. Simultaneously, it can involve other players and residents, allowing to further enhance this experience and influence people to interact with destinations on a large scale. References [3–9] corroborate the same idea and state that Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can bring numerous benefits to the tourism industry, namely in the promotion of tourism destinations, where tourist activities can be monitored, publicized, and marketed, supporting tourists before and during their stay in the respective destinations. In addition, travelers share their experiences online with family, friends, and the general public through email messages, using social media such as Facebook and Twitter, and posting on travel blogs [10]. One of the most innovative and interesting ways to transform the phases of a trip into unforgettable life experiences is through gamification and some tourism managers use gamification in their marketing strategy with the aim of creating a culture of well-being and fun for their customers and employees, enabling the creation of engagement [11]. The general objective of this study is to verify to what extent the gamification associated with storytelling can promote and enhance the tourism offer in Peso da Régua. To understand this goal, the following specific objectives were defined: to value the tourist and cultural perspective of Peso da Régua; to identify and promote the role of the most relevant personalities of the region; to emphasize some personal characteristics of the personalities in the game; and to evaluate the domains of the tourist experience using gamification associated with storytelling. A qualitative methodology was applied with semi-structured interviews.

57.2 Literature Review To understand the concept of gamification it also becomes essential to understand what the elements of games are. There are several elements that make up a game, as well as several ways to classify them. Schell [12] created a model, which divides the main elements into four distinct categories that are part of the game experience. The categories are (i) aesthetics, which is related to the individual’s sensory experience, what he hears, sees, and feels, it is the category that has the most direct relationship

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with the player experience; (ii) mechanics, which comprises the rules and procedures, that is, the system that makes the game work; (iii) the story, which is based on the narrative, the sequence of events that occurs in the game; (iv) and technology, which encompasses both the materials and the means used. For [13] game elements can be grouped into three categories: mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics, and these categories represent in a game the rules, the system and fun, respectively. Mechanics describe the specific components of a game and remain constant throughout the experience, not changing from one player to another. As an example, in chess, decisions about mechanics include the number of pieces, how they move, and how the player wins the game [14] (Fig. 57.1). Dynamics is the player’s interaction with these mechanics and determines what each player does in response to the system mechanics [13]. It is the player behaviors that result from the gamified experience. The designer creates the mechanics, and the dynamics are the result of how the player follows the mechanics [14]. In turn, aesthetics represents the emotions the player feels during interaction with the game and can be seen as the composite result of the mechanics and dynamics as they interact and create emotions [13]. In turn, [15] identified three types of elements (dynamics, mechanics, and components) as categories applicable to gamification and presented them in the form of a pyramid, organized in descending order of abstraction (Fig. 57.2). Game dynamics represent the highest level of abstraction of game elements, and represent the interactions between the player and the game mechanics, they are the themes around which the game develops (Table 57.1). The mechanics concern the processes that drive player action and engagement, as well as enable the game to function. Fig. 57.1 Elementary Model by [12]. Source Adapted from [12]

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Fig. 57.2 Pyramid of gamification elements. Source Adapted from [15]

Table 57.1 Game dynamics—characteristics Dynamics

Description

Constraints

Limitations imposed by the game, responsible for logical and strategic thinking

Emotions

Play can enhance different kinds of feelings (fun, happiness, curiosity, and frustration)

Narrative

Structure that makes the game coherent, unites the elements of the games into a story

Progression

Gives the player the feeling of moving forward in the game

Relationships

It is inherent to the interaction between players and can generate different feelings

Source Adapted from[15]

Motivation plays an important role in gaming. In this sense, [16] identified several motivations to play a tourism game and created a pyramid called “Motivation to Play Tourism Games” (Fig. 57.3). The main motivations at the base of the pyramid are curiosity and exploration. Tourists very often want to know and get practical information about the destination and set out to discover it. These two motivations can coexist because they are multidimensional. At the third level, they identify the need for socialization which reflects the desire to establish social relationships with both tourists and residents. The intrinsic motivations (fun and fantasy; challenge and conquest) seem to support the flow of the game, allowing to play in a virtual and real environment (fantasy and fun). The authors stress that DMOs should consider the player’s motivation when using gamification. Information is not only the key but also the opportunity to socialize with other tourists and residents is important. The flow of the game should not be ignored, in that the need to provide pure fun to the travel experience, stimulates that experience, and allows tourists to engage with the destination in an interactive way. In turn, at the top of the pyramid comes the need for challenge and achievement. A tourism game can include a challenge, such as visiting several places in a limited time, identifying monuments, among others. As a reward for scoring achievements, games can accumulate points or badges, or other

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rewards. The difficulty level can vary, and the challenge should lead to a reward for the player’s performance. According to [11], playing tourist destination games with the help of a smartphone will bé one of the major developments in the tourism and gaming industry in the coming years. This type of game is based on the location of the tourist and is played especially to encourage more engagement and enhance local experiences in a more fun and informative way. Weber [11] presents ten pioneering practices in the application of gaming and gamification concepts, recommended for pre-, during, and post-travel, to create innovative products and services for the travel and tourism industry. They are: . Location-Based Games: Location-based games, via mobile devices, that allow tourists to take interactive tours of the place visited, such as walking with Shakespeare in Stratford-upon-Avon on a literary journey or discovering "Stockholm Souns", which is presented as an unconventional travel guide that allows the visitor to explore the city of Stockholm through music. . Gamification Tour Guides: through applications such as Foursquare, which is used in both urban and rural environments. Visitors explore the city through a scavenger hunt, allowing them to collect points that can be redeemed for vouchers or discounts, or compete with other players. Fig. 57.3 Motivation to Play Tourism Games. Source [16]

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. Gaming in Theme Parks: Theme Parks are great for implementing gamification because they provide fun and playful experiences. For example, the World Disney Company uses gamification for visitor orientation, storytelling, and creating more engaging experiences while waiting in line. . Gaming in Cultural Heritage: gamification produces new opportunities for visitors to draw on historical facts and information in an interactive and immersive way, creating a greater connection with history and fostering a different engagement than more classical systems. There is scientific evidence to show that playing evokes a sense of being present in earlier times and contacting the people who lived at that time. . Transmedia Storytelling: for DMOs, it is important to engage visitors before, during, and after the trip. As the game is multifaceted, it can be combined with other techniques, such as transmedia storytelling that uses social media platforms to create a narrative. Players become involved in the storyboard and create their own stories, in real time while at home or when they arrive at the destination. For example, TravelPlot Porto is an interactive tour guide that allows tourists to explore Porto’s history, monuments, and historical personalities. . Gamified Restaurant Experience: the fast-food chain MacDonald’s created the game Pick’n Play, whose objective is to interact with digital billboards to get free hamburgers. The player did not need to download any application, because he just needs to use his GPS to make sure he is in the game area. With this strategy, the company’s goal is to increase sales, through other products. What customer wants just a hamburger without fries and Coca-Cola? . Gamification in Hospitality: for [11], gamification can be used in hospitality to motivate employees and engage customers. When applied correctly, gamification is an efficient way to achieve the desired result. Gamification should support the company culture and individual approaches need to be established to facilitate a playful and motivated environment. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have a great impact on the success of gamification. A hotel in Germany used gamification to engage its customers in a charity action. The certificate is given to the hotel, which in turn offers rewards and upgrades to its guests. . Gamified Flying Experience: in the airline industry there are already several examples of gamification, such as brand loyalty systems through benefits for those who make more miles with a particular airline. Thanks to new mobile technologies and new forms of communication, new ways of interacting with the customer are also emerging. For example, the Dutch airline KLM has an application, called Meet & Seat, in which passengers can discover other people traveling on the same plane through the Facebook, Google + and LinkedIn networks, and can connect/connect with other passengers. . Virtual Cultural Heritage: Through virtual worlds, the visitor can learn about a culture without the negative impact of mass tourism and is also very useful for people with accessibility issues. It is a way to experience a destination that the visitor cannot physically visit and is a way to protect endangered species and protected cultural heritage.

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. Virtual Travel: The integration of games into tourism environments is increasingly used for those who want to "see" the world without leaving home or if they are undecided where to go and like to experience/experience destinations in advance. Tourism Thailand has created a game based on Thailand’s main tourist attractions, called Smile Land Thailand, whose goal is to attract players who are potential visitors to the destination through a treasure hunt. In an additional perspective to gamification, the theme of storytelling emerges. Destination storytelling is seen as a strategy to enhance the reputation of regions, the way that municipalities and cultural organizations understand storytelling can have a significant impact on the success of a region. Place storytelling allows different bodies to tell the stories about their places, allowing to highlight storytelling management as a strategic communication, involving stakeholders in the process of building the identity of the place [17]. For [18] the main advantage of an organization being able to communicate a good story, is that consumers get involved, participate, and create their own experiences. Thus, it is pertinent to mention that the apparent simplicity and originality of the story, the words, images, and sounds through which the narration unfolds become an expression of culture, ethics, and values. Storytelling associated with a region is more than a simple “tell a story” or a mere chronology of facts. [18], also encompass communication, as well as (…) “all the processes of seducing a tourist, the cultural and ritual exchanges between visitor and host, the tourist narratives on which the identities of people, places and brands are built” [19]. For example, libraries, archives, and museums are increasingly using digital technologies to tell stories and create mobile applications (apps) for cultural heritage content [20]. Story building and sharing consist of proper narrative management, which can be understood in three ways [21] (i)

Interaction management, defined as the ability to develop horizontal and collaborative processes between all subjects potentially involved in the narrative project; (ii) Content management, understood as the ability to make the best use of storytelling by the narrator, with the goal of increasing the emotional connection with the destination itself, making their stories compelling and compelling; (iii) Crisis management, to respond individually, quickly, and effectively to all complaints and/or comments that may damage the brand value of the destination. In turn, story structure can be divided into three main categories [22]: (1) goals, action plan, and outcomes; (2) constraints and adversities; and (3) cognitive ability and behavior of the "heroes" involved in the story, and can include fictional elements of the narrative, such as personalities, narrators, and fictional stories to “engage” users [20]. Effectively, the shared construction of stories favors the development of long-lasting relationships, which allows increasing the operational efficiency of relationships with stakeholders and strengthening the sense of belonging of each person involved in the process of destination development [21].

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Wine tourism plays an essential role in the latest trends of tourism, due to the experiences it causes, because it promotes a multiplicity of activities, and at the same time it is a product that transmits sensations, mobilizing the various senses, through taste, smell, touch, sight, and sound, allowing the tourist to play the role of an actor, and not just a spectator: the taste of wine, grapes, regional food, and other products of the region; as well as the smell of the earth, the grapes, the winery, the country air, fermentation; the touch of picking grapes, cooking with wine, the glasses, the temperature of the bottles; the view of the vineyards, the colors of the grapes, traditional festivals, regional architecture and the sound of a cork coming out of a neck, bottling, equipment, and music [23–25]. In turn, wine tourism in the Douro presents a different set of modalities from those existing in the national territory, because it is more diversified both in forms and in the type of infrastructures. The production base continues to be placed in the farms, units of great family tradition or acquired by economic groups. The luxury lodgings and tourist complexes create innovative concepts and take advantage of the unique scenic surroundings in which they are located, promoting the "look" of those who stay overnight, betting on quality and high prices, as well as the extension of the stay, offering activities that occupy the day and invite involvement with the landscape [26]. Likewise, [27] claims that gastronomy experiences can stimulate local development insofar as gastronomic tourism is a profitable type of tourism and can be a factor in extending the tourist’s stay and diversifying rural economies. During the dining experience, heritage, and cultural identity, the authenticity of the host community is transferred to tourists [28]. Experiences are multifaceted, stemming from activities, the environment, as well as the social contexts embedded in the activities [29].

57.3 Methodology Vine and wine culture is the fundamental basis of the region’s economy, presenting a determinant brand and image on a national and international scale. The region is also marked by the extensive area of agricultural production, such as apple, grape, cherry, potato, chestnut, almond, and olive. In the livestock, activity dominates the production of goats and cattle, highlighting the high number of certified products and protected designation of origin [30]. Thus, the basic economic productions are viticulture, fruit farming, olive growing, livestock farming, and tourism, the latter being an emerging activity [31] (Fig. 57.4). It is in the tripod of the Douro region (vineyard, wine, and landscape), which supports and boosts viticulture, basic economic activity of the region, and tourism, emerging activity [30]. The valorization of the territory, allowing the enjoyment of the historical and cultural heritage and preservation of its authenticity; urban regeneration; the economic enhancement of the natural and rural heritage is part of one of the five strategic axes proposed by the Tourism Strategy 2027. The Douro

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Fig. 57.4 The Douro region. Source Tourism of Portugal, (2020)

Demarcated Region (RDD),1 the oldest regulated wine region in the world, runs along the Douro River and its tributaries over an area of about 250,000 hectares between Barqueiros and Barca d’Alva. It represents the first institutional model of organization of a wine region, created to regulate the production of Port wine. Currently, the RDD circumscribes the Controlled Denomination of Origin of Porto and Douro wines. The cultural landscape of the Alto Douro Vinhateiro (ADV)2 combines the nature of the Douro River valley, with steep slopes, poor and rugged soils, with human activity, allowing the creation of a unique ecosystem, where the characteristics of the terrain are taken advantage of in an exemplary way, with the shaping of the landscape in terraces, preserving it from erosion and allowing the cultivation of vines. The diversity of existing products allows the Douro region to structure its tourism offer through the categorization of products, which meet specific motivations such as nautical tourism, or more generic as the cultural and landscape touring. The region offers each product a more active or more passive experience, allowing the consumer to live an experience according to their preferences and needs. For this research, data collection was developed through the application of interviews to representatives of farms in the region, with one aspect in common, two with production and sale of wine, with tourist accommodation, and two with production and sale of wine and without tourist accommodation, to a representative of the Douro Museum and another associated with a very prominent character, João de Araújo Correia, in this case, the grandson of the doctor and writer. The interview aims to collect information through questions posed to the respondent by the researcher. The questions can be open, closed, or a mixture of both [32]. The main purpose of the interview is to collect information from the interviewee about a particular subject or problem, some authors consider it as the instrument par excellence of social research [33], the samples are intentional and non-probabilistic, 1

Source http://www.museudodouro.pt/regiao-demarcada-do-douro. Source https://www.unescoportugal.mne.pt/pt/temas/proteger-o-nosso-patrimonio-e-promovera-criatividade/patrimonio-mundial-em-portugal/alto-douro-vinhateiro. 2

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Table 57.2 Interviewees (Farms) Interview No

Entity (Farm)

Location

Duration

Q1

Quinta da Pacheca

Lamego

01.15.12

Q2

Casa do Lobo à Serra

Sedielos, Peso da Régua

00.59.09

Q3

Quinta da Médica

Folgosa do Douro

Written reply

Q4

Quinta das Saquedas

Sta. Marta de Penaguião

00.43:55

Table 57.3 Other interviews Interview No

Entity/Specificity

Date

Duration

M1

Douro Museum

13.08.2020

00.56.12

P1

Grandson of João de Araújo Correia

07.10.2020

00.45.20

so the subjects should be selected carefully, according to well-defined criteria at the beginning [32]. The interviews were conducted individually, either in person or in writing. Tables 57.2 and 57.3 show the interviewees and some aspects inherent to the respective interviews. The overall goal of this study is to verify to what extent the gamification associated with storytelling can promote and enhance the tourism offer in Peso da Régua. To understand this goal, the following specific objectives were outlined: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Enhance the tourist-cultural perspective of Peso da Régua; Identify and publicize the role of the most relevant personalities in the region; Emphasize some personal characteristics of the personalities in the game; To evaluate the domains of the tourist experience using gamification associated with storytelling.

The analysis of the interviews to the farms and the Museum was based on the following themes: (I) Information about the interview; (II) Sociodemographic data of the interview sample; (III) Tourism and the farms (and/or the Museum); (IV) Perceptions about the region; (V) Perception about the wine; (VI) Perception about the game; and (VII) Conclusion. The interview to the Museum followed the same procedures as the interview to the Farms was done in person and with a guided tour to its facilities. In all interviews, the interviewer started by introducing herself and explaining the purpose, to get answers to the formulated research question: Can gamification, associated with storytelling, promote, and enhance the tourist offer in a destination? As well as to answer the specific objectives: (1) to value the historical and cultural perspective of the Peso da Régua region, (2) to identify and promote the role of the most relevant personalities of the region, (3) to emphasize some personal characteristics of the personalities in the game, and 4) to evaluate the domains of the tourist experience from the use of gamification associated with storytelling.

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57.4 Results The type of tourism most sought after by tourists is a tourism that revolves around wine, wine tourism [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], landscape and nature [Q1,Q2,Q4], which is world heritage [Q1], religious tourism [Q1], hiking [Q4], reference sites, the most sought after, the wineries, the farms (…) Boat trip, going up the river, passing the dams [Q2]. And a more experiential side, also linked to wine and gastronomy [Q1]. The attributes that tourists look for and what the region has to offer are related to the wines [Q1,Q2,Q3], the Port wine, it’s unique [Q2], different landscape [Q1,Q2,Q3], experiences [Q1], the stories [Q1,Q2], the people [Q2], the authenticity [Q1,Q4], the soil characteristics, the orography, the climate, the fact that there is the river that influences the whole process of grape ripening [Q1], the gastronomic tastings [Q3], the rurality and the quality [Q4]. Regarding the positive impacts they highlight the economy [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], the region became better known [Q1], more experiences [Q1], basic sanitation [Q2], greater notoriety of the wines, a remodeling of several spaces, greater accessibility, they protect the environment more, the city is cleaner, airier and renewed [Q4]. On the negative aspects, they mention more garbage in town [Q1,Q2,Q3], but there is a certain amount of care [Q2], mass tourism that creates great environmental impact and leaves very little money [Q3] and the increase in traffic for which Régua is not prepared [Q4]. Regarding the differentiating aspects of Peso da Régua, they highlight its history [Q1,Q2,Q3], the local people [Q1,Q2,Q3], the river [Q2,Q3], and the surrounding and unique landscape [Q1,Q2, Q3], with the terraces [Q2]. Effectively the Douro speaks for itself, it doesn’t need much more, it is world heritage with all its excellence, with all its raison d’être [Q4]. They identify as relevant tangible and intangible heritage of the region, the Casa do Douro that remains to be explored, the rabelo boat and all its history, it is unacceptable not to have a rabelo boat on the river, it was mandatory, to have someone there who could explain, create a storytelling around it. We are rich in intangible heritage. We should have something material to substantiate/illustrate the immaterial and we needed human mass [Q1]. The whole valley, world heritage [Q2,Q3,Q4], vineyards, uses and customs linked to wine, olive oil, museum [Q3], the people, the gastronomy, and the viewpoints [Q4]. As far as typical dishes are concerned, they highlight codfish [Q1,Q4], kid [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], veal [Q2], tripe and peixinhos do rio [Q3]. Their main products are wine and olive oil [Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4], fruit [Q2], especially grapes [Q4]. In turn, with regard to events they emphasize the sporting events [Q1,Q2,Q4], such as cycling, handball championship and half marathon [Q2] The film festival [Q1], chocolate festival, and the book fair [Q2]. The religious festivals [Q2,Q3] and all the activities that have to do with the vine cycle [Q3], especially the wine fair [Q1,Q4] and the grape harvest festival [Q2]. The interviewees mention that what distinguishes the Douro from other wine tourism destinations is the valley/landscape [Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4] and all its surroundings [Q2], its terroir [Q3]. The river [Q1], the people [Q1, Q2, Q4] and the history

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[Q1, Q2], the characteristics of the grapes, the wine [Q3, Q4], a region that is dedicated to and survives by giving up its vineyards [Q3]. They are of the opinion that there is little stakeholder involvement to enhance the development of gastronomic and wine tourism. Little and very localized [Q1, Q2] and in an incipient way, such as tastings, fairs [Q4]. There should be more activities related to wine, it needs to be promoted and enhanced [Q4]. In fact, they present as initiatives to be developed several types of events [Q2], namely, gastronomic and wine contests. Put chefs with Michelin star and others to develop appealing dishes with native products, harmonize food and wine, rejuvenate the Port wine [Q3]. Local, national, and international wine fairs, promotion in airports [Q4], associate opinion leaders, such as people from the sports world and the art world, who can take our landscape and our wines further [Q4]. Make the waterfront more inviting [Q2]. Our future will be tourism and wine and the two aspects should fit together (…) The region will only be sustainable if we can add value to the products (…) there must be a balance between trade and production, small producers should associate more [Q1]. All interviewees are receptive to the use of a game as an enhancer of the region’s heritage and claim that any mechanism to make the region known is good [Q2]. I think so, make a survey, and collect very diverse opinions and after analysis select the most distinctive and/or the most unanimous [Q3]. It is an added value and advantage the realization of a game as another technique to attract, promote and make known the region, in a lively, interactive, and easily accessible way to the public [Q4]. However, one interviewee points out that he is a little skeptical about such things, (…) It must be attractive [Q1], as well as making an application of a single county will not be the best option, each one pulling for its own little chapel does not make much sense, it’s a political issue. Régua has viewpoints, it has geo-referenced points of interest, you can even put an audio translated into several languages, have for example the main gastronomic points, see which are the tourist attractions in terms of traditional commerce, with clues and tips [Q1]. As for the attractions they highlight the Ferreirinha [Q1,Q4], the people who were on the boat, the vineyard worker [Q1] the Rabelo Boat [Q1,Q4], the river [Q1], the valley and the landscape [Q2,Q3,Q4], 1st demarcated region in the world [Q3], Nª Senhora dos Remédios [Q2]. The Viewpoints [Q2,Q4], namely, the S. Leonardo de Galafura Viewpoint and the S. Domingos de Fontelo Viewpoint [Q2]. The farms, namely: Valado, Vale Meão, Seixo, Carvalhas, with stories to tell. A farm of the English to show that they had a certain importance in the discovery and evolution of the Douro valley, for example, Taylors or Smygtons [Q2]. The Coa valley, also has a distinctive history [Q2], the history of Port wine [Q4]. The interviewees mention the following artists and historical personalities associated with Régua: D. Antónia [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4] João de Araújo Correia [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], Miguel Torga [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], the most emblematic and charismatic, with sublime poems about the Douro [Q3]. The rebuçadeiras [Q1], António Barreto [Q2], Agustina Bessa-Luís [Q2], Marquês de Pombal [Q2,Q3] and the Baron of Forrester [Q2,Q3].

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In fact, they quote most of these personalities to be part of the game. Thus, they suggest, D. Antónia [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], Miguel Torga [Q2,Q3,Q4], João de Araújo Correia [Q2,Q3,Q4], Barão de Forrester [Q2,Q3], Marquês de Pombal [Q2,Q3] and with less prominence the sweets [Q1], the vintage man [Q1], the boat man [Q1]. As for cultural weight, they mention the Marquis who demarcated the Douro region [Q2,Q3]; Ferreirinha [Q2,Q3,Q4], an irreverent and persistent woman who, when everyone else abandoned the Douro (phylloxera), invested and stayed [Q2], it was necessary to have this revolutionary vision at the time that allowed an entire region to be restructured [Q4]; the Baron of Forrester with his cartography and topographic survey [Q2,Q3]. The personalities, who basically embody what the people of the Douro are, the strength of work, tenacity, resilience, resistance against adversity, effort [Q4]. Although the interviewees refer that there are several legends and words associated with wine, vineyards, and Ferreirinha [Q1, Q4] they do not present specific legends, they refer that Ferreirinha helped the poor and was very low when a worker died [Q2]. One interviewee presents some proverbs, namely, “until the washing of the baskets is vintage”, “you work like a moiro”, “who has vineyards has the wealth in the moonlight”, “who comes to the Douro never forgets it”. [Q3] They have their own pronunciation, “pôete” they use the word troncha, synonymous with Portuguese cabbage. They use an expression when they eat a new fruit the first time of the year, “ano melhorando, deus deixe me chegar ao ano”, or when they want to chase away a cat “é xispa” or when they want to chase away a bad omen…” é sapo lagarto “[Q4]. As for icons, they refer to the Pombaline mark [Q1,Q2], which could be associated with the Marquis [Q2], the barrel or the vine, to Ferreirinha [Q2], the tales to João de Araújo Correia [Q2], the poems to Miguel Torga [Q2], the landscape [Q3], the wine, the port, the barrel, the candy, the people, the folklore [Q4]. They highlight the following traditions that remain or can be recovered, the treading of the grapes [Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4], the traditions of the pilgrimages [Q2], the handing over of the branch after the harvest [Q3]. The cooperage, basketry, planting the vineyard in a traditional way and folklore [Q4]. Responding to the research objectives, these are detailed by integration into the answers obtained: Goal 1: Enhance the historical and cultural perspective of the Peso da Régua region Peso da Régua is the pivotal point of connection between the northern and southern Douro [34] where several institutions linked to wine and the river are based. As presented in the study regarding Peso da Régua, the interviewees highlight as differentiating aspects of the river, the riverside area, and the surrounding landscape, with a river pier, being the county seat and capital of the demarcated region. Regarding material and immaterial heritage, the interviewees point out (Table 57.4): As for gastronomy, roast kid stands out. The “malguinhas” on Wednesdays and fish dishes, mainly from the river, peixinhos do rio. One interviewee said that the Douro has an extraordinary gastronomic wealth and today we have lost, for example,

696 Table 57.4 Material and immaterial patrimony

D. Liberato et al. Material and immaterial patrimony

Frequency

Bridges

6

Viewpoints

6

Company House/Museum

9

Casa do Douro and the stained-glass windows

5

Wharf, Riverfront

6

Farms

2

Rabelo Boat

5

Station/Train and its line

5

History

10

Gastronomy and wine

10

Humanized and surrounding landscape

10

River

10

dishes based on turkey, duck and poultry, and pork that was used to make something like ham [R4]. It is worth mentioning the Régua candy, exclusive to this city and that for many years was only sold in the Largo dos Aviadores and Largo da Estação, and during festivals. Wine appears as the main product of the region, followed by traditional handicrafts and olive oil. Within the intangible heritage the interviewees refer to the importance of history and events, in this field they highlight the Wine Fair, the Religious Festivities, the Harvest Festival, the sporting events, namely the Half Marathon, considered the most beautiful walk [R1] and Douro Rock, the film festival. There are some initiatives developed by stakeholders to enhance wine tourism and gastronomic tourism, such as gastronomic weeks and weekends and gastronomic fairs. They highlight the involvement of the Ródão schools and the Lamego Hotel School, with the development of some projects that have been able to create and preserve the gastronomy, using traditional ingredients, making the harmonization. However, the Douro suffers a problem of scale, everything is very localized, and it is necessary to do more to make the destination known [Q1] and the focus should be given to all the activities directly linked to wines, because that is what the region lives on [Q4]. Indeed, tourism is responsible for the city’s development, namely wine, nature, and religious tourism, but the tourism associated with Douro’s history stands out, this idea is corroborated by the tourist attributes, to the extent that history keeps being mentioned. As far as the attributes to be enhanced for the development of the tourist activity are concerned, they highlight heritage, nature, wine and gastronomy, and history. These resources justify the identity of the Alto Douro Wine Region [35] which appeal to a unique landscape named for the wine production, the mountain ranges that create a Mediterranean enclave, and the schistose soils that enhance and provide the creation of a unique wine, allowing this region to distinguish itself from other

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wine tourism destinations. All the interviewees refer to these characteristics, the landscape, and the history. As a result of the above, the main heritage that will be included in the game is presented below. In the first phase, we intended to choose three locations, however, due to the responses, it was deemed pertinent to include a fourth element. . Casa da Companhia/Douro Museum Casa da Companhia is one of the most emblematic buildings of the region, a property of public interest. Its construction is directly related to the foundation of the Companhia Geral da Agricultura das Vinhas do Alto Douro. Currently houses the Douro Museum considered one of the most interesting projects created to boost the tourist destination, linked to education. It ends up being the basis for different projects, an icon, a place to know and understand history. This place could be the gateway to the region for its value as a museum unit and for the history of the property itself. . Bridges Places of interest, with great prominence, are the bridges, associated with road and pedestrian accessibility, to the river, the riverside area, the pier, and the rabelo boat. The most prominent was the Pedestrian or Metal Bridge of Régua, considered an element of outstanding urban presence in the city, due to its architectural beauty. From here, it’s possible to appreciate the river and all its surroundings. . Viewpoints The landscape surrounding the Régua is one of enormous beauty, which can be admired through the many viewpoints, among which are the viewpoints of São Leonardo in Galafura and Santo António do Loureiro [36]. The viewpoints are mentioned several times by the interviewees as fundamental elements of the material heritage, as well as places to be incorporated into the game, especially the S. Leonardo de Galafura viewpoint, with the church, allowing to see the “patchwork”. . Station/railway/train The Régua Railway Station with the history of the train and the presence of the rebuçadeiras. This place has been referenced several times, as well as all the history connected to the railway. Objective 2: Identify and publicize the role of the region’s most relevant personalities. One of the main goals of the research was to understand which personalities were and are part of the history of the Douro and could be incorporated into the game. Some of them stand out, as we found in the first part of the study, such as Ferreirinha, the Barão de Forrester, Miguel Torga, or João de Araújo Correia. However, we cannot forget that there are several artists who have fallen in love with the Douro, and have praised this region through writing, painting, drawing, film, photography, from Professor António Barreto, Armanda Passos, João de Araújo Correia, Agustina Bessa-Luís, Alves Redol, Custódio José Vieira, Manoel de Oliveira Manuel Mendes,

698 Table 57.5 Personalities

D. Liberato et al. Personalities

Frequency

Ferreirinha

8

Baron Forrester

7

João de Araújo Correia

12

Marquis of Pombal

2

Miguel Torga

4

Rebuçadeiras

7

Land personalities (the landowner, the farm manager, the boats)

6

Maximiano de Lemos, Salgueiral, Vergílio Alberto Vieira, Camilo Castelo Branco, Camilo de Araújo Correia, and Mónica Baldaque. Much has been written about the personalities, the intangible heritage of the Douro, there is so much to analyze and tell, there are so many historians, researchers who have contributed so that the history of the Douro is not forgotten. The meetings remain, the conferences, the tertulia’s, the league of friends who praise the work of each one. However, it is unquestionable that some are mentioned repeatedly, during the empirical study, either as main attributes, either as artists, illustrious figures, or personalities who are part of the history of Peso da Régua and the Douro. The following are the personalities proposed by the qualitative study that could be part of the narrative (Table 57.5): Personalities Proposal From the frequency count, the four most referenced personalities and their justification were selected. . João de Araújo Correia He can be placed in various places, he describes the land and the people like no one else, and he can walk around in any spot. He has written a lot about the people of the Douro; he has a lot of short stories about these personalities that portray the life of Régua. These are his portraits of the social life of the Douro, of the small experiences. He was a doctor, but he wasn’t always at the office, he was a João Semana who traveled a lot in the Douro. . D. Antónia de Adelaide Ferreira Her context favored her, she founded the soup kitchen, that’s what gave birth to the patronage of Godim, which still exists today. She created hospitals. There are countless stories associated with D. Antónia, she is a living narrative that enchants, and combining this with the fact that she is a woman is very interesting. D. Antonia has all the potential to integrate a tourist product, it is a product of excellence. All it would take is one D. Antonia project, and there would be a lot of work to do. In fact, Ferreirinha was one of the most fascinating personalities of her time. He fought the English who dominated the Port wine, pushed the borders of the

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Douro winegrowing to the limits of the national territory, was always on the side of the poorest, stood up to the most powerful politicians of his time, refused titles and honors of the Court and the king, had a family life that knew disgrace, dared, dreamed, risked, and built one of the largest fortunes of the nineteenth century [37]. . Baron Forrester His incorporation by maps, by studies of viticulture, a pioneer of photography in the Douro is fundamental. He is a very interesting and complex character. A British man who always sided with the Portuguese. There is a duality of the man of science and the man of art, he was an artist, he painted, he photographed, and he never ceased to know about wine issues, the defense of the farmers and the region, the purity of the wine. He is credited with curing powdery mildew. . Rebuçadeiras The Régua sweets are part of the history of the city itself and tell it so well. Objective 3: Emphasize some personal characteristics of the personalities in the game. While one of the main goals of adopting Touris, destination practices is to provide a more intense and richer user experience at the destination, it is also important that the shared development of stories helps perpetuate and safeguard its cultural and environmental heritage [21]. In this sense, some characteristics that are part of the personalities and that were transmitted by the interviewees are presented. . João de Araújo Correia A very serene, calm, and cultured person. Known among all as “holy man”, the “João Semana”. He started as a doctor and then as a writer, he published his first book “Sem método” (Without method) at the age of 38. His main study was the man of the Douro, he loved the region and found in these stories the basis for his tales. He is known among scholars as one of the best Portuguese short story writers. He wrote about 30 books, and those who read his main books, “Contos Durienses” and “Contos Bárbaros”, get an idea of his work. In 1940, wrote a text saying that the Douro lacked a museum and explained why. He was distinguished as one of the greatest personalities of the Douro. His main characteristics are his passion for writing and for the people of the Douro. He defended the language in an extraordinary way: “For me, the Portuguese language is like my mother’s blood. In 1970, he received the national novelistic award at the hands of Aquilino Ribeiro, who called him “Master of us all”. In the game, he may be identified with a stethoscope and an inkwell and symbolizes healing, tales, and the history of the people of the Douro. . D. Antónia de Adelaide Ferreira Regarding Ferreirinha’s personal characteristics, her entrepreneurial side stands out, but, at the same time, she is altruistic and generous towards social welfare and charity institutions and works, such as hospitals and asylums, especially for many poor and sick people. A fighter, she faced the scourge of serious

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plagues on grapevines and vines—powdery mildew and phylloxera. The latter plague took her to England to learn the most effective means of combating this pest [38]. He loved the land, the wine, and the people: “These wines are the best in the world, because beyond the grapes they taste of the tears and suffering of those who work here and loved these vineyards, as if it were their own blood. I love this land; I love this people. If the plagues turn the Douro into the arms of death, then may I die too, because I am not able to live if the Douro dies to life. If the plagues overcome our love for the Douro, nothing else is worth it” [39]. She always wore a black dress that characterized her and that can be found in the Douro Museum. Contemporary and friend of Baron Forrester, there is a tragic story involving these two personalities, associated with the shipwreck in Cachão da Valeira. Legend has it that the Rabelo boat in which several people were following sank in the Cachão da Valeira, Ferreirinha was saved because of her skirts, and the Baron drowned because of his gold coins. In the game she can be identified with a vine or a kite, wearing her black dress. She symbolizes wine and entrepreneurship. . Joseph James Forrester/Baron Forrester Responsible for the maps of the region. The cartography, the charts, the maps, and the photographs of the Douro make him a reference of the Douro. Businessman, who fell in love with the Douro and the river and disappeared in its bed. His friendship with Ferreirinha. The accident in the Valeira cataract. For example, one interviewee suggests that in the game, there is a map that identifies Valeira’s Cachão, the place where the Baron of Forrester tragically died. As far as Baron is concerned, “his deepest motivation of the enormous visual survey is undoubtedly the delight and fascination for the landscape that holds and inspires him and which he makes known to us in his public writings” [38]. In the game it can be identified with a map, a camera, or a notebook and symbolizes the people who fell in love with the Douro, were not born, but belong to the Douro, like the English, the Galicians, or the people from Ovar. At the same time, the Baron can symbolize the arts. Until the end of the eighteenth century, navigation had an insurmountable obstacle: the famous Valeira waterfall, where there were numerous accidents. The most famous one, in 1861, in which one of the greatest connoisseurs of the river, Baron Forrester, died. His rabelo sank, caught in a rapid, and his companions were saved, among them Dona Antónia Ferreira, who was saved because of her balloon skirts, which allowed her to float. Camilo Castelo Branco, who detested the baron for no reason, tells the story, in his own way, in Port Wine—Process of an English Bestiality. He even says that the death of the baron was a revenge of the river, which made him pay for all the “haters” of the region and its wine. The people say that the cause of his drowning was the gold that the Baron was carrying wrapped around his waist and that had prevented him from swimming. It is said…” [1].

57 Sustainable Destination Development Based on Gamification … Table 57.6 Place/persons/objects

701

Place

Personalities

Objects

Douro Museum

João de Araújo Correia

Inkpot and stethoscope

S. Leonardo de Galafura

Ferreirinha

Vine

Metal Bridge

Baron Forrester

Map and camera

Train Station

Rebuçadeiras

Candy

. Rebuçadeiras During the empirical study, it was found that the people of the Douro could also be part of the narrative, to the extent that they were mentioned several times. In this sense, we propose the integration of a sweet seller. The lady who sells sweets, a centuries-old recipe that maintains a unique flavor, which is passed on from generation to generation and is sold in typical places in Régua. In the game she will be identified with Régua sweets, wearing a white coat and a wicker basket, chanting preachers. It symbolizes the people of the Douro, the strength of work and commerce. Objective 4: Evaluate the domains of the tourist experience from the use of gamification associated with storytelling As noted above, it was verified that there are places that should be part of the game proposal, namely, the Douro Museum, the Régua Metal Bridge, the S. Leonardo de Galafura Viewpoint, and the Railway Station. As well as the people of the Douro who will be the narrators of the story: João de Araújo Correia, Ferreirinha, Barão de Forrester, and the Rebuçadeiras. The intention is to place in each location an individual (personality) who will introduce who he is, as well as the location, and will carry an object that distinguishes him/her (Table 57.6). It is important to include in these places some objects that identify the region, as was suggested in the empirical study, namely the Rabelo boat next to the bridge, on the river. The train next to the station, on the line. The vintage basket, the demarcation mark, the barrels, even the postmark. The latter can be used for a challenge, for example sending a letter to someone. The challenge could be proposed by AJC or by Baron Forrester, for they were two people who loved to exchange correspondence. Initially, the game will be divided into three parts: Part 1—The initial narrative begins at the Museum. JAC tells the story. Part 2—The player moves to the river, to the pier, and goes to the Pedestrian Bridge. The Baron of Forrester continues the narrative, presents the river, the rabelo boats, and talks about the maps. The player passes by the Station and is approached by the Purser, the narrative continues. Part 3—The player goes to the S. Leonardo de Galafura viewpoint and contemplates the landscape. He listens to the story that Ferreirinha has to tell. Here it is important to refer to Miguel Torga, a personality also identified in the interviews.

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Throughout the game the different personalities tell the story, urge the player to perform missions, provoke emotions, and suggest locations. Despite the existence of these four locations, it is fundamental that the player circulates around the city and the neighboring areas to visit the farms, do wine tastings, participate in events, and contemplate the landscape. At the same time, the game should allow socializing, both with locals and with other players, as well as the use of social networks to share content and sensations by the player. Finally, the interviews highlight that the four dimensions of experience: entertainment, educational, aesthetic, and evasion, proposed by [40] may be present throughout the game.

57.5 Conclusions According to the authors, the experiences can be analyzed in two dimensions: the first dimension corresponds to the consumer’s participation, more passive, when the consumer does not directly affect or influence the experience, as is the case of the entertainment categories, with visits to the Museum and the Estates, wine tastings and participation in events; and the aesthetic dimension through the contemplation of the landscape, the river, the vineyard, especially at the Belvedere and the Metal Bridge. The active dimension, when the consumer plays a key role in the unfolding of the event that makes up the experience, is also contemplated in the educational category, through learning the history, in the missions that are conquered throughout the game, in the know-how, and in the evasion category with the participation in the harvests, in the tasting workshops, among others. It should be noted that many of the initiatives may include all four categories insofar as the player plays an important role in the unfolding of the event that makes up the experience [41]. In this case, the participation in the game, the development of quests, and winning of prizes. It is important to consider all the mechanisms that are part of the game and that can create positive experiences in tourism [42]. These dimensions crossed and combined, enable unique and memorable experiences [40]. At the same time, it is fundamental to instill emotions in the game through the personalities, as storytelling will be present. The tourist likes to hear the story, more than to hear the product’s technical sheet, he likes to know how the product got there. As some interviewees refer, it is also important to present the object, as it has a whole story to tell, it has the mark of time and someone who gave it life. The study carried out in this research proves that storytelling is fundamental to create involvement and enhance tourism. This is a differentiating element in tourism products, especially for new tourists who are increasingly looking for differentiating products to contribute to their tourism experiences [43]. The rich intangible heritage of the Douro can become a differentiating element of the tourism product. There are innovative experiences in the region, developed mainly by the farms that can be inserted in the game, from wine tastings, visits to wineries and vineyards, tasting of local products and gastronomy, cooking classes, wine courses, wine blending, blind tastings, and vineyard analysis in which the grape varieties and the

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type of grape are identified. Wine presses, picnics, as well as pedestrian and jeep experience, talks, and gatherings. Effectively, gamification associated with storytelling can promote and enhance the tourism offer at a destination. Although there is still little understanding of gamification in the academic literature [44], all interviewees consider its use to be advantageous. It prides itself on originality, has value, and the main advantages they point out are it associates innovation and new technologies with sharing and history; it combines playfulness with a sense of discovery and competitiveness; it brings people in; it provides a tool for knowledge and interpretation; it appeals to observation, and it promotes the city and the region. This proposal addresses the educational perspective, history, tourism, wine, and gastronomy, involving various themes such as the history of the region, the contemplation of the humanized and surrounding landscape, the history of wine, gastronomy tourism, and the knowledge and involvement of the personalities.

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35. Sousa, F.: O Alto Douro. Da demarcação pombalina à classificação do património mundial. CEPESE (2006). https://www.cepese.pt/portal/pt/publicacoes/obras/relacoes-portugal-esp anha-o-vale-do-douro-no-ambito-das-regioes-europeias/o-alto-douro-da-demarcacao-pombal ina-a-classificacao-de-patrimonio-mundial 36. Leitão, I.: Viajar pela Paisagem do Alto Douro Vinhateiro – Turismo, Literatura e Arte. Int. J. Sci. Manag. Tour. 3(1), 579–599 (2017). 37. Chi-Hua, L., Chi-Chun, L.: The effects of empathy and persuasion of storytelling via tourism micro-movies on travel willingness. Asia Pac. J. Tour. Res. 25(4), 382–392 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1080/10941665.2020.1712443 38. Cluny, I., Fauvrelle, N. (coords.).: Dona Antónia: uma vida singular, Peso da Régua, Museu do Douro (2012) 39. Flores, F.M.: A Ferreirinha. Episódio 3: 7’49”. Artes e Cultura, Sociedade. Portugal. RTP1 (2004) 40. Pine, B.J., II., Gilmore, J.H.: Welcome to the experience economy. Harv. Bus. Rev. 76(4), 96–104 (1998) 41. Schmitt, B.: Experiential marketing. J. Mark. Manag. 15(1–3), 53–67 (1999). https://doi.org/ 10.1362/026725799784870496 42. Negru¸sa, A., Toader, V., Sofic˘a, A., Tutunea, M., Rus, R.: Exploring gamification techniques and applications for sustainable tourism. Sustainability 7, 11160–11189 (2015) 43. Gonçalves, J.C, Seabra, C., Silva, C.: Histórias de cultura. O poder do Storytelling em destinos de Turismo Cultural, Cadernos de Geografia nº 37 - Coimbra, FLUC, pp. 113–120 (2018) 44. Robson, K., Plangger, K., Kietzmann, J., McCarthy, I., Pitt, L.: Is it all a game? Understanding the principles of gamification. Bus. Horiz. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2015.03.006

Chapter 58

Telework as a Management Tool in Public Administration: Advantages and Disadvantages of Its Application Adalmiro Pereira, Hugo Castro Mendonça, Mário Queirós, and Barbara Soares de Moura Abstract Telecommuting is nowadays a word of general knowledge, the general public has a rough idea of what it means. With this study, we intend to understand if teleworking can be a management tool to be applied in public management, allowing an improvement in the effectiveness and efficiency of the resources of public administration service. Secondary research data from different authors who have carried out studies in the area of teleworking and its application in daily tasks will be used. The analysis seeks to find a correlation in the responses in the different studies in relation to the way they assess telework and how they understand the ways in which it is verified and applied. With the study, we hope to obtain the necessary results to determine the procedure accepted by most of the stakeholders, guaranteeing compliance with the Administrative Procedures Code and, with that, answering the question of the applicability of teleworking in Public Management. With the results obtained, it is verified that workers opt for telework, in a hybrid regime.

58.1 Introduction On March 18, 2020, a state of emergency was declared in Portugal, by the President of the Portuguese Republic through Decree n.º 14-A/2020, resulting from the declaration of the World Health Organization (WHO) that warned that we were facing an A. Pereira (B) · M. Queirós ISCAP/Portugal/CEOS, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. Queirós e-mail: [email protected] H. C. Mendonça ISCAP/Portugal, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] B. S. de Moura Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_58

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epidemic, COVID-19 virus. With the exponential increase in cases around the world, it was necessary to take measures to prevent their spread. Rules were approved in order to avoid agglomerations and ensure everyone’s distance. Following this need, the Institutions began to suspend the services they provided in person, with their employees being sent home in “telework”. Public institutions were “forced” to close and, thus, made it impossible for users to have access to services. “Telework” was applied in a generalized way to all. The concern was to reduce contacts and not whether the work could be carried out outside the “office”. With the passage of time and the stabilization of contagions, institutions begin to adjust the application of telework (guardianship guidelines) and to define what works remotely and what must be carried out at the organization’s facilities.

58.2 Literature Review 58.2.1 Telework “The contemporary world we live in is commonly described as complex,” for this reason, [16] indicates the difficulty of adapting to changes and their explanation in different parts of the world. It points to globalization as a factor of connection and access, of the different countries—and its differentiated particularities—through the ICTs, at the same time that it allows a maximization of the accessible information at a glance. In Portugal, “The Portuguese legal system was one of the first in Europe to enshrine the figure of teleworking in 2003” [13], p. 44). In the Labor Code (Law n.º 7/2009) it is defined as “(…) the provision of work under the legal subordination of the worker to an employer, in a place not determined by the latter, through the use of information technologies and Communication.” Boonen [3] points to the technological revolution as responsible for reducing the time to satisfy needs, forcing companies to adjust their way of acting, in order to guarantee their survival. “In a period like the present one, in which the COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed great potential for flexible working and it is highly likely that, in the near future, flexible working will become the norm rather than the exception in many jobs, our contribution can help to avoid telework promotion policies that deepen the gaps and inequalities between various groups of workers” [7]. Telecommuting concepts Authors like [6] show that the existing definitions of telework have differences in their characterization, among these many differences, they still differ in the way they are perceived, for example, according to gender. Already [12] points out as the key

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to the success of teleworking, the way in which communication between the parties is carried out—workers and managers. Most of the literature identifies Jack Nilles as the author of the telecommuting concept, pointing to the year 1973 as the date of its first use. “Spurred on by the oil crisis, telecommuting first entered the US public vernacular in the 1970s” [2], p. 41. Mello [12] also mentions that the term telework gathers the preference of some authors, because it has the prefix “tele”, which means distance, and, that with the junction of “work”, we arrive at the expression working at a distance. Other authors defend other designations, but in practice, the author says that one should “(…) avoid this discussion, whatever one wants to call it, because the latent concept is the same: decentralize the office and use different ways to take the work to the employees.” López-Igual [11] point to the lack of a universally accepted definition, however, they describe it as an organization of work using information and communication technologies (ICTs). This allowed it to divide into “three generations of telework— home office, mobile office and virtual office” and considered the main responsible for the evolution. It cannot be considered telework, tasks performed at home, after a day at the company [2]. The same authors warn future researchers to take into account as many common characteristics as possible in the form of teleworking they are studying, as only then will they be comparable. Advantages and disadvantages Working remotely can be a possibility and solution for people who are environmentally sensitive; episodic symptoms; mobility impairments and/or chronic pain or fatigue conditions [2]. The authors point out that teleworkers present lower performance at work as a result of professional isolation than colleagues who had less time in this work regime. Greater management of hours spent working; health improvements when stress levels are reduced; motivation to work improves and it is easier to combine the dichotomy of work–personal responsibilities are some of the advantages pointed out by [1] for teleworkers. On the other hand, they point out as disadvantages for the company a reduction in the feeling of “love” for the employee’s shirt with the institution or a greater difficulty in implementing the culture and ideals of the organization. The flexibility of schedules is simultaneously pointed out by the authors as an advantage and a disadvantage. Teleworking allows flexibility in terms of time and location. Boonen [3] alludes that working from home can make work more productive and efficient. The possibility of working in a quieter place can mean less stress, less noise and thus increase your work capacity. However, despite flexibility being presented as an advantage in managing the relationship of time dedicated to work and family (other times as a disadvantage), the authors [2] point out that there is little scientific evidence to say that teleworking helps to mitigate existing conflicts in the work–family dichotomy.

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Giurge and Bohns [8] describe in their study the difficulty that some workers cause, in bosses and colleagues, by contacting (for professional reasons) outside working hours. The authors ask that after a study carried out with more than 2000 workers, most participants feel “compelled” to respond to requests, even if they are not urgent. In general, the study of [2] suggests that the relationship between co-workers can suffer with the continuity of work carried out in telework, stressing that a careful analysis must be carried out and ensuring that any break must be carefully evaluated and managed. At the same time, it reinforces the need to manage the impacts of workers who are not teleworking. Losing organizational identity is for [3] responsibility for the lack of communication between individuals and also between the organization when teleworking is implemented. Control and application of telework as a management tool In a society where money is the main reason for motivation, the possibility that there are other ways of motivating the worker should also be enumerated. Incentives such as personal fulfillment and identification with the institution’s ideals; the work environment; professional and personal security; the sense of justice, equality, and equity; the existence of prospects for progression and teleworking are ways to ensure that the worker is productive, effective, and efficient. Rodrigues and Lemos (2009) define management tools as administrative methodologies that serve to assist companies in structuring their organization, supported by administrative conditions capable and adaptable to their financial, asset, and other resources reality. Mello [12] considers that one of the factors of success in teleworking is communication and that most teleworkers describe that the lack of “face to face” should be replaced by other forms of communication. It defines that this process should start with a conversation between everyone so that they can express their concerns and doubts. Also, [14] emphasize that the challenge for management is to manage cultural differences and forms of expression. The difficulty of managers also involves the way in which the control of tasks performed by employees can and should be carried out. Some organizations create control mechanisms that evaluate the tasks distributed and if the workers perform them and reach the set objectives [9]. Trope [17] described the existence of systems of control and coercion with the use of sanctions and rewards to guarantee the application of norms and rules to all workers. On the other hand, [9] say tighter control systems reduce flexibility and autonomy and can have a detrimental impact on workers’ motivation. Trope [17] considers that training is also a form of control, as it allows skills to be developed, technical knowledge acquired, and which determines behavior patterns in the exercise of their functions.

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Cannavina and Parisi [4] warn that the practices and definition of control in public management, emphasizing that they must be discussed and verified before their application in these entities. The management of work is linked to the management of the worker, it is necessary that the tasks do not focus only on the results and on the behaviors and the tasks in which the control of the leadership is not adequate, it is necessary to take into account the way in which the workers were successful in its realization. The authors, [5], note that it is up to managers to develop “supply, application, development, maintenance and people monitoring processes.” Mello [12] considered that there were ways for teleworking to work and that its application was complicated and even avant-garde. It is enough for the manager to choose the employees for the functions he wants in a telework regime, to create environments and the best technological tools for the tasks, to provide effective support to the team, and to create evaluation procedures that distinguish the execution of the objectives and prepare the employees to the reality of teleworking, resorting to training. Finally, it should not be generalized that the application of teleworking will be successful for all workers. Second [2], recent research suggests that the different characteristics of workers may be the decisive factors in the effectiveness of the measure. Even though there are skills that can be acquired, there are other values that are not amenable to training, such as individual ones.

58.2.2 Methodology This study aimed to understand whether telework can be a management tool in Public Administration: advantages and disadvantages of its application. The present study was carried out at a Portuguese Public University, with the status of a Public Foundation under private law, and its structure and organization will be taken into account. In this sense, and despite the different Organic Units (OU) and autonomous entities, the Center for Common Resources and Services was chosen, considering that its structure and organization allow for a better perspective of the study and the collection of the necessary data. Study object Severino [15] designates the case study as the collection and analysis of information about something, in order to study the procedures and behaviors related to the subject of study. It was therefore chosen, as described above, by the Shared Services of a Portuguese university. The University statutes define that the SP are designated as autonomous services, endowed with administrative and financial autonomy, aimed at ensuring common support services to the constitutive entities of the University. From the SPs, a dynamic contribution is expected between the Rectory, the Organic Units (OUs), and the other Autonomous Services (SAs), in a perspective

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of support to the front office and back office, responding to requests and promoting their effective resolution. The SPs are divided into the following areas: . . . . .

Support Office (GAD) Legal Support Service (SAJ) Human Resources Service (SRH) Economic and Financial Service (SEF) Procurement and Contract Management Service (SCGC)

The management model of this service respects defined principles, such as principle of evaluation by results; principle of process standardization; principle of disseminating good practices; principle of the culture of service provision; principle of active cooperation; and the principle of maintaining decision-making autonomy, which allow the decision-making autonomy of the OUs. In this way, the OUs do not lose their independence in the areas in which the SPs operate. Population and the sample The sample selected for this study was all SP employees, except for the Director (175 workers). The choice for this option was due to the fact that it is not a very large population and that it is possible to collect the necessary data. The questionnaire to the managers was sent to the 14 elements, of which 13 responses were obtained (92.85%). The employees’ questionnaire was sent to 161 elements and 83 elements responded (51.55%). There was one employee (0.62%) who responded (by e-mail) to inform that he did not work in the SP during the period under study. The collected sample shows that most employees are between 31 and 50 years old. There is a very small percentage of employees over 61 and 9.6% under 30. SP employees are mostly female (77.1%). The majority of employees have higher education (83.1%), with a figure of 10.8% of employees with “Secondary Education”. It should be noted the lack of employees with qualifications at the level of “Basic Education”. 78.3% of senior technicians work in the SP and 7.2% work in other categories (computers who have a different career). The remaining sample corresponds to 13.3% of technical assistants and there is an operational assistant, employees who are associated with secondary education qualifications. In this analysis, managers were not considered, since questions about age, gender, qualifications, and category were not asked to this group.

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Table 58.1 Access to necessary infrastructure Collaborators

%

Bosses

%

Entity provided the necessary infrastructure

29

37.18

8

61.54

Its means and the institution

45

57.69

5

38.46

4

5.13

0

0.00

Used your infrastructure

58.3 Results Analysis 58.3.1 Comparative Analysis of Groups Data from the two questionnaires were analyzed and grouped in order to have a perception of four distinct areas: conditions for the implementation of telework; teleworking characteristics; evaluation of the work developed in telework and the implementation of telework. For this purpose, the questions posed in both questionnaires and whose response possibilities are similar were selected. Different questions were formalized for the same areas, with the aim of understanding the point of view of employees and managers in relation to the various areas addressed. For all areas, questions were created to answer the starting question: Telework as a management tool in Public Administration: advantages and disadvantages of its application. Conditions for implementing telework The intention with the creation of this area of analysis was to understand how the two samples consider to be the necessary conditions for the implementation of teleworking. Next, the issue related to infrastructure was evaluated, since basic conditions for teleworking are necessary. How to have a computer and internet access (Table 58.1). According to the data collected, it appears that, regarding the need for technical skills to perform functions, the two groups (employees and managers) agree that these skills are necessary (56.80% and 69%, respectively). The slight difference lies in the response item “Neither agree nor disagree”, which was only selected by the group of employees with a total of 18%. It should be noted that the two forms of disagreement represent 24.7% for employees and 30.80% for managers. The removal of employees from the usual place of work can cause difficulties in the relationship with managers. The question of the number of times in which there was contact proceeded (Table 58.2). If there is no possibility of maintaining face-to-face contact, it is necessary to ensure that contact exists the same, allowing the employee, despite the distance, to feel that he is not abandoned. Thus, it was intended to determine which were the means of contact used (Table 58.3).

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Table 58.2 Contact between the two groups Collaborators Every day

%

Bosses

%

9

11.11

6

46.15 53.85

Several times a week

30

37.04

7

Weekly

18

22.22

0

0.00

Monthly

4

4.94

0

0.00

20

24.69

0

0.00

%

Bosses

Rarely

Table 58.3 Means of contact used Collaborators

%

Telephone

70

35.70

13

32.50

Email

73

37.20

130

32.50

Telematics means

51

26.00

11

27.50

2

1.00

3

7.50

Face-to-face meetings

Telecommuting features At this point, it is intended to determine how the two groups evaluate some of the characteristics associated with teleworking (Table 58.4). The work routine is one of the characteristics that workers (employees and managers) have more difficulty maintaining. One-off changes in the day-to-day normally have repercussions on the worker’s routine. Thus, it was considered necessary to test whether, by being teleworking, workers could have routines in their tasks (Table 58.5). In this question, considering the data collected, there is an approximation in the two groups in choosing the option “I totally agree”, both agree that it was possible to maintain the work routines. Evaluation of the work developed in telework The question was asked to both groups whether it was possible to maintain the professional relationship between the team to determine whether teleworking can influence relationships (Table 58.6). Having knowledge of the work developed, it is now necessary to understand how the evaluation should be carried out. That is, which forms best apply to this assessment (Table 58.7). The question was raised of how the tasks carried out could be controlled, providing 6 choices and an open option to allow other unforeseen ones. Implementation of telework To assess whether the application of teleworking would be possible in SPUP, the question was asked to the two groups if they are in favor of teleworking. Then, those

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Table 58.4 List of responses from the two groups Question

I totally disagree (%)

Partially disagree (%)

Neither agree nor disagreed (%)

Partially agree (%)

I totally agree (%)

In the telework regime, was it possible to maintain your work routine?

5

Two

Two

33

57

In the telework regime, was it possible for employees to maintain their work routine?

0

0

8

31

62

Do you consider flexible schedules a benefit?

0

Two

Two

17

78

Is schedule flexibility a benefit?

0

0

0

69

31

In teleworking, did Two you have fewer interruptions in the performance of your duties?

6

6

41

44

Do you consider 0 that, being teleworking, you have the autonomy to organize/manage your tasks?

1

Two

26

70

Do you consider that employees who are teleworking have the autonomy to organize/manage their tasks?

0

8

69

23

0

who answered in the affirmative were asked which regime they consider to be the best (Table 58.8).

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Table 58.5 Question if there is more motivation Collaborators

%

Bosses

%

I totally disagree

4

4.94

0

0.00

Partially disagree

2

2.47

0

0.00

Neither agree nor disagree

2

2.47

1

7.69

Partially agree

27

33.33

4

30.77

I totally agree

46

56.79

8

61.54

Collaborators

%

bosses

%

I totally disagree

26

32.10

1

7.69

Partially disagree

10

12.35

1

7.69

Table 58.6 Relationship between the team

Neither agree nor disagree

10

12.35

0

0.00

Partially agree

24

29.63

7

53.85

I totally agree

11

13.58

4

30.77

Table 58.7 Forms of work verification

Frequencies

Frequencies

Goal creation

28

7

Keep online connection

19

4

5

0

Act when there are failures/errors

39

3

Full autonomy

32

3

Reports

13

5

Stats for AP usage/duration

Table 58.8 Implementation of telework Collaborators

%

Telework

54

66.67

Presential

27

33.33

Bosses

%

Yea

12

92.31

No

1

7.69

58.4 Analysis by Service The Support Office, as it only has two employees (Table 58.9), will not be considered for the analysis. The analysis that will be carried out will focus on the key areas described in the previous point: conditions for the implementation of telework; teleworking characteristics; evaluation of the work developed in telework and the implementation of telework.

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Table 58.9 Distribution of cases by service What is your service? SPUP

No

Support office

%

2

Legal support service

2.47

5

6.2

Economic-financial service

46

56.8

Human resources service

19

23.5

9

11.1

Procurement and contract management service

Table 58.10 Means used for contact GAD

SAJ

SEF

SRH

SCGC

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Telephone

1

1.20

6

7.40

37

45.70

18

22.20

8

9.90

Email

2

2.50

4

4.90

42

51.90

17

21.00

8

9.90

Telematics means

2

2.50

3

3.70

25

30.90

14

17.30

7

8.60

Face-to-face meetings

0

0.00

0

0.00

0

0.00

2.50

0

0.00

Two

Conditions for implementing telework Regarding services, it appears that they all used the same contact methodologies, with no service having given priority to a particular medium compared to others (Table 58.10). Telecommuting features The variables related to routine, rest, organization, and motivation will be analyzed at this point. It is intended to understand if there are significant differences between the services. Based on the experience acquired with telework, employees were asked to choose three options that reflect their experience with telework (Table 58.11). Evaluation of the work developed and telework When evaluating the way in which managers should monitor performance, it appears that most services chose “Act when there are failures/errors” as one of the options, however, the second option differs in all services (Table 58.12). The SRH and SCGC services have similar box diagrams, with a difference in the median, although in both cases we have answers in agreement with the question posed. Implementation of telework The option for face-to-face work is lower than for telework, but it appears that the distribution of values for the different services is similar. SEF is the service with the

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Table 58.11 Correlation of variables GAD

SAJ

SEF

SCGC

Total

More quality at work

1

0

10

SRH 9

4

24

Relationship with the boss has improved

0

1

1

0

0

2

More costs

0

0

9

3

2

14

Got less tired

1

1

9

5

1

17

Less anxiety

0

0

10

4

3

17

Got more tired

0

0

4

3

0

7

less stress

0

1

13

5

2

21

Less quality at work

1

0

2

1

0

4

More stress

1

0

6

0

1

8

Increased travel time

0

0

1

0

0

1

Got more discouraged

0

0

3

0

1

4

Felt more anxiety

0

0

7

1

1

9

Less costs

0

3

15

6

1

25

Relationship with colleagues got worse

0

0

6

1

1

8

Decreased travel time

1

4

34

11

6

56

Got less discouraged

0

0

1

3

0

4

It was more productive

2

2

24

9

6

43

Table 58.12 Monitor task performance GAD

SAJ

SEF

Goal creation

1

1

18

SRH 4

4

SCGC

Keep online connection

1

1

10

7

0

Stats for AP usage/duration

0

0

3

2

0

Act when there are failures/errors

0

4

23

11

1

Full autonomy

2

3

18

5

4

Reports

0

1

7

0

5

most responses in favor of teleworking and also for face-to-face work. It cannot be concluded that there is a service that values one regime more than the other (Table 58.13).

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Table 58.13 Telework regime always teleworking

GAD

SAJ

0

0

SEF 4

SRH

SCGC

2

2

Half a day

0

0

0

0

0

1 day a week

1

0

0

0

0

2 days a week

0

0

7

3

0

3 days a week

0

4

20

7

4

58.5 Conclusions This study aims to understand whether teleworking can be considered a management tool and not just a resource in pandemic times. If its application can provide improvements in the quality of work of employees and be an option for the management of human resources, in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of organizations. Employees generally agree that other technical skills are needed in addition to those necessary to perform their duties, which corroborates with [3] which highlighted the importance of professionals having specific training to assume functions in this work system. Assessment and control are a fundamental part of the application of teleworking, since the organization does not have the guarantee that its employees internalize their obligations and voluntarily fulfill their functions [17]. The data collected made it possible to establish that the assessment and the existing forms of control are sufficient. It was possible to verify that in the present study, the two groups considered that there was knowledge, on both sides, of the tasks that were being developed. The results obtained by service allowed us to perceive that there is a need to evaluate what employees think and make adjustments to the realities by service. The results support that workers consider that there are advantages in teleworking already mentioned in the literature review. [10] found in their study that with the continuation of teleworking, the motivation to work from home decreased over the weeks, for this reason, periodic evaluations should be carried out. The results obtained through the answers given by the two groups allow us to conclude that the application of teleworking is possible, albeit in a hybrid regime. Its implementation must take into account the type of service and the profile of the employee and must take into account the technical skills of the employee, as well as the type of regime to be applied.

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A. Pereira et al. em Administração, São Paulo (2016). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309550165_ A_adocao_do_teletrabalho_uma_analise_da_aceitacao_do_uso_do_trabalho_a_distancia_ com_jovens_trabalhadores Allen, T.D., Golden, T.D., Shockley, K.M.: How effective is telecommuting? Assessing the status of our scientific findings. Psychol. Sci. Public Interes. 16(2), 40–68 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1177/1529100615593273 Boonen, E.M.: As várias faces do teletrabalho. Rev. Econ. Gestão 2(4), 106–127 (2002) Cannavina, V.C., Parisi, C.: Gestão pública em entidades brasileiras: adequação dos procedimentos de controles internos às normas COSO/INTOSAI. Rev. Universo Contábil 11(3), 06–26 (2015) da Silva, V.G., Vieira, A.M., da Silva Pereira, R.: A gestão do teletrabalho: nova realidade ou mera adaptação à tecnologia? Perspect. Contemp. 10(3), 35–55 (2015) De Lorenzi Cancelier, M.M., Lappolli, É.M., Gomes, R.K.: Definições sobre trabalho flexível. Uma revisão sistemática da literatura. Revista Espacios 38 25–39 (2017) Eurofound, Weber, T., Hurley, J., Bisello, M., Aumayr-Pintar, C., Cabrita, J., Vargas Llave, O.: COVID-19 : policy responses across Europe: Publications Office (2020) Giurge, L.M., Bohns, V.K.: 3 tips to avoid WFH burnout. Harvard Business Review. hbr. org/2020/04/3-tips-to-avoid-wfh-burnout (2020) Groen, B.A., Van Triest, S.P., Coers, M., Wtenweerde, N.: Managing flexible work arrangements: teleworking and output controls. Eur. Manag. J. 36(6), 727–735 (2018) Khan, R., Javed Hasan, S.: Telecommunting: the problems & challenges during Covid-19 (2020). Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. (IJERT) 9(7), 1027–1033 (2020) López-Igual, P., Rodríguez-Modroño, P.: Who is teleworking and where from? Exploring the main determinants of telework in Europe. Sustainability 12(21), 8797 (2020) Mello, A.: Teletrabalho (telework): o trabalho em qualquer lugar e a qualquer hora. Rio de janeiro: Qualitymark (1999) Moreira, T. C., & Dray, G. (2021). O livro verde. Nogueira, A.M., Patini, A.C.: Trabalho remoto e desafios dos gestores. RAI Revista de Administração e Inovação 9(4), 121–152 (2012) Severino, A. J. (2014). Metodologia do trabalho científico. São Paulo: Cortez editora. Silva, V.G.: Prontos para o teletrabalho? Um estudo sobre o trabalho docente do Ensino Superior Brasileiro. Revista Eletrônica Gestão e Serviços 4(2), 635–651 (2013) Trope, A.: Organização virtual: impactos de teletrabalho nas organizações (L. Qualitymark Editora Ed.): Qualitymark Editora, Lda (1999)

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Accessible Tourism and Digitalization: Stakeholders Perspective in the City of Barcelos Bruno Sousa , Francisco Gonçalves , António Abreu , Victor Figueira , João Rolha, Ana Paula Camarinha , and Ivone Cardoso Abstract The present manuscript aims to understand and analyses the accessible tourism in the specific context of Barcelos, with a special focus on people with motor disabilities. From the perspective of accessible tourism, it is intended to ascertain whether the most emblematic tourist attractions of the city of Barcelos (e.g. cultural, religious, artistic and architectural heritage), provide the necessary conditions of accessibility for people with disabilities. This study assumes a qualitative character whose obtaining of the primary data was based on the realization of a semi-structured interview carried out with nine stakeholders, who, directly or indirectly, participate in the tourist activity in the city of Barcelos. Planning strengthens the compatibility B. Sousa (B) CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Gonçalves GOVCOPP, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu Polytechnic Institute of Porto (IPP), ISCAP, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] V. Figueira CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic Institute of Beja (IPB), Beja, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. Rolha Espanha; Polytechnic Institute of Beja (IPB), Universidade de Sevilha, Beja, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. P. Camarinha CEOS.PP, IPolytechnic of Porto; SIIS - Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, Poly-Technic of Porto, Porto, Portugal I. Cardoso CEOS; Polytechnic Institute of Porto (IPP), ISCAP, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_59

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between meeting economic and social needs and the need to preserve the environment and natural and cultural resources, in order to ensure the sustainability of the accessible destination as a tourism product. Preliminary results highlight the (increasing) importance of accessible tourism for the territories. However, there are many limitations that will have to be overcome and improved in the coming years. From an interdisciplinary perspective, the present study presents inputs for place marketing and accessible tourism.

59.1 Introduction Portugal was awarded last year as the Best Accessible Touristic Destination of the World [1]. The city of Barcelos is located in the North of Portugal. Such a perception results from its different types of historical architecture and religious, archaeological and cultural heritage. It also can be added the hospitality from local inhabitants, its traditional cultural festivities, gastronomy and many other elements. [2] states that it may have been from 1948 that concern for the rights, freedom and equality of people began through the United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights. However, the special focus on the rights of persons with disabilities appears only in the Declaration on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 1975. Five years later, in 1980, the relationship between tourism and accessibility is associated for the first time through the Declaration of Manila elaborated by the World Tourism Organization. The designation Accessible Tourism is referring to a complex process and its main objective is to allow anyone, independently from their condition and possibilities, to have access all the touristic services and destinations [3–6]. Nowadays cities face an evident need to adapt their functional and tourism infrastructures to new segments of the tourism market. As a result, it is essential to gain knowledge of real needs in order to promote the development of accessible tourism, a concept which must be understood from a broad perspective since it not only benefits people with special needs but also includes a set of desired and integrated facilities [7, 8]. In this sense, the present study reveals to be a good opportunity to draw the picture from a society than realizes (or not) such a problematic: conditioned accessibility. Accessible Tourism (when allied to Senior Tourism) shows massive potential, and it is curious to see that has been extremely disregarded for many years by the industry. Several other factors also reveal to be important to the development of its touristic activity, concretely, the planned policy to promote Barcelos nationally and internationally.

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59.2 Accessible Tourism and Digitalization According to [7], accessible tourism, for all, presupposes the concentration of accessibility conditions for all components of the functional tourism system—accommodation, restaurants, tourist attractions, entertainment, transport, information and services, among others—and its articulation, in a way to provide the tourist with that which contributes to your overall satisfaction at the destination. The number of tourists who need and value accessibility is increasing, which is why the commitment to Accessible Tourism is a challenge in transforming Lisbon into a “destination for All”, more competitive at the European level. Accessible tourism necessarily refers to social responsibility in the sustainable development of tourism, so for ethical and social reasons, it is essential to work in order to offer people with special needs (SN) the same conditions of tourist offer [9]. Darcy and Dickson [4], refer that there is still some resistance from the tourism industry, regarding the adoption of the principles of universal design and staff training on people with SN. Accessible Tourism is understood as a quite versatile market, which motivates an equally multifaceted offer. Caldas et al. [5] considers some differences between Accessible Tourism and Tourism for All. The first is seen as an activity dealing with the elimination of barriers, while the latter is based on the concept of Universal Design. Universal Design is nothing more than the conception of products and services that pretend to serve the larger number of people without the need of adaptation or personalization [6]. According to [6], the data available by the World Health Organization (WHO) point to 15% of the world population as having some kind of disability, in many cases associated with the population aging. These results from the generalized quality of life improvement. Until 2050 is estimated that the population with more than 60 years will double from 11 to 22%. In this sense, seniors and disabled, corresponding to one-fifth of the world population will directly benefit from Accessible Tourism. Since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights until the present that the developed evolution as allowing people with reduced mobility feeling their rights being supported and recognized by general society. In this sense, and as a propelling activity for general human welfare, Tourism was declared as a right of all citizens, stimulating the integration of people with reduced mobility in a global touristic system [5]. Several authors [4, 6–11] have been asking for the collaboration of stakeholders to develop Accessible Tourism. Tourism in General, and Accessible Tourism in particular, is a shattered industry depending on diverse elements. Accessible Tourism includes a sequence of ideas regarding accessibility and should be actively produced by the intervenient. Therefore, it is important to recognize the features from the demand, especially in relation to the adopted behaviour of the accessible tourist, for which observation and analysis are fundamental [5]. Accessible tourism has been recognized worldwide, not only for its social importance but also for the associated economic potential. It is also an important strategy to ensure the sustainability of tourism [9] and the qualification of destinations. When a destination allies itself with accessible tourism, identity is built around social responsibility and concern for the

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general well-being of the population. In fact, although there can be accessible tourism without the dimensions of sustainability, there is no sustainability without accessible tourism [12]. At the same time, accessible tourism has also accompanied some progress in terms of digitization and innovation in tourism products and services. Digitization can be used in favor of more accessible tourism and respond positively to the specific needs of consumers. For instance, according to [9], the TUR4all platform is being developed and operated by Accessible Portugal, a non-profit association at the service of Tourism Supply and Demand Qualification, with the support of Turismo de Portugal and the Vodafone Portugal Foundation, being based in the homologous TUR4All Spain. TUR4all is a resource for tourists, private companies and the public sector, with the purpose of promoting accessible tourism in Portugal. It consists of an informative tool available on a webpage and mobile application. Its main objective is to provide information and disseminate the accessible tourism offer in Portugal and Spain. This tool, pioneer in Portugal, allows the interaction with the end-user, dynamized in a model of social networks. Specifically, it seeks to provide objective information about the destinations’ accommodation, restaurants and tourist activities and their accessibility. The platform is available in several languages: Portuguese, Spanish, Basque, Valencian, Galician, Catalan, French, English, German, Italian and Mandarin. As a basic tool, the TUR4all platform provides questionnaires that are used to analyse the accessibility conditions of the resources, which contain a sequence of information on the access conditions, from outdoor and indoor spaces, adapted bathrooms, furniture and car parks for disabled people, among others. In addition to the conditions, specifics on the characteristics of the spaces are analysed, such as the height of the staircase, signage, door width and size of the manoeuvring spaces [9]. To improve the technological aspect associated with the special information and communication requirements, innovative improvements were made in terms of Information and Communication Technologies. Technology ended up becoming something common and accepted by all, able to support and respond to the needs felt by people. According to [13], the more ICT and Assistive Technologies increase their potential to enable people with disabilities to actively participate in society, the more inclusion and accessibility become a common responsibility in the tourism industry. The Assistive Technology Act (ATA) was introduced in the United States in 1998, being the first act in the US to declare the importance of technology in the inclusion of people with disabilities in society [14]. At the same time, the authors say that this act recognizes the failure of information systems designers and telecommunications service providers to respond to the needs of people with special requirements in terms of design, manufacture and procurement of telecommunications and information technologies [14].

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59.3 Managing an Accessible Tourism Destination Accessible destinations should strongly invest in communicating next to stakeholders and the general public. In fact, and since presently much of them have the capacity to receive special necessities for tourists, efficient and quality services and equipment can be offered [5]. However, destinations must be conscious and avoid making accessibility its main attraction [6]. As noted in the Accessible Tourism Guide, quoting Taleb Rifai, UNWTO Secretary-General, accessibility is a central element of any responsible and sustainable tourism policy. It is both a human rights imperative and an exceptional business opportunity. Above all, we have to begin to realize that accessible tourism does not just benefit people with disabilities or special needs, it benefits us all [7]. Thus, developing Accessible Tourism is (re)adapting the existing tourist offer, making it accessible to all citizens, regardless of their age and motor, sensory or cognitive condition. To this end, it is necessary to eliminate existing obstacles and prevent the emergence of new barriers. In the implementation of measures that benefit accessibility, a systemic vision is underlying, which is transversal to the entire tourism chain [15]. In this sense, it is important that Accessible Tourism is not envisaged and idealized as a tourist product, a specific offer for a single market or a watertight and isolated action, but rather as a set of facilities that allow all people to enjoy tourist experiences and, consequently, contribute for the affirmation of tourist destinations, thus increasing their potential demand [7]. The commitment to Accessible Tourism also contributes to improving the quality of life of the local population. Furthermore, it allows higher levels of motivation for tourists with special needs to be higher, thus building a relationship of trust between tourist demand and supply, which consequently contributes to retaining and expanding the tourist market. Touristic destinations should take special attention to the kind of image that is communicating. On the one hand, being accessibility a competitive advantage in the present market context, on the other, not being long-term sustainable could compromise all the efforts applied to promote a destination [16]. The best results are achieved when accessibility and social tourism are conjointly promoted with other actions that contribute to certify the quality of spaces, in opposition to actions that simply design accessible paths [17]. Therefore, accessible tourism requires the mobilization of all the actors in the territory, who must build a culture of accessibility and apply it to the entire tourist chain and process. In order to favor an inclusive and transparent attitude towards all stakeholders and a spirit of continuous learning that provides the necessary knowledge to serve the public that values accessibility.

59.4 Methodology The collection of primary data was taken by the use of semi-structured interviews performed with nine stakeholders that more or less directly are active participants in the touristic activity of Barcelos. The preliminary results of the study concern the city

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of Barcelos and the use of the Access Monitor software in an attempt to understand the level of preparation of the websites of the city of Barcelos (digitization) for accessible tourism. [12] state that Access Monitor corresponds to a tool that “monitors the application of accessibility guidelines in HTML content” of a web page with reference to “version 2.0 of the accessibility guidelines for web content, WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) of the W3C—WCAG 2.0”. According to Unidade Acesso (2017), this tool is integrated into the Fundação da Ciência e Tecnologia and can be easily used without the need to download or use any specific system or platform. The instrument is accessed through the following URL http://accessmonitor. acessibilidade.gov.pt/amp/, then three possibilities arise to assess web accessibility. The first one is where you put the URL of the web page you want to evaluate, another where you insert the HTML code and still one where you load an HTML file. In this case, the first possibility will be used. By entering the URL, the page is evaluated and a score from 1 to 10 is displayed, as well as a small summary of what is included in that URL, such as the page size. Next, the page accessibility practices are evaluated, here it is evaluated by levels of accessibility between A, AA and AAA, with the last one being the most accessible. In the page accessibility practices, processes that need to be evaluated manually are still indicated. Finally, each practice found on the page is presented, allowing us to observe in detail what each one consists of. In a first analysis, the results obtained through the automatic evaluation carried out on the websites of hotel groups/management entities allow us to conclude that they have some accessibility conditions, however, they are far from what is essential to have full compliance with WCAG 2.0 standards. All are inaccessible and have high numbers of “Errors” and “Warnings” at checkpoints for compliance levels. Barcelos is a city and a municipality in Braga District in the Minho Province, in the north of Portugal. The population in 2011 was 120,391, in an area of 378.90 km2 . With 60 parishes, it is the municipality with the highest number of parishes in the country. It is one of the growing municipalities in the country and is well known for its textile and adobe industries, as well as it’s horseback riding events and “figurado” style of pottery, which are comical figurines with accentuated features of farmers, folk musicians and nativity scene characters [18]. Considering the growing importance of digital platforms in the promotion and dissemination of tourist products/services, this study aims to understand how organizations approach digital marketing, more specifically, with regard to marketing used in tourism for people with special needs (i.e. Barcelos in 2021). According to Cidades Portuguesas (2018), Barcelos is a city with legend, tradition and history. He adds that “it is also an important industrial center (…) with important companies in the ceramic sector and in the manufacture of artificial silk and cotton knitwear”. The city borders other important cities in the north, namely Braga, Viana do Castelo, Ponte de Lima, Famalicão, Póvoa de Varzim and Esposende. According to Pordata (2017), in 2016 Barcelos had 118,144 inhabitants, of which 16.1% corresponded to the elderly population (over 65 years old) and 13.8% to the young population (under 15 years old). The Municipality considers the inclusion and accessibility of the entire community to educational and sociocultural activities and equipment [8]. The same indicates that he has worked on the construction of the city, giving the example of the RAMPA project—Accessible Barcelos.

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The City Council (2019a) aims to promote “equal opportunities and citizenship for people with disabilities, reducing the impact of social, cultural, behavioral or physical barriers” in order to contribute to the inclusion and “participation of people with disabilities”. In 2014, Barcelos received the first prize “Most Accessible Municipality” in the area of Leisure, Heritage and Tourism. This award, developed by the National Institute for Rehabilitation, was awarded for the transformation carried out in the Medieval Tower [8].

59.5 Preliminary Results Using the Access Monitor tool, the website of the Barcelos Pottery Museum was evaluated, which has the following URL: http://www.museuolaria.pt/. The museum scored 6.8 on a scale of 1 to 10 and has a size of 28,842 bytes. If a score is higher than the midpoint of the scale, it is assumed that it meets some of the minimum points recommended by the web accessibility guidelines. In total, 14 practices were found in the Museum URL, 6 of them were considered acceptable, 4 were not acceptable and another 4 needed to be manually evaluated. Regarding the level of accessibility, there are two of high accessibility and 10 of minimum accessibility. One of the practices that need to be observed manually is high accessibility. Analyzing the results obtained in the different instruments selected to understand the accessibility of the tourist destination Barcelos, it is concluded that the city is partially accessible. In many of the spaces evaluated through the accessibility criteria, different elements already practiced were noted that correspond to some of the access requirements felt by people with special needs. Most of the requirements met meet the needs felt by people with reduced mobility, namely through ramps and grab bars. According to the answers obtained from the lady from the Medieval Tower, the Tourist Office also includes documents about the city in Braille, and even though Barcelos has an application that allows you to listen to audio-description and audioguides about some points of the city, including the one exposed in Medieval Tower. This implies that the person has, in a way, assistive technology available for use as a visually impaired person. Of all the spaces analyzed, the Pottery Museum appears to be the most accessible, framing aspects that cover a greater number of people in its design. In the study of its website, it can be seen that it complies with a large number of acceptable practices, obtaining an evaluation above the average point of 5 values. Coming to the conclusion that in terms of the web world the Pottery Museum still has aspects to improve. Even so, it is assumed that the space makes efforts to become accessible. However, as most of the points chosen, the information is not available in other formats and many of the aspects that make the spaces accessible to any type of person are not considered. In general, all have accessibility requirements that are not met. Therefore, everyone should invest in the use of universal design, accessible web design and information in comprehensive formats. It is intended to include as

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many people as possible and it is guaranteed that following these terms will satisfy not only tourists but even residents themselves. Barcelos is not a fully accessible city, but it is a city that perhaps, slowly, is making changes to meet the needs felt by its visitors and the residents themselves. Awareness-raising activities should be carried out both for companies in the city and for people from Barcelona so that the importance of accessibility in today’s world is known. Thus, we would allow people to participate actively in society, to live independently, with or without the use of assistive technology, and we would contribute to the non-discrimination of people due to their disability or disability. It would be left to understand them, not exclude them. And that will be the most important factor—understanding. Especially because only those who deal with discrimination and exclusion on a daily basis are aware of the pain, suffering and difficulty they feel. For that reason, these will be the best people to explain what changes need to be made in today’s world.

59.6 Final Considerations and Next Steps The present study tried to understand if the city of Barcelos, regarding the point of view of stakeholders, gathers Accessible Tourism conditions. Although the city of Barcelos presents some weaknesses in terms of accessibility, the interviewed recognize some potential for the practice of Accessible Tourism. Therefore, it is considered that it is essential that this segment must be carefully considered. People with disabilities have the same motivations at the moment of relaxing, leisure time and quality, since they prefer to invest in reliable tourism services. Comparatively to people with disability that contacts daily with barriers, people external to this problem has an extremely percolate view about this issue. So, it is easy to understand that disabled people have a privileged view about this phenomena. Many of the authors analysed use the social model to verify the problem. And, in fact, it seems to be the most correct perspective to adopt, as it does not see the individual as the problem. It is society that constantly excludes these people from actively participating. Well, we do not include them in our planning and we end up developing spaces, products and services that cannot satisfy them and form an obstacle that does not allow the person to enjoy their rights. For this reason, the barriers and needs they feel must be identified in order to be able to respond. And to do that, you need to establish links with people with disabilities and disabilities. They are the ones who are aware of the difficulties felt and, therefore, they are the ones who must be present in the investigation of their needs. It is important that society, stakeholders, companies and destinations come together to apply concepts such as universal design and frame accessibility. However, the universal design must at the same time be adapted because applying this principle does not exactly mean that everything becomes accessible. Hence it is necessary to know the needs that people feel. It may be necessary to apply stricter legislation in order to bring about this change. There will always be spaces that will respond to more needs of a certain type, but they must become capable of creating

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environments adapted to all types of needs. Technology will be crucial to support the creation of responses, as a single object may be able to respond to more than one access need. The challenge lies in knowing how to develop this technology in the right way so that its use and benefits are maximized. Therefore, the interaction with people with disabilities is important to know the aspects to improve. This would be a good opportunity to collect information related to the main needs and factors that inhibit the touristic practice. It is considered that it would be interesting to extend this study to local communities’ points of view, and, of course, the tourists with and without disabilities [5]. The present manuscript aimed to understand and analyse the accessible tourism in the specific context of Barcelos, with a special focus on people with motor disabilities. Preliminary results highlight the (increasing) importance of accessible tourism for the territories. However, there are many limitations that will have to be overcome and improved in the coming years. From an interdisciplinary perspective, the present study presents inputs for place marketing and accessible tourism.

References 1. Teixeira, P., Eusébio, C., Teixeira, L.: How diverse is hotel website accessibility? A study in the central region of Portugal using web diagnostic tools. Tour. Hosp. Res. 22(2), 180–195 (2022) 2. Darcy, S., Buhalis, D. (2011). Introduction: from disabled tourists to accessible tourism. In: Buhalis, D., Darcy, S. (Eds.), Accessible Tourism: Concepts and Issues, pp. 1–15. Reino Unido: Channel View Publications. 3. Sisto, R., Cappelletti, G.M., Bianchi, P., Sica, E.: Sustainable and accessible tourism in natural areas: a participatory approach. Curr. Issue Tour. 25(8), 1307–1324 (2022) 4. Darcy, S., Dickson, T.J.: A whole-of-life approach to tourism: the case for accessible tourism experiences. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 16(1), 32–44 (2009) 5. Caldas I., Sousa B., Sampaio H., Vareiro L., Machado H.: Accessible Tourism: Stakeholders Perspective in the City of Braga. In: de Carvalho, J.V., Rocha, Á., Liberato, P., Peña, A. (Eds.), Advances in tourism, technology and systems. ICOTTS 2020. Smart innovation, systems and technologies, vol. 208. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-42569_31 6. Caldas, I., Sampaio, H., Sousa, B., Machado, H.: O papel da tecnologia na monitorização de boas práticas para o Turismo Acessível na cidade de Braga (Portugal). Revista Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação (RISTI) E34, 309–320 (2020) 7. Lopes, S., Figueira, V., Venâncio, M.: Turismo e acessibilidade: o município de Lisboa. Rev. Tur. Desenvolv. 1(27/28), 333–347 (2017) 8. Loureiro, I.S., Sousa, B.B.: O turismo acessível como diferencial competitivo: o caso da cidade de Barcelos (Portugal). In: Menezes, P.D., Brambilla, A., Soares, A.L. (eds.), Perspetivas da gestão em turismo e hotelaria II, pp. 361–396. CCTA Editora (2020). ISBN: 978-65-5621-099-5 9. Meira, C., Martins, I.S., Sousa, B.B.: Accessible tourism and digital platforms: a study applied to the City of Viana do Castelo. In: Brandão, F., Breda, Z., Costa, R., Costa, C. (eds.), Handbook of Research on the Role of Tourism in Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, pp. 235–247. IGI Global (2021). http://doi:https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-5691-7.ch014 10. Gillovic, B., McIntosh, A.: Stakeholder perspectives of the future of accessible tourism in New Zealand. J. Tour. Futur. (2015) 11. Nyanjom, J., Boxall, K., Slaven, J.: Towards inclusive tourism? Stakeholder collaboration in the development of accessible tourism. Tour. Geogr. 20(4), 675–697 (2018)

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12. Macedo, C., Sousa, B.: A acessibilidade no etourism: Um estudo na ótica das pessoas portadoras de necessidades especiais. PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural 17(4), 709–723 (2019). https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2019.17.050 13. Pühretmair, F., Nussbaum, G.: Web design, assistive technologies and accessible tourism. In: Buhalis, D., Darcy, S. (eds.), Accessible Tourism: Concepts and Issues, pp. 274–286. Channel View Publications, Reino Unido (2011) 14. Michopoulou, E., Buhalis, D.: Technology platforms and challenges. In: Buhalis, D., Darcy, S. (Eds.), Accessible tourism: concepts and issues, pp. 287–299. Channel View Publications, Reino Unido (2011) 15. Fontes, A., Monteiro, I.: O Projecto "Lousã, Destino de Turismo Acessível": um estudo de caso da aplicação de uma abordagem sistémica ao Turismo Acessível. Rev. Tur. Desenvolv. J. Tour. Dev. 11, 61–72 (2009) 16. Smith, M., Amorim, E., Soares, C.: O turismo acessível como vantagem competitiva: implicações na imagem do destino turístico. PASOS Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural 11(3), 97–103 (2013) 17. Lopes, M., Liberato, D., Alén, E., Liberato, P.: Social tourism development and the population ageing: Case study in Portugal and Spain. In: Rocha, Á., Abreu, A., de Carvalho, J., Liberato, D., González, E., Liberato, P. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 171, pp. 527–536. Springer, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_46 18. Gonçalves, F.J.B., Costa, C.: Modelo de desenvolvimento e implementação do turismo criativo: o caso do Galo de Barcelos. Rev. Tur. Desenvolv. 32, 25–36 (2019). https://doi.org/10.34624/ rtd.v0i32.20438

Chapter 60

Is There an Economic Bias in Academic Success? Eleonora Santos , Milena Carvalho , and Susana Martins

Abstract This paper analyses whether schools with better scores in National Exams are in regions NUTs III with greater purchasing power. Accordingly, we analyse the evolution of the ranking of schools considering the purchasing power of the regions where they are located. Using data collected in the media, related to school rankings by region for 2008 and 2014 and in Pordata database for regional purchasing power in 2007 and 2011, we calculate location and specialization measures and perform a regional shift-share analysis. The results show that schools located in regions with very high and high purchasing powers rank first, and both structural and regional changes are positive. A notable exception is the region of Alto Alentejo with a medium purchasing power. In contrast, regions with low purchasing power show negative structural and regional changes. These results indicate that, with an exception, the gap between regions of low and high purchasing powers has been perpetuated.

60.1 Introduction The traditional approach both in secondary and higher education is no longer capable of satisfying the needs of strategic industries, in terms of qualified trainings [1]. Hence, high school graduation has become increasingly important as workers are progressively required to adapt to the uncertainties of a fast-changing economy [2]. Moreover, continuing education, beyond the compulsory years, is crucial for social cohesion, prosperity, and firms’ competitiveness [3]. Rural settings may hinder academic achievements in many ways [4–7]. Consequently, regional accessibility impacts on the quality of education [8–10]. Thus, our research question is: Do rural E. Santos (B) Centre of Applied Research in Management and Economics, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. Carvalho · S. Martins CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.PORTO, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim S/N, 4465-004 Matosinhos, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_60

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schools perform worse than those located in urban areas? Bearing this in mind, we compare the ranking of secondary schools with the regional purchasing power across Portuguese regions. Data on regional purchasing power by NUTs III regions were collected from Pordata. The average scores in the national exams by schools for 2008 were retrieved from a study by Sic Noticias, while the values for 2014 were obtained through a study carried out by the newspaper O Público. We also calculate measures of localization and specialization to assess the convergence/divergence between location and purchasing power. Finally, a shift-share analysis is carried out. Besides the introduction, Sect. 60.2 reviews the literature; Sect. 60.3 describes the data sources and the methodology; Sect. 60.4 presents and discusses the results; Sect. 60.5 concludes.

60.2 Literature Review Literature confirms the positive correlation between human capital accumulation and economic growth (e.g., [11–12]). A study [13] estimated that, for every additional year of schooling added to the adult population, economic growth is increased by 6–19% in the long term. There are several ways in which rural settings can limit academic achievement, namely, lack of specialized services, high-quality staff and educational funding, high staff turnover and teacher shortages [4–7]. Thus, regional accessibility impacts the quality of education [8–10]. Since school achievement is a strong predictor of long-run wealth [14], students in rural areas face more limited educational choices and lesser career opportunities than those of urban areas [6]. Socioeconomic factors have an impact on academic success. Lower economic status is associated with learning-related behaviour problems, inattention, disinterest, and lack of cooperation at school [15, 16], economic exclusion, and high drop-out rates [17]. Also, students’ achievements are related to school resources [18]. For example, a study [19] finds that investment in public school infrastructures increases standardized test scores in mathematics and Italian language. Another study [20] finds that exam scores are positively related to school size (measured by the number of students) and teachers’ salaries. The impact of school size on students’ performance was also found positive by [21] for Portugal. The school ownership (public/private) also influences students’ achievements. Several studies show that private schools deliver, on average, better education outcomes (e.g., [21], for Portugal and [22], for Spain). Likewise, intelligence among individuals is positively associated with a wide range of economic, social, and demographic phenomena, including educational attainment, intellectual achievement, income, and socioeconomic status [23]. Intelligence differences are also related to different regional outcomes within nations [24]. For example, a study [25] proposed that IQ differences among Indian regions were explained by educational differences arising from regional development inequalities. Since schools’ performance may differ from other factors besides location, a simple inspection of data does not make it possible to assess whether there are any fundamental factors behind the considerable differences in school performance. The role

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of school location on students’ performance was the subject of several studies (e.g., [26–27]), as well as the impact of socioeconomic factors (e.g., [28–30]).

60.3 Data and Methodology Using data collected in the media, related to school rankings by region for 2008 and 2014 and in Pordata database for regional purchasing power in 2007 and 2011, we calculate location and specialization measures and perform a regional shift-share analysis. We collected data on regional purchasing power by NUTs III region from Pordata database. Regarding education performance, researchers typically employ state exam scores or PISA tests. This paper uses the average scores in the national exams by schools, from a study carried out by Sic Noticias in 2008, whereas the values for 2014 were obtained through a study carried out by the newspaper O Público. Bearing in mind the previous findings in the literature, we assume: Hypothesis 1 (H1) High Schools located in rural areas show worse performances measured by scores in National Exams than those located in urban areas. We compare data for 2008 and 2014, the last year available. Then, we listed the schools by NUTs III region. In 2008, the minimum and maximum scores were “7” and “15” in a total of 492 schools, while in 2014, the minimum and maximum scores were “6” and “14” in a total of 621 schools. We calculate location and specialization measures to assess the convergence/divergence between the locations of schools/purchasing power. The location quotient (LQ) is a measure of relative specialization, and it is most often used in the literature [31–33]. In this study, it measures the relative concentration of the i scores in region j and it is calculated as follows: L Oi j =

xi j /xi xi / X

(60.1)

where the numerator measures the concentration i scores in the schools of region j and the denominator the concentration of the classification i at the national level. The indicator is zero when the classification does not exist in region i and may be higher than 1 if the classification weight is higher than the national level. The location quotient not only allows to elaborate an internal characterization of the regions but also compares each region with the Country. The analysis of its evolution over time, in particular by means of descriptive statistics, enables a more dynamic understanding of the regions’ performance and their interrelations. Thus, even though its results should be interpreted with caution [32], due to its simplicity, the location quotient is a useful tool to assist policymakers regarding the design of policies aimed at reducing regional asymmetries [34]. The location coefficient (LC) compares the share of the average regional scores with the share of the average scores at the national level. It

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is calculated as Σ LC i j =

j ([X i j

− X j ])

2

(60.2)

where Xij represents the i scores of schools in region j and Xj represents the i scores at the national level. The closer the coefficient is to 1 the more the average score is different from the one at national level. The coefficient of specialization relates the share of the average regional scores and the share of the average national scores, being calculated as Σ Ei =

j

|X/X i − X i / X | 2

(60.3)

If the indicator is zero, there is no specialization in region i in relation to the country. The closer the indicator is to 1, the greater the specialization of region i when compared to the national standard. Finally, we applied a shift-share analysis, to decompose the purchasing power between two periods of time, into three components: the regional growth rate; the rate of change in the region in the period; and the rate of change at the national level. The “structural component” measures the difference between the potential growth rate of the region and the growth rate at the national level, while the “regional component” measures the difference between the regional growth rate and the regional potential growth rate.

60.4 Results and Discussion The location quotients for 2008 are shown in Fig. 60.1. The region of Lisbon has the highest incidence of higher scores followed by Baixo Mondego, Porto, and Setúbal, and this incidence is higher than the national average. The lowest scores were found in the regions of Porto, Alto Alentejo, Beira Interior Norte, Alentejo Central, Douro, Dão Lafões, and Ave. In these regions, the incidence of scores between 7 and 8 is much higher than the national average (Fig. 60.2). In 2008, the regions of Alto Alentejo, Pinhal Interior Sul, Serra da Estrela, Alto Trás-os-Montes, and Beira Interior Sul were the regions where the average scores differ more from that at the national level. On the other hand, the regions of Setúbal, Cávado, Lezíria do Tejo, and Tâmega have average scores closer to the national average. The analysis of the standard deviation of location quotients (Table 60.1) shows that the regions of Alto Trás-os-Montes, Alto Alentejo, Porto, and Beira Interior Norte display higher discrepancies between average scores. By contrast, the regions whose scores are closer to the mean are Serra da Estrela, Pinhal Interior Sul, Cova da Beira, and Minho-Lima.

Regions

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Lezíria do Tejo Baixo Alentejo Alentejo Central Alto Alentejo Alentejo Litoral Península Setúbal Grande Lisboa MédioTejo Oeste Cova da Beira Beira Interior Sul Beira Interior Norte Serra da Estrela Pinhal Interior Sul Dão Lafões Pinhal Interior Norte Pinhal Litoral Baixo Mndego Baixo Vouga Algarve Alto Trás-os-Montes Douro Entre Douro e Vouga Tâmega Grande Porto Ave Cávado Minho-Lima

0

4 7

8

9

8 Location quocients 10 11 12 13

12 14

16 15

Fig. 60.1 Location quotients across NUTs III regions, 2008 5 4

Mean

3 Standard deviation

2 0

Minho-Lima Cávado Ave Grande Porto Tâmega Entre Douro e… Douro Alto Trás-os-… Algarve Baixo Vouga Baixo Mondego Pinhal Litoral Pinhal Interior… Dão Lafões Pinhal Interior Sul Serra da Estrela Beira Interior… Beira Interior Sul Cova da Beira Oeste Médio Tejo Grande Lisboa Península de… Alentejo Litoral Alto Alentejo Alentejo Central Baixo Alentejo Lezíria do Tejo

1

Fig. 60.2 Mean and standard deviation, across NUTs III region, 2008

Figures 60.3 and 60.4 show the same analysis for 2014. The overall scores have worsened compared to 2008, with minimum and maximum values between 6 and 14. The ranking of schools underwent deep changes with the region of Baixo Mondego taking the lead of the highest scores, followed by Lisbon and Algarve. Porto ranks in 6th. The worst performances were found in Alto Alentejo, Lisbon, Cova da Beira, Douro, Tâmega, Porto, and Beira Interior Norte. The regions of Alto Alentejo and Cova da Beira have a very high incidence of scores 6 and 7, which is much higher than the national average. The regions of Alto Alentejo, Cova da Beira, Serra da Estrela, and Beira Interior Norte show average scores with higher incidence than the

736 Table 60.1 Location coefficient by NUTs III region, 2008 and 2014

E. Santos et al. Regions

2008

2014

Minho-Lima

0.37

0.34

Cávado

0.52

0.43

Ave

0.45

0.58

Grande Porto

0.45

0.26

Tâmega

0.42

0.31

Entre Douro e Vouga

0.49

0.45

Douro

0.81

0.78

Alto Trás-os-Montes

0.74

0.37

Algarve

0.39

0.39

Baixo Vouga

0.42

0.49

Baixo Mondego

0.38

0.42

Pinhal Litoral

0.62

0.54

Pinhal Interior Norte

0.57

0.56

Dão Lafões

0.39

0.56

Pinhal Interior Sul

1.49

0.44

Serra da Estrela

1.49

1.27

Beira Interior Norte

0.53

0.70

Beira Interior Sul

1.18

0.50

Cova da Beira

1.02

0.61

Oeste

0.32

0.39

Médio Tejo

0.88

0.50

Grande Lisboa

0.39

0.31

Península de Setúbal

0.50

0.28

Alentejo Litoral

0.46

0.40

Alto Alentejo

1.28

1.33

Alentejo Central

0.68

0.67

Baixo Alentejo

0.69

0.27

Lezíria do Tejo

0.29

0.61

national average. In contrast, the regions of Lezíria do Tejo, Setúbal, and Dão Lafões tend to behave like the national average. In terms of discrepancy of these classifications, we highlight Alto Alentejo with a very high dispersion and Cova da Beira and Beira Interior Norte with a moderate dispersion. The regions of Serra da Estrela, Alentejo Litoral, Ave, Baixo Alentejo, and Pinhal Interior Sul are among those that had a smaller discrepancy in terms of average scores. Comparing the average regional location quotient in 2008 and 2014, there is a clear change in the performance of some regions, such as Alto Alentejo, Cova da Beira, Serra da Estrela, Beira Interior Sul, Alto Trás- os-Montes, and Pinhal Interior Sul. Table 60.1 shows that in 2008, the regions whose scores differ most from

Regions

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Lezíria do Tejo Baixo Alentejo Alentejo Central Alto Alentejo Alentejo Litoral Península de Setúbal Grande Lisboa Médio Tejo Oeste Cova da Beira Beira Interior Sul Beira Interior Norte Serra da Estrela Pinhal Interior Sul Dão Lafões Pinhal Interior Norte Pinhal Litoral Baixo Mondego Baixo Vouga Algarve Alto Trás-os-Montes Douro Entre Douro e Vouga Tâmega Grande Porto Ave Cávado Minho-Lima

0 6

10 7

8

9

20 30 40 Location quocients 10 11 12 13 14

50

60

Fig. 60.3 Location quotients across NUTs III regions, 2014

16 12 8 0

Minho-Lima Cávado Ave Grande Porto Tâmega Entre Douro e… Douro Alto Trás-os-… Algarve Baixo Vouga Baixo Mondego Pinhal Litoral Pinhal Interior… Dão Lafões Pinhal Interior… Serra da Estrela Beira Interior… Beira Interior… Cova da Beira Oeste Médio Tejo Grande Lisboa Península de… Alentejo Litoral Alto Alentejo Alentejo Central Baixo Alentejo Lezíria do Tejo

4

Mean

Standard deviation

Fig. 60.4 Mean and standard deviation, across NUTs III region, 2014

those at the national level are Pinhal Interior Sul, Serra da Estrela, Alto Alentejo, Beira Interior Sul, and Cova da Beira. Table 60.2 shows that, in 2008, regions were specialized in the lowest scores of 7–8 and the highest score of 15, while in 2014 there is a regional specialization in average scores of 6–7. Table 60.3 summarizes the results of the shift-share analysis for the NUTs III regions.

738 Table 60.2 Coefficients of specialization, 2008 and 2014

Table 60.3 Analysis of the components of variation, 2008–2014

E. Santos et al. Scores

2008

2014

6

0.00

0.83

7

0.88

0.73

8

0.81

0.43

9

0.29

0.21

10

0.26

0.13

11

0.12

0.16

12

0.26

0.36

13

0.55

0.58

14

0.59

0.50

15

0.83

0.00

Structural component

Positive

Negative

Regional component Positive

Negative

Lezíria do Tejo Alto Alentejo Alentejo Central Alentejo Litoral Algarve

Grande Porto Baixo Mondego Grande Lisboa Baixo Alentejo Península de Setúbal

Baixo Vouga

Cova da Beira

Beira Interior Sul

Médio Tejo

Oeste

Alto Trás-os-Montes

Entre Douro e Vouga

Pinhal Interior Norte

Tâmega

Beira Interior Norte

Ave

Serra da Estrela

Minho-Lima

Pinhal Interior Sul

Pinhal Litoral Douro Dão-Lafões Cávado

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739

The only regions with a positive structural and regional component are southern regions Lezíria do Tejo, Alto Alentejo, Alentejo Central, Alentejo Litoral, and Algarve. The structural and regional components are negative in Cova da Beira, Médio Tejo, Alto Trás-os-Montes, Pinhal Interior Norte, Beira Interior Norte, Serra da Estrela, and Pinhal Interior Sul. Table 60.4 shows the purchasing power of the regions in 2007 and 2011. There were some changes in purchasing power in the regions: Algarve went from very high to high, Médio Tejo and Cávado moved from medium to high, Alto Trás-os-Montes and Douro moved from low to medium.1 The choice of years is dependent of data availability. Tables 60.3 and 60.4 suggest that regional purchasing power is related to positive structural and regional performances, confirming H2. Indeed, only regions with high or very high purchasing power have a potential for growth higher than the national average. However, the regional component was only positive for regions with high purchasing power. For regions with very high purchasing power, the regional component was negative. In 80% of cases, only regions with high purchasing power have been able to grow at a rate higher than their potential growth rate. The regions with high and medium purchasing power, with negative structural components and positive regional structural components, represent 45% of total regions, which implies that these regions grew less than the country but more than their potential. In 2014, most of the Mainland regions fit into medium and high purchasing power categories. As expected, the regions with low purchasing power show both negative evolution of structural and regional components (Pinhal Interior Norte, Pinhal Interior Sul, and Serra da Estrela) or negative evolution of the structural component (Tâmega). These findings confirm H1. Education is a broad and complex topic. We examine the patterns of academic success inequality at regional level and argue that the socioeconomic status of region is a factor which contributes to educational inequality. Evidence suggests that educational disparities persist throughout every level of education. Several studies proposed a range of initiatives, interventions, and policies that have promised of being effective in enhancing student commitment (e.g., [4–5, 35–37]). For example, [20] suggests that the quality of education would benefit from structural reforms involving school mergers and by raises in teacher salaries. However, the reality of the educational environment so far has shown that there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to the required changes. Indeed, despite public interventions, extensive achievement gaps remain between the Portuguese regions. In this context, one must acknowledge the need of reviewing economic and social policies that affect the education environment, rather than just the educational policies that promote student segregation regarding potential opportunities. Limitations of this study include the lack of more recent data to corroborate these findings.

740 Table 60.4 Classification of the purchasing power by NUTs III region, 2007 and 2011

E. Santos et al. 2007 Very High

2011

Grande Lisboa

Grande Lisboa

Grande Porto

Grande Porto

Península de Setúbal

Península de Setúbal

Algarve

Baixo Mondego

Baixo Mondego

High

Alentejo Litoral

Alentejo Litoral

Lezíria do Tejo

Lezíria do Tejo

Pinhal Litoral

Pinhal Litoral

Alentejo Central

Alentejo Central

Oeste

Oeste

Baixo Vouga

Baixo Vouga

Beira Interior Sul

Beira Interior Sul Cávado Médio Tejo Algarve

Medium

Low

Médio Tejo

Alto Alentejo

Alto Alentejo

Entre Douro e Vouga

Cávado

Baixo Alentejo

Entre Douro e Vouga

Cova da Beira

Baixo Alentejo

Ave

Cova da Beira

Minho-Lima

Ave

Dão Lafões

Minho-Lima

Beira Interior Norte

Dão Lafões

Alto Trás-os-Montes

Beira Interior Norte

Douro

Alto Trás-os-Montes

Pinhal Interior Norte

Douro

Serra da Estrela

Pinhal Interior Norte

Tâmega

Serra da Estrela

Pinhal Interior Sul

Tâmega Pinhal Interior Sul

60.5 Conclusion In 2008, the biggest urban centres (Lisbon, Coimbra, Porto, and Setubal) showed higher incidence of highest scores, being this incidence superior to that of the country. The worst performances were found in Porto, Alto Trás-os-Montes, Alto Alentejo, Beira Interior Norte, Alentejo Central, Douro, Dão Lafões, and Ave. In 2014,

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Coimbra took the lead off the highest scores, followed by Lisbon and Algarve. The worst performers were Alto Alentejo, Lisbon, Cova da Beira, Douro, Tâmega, Porto, and Beira Interior Norte. The regions of Alto Alentejo and Cova da Beira showed a high incidence of average scores of 6–7. In 2014, the regions of Tâmega, Lisbon, Setubal, Baixo Alentejo, and Porto converged to the national average. Regarding specialization, in 2008, the regions were specialized in scores 7–8 and 15, while in 2014, they specialized in scores of 6–7. Regions with greater purchasing powers tend to have better scores. Thus, the purchasing power seems to be a relevant factor for the academic success. This portrait of regional inequality and the preliminary discussions are used as a starting point to begin overhauling the inequalities and to aim a fairer forthcoming educational scenario for Portugal. Moreover, future research will explore the impact of other socioeconomic variables on students’ performance in Portugal. Acknowledgements This research was financed by the National Funds of the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology within the project UIDB/04928/2020 and under the Scientific Employment Stimulus—Institutional Call CEECINST/00051/2018.

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Chapter 61

The Role of the Balanced Scorecard as a Differentiating Factor for Education Marketing Ana Catarina Azevedo, Patrícia Quesado , Bruno Sousa , and Alexandrino Ribeiro Abstract The objective of this study is to elaborate a proposal for the implementation of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), as a differentiating factor for sustainable marketing, in Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) contexts. The aim is to promote and increase improvements in organizational performance and safeguard the need to assess this performance which, in addition to the integrated vision based on financial perspective indicators, takes into account other perspectives with non-financial indicators (e.g. sustainability). A qualitative case study was carried out. From the study carried out, the authors observed that the BSC proved to be a tool capable of providing work teams with an integrated vision of the strategic management carried out by the company, noting that the success of its implementation requires a consensus and involvement of the entire global sustainable structure of the company. From an interdisciplinary perspective, this study aims to contribute to knowledge in the area of financial management, marketing and sustainability in companies. Future studies should allow a generalization of the results through a quantitative study with stakeholders.

A. C. Azevedo · A. Ribeiro Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Ribeiro e-mail: [email protected] P. Quesado CICF, CICF and Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Vila Frescainha, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] B. Sousa (B) Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA) and CiTUR, Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_61

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61.1 Introduction The new economic environment triggered the need to face and reformulate the critical success factors of companies, where performance assessment based on financial indicators lost strength and gave way to indicators that focus on the satisfaction and pursuit of customer needs, in procedures adopted by the company in the course of its production process and/or provision of services and in enhancing the competences and aptitudes of the company’s workers. Thus, with the growth at a breakneck pace of the information and communication media, organizations felt the need to find solutions capable of keeping them active in the market [21]. In order to face the complex economic context, strategic planning and strategic management are indispensable factors that allow aligning strategic efficiency with strategic positioning, capable of supporting responsible and sustainable business decisions [15, 27]. Therefore, the use of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) has become crucial as it presents itself as a management tool capable of guaranteeing and directing the company’s activities, safeguarding the vision and strategy, introducing improvements in terms of communication, monitoring performance organizational, enshrining the defined strategic purposes, translating information that highlights the sustainable development and evolution of the organization [9].

61.2 The Balanced Scorecard Currently, organizations are the target of multiple threats arising from the complex economic context that the world is going through. At a time when we are witnessing major changes as a result of strong globalization, there is high competitiveness in the market where it is essential that organizations increase an ideology of continuous improvement with regard to customer satisfaction, always safeguarding their expectations and that they recognize the importance of developing new methodologies and new management tools that are capable of measuring and “mirroring” the performance of organizations. The new environment, extremely competitive, came to intensely reformulate the critical success factors of organizations, where the integration of common functions of organizations, the adaptation of products and services provided to all types of customers, the removal of borders as an obstacle to competition and the benefit derived from the knowledge and skills of workers “destroyed” the performance evaluation based only on financial indicators [3]. Given the multiple demands placed on organizations on a daily basis by their customers, namely with regard to the quality and efficiency of the services provided, it was easily understood that the information provided only by financial indicators constituted a strong obstacle to their growth and consequent creation value [8]. Thus, with the growth at a breakneck pace of the information and communication media, organizations felt the need to find solutions capable of keeping them active in the market, in order to fulfill their financial and above all non-financial goals as is the case of strengthening of the

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relationship with its customers, the continuous improvement of the organizations’ internal processes and their sustained performance [21]. The BSC assures management that all employees of the organization, regardless of the hierarchical position they occupy, understand and put into practice the long-term strategy outlined by the organization, in order to ensure compliance with the objectives they are trying to meet [2]. According to Kaplan and Norton [14], with the purpose of creating value, managers increasingly abdicate from the traditional management of tangible assets to focus on strategies that address knowledge and enhance the intangible assets of their organizations. Thus, This management tool makes it possible to highlight the strategic vision outlined by the organization, through the combination of a complex and balanced set of indicators, whose main purpose is to convert the mission and strategic objectives into real actions, capable of helping organizations to meet to the needs of its consumers, to improve internal communication, so that employees understand the importance of their collaboration in fulfilling the organizational mission, encouraging improvements in services provided and continuous learning [24]. In this sense, the BSC reveals itself as a viable and extremely useful tool to support an integrated approach to strategic management, essential in the long term, with a view to establishing the competitive bases of SMEs, taking into account that the BSC, when applied and adapted to characteristics and reality of this type of company, can be useful not only as a source of improvement opportunities but also as a mechanism capable of detecting threats and problems (Souto et al. 2003). According to the aforementioned authors, SMEs, with the acknowledgment of the BSC, can carry out an integrated assessment based on financial and non-financial indicators (e.g. sustainability) that allow them to have management adapted to reality and oriented towards the outside, which is essential for maintenance and development constant competitive advantages, as well as to ensure its maintenance and permanence in the market.

61.3 Sustainability and Responsible Marketing It is important to take into account the more flexible and informal management present in SMEs, as it may conflict with the high involvement of human and financial resources that the application of the BSC requires for its correct functioning [8]. For the aforementioned authors, it is always, in the first instance, the entrepreneurs to urgently change their mentalities and, in the second instance, the managers to safeguard the availability of all necessary, timely and reliable information based on strategic resources. There is a direct relationship between the size and organizational structure and the management process of SMEs, since with the increase in the size of the company, they tend to act more rationally with regard to development and the decision-making process [4, 6]. However, it is equally important to mention that the managers of SMEs, for the most part, do not have the time to consecrate complex management tools such as the BSC, nor do they have the necessary knowledge and experience that its implementation implies [16]. Firms aim at achieving their

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economic interests without neglecting the needs of local and regional communities and the environment itself. The process involves defining and implementing Social Responsibility strategies that leverage organizational competitiveness and sustainability [26]. For instance, sustainability is a topic that is currently being discussed and constantly adapting, since it is related not only to an ecologically correct posture and strategy but also economically viable and socially equitable. Therefore, the importance given by the media to the theme of ecology, and sustainability has led to a growing concern among the population. Social Responsibility for companies can be understood as an investment that creates benefits for the company, society and the environment. In this way, Social Responsibility can be integrated as a policy or into the main business strategies, allowing the organization to improve its competitive advantage, which can be a relevant component to differentiate itself from the competition and maintain sustainable relationships with stakeholders. According to Santos et al. [25], organizations must therefore adapt ethical strategies to optimize organizational performance, based on individual and collective responsibility, based on and defended by universal principles (Days, 2014). From the perspective of Costa (2013), business ethics are increasingly valued and many consumers take ethical attitudes of the organization into account in their purchasing decision, this concern contributes to organizations having new perspectives and developing new strategies of action for ethical consumption that now arise in business and in the characterization of ethical consumers. For instance according to Santos et al. [25], KPI—key performance indicators, of commercial ethics in marketing campaigns, the management tools to perform the measurement and consequent level of ethical performance and success of the objectives set by the company—are defined. The key indicators for assessing the performance of business ethics in marketing campaigns should include the following areas: identification; integration; data collection and analysis; e-commerce; promotion and advertising; value chain; customer relationships; ethical, social and sustainable practices; productivity; corporate responsibility; 4Ps of business ethics. After identifying the crucial areas and actions inherent to them, SMEs to evaluate the performance.

61.4 Methodology and Discussion In order to respond to the main objective defined for this work—designing a proposal for implementing the BSC in the specific context of an SME, we chose to adopt the qualitative research method. Data collection was based on three sources of information: semi-structured interviews were carried out, in which the interview guides were drawn up, directed to the context and reality of the various departments that make up the company under study; non-participant observation by the investigator; and analysis of the company’s various internal and financial documents. The interviews carried out, within the scope of the case study, were intended to obtain data that would allow establishing the critical success factors that work as a necessary premise for the development of the BSC as a differentiating factor for strategic management. During

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this study, it was possible to verify that the departments and employees interviewed did not know the BSC nor were they aware of the benefits arising from this management tool. However, in the interviews carried out with the various departments of the company, the desire to adopt new management tools that are capable of instilling improvements in the company’s performance, especially with regard to the involvement of all employees in the pursuit of objectives, was perfectly noticeable (in order to safeguard the excellence, rigor and quality of the final product and/or service). It was possible to verify that the company did not implement any Quality Management Systems (QMS), even though they were designed, although it recognized the need to change the procedures and methods used so far. As envisaged by the Quality Management and Improvement department, which is in line with what Gomes and Saraiva [8], given the multiple and growing demands imposed by customers regarding the quality of goods and efficiency of services, it is not at all It is enough that the company focuses only on financial indicators and the reduction of the cost structure in isolation. It was possible to verify, during the interview with the person responsible for Financial Accounting, that the company still adopts traditional accounting marked by the absence of management procedures. In order to comply with the financial objectives, which include increasing profits, reducing the cost structure, increasing production capacity and safeguarding financial and investment capacity, it is essential to adopt management accounting mechanisms and tools capable of helping the evaluation of the company’s performance, namely the strict control of raw materials used in production, with a view to achieving high levels of efficiency and effectiveness, constant monitoring of financial information, constant attention to potential business opportunities and strategies in the application of assets and investment. SMEs have a series of specificities that distinguish them from other organizations. In view of the extremely competitive environment, which entails a series of challenges for this type of company, for example, the need to establish continuous improvements in the production process and the quality of products/services, being able to respond to the needs expressed by its customers and being able to stay ahead of the competition, it is extremely important that SMEs adopt new management tools capable of supporting them in the performance assessment process and in strategic decision-making, since strategic planning in SMEs has a direct impact in its performance as it allows for a balance between short-term operational objectives and medium/long-term strategic objectives. In this way, the BSC allows SME managers to respond to some basic strategic questions such as: clearly defining the direction and direction they wish to follow and give the company; have a deep knowledge of your business, constantly evaluating the performance of the company and whether it is doing everything it really needs to for the purpose of creating value; have the ability to focus and set priorities and, finally, to stimulate and increase the ideology of continuous improvement, capable of incorporating new knowledge in the definition of strategy and operational planning. In the process of building the BSC for the company, the two basic conditions imposed by the BSC were safeguarded, that is, the strategic analysis carried out through an internal analysis of the company using the SWOT analysis and the five forces model of Porter and the formulation

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of the strategy where it was essential to define and clarify the three pillars of the company: mission, vision and values. After considering these two premises together, the process of building the BSC began with the definition and translation of the four perspectives presented by Kaplan and Norton—financial, customers, internal processes and learning and growth, duly adapted and framed with the reality experienced by the company, through which it was possible to identify and translate the company’s strategic objectives and the respective critical success factors that guarantee their fulfillment. Together with the company’s Management, it was possible to outline the performance indicators that will monitor each of the strategic objectives outlined and also identify the goals that the company intends to achieve in the future.

61.5 Final Considerations Starting with the preparation and construction of the BSC for the company under study and despite being a small company where a large part of its human capital does not know the BSC as a management tool or the benefits of its applicability, it is clearly the desire to develop new management tools capable of improving the company’s performance and which is able to encourage the involvement of all employees in the pursuit of the objectives defined by the company and which instills in them the benefits of “constant knowledge” is notorious, as only then can they offer the best product/service to your customers. It was possible to conclude that, although the process of creating the BSC has to be faster and simpler when applied to small companies, since the organizational structures themselves are also less complex and smaller, it is perfectly possible to be carried out and adopted, and for this, it is crucial that managers are able to collaborate in linking the long-term strategic goals with the short-term actions initially defined and that, at the same time, they have an integrated vision based on indicators from the financial perspective, but also on non-financial metrics equally critical to the company’s success—internal processes, customers and learning and growth. The study carried out contributes to highlighting to the analyzed company the potential and importance of the BSC in an evolving context of strategic management, namely in improving the performance of an SME in an increasingly competitive and demanding market, through the establishment of a guide with guidelines for the implementation of the BSC and the possibility of its articulation with the management systems, namely with the SGQ. Organizations must therefore adapt ethical strategies to optimize organizational performance, based on individual and collective responsibility, based on and defended by universal principles (Days, 2014). From the perspective of Santos et al. [25], business ethics are increasingly valued and many consumers take ethical attitudes of the organization into account in their purchasing decision, this concern contributes to organizations having new perspectives and developing new strategies of action for ethical consumption that now arise in business and in the characterization of ethical consumers. Ethical consumption develops towards sustainability,

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giving rise to a new term, sustainable consumption. The growing proliferation of ethical culture has attracted the interest of organizations seeking to meet the needs of individuals and as such could not reject this new business trend as well as a new consumer segment [5]. Tallontire et al. (2001) identify three types of consumers: (1) activists, (2) ethical and (3) semi-ethical. Activists, the main advocates of ethical consumption, want to know about the actions in order to persuade other consumers to know and try ethical products; ethical consumers want to know more about the ethical products they buy; and finally, semi-ethicals who consume irregular ethical products can be influenced to buy more. The idea presented by Quesado et al. [23, 24] is that one of the great qualities of the BSC is the flexibility of its application to the activity and particularities of each organization, allowing a quick global view of the same, gains strength when applied to the specific context of the company. The application of the BSC as a differentiating factor for strategic management at XYZ, Lda. will allow, in our opinion, a set of advantages, highlighting: the clear and objective definition of the strategy and strategic objectives in the short, medium and long term; the alignment of strategic objectives with action plans/initiatives to be developed in order to guarantee compliance; improvements in responsiveness to possible changes in the market; improvements in the transmission of information and communication of the strategy throughout the company, in order to encourage its involvement in the pursuit of defined strategic objectives; improvements in the cost structure, thanks to a more efficient and effective production through the rationalization of the raw materials used, which therefore allows an increase in the profit margin; better coordination and consensus of human resources essential to the implementation of strategic plans; a greater awareness of customer needs, which allows for an increase in the range of products and/or services offered, respecting high quality standards, conquering new customers and markets and retaining existing ones; increasing the skills of the company’s workers, through investment in continuous training; increasing employee motivation and satisfaction, through recognition and appreciation mechanisms, among others. For instance, according to Santos et al. [25], KPI—key performance indicators, of commercial ethics in marketing campaigns, the management tools to perform the measurement and consequent level of ethical performance and success of the objectives set by the company—are defined. The key indicators for assessing the performance of business ethics in marketing campaigns should include the following areas: identification; integration; data collection and analysis; e-commerce; promotion and advertising; value chain; customer relationships; ethical, social and sustainable practices; productivity; corporate responsibility; 4Ps of business ethics. After identifying the crucial areas and actions inherent to them, SMEs to evaluate the performance. The study was carried out subject to a limitation arising from the fact that the objective was to prepare a BSC proposal for a small company when, in practice, it is a management tool heavily used by large companies. On the other hand, with regard to the research methodology used, the limited departmentalization of the company, typical of a family business and limited data collection. In a qualitative research, conducting interviews plays a preponderant role in data collection, as there are aspects that cannot be obtained through bibliographic research or observation.

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In this way, the fact that there is no greater defragmentation of departments, as happens in a larger company, implies that those responsible accumulate functions in the most varied areas, making the interviews more exhaustive as the same respondent was responsible for more than one Department. Another limitation was the fact that only one BSC proposal was presented, where it was not possible to test the model and the proposal conceived in a real context, as well as the advantages and critical aspects of its practical applicability within the company under study. The study carried out will certainly be a starting point for possible future investigations. In order to overcome the limitation related to the fact that the study is only an implementation proposal, in the future it would be interesting to analyze each of the planned and suggested phases of the BSC, to understand which limitations of the company under study may compromise the success of the BSC, evaluate the advantages of its practical applicability, realize the need to increase improvements in strategy formulation, periodically and systematically review the defined strategies and make the necessary adjustments through a new alignment between strategic objectives and action/improvement plans, modifying them if necessary. The future objective will also include extending the study to a greater number of SMEs, in the same sector of activity, in order to be able to contribute to the increase in studies relating to the applicability of the BSC in the specific context of SMEs. Acknowledgements This study was conducted at the Research Center on Accounting and Taxation (CICF) and was funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through national funds (UIDB/04043/2020 and UIDP/04043/2020).

References 1. Andersen, H., Cobbold, I., & Lawrie, G.: Balanced Scorecard implementation in SMEs: reflection on literature and practice. In: 2GC Active Management, pp. 1–12. Copenhaga, Dinamarca (2001) 2. Antunes, M., Mucharreira, P.R.: Os Intangíveis no Balanced Scorecard: a sua relevância na gestão empresarial e na estratégia do negócio. Port. J. Financ. Manag. Account. 1(1), 105–120 (2015) 3. Azeitão, J., Roberto, J.: O planeamento estratégico e a gestão estratégica nas PME. Revista TOC 120, 57–68 (2010) 4. Basuony, M.: The balanced scorecard in large firms and SMEs: a critique of the nature, value and application. Account. Financ. Res. 3(2), 14–22 (2014) 5. Carrington, M.J., Neville, B.A., Whitwell, G.J.: Why ethical consumers don’t walk their talk: towards a framework for understanding the gap between the ethical purchase intentions and actual buying behaviour of ethically minded consumers. J. Bus. Ethics 97(1), 139–158 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0501-6 6. Figueiredo, I.: Desenvolvimento do Balanced Scorecard num PME industrial. Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Projeto de Mestrado (2016) 7. Giannopoulos, G., Holt, A., Khansalar, E., Cleanthous, S.: The use of the balanced scorecard in small companies. Int. J. Bus. Manag. 8(14), 1–22 (2013) 8. Gomes, M., Saraiva, H.: A implementação e utilização do Balanced Scorecard numa PME do Setor Textil. Port. J. Financ. Manag. Account. 5(10), 3–22 (2019)

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9. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: The balanced scorecard - measures that drive performance. Harv. Bus. Rev. 70, 71–79 (1992) 10. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: Putting the balanced scorecard to work. Harv. Bus. Rev. 71(5), 134–147 (1993) 11. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: Using the balanced scorecard as a strategic management system. Harv. Bus. Rev. 74(1), 75–85 (1996) 12. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: Translating Strategy into Action: The Balanced Scorecard. Harvard Business School Press, New York (1996) 13. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: Linking the balanced scorecard to strategy. Calif. Manage. Rev. 39(1), 53–79 (1996) 14. Kaplan, R., Norton, D.: Transforming the balanced scorecard from performance measurement to strategic management: part I. Account. Horiz. 15(1), 87–104 (2001) 15. Keding, C.: Understanding the interplay of artificial intelligence and strategic management: four decades of research in review. Manag. Rev. Q. 71(1), 91–134 (2021) 16. Lin, C.: Success factors of small- and medium- sized enterprises in Taiwan: an analysis of cases. J. Small Bus. Manag. 36(4), 43–56 (1998) 17. Marques, S.: Proposta de Implementação do Balanced Scorecard numa Indústria Têxtil. Projeto de Mestrado em Contabilidade e Finanças, Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e do Ave, Barcelos (2020) 18. Martins, F.: Balanced Scorecard - Aplicação Prática na Fapricela, S.A. Dissertação de Mestrado em Gestão Empresarial, Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração de Coimbra, Coimbra (2019) 19. Matos, J.: Desenvolvimento de uma Balanced Scorecard para uma PME. Dissertação de Mestrado em Contabilidade, ISCTE Business School, Lisboa (2020) 20. Quesado, P.: Factores determinantes de la implementación del cuadro de mando integral en organizaciones públicas y privadas portuguesas. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Tese de Doutoramento (2010) 21. Quesado, P., Letras, C.: O Balanced Scorecard como Ferramenta de Gestão Estratégica no Setor Bancário. Eur. J. Appl. Bus. Manag. 1(1), 19–39 (2015) 22. Quesado, P., & Marques, S.: O Balanced Scorecard como Ferramenta de Gestão Estratégica no Setor Têxtil. XIX Encuentro AECA. Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Guarda (2020) 23. Quesado, P., Rodrigues, L., Guzmán, B.: Ventajas y aportaciones del Cuadro de Mando Integral: un análisis bibliográfico. V Congresso dos TOC. Lisboa (2015) 24. Quesado, P., Guzmán, B., Rodrigues, L.: Advantages and contributions in the balanced scorecard implementation. Intang. Cap. 14(1), 186–201 (2018) 25. Santos, V.R., Vitorino, T.F., Dias, Á.L., Martinho, D., Sousa, B.B.: Developing a commercial ethics framework for analysing marketing campaigns. Int. J. Serv. Sci. Manag. Eng. Technol. (IJSSMET) 13(1), 1–16 (2022). https://doi.org/10.4018/IJSSMET.290336 26. Sousa, B., Santos, R., Lubowiecki-Vikuk, A.: Slow tourism as a tourism alternative to sustainable development. J. Environ. Manag. Tour. (Volume XII, Fall) 5(53), 1404–1409 (2021). https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v12.5(53).24 27. Lubowiecki-Vikuk, A., Sousa, B.: Tourism business in A VUCA world: marketing and management implications. J. Environ. Manag. Tour. (Volume XII, Summer) 4(52), 867–876 (2021). https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v12.4(52).01

Chapter 62

Education Crisis—Digital Solutions After Covid-19 Ana Branca da Silva Soeiro de Carvalho, Nídia Menezes, Susana Fonseca, and Miguel Mota

Abstract Pandemic effects can generate demotivation and dissatisfaction, or even discomfort, since it is an activity and structure built based on relationships, largely in face-to-face relationships, which make the pedagogical act a moment of interaction and sharing. We are particularly interested in the digital transformation pushed forward by the COVID-19 pandemic concerning higher education students. During a state of emergency, teleworking is mandatory as the work function and classes are compatible with eLearning and homework. Digital Technology looks closely at one significant facet of our rapidly evolving digital lives: how technology radically changes our lives as teachers and students. The coronavirus pandemic (COVID19) has paralyzed life around the world, reporting restrictive measures (that include avoidance of social interactions and the prohibition of circulation between national and international territories) that were considered non-essential activities like factories, services, and including all the educational institutions. Even Erasmus and International programs were canceled. This research project focuses on the needs and strategies, including the scaling up of investments in Information and communication technologies (ICT) education and training, and efficient management of the wellbeing of students and teachers. The study was carried out in a higher education institution located in the northern region of Portugal, with approximately 800 students. The methodology used was a documentary, through indicators of student satisfaction

A. B. da Silva Soeiro de Carvalho (B) Instituto Politécnico de Viseu/CISED, Viseu, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] N. Menezes · S. Fonseca Instituto Politécnico de Viseu/CI&DEI, Viseu, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. Fonseca e-mail: [email protected] M. Mota Instituto Politécnico de Viseu/CERNAS, Viseu, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_62

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and success. Comparisons were made, for both students and teachers, with the homologous situation for the year 2018/2019, 2019/2020, 2020/2021, previous Covid-19, and after this pandemic situation.

62.1 Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic initiated an extensive, sudden, and dramatic digital transformation in society. Digital transformation, i.e., “a process that aims to improve an entity by triggering significant changes to its properties through combinations of information, computing, communication, and connectivity technologies” [1]. The pandemic forced us to take an extraordinary digital leap in our everyday life and practices, including our students and their education. In a flash, their education was transformed from traditional classroom practice to a remote, digitalized one. Digital Technology looks closely at one significant facet of our rapidly evolving digital lives: how technology radically changes our lives as teachers and students [2]. Collier [3], said that it “is aiming to analyze current surveillance practices in the higher education sector (including broader educational technology, policy, and other spaces) and trying to understand what post-surveillance futures might be desirable and how to work toward these”. Landemore [4] said that “One of the most far-reaching transformations in our era is the wave of digital technologies rolling over—and upending—nearly every aspect of life”. Now ubiquitous digital tools and platforms have modified all work and leisure, family and friendship, community, and citizenship. Such a dramatic transformation in all spheres of life may not have given room for much resistance or inertia to emerge. Strategies in the era of Digital Disruption will provide you and your team with the tools, concepts, and perspectives necessary to respond correctly to the digital transformation and to turn its threats into opportunities with which to improve your performance and that of your organization. Many institutions have opted to cancel all face-to-face classes, including labs and other learning experiences, and have mandated that faculty move their courses online to help prevent the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. We are particularly interested in the digital transformation pushed forward by the COVID-19 pandemic concerning higher education students. Strategies in the Era of Digital Disruption will provide you and your team with the tools, concepts, and perspectives necessary to respond correctly to the digital transformation and to turn its threats into opportunities to improve your performance and that of your organization. Santos ([5], p. 13) draws attention to the new idea of normality. In fact, the reality we live in is an exceptionality of exception, and reflecting on this time of abnormality is extremely complex, because “The problem is that the chaotic and elusive practice of days is beyond theorization and demands to be understood in sub-theorizing mode”.

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One important issue is what is going to happen with privacy and the condition of being anonymous. Most people who agreed to talk requested anonymity. Bernholz et al. [6] said, “We must consider whether and how our networks of digital communications accommodate and protect individual rights to expression and association in ways that also protect privacy and resist corporate or state surveillance”. Landemore [7] about this matter said that one of the most far-reaching transformations in our era is the wave of digital technologies rolling over—and upending— nearly every aspect of life. Now-ubiquitous digital tools and platforms have modified all work and leisure, family and friendship, community and citizenship. Such loss reflects the reduction in test scores students would be experiencing because of less time spent in learning compared to the amount of time they typically invest when they are in school [8].

62.2 Material and Methods The methodology used was documentary, through indicators of student’s assessment and the result of the final pedagogical reports of both courses. Comparisons made with the homologous situation for the year 2018/2019/2020/2021. The present article focuses on the pedagogical preparedness of university students and teachers with no or little experience in online teaching. The method used for this exploratory study was a report analysis, based on administrative documents that were validated. The study was carried out in a higher education institution located in the northern region of Portugal, with approximately 800 students from all over the country and islands. It’s a faculty that has an important course that can interact with others.

62.3 Results and Discussion It is important to analyze how students develop key skills including problemsolving, creativity, critical analysis, teamwork, independent thinking, initiative, communication, and digital literacy. We made a comparative study between two study cycles—the graduation (study cycle—SA) Administrative Assistance and the graduation Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering (study cycle—EIT). We compared the number of students and the total graduate from those study cycles. After each table, we made an analysis of the results that we obtain from the report of the Cycle (RCE). It can be seen, in Table 62.1, that the number of students in the graduation (study cycle—SA) Administrative Assistance has been increasing, even in times of a pandemic.

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Table 62.1 Number of students

Number of students SA Number of students EIT 2018/2019 74

62

2019/2020 81

55

2020/2021 99

55

However, the graduation Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering (study cycle—EIT) not only reduced its numbers but has also stagnated (in reports from Credit Units and study cycle—2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 from ESTGL) (Table 62.2). Unlike SA, engineering students with COVID had more difficulties in finishing the study cycle within the normal deadline, which can be explained by the fact that they are more practical assessment tests, and more laboratory work, which the confinements brought an added difficulty for these students. On the other hand, Secretariat students, where content that is more theoretical is taught, saw the number of graduates in 3 years increase, which was also expected since the number of students in this course has been growing. We can verify these facts with the approval rate, which in the case of SA stands at around 76% and in the case of Engineering at 64% (2020–2021 academic year). Regarding dropouts in Table 62.3, it appears that in the years of the pandemic, there was a high percentage of dropouts, especially in the secretariat EC, which reached around 30%. However, it appears that in the last year, probably in view of the financial support and financial incentives that existed, there was no abandonment in any of the EC under analysis. Table 62.2 Number of graduate and total graduate SA (administrative assistance)

EIT (informatics and telecommunications engineering)

3 years graduate

3 years graduate

Total graduate

Total graduate

2018/2019

7

8

10

19

2019/2020

12

18

10

19

2020/2021

19

22

7

12

Table 62.3 Administrative assistance (study cycle) Administrative assistance (Secretarial Studies) Number of students

3 years graduate

Total graduate

Assessment (%)

School dropout

International students

2018/2019

74

7

8

80

17,1

0

2019/2020

81

12

18

84

31

2,5%

2020/2021

99

19

22

76

0

0

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Nevertheless, still in a pandemic crisis, we verified that the engineering EC in the first 2 years had foreign students, unlike the Secretariat, which only had foreign students in the 2019/2020 academic year.

62.3.1 Teaching in the New Normal The changes that the world has experienced in recent years, lead us to foresee a new normal in terms of formation and educational process. No doubt, using a dual learning system (with offline and online elements) can solve the problem that COVID-19 imposed on us. During this pandemic situation, it is essential to note that: (a) It requires a revision of the curriculum and the operating regulations (e.g. pedagogical regulation); (b) The structure of many existing buildings may not be adapted to maintain physical distance; (c) The computer system does not always allow the rapid and efficient use of ICT; (d) It requires a change in the teaching capacity to function in both online and face-to-face systems. We can think about an important question—the effectiveness of in-class teaching versus online teaching. With the guidelines given by the Ministry of Technology and Higher Education, evaluations from now on will be mandatory in person, except for the Study Cycles that are eLearning or bLearning. By listening to the delegates of the year who represent the students of the various courses, we found that most students prefer to take face-to-face classes. They also like to be in direct contact with the teachers and do work at school. There is a mental health problem that must be discussed and also analyzed by experts. Moreover, what happened in our School? Digital platforms are more and more a solution to distance problems. Table 62.4, give us the information that the number of students decreased relative to the assessments during the year 2020. Table 62.4 Comparison between the Study Cycles—SA and EIT Administrative assistance (Secretarial Studies)

Informatics and telecommunications engineering

Assessment (%)

Dropouts (%)

International students

Assessment (%)

Dropouts (%)

International students (%)

2018/2019

80

17,1

0

79

11,3

1,61

2019/2020

84

31

2,5%

87

9

7,3

2020/2021

76

0

0

64

0

0

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Table 62.5 Platforms—ICT 2018–2019

ZOOM /COLIBRI

TEAMS

MOODLE

WhatsApp/Messenger

–

–

550

–

2019/2020

400

150

620

200

2020/2021

150

50

723

250

2021/2022

–

–

800

600

Number of platforms used in the Institution since 2018 until 2022—information in the Institution Report

Table 62.6 Number of Students on dual system (online and in person classes)

Number of Students per class

Assessment (%) online

Assessment in person (%)

2018/2019

–

–

100

2019/2020

25 to 75

50%

2020/2021

723

–

100

2021/2022

800

–

100

50

Is not allowed to have only online assessment, guidelines of the Government

However, the number of students in the Institution has increased from year to year, because students look for safer places and have more support from school. The financial issue is another relevant point for this option, life in the countryside is cheaper than in big cities. Table 62.5 shows more platforms that are effective in 2019–2020 than during this year 2020–2022. Students look more for face-to-face classes than online classes. They feel demotivation and dissatisfaction, or even discomfort, since it is an activity and structure built based on relationships, in largely face-to-face relationships, which make the pedagogical act a moment of interaction and sharing (Table 62.6).

62.4 Conclusions The future consequences generated by the pandemic, social confinement, and changing routines are still unpredictable. We can conclude that the changes that the world has experienced in recent months, lead us to foresee a new normal in terms of formation and educational process. We must realize that the global economy is changing so current jobs are disappearing due to automation and new jobs are emerging every day because of technological advances. Nevertheless, they extensively relied on digital technologies to transform their offerings and, along the way, tried to deal with and manage various structural

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and cultural changes and barriers (cf. e.g., Vial, 2019) [1]. Existing resources and capabilities, including technology, culture, practices, people’s skills, competencies, values, attitudes, identities, and mindsets, have been considered barriers to digital transformation (Vial). With this research, we had the opportunity to find that more and more students drop out from the high-level cycles, universities, and polytechnic institutes, first because they have financial problems, and second because they are unmotivated. We can conclude that in all the high education tasks, strong school leadership will be key. Countries will need to devote the necessary financing to achieve these goals— and they will need to bridge digital gaps—if they want a generation of flourishing young people. These considerations and numbers are kept in mind by policymakers when deciding about the budget invested in an attempt to mitigate the detrimental effects of COVID-19 on education (Carvalho et al. 2021) [10]. Tara Beteille (2020) [9] in an interview said that teachers must be equipped to assess students when they return to school so that they can identify what essential content and skills have been lost and need to be rebuilt—as well as detect warning signs of abandonment. We think there is no doubt that pandemic effects can generate demotivation and dissatisfaction, or even discomfort. Mental health and financial issues are, nowadays, the two biggest problems in higher education. Acknowledgements National funds fund this work through the FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project refª UIBD/05583/2020. Furthermore, we would like to thank the Research Centre in Digital Services (CISED); UIDB/05507/2020 Centre for Studies in Education and Innovation CI&DEI); (CERNAS)—Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and Society and the Polytechnic of Viseu for their support.

References 1. Vial, G.H.: Reflections on quality requirements for digital trace data in IS research. Decis. Support Syst. 126, 118 (2019) 2. Carvalho, A. et al.: Challenges and policy in times of crisis—STEM in digital education, Springer (2021); International Conference in Information Technology and Education, ICITED 2021, vol. 256, pp. 455–460 (2022). Artigo em Inglês | Scopus | ID: covidwho-1565327 3. Collier, A., Ross, J.: Higher education after surveillance? Postdigital Sci. Educ. 2(2), 275–279 (2020) 4. Landemore, H.; Bernholz,L.; Reich, R.: Digital technology and democratic theory. University of Chicago Press (2021). https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo68657177. html. Accessed 3, 4 April 2022 5. Santos, B.S.: A Cruel Pedagogia do Vírus, p. 13. Almedina, Coimbra (2020) 6. Bernholz, L., Landemore, H., Reich, R.: In: Lucy, B., Hélène, L., Rob, R. (eds.) Book: Digital Technology and Democratic Theorya. Stanford PACS, Stanford Social Innovation Review (2020)

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7. Landemore, H.: Digital Technology and Democratic Theory. University of Chicago Press (2020). https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo68657177.html. Accessed 09, 24 May 2021 8. Houlden, S., & Veletsianos, G.: Coronavirus pushes universities to switch to online classes— but are they ready? The Conversation, 12 March (2020). https://theconversation.com/corona viruspushes-universities-to-switch-to-online-classes-but-arethey-ready-132728. Accessed 22 Feb 2022 9. Beteille, T.: Supporting teachers during the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic, MAY 19, 2020, Education for Global Development (2020). https://blogs.worldbank.org/team/tara-bet eille. Accessed 22 Feb 2022 10. Carvalho, A. et al.: Digital transformation during covid 19 - a new way of life in higher education. In: EDULEARN21 Proceedings (browse), pp. 2581–2585, Publication year (2021): ISBN: 978-84-09-31267-2. ISSN: 2340-1117. https://doi.org/10.21125/edulearn.2021.0562

Chapter 63

The Commoditisation of Literature Analysed in the Classroom. The Case of Porto’s Literary Hotels Sara Pascoal , Laura Tallone , and Marco Furtado

Abstract This paper describes three case studies presented, discussed, and assessed in the Curricular Units of French, German, and Spanish Culture for Business, of the Masters of Intercultural Studies for Business (MaISB) of the Porto Polytechnic. The three examples serve as a learning platform for students to reflect upon other commoditisation of cultural and literary heritage in the specific case of hotel management. This approach to thematic hotels aims at making students aware of the ways in which national literature can be a powerful tool for market differentiation and value creation, as well as for learning and assessing the relevance of the notion of authenticity in tourism experiences.

63.1 Introduction The emergence of a powerful “culture economy”, in which cultural tourism and cultural and creative industries play a vital role, is rapidly reshaping today’s society. Tourism has been going through a cultural turn, which, along with the subsequent creative turn [1], has paved the way for the development of economic strategies giving prominence to culture and creativity. Cities compete with one another, using place branding and marketing techniques to stimulate social and economic development based on innovation and technology. Cultural tourism is thus one of the most recent tourism trends, fuelled by a growing interest in culture and cultural understanding, as well as a need for postmodern style of consumption. Contacts across cultures have led to the creation of new tourist-related enterprises, enhanced by greater educational S. Pascoal (B) · L. Tallone · M. Furtado CEI – ISCAP-P.Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Tallone e-mail: [email protected] M. Furtado e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_63

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levels and increased mobility, as well as by a desire for real, first-hand experiences. Furthermore, this more diverse supply has boosted cultural tourism even further and improved the external image of entire regions, often resulting in increased income and job development. In this vein, the Porto Accounting and Business School (ISCAP) offers a Masters in Intercultural Studies for Business (MaISB) programme that focuses on the business world, developing entrepreneurial skills within the context of culture, as well as practical, analytical, and critical skills for intercultural communication. Students are challenged to participate in and reflect on the transformation of cultural heritage into marketable products, thus developing entrepreneurial skills and creativity, through a set of interdisciplinary pedagogical strategies prompted by the German, Spanish, and French Culture curricular units (CUs). Continuing a pedagogical strategy successfully used in previous course years [2, 3], this paper examines three examples presented and discussed in these CUs, that serve as a basis for student’s further interdisciplinary research and entrepreneurship project development. Following the teacher’s presentation and analysis of the cases of Torel Porto Palace, Grande Hotel do Porto, and Grande Hotel de Paris, students in each CU are challenged to design business plans and strategies aimed at exploring national literature as an asset for tourism and economic development at regional and national levels. The main learning purpose of the project is the research and assessment of the ways in which literature can be used for marketing purposes, specifically focusing on literary hotels and hotel branding, and their contribution to market differentiation. In addition, the case studies below contribute not only to evaluate the role played by authenticity as a key factor for the development of sustainable literary tourism products, whether constructivist or existentialist in nature [4], in the era of the experience economy [5] but also to study the strategical management of cultural assets when commoditised for tourism purposes.

63.2 Commoditisation of Cultural Heritage and Business Opportunities Cultural heritage (CH) has recently emerged as a key driver of economic growth and employment, particularly in Europe, where it is seen as a key factor not only for strengthening citizens’ sense of identity and belonging but also for attracting tourists, as heritage contributes to the revitalisation of cities and buildings as well as the preservation of arts and traditions [6]. There is an increasing need to reflect on the tactics and uses of commoditised culture as “cultural economy” (Bourdieu), “cultural industry” [7], and cultural tourism thrive in postmodern society. Although these techniques have demonstrable socioeconomic benefits at a regional level, as they enhance awareness of a shared cultural legacy and engage local people in its protection, the business opportunities created by cultural marketing should be carefully studied and implemented. They should be used to promote sustainable tourism

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while empowering local residents and supporting employment, economic growth, poverty reduction, environmental protection, and the preservation of cultural and heritage authenticity [8]. The commoditisation of culture, of course, is not free from controversy. Adorno and Horkheimer [9] recognised the formation of a “culture industry” in the merger of cultural goods and commercialisation in Dialect of Enlightenment. Standardisation and replication deprive culture of its “singularity, originality, or authenticity” [10]. The commoditisation and massification of culture, according to Adorno, “impedes the development of autonomous, independent individuals who judge and decide consciously for themselves” [7]. Bourdieu [11], on the other hand, investigates the social consequences of culture commoditisation, arguing that, as culture becomes more commodified, commodities become more culturalised in late capitalist nations. Commoditisation has an impact on the reception and consumption of cultural commodities, as well as on the process of culture creation, which is increasingly subordinated to market interests. Culture commoditisation, according to both Adorno and Bourdieu, prioritises the trade value of culture over its symbolic worth, turning individuality and creativity into hostages of standardisation. Given these risks and obstacles, it is critical to promote, maintain, and manage cultural heritage even in a free market, as it makes up the legacy from past generations, contributing to the preservation of identity, memory, and history. Cultural heritage encompasses a wide range of assets, including tangible culture (buildings, books, monuments, artefacts, and landscapes), intangible and digital cultural heritage (literature, language, folklore, oral history, traditions, customs, aesthetic, and spiritual beliefs, among others), and cultural natural heritage (bio- and geo-diversities and natural landscapes). The monetisation of cultural assets helps preserve traditions, monuments, and sites that would otherwise be lost or neglected, but it also raises concerns about the potential harmful effects of tourism. Cultural heritage entrepreneurship, as Zaman [12] suggests, must be tied to strategic objectives and policy mix implemented by public authorities and private entities for good conservation, maintenance, and affordability, for cultural goods consumption by the population, as well as for their integration into the current environmental landscapes in a productive, educational, and efficient manner. Local populations’ accessibility of CH products and services is a fundamental factor for collective identity, legacy preservation and national and international exchanges, within the context of best practices and sustainable strategic management. In that vein, the question of authenticity becomes a key aspect, widely discussed by researchers, particularly when dealing with cultural or heritage tourism, which involves representations of the Other, the past, or memorialisation purposes. Three case studies of literary hotels situated in Porto are showcased, analysed, and examined in the Masters in Intercultural Studies for Business at ISCAP, in the German, Spanish, and French Culture for Business CU’s. We have included the discussion and analysis of these three case studies in the syllabus to assess whether they are compatible with the three types of authenticity as presented by Wang [4]— objective, constructive, and existential—and to reflect upon the commoditisation of national literature to efficiently preserve and promote it. According to Wang [4],

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authenticity is a key term in tourism studies, the usage of which must be clarified. The author identifies three types of authenticity: (a) objective, referring to authenticity of originals and museum-linked usage (tourist products such as works of art, festivals, rituals, cuisine, etc.), (b) constructive authenticity, projected onto toured objects by tourism or tourist producers in terms of their imagery, expectations, preferences, beliefs, etc. In this sense, authenticity is in fact of a symbolic nature; and (c) existential authenticity, which may have nothing to do with the actual authenticity of toured objects and refers to a potential state of Being that is activated by tourist activities. Students are challenged to apply an exploratory case study methodology approach, conducting research, reviewing literature, analysing specific cases, visiting the hotels, and comparing the marketing and branding strategies of each hotel with their history and with their attributes perceived by tourists on TripAdvisor or Booking reviews.

63.3 Literary Tourism and Place Branding Cultural tourism is one of the industry’s newest trends, supported by a postmodern consumption style of demand, characterised by increasing interest in culture and growing levels of cultural capital. Stimulated by rising education levels and a desire for direct forms of experience, increased mobility enables cross-cultural contacts. On the other hand, supply has stimulated Cultural Tourism in order to develop revenues and employment, and boost the external image of a region or country. Literary tourism is a relatively recent type of cultural and creative tourism, explored due to its alleged sustainability and authenticity [13]. Literary tourism is defined by Andersen and Robinson in one of the first books on the subject, “Literature and Tourism—Reading and Writing Tourism Texts”, as “(…) the kind of cultural tourism in the anthropological sense, in that it involves tourists and visitors identifying with, discovering, and creating signifiers of cultural values with those people who have become part of the cultural mythologies of places” [14]. These authors argue that, from an aesthetic viewpoint, Literary Tourism is related to Creative Tourism, since it is founded on a creative art (writing) and there is an exchange of experiences between authors and visitors. Both Hoppen [15] and Herbert [16] maintain that Literary Tourism is a part of Heritage Tourism. Finally, Busby and Klug [17] associate this component with the media, as it includes excursions to locations related to books, authors, television shows, and film productions. However, Busby and Klug contend that Literary Tourism is inextricably linked to Creative Tourism, by incorporating creative arts such as design, architecture, music, film, media, music, and literature as viewed through the lens of the media. On the whole, then, Literary Tourism may be defined as a type of specialised tourism focused on authors and their works, which may be adapted to satisfy the demands of a certain audience or market sector, therefore falling under the umbrella of Culture, Creative, and Heritage Tourism. There appears to be a growing interest in using literature to market regions and destinations, showing that books and narratives are among societies’ most important

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cultural expressions as guardians of memory and identity. As Louis Aragon put it, “literature is a serious matter for a country; it is, at the end of the day, its face” [18]. Even though some people never read them, it is undeniable that some books and authors become so well-known that they create entire tourist products and industries. Even individuals who have never read James Joyce’s Ulysses are likely to associate it with Dublin. And how can one imagine Paris without Marcel Proust, Baudelaire, or Balzac, Spain without Cervantes and his D. Quixote, Prague without Franz Kafka, H.C. Andersen without Copenhagen, Charles Dickens’ London, or Anne Franke’s Amsterdam, to name a few? The marketing of cities’ memories through literature inevitably boosts the promotion of both tangible cultural assets, such as monuments and buildings, and intangible ones, such as customs and traditions. Literature appears to have huge economic potential for place marketing [15], and as a result, authors and their works are being leveraged to showcase locations. Tourism in Portugal has grown dramatically in the recent decade, with the north of the country, particularly the city of Porto, emerging as a prominent tourist destination—this city’s literary history seems to be a catalyst for place branding strategies. Some of Portugal’s most famous writers were either born, lived or visited Porto or the North of the country, such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Arnaldo Gama, Júlio Diniz, António Nobre, Antero de Quental, Guilherme Braga, Sampaio Bruno, Soares de Passos, Oliveira Martins, Ramalho Ortigão, Eça de Queirós, Guerra Junqueiro, Raúl Brandão, Sophia de Mello Breyner, or Agustina Bessa-Luís, to name just a few. Porto has also one of the most beautiful bookstores in the world—Lello and Irmão, and the Majestic Café.1 In this vein, one indicator of the recent popularity of Literary Tourism in Porto is the publication of literary guides and literary maps, such as the “Map of Books: a literary guide to the city. Experience Porto through Literature”, edited by Bairro dos Livros in 2018. Another sign of this trend is the use of the city’s literary background to market and promote hotel management. This branding strategy seems to motivate hotel managers, appealing to book enthusiasts through a range of literary associations or themes.

63.3.1 Literary Hotels Literary hotels are a particular subset of thematic hotels that have recently grown in popularity throughout the world, as a result of the ongoing growth in marketing segmentation within the hospitality industry, allowing hotels to differentiate themselves to meet customers’ expectations. For the purposes of this study, two types of literary hotels may be considered. On the one hand, library hotels, also known as bibliotels, are a type of accommodation with a license to read, where the pleasure of travelling is combined with the pleasure of reading. Bibliotels are establishments with atmosphere, sparkling with reading 1

Both establishments were frequented by J.K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series, when she taught English in Porto, and reportedly an inspiration for her writing.

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emotion and bibliophilia, where travellers do not need suitcases overflowing with books because they are already available. Some of the most well-known cases are The Pavillon des Lettres in Paris, The Library Hotel in New York, or The Literary Man in Óbidos, Portugal, the biggest of them all. On the other hand, another subset of these thematic lodgings are the hotels with literary heritage—they are often inextricably associated with writers or with their work. Some examples are The Beechwood Hotel, in Norfolk, formerly a family home, where Agatha Christie stayed from 1936 to the 1960s as a guest, often sitting in the summer house to write. Tasburgh House, in Bath, also has many literary associations—Dickens, Wells, Austen, Hardy, Shelley, Brontë, and Browning, to mention but a few. The tastefully decorated rooms of this boutique hotel are named after those famous authors and poets. Fans of Pride and Prejudice can book a stay at Tasburgh Hotel to attend the yearly Jane Austen festival in September. Another example is the French Hôtel Pont Royal, which opened in 1815. The home of Chateaubriand in the eighteenth century, it became most renowned as an epicentre of Arts and Letters, associated to Jean Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Gabriel García Marques, Boris Vian, Jacques Prévert, François Mauriac, Ernest Hemingway, and many others. In this paper, the authors focus on three cases of literary hotels in Porto–Grande Hotel de Paris, Grande Hotel do Porto, and Torel Palace Porto, examining their literary connections and different types of authenticity claims.

63.3.1.1

Grande Hotel de Paris and Grande Hotel do Porto

Marketed as the city’s oldest hotel and celebrating its 145th anniversary in 2022, Grande Hotel de Paris is a hotel-museum inspired by the French Belle Époque and nineteenth-century French traditions. Built on the site of the former Hotel Francês (1846–1853), in the centre of Porto, it originally housed the Porto Philharmonic Society. After a fire, the hotel reopened in 1877, in Rua da Fábrica 27–29. Grande Hotel de Paris was founded by Ernesto Chardron, owner of the world-famous Lello bookstore, and other local personalities of the time. It became the property of José Martinez and three other Galician investors in 1965. In 1989, it was purchased by the Ferreira family, and eventually became part of the Stay Hotels group in 2017 [19]. Among the renowned Portuguese authors who stayed there are Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro (1846–1905), regarded as the first Portuguese creator of comics and known for his illustrations, caricatures, sculpting, and ceramic designs, as well as Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queiroz, and Guerra Junqueiro [19]. Camilo Castelo Branco stayed in Grande Hotel from 1848 to 1849. His former room, now number 110, is the hotel’s most requested room. The story goes that it was here that Camilo and Guerra Junqueiro re-established their friendship. Novelist Eça de Queiroz stayed at the Grande Hotel de Paris from November 1886 to February 1887, before marrying Emilia de Castro, to whom he wrote several love letters, now displayed at the Hotel. At the time, he was reportedly working on the final touches of his masterpiece Os Maias. Episódios da Vida Romântica. The hotel is also said to have been visited by Italian Futurist Movement founder Filippo Marinetti, in 1932.

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Although the hotel’s grandeur has faded away and is now a 3-star hotel, its perceived authenticity as guardian of Portuguese literary past can still be felt. The hotel’s library is “created by and for the guests”, who may use bookcrossing to leave and borrow books. It is the rich and colourful past within its walls that continues to attract guests, who, according to Tripadvisor and specialised blogs, primarily value the hotel’s genuine feeling. The impression of objective authenticity comes from glancing at old photos, Eça’s love letters to Emilia de Castro, the creaky floors, and the exquisite architectural staircases. The sense of communion arising from walking through the same rooms once inhabited by prominent figures of Portuguese literature and history therefore becomes a thrilling tourist experience. Grande Hotel do Porto, like Grande Hotel de Paris, is a landmark in Porto’s tourism history. Travel guides, such as the well-known Murray’s Handbooks, even compare them in terms of location, cost, comfort, and cleanliness: “one of the best in the Peninsula; excellent food and great civility, with moderate charges. Room on the 3rd floor, with 3 meals. 16,200 reis. Tariff in each room. Good country wine, 150 reis. Bath house attached, admirably fitted up with every convenience. Prices are much reduced in case of long stay (…)” [20]. Grande Hotel do Porto may be found in Rua Santa Catarina, one of today’s main shopping streets in the heart of the city centre. According to its official website [21], this Victorian-style building offered all the comforts and luxuries available at the time of its opening, on 27 March 1880. The guests of its original 40 rooms, five of them suites (including the royal suite), could also enjoy a reading room, a music room, a games room, a lady’s room, etc., as well as a spa-like, hot and cold-water public bath—a facility comparable to today’s health clubs, as its staff also included a gym instructor. In the following years, Grande Hotel do Porto went through expansion and renovation work. In the 1920s, 55 rooms were added, and a majestic new dining room and kitchen opened. The terrace, one of the first in the city, also built in the early twentieth century, attracted many to enjoy the view over Porto. Since the turn of the twenty-first century, the hotel has been fitted with 99 completely renovated modern bedrooms, which nevertheless preserve the traditional classical traces of the hotel’s public areas. The Hall of Columns is an emblematic area dedicated to reading and to paying homage to several writers from Porto, like Almeida Garrett or Júlio Dinis. Some of the bedrooms are named after those writers, like the thematic suite devoted to Eça de Queirós [21], as well as to other leading figures of Portuguese arts, such as cello player Guilhermina Suggia and film director Manoel de Oliveira. A special place has been reserved for Brazil’s last emperor, D. Pedro II, as the dining room/restaurant bears his name. Both he and his wife, Teresa Cristina, arrived in Porto on 24 December 1889, after fleeing Brazil when the monarchy was overthrown in that country. As recounted by Silva [22], the empress died four days later in one of the rooms of Grande Hotel do Porto, in the cold morning of the 28th of December. Grande Hotel do Porto owes its considerable level of authenticity to its role in welcoming prominent public figures in artistic and political circles. But, in fact, similarly to Grande Hotel de Paris, Grande Hotel do Porto has a double connection

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with literature. On the one hand, the long list of illustrious guests bears witness to its role in the city’s social life, as shown by its guestbook, created in 1934, when Porto hosted the Colonial Exhibition [23]. On the other hand, references to this hotel may be found throughout the pages of Portuguese literary texts, often made by writers who fondly recalled their stays in their work.

63.3.1.2

Torel Palace Porto

Opened in February 2020 in the heart of Porto, Torel Palace Porto is located in a nineteenth-century palace, which went through four years of painstaking renovation work, in order to preserve the original features and recreate the former grandeur of the building. The complete makeover of the building, though keeping its Romantic glamour, has resulted in a five-star hotel offering all the advantages of modernity, such as mirror-walled bathrooms added in the middle of each bedroom. The literary inspiration of Torel Palace comes from several relief busts found on the ceiling of Portuguese writers and poets, like Luís de Camões, Alexandre Herculano, or Aquilino Ribeiro. Commissioned by the original owners, wealthy merchants, and patrons of the arts, these pieces were not only preserved, but “served as the starting point of the entire decorative concept” [24]. Torel Palace therefore adopts a purposeful narrative guided by Portuguese literature—each of its 24 suites and bedrooms is identified using the name of a Portuguese writer, and some elements of the décor (an old typewriter, portraits on the walls) are constant reminders of its theme. It is books, however, that stand out as the main ornamental feature, as they may be found almost everywhere, particularly in the sitting room, or library. Unlike real libraries, however, here books share the shelves with several decorative items (candlesticks, framed photographs, a wooden box), thus discouraging the visitor from disturbing the carefully arranged ensemble. This ornamental use of literary objects is further stressed by a number of books suspended from the ceiling—beyond the reach of the hand, they remain unattainable, only to be seen, not read. The role of literature is in fact merely instrumental to the supply of a differentiated product, capable of providing a personalised experience to the customer. This becomes evident in the guests’ opinions and reviews. The website Booking.com, for instance, contains 375 reviews of Torel Palace Porto, 130 of which are from Portugal residents. Only three of them make a passing reference to its literary inspiration. Of the 122 reviews on Tripadvisor.com, one mentions the floating books. Taking both sites together, less than 1% of the reviewers consider the literary connection worth mentioning. In contrast, most of the reviews focus on the experiential side of the stay, once again proving that the hospitality industry is, together with tourism, the most “experiencebased service industry” [25], providing “memorable events that engage each individual in an inherently personal way” [5]. As expected, the value of the experience at Torel Palace is associated as much with the quality of the service provided, including customised services and special treats, as with the physical attributes of the hotel. In

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the words of a guest, “it doesn’t only look like a palace, the staff also makes you feel like a king.” [26]. Being able to “make you feel like a king” points to two essential, closely linked, aspects of the hotel experience—luxury and exclusivity. In fact, with prices ranging from approximately 300 to 600 euros per night, Torel Palace Porto may be considered as affordable luxury, catering for upper-middle-class consumers, who are able to complete their hedonic experience through the “Blind” restaurant,2 the spa, and other services, like breakfast in bed and yoga classes. Scarcity and uniqueness [27], on the other hand, are key components that increase the desirability of luxury brands. Described on its website as “more than a room key—an exclusive lodging with a twist” (https://www.torelboutiques.com/en/), the hotel makes a point of offering an exclusive experience, with personalised services. The rooms within each category (from the most expensive suites to the basic rooms) look very much alike, except for some small details, like the size and the portrait of the corresponding author on the wall. Each room, however, is advertised as unique, “from the gravity of Padre António Vieira […] to the sophistication of Eça de Queirós” [28]. The literary narrative adopted by Torel Palace is thus used to strengthen the customer’s perception of being provided with an exclusive service, as no two guests are supposed to be having the same experience at the same time. Unlike the other two hotels analysed in this paper, where the connection with literature comes naturally from the accumulated legacy of their former guests, as well as from their roles in the cultural life of the city, Torel Palace makes use of a constructed theme as an effective marketing tool. This strategy not only highlights the exclusive aspects of the literary experience (readers of Eugénio de Andrade are, after all, a select minority), but legitimises its use as an element of distinction and excellence.

63.4 Conclusions These three examples, researched, analysed, and discussed in the classroom, brought MaISB students to realise that these hotels seem to encapsulate the three types of authenticity proposed by Wang [4]. The objective and constructive types of authenticity are represented by the Grande Hotel do Porto and the Grande Hotel de Paris, while the existential and postmodern form of authenticity is represented by Torel Palace, where claims, attributes, and connections to national literature are perceived as “inauthentic”. Torel Palace appears to be an example of postmodern consuming practices that emphasise the tourist’s recent urge for Disneyfication experiences,

2

The choice of the restaurant’s name, based on José Saramago’s Blindness, clearly points to the artificial nature of the literary connection, as the intended pleasurable experience offered by the chef’s culinary innovations is in stark contrast with the nightmarish setting of the novel, where the characters actually kill to get a few morsels of rotten food.

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staged authenticity, or genuine fakes. Students were able to confirm these assertions by analysing the hotel’s reviews on TripAdvisor and Booking. Finally, the students concluded that the different ways in which cultural heritage may be turned into marketable products, with the potential to operate large-scale urban transformations, therefore provide an excellent opportunity for students to develop interdisciplinary approaches within which entrepreneurship and creativity may be analysed. By tracing the multiple transformations through which culture becomes commodity, students are expected to broaden their intercultural understanding, allowing them to design and carry out projects aiming at social and economic development, without neglecting the role of cultural heritage as witnesses of our collective past.

References 1. Richards, G.: Creativity and tourism: the state of the art. Ann. Tour. Res. 38(4), 1225–1253 (2011) 2. Pascoal, S., Furtado, M., Tallone, L.: Learning the role of museums as drivers of development. In: Mesquita, A., Abreu, A., Carvalho, J.V. (eds.) Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 256, pp. 219–228. Springer (2021).https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_18 3. Furtado, M., Tallone, L., Pascoal, S.: Using cultural heritage to create business opportunities: Successful cases from France, Germany and Spain. In: Sarmento, C. (ed.) Concepts and Dialogues across Shifting Spaces in Intercultural Business. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 107–127 (2022) 4. Wang, N.: Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. Ann. Tour. Res. 26(2), 349–370 (1999) 5. Pine, B.J., Gilmore, J.H.: The experience economy: past, present and future. Edward Elgar Publishing, Handbook on the Experience Economy (2013) 6. Sarmento, C., Pascoal, S.: Cultural Tourism and Heritage in Northern Portugal. Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2020) 7. Adorno, T.: Culture Industry Reconsidered. New German Critique, No. 6 (1975) 8. Cardia, G.: Routes and Itineraries as a means of contribution to sustainable tourism. In: Katsoni, V., Verlander, K. (eds.) Innovative Approaches to Tourism and Leisure, Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics, XXIII, pp. 17–33 (2018) 9. Horkheimer, M., Adorno, T.: Dialectic of Enlightenment. Stanford University Press, Stanford (2002) 10. Southerton, D.: Consumer Culture and Personal Life. Sociology of Personal Life Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. (2011) 11. Bourdieu, P.: Maîtres du monde, savez-vous ce que vous faites? Discours à la réunion annuelle du Conseil international du musée de la Télévision et de la Radio, le 11/10/1999 (1999). http:// www.homme-moderne.org/societe/socio/bourdieu/varia/maitres.html 12. Zaman, G.: Cultural Heritage Entrepreneurship (CHE) – Challenges and Difficulties. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 188 (2015). https://www.researchgate.net/journal/18770428_Procedia-Social_and_Behavioral_Sciences 13. Baleiro, R., Quinteiro, S.: Key concepts in Literature and Tourism studies. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Comparatistas (2018) 14. Andersen, H.C., Robinson, M.: Literature and Tourism: Essays in the Reading and Writing of Tourism, 1st edn. Continuum, UK (2002)

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15. Hoppen, A., Brown, L., Fyall, A.: Literary tourism: opportunities and challenges for the marketing and branding of destinations. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 3(1), 37–47 (2014) 16. Herbert, D.: Literary places, tourism and the heritage experience. Ann. Tour. Res. 28(2), 312– 333 (2001) 17. Busby, G., Klug, J.: Movie-induced tourism: the challenge of measurement and other issues. J. Vacat. Mark. 7(4), 316–332 (2001) 18. Aragon, L.: J’abats mon jeu. Mercure de France, Paris (1992) 19. Felix, O.: Grande Hotel de Paris- uma história no Porto, Afrontamento (2011) 20. Murray, J.: A Handbook for travelers in Portugal, Madeira, Azores and Canaries, John Murray Albermale Street, p. 118 (1887) 21. Retrieved from: https://www.grandehotelporto.com/en/history-grande-hotel-porto/ 22. Silva, G.: A morte da imperatriz. Visão (2017). https://visao.sapo.pt/opiniao/a/historias-portue nses/2017-06-10-a-morte-da-imperatriz/ 23. Silva, A.: Um encontro com a literature (2020). https://www.grandehotelporto.com/pt-pt/blog/ um-encontro-com-a-literatura/. Accessed 14 Dec 2020 24. Lopes, D.: Torel Palace Porto. O palácio centenário que se tornou hotel ainda espera por uma segunda vida. Observador (2020). https://observador.pt/2020/08/30/torel-palace-porto-o-pal acio-centenario-que-se-tornou-hotel-ainda-espera-por-uma-segunda-vida/. Accessed 30 Aug 2020 25. Khan, I., Garg, R.J., Rahman, Z.: Customer service experience in hotel operations: an empirical analysis. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 189, 266–274 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro. 2015.03.222 26. Benjamin, H.: Like a fairy tale (review). Tripadvisor (2020). https://www.tripadvisor.com/ Hotel_Review-g189180-d17786186-Reviews-Torel_Palace_Porto-Porto_Porto_District_Nor thern_Portugal.html#REVIEWS 27. Dubois, B., Laurent, G., Czellar, S.: Consumer Rapport to Luxury: Analyzing Complex and Ambivalent Attitudes (No. 736). HEC Paris 28. Alves, F.: Entre o património e a literatura, no Torel Palace Porto. Visão (2021). https:// visao.sapo.pt/visaose7e/escapar/2021-07-14-entre-o-patrimonio-e-a-literatura-no-torel-pal ace-porto/. Accessed 14 July 2021

Chapter 64

Blockchain and Digital Signature Supporting Remote Assessment Systems: A Solution Approach Applied to Higher Education Institutions Scope Paulo Victor Dias

and Firmino Silva

Abstract The realization of remote assessment, supported by Information and Communication Technologies, is an issue of great concern for Higher Education Institutions. The phenomena of fraud and plagiarism are frequent, difficult to detect, and reached high values during the Covid-19 pandemic. Although tools that mitigate these practices already exist, these phenomena still represent a barrier to the full execution of distance assessment elements. This research work proposes to develop, through knowledge of the state of the art, a technological framework that involves components that can address the difficulties in which the remote assessment process relies. Plagiarism detection tools, Digital Signature principles, and Blockchain are analyzed as potential components of the framework and that may constitute a new approach in mitigating or eliminating the use of plagiarism or e-cheating factors in remote assessments. These factors are identified, aggregated, and classified to be addressed by the technological components of the framework. The main objective of the framework is to contribute to the improvement of information security and reliability in the assessment system in distance learning in Higher Education Institutions.

64.1 Introduction Remote assessment has always been an issue of concern for Higher Education Institutions (HEI). The constraints resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic phenomenon have “only” reinforced the need for the development of alternative teaching and learning methods based on Information and Communication Technologies (ICT).1 1

https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse (consulted in 11/01/22).

P. V. Dias (B) · F. Silva Polytechnic Institute of Management and Technology, 4400-107, Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Silva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_64

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For reasons of health security (or reduced mobility of students), remote assessment becomes the only possible way to contemplate the student assessment process, and in these cases, it is necessary to apply assessment methods that guarantee the security of information and the authenticity and reliability of the process. Mitigating or eliminating potential fraud risks becomes the critical success factor for the remote assessment process. The authenticity and reliability of a remote assessment system has deserved the attention of the scientific community, which addresses, on one hand, the definition of assessment strategies and, on the other hand, the adoption of technologies that promote a high degree of integrity of the remote assessment system. Potential issues to be raised gravitate around the authenticity of information provided by the student in online activities such as remote assessments, use of smart contracts [1] in the academic environment, mitigation of scientific paper plagiarism, copyright, authenticity, integrity, and immutability of academic documents. Given the above concerns, the objectives of this ongoing research work can be divided into two main vectors of objectives: those we aim to achieve with this paper, and those we intend to achieve in future work. The objectives of this paper are as follows: (1) To study the state-of-the-art methods of distance learning in HEI to better understand the current procedures and frameworks to reduce e-fraud in the HEI environment; (2) To identify the main guidelines used to mitigate plagiarism on the HEI e-learning environment; (3) Defining requirements for developing a future framework, based on the Blockchain [2], Digital Signature [3], and anti-plagiarism tools principles [4], so that will support remote assessments processes. Subsequently, in future work, we aim to achieve the following objectives: (4) To build a conceptual framework and a prototype that will be supported by Blockchain, Digital Signature, and anti-plagiarism principles; (5) To contribute to the improvement of information security, integrity, and authenticity in the remote assessment learning system in HEI. The research question of the current work is as follows: “What are the requirements for a framework based on Blockchain technologies, Digital Signature, and antiplagiarism principles, that support an assessment strategy in HEI by mitigating or eliminating the practice of plagiarism or e-cheating factors?”. The paper is organized as follows. Section 64.2 presents the fundamental concepts for understanding the framework concept in discussion and its related work. In Sect. 64.3 our proposal is presented. Section 64.4 is related to conclusions and future work.

64.2 Methodology The methodology used in this research work follows the principles of Design Science Research (DSR) [5], dividing the main steps into two moments: the first one addresses the state of the art: (A) Identification/Definition of the topic and scope of research; (B) Review of literature and related work; (C) Development: definition of issues related to fraud and the identification of requirements in the scope of remote assessment.

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And a second moment, in future work, which will be responsible for: (D) Implementation of the prototype (framework for remote assessment); (E) Testing, Analysis, and Validation of collected data from the framework; (F) Discussion of results and Conclusion.

64.3 State of the Art The following sections describe the state of the art of the most relevant topics of the proposed work scope, including digital signatures and cryptographic methods, the progress of e-learning platforms using blockchain as a basis (certificate issuance, educational passports, universal credit systems, etc.), and other frameworks oriented toward data protection and anti-plagiarism. The aim is to gather technological conditions to ensure a remote assessment process that promotes information security, immutability, and authenticity of the entire process.

64.3.1 Cryptographic, Digital Signatures, and Blockchain Cryptographic Hash Functions. There are many cryptographic constructs for which one needs a function that is both easy to compute and difficult to invert. Cryptographic hash functions fulfill this property. A hash function can be defined as the transformation of an input with an arbitrarily long document D that returns a short bit string H. It should possess three primary properties [3]: Linear time, Exponential time, and Collision resistance. These functions help verify the integrity of the data. Digital Signature. Digital signatures were conceived to solve a problem analogous to the purpose of a pen-and-ink signature on a physical document. It represents a mathematical scheme to validate the authenticity of digital messages or documents.2 A digital signature scheme consists of three algorithms [3]: Key generation algorithm, Signing algorithm, and Verification algorithm. Digital signatures embody the role of adding assurance, identity, and recognition of consent and approval by a signatory. The main reasons for their application can be summarized in four features: Authenticity, Integrity, Non-repudiation, and Legal validity. Blockchain. Blockchain is a decentralized and immutable database—a chain of blocks (also called ledger) wherein information is stored, like transaction dates, timetable, quantities, and/or members (members in the blockchain usually are not personally identifiable) [6]. Although blockchain may look like a homogeneous technology, there are some variations to its network function, especially on the type of consensus mechanism that each blockchain uses. A consensus mechanism is a process employed to reach an agreement about the information in the distributed network

2

http://www.emptrust.com/blog/benefits-of-using-digital-signatures/ (consulted in 10/04/22).

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(e.g., legitimacy of transaction, order of occurrence).3 These consensus mechanisms are Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and Private and Consortium. It is also possible to run a computer program on the blockchain through Smart Contracts. It contains the terms of the agreements between two or more peers and can be executed in an automatic and safe way [1]. The smart contracts receive as input a series of conditions that remain constantly monitored and when they are met, the contract executes itself. Hence, the smart contract strengthens and facilitates the negotiation and performance of a contract.

64.3.2 Application of Blockchain in Education According to Steiu [7] analysis to different researchers and entrepreneur’s work, there are two major applications of blockchain: certificates and identity management and enhancing and motivating lifelong learning. Morais et al. [8] goes further on their analysis of different research works, and beyond both topics previously mentioned and also points out the usability of smart contract by educational institutes for tuition payments and student loan; the use of blockchain to guarantee the authenticity, integrity, and immutability of academic documents; automatic verification of credits and title certificates; and registering knowledge in blockchain. These topics and some works related are described below. Digital Certificate and Diploma Management. One of the main discussions about the usefulness of Blockchain for education falls on registration of diplomas. The diploma is considered one of the most important documents issued by educational institutions, as it serves as a document that proves the training received by the student and gives him the necessary authorization to exercise his profession [9]. However, there are several cases of not only diploma but also resumes forgery [10]. Founded in 2018, the Digital Credential Consortium4 is considered a key academic initiative, building a global infrastructure and leading through partnerships among top universities around the world. One of the main educational institutions ahead of this consortium is MIT. Together, MIT Media Lab and Learning Machine collaborated to develop Blockcerts,5 an open standard for issuing and verifying credentials on a blockchain. The goal is to give ownership of the official records to the beneficiary, breaking the dependency on issuing institutions for verifying their own credentials and achievements. Aside from academic implementations, there are also several private companies developing solutions based on blockchain for learning certification purposes. BCDiploma,6 for example, is a European start-up that created its decentralized service based on Ethereum token, the Blockchain Certified Data Token 3

https://www.gemini.com/cryptopedia/blockchain-types-pow-pos-private/ 14/12/21). 4 https://digitalcredentials.mit.edu/ (consulted in 12/01/22). 5 https://www.blockcerts.org/ (consulted in 12/01/22). 6 https://www.bcdiploma.com/en/howItWorks (consulted in 12/01/22).

(consulted

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(BCDT), utilizing a patented one-click technology for accessing certified compliant data. Hence, students can use their generated URL link containing their academic documents (diplomas, certifications, transcripts, or skills), and employers or third parties can access and verify the certificate with a single click. Enhance and Motivate Lifelong Learning. Nowadays, personal and professional development breaks the barrier of conventional education. Certificates play an important role in individual learning records, becoming essential for their professional careers. Therefore, having these records stored in long-term available and tamper-proof ledgers become of utmost importance [11]. Liu et al. [12] propose the use of blockchain to record student-generated information by creating a distributed platform, based on the Hyperledger Fabric, that will bring transparency, security, and integrity to the data registering different information related to each student, such as their grades, school history, and activities developed, among others. In this context, manifold companies are undertaking this out-of-classroom education, such as lifelong learning development, aiming to enhance the learning process. BitDegree7 and ODEM8 stands out in this area. The first is a platform that gamifies online education and rewards users with tokenized scholarships for completing courses or reaching milestones. The latest, students interact with academic professionals, using ODEM token, who offer personalized learning experiences. ODEM Network connects all parties (students/professionals, employers, educators, and educational organizations) to create in different subnetworks (Trust, Employment, Marketplace) a complete atmosphere of trustful connections, making learning, teaching, and employing more engaging and effective by using blockchain. Using Smart Contracts in Academic Environments. The benefit of executing a code that runs on top of a blockchain to execute an agreement between untrusted parties without the interference of a third party in the academic environment have been explored in different manners. Ocheja et al. [13] propose an application that gets access to the students’ database, gather their main information—such as grades, evaluations, and behavioral data—and arranges in the form of smart contracts. These contracts will be executed as the student progresses throughout the course, thus ensuring that all their activities in the blockchain are recorded. This way, it allows a bigger interoperability between the educational database and will guarantee the immutable record of the data. Another way smart contracts are being explored is for payments: Rooksby et al. [14] bring the creation of an Ethereum-based blockchain platform for the university environment. Students receive a cryptocurrency called Kelvin Coin as a reward for good performance in academic activities. Then, with the coins, students can pay for new courses.

7 8

https://www.bitdegree.org/ (consulted in 12/01/22). https://odem.cloud/ (consulted in 12/01/22).

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64.3.3 Distance Learning and Remote Assessment in HEIs According to the OECD [15], e-learning refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in various education processes to enhance and/or support learning in tertiary education. This includes ICT in four different modes: websupplemented, centered on classrooms but including elements such as email and online links to extra resources; web-dependent, where it requires students to interact in online discussions or collaborative work without reducing classroom time; mixed mode, with part of classroom time being replaced by online grading activities; and fully online, where students can attend the entire course without the need for physical presence. Overview of Existing Frameworks. Distance learning brings new perspectives to tutoring. In addition to being separated by physical space, distance learning students can also be separated by time. This temporal separation is divided into two categories: synchronous and asynchronous.9 Kaplan et al. [16] define and classify distance learning, elucidating the types that are used: Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)—allowing unlimited participation; and Small Private Online Course (SPOC)—allowing a limited number of students. These definitions, according to Kaplan, can be classified along two dimensions: the number of participants and time dependency. All these distance learning definitions and methods mentioned above needed to be materialized into some digital platform. Learning Management Systems (LMS) were created for this purpose. An LMS enables the management, student monitoring, tracking of learning, communication, integration of multiple media, and presenting all of it in an organized manner [17]. Although the abovementioned platforms were responsible for a great step toward a more democratized access to education and to the spread of knowledge in the modern world, they still have problems regarding some aspects in terms of credibility, credit certification and certificates, and student privacy. This way, in the past few years, blockchain technology has been put into test in most various ways as a possible solution for future online education. Oganda et al. [18], through case studies and the development of a Business Model Canvas, provided the results of integrating blockchain technology with the MOOC-based Smart Program Education platform—Education Smart Courses (ESC). Lam and Dongol [19], also in the same direction, go further on combining blockchain with e-learning platforms. In their paper, it is introduced a proof-of-concept blockchain-based e-learning platform, called Blockchain University, developed to increase transparency in assessments and facilitate curriculum personalization in the higher educational context.10 Challenges of Remote Assessment. From knowledge creation to evaluation of new acquired skills, academic integrity is in the midst of higher education institutions’ value and reputation. The maintenance of academic integrity at high standards stood always as a challenge and with the growth of the Internet, rising access to databases, and making the ready availability of information, this issue became 9

https://www.techsmith.com/blog/distance-learning/ (consulted in 13/01/22). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MP5jSItMenI (consulted in 20/03/22).

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even more problematic. Arkorful and Abaidoo [20], in their research work about the effectiveness of using e-learning in teaching for HEIs, based on several studies, pointed out some advantages and disadvantages of this method. Regarding tests and assessments, the authors included it as a disadvantage and states that controlling or regulating cheating may be difficult, if not impossible. They also highlight problems upon piracy, plagiarism, and inappropriate use of copy and paste. According to Li et al. [21], the authors proposed a blockchain system for elearning assessment and certification, which includes a new network structured based on the combination of public and private blockchains, as well as four smart contracts schemes for different purposes as follows: e-learning assessment and credit exchange; digital certificate issuance and secure storage; digital certificate verification; and elearning voucher allocation. In the programming field, Jing et al. [6] aiming to fulfill a gap on code plagiarism and code copyright protection, proposed a blockchainbased code copyright management system. The system was built upon three logical parts. First, an Abstract Syntax Tree-based code originality verification model is constructed, where the originality of the uploaded code is determined through its similarity to other original codes. Then, the P2P blockchain network is designed to store the copyright information of the original code, this way the nodes in the blockchain network can verify the originality of the code based on the code originality verification model. Finally, through the construction of blocks and legitimacy validation and linking of blocks, the blockchain-based code copyright management structure is built, making the whole process guarantee that the copyright information is traceable and will not be tampered with. Blockchain Applied to Distance Assessment on HEIs. As depicted in the previous topics, a variety of blockchain applications in the educational sector are being developed and applied. Currently, most of this effort is being directed to digital certification management and digital wallets for academic achievements. Therefore, a deeper look was made to identify projects that approach the main goal of this actual paper, which is building a framework that could mitigate or eliminate the use of plagiarism or e-cheating in assessments in the HEIs. Several papers were analyzed using different keywords for the search, such as “blockchain”, “framework”, “echeating”, “HEI”, “assessment”, and “academic dishonesty”. A few projects with slight similarities to the topic were found. To mention, Li et al. [21] with a full blockchain system for e-learning assessment and certification composed of a combination of public and private blockchains, as well as four smart contracts schemes for different purposes, being one of these smart contracts aimed at e-learning assessment and credit exchange. And Jing et al. [6], with a blockchain-based code copyright management system composed of three parts, a code originality verification model, a P2P network to store the copyright information, and a chain of blocks to guarantee that the information will be traceable and will not be tampered. Beyond these two, no other paper was found regarding the creation of a blockchain framework with the specific purpose of mitigating e-cheating or plagiarism in online assessments. Summary of Blockchain Applications in Education. Overall, a handful of studies and projects were presented covering different undertakings regarding the usage of blockchain technology in the educational sector, more specifically the HEIs.

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A total of 9 projects were analyzed, of which six can be classified into a record-keeper blockchain initiative. Two were related to the efficiency of financial and academic progress. Three refers to the privacy and security of the data. Li et al. [21]’s project englobes all three categories, therefore, it is counted as one project for each. When considering whether the project is more targeted to the student or more to the institution, four out of 9 were detected as only student focused, while 1 was only institution focused. Four other projects were identified as following both approaches, student and institution focused. When we dive into the record-keeping projects, it is possible to notice that projects related to diploma and certificate management tend to be more student oriented, while lifelong learning encompasses both student and institution.

64.4 Framework Solution This section presents a blockchain-based framework solution to enhance the authenticity and integrity of the remote assessment process in a HEI. Lecturers and students share and access assessments through a combination of private and public keys. After the completion of each assessment, the submission is digitally signed, timestamped, and recorded on the blockchain. Future improvements to this proposal may consider the implementation of plagiarism detection tools to be activated automatically by a smart contract, accepting or rejecting the submission depending on a certain acceptable percentage determined by the academic board. Following, our proposal is introduced. Our solution involves three types of stakeholders: HEI, Professors, and Students. The first is responsible for granting permission to the professor for implementing the types of assessments that are going to be proposed in the classes that this Professor is responsible for. It is also responsible for storing the Student’s information, such as their public key. The second type provides all the assessments that the Students are supposed to complete to fulfill all demands in order to be approved in the subject. It is also responsible for issuing the conclusion certificate of the subject. The latest is responsible for completing each assessment provided in the class and be awarded a conclusion certificate once they complete all the tasks demanded. There are different types of events in each step of the solution. All events are recorded in the blockchain despite their type. If a student completes an assessment, an event is recorded. If a student completes the course, this becomes a special event because it requires to be checked if all assessments were completed in order to grant this student a certificate of completion of that subject. This checking is done automatically by a smart contract. To automate the process, three smart contracts are implemented in the blockchain. The first smart contract, called REGISTRY, guarantees the authenticity of the Professor and that it can only record events regarding the students enrolled in their classes. To correctly identify the Professor, REGISTRY records the Professor’s credentials in the blockchain (public key). This way, all transactions made by the Professors must be paired with their private key. The second smart contract is called GRADING. Each occurrence of this smart contract has to do with a class and lists

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Fig. 64.1 The flowchart of the framework’s logical process of functioning

the students, identified by their address in the blockchain, that are enrolled in it and the assessments they need to complete. GRADING allows a Professor to update the student’s progress in the class in order to list the assessments he/she has already fulfilled. The third smart contract, called CONCLUSION, is responsible for issuing a completion certificate after GRADING indicates that all assessments were pursued. Figure 64.1 illustrates the solution’s workflow involving the stakeholders and the smart contracts introduced.

64.5 Conclusions and Future Work The aim of this research work is to gather technological conditions to ensure a remote assessment process that promotes information security, immutability, and authenticity of the entire process. A review of the concepts of distance learning together with existing conventional frameworks and potential solutions utilizing blockchainbased technology was exposed. Challenges in remote assessment also were depicted. Solutions for this problem were also analyzed by conventional and blockchain-based platforms. Regarding the aspects of security and safety, the research showed that the combination of blockchain and e-learning can pave the way to solve most of the current issues, due to blockchain’s ability to transmit data across a vast network and its information security. Future work will be focused on developing an actual blockchain-based framework for mitigating plagiarism and e-cheating in the HEIs. It

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would be also interesting to implement the proposed framework in a real environment or with real data to validate the solution in a more reliable way.

References 1. Ante, L.: Smart contracts on the blockchain – a bibliometric analysis and review. Telemat. Inform. Accessed 16 Oct 2020 2. Silva, F.O., Gonçalves, M.J.A., da Silva, A.F., Silva, M.: Exploring the innovative aspects of CV distributed ledgers based on blockchain. In: Rocha, Á., Adeli, H., Reis, L.P., Costanzo, S., Orovic, I., Moreira, F. (eds.) Trends and Innovations in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 14–24. Springer International Publishing (2020) 3. Hoffstein, J., Pipher, J., Silverman, J.H.: An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography, pp. XVI, 524. Springer, New York (2008) 4. Sabrina, F., Azad, S., Sohail, S., Thakur, S.: Ensuring academic integrity in online assessments: a literature review and recommendations. Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol. 12(1), 11 (2022) 5. Hevner, A., Chatterjee, S.: Design Research in Information Systems: Theory and Practice, vol. 22, p. 320. Springer Science & Business Media (2010) 6. Jing, N., Liu, Q., Sugumaran, V.: A blockchain-based code copyright management system. Inf. Process. Manag. 58(3) (2021) 7. Steiu, M.-F.: Blockchain in education: opportunities, applications, and challenges. First Monday 25(9), 7 (2020) 8. Morais, A.M.d., Lins, F.A.A.: Uso de blockchain na Educação: Estado da arte e desafios em aberto. Revista Científica Multidisciplinar Núcleo do Conhecimento 22(10), 78–100 (2020) 9. Grech, A., Camilleri, A.F.: Blockchain in education (2017) 10. Lakhal, G.G., Mzoughi, N.: An introduction to the economics of fake degrees. J. Econ. Issues 42, 673–693 (2008) 11. Gräther, W., Kolvenbach, S., Ruland, R., Schütte, J., Torres, C., Wendland, F.: Blockchain for education: lifelong learning passport. Eur. Soc. Socially Embed. Technol. (EUSSET) 2(10), 8 (2018) 12. Liu, Q., Guan, Q., Yang, X., Zhu, H., Green, G., Yin, S.: Education-industry cooperative system based on blockchain. In: 2018 1st IEEE International Conference on Hot Information-Centric Networking (HotICN), pp. 207–211 (2018) 13. Ocheja, P., Flanagan, B., Ogata, H.: Connecting decentralized learning records: a blockchain based learning analytics platform. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge, pp. 265–269 (2018) 14. Rooksby, J., Dimitrov, K.: Trustless education? A blockchain system for university grades. Ubiquity: J. Pervasive Media 6(1), 83–88 (2019) 15. OECD: E-learning in Tertiary Education. OECD Observer, pp. 1–8 (2005) 16. Kaplan, A.M., Haenlein, M.: Higher education and the digital revolution: about MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster. Bus. Horiz. 59(4), 441–450 (2016) 17. Cavus, N.: Distance learning and learning management systems. ScienceDirect 191, 872–877 (2015) 18. Oganda, F.P., Lutfiani, N., Aini, Q., Rahardja, U., Faturahman, A.: Blockchain education smart courses of massive online open course using business model canvas. In: 2020 2nd International Conference on Cybernetics and Intelligent System (ICORIS), pp. 1–6 (2020) 19. Lam, T.Y., Dongol, B.: A blockchain-enabled e-learning platform. Interact. Learn. Environ. 1–23. Accessed 03 Feb 2020 20. Arkorful, V., Abaidoo, N.: The role of e-learning, advantages and disadvantages of its adoption in higher education. Int. J. Instr. Technol. Distance Learn. 29–42 21. Li, C., Guo, J., Zhang, G., Wang, Y., Sun, Y., Rongfang, B.: A blockchain system for e-learning assessment and certification. In: 2019 IEEE International Conference on Smart Internet of Things (SmartIoT), pp. 212–219. Accessed 9–11 Aug 2019

Chapter 65

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension—Adaptation, Application and Validation on Portuguese Accounting Students Rui Silva , Francisco Carreira , Amélia Ferreira da Silva , and António Abreu Abstract This investigation aims to use and adapt the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24), validated by (McCroskey et al. in Commun. Q. 33:165–173, 1985), to Portuguese Higher Education students who attended the Degree in Accounting, in the academic year 2019/2020. After adapting the scale, psychometric validation was carried out in order to make it a valid instrument in studies on this population. For this purpose, we used the Exploratory Factor Analysis methodology and Confirmatory Factor Analysis, we proceeded to the test of the original PRCA-24 scale, after which we realized that this scale provides significant results of validity and statistical reliability that allowed us to measure oral apprehension of Higher Education Accounting students in Portugal, in a reliable and robust way. This investigation presents an important contribution to the body of literature, even though the PRCA-24 has already been applied in several contexts, this is the first study to focus on adaptation and validation in accounting students, studying Accounting in Portugal. This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020 and the project UIDB/04011/2020. R. Silva CETRAD, Department of Economy, Sociology and Managment, University of Trás-Os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Carreira CICE, School of Business and Administration, Setúbal Polytechnique, Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Setúbal, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. F. da Silva CEOS, OSEAN, Porto Accounting and Business School, Porto Polytechnique, Matosinhos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu (B) CEOS, Porto Accounting and Business School, Porto Polytechnique, Matosinhos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4_65

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65.1 Introduction Investigations on the factors that influence the way humans interact with each other in communication situations have a long tradition. However, Communication Apprehension (CA) has been the most widely investigated personality trait in the communication discipline [1]. In fact, although CA can be explained by genetic and biological factors [2], personality traits have dictated investigation trends on the theme. The Personal Report of Communication Apprehension scale (PRCA-24) allows to predict behaviours of social interaction in different contexts. Over time, this scale has proven to be effective in measuring oral apprehension in groups with different profiles, in diverse and multidisciplinary investigations. The concept of Communication Apprehension, which is in the foundation for the construction of the scale, is defined by McCroskey (1977) as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (p.78) and affects all the ways of communication. Thus, as higher the level of CA, greater is the tendency for the person to avoid the communication context, which leads to experience fear and anxiety that the person can associate with the act of communicating, McCroskey (1977). However, although PRCA-24 scale has been extensively examined since its first validation, with a greater incidence in the last decade of research, there were only found two studies where it was validated in higher education students in the Accounting field [3, 4], having no study made on Portuguese students. The PRCA-24 application only in two studies focused on accounting learning, turns out to be scarce, given the importance of this phenomenon on students in this area of knowledge where communication skills are vital. Besides, “people who experience high levels of communication apprehension are often viewed or described in a negative manner” [5]. In addition, students consider that communication skills are vital to compete in the labour market [6] and the existing differences in CA, measured longitudinally, prove that students show improvements in communication rates over the time, showing that they are more able to communicate in public due to their increasing feelings of confidence [7]. As regards to communication difficulties, students with high apprehension in oral communication contexts have less intense language, greater verbal productivity, more varied vocabulary, more complex language and less comprehensible verbalization [8]. However, CA levels decrease with age, professional experience and habit on giving presentations [9]. To solve this problem, there are basic courses of oral and public expression that allow the reduction of communication apprehension, revealing that this type of courses can allow the improvement of the participant’s communication levels [10, 11]. This scale has been questioned by several authors who mention that it does not have the capacity to explain interpersonal behaviour because it does not have a reliable variance to be applied to the contexts that are not focused on public entities [12]. In another study, the scale was tested in its various dimensions, and it was found that it can be divided into seven factors that allow greater understanding and analysis of

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the communication context, communication modes, communication types, attitudes towards communication and the history of communication processes [13, 14]. The literature extent that applies the scale in different contexts and samples shows the importance of CA in the teaching–learning process. Nevertheless, studies applied to students in the accounting field are very scarce. This context reinforces the relevance and pertinence of this investigation. In addition, as long as CA is a permeable phenomenon to sociological factors, the study in a national context will allow a better understanding of the profile of higher education students in the accounting field. This will contribute to the definition of more adjusted and effective teaching–learning methodologies. The general purpose of this study is to analyse the robustness of this scale when applied to accounting students studying in Portuguese higher education. To achieve the general research purpose, we used Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), which are a set of widely used statistical techniques whose execution and operationalization cannot be arbitrary and subjective, being necessary to comply with certain criteria and specific analyse methodologies [15]. In that way, the present study of quantitative nature proposes to test and validate the PRCA-24 constructs through factor analysis and internal consistency of the items and factors, in students who attended the Accounting units of Higher Education. The validation of this scale will allow the creation of a resource that can be used in oral apprehension measurement, felt by students who study this area of knowledge. It will also allow to assess its current state and the measures that should be taken for an eventual improvement. After the introduction, the methodology of the article is described. The Results present the analysis of the scale validity and robustness applied to higher education students in the accounting field and, finally, the conclusions of the study, as well as the limitations and proposals for future investigation, are provided.

65.2 Methodology The study was developed in three stages: (1) Translation and adaptation of the English version of PRCA-24; (2) Pilot study using PRCA-24 to assess the items quality; (3) Application of PRCA-24 to Portuguese students who are enrolled in accounting courses in Portugal.

65.2.1 Adaptation of PRCA-24 PRCA-24 was used to test the oral apprehension of students who were enrolled in accounting courses at Portuguese Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). First, the original scale was translated from English to Portuguese. The PRCA-24 content

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reliability and validity were made possible by a panel of specialists in psychology and accounting fields, all of them were teachers of higher education. They ensured that the items on the original scale maintained the base structure and could be adapted to students in the accounting field (Table 65.1).

65.2.2 Pilot Study Using PRCA-24 PRCA-24 was used, in the administration of a series of questionnaires, to determine if the original intention of the items was maintained and whether the translated statements were perceived by students. The main purpose of this pilot study was to understand if PRCA-24 needed any type of adjustment, translation improvement or any other type of revision that would make it more viable. Participants responded to the translated Portuguese scale version, which was examined and approved by two Portuguese language teachers who indicated that the retro-translation of the items did not show any inconsistency between English and Portuguese. This procedure is important to assess the validity of the modified instrument, ensuring adequate legibility and consistency [16]. In the pilot study, in order to ensure that it was valid and reliable, PRCA-24 was administered to 145 Accounting students. Before administering this experimental scale, the entire questionnaire was read aloud, and students were asked about any doubts in its interpretation and how to classify it according to the Likert-type scale.

65.2.3 Participants PRCA-24 was administered, in paper questionnaire format and online, to Accounting students from several Portuguese HEIs who voluntarily joined the study. The questionnaire was conducted during class hours, through coordination with the teachers responsible from various Higher Education Institutions, during the 1st and 2nd semesters of the academic year 2019/2020. All thirteen Portuguese Higher Education Institutions that taught undergraduate accounting courses participated, which represent 93% of the total institutions in the country that make up our sample. The total response rate was 34.7% of a population of 2343 students (Table 65.2).

65.2.4 Data Analysis In order to assess the available sample type, the data were subjected to descriptive analysis by using IBM SPSS 27 and AMOS 27. It was also verified the internal

65 Personal Report of Communication Apprehension—Adaptation, Application … Table 65.1 PRCA-24 measurement instrument

789

Construct

Statements

Public Speaking

1-I dislike participating in group discussions 2-Generally, I am comfortable while participating in a group discussion 3-I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions 4-I like to get involved in group discussions 5-Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes me tense and nervous 6-I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions

Meetings

7-Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a meeting 8-Usually I am calm and relaxed while participating in meetings 9-I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express an opinion at a meeting 10-I am afraid to express myself at meetings 11-Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable 12-I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting

Group Talking

13-While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous 14-I have no fear of speaking up in conversations 15-Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations 16-Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations 17-While conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very relaxed 18-I am afraid to speak up in conversations

Oral Presentations 19-I have no fear of giving a speech 20-Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech 21-I feel relaxed while giving a speech 22-My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech 23-I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence 24- While giving a speech I get so nervous; I forget facts I really know

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Table 65.2 Sample characterization Higher education institutions

Sample

Participants M

Polytechnic Institute of Tomar

F

6

2

4

Polytechnic Institute of Bragança

19

7

12

Polytechnic Institute of Leiria

44

17

27

Polytechnic Institute of Santarém Polytechnic Institute of Setubal Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo Polytechnic Institute of Viseu Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave Higher Institute for Accountancy and Administration of Aveiro Coimbra Business School

14

5

9

105

41

64

11

4

7

19

7

12

113

32

81

73

29

44

44

16

28

Lisbon Accounting and Business School

108

48

60

Porto Accounting and Business School

196

82

114

University of Minho TOTAL

61

20

41

813

310

503

consistency and reliability in the items and PRCA-24 scale factors [17] adapted to Accounting courses, using Cronbach’s Alpha as well as EFA and CFA analyses. The purpose of performing EFA and CFA was to simplify the obtained data set by evaluating the association factor with each variable, as well as analysing how much the found set of factors explains the results variability obtained in that sample, by adding the variances of the original variables [18]. These analyses encompass a set of techniques that measure the scale dimensionality [19], allows to test hypotheses related to a set of factors as well as the indicators reliability which represent that scale [20]. It is often recommended a minimum of five questionnaires per item for conducting factor analysis [21]. CFA follows EFA, where it is acceptable that if an item has a high loading, it means that the factor and the respective item have a lot in common, being accepted that loadings below 0.32 are considered very weak, between 0.32 and 0.45 weak, between 0.45 and 0.63 good and larger than 0.71 are very good [22].

65.3 Results 65.3.1 Exploratory Factorial Analysis (EFA) To verify if the PRCA-24 factorial model was in line with the literature, it was carried out the EFA of the original scale version adapted to the Portuguese language and, it

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was applied for the first time in Portugal, to students of the Degree in Accounting in Universities and Polytechnics. It was performed the EFA with varimax rotation, verifying that in PRCA-24, the pattern of four factors is the most consistent for analysing the collected data. The extraction of the factors by the Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and respective rotation, considering only values whose factors were ≥ 1 resulted in a KMO = 0.941 and a correlation matrix of four factors, which explains 64.64% of the variance. The factor that explains the great majority of the variance is Factor 1 with 44.71%, followed by Factor 2: 8.72%, Factor 3: 6.14% and Factor 4: 5.06%. It was not necessary to eliminate any variable because all indexes had a factor loading larger than 0.6. The original scale adapts to the study in accounting students because the data matrix proves to be adequate by applying the KaiserMeyer-Olkin criterion (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity [23] which revealed a good adequacy index of the sample [24]. Table 65.3 presents the exploratory factor matrix of the 24 items of PCRA and the respective factor loadings. Regarding the reliability of items and factors, it was found, through Cronbach’s alpha (α) calculation, that there is a good total internal consistency (α = 0.912) in a sample of 813 students. The internal consistency obtained for the items that comprise Public Speaking was (α = 0.837), for Meetings (α = 0.924), for Group Talking (α = 0.811) and for Oral Presentations (α = 0.823). Cronbach’s alpha (α) is a statistic technic commonly used and quoted by authors to demonstrate that tests and scales that have been constructed or adopted for research projects are fit for purpose [25].

65.3.2 Confirmatory Factorial Analysis (CFA) The choice of the best factorial model is fundamental to CFA, and it is essential to observe factorial loadings and errors that statistically validate it and corroborate its suitability for the study [26]. To perform the CFA, the model was tested with four dimensions of the PRCA24, which are represented as Speaking (1–6), Meetings (7–12), Talking (13–18) and Presentations (19–24). All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale where the value 1 represented “Totally disagree” and the value 5 represented “Totally agree”. The items with negative words were reversed to homogenize the scale in all its variables [27]. CFA performed with maximum likelihood, demonstrated that the tested model had an adequate adjustment (2 = 511.56, p = 0.001, df = 246, χ2 / df = 2.08, RMSEA = 0.078 and CFI = 0.836), there was no need to remove items from the scale to make it statistically more robust because all items had factor loadings larger than 0.6 [26]. Figure 65.1 shows the standardized path coefficients where all paths in the model were significant (p < 0.001).

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Table 65.3 EFA of PCRA-24 in the sample of Portuguese students Constructs Public speaking

Meetings

Talking

Presentations

Component matrix Variables

Factor 1

Speaking1

0.679

Speaking2

0.697

Speaking3

0.698

Speaking4

0.750

Speaking5

0.704

Speaking6

0.744

Factor 2

Meetings7

0.725

Meetings8

0.772

Meetings9

0.658

Meetings10

0.664

Meetings11

0.660

Meetings12

0.633

Factor 3

Talking13

0.665

Talking14

0.659

Talking15

0.743

Talking16

0.748

Talking17

0.640

Talking18

0.691

Factor 4

Presentation19

0.605

Presentation20

0.658

Presentation21

0.771

Presentation22

0.713

Presentation23

0.646

Presentation24

0.724

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis

65.4 Final Considerations PRCA-24 was applied in several earlier research to measure CA in students around the world. Nevertheless, only two studies were aimed at accounting students, with none being done in Portugal. In this sense, the application and validation of this scale to Portuguese students proved to be an important contribution. EFA has shown that the items on the scale provide appropriate factor loadings to their application and validation in accounting students, allowing to assess their communication apprehension in four items (Public Speaking, Meetings, Group Talking and Oral Presentations) that are part of the scale. The scale’s discriminant

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Fig. 65.1 PRCA final measurement model

validity was demonstrated in all factors, which corroborates its validity and statistical reliability. In this sense, using the PRCA-24 original version, the way it was conceived by [28] and applying it to the educational context of accounting, represents a way to contribute to the evolution of scientific knowledge. It also allows to create a pattern for empirical knowledge, which results from its application and the possibility of carrying out comparative studies involving the constructs of communication apprehension in the context of the teaching–learning process of this area of knowledge. The results obtained with the Portuguese students’ sample, using a scale identical to the original, with 24 items, allowed us to assess that this is a statistically reliable measure in psychometric terms, being valid to study the construction of the communication apprehension in Accounting at Portuguese Higher Education Institutions. To reinforce the validity of the scale’s robustness, reliability tests were performed, which resulted in high Cronbach’s Alpha values in all sub-scales of the PRCA-24, followed by an EFA with results close to those evidenced in the literature. Subsequently, the CFA was used in order to estimate the best model and, although there is a need for more empirical evidence to demonstrate the suitability of this scale, the obtained results with the tested structural models allow to consider this instrument as effective and with sufficiently robust theoretical basis to measure the communication apprehension, measuring the different types of apprehension felt by students in a communication context.

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Both the confirmatory factors analysis as well as the internal consistency analysis provided psychometric evidence that supports the use in the Accounting field, of the four-factor model (Public Speaking, Meetings, Group Talking and Oral Presentations) that belongs to the original scale. Regarding the consistency of the answers, it was found that there was an accordance with the scale, which revealed a perfect understanding of what was being requested. The communication apprehension is understood as a fear or anxiety that results from the interaction between people in real-life contexts, which can cause anxiety in communication in certain contexts and situations. Therefore, it is academically relevant to use this scale in order to conveniently measure these difficulties so that higher education institutions would be able, in their courses, to undertake continuous improvements aimed at combating this problem that extends from academic life to future professional life.

References 1. Murphy, M., Weber, K.: Confirmation of the Ability of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension-24 (PRCA-24) to Predict Behavioral Indicators of Social Interaction. Commun. Res. Rep. 36(5), 393–403 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2019.1683527 2. Hunsaker, F.G., Kelly, L., Duran, R.L.: Sensation seeking and communication apprehension: Biological and genetic correlates of approaching or avoiding communication events. Int. J. Phytorem. 16(2), 121–130 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099909388709 3. Coetzee, S.A., Schmulian, A., Kotze, L.: Communication apprehension of South African accounting students: The effect of culture and language. Issues Account. Educ. 29(4), 505–525 (2014). https://doi.org/10.2308/iace-50850 4. Hassall, T., Arquero, J.L., Joyce, J., Gonzalez, J.M.: Communication apprehension and communication self-efficacy in accounting students. Asian Rev. Account. 21(2), 160–175 (2013) 5. Meyer-Griffith, K., Reardon, R.C., Hartley, S.L.: An examination of the relationship between career thoughts and communication apprehension. Career Development Quarterly 58(2), 171– 180 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2009.tb00054.x 6. Debnath, M., Pandey, M., Chaplot, N., Gottimukkula, M.R., Tiwari, P.K., Gupta, S.N.: Role of soft skills in engineering education: Students’ perceptions and feedback. Enhancing Learning and Teaching Through Student Feedback in Engineering (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/B9781-84334-645-6.50004-5 7. Hancock, A.B., Stone, M.D., Brundage, S.B., Zeigler, M.T.: Public Speaking Attitudes: Does Curriculum Make a Difference? J. Voice 24(3), 302–307 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvo ice.2008.09.007 8. McCroskey, J.C., Beatty, M.J.: Communication apprehension and accumulated communication state anxiety experiences: A research note. Commun. Monogr. 51(1), 79–84 (1984). https:// doi.org/10.1080/03637758409390185 9. Marcel, M.: Communication Apprehension Across the Career Span. Int. J. Bus. Commun. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488419856803 10. Rose, H.M., Rancer, A.S., Crannell, K.C.: The Impact of Basic Courses in Oral Interpretation and Public Speaking on Communication Apprehension. Commun. Rep. 6(1), 54–60 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1080/08934219309367562 11. Whitworth, R.H., Cochran, C.: Evaluation of integrated versus unitary treatments for reducing public speaking anxiety. Commun. Educ. 45(4), 306–314 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1080/036 34529609379060

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12. Porter, D.T.: AN EMPIRICAL APPRAISAL OF THE PRCA FOR MEASURING ORAL COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION. Hum. Commun. Res. 8(1), 58–71 (1981). https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1981.tb00656.x 13. Burgoon, J.K., Hale, J.L.: A research note on the dimensions of communication reticence. Commun. Q. 31(3), 238–248 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378309369510 14. Burgoon, J.K., Hale, J.L.: Dimensions of communication reticence and their impact on verbal encoding. Commun. Q. 31(4), 302–312 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378309369519 15. Damásio, B.F.: Uso da análise fatorial exploratória em psicologia. Avaliaçao Psicologica: Interamerican Journal of Psychological Assessment 11(2), 213–228 (2012) 16. Barbera, J., & VandenPlas, J. R. (2011). All assessment materials are not created equal: the myths about instrument development, validity, and reliability. In Investigating classroom myths through research on teaching and learning (pp. 177–193). ACS Publications. 17. Pestana, M. H., & Gageiro, J. N. (2003). Análise de dados para ciências sociais: a complementaridade do SPSS. 18. Costello, A.B., Osborne, J.W.: Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Pract. Assess. Res. Eval. 10(7), 1–9 (2005) 19. Netemeyer, R. G., Bearden, W. O., & Sharma, S. (2003). Scaling procedures: Issues and applications. Sage Publications. 20. Raykov, T., Marcoulides, G.A.: Estimation of generalizability coefficients via a structural equation modeling approach to scale reliability evaluation. Int. J. Test. 6(1), 81–95 (2006) 21. Marôco, J. (2014). Análise estatística com o SPSS Statistics. 22. Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. American Psychological Association. 23. Watkins, M.W.: Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. J. Black Psychol. 44(3), 219–246 (2018) 24. Timmerman, M. E., Lorenzo-Seva, U., & Ceulemans, E. (2018). The number of factors problem. The Wiley Handbook of Psychometric Testing: A Multidisciplinary Reference on Survey, Scale and Test Development, 305–324. 25. Taber, K.S.: The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Res. Sci. Educ. 48(6), 1273–1296 (2018) 26. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford publications. 27. Wong, N., Rindfleisch, A., Burroughs, J.E.: Do reverse-worded items confound measures in cross-cultural consumer research? The case of the material values scale. Journal of Consumer Research 30(1), 72–91 (2003) 28. McCroskey, J.C., Beatty, M.J., Kearney, P., Plax, T.G.: The content validity of the PRCA-24 as a measure of communication apprehension across communication contexts. Commun. Q. 33(3), 165–173 (1985)

Author Index

A Abreu, António, 157, 229, 545, 609, 721, 785 Abreu, João, 567 Abreu Rocha de, Alexandra Maria, 343 Alén, Elisa, 423 Almeida, Filipa, 291 Almeida, João, 409 Alves, Luísa, 531 Amorim, Luzia, 465 Azevedo, Ana Catarina, 745

B Baptista, Isabel, 63 Barroso, Pedro, 219 Bastos, Susana, 333 Borges, Isabel, 93, 123, 145 Braga, Inês, 229 Braga, José Luís, 93, 145 Brandão, Filipa, 291, 497 Brás, Sandra, 145 Brito, José Henrique, 313

C Cabral, Ana, 169 Caldeira, Suzana Nunes, 375 Camarinha, Ana Paula, 409, 545, 609, 721 Camões, Ana, 63, 133 Cardoso, Ivone, 545, 609, 721 Cardoso, Rui, 639 Carraro, Wendy, 333 Carreira, Francisco, 785 Carvalho, Aida, 323

Carvalho de, Joao Vidal, 179 Carvalho, João Vidal, 389 Carvalho, Milena, 731 Carvalho, Rui, 475 Carvalho, Sandro, 389 Castanho, Rui Alexandre, 247 Castilho, Olímpio, 555 Catarino, André, 399 Cavalcanti, Joana, 71, 81 Cepêda, Catarina, 257 Cerqueira, Ricardo, 663 Correia, A. I., 597 Costa da, Rui Augusto, 291 Costa, Eusébio, 1, 11, 23, 33, 55, 93, 111, 123, 157 Costa, Joana, 43 Costa, Susana Goulart, 193 Couto, Gualter, 247 Cunha, Bruno, 207 Cunha, Paulo, 123

D de Castro, António Vieira, 545, 609 Dias, Paulo Victor, 775 Dieguez, Teresa, 219, 579

E Escudeiro, Nuno, 207 Escudeiro, Paula, 207

F Faria, Mário, 23

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Abreu et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 340, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9960-4

797

798 Fernandes, António J. G., 365 Fernandes, Dárida Maria, 531, 627 Fernandes, Norberto, 219 Ferreira, Ana, 683 Ferreira, Joaquim Armando, 193 Ferreira, Maria José, 219 Figueira, Victor, 439, 721 Flores, Paula Maria, 627 Fonseca, Susana, 755 Fortes, Aquiles, 323 Franco, Mara, 247 Freire, Paula, 169 Freitas, Antónia, 169 Freitas, César, 71, 81 Freitas de, César, 133 Furtado, Marco, 763

G Gavaia, Bruno, 627 Gomes, Cândido, 33 Gonçalves, Francisco, 465, 721 Gonçalves, Márcia, 399 Gonçalves, Maria José Angélico, 409 Gonçalves, Sofia, 71, 81 González, Darío A., 353 González, Isabel, 179 Gouveia, Márcia Campos, 207 Graça Batista da, Maria, 247 Guarda, Teresa, 365 Guerrero, Jorge, 179 Guimarães, Laurentino, 123

H Herrera, Manuel Ramón González, 651

J Jardim, Fernando Nahat, 269 Jesus, Leonor, 579

L Leite, Sónia, 11, 23, 55, 145 Liberato, Dália, 423, 579, 639, 663, 683 Liberato, Pedro, 579, 639, 663, 683 Lima, Joaquim Paulo, 111 Lima Santos, Luís, 449 Lopes, Isabel M., 365 Lopes, Maria Carlos, 423 Lopes, Pedro, 71

Author Index M Macedo, Fernanda, 169 Macedo, Teresa, 71, 81 Machado, Annaelise, 343, 399 Machado-Taylor, Maria de Lourdes, 555 Magalhães, Miguel, 93 Martins, Dora, 483 Martins, Luís Miguel, 609 Martins, Márcio Ribeiro, 291 Martins, Rosa, 1, 11, 23, 55, 71, 81, 133 Martins, Susana, 731 Medeiros, Teresa, 193 Mello de, Cristina Helena Pinto, 269 Mendes, José, 193 Mendes, Teresa, 579 Mendonça, Hugo Castro, 707 Menezes, Nídia, 755 Mesquita, Anabela, 521 Moniz, Ana Isabel, 509 Monteiro, Albertina, 257 Morais, Paulo, 303 Mota Da, Catarina Freitas, 145 Mota, Miguel, 755 Moura de, Barbara Soares, 707

N Noronha-Sousa, Dulce, 1, 33, 55, 169 Nunes, Marta, 683

O Oliveira, Adriana, 521 Oliveira de, Frederico Ferreira, 343 Oliveira Gonçalves, Inês, 43 Oliveira, Helena Costa, 333 Oliveira, Mónica, 497, 639

P Pacheco, Daniel Costa, 375 Paiva, Jerónimo, 157 Pascoal, Sara, 763 Pascoinho, João, 1, 11, 23, 33, 71, 81, 111, 169 Paulo, Estrela, 1, 11, 23, 71, 81 Peña, Alejandro, 179 Pereira, Adalmiro, 707 Pereira, Dinis, 389 Pereira, José Manuel, 313 Pereira, Tiago C., 93 Peres, Rita, 475 Pérez, Valentina, 179 Pimentel, Pedro, 247

Author Index Pinho, Maria Inês, 531, 627 Pinto, Agostinho Sousa, 33, 93, 157 Pinto, Dimas, 43

Q Queirós, Mário, 707 Quesado, Patrícia, 745

R Rego, Tânia, 509 Ribeiro, Alexandrino, 745 Ribeiro, Catarina, 627 Ribeiro, Cristina, 81 Ribeiro, Maria I. B., 365 Ribeiro, Miguel, 343 Rocha da, Manuel Trigueiro, 111 Rodrigues-Carvalho, Joana, 43 Rodrigues, Cláudia, 439 Rodrigues, Isilda, 133 Rolha, João, 721

S Sánchez, Mary, 465 Santos, Eleonora, 731 Santos, Joana, 389 Santos, Lara, 399 Santos, Vasco Ribeiro, 475 Sá, Susana, 33, 111, 123, 169 Sepúlveda-Cano, Lina María, 179 Serpa Arruda Moniz de, Ana Isabel Damião, 375 Silva, Aldina Sofia, 43

799 Silva, Amélia, 257, 303 Silva, Américo, 145 Silva da, Amélia Ferreira, 313, 785 Silva da, Osvaldo Dias Lopes, 375 Silva, Firmino, 775 Silva, Júlio, 567 Silva, Osvaldo, 509 Silva, Paulino, 521 Silva, Rui, 785 Silva Soeiro de Carvalho da, Ana Branca, 755 Silva, Susana, 483 Silva, Tânia, 11 Silva, Vítor, 465 Sousa, Adriana, 545 Sousa, Àurea, 247 Sousa, Bruno, 323, 343, 399, 439, 465, 567, 721, 745 Sousa, Bruno Barbosa, 475 Sousa, Carlos Ângelo Meneses, 33 Sousa, I., 597 Strehlau, Suzane, 269

T Tallone, Laura, 763 Teixeira, Clara, 219 Teperek, Aneta, 449 Tomás, Licínio, 193 Torres, Joana, 111, 133

V Vareiro, Laurentina, 439